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and agility . Exmoor ponies won both divisions at the International Horse Agility Championships in 2011 , and took a third title at the 2012 Championships . The breed 's hardiness makes it suitable for conservation grazing , and it contributes to the management of many heathland , chalk grassland and other natural pasture habitats , as well as to the conservation of Exmoor itself .
A herd of 14 Exmoors from Exmoor National park were moved to the former military base of Milovice ( Nymburk District ) , Czech Republic , in an effort to save biodiversity , in January 2015 .
= Ian Svenonius =
Ian F Svenonius is an American musician , notable as the singer of various Washington , D.C.-based bands including Nation of Ulysses , The Make @-@ Up , Weird War , and Chain and The Gang . Between his numerous projects , Svenonius has released more than 19 full @-@ length albums and more than 20 singles , EPs , and splits . Svenonius is also a published author and an online talk show host .
His first band , Nation of Ulysses , formed in 1988 , was influential in the Washington D.C. punk scene , dissolving in 1992 after failing to record their third studio album . After a short @-@ lived side @-@ project called Cupid Car Club , Svenonius formed The Make @-@ Up in 1995 , who combined garage rock , soul , and liberation theology to make a new genre they dubbed " Gospel Yeh @-@ Yeh " . The Make @-@ Up dissolved early in 2001 , and a year later , Svenonius formed the band Weird War , who were also known briefly as the Scene Creamers . Svenonius ' solo work includes the 2001 album Play Power under the fictional pseudonym of David Candy , the book The Psychic Soviet , and as host of Soft Focus on VBS.tv. Svenonius ' projects and writings have all shared an anti @-@ authoritarian , Marxist political rhetoric .
= = Musical projects = =
= = = Nation of Ulysses = = =
Svenonius ' first musical group was Nation of Ulysses . The band formed in spring 1988 , initially composed of four members , Svenonius on vocals and trumpet , Steve Kroner on guitar , Steve Gamboa on bass guitar , and James Canty on drums , and known simply as " Ulysses " . In late 1989 , Tim Green joined the band as a second guitarist and the band was renamed to " Nation of Ulysses " . The Nation of Ulysses described themselves not as a rock and roll group in the traditional sense , but " as a political party " and as " a shout of secession " . Explaining their intent , Svenonius said " it 's basically a new nation underground for the dispossessed youth colony . It 's all about smashing the old edifice , the monolith of rock and roll " .
In 1991 , before the band had released any official recordings , Svenonius was featured as teen @-@ oriented Sassy Magazine 's first " Sassiest Boy in America " . He was interviewed in the magazine 's October issue , detailing the band 's sound and political motivations . Svenonius stated that the Nation of Ulysses ' intent was " to create a space of liberation where anything ’ s possible " . He criticized " traditional rock @-@ and @-@ roll " groups as a " corrupt medium " . The contest was reportedly a " nationwide search for the most perfect boyfriend material a girl could ask for " , and Svenonius was among 150 entries .
Nation of Ulysses was known for their extremely physical performances , during which Svenonius recalls many injuries , including breaking his arm , his leg , and his skull on numerous occasions . Audience members were also hurt during some performances .
The group disbanded in the fall of 1992 having failed to complete their third album ( the finished tracks were later released as The Embassy Tapes in 2000 ) . In a later interview , Svenonius explained the reason for the split : " Nation of Ulysses broke up because the epoch changed with the advent of digital music and the Nirvana explosion . We were faced with what 's now known as indie rock , a sort of vacuous form . We had to determine our next move and this [ the forming of The Make @-@ Up ] is it " .
= = = The Make @-@ Up = = =
The Make @-@ Up formed in 1995 , consisting of Svenonius , Canty , and Gamboa from Nation of Ulysses , and with the addition of Michelle Mae on bass guitar . The Make @-@ Up were joined in late 1999 by a fifth member , Alex Minoff , who played guitar with the group until their dissolution in 2001 . In the band 's five years of activity , they released four studio albums , two live albums , a posthumous compilation of singles and B @-@ sides , and a number of 12 @-@ inch singles and splits . The Make @-@ Up combined garage rock , soul , and self @-@ styled " liberation theology " to make a new genre they called " Gospel Yeh @-@ Yeh " . The Make @-@ Up were highly influenced by bubblegum music , particularly the French variety called Yé @-@ yé music .
As the Make @-@ Up 's frontman and mouthpiece , Ian Svenonius often contextualized the band 's music in terms of larger socio @-@ political themes , typically describing the band and its gospel attitude in Marxist and socialist terms , in opposition of what he saw as the capitalist , bourgeois , machismo paradigm of rock and roll . The band 's aversion to American culture was expressed through their self @-@ styled musical genre " Gospel Yeh @-@ Yeh , " a belief system through which they advocated to their audience to " get theirs " and to " off the pigs in all their forms " . The Make @-@ Up intended to create ad @-@ lib performances to re @-@ energize what they saw as the stale , bland and formal ritual of rock and roll . Appropriating gospel music 's use of the congregate as a " fifth member , " the Make @-@ Up incorporated audience participation through call and response vocals , lyrical " discussion " techniques , and destruction of the fourth wall by physical transgression .
The Make @-@ Up dissolved in 2000 , reportedly " due to the large number of counter @-@ gang copy groups which had appropriated their look and sound and applied it to a vacuous and counter @-@ revolutionary forms " . Between projects , Svenonius released a solo album under the pseudonym David Candy .
= = = Weird War = = =
After The Make @-@ Up disbanded , Svenonius formed the group Weird War in 2001 , joined by Make @-@ Up members Michelle Mae and Alex Minoff . While the current lineup appears on the group 's first release I 'll Never Forget What 's His Name , the group 's first full @-@ length , eponymous release featured Neil Hagerty and Jessica Espeleta on guitars , and Steve McCarty on drums .
These collaborators soon left to pursue other projects , and the band briefly changed its name to The Scene Creamers , with Svenonius on vocals , Michelle Mae on bass , Alex Minoff on guitar , and Blake Brunner on drums . In this incarnation , the band released I Suck on that Emotion , through Drag City . After being threatened with a legal suit for the name Scene Creamers by a French graffiti artist collective of the same name , the band reverted to the name Weird War . Since then , as its membership has become static , with the addition of Argentine Sebastian Thomson on drums , its intent has become more cosmic . Weird War claims that they are " the sole answer to the hype @-@ based careerism , empty formalism and vacuity which has infected what was once a genuinely creative underground rock ' n ' roll scene " .
= = = Chain and The Gang = = =
Svenonius ' latest musical project , Chain and The Gang , released the albums Down With Liberty ... Up With Chains ! , " Music 's Not For Everyone " , " In Cool Blood " on K Records , and " Minimum Rock ' n ' Roll " on Radical Elite Records . Some of the musicians featured on these records are Calvin Johnson , Brett Lyman ( Bad Thoughts / M 'Ladys 's Records ) , Fiona Campbell ( Vivian Girls / Coasting ) , Sarah Pedal of Seahorse Liberation Army , Katie Greer , Faustine Hudson ( The Curious Mystery ) , Brian Weber ( Dub Narcotic Sound System ) , Veronica Ortuño ( Finally Punk / Carrots ) , Nicolaas Zwart ( Desolation Wilderness ) , Karl Blau , Chris Sutton ( Hornet Leg , The Gossip ) , Sixx ( The Vibrarians ) , Arrington de Dionyso , Aaron Hartman , and Benjamin Hartman ( Old Time Relijun ) .
= = The Psychic Soviet = =
In July 2006 , Svenonius released a book of 19 essays entitled The Psychic Soviet ( ISBN 0 @-@ 9656183 @-@ 9 @-@ 0 ) , published by Drag City Press . Pocket @-@ sized and bound in bright @-@ pink plastic with beveled edges , its form is similar to " The Little Red Book , " a Bible , or a foreign @-@ language dictionary . The book serves as an anthology of past articles and essays by Svenonius previously published in periodicals , edited for readability and flow , with a number of new essays included .
The " Instructions " that preface the book state that it " should clear up much of the confusion regarding events of the last millennium - artistic , geo @-@ political , philosophical , et al . " and encourages the reader to " refer to the book in case of ethical quandaries , arguments , and social feuds " . The writing addresses topics such as the ascent of the DJ as a " star , " the " cosmic depression " that followed the defeat of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in the Cold War , and the status of rock and roll as a religion . To date , The Psychic Soviet is the most complete collection of written material by Svenonius .
= = Other projects = =
Throughout his career , Svenonius has disc jockeyed at clubs such as Cold Rice in Washington , D.C. In 1993 Svenonius and Nation of Ulysses / Make @-@ Up members James Canty and Steve Gamboa were involved in the short @-@ lived project Cupid Car Club , which released only one EP on Kill Rock Stars Records entitled Join our Club . In 2001 Svenonius collaborated with the English conceptualist / producer Mike Alway of If .. Records to create the record Play Power under the pseudonym David Candy . The album was released through Jet Set Records , Siesta Records , and If .. Records . Play Power was part of a series of " Magazine @-@ Style Records " which included other imaginary acts such as Death by Chocolate , Maria Napoleon , and Lollipop Train .
Svenonius wrote an afterword for Glen E. Friedman 's 2005 photography book Recognize ( ISBN 0 @-@ 9641916 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 ) , as well as the introduction to Friedman 's 2007 book Keep Your Eyes Open ( ISBN 0 @-@ 9641916 @-@ 8 @-@ 7 ) . As host of the VBS.TV online show Soft Focus , Svenonius interviews guests such as Ian MacKaye , Genesis P @-@ Orridge , Adam Horovitz , Cat Power and Will Oldham in front of a live audience at the Guggenheim Museum in New York City . Soft Focus has recently moved to London , England , where Svenonius interviews British artists such as Mark E. Smith of The Fall and Billy Childish . In 1994 , Svenonius had a supporting role in the independent film Half @-@ Cocked . In 2001 , Svenonius appeared in the documentary Plaster Caster about the plaster casts of Cynthia Plaster Caster .
= = = Sassiest Boy in America = = =
In 1990 Sassy magazine conducted a search for the Sassiest Boy in America . Over 150 entries were received with the eventual winner being Ian Svenonius . In the story highlighting his selection Sassy founding editor Jane Pratt states " He 's going to be a big deal . I 'm sure he will be and we 're going to be so proud that we were the first ones to discover him . "
= = Discography = =
= = = Nation of Ulysses = = =
13 @-@ Point Program to Destroy America ( Dischord ) ( 1991 )
Plays Pretty for Baby ( Dischord ) ( 1992 )
The Embassy Tapes ( Dischord ) ( 2000 )
= = = The Make @-@ Up = = =
Destination : Love - Live ! At Cold Rice ( Dischord ) ( 1996 )
After Dark ( Dischord ) ( 1997 )
Sound Verite ( K Records ) ( 1997 )
In Mass Mind ( Dischord ) ( 1998 )
Save Yourself ( K Records ) ( 1999 )
I Want Some ( singles compilation ) ( K Records ) ( 1999 )
Untouchable Sound ( Drag City / Sea Note ) ( 2006 )
= = = Weird War = = =
Weird War ( Drag City ) ( 2002 )
I Suck on that Emotion ( as Scene Creamers ) ( Drag City ) ( 2003 )
If You Can 't Beat ' Em , Bite ' Em ( Drag City ) ( 2004 )
Illuminated by the Light ( Drag City ) ( 2005 )
= = = Chain and The Gang = = =
Down With Liberty ... Up With Chains ! ( K Records ) ( 2009 )
Music 's Not For Everyone ( K Records ) ( 2011 )
In Cool Blood ( K Records ) ( 2012 )
Minimum Rock n Roll ( Dischord Records ) ( 2014 )
= = = David Candy = = =
Play Power ( Jet Set / Siesta / If Records ) ( 2001 )
= = = Cupid Car Club = = =
Join our Club ( Kill Rock Stars ) ( 1993 )
= = = XYZ = = =
S / T ( Mono @-@ tone Records ) ( 2014 )
= = Filmography = =
Half @-@ Cocked ( film ) ( independent release ) ( 1994 )
Plaster Caster ( Xenon Pictures ) ( 2001 )
Soft Focus ( VBS.tv ) ( host , 2008 – present )
The Seduction of Paolo Hewitt ( Ooga Booga ) ( 2008 )
The Launching of the Dream Weapon ( Ooga Booga ) ( 2008 )
What is a Group ? ( Strawberry City ) ( 2013 )
= = Writings = =
Afterward of Glen E. Friedman 's Recognize ( ISBN 0 @-@ 9641916 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 ) ( Burning Flags Press ) ( 2005 )
The Psychic Soviet ( ISBN 0 @-@ 9656183 @-@ 9 @-@ 0 ) ( Drag City Press ) ( 2006 )
Introduction of Glen E. Friedman 's Keep Your Eyes Open - The Fugazi Photographs of Glen E. Friedman ( ISBN 0 @-@ 9641916 @-@ 8 @-@ 7 ) ( Burning Flags Press ) ( 2007 )
" Supernatural Strategies for Making a Rock ' n ' Roll Group " ( ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 61775 @-@ 130 @-@ 1 ) ( Akashic Books ) ( 2013 )
" Censorship Now ! " ( ISBN 1617754099 ) ( Akashic Books ) ( 2015 )
= Netball and the Olympic Movement =
Netball is an Olympic recognised sport , a status attained in 1995 after a twenty @-@ year period of lobbying . It has never been played at the Summer Olympics , but with recognition a formal requirement for inclusion is met . The absence at the Olympic Games was seen by the netball community as a hindrance to the global growth of the game , depriving it of media attention and funding . Inclusion is hampered , because it is mainly played by women , and mostly in Commonwealth countries . When the sport gained recognition , it opened up sources of funds that the global netball community had not been able to access before , including the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) , national Olympic committees and sports organisations , and state and federal governments .
= = Women 's sport at the Olympics = =
According to Dyer in 1982 , exclusion of netball from the Summer Olympics is part of the historical pattern of the slow growth and gradual acceptance of women 's sports . Women first competed in the 1900 Summer Olympics in only three sports : tennis , croquet and golf . Women 's cycling was excluded for many years despite having world championships organised by 1958 . Field hockey , a sport included for men as early as 1908 , was not open to competition by women until 1980 . By the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona , there were 159 medal events for men , but only 86 for women , and 12 for both men and women , and as late as 1996 , 26 countries sent no women to the Olympics . There were still sports that excluded women at the 2000 Summer Olympics , such as boxing , wrestling and baseball . At the 2012 Summer Olympics , every country but Nauru did , and both men and women competed in 34 sports .
At the 2012 Olympics , there were two sports for women only : synchronized swimming and rhythmic gymnastics . That netball is also played mostly by women is seen as a drawback . Netball does allow for mixed teams , but the Olympics did not include mixed sex team sports . Rugby sevens and golf , primarily played by men , were chosen for inclusion in the 2016 Summer Olympics for both sexes ahead of netball .
The issue of male over @-@ representation in terms of total number of sports and athletes is structural . In the United Kingdom , for example , more male athletes than female ones receive financial support . Sports officials rationalise this uneven distribution by claiming that there are more opportunities for men to win at the highest level than there are for women . The importance of being part of the Summer Olympics is illustrated by softball , and the benefits the sport derived from its inclusion . This included additional media coverage , especially during Olympic years . Olympic recognition plays an important part in getting sponsorship for local competitions around the world and providing new opportunities for females .
= = Olympic recognition = =
Efforts to gain Olympic recognition started in 1967 , at the time when the International Federation of Netball Associations ( IFNA ) was founded . The Jamaican and Singaporean delegations present at the meeting suggested the newly created organisation become affiliated with the World Olympic Sports Council and try to get netball included on the Olympic programme . Opinions were initially split inside the newly formed organisation as to whether this was a goal worth striving for , but ultimately it was decided to work towards Olympic recognition . The federation 's first application was rejected because it referred to the sport as women 's basketball and the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) said there could not be two different sports with the same name on the Olympic programme . This rejection was a driving factor for changing the name of the sport . There was tremendous resistance in Australia and New Zealand to this . IFNA made " major concessions " to both countries to persuade them to change the name of their national federations . In 1965 , the IOC criteria required a sport must be played in at least 11 nations and the international body represented the sport must have at least 27 national organisations affiliated with it .
A second application was started in 1971 after the previous rejection which reflected the name change . While name changes and other International Olympic Committee suggestions were agreed upon as necessary to go forward , the integration of these changes into the Federation 's constitution and governance strategy took over four years and the application languished as a result until 1979 , when the IOC responded with a request for additional information on IFNA 's finances and governance . The decision to provide additional information was deferred until 1979 's Conference . The Jamaican representatives were frustrated with the slow process inside the organisation and tried to take steps to speed the process up inside IFNA . This included submitting proposals for organisational changes to address the most recent IOC feedback , addressing issues such as player drug testing , the selling of television and radio rights , and how to establish an Olympic draw among other points . Because of Jamaican influence , IFNA created a specific committee to work on the issue of addressing Olympic requirements , which was composed of New Zealanders Rena Straford , Lorna McOnchie and Anne Taylor . They were supposed to have these issues addressed by a meeting scheduled at the end of 1979 .
Delays happened because of the structure of IFNA and the required material was not ready for presenting before IFNA 's Council until 1983 . During this four @-@ year waiting period , Jamaica and Bermuda continued to agitate for the Federation to speed the process along as attaining recognition would provide their region with additional funding and make it easier to grow the sport regionally . The second application was eventually rejected in 1983 , with the IOC claiming the sport had " limited popularity " . While netball was not able to gain Olympic recognition during this period , it did gain recognition from General Assembly of International Sports Federations . This allowed netball to be played at the World Games in 1985 .
Because of the 1983 rejection , an earlier idea that had been tried and failed in 1979 was revisited : Creating regional Federations for the Americas , Europe , Oceania and Asia , regional groupings mirroring that of the Olympic organisers . This was implemented by 1987 , which was rejected later that year because the sport did not meet all the criteria established and it was not yet a global sport . The IOC viewed the sport as one belonging only to the Commonwealth of Nations . While the netball was rejected for a third time , the New Zealand hosts of the 1990 Commonwealth Games managed to get the sport to have demonstration status , with the news of this being announced in 1987 . That same year , netball also gained full member status from the General Assembly of International Sports Federations In the mean time , the IOC did provide the Federation with a US $ 1 @,@ 000 grant , though none of this grant money was used by 1991 . Because of what appeared to be the unlikely recognition by the IOC , the Federation urged its national members to seek membership with their national Olympic committees so national federations could access national funding in order to help grow the sport inside their home countries .
A decision was made to try again for Olympic recognition was made , but the Federation was irritated because they had never been given clear guidelines for what the IOC was looking for in terms of a sport gaining Olympic recognition . The Federation believed that every time they met the criteria they were given , there was a new hoop for them to jump through . An example of this was a requirement given to the Federation 1992 / 1993 that the IOC be given technical specs for venue space should the sport be included on the Olympic programme . The Federation continued to work to address these requirements and eventually , in October 1993 , netball through IFNA was given provisional Olympic recognition , requiring a two @-@ year probation period . This recognition came with a US $ 10 @,@ 000 per year per region for the Federation to develop the sport around the world .
In 1995 , netball became a permanent Olympic recognised sport after a twenty @-@ year period of lobbying and a two @-@ year probation period . This makes it eligible to be played in future Games . Recognition has meant national associations could become full members of their countries ' national Olympic committees . National members of IFNA were able to apply for that recognition by 1993 . The All Australia Netball Association is one national organisation that has become a full member of their national Olympic committee . In 2004 , International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) recognition of the IFNA was renewed . The IFNA has made Olympic recognition part of its long @-@ term strategy towards continuing to grow the game .
There have been multiple attempts by netball supporters to get the sport played in the Summer Olympics . In 1996 , the netball leadership actively pursued the possibility of netball being played at the 2000 Summer Olympics . The government of New South Wales encouraged the Australian Olympic Committee to lobby for the inclusion of netball in the 2008 Beijing Olympic games . Prime Minister Gordon Brown , Netball England national team member Tamsin Greenway , two time Olympic gold medallist Kelly Holmes and Olympic heptathlon competitor Denise Lewis are English supporters who would like to see netball in future Olympic games . The earliest the sport could be included on the programme would be 2024 .
In an extraordinary session in Mexico City in November 2002 , the IOC decided to limit the total number of sports to 28 , events to 301 and athletes to 10 @,@ 500 , slowing the process of adding new sports to future Olympic Games . At the extraordinary session , the IOC set forth the requirements that a sport must meet before it is eligible for inclusion in the Olympic programme . The table created in the documentation for this meeting is provided below :
= = Funding = =
The lack of Olympic recognition hampered the globalisation of the game in developing countries because the Olympic Solidarity Movement provides access to funding for these nations through the International Olympic Committee . In some countries , such as Tanzania , the lack of access to Olympic funding cut off other options such as funding by the British Council . With official recognition , funding from the IOC , the Olympic Solidarity Movement and the British Council became available to cover costs for travel to international competitions . For some nations , without that assistance , trying to maintain international calibre teams was difficult . Olympic recognition brought money for development into the sport . In 2004 , IFNA received a grant of US $ 10 @,@ 000 from the IOC for development . IFNA was given an additional US $ 3 @,@ 300 a year until 2007 by the Association of IOC Recognised International Sports ( ARISF ) .
Beyond access to funds from the IOC , state and national sporting bodies , and state and federal governments often use IOC status as a funding criteria . This has been the case in Australia , and British Columbia , Canada . In 1985 , the Australian Sports Commission and the Office of the Status of Women identified five criteria for obtaining federal funding . One of these was " status as an Olympic sport and its size by registrations . " In British Columbia , one of the guidelines says that in order to receive funding , " the sport must be on the program for either the 2011 or 2013 Canada Games and / or the next scheduled recognized International Multi @-@ Sport Games ( Olympics / Paralympics , Pan American or Commonwealth Games , Special Olympic World Games ) " .
The IOC and its daughter organisations give awards and scholarships . In 1995 , two of the scholarships offered by the Oceania Olympic Training Centre were given to netballers : Janaet Snape and Darlene Marsters . The Oceania Olympic Training Centre also made it possible for Mona @-@ Lisa Leka from Papua New Guinea to go to Australia to train . In 2007 , the IOC awarded Veitu Apana Diro , the Vice @-@ President of the NOC of Papua New , the Trophy for Oceania . This recognition came in part because she had created the nation 's national netball organisation in 1965 and actively promoted women 's involvement in netball around the country .
= = Media coverage = =
Netball is most popular Commonwealth countries , and the most popular women 's spectator sport in Australia and Tanzania and the effort to increase media attention and participation for women 's sport often goes to Olympic sports with low participation rates , low rates of interest and few facilities . Even then , historically , coverage of women 's team sports in the Olympics has been limited . Instead , according to Jones , the media focus on female athletes in non @-@ team competitions and on team sports played equally by both genders .
= = National associations = =
National netball associations have been involved with national Olympic committees as members or associate members , or had their administrators generally involved with national Olympic Committees , for a long time . In the case of the Bahamas , by 1960 the Bahamas Olympic Association had as one of its member organisations the national netball association . Netball was also represented in the Dominica Olympic Committee almost from the moment the organisation was founded . Some of the national netball federations that are affiliated with their national Olympic Committee include Netball Singapore and the All Australia Netball Association .
= Rambles in Germany and Italy =
Rambles in Germany and Italy , in 1840 , 1842 , and 1843 is a travel narrative by the British Romantic author Mary Shelley . Issued in 1844 , it is her last published work . Published in two volumes , the text describes two European trips that Mary Shelley took with her son , Percy Florence Shelley , and several of his university friends . Mary Shelley had lived in Italy with her husband , Percy Bysshe Shelley , between 1818 and 1823 . For her , Italy was associated with both joy and grief : she had written much while there but she had also lost her husband and two of her children . Thus , although she was anxious to return , the trip was tinged with sorrow . Shelley describes her journey as a pilgrimage , which will help cure her depression .
At the end of the second trip , Mary Shelley spent time in Paris and associated herself with the " Young Italy " movement , Italian exiles who were in favour of Italian independence and unification . One revolutionary in particular attracted her : Ferdinando Gatteschi . To assist him financially , Shelley decided to publish Rambles . However , Gatteschi became discontented with Shelley 's assistance and tried to blackmail her . She was forced to obtain her personal letters from Gatteschi through the intervention of the French police .
Shelley differentiates her travel book from others by presenting her material from what she describes as " a political point of view " . In so doing , she challenges the early nineteenth @-@ century convention that it was improper for women to write about politics , following in the tradition of her mother , Mary Wollstonecraft , and Lady Morgan . Shelley 's aim was to arouse sympathy in England for Italian revolutionaries , such as Gatteschi . She rails against the imperial rule of Austria and France over Italy and criticises the domination of the Catholic Church . She describes the Italians as having an untapped potential for greatness and a desire for freedom .
Though Shelley herself thought the work " poor " , it found favour with reviewers who praised its independence of thought , wit , and feeling . Shelley 's political commentary on Italy was specifically singled out for praise , particularly since it was written by a woman . For most of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries , Shelley was usually known only as the author of Frankenstein and the wife of Percy Bysshe Shelley . Rambles was not reprinted until the rise of feminist literary criticism in the 1970s provoked a wider interest in Shelley 's entire corpus .
= = Background = =
= = = Risorgimento = = =
From the Middle Ages until the end of the nineteenth century , Italy was divided into many small duchies and city @-@ states , some of which were autonomous and some of which were controlled by Austria , France , Spain , or the Papacy . These multifarious governments and the diversity of Italian dialects spoken on the peninsula caused residents to identify as " Romans " or " Venetians " , for example , rather than as " Italians " . When Napoleon conquered parts of Italy during the French Revolutionary Wars ( 1792 – 1802 ) and the Napoleonic Wars ( 1803 – 15 ) , he unified many of the smaller principalities ; he centralised the governments and built roads and communication networks that helped to break down the barriers between and among Italians . Not all Italians welcomed French rule , however ; Giuseppe Capobianco founded a secret society called the Carbonari to resist both French rule and the Roman Catholic Church . After Napoleon was defeated at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815 and the Congress of Vienna left much of northern Italy in the hands of the Austrians , the Carbonari continued their resistance . The Carbonari led revolts in Naples and Piedmont in 1820 and 1821 and in Bologna , the Papal States , Parma , and Modena in the 1830s . After the failure of these revolts , Giuseppe Mazzini , a Carbonaro who was exiled from Italy , founded the " Young Italy " group to work toward the unification of Italy , to establish a democratic republic , and to force non @-@ Italian states to relinquish authority on the peninsula . By 1833 , 60 @,@ 000 people had joined the movement . These nationalist revolutionaries , with foreign support , attempted , but failed , to overthrow the Austrians in Genoa and Turin in 1833 and Calabria in 1844 . Italian unification , or Risorgimento , was finally achieved in 1870 under the leadership of Giuseppe Garibaldi .
= = = Travelling and writing = = =
= = = = 1840 = = = =
Mary Shelley and her husband Percy Bysshe Shelley had lived in Italy from 1818 to 1823 . Although Percy Shelley and two of their four children died there , Italy became for Mary Shelley " a country which memory painted as paradise " , as she put it . The couple 's Italian years were a time of intense intellectual and creative activity . Percy composed a series of major poems , and Mary wrote the autobiographical novel Matilda , the historical novel Valperga , and the plays Proserpine and Midas . Mary Shelley had always wanted to return to Italy and she excitedly planned her 1840 trip . The return was painful as she was constantly reminded of Percy Shelley .
In June 1840 , Mary Shelley , Percy Florence ( her one surviving child ) , and a few of his friends — George Defell , Julian Robinson , and Robert Leslie Ellis — began their European tour . They travelled to Paris and then to Metz . From there , they went down the Moselle by boat to Coblenz and then up the Rhine to Mainz , Frankfurt , Heidelberg , Baden @-@ Baden , Freiburg , Schaffhausen , Zürich , the Splügen , and Chiavenna . Feeling ill , Shelley rested at a spa in Baden @-@ Baden ; she had wracking pains in her head and " convulsive shudders " , symptoms of the meningioma that would eventually kill her . This stop dismayed Percy Florence and his friends , as it provided no entertainment for them ; moreover , since none of them spoke German , the group was forced to remain together . After crossing Switzerland by carriage and railway , the group spent two months at Lake Como , where Mary relaxed and reminisced about how she and Percy had almost rented a villa with Lord Byron at the lake one summer . The group then travelled on to Milan , and from there , Percy Florence and his friends soon left for Cambridge to take their university finals . Mary Shelley remained , waiting for funds to complete her journey . In September , she returned to England via Geneva and Paris . Upon her return , she became depressed and could not write : " [ in Italy ] I might live – as once I lived — hoping — loving — aspiring enjoying ... I am placid now , & the days go by – I am happy in Percy [ Florence 's ] society & health – but no adjuncts ... gild the quiet hours & dulness [ sic ] creeps over my intellect " . Despite this lethargy she managed to publish a second edition of Percy Shelley 's prose and began working on another edition of his poetry .
= = = = 1842 – 44 = = = =
Sir Timothy Shelley gave his grandson Percy Florence an increase in his allowance for his twenty @-@ first birthday , allowing Mary Shelley and Percy Florence to plan a second , longer trip to the Continent . In June 1842 , Mary Shelley and her son left for a fourteen @-@ month tour . They were accompanied by a few of his friends : Alexander Andrew Knox , a poet and classicist , whom Emily Sunstein , a biographer of Mary Shelley , describes as " reminiscent of [ Percy ] Shelley " ; Henry Hugh Pearson , a musician who had written musical accompaniments for several of Percy Shelley 's poems ; and Robert Leslie Ellis . Mary Shelley hoped that the easy manners of the other young men would rub off on her awkward son , but instead they became petty and jealous of each other . The group visited Liège , Cologne , Coblenz , Mainz , Frankfurt , Kissingen , Berlin , Dresden , Prague , Salzburg , the Tyrol , Innsbruck , Riva , Verona , Venice , Florence , and Rome . In Rome , Mary Shelley toured museums with the French art critic Alex Rio ; Percy Florence was unimpressed with the culture and refused to see the art , infuriating his mother , who spent an increasing amount of her time seeing the country with Knox instead . She also paid numerous visits to Percy Bysshe Shelley 's grave in Rome . After two months in the Sorrento Peninsula , the group was short of money ; Percy Florence and his friends returned home while Mary Shelley went on to Paris .
In Paris , Mary Shelley associated with many of the Italian expatriates who were part of the " Young Italy " movement . Her recent travels had made her particularly sympathetic to their revolutionary message . One Italian patriot captivated her in particular : Ferdinando Gatteschi , a smart , handsome , would @-@ be writer . He was young — not yet 30 — and in exile , following his participation in a failed Carbonari rebellion against Austria in 1830 – 31 . Shelley was fascinated by Gatteschi ; she described him as " a hero & an angel & martyr " . Jeanne Moskal , the most recent editor of Rambles , argues that Mary Shelley was attracted to Gatteschi because he resembled Percy Shelley : he was an aristocratic writer who had been cast off by his parents for his liberalism . Moskal argues that " the strength of [ Shelley 's ] devotion overturned her previous resolve not to publish again " .
At the end of September 1843 , Mary Shelley proposed to her publisher , Edward Moxon , that she write a travel book based on her 1840 and 1842 Continental journeys . Interested in assisting Gatteschi , she wrote to Moxon that she was writing " for a purpose most urgent & desirable " . She described the work as " light " , " personal " , and " amusing " . Moxon agreed to her proposal and advanced her £ 60 , which she promised to return if fewer than 300 copies of the work were sold . ( She subsequently gave this same amount to Gatteschi . ) By the end of January 1844 , Shelley had already completed most of the first volume . As Sunstein writes , " once started on Rambles , she worked fast and with pleasure , but her head and nerves were bad at times , and her eyes got so weak and inflamed that she wrote only until noon . " She left Paris at the end of January and returned to London , still infatuated with Gatteschi . The death of Sir Timothy Shelley , Percy Florence 's grandfather , in April 1844 , delayed the completion of the work . However , with material from Gatteschi on the Ancona uprising of 1831 and research help from German @-@ speaking friends , Shelley finished . The text was largely drawn from correspondence written during her travels to her step @-@ sister Claire Clairmont . Mary Shelley 's last published work , which was dedicated to the travel writer and poet Samuel Rogers , came out on 1 August 1844 .
Despite Mary Shelley 's attempts to assist Gatteschi financially , he tried to blackmail her one year later in 1845 using indiscreet letters she had written . After not hearing from Gatteschi for months , she received threatening letters , which claimed that she had promised him financial success and even possibly marriage . He claimed that her letters would demonstrate this . The contents of Mary Shelley 's letters are unknown as they were later destroyed , but she must have felt some danger , for she took great pains to recover the letters and wrote agonised letters to her friends : " [ The letters ] were written with an open heart – & contain details with regard to my past history , which it [ would ] destroy me for ever if they ever saw light . " Shelley turned to Alexander Knox for help . After obtaining help from the British government , he travelled to Paris and had the Paris police seize Gatteschi 's correspondence . Implying that Gatteschi was a danger to the state , Knox and the Paris police called upon the cabinet noir system in order to retrieve the letters . On 11 October , Le National and Le Constitutionnel reported in outrage that Gatteschi 's personal papers were seized because he was a suspected revolutionary . Mary wrote to Claire that " It is an awful power this seizure " , but she did not regret using it . After Knox retrieved her letters , he burned them . Shelley spent £ 250 of her own money to finance the operation . She was embarrassed by the entire incident .
= = Description of text = =
The two volumes of Rambles are divided into three parts . Part I , which occupies part of the first volume , describes the four @-@ month trip Mary Shelley took with Percy Florence and his university friends in 1840 . Parts II and III , which comprise the remainder of the first volume and the entirety of the second volume , describe the fourteen @-@ month trip Mary Shelley took with Percy Florence , Alexander Knox , and other university friends in 1842 and 1843 . Part II covers June – August 1842 and Part III covers August 1842 – September 1843 . All three parts are epistolary and cover a wide range of topics : " these include personal narratives of the difficulty of a journey , on her varying health , her budgetary constraint ; comments on whether [ John ] Murray 's guide @-@ book advice as to hotels , routes or sights was reliable ; her subjective responses to the pictures , statues , cities and landscapes she has seen ; reports on her occupations and those of her companions ; historical disquisitions on such topics as the Tyrolean struggle against Napoleon , or the origins of the Carbonari ; and authoritative analysis of the present and future state of Italian literature . "
= = = Part I = = =
In twelve conversational letters written in the first person , Mary Shelley charts her travels through Europe during 1840 and her reflections on accommodations , scenery , peasants , economic relationships between the classes , art , literature , and memories of her 1814 and 1816 journeys ( recorded in History of a Six Weeks ' Tour ( 1817 ) ) . In the first letter , she muses on her return to Italy :
Can it , indeed , be true , that I am about to revisit Italy ? How many years are gone since I quitted that country ! There I left the mortal remains of those beloved — my husband and my children , whose loss changed my whole existence , substituting , for happy peace and the interchange of deep @-@ rooted affections , years of desolate solitude , and a hard struggle with the world ; which only now , as my son is growing up , is brightening into a better day . The name of Italy has magic in its very syllables .
After landing in France , Shelley continues to happily anticipate her travels and the benefits she will derive from them . Travelling throughout Germany , she complains about the slowness of travel but is pleased to discover that her memories of the Rhine correspond to the reality . Shelley becomes ill in Germany and pauses at Baden @-@ Baden to recover her health . Fearing Percy Florence 's ( referred to as P – in the text ) love of boats and the water , especially difficult for her after her own husband drowned in a boating accident , she is reluctant to continue to Italy and Lake Como while at the same time desiring to do so . After Shelley recovers her health and spirits , the group proceeds to Italy where she is overcome with nostalgia :
To me , indeed , there was something even thrilling and affecting in the aspect of the commonest objects around ... Window @-@ curtains , the very wash @-@ hand stands , they were all such as had been familiar to me in Italy long , long ago . I had not seen them since those young and happy days . Strange and indescribable emotions invaded me ; recollections , long forgotten , arose fresh and strong by mere force of association , produced by those objects being presented to my eye , inspiring a mixture of pleasure and pain , almost amounting to agony .
Shelley writes of her overwhelming happiness in Italy and her sadness at having to leave it . At the end of September , her money to return to England fails to arrive , so Percy Florence and his friends return without her . Her funds eventually arrive , and she journeys to England alone . In the letters covering her return journey , she describes the sublime scenery through which she travels , particularly the Simplon Pass and waterfalls in Switzerland .
= = = Part II = = =
Part II , which consists of eleven conversational letters , covers the first part of Shelley 's trip to Europe in 1842 , specifically her journey from Antwerp to Prague ; the names of her travelling companions are disguised in the text and she rarely alludes to them . She discusses art , sometimes spending several pages describing individual works of art ; the benefits and drawbacks of travel by railway versus carriage ; the German character and habits of the German people ; the history associated with the sights she sees ; the scenery and the weather ; and her problems as a traveller , for example , her inability to speak German , the dirtiness of the inns , and exorbitant pricing for tourists . Shelley begins this section by musing on the benefits of travel :
Travelling is occupation as well as amusement , and I firmly believe that renewed health will be the result of frequent change of place . Besides , what can be so delightful as the perpetual novelty — the exhaustless current of new ideas suggested by travelling ? We read , to gather thought and knowledge ; travelling is a book of the Creator 's own writing , and imparts sublimer wisdom than the printed words of man . Were I exiled perforce , I might repine , for the heart naturally yearns for home . But to adorn that home with recollections ; to fly abroad from the hive , like a bee , and return laden with the sweets of travel — scenes , which haunt the eye — wild adventures , that enliven the imagination — knowledge , to enlighten and free the mind from clinging , deadening prejudices — a wider circle of sympathy with our fellow @-@ creatures ; — these are the uses of travel .
Briefly passing through a quick succession of German cities by railway , carriage , and boat , the group arrives at Kissingen , where they decide to remain for a month for Shelley to " take the cure " at the bath . While Shelley believes the waters will be efficacious , she chafes at the restrictions put on those attempting to better their health , such as rising at five or six and eating no delicacies . Her companions are increasingly frustrated by the schedule and the lack of entertainment at the spa . After leaving Kissingen , the group travels through the area around Weimar , seeing sights associated with Martin Luther and the writers Wieland , Schiller , and Goethe . They continue to Berlin and Dresden , where they spend time viewing art and attending the opera , leaving for Prague in August 1842 .
= = = Part III = = =
Throughout 23 informal letters , Shelley describes her travels from Prague to southern Italy . She p
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onders the scenery of the areas she passes through , the history of Germany and Italy ( e.g. the Tyrolenese rebellion of April 1809 and the activities of the Carbonari ) , the art of Baroque and Renaissance Italy , the literature of Italy , and offers opinions on Italy 's recent governments , the national character of the German and Italian people , and Catholicism . She also ponders the changes in herself from who she was in the 1820s to who she is in the 1840s , particularly in relation to her grief :
Many a scene , which I have since visited and admired , has faded in my mind , as a painting in the Diorama melts away , and another struggles into the changing canvass ; but his road was as distinct in my mind as if traversed yesterday . I will not here dwell on the sad circumstances that clouded my first visit to Venice . Death hovered over the scene . Gathered into myself , with my ' mind 's eye ' I saw those before me long departed ; and I was agitated again by emotions — by passions — and those the deepest a woman 's heart can harbor — a dread to see her child even at that instant expire — which then occupied me .
= = Genre = =
= = = History of the travel narrative = = =
Rambles is a travel narrative , part of a literary tradition begun in the seventeenth century . Through the sixteenth , seventeenth , and eighteenth centuries , Continental travel was considered educational : young , aristocratic gentlemen completed their studies by learning European languages abroad and visiting foreign courts . In the early seventeenth century , however , the emphasis shifted from classical learning to a focus on gaining experience in the real world , such as knowledge of topography , history , and culture . Detailed travel books , including personal travel narratives , began to be published and became popular in the eighteenth century : over 1 @,@ 000 individual travel narratives and travel miscellanies were published between 1660 and 1800 . The empiricism that was driving the scientific revolution spread to travel literature ; for example , Lady Mary Wortley Montagu included information she learned in Turkey regarding smallpox inoculation in her travel letters . By 1742 , critic and essayist Samuel Johnson was recommending that travellers engage in " a moral and ethical study of men and manners " in addition to a scientific study of topography and geography .
Over the course of the eighteenth century , the Grand Tour became increasingly popular . Travel to the Continent for Britain 's elite was not only educational but also nationalistic . All aristocratic gentlemen took similar trips and visited similar sites , with the intention of developing an appreciation of Britain from abroad . The Grand Tour was celebrated as educational travel when it involved exchanging scientific information with the intellectual elite , learning about other cultures , and preparing for leadership . However , it was condemned as trivial when the tourist simply purchased curio collectibles , acquired a " superficial social polish " , and pursued fleeting sexual relationships . During the Napoleonic Wars , the Continent was closed to British travellers and the Grand Tour came under increasing criticism , particularly from radicals such as Mary Shelley 's father , William Godwin , who scorned its aristocratic associations . Young Romantic writers criticised its lack of spontaneity ; they celebrated Madame de Staёl 's novel Corinne ( 1807 ) , which depicts proper travel as " immediate , sensitive , and above all [ an ] enthusiastic experience " .
Travel literature changed in the 1840s as steam @-@ powered ships and trains made Continental journeys accessible to the middle class . Guidebooks and handbooks were published for this new traveller , who was unfamiliar with the tradition of the Grand Tour . The most famous of these was John Murray 's Handbook for Travellers on the Continent ( 1836 ) . By 1848 , Murray had published 60 such works , which " emphasised comprehensiveness , presenting numerous possible itineraries and including information on geology , history , and art galleries " . Whereas during the Romantic period , travel writers differentiated themselves from mere tourists through the spontaneity and exuberance of their reactions , during the Victorian period , travel writers attempted to legitimise their works through a " discourse of authenticity " . That is , they claimed to have experienced the true culture of an area and their reactions to it were specifically personal , as opposed to the writers of generic guidebooks , whose response was specifically impersonal .
= = = Rambles as a travel narrative = = =
Mary Shelley 's Rambles both resembles and attempts to separate itself from other travel narratives of the time . Elizabeth Nitchie , in her description of the text , writes , for example , that there is " little novelty either in what [ Shelley ] saw or in her account " of the Alps , the Rhine , or Italy , and Moskal notes that Shelley 's " book participates in the travel @-@ book convention of museum @-@ going " . Although Shelley drew on Murray 's famous handbooks and other guidebooks , she specifically attempted to differentiate her work from these . While Murray 's guidebooks , for example , were generally apolitical , Shelley argues in the preface to Rambles that the uniqueness of her work is in its portrayal of the Italian people from " a political point of view " . Shelley had sold her publisher on the idea of a travel narrative by describing the forthcoming book as " light " and " amusing " , in the style of Samuel Rogers , whose travel narrative of Italy , accompanied by illustrations by J. M. W. Turner , had been a best @-@ seller in the late 1820s . Rogers 's text had avoided politics and focused on picturesque and sublime scenery . Although Shelley dedicated Rambles to Rogers , her preface acknowledged the influence of Lady Morgan , whose travel work , Italy ( 1821 ) , had been vocal in its criticism of Austria 's rule over Italy and had been placed on the papal list of prohibited books . To make her politics more palatable to her audience , however , Shelley often uses analyses of literature and art to reiforce her points .
Shelley 's travel narrative , with its " informal " and " subjective " focus on her personal experiences , reflects the Romantic emphasis on the individual . Unlike Augustus Bozzi Granville 's The Spas of Germany ( 1837 ) , which exudes a Victorian respect for order , political authority , and careful documentation , Shelley focuses on her own reactions to these experiences . She specifically criticises the surveillance and control methods used at the spas she visited , such as the strict dietary regimens and confiscation of letters .
= = = Travel narratives by women writers = = =
In choosing to focus her travel narrative on politics , Mary Shelley violated the mid @-@ nineteenth century taboo against women discussing politics , particularly in the public sphere . After the mid @-@ 1790s ( partly as a result of the French Revolution ) , Britain experienced an " antifeminist reaction " and women were increasingly discouraged from writing on so @-@ called " masculine " topics . As Moskal explains , there was a " massive cultural prejudice that equate [ d ] masculinity with mobility " , making travel writing itself a masculine genre ; there was even a " masculinist aesthetic vocabulary " . Women in the late eighteenth century and the early nineteenth century wrote travel narratives anyway , but at a cost . Wollstonecraft is described as asking " men 's questions " when she is curious about her surroundings and both Lady Morgan 's and Elizabeth Barrett Browning 's travel narratives received hostile reviews because they discussed political issues .
Both Shelley and her mother , Mary Wollstonecraft , exceeded the bounds of what would have been considered " the normal purview of the female writer " in their travel narratives . Shelley excitedly describes running the rapids in a canoe , for example , and describes the economic status and technological development of the areas she visits . In Paris , she comments on the lack of drains in the streets , in Berlin she visits a steel mill , and throughout the text she describes how the new railways are impacting on travel . Shelley 's travel narrative is marked by a specific " ethic of travel " — that one must learn to sympathise both physically and emotionally with those one encounters . Her travels are sentimental , and travel writing for her is " an exploration of the self through an encounter with the other " . Her language even mirrors that of her mother . Wollstonecraft describes the frontier of Sweden as " the bones of the world waiting to be clothed with everything necessary to give life and beauty " while Shelley describes the Simplon Pass as having " a majestic simplicity that inspired awe ; the naked bones of a gigantic world were here : the elemental substance of fair mother Earth " .
Also like her mother , whose Letters from Sweden was foundational to the writing of both History of a Six Weeks ' Tour and Rambles , Shelley emphasised her maternal role in the text . She describes herself as a conventional figure , worrying about her son . Rather than the scandal @-@ ridden young woman of her youth , which she wrote about in the Tour , she is now a demure , respectable , middle @-@ aged woman .
= = Themes = =
= = = Italian politics = = =
Shelley 's stated aim in Rambles is to raise awareness of the political situation in Italy and to convince readers to aid the revolutionaries in their fight for independence . She addresses her readers as English citizens , arguing that they in particular " ought to sympathise in [ the Italians ' ] struggles ; for the aspiration for free institutions all over the world has its source in England " . On a general level , she articulates an " opposition to monarchical government , disapproval of class distinction , abhorrence of slavery and war and their concomitant cruelties " similar to that in her historical novels Valperga ( 1823 ) and Perkin Warbeck ( 1830 ) . The central theme of the second journey is " the tyranny of Austrian and French imperialism , and the abuses of papal and priestly authority " . The solution to Italy 's problems , according to Shelley , is neither " subjugation " nor " revolution " but rather " peaceful mediation " . Ultimately , it is the lessons learned from history that Shelley feels are the most important , which is why she compares the past and present . Rambles articulates the " Whiggish ideology of political gradualism " , and is similar to Wollstonecraft 's Vindication of the Rights of Woman ( 1792 ) in that it argues that " a reformation of culture is necessary to reform oppressive and degrading power relations " .
Shelley 's political frame for her travel narrative was a difficult one to sell to readers . Her audience wanted to support the revolutionaries , especially exiles living among them , such as Mazzini , but they were also fearful of the violence of the Carbonari and its nationalist ideology . They connected nationalism to their historic enemy — Napoleonic France . In fact , other travel works published at the time made the argument that Napoleon was responsible for Italian unification . Shelley therefore contends that the Risorgimento is primarily inspired by the English and only secondarily by the French ( she never names Napoleon ) . Shelley writes a history of Italian nationalism acceptable to English readers , in which the French are the tyrants oppressing the rising nation of Italy , which the Carbonari , although violent , has inspired and created . Her readers could therefore comfortably support Italian nationalism without supporting policies reminiscent of Napoleon . She also placed most of her political commentary at the end of the text . As Moskal explains , " Shelley creates a structure in which the reader , having already befriended the traveller for some pages , receives this political matter from a friend , not from a stranger . " She also praises Italian literature , particularly the works of Alessandro Manzoni , Pietro Colletta , and Michele Amari , connecting it to Italian nationalism .
In writing about the Italian situation , Shelley is also advocating a general liberal agenda of rights for the working and middle classes , which had been crushed by the Reign of Terror and Napoleon . British reformers could look with hope towards Italy .
= = = National character = = =
Throughout Rambles , Shelley describes the national character of the peoples she visits . She describes the Italians as having an untapped potential for greatness , particularly the peasants :
No one can talk to them without perceiving latent , under ignorance and superstition , great natural abilities , and that heartfelt piety which springs ( as our higher virtues do , ) from the imagination which warms and colours their faith . Poor people ! how I long for a fairy wand which would make them proprietors of the earth which they till , but most not reap . How sad a thing is human society : yet ... it warms my heart when I find the individuals that compose a population , poor , humble , ignorant , misguided , yet endowed with some of the brightest gifts of our nature , and bearing in their faces the stamp of intelligence and feeling .
Shelley frequently laments the poor education on offer to Italians , although she hopes this will spur them to revolt . She does not think much of the Germans . In her earlier travels , she had described the Germans as rude and disgusting ; in 1842 , she wrote to her half @-@ sister Claire Clairmont , " I do dislike the Germans — & never wish to visit Germany again — but I would not put this in print — for the surface is all I know . " Rambles contains little commentary on the Germans , therefore , except to say that she was impressed by their public education system .
It was how political events affected people that Shelley was most interested in . In her History of a Six Weeks ' Tour , she had paused several times to discuss the effects of war and she does so again with her description of the Hessians in Rambles :
When we read of the Hessians in the American war , we have a vague idea that our government called in the aid of foreign mercenaries to subdue the revolved colonies ; an act which roused Lord Chatham to exclaim in the House of Peers , " If I were an American , as I am an Englishman , while a foreign troop was landed in my country I never would lay down my arms , never — never — never ! " We censure the policy of government , we lament the obstinacy of George III , who , exhausting the English levies , had recourse to ' the mercenary sons of rapine and plunder ; ' and ' devoted the Americans and their possessions to the rapacity of hireling cruelty . ' But our imagination does not transport itself to the homes of the unfortunate Germans ; nor is our abhorrence of the tyranny that sent them to die in another hemisphere awakened .
= = = Memory and healing = = =
Shelley 's trips to Italy were a way for her to revisit memories of her dead husband , Percy Shelley , and the children they had buried there . Moskal argues that Shelley needed to " expiate " her survivor guilt and Dolan that she needed to recover from a damaging trauma . Shelley writes about this in Rambles , using the trope of a pilgrimage ; she believes that travelling to Italy and revisiting the scenes of her youth will cure her of her depression , writing , " Besides all that Rome itself affords of delightful [ sic ] to the eye and imagination , I revisit it as the bourne of a pious pilgrimage . The treasures of my youth lie buried here . " Shelley 's pilgrimage follows in the tradition of Chaucer as well as the nineteenth @-@ century trend to visit spas for healing , and like most pilgrimage narratives , hers does not relate the journey home . For Shelley , ultimately the most helpful part of travelling and visiting spas was seeing the beautiful scenery . In Rambles , Shelley contends that interacting with picturesque scenery can heal the body . Both the 1840 and 1842 trips followed times of ill health for Shelley and she used them as a way to recover both emotionally and physically . She opens Rambles by describing her poor health and hoping that by travelling her " mind will ... renew the outworn and tattered garments in which it has long been clothed " .
Shelley 's first travel narrative and first published work , History of a Six Weeks ' Tour , was published anonymously and was co @-@ written with her husband . Rambles , on the other hand , places Mary Shelley at the centre of the narrative . It tells the story of " the recovery of paradise " and the fears of a mother . Her maternal sorrow is generalised . For example , in discussing the death of her daughter in 1818 , she writes : " I was agitated again by emotions — by passions — and those the deepest a woman 's heart can harbour — a dread to see her child even at that instant expire — which then occupied me " . Connecting these deep feelings to writings by Shakespeare , Wordsworth , Coleridge , and Thomas Holcroft , she argues that intense emotion and environment are intertwined , contending that maternal grief is sublime .
= = Reception = =
Of Rambles , Mary Shelley wrote to her friend Leigh Hunt : " It seems to me such a wretched piece of work , written much of it in a state of pain that makes me look at its pages now as if written in a dream . " She disliked the work , describing it variously as " a poor affair " and " my poor book " , and claimed that Gatteschi had written the best parts . There are no statistics on the sales of the book , but it received at least seventeen reviews . In general , the reviews were favourable ; as Moskal explains , " with nationalist movements simmering in Europe , to culminate in the revolutions of 1848 , reviewers took Rambles seriously as a political as well as a literary endeavour . "
Reviewers praised the work as " entertaining , thoughtful and eminently readable " , although some thought it was too mournful in places . Separating Shelley 's travel memoir from the new guidebooks and handbooks , reviews such as that from the Atlas , praised her " rich fancy , her intense love of nature , and her sensitive apprehension of all that is good , and beautiful and free " . They praised its independence of thought , wit , and feeling . Shelley 's commentary on the social and political life of Italy , which was generally thought superior to the German sections , caused one reviewer to call the book the work of " a woman who thinks for herself on all subjects , and who dares to say what she thinks " , a woman with a " masculine and original mind " . Not all reviewers celebrated her independence of mind . The Observer wrote : " With her , as with all women , politics is a matter of the heart , and not as with the more robust nature of man , of the head ... It is an idle and unprofitable theme for a woman . " Most of the reviews responded positively to Shelley 's political aims ; those that were unsympathetic to her political position generally disputed her specific claims . For example , one reviewer claimed that Italy had been improved by Austrian rule .
For most of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries , Mary Shelley was known as the author of Frankenstein and the wife of famous Romantic poet Percy Bysshe Shelley . As late as 1961 , Rambles had never been reprinted and , as scholar Elizabeth Nitchie explained , " scant use has been made of it , and copies of it are rather scarce . " However , she argued that some of Mary Shelley 's " best writing " was in Rambles . Novelist Muriel Spark agreed in her book on Shelley , writing that Rambles " contains more humour and liveliness than occur in anything else she wrote " . In the 1970s , with the rise of feminist literary criticism , scholars began to pay attention to Shelley 's other works . With the publication of scholarship by Mary Poovey and Anne K. Mellor in the 1980s , Mary Shelley 's " other " works — her short stories , essays , reviews , dramas , biographies , travel narratives , and other novels — began to be recognised as literary achievements . In the 1990s , Mary Shelley 's entire corpus , including Rambles , was reprinted .
= Macbeth , King of Scotland =
Mac Bethad mac Findlaích ( Modern Gaelic : MacBheatha mac Fhionnlaigh ; Medieval Gaelic : Mac Bethad mac Findlaích ; anglicised as Macbeth , and nicknamed Rí Deircc , " the Red King " ; died 15 August 1057 ) was King of the Scots ( also known as the King of Alba , and earlier as King of Moray and King of Fortriu ) from 1040 until his death . Recent evidence is indicating he spent much of his time in and around the Forres area of Moray , defeating his cousin Duncan , then king of Moray , in battle at nearby Pitgaveny . He is best known as the subject of William Shakespeare 's tragedy Macbeth and the many works it has inspired , although the play is not an accurate portrait of the historical king .
= = Etymology = =
The name Mac Bethad ( or , in modern Gaelic , MacBheatha ) , from which the anglicized " MacBeth " is derived , means " son of life " . Although it has the appearance of a Gaelic patronymic it does not have any meaning of filiation but instead carries an implication of " righteous man " or " religious man " . An alternative proposed derivation is that it is a corruption of macc @-@ bethad meaning " one of the elect " .
= = Royal ancestry = =
Some sources make Macbeth a grandson of King Malcolm II and thus a cousin to Duncan I whom he succeeded . He was possibly also a cousin to Thorfinn the Mighty , Earl of Orkney and Caithness . Some historians claim , however , that Macbeth was Thorfinn 's half @-@ brother rather than his cousin . Much depends on whether Malcolm had three daughters or only two ( one of whom married twice ) – a point which is likely to remain uncertain .
= = Mormaer and dux = =
When Cnut the Great came north in 1031 to accept the submission of King Malcolm II , Macbeth too submitted to him :
... Malcolm , king of the Scots , submitted to him , and became his man , with two other kings , Macbeth and Iehmarc ...
Some have seen this as a sign of Macbeth 's power ; others have seen his presence , together with Iehmarc , who may be Echmarcach mac Ragnaill , as proof that Malcolm II was overlord of Moray and of the Kingdom of the Isles . Whatever the true state of affairs in the early 1030s , it seems more probable that Macbeth was subject to the king of Alba , Malcolm II , who died at Glamis , on 25 November 1034 . The Prophecy of Berchan , apparently alone in near contemporary sources , says Malcolm died a violent death , calling it a " kinslaying " without actually naming his killers . Tigernach 's chronicle says only :
Máel Coluim son of Cináed , king of Alba , the honour of western Europe , died .
Malcolm II 's grandson Duncan ( Donnchad mac Crínáin ) , later King Duncan I , was acclaimed as king of Alba on 30 November 1034 , apparently without opposition . Duncan appears to have been tánaise ríg , the king in waiting , so that far from being an abandonment of tanistry , as has sometimes been argued , his kingship was a vindication of the practice . Previous successions had involved strife between various rígdomna – men of royal blood . Far from being the aged King Duncan of Shakespeare 's play , the real King Duncan was a young man in 1034 , and even at his death in 1040 his youthfulness is remarked upon .
Because of his youth , Duncan 's early reign was apparently uneventful . His later reign , in line with his description as " the man of many sorrows " in the Prophecy of Berchán , was not successful . In 1039 , Strathclyde was attacked by the Northumbrians , and a retaliatory raid led by Duncan against Durham turned into a disaster . Duncan survived the defeat , but the following year he led an army north into Moray , Macbeth 's domain , apparently on a punitive expedition against Moray . There he was killed in action , at Bothnagowan , now Pitgaveny , near Elgin , by the men of Moray led by Macbeth , probably on 14 August 1040 .
= = High King of Alba = =
On Duncan 's death , Macbeth became king . No resistance is known at that time , but it would have been entirely normal if his reign were not universally accepted . In 1045 , Duncan 's father Crínán of Dunkeld ( a scion of the Scottish branch of the Cenel Conaill and Hereditary Abbot of Iona ) was killed in a battle between two Scottish armies .
John of Fordun wrote that Duncan 's wife fled Scotland , taking her children , including the future kings Malcolm III ( Máel Coluim mac Donnchada ) and Donald III ( Domnall Bán mac Donnchada , or Donalbane ) with her . On the basis of the author 's beliefs as to whom Duncan married , various places of exile , Northumbria and Orkney among them , have been proposed . However , E. William Robertson proposes the safest place for Duncan 's widow and her children would be with her or Duncan 's kin and supporters in Atholl .
After the defeat of Crínán , Macbeth was evidently unchallenged . Marianus Scotus tells how the king made a pilgrimage to Rome in 1050 , where , Marianus says , he gave money to the poor as if it were seed .
= = = Karl Hundason = = =
The Orkneyinga Saga says that a dispute between Thorfinn Sigurdsson , Earl of Orkney , and Karl Hundason began when Karl Hundason became " King of Scots " and claimed Caithness . The identity of Karl Hundason , unknown to Scots and Irish sources , has long been a matter of dispute , and it is far from clear that the matter is settled . The most common assumption is that Karl Hundason was an insulting byname ( Old Norse for " Churl , son of a Dog " ) given to Macbeth by his enemies . William Forbes Skene 's suggestion that he was Duncan I of Scotland has been revived in recent years . Lastly , the idea that the whole affair is a poetic invention has been raised .
According to the Orkneyinga Saga , in the war which followed , Thorfinn defeated Karl in a sea @-@ battle off Deerness at the east end of the Orkney Mainland . Then Karl 's nephew Mutatan or Muddan , appointed to rule Caithness for him , was killed at Thurso by Thorkel the Fosterer . Finally , a great battle at Tarbat Ness on the south side of the Dornoch Firth ended with Karl defeated and fugitive or dead . Thorfinn , the saga says , then marched south through Scotland as far as Fife , burning and plundering as he passed . A later note in the saga claims that Thorfinn won nine Scottish earldoms .
Whoever Karl Hundason may have been , it appears that the saga is reporting a local conflict with a Scots ruler of Moray or Ross :
[ T ] he whole narrative is consistent with the idea that the struggle of Thorfinn and Karl is a continuation of that which had been waged since the ninth century by the Orkney earls , notably Sigurd Rognvald 's son , Ljot , and Sigurd the Stout , against the princes or mormaers of Moray , Sutherland , Ross , and Argyll , and that , in fine , Malcolm and Karl were mormaers of one of these four provinces .
= = = Final years = = =
In 1052 , Macbeth was involved indirectly in the strife in the Kingdom of England between Godwin , Earl of Wessex and Edward the Confessor when he received a number of Norman exiles from England in his court , perhaps becoming the first king of Scots to introduce feudalism to Scotland . In 1054 , Edward 's Earl of Northumbria , Siward , led a very large invasion of Scotland ( Duncan 's widow and Malcolm 's mother , Suthed , was Northumbrian @-@ born ; it is probable but not proven that there was a family tie between Siward and Malcolm ) . The campaign led to a bloody battle in which the Annals of Ulster report 3 @,@ 000 Scots and 1 @,@ 500 English dead , which can be taken as meaning very many on both sides , and one of Siward 's sons and a son @-@ in @-@ law were among the dead . The result of the invasion was that one Máel Coluim , " son of the king of the Cumbrians " ( not to be confused with Máel Coluim mac Donnchada , the future Malcolm III of Scotland ) was restored to his throne , i.e. , as ruler of the kingdom of Strathclyde . It may be that the events of 1054 are responsible for the idea , which appears in Shakespeare 's play , that Malcolm III was put in power by the English .
Macbeth did not survive the English invasion for long , for he was defeated and mortally wounded or killed by the future Malcolm III ( " King Malcolm Ceann @-@ mor " , son of Duncan I ) on the north side of the Mounth in 1057 , after retreating with his men over the Cairnamounth Pass to take his last stand at the battle at Lumphanan . The Prophecy of Berchán has it that he was wounded and died at Scone , sixty miles to the south , some days later . Macbeth 's stepson Lulach was installed as king soon after .
Unlike later writers , no near contemporary source remarks on Macbeth as a tyrant . The Duan Albanach , which survives in a form dating to the reign of Malcolm III , calls him " Mac Bethad the renowned " . The Prophecy of Berchán , a verse history which purports to be a prophecy , describes him as " the generous king of Fortriu " , and says :
The red , tall , golden @-@ haired one , he will be pleasant to me among them ; Scotland will be brimful west and east during the reign of the furious red one .
= = Life to legend = =
Macbeth 's life , like that of King Duncan I , had progressed far towards legend by the end of the 14th century , when John of Fordun and Andrew of Wyntoun wrote their histories . Hector Boece , Walter Bower , and George Buchanan all contributed to the legend .
= = = William Shakespeare 's depiction and its influence = = =
In Shakespeare 's play , which is based mainly upon Raphael Holinshed 's account , Macbeth is initially a valorous and loyal general to the elderly King Duncan . After being flattered by Three Witches and his own wife , Macbeth rationalizes that murdering his king and usurping the throne is the right thing to do . Ultimately , however , the prophecies of the witches prove misleading , and Macbeth alienates the nobility of Scotland and is defeated in battle by Prince Malcolm . As the King 's armies disintegrate he encounters Macduff , a refugee nobleman whose wife and children had earlier been murdered by Macbeth 's death squads . Upon realizing that he will die if he duels Macduff , Macbeth at first refuses to do so . But when Macduff explains that if Macbeth surrenders he will be subjected to ridicule by his former subjects , Macbeth vows , " I will not yield to kiss the ground before young Malcolm 's feet , to be baited by a rabble 's curse . " He chooses instead to fight Macduff to the death . Macbeth is then slain and beheaded and the play ends with Prince Malcolm planning his coronation at Scone .
The likely reason for Shakespeare 's unflattering depiction of Macbeth is that King James VI and I was descended from Malcolm III via the Margaretson kings , the House of Bruce and his own House of Stewart whereas Macbeth 's line died out with the death of Lulach six months after his step @-@ father . He was also thought to be a descendant of Banquo through Walter Stewart , 6th High Steward of Scotland . Shakespeare was too astute to risk causing any offence to his own monarch .
In a 1959 essay , Boris Pasternak compared Shakespeare 's Macbeth to Raskolnikov , the protagonist of Crime and Punishment by Fyodor Dostoevsky . Pasternak explained that neither character begins as a murderer , but becomes one by a set of faulty rationalizations and a belief that they are above the law .
Lady Macbeth has gained fame along the way . In his 1865 novel Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District , Nikolai Leskov updated The Tragedy of Macbeth so that it takes place among the Imperial Russian merchant class . In an ironic twist , however , Leskov reverses the gender roles – the woman is the murderer and the man is the instigator . Leskov 's novel was the basis for Dmitri Shostakovich 's 1936 opera of the same name .
= = = Other depictions = = =
In modern times , Dorothy Dunnett 's novel King Hereafter aims to portray a historical Macbeth , but proposes that Macbeth and his rival and sometime ally Thorfinn of Orkney are one and the same ( Thorfinn is his birth name and Macbeth his baptismal name ) . John Cargill Thompson 's play Macbeth Speaks 1997 , a reworking of his earlier Macbeth Speaks , is a monologue delivered by the historical Macbeth , aware of what Shakespeare and posterity have done to him . Scottish author Nigel Tranter based one of his historical novels , MacBeth the King , on the historical figure . David Greig 's 2010 play Dunsinane takes Macbeth 's downfall at Dunsinane as its starting point , with his just @-@ ended reign portrayed as long and stable in contrast to Malcolm 's . British Touring Shakespeare also produced in 2010 A Season Before the Tragedy of Macbeth by dramatist Gloria Carreño describing events from the murder of " Lord Gillecomgain " , Gruoch Macduff 's first husband , to the fateful letter in the first act of Shakespeare 's tragedy
Billy Morrissette 's 2001 film Scotland , PA re @-@ imagines Shakespeare 's story in 1970s Pennsylvania , as a struggle for control of a successful hamburger restaurant .
Macbeth appears as a character in the television series Gargoyles with the Gargoyle Demona playing a crucial role in both his rise and fall as King of Scotland . He was voiced by John Rhys @-@ Davies .
= A Plain Introduction to the Criticism of the New Testament =
A Plain Introduction to the Criticism of the New Testament : For the Use of Biblical Students is one of the books of Frederick Henry Ambrose Scrivener ( 1813 – 1891 ) , biblical scholar and textual critic . In this book Scrivener listed over 3 @,@ 000 Greek manuscripts of the New Testament , as well as manuscripts of early versions . It was used by Gregory for further work .
The book was published in four editions . The first edition , published in 1861 , contained 506 pages . The second edition ( 1874 ) was expanded into 626 pages ; the third into 751 pages ; and the fourth into 874 pages . Two first editions were issued in one volume ; in the third edition the material was divided into two volumes , with an increased number of chapters in each . The first volume was edited in 1883 , the second in 1887 . The fourth edition was also issued in two volumes ( 1894 ) . The fourth edition of the book was reprinted in 2005 by Elibron Classics .
= = First Edition = =
The text of the first edition was divided into nine chapters and three Indices were added at the end ( pp. 465 – 490 ) . All plates were placed at the end of book ( after Indices ) . The main part of the work are descriptions of the manuscripts . Scrivener concentrated his attention on the most important manuscripts ( especially five larger uncial codices ) . The later cursive manuscripts were too numerous to be minutely described as per the uncials . Scrivener described them with all possible brevity , dwelling only on a few which presented points of special interest and used a system of certain abbreviations . Lists of this abbreviations was included just before the Catalogue of cursive manuscripts . Examples of abbreviations , include :
Act . — MS. of Acts and Catholic epistles
Am . — the Ammonian Sections
Eus . — the Eusebian Canons
Eus. t . — a table of the Eusebian Canons
Carp . — Epistula ad Carpianum
κεφ . — the numbers of the κεφαλαια majora stand in the margin
κεφ. t . — the tables of the κεφαλαια are prefixed to each book
τιτλ . — the τιτλοι are given at the head or foot of the page
lect . — the book is adapted for Church @-@ reading by notices of the proper lessons , feasts etc. in the margin , or above , or below
men . — a menology , calendar of Saints ' Days , is found at the beginning or end of the book
syn . — Synaxarion , a calendar of the daily lessons throughout the year is given
mut . — the copy described is mutilated
pict . — the copy is illuminated with pictures
prol . — contains prolegomena before the several books
In every next edition of the Plain Introduction this system of abbreviations was expanded ( e.g. Αναγ . , Argent . , etc . ) . At the end of lists the manuscripts are described more shortly , in two columns , only numbers of the manuscripts , with the corresponding number of other system of catalogization ( Scholz ) :
In the preface to the first edition , the editor announced :
The following pages are chiefly designed for the use of those who have no previous knowledge of the Textual Criticism of the New Testament ; but since the Author has endeavoured to embody in them the results of very recent investigations , he hopes that they may prove of service to more advanced students . He asks the reader 's indulgence for the annexed list of Addenda et Corrigenda , both by reason of the peculiar character of his work , and the remoteness of West Cornwall from Public Libraries . He might easily have suppressed the greater part of them , but that he has honestly tried to be accurate , and sees no cause to be ashamed of what Person has well called " the common lot of authorship . " He has only to add that he has not consciously borrowed from other writers without due acknowledgement , and to return his best thanks to the Rev. H. O. Coxe for important aid in the Bodleian , and to Henry Bradshaw Esq . , Fellow of King 's College , for valuable instruction respecting manuscripts in the University Library at Cambridge .
Falmouth , September , 1861 .
= = Second edition = =
In 1873 Dean Burgon in The Guardian published several articles with some suggestions , corrections , and encouragement for preparing the second edition of Plain Introduction . Burgon gave a photograph of the Codex Basilensis for the sake of the next edition ( the facsimile from the first edition was a poor quality ) .
The second edition was published in 1874 . The number of chapters was still the same , but they were expanded ( especially chapter II and IX ) . Many corrections to the third section of the second chapter were made after suggestions of : H. Bradshaw , Hort , Vansittart , Kelly , and Burgon . In preface to the first edition , the editor announced :
The first edition of this work , published in 1861 , was received so favourably that the author has felt bound to bestow his utmost care upon a minute and thorough revision of his book , in the hope of bringing up the information it contains to the existing state of knowledge . In this endeavour he has been assisted as well by Canon Lightfoot , to whom he is indebted for that section of the third chapter which treats of Egyptian versions of the New Testament ( pp. 319 @-@ 357 ) , as also by much unsought for and most welcome help , especially on the part of those scholars who are named in p . 164 , note . Without wishing to speak harshly of writers who are not very scrupulous in such matters , he has always thought it became him to borrow from no quarter without making a full and frank avowal of the fact . The author will be much rejoiced if this new edition shall be judged not less worthy than its predecessor to become a text book in Universities and Theological Celleges .
S. Gerrans , August , 1861 .
= = Third edition = =
In August , 1874 , Ezra Abbot sent to Scrivener a letter : the rough draught of which covered forty odd pages , devoted to the correction of apparent errors and a statement of overlooked facts in the first edition of the Plain Introduction . The letter came too late to be used in preparing the body of the second edition of Scrivener 's work . Abbot 's studies largely argumented the number of suggestions , particularly in those portions of the book devoted to describing the extant manuscripts . They were accumulated in great part to the older and well @-@ known authorities - such as Griesbach , Matthaei , Scholz ( particularly his work Biblisch @-@ kritische Reise , Leipzig 1823 ) , Bianchini , Montfaucon , Silvestre , Bandini , Laubecius , and Zaeagni . Part of suggestions were a result of Abbott 's studies of recent edited Catalogues of the ancient Greek Manuscripts held in the British Museum , Bodleian Library , Oxford Catalogues , Kitchin 's Catalogue of the manuscripts in the Library of Christ Church College ( Oxrofd , 1867 ) . Abbott added numerous references to facsimile editions .
In 1885 J. Rendel Harris , together with Abbot , prepared the similar work as the first unpublished work of Abbot , nine years earlier . It was published under the title : Notes on Scriveners ' " Plain introduction to the criticism of the New Testament , " 3rd edition , in which they proposed corrections . Example of corrections :
Page XII . On " p . 69 @.@ note " , line 2 , for " 360 " read " 1160 " .
Page XIII . On " p . 141 , line 28 " , line 2 , for " Vol . II . , Part I. " read " Part I , Vol . II . " . At end. add " after p . 492 . "
Page XIV . On " Y " , line 8 , for " XXIII , 23 " read " XXIII , 5 " ; line 9 , for " II , 21 @-@ IV . 1 ; 15 @-@ v. 1 " read simply " II . 21 @-@ v.I " - since Dr. Gregory discovered two additional leaves ; see the Prolegomena , to Tischendorf , p . 440 .
On " p . 162 , line 24 " , line 2 , for " Vol . II . , Pt . I. " read " Pt . I. Vol . II . "
The third edition was issued into two volumes , with an increase of chapters in each ( XIV + XII ) .
The third edition was prepared under great disadvantage . Scrivener after adding 125 pages to his book had an attack of paralysis , as result his work was not wholly conducted upon the same high level as his previous publications . The framework of the second edition was originally adopted ; and the new additional material was only added to the almost unchanged material .
= = Fourth edition = =
The fourth and the last edition of Plain Introduction was prepared and edited posthumously by Edward Miller ( 1825 – 1901 ) . The book was edited by George Bell & Sons . It contains 15 plates with the texts of 40 manuscripts in facsimile ( the 1st edition had 12 plates with 36 manuscripts ) . Some facsimiles were replaced . Instead of 2 @,@ 094 manuscripts , as recorded in the third edition under six classes , no less than 3 @,@ 791 were recorded in this edition , an increase of 236 beyond the 3 @,@ 555 of Gregory , without counting the numerous vacant places which had been filled inp .
Most of the accounts of ancient versions were rewritten by distinguished scholars , who were leaders in their several departments . The early part of Volume I was enriched from the admirable book on “ Greek and Latin Palaeography ” , by Edward Maunde Thompson . Many corrections suggested by eminent scholars were introduced in different places throughout the book . H. J. White rewrote the chapter on Latin versions . G. H. Gwilliam , editor of the Peshitta , helped to improve the passages on the Peshitta and the Curetonian Version . H. Deane made an additions to the treatment of the Harkleian Version . A. C. Headlam made a revision of the long chapter on the Egyptian versions ; F. C. Conybeare , rewrote the sections on the Armenian and Georgian versions ; Margoliouth rewrote the sections on the Arabic and Ethiopic versions ; J. M. Bebb rewrote the section on the Slavonic version ; James W. Bright rewrote the section on the Anglo @-@ Saxon Version .
= = Contents of the 4th edition = =
= = = Volume I = = =
Chapter I , pages 1 – 20 – Preliminary considerations
Chapter II , pages 21 – 55 – General character of the Greek manuscripts of the New Testament ( materials for writing , style of writings , abbreviations ) .
Chapter III , pages 56 – 89 – Divisions of the text , and other particulars ( Ammoniam Sections , Eusebian Canons , Euthalian chapters , subscriptions , marginal markings , Synaxarion , Menologion )
Chapter IV , pages 90 – 130 – The larger uncial manuscripts of the Greek Testament ( Sinaiticus , Alexandrinus , Vaticanus , Ephraemi and Bezae )
Chapter V , pages 131 @-@ 168 – Uncial manuscripts of the Gospels
Chapter VI , pages 169 @-@ 188 – Uncial manuscripts of the Acts and Catholic epistles , of St. Paul ’ s epistles , and of the Apocalypse
Chapter VII , pages 189 @-@ 240 – Cursive manuscripts of the Gospels . Part I. 1 @-@ 449
Chapter VIII , pages 241 @-@ 271 – Cursive manuscripts of the Gospels . Part II . 450 @-@ 774
Chapter IX , pages 272 @-@ 283 – Cursive manuscripts of the Gospels . Part III . 775 @-@ 1321
Chapter X , pages 284 @-@ 306 – Cursive manuscripts of the Acts and Catholic epistles , 1 @-@ 420
Chapter XI , pages 307 @-@ 319 – Cursive manuscripts of St. Paul ’ s epistles , 1 @-@ 491
Chapter XII , pages 320 @-@ 326 – Cursive manuscripts of the Apocalypse , 1 @-@ 184
Chapter XIII , pages 327 @-@ 367 – Evangelistaries , or Manuscript Service @-@ Books of the Gospels , 1 @-@ 963
Chapter XIV , pages 368 @-@ 376 – Lectionaries containing the Apostolos or Praxapostolos , 1 @-@ 288
= = = Volume II = = =
Chapter I , pages 1 – 5 – Ancient Versions
Chapter II , pages 6 – 40 – Syriac Versions ( Peshitta , Curetonian , Harklean , Palestinian )
Chapter III , pages 41 – 90 – Latin Versions ( Old Latin , Vulgate )
Chapter IV , pages 91 – 144 – Egyptian or Coptic Versions ( Bohairic , Sahidic , Fayyumic , Akhmimim )
Chapter V , pages 145 @-@ 166 – The Other Versions of the New Testament ( Gothic , Armenian , Georgian , Ethiopian , Arabic )
Chapter VI , pages 167 @-@ 174 – Quotations from the Fathers
Chapter VII , pages 175 @-@ 243 – Early Printed Editions , Critical Editions ( Complutensian Polyglote , Novum Instrumentum omne , Editio Regia )
Chapter VIII , pages 244 @-@ 256 – Textual Canons
Chapter IX , pages 257 @-@ 273 – History of the Text
Chapter X , pages 274 @-@ 311 – Recent Views of Comparative Criticism
Chapter XI , pages 312 @-@ 320 – Character of the Ddialect of the Greek Testament
Chapter XII , pages 321 @-@ 413 – Application of Principles to Select Passages
= = Reception = =
Edward Miller , the editor of the 4th edition , in 1886 estimated the 3rd edition :
The labour spent by Dr. Scrivener upon Textual Criticism is well known from his admirable Introduction to the Science , a handbook which leaves hardly anything , if anything , to be desired .
Eberhard Nestle , editor of Novum Testamentum Graece , wrote in 1901 :
Scrivener have rendered great service in the way of collating manuscripts , ( ... ) as well as Gregory in Germany has also catalogued them .
Gregory , another textual critic , in his Textkritik des Neuen Testaments ( 1900 – 1909 ) very often cited work of Scrivener , but after Minuscule 449 he used different way of numbering for the manuscripts ( Scrivener 450
= Gregory 581 , Scrivener 451 =
Gregory 582 ) . A Plain Introduction ... was also used by Hermann von Soden in his Schriften ....
= The Bella Twins =
The Bella Twins were a professional wrestling tag team which performed on WWE and consisted of twin sisters Brie and Nikki Bella .
They are both former WWE Divas Champions , with Nikki 's second reign of 301 days being the longest in the title 's history . In November 2015 , Nikki was ranked # 1 in Pro Wrestling Illustrated 's Female 50 in 2015 . Brie announced that she was taking an extended break from in @-@ ring action in April 2016 .
= = Early lives and careers = =
Born sixteen minutes apart to parents Jon Garcia and Kathy Colace , Brianna and Nicole were born in San Diego , California and raised on a farm in Scottsdale , Arizona . They are of Mexican and Italian descent . Keen soccer enthusiasts , they both played for Scottsdale clubs from second grade . In third grade , the girls were separated into different classes by their mother to allow for more independence . The twins graduated from Chaparral High School in 2002 . They both returned to San Diego for college , where Nicole played soccer for Grossmont College , but relocated to Los Angeles a year later , where they worked as waitresses at the Mondrian Hotel while trying to find an agent .
They then started modeling , acting , and doing promotional work . They made their first national TV appearance on the Fox reality show Meet My Folks . Following this appearance , the
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Garcia twins were hired to be the World Cup Twins for Budweiser and were photographed holding the World Cup trophy . They were contestants in the 2006 " International Body Doubles twins search " . They participated in the 2006 WWE Diva Search but did not make the cut .
= = Professional wrestling careers = =
= = = World Wrestling Entertainment / WWE = = =
= = = = Florida Championship Wrestling ( 2007 – 2008 ) = = = =
Brianna and Nicole were signed to developmental contracts by World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) in June 2007 and were assigned to Florida Championship Wrestling ( FCW ) , WWE 's then @-@ developmental territory , in Tampa , Florida . On September 15 , 2007 , the twins made their in @-@ ring debut . Dubbed The Bella Twins , they defeated Nattie Neidhart and Krissy Vaine with Victoria Crawford as the special guest referee . The duo quickly started a scripted rivalry with Neidhart and Crawford , and had a series of matches against them throughout October 2007 . As a part of their on @-@ screen personas , they switched places behind the referee 's back if one of them was hurt . This was called " Twin Magic " . They also occasionally competed in mixed tag team matches , teaming with male wrestlers including Kofi Kingston and Robert Anthony . They also made some non @-@ wrestling appearances on Heath Miller 's Happy Hour promo segment .
Starting in December 2007 , they managed Derrick Linkin , but this storyline was cut short when Linkin was released in January 2008 . They then resumed their feud with Neidhart and Crawford , wrestling them throughout much of 2008 . After Neidhart was called up to the WWE roster in April 2008 , Milena Roucka took her place in the feud . The twins also competed in bikini contests , and wrestled against other competitors including Katie Lea Burchill and Daisy . Their last FCW appearance was on September 2 , when they competed in a Divas battle royal won by Miss Angela .
= = = = Brand switches ( 2008 – 2011 ) = = = =
On the August 29 , 2008 episode of SmackDown , Brianna debuted as Brie Bella and defeated Victoria . She quickly began a scripted rivalry with Victoria and Victoria 's accomplice , Natalya , and had a series of matches against them . In each match , Brie would roll out of the ring and go underneath it , emerging and appearing revived , and then win the match . On the October 31 episode of SmackDown , when Brie went under the ring Victoria grabbed her legs , but a second pair of legs kicked her off , implying that a second person was under the ring . The following week on SmackDown , Brie picked up a win against Victoria and then ran under the ring to escape Natalya and Victoria , but Victoria and Natalya both reached for Brie under the ring , resulting in both Nicole and Brie being pulled out . The twins then attacked them and celebrated afterward . Nicole was then introduced as Nikki Bella . The twins had their first official match as a team on the November 21 episode of SmackDown , defeating Victoria and Natalya . They continued competing in tag team matches over the following months .
Starting in November , the twins developed an on @-@ screen relationship with The Colóns ( Carlito and Primo ) , appearing in numerous backstage segments with them , and accompanying them to the ring . In February 2009 , the storyline expanded to include John Morrison and The Miz , who flirted with the Bellas and took them on a date for Valentine 's Day . The date provoked a rivalry between the teams of The Miz and Morrison and Primo and Carlito , with the four competing for the affection of the twins , who were seemingly unable to choose between them . On March 17 , on ECW , Carlito and Primo , aiming for Morrison and The Miz , accidentally spat apples in the face of Brie . Nikki began to laugh at Brie 's misfortune , and a fight broke out between the two , which led to Nikki leaving with The Miz and Morrison , while Brie stayed with Primo and Carlito . Brie won her first match over Nikki in a six @-@ person intergender tag team match on SmackDown the following week . On ECW on March 31 , Nikki pinned Brie in their first singles match against each other , after a distraction from Morrison and The Miz .
On April 15 , 2009 , The Bella Twins were both drafted to the Raw brand as part of the 2009 Supplemental Draft . On April 27 , Brie made her Raw in @-@ ring debut in an eight @-@ Diva tag team match , which her team won . Nikki also made an appearance , reuniting with her twin , as she was under the ring to help Brie during the match . Nikki then made her in @-@ ring debut for the brand the following month in a battle royal , but was eliminated by Beth Phoenix .
On June 29 , 2009 , they were both traded to the ECW brand . They debuted on ECW the following night on The Abraham Washington Show , as the special guests . They quickly developed a storyline feud with Katie Lea Burchill , when Nikki defeated her in a match by switching places with Brie behind the referee 's back . The following week on Superstars , Brie defeated Burchill after a similar fashion , and the feud ended in September , when Nikki defeated Burchill on Superstars .
On October 12 , the Bellas were traded back to Raw as part of a tri @-@ branded Divas trade , where they predominately appeared in backstage segments with the weekly guest stars and only occasionally competed in matches . On the January 4 , 2010 , episode of Raw , Brie participated in a tournament for the vacant WWE Divas Championship , but lost to Maryse in the first round , when a switch resulted in Nikki being pinned . In June 2010 , they developed a feud with Jillian Hall , when Brie defeated her after switching places with Nikki . The following week , Nikki defeated Hall after switching with Brie . The feud was exacerbated when the Bellas acted as the special guest referees during one of Hall 's matches . During the match , Hall attacked both twins , but lost the match when Nikki made a fast count , allowing her to be pinned by Gail Kim . The next week on Superstars , the twins defeated Hall and Maryse in a tag team match to end the storyline .
On August 31 , The Bella Twins announced they would be part of the all @-@ female third season of NXT , mentoring Jamie . Jamie was the first rookie Diva eliminated on the October 5 episode of NXT . In November , the twins began a storyline with Daniel Bryan , when Brie accompanied him to the ring for his match . Following his win , Nikki ran out and the two fought over Bryan 's affection , until Bryan broke it up and had them hug each other . They began to manage Bryan and frequently accompanied him to the ring over the next two months . In January 2011 , both Bellas turned into villainous characters , when they discovered Bryan kissing Gail Kim backstage and assaulted her . They continued to attack Kim , both at the Royal Rumble and on Raw , and on February 7 , they teamed with Melina in a losing effort to Kim , Eve Torres , and Tamina .
= = = = Divas Champions ( 2011 – 2012 ) = = = =
The Bellas began feuding with Eve Torres after they appeared as lumberjills during a Divas Championship match between Torres and Natalya on the February 14 episode of Raw . Following the match , they attacked Torres backstage before Gail Kim and Natalya stopped them . The next week , the twins defeated Torres and Kim in a tag team match . The following week , Nikki won a battle royal to become the number one contender for the Divas Championship , and unsuccessfully challenged Torres for the championship on March 7 .
On April 11 , Brie defeated Torres to win the Divas Championship , marking the first time either twin had held a championship in WWE . Brie went on to successfully defend the championship against Kelly Kelly at Over the Limit , after switching places with Nikki . On a special " Power to the People " episode of Raw on June 20 , Brie defended her WWE Divas Championship against Kelly , who was selected by voters . Kelly then defeated Brie and won the championship . On July 17 , Brie challenged Kelly for the championship in a rematch at Money in the Bank , but failed to win .
The twins spent the majority of the rest of the year in tag team matches , regularly facing Kelly and Torres . The Bellas began to show friction for the second time since joining WWE in March 2012 , after both twins lost to AJ Lee in singles competition . After Brie 's match with Lee , Nikki revealed that Brie was rooting for Team Johnny in the 12 @-@ man tag team match at WrestleMania XXVIII , whilst Nikki was rooting for Team Teddy , thus furthering their dissension .
On the April 6 episode of SmackDown , Nikki defeated the Divas Champion Beth Phoenix in a non @-@ title match , after Kelly Kelly distracted Phoenix . On April 23 , Nikki defeated Phoenix in a lumberjill match on Raw to win the Divas Championship for the first time . Brie lost Nikki 's championship to Layla at Extreme Rules after Twin Magic failed , ending her Divas Championship reign after only a week . The following night on Raw , they competed in their last match with the WWE , failing to win back the Divas Championship from Layla in a triple threat match . Later that night , WWE announced on their website that the twins had been fired by Executive Administrator Eve Torres .
= = = Independent circuit ( 2012 – 2013 ) = = =
On May 1 , 2012 , the twins appeared at their first independent wrestling show in Newburgh , New York at Northeast Wrestling . They later appeared for CTWE Pro Wrestling at the Season Beatings pay @-@ per @-@ view on December 15 , each accompanying a different wrestler to the ring .
= = = Return to WWE = = =
= = = = Total Divas storylines ( 2013 – 2014 ) = = = =
The Bella Twins returned to WWE on the March 11 , 2013 , episode of Raw in a backstage segment with Team Rhodes Scholars ( Cody Rhodes and Damien Sandow ) . On the March 15 episode of SmackDown , the twins attacked The Funkadactyls ( Cameron and Naomi ) , and the following week interfered in matches between Team Rhodes Scholars and Brodus Clay and Tensai , but were attacked by The Funkadactyls . The twins made their in – ring return facing and defeating The Funkadactyls on the March 27 episode of Main Event after interference from Cody Rhodes , and also defeated them on Raw five days later . The Bella Twins were scheduled to participate in an eight – person tag team match with Team Rhodes Scholars against Tons of Funk ( Clay and Tensai ) and The Funkadactyls at WrestleMania 29 , but the match was cancelled due to time restraints , and instead took place the following night on Raw , where The Bella Twins and Team Rhodes Scollars were defeated . The twins continued their feud with The Funkadactyls throughout April , defeating them in standard tag team , and six – Diva tag team matches . In June , Nikki suffered a fractured tibia .
Upon the debut of the Total Divas reality television program in July , The Bellas began feud with their co – star on the show , Natalya . Brie and Natalya went on to trade victories in singles competition on Raw and at SummerSlam . The cast of Total Divas then transitioned into a scripted feud with Divas Champion AJ Lee , who mocked the show and cast . At Night of Champions , Brie unsuccessfully challenged Lee for the Divas Championship in a four @-@ way match , which also involved Natalya and Naomi . Following Brie 's real @-@ life engagement to Daniel Bryan , their relationship began to be acknowledged on WWE television . Continuing their feud into October , Brie and AJ Lee faced off at the Battleground and Hell in a Cell pay @-@ per @-@ views for the Divas Championship , but Brie was unsuccessful . Nikki returned to in @-@ ring action on the October 25 episode of SmackDown , losing to Lee . At Survivor Series the following month , the twins were part of the victorious Team Total Divas . The twins failed to win the Divas Championship again at WrestleMania XXX in the Divas Invitational match , which was won by AJ Lee .
= = = = Feud with Stephanie McMahon and brief split ( 2014 ) = = = =
In April 2014 , Brie became involved in her real @-@ life husband Daniel Bryan 's ongoing storyline with Stephanie McMahon and Kane , where as part of the storyline , McMahon threatened to fire Brie if an injured Bryan did not relinquish the WWE World Heavyweight Championship at Payback , which forced Brie to " quit " WWE before slapping McMahon in the face . After Brie quit , McMahon put Nikki in several handicap matches as punishment . After a month absence , Brie returned to WWE television , appearing in the crowd on July 21 ; following a confrontation , McMahon slapped Brie and was subsequently arrested . In order to have Brie drop the " charges " , Brie was rehired and received a match against McMahon at SummerSlam .
At the pay – per – view , Nikki turned villainous by attacking Brie , which allowed McMahon to win the match . The next several weeks saw the twins fight in several backstage and in @-@ ring segments , including a cameo appearance from Jerry Springer on Raw on September 8 . As part of the storyline , McMahon declared Nikki the face of the WWE Divas division and granted her a match at Night of Champions for the WWE Divas Championship , which she failed to win . Nikki then obtained permission to begin forcing Brie to compete in handicap matches , similar to her punishment at the hands of McMahon , although Brie was able to win them . This led to a match between the twins at Hell in a Cell , where the loser was forced to become the winner 's personal assistant for 30 days , in which Nikki defeated Brie . Five days later on SmackDown , Nikki won a Halloween costume battle royal to become the number one contender for the Divas Championship .
= = = = Divas Champion and Team Bella ( 2014 – 2015 ) = = = =
Nikki received her title match against AJ Lee on November 23 at Survivor Series , which she won , with Brie 's help , to become a two – time Divas Champion . The duo had reconciled at this point , with Brie also turning heel in the process . Nikki then went on to retain her championship in three separate occasions — against Lee in a rematch on December 14 , at TLC : Tables , Ladders and Chairs , against Naomi two days later on SmackDown and against Paige at Fastlane on February 22 , 2015 . Paige and AJ then formed an alliance against Bellas which led to a tag team match at WrestleMania 31 , where AJ and Paige were victorious .
On April 26 , after Nikki , with the help of Brie , once again retained her title against Naomi at Extreme Rules a feud started , with Naomi aligning with the returning Tamina ( Naomi 's real life husband Jimmy Uso 's real life cousin ) to even the odds against Bellas , who began showing more heroic characteristics , This change in character was criticized as " sudden " , " randomly " and " for no reason " . This led to a tag team match between the two teams on May 17 , at Payback , which Naomi and Tamina won . Two weeks later , at Elimination Chamber , Nikki retained her title against Naomi and Paige in a triple – threat match , with Brie banned from ringside .
In June , The Bella Twins became villains once again by employing Twin Magic , which helped Nikki retain the title against Paige on the June 1 episode of Raw and at Money in the Bank . During the feud with Paige , Alicia Fox allied with them to form Team Bella . At the The Beast in the East on July 4 , Nikki retained the title against Paige and Tamina . After weeks of Team Bella outnumbering Paige , Naomi , and Tamina , Stephanie McMahon called for a " revolution " in the WWE Divas division and introduced the debuting Charlotte and Becky Lynch as Paige 's allies . NXT Women 's Champion Sasha Banks debuted as an ally to Naomi and Tamina , which led to a brawl between the three teams . Nikki then lost to Charlotte in a tag team match on the August 3 episode of Raw , and to Sasha on the August 17 episode of Raw in a non – title match . The three teams faced off on August 23 at SummerSlam in a three team elimination match , in which Team Bella first eliminated Team B.A.D. , before Team PCB 's win .
On the September 14 episode of Raw , Nikki defended her title against Charlotte , who pinned Brie after the twins had switched places to win the match , however , since the title can 't change hands by disqualification , Nikki retained the championship , and in the process , became the new longest reigning Divas Champion in history , surpassing AJ Lee 's previous record of 295 days .
= = = = Nikki 's injury and Brie 's semi @-@ retirement ( 2015 – 2016 ) = = = =
Nikki dropped the championship to Charlotte , on September 20 , at Night of Champions , ending her reign at 301 days , and failed to regain the title in a rematch on October 25 at Hell in a Cell . Shortly after , Nikki went on a hiatus from both television and in @-@ ring competition due to a neck injury which would require surgery , but returned for one night on December 21 , to accept the Slammy Award for Diva of the Year . During this time , Brie continued to compete in singles competition , and in tag team matches with Fox .
After defeating Charlotte in a non – title match on the February 1 episode of Raw , Brie was granted a match for the WWE Divas Championship at Fastlane on February 21 , where she failed to capture the title . During that time , Team Bella quietly disbanded and Brie transitioned into a fan favorite .
In March 2016 , Brie was placed in a feud with Lana , who argued that Brie 's fans only supported her out of pity for having a " bad husband " , and went on to distract Brie during her matches and attack her after the matches . Brie then aligned herself with fellow Total Divas cast members Alicia Fox , Natalya , Paige and Eva Marie , while Lana aligned herself with Team B.A.D. ( Naomi and Tamina ) , Summer Rae and Emma ( which was officially called " Team B.A.D. and Blonde " ) , leading to a 10 @-@ woman tag team match on the WrestleMania 32 kick @-@ off show , which Team Total Divas would win when Naomi submitted to Brie . After the match , Nikki returned and celebrated with her co @-@ stars Three days later , on April 6 , Brie confirmed that she would be taking an extended break from in @-@ ring competition , citing family reasons , while also stating that she will continue working for WWE as an ambassador .
= = Other media = =
Prior to working with WWE , the twins appeared on Meet My Folks . Both twins also appeared in the music video for " Right Side of the Bed " by the band Atreyu.The twins made a guest appearance on the MTV series Ridiculousness in October 2012.They also appeared in the music video for " Na Na " by Trey Songz in 2014 .
The twins guest starred on the television series Psych , in the 2014 episode " A Nightmare on State Street " . Nikki and Brie are part of the main cast for the reality television show Total Divas , which began airing in July 2013 . In April 2016 , it was announced that Total Bellas , a spin @-@ off of Total Divas starring the twins , would begin airing in fall 2016 .
Nikki and Brie co @-@ starred in the 2014 independent film Confessions of a Womanizer , and provided voices for the 2015 movie The Flintstones & WWE : Stone Age SmackDown ! .
Both twins appeared on the WWE YouTube show The JBL & Cole Show . Nikki appeared at the Miss USA 2013 pageant as one of the celebrity judges . They appeared at the 2014 MTV Europe Music Awards , where they presented the award for Best Female . The twins were both nominated for Choice Female Athlete at the 2015 Teen Choice Awards . Brie appeared alongside Paige , Natalya and the Chrisley family on the 88th Academy Awards edition of E ! Countdown to the Red Carpet in February 2016 .
The Bella Twins have appeared in seven WWE video games . They made their in @-@ game debut at WWE SmackDown ! vs. Raw 2010 and appeared in WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2011 , WWE 12 ( DLC ) , WWE 13 , WWE 2K14 ( DLC ) , WWE 2K15 , and WWE 2K16 . Brie was confirmed to be one of the first three wrestlers to be scanned for WWE 2K17 but it is unknown if she will make the cut .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television = = =
= = Personal lives = =
Since 2012 , Nicole has been dating fellow professional wrestler John Cena . Nicole previously dated Nick Nemeth , who is known on @-@ screen as Dolph Ziggler . In May 2014 , Nicole revealed on Total Divas that she had married her high school sweetheart at the age of 20 ; the marriage was annulled three years later . Nicole also announced on Total Divas in 2014 that she is a qualified real @-@ estate agent .
Brianna and her long @-@ term boyfriend , retired professional wrestler Bryan Danielson ( better known as Daniel Bryan ) , revealed their engagement in September 2013 . The couple married on April 11 , 2014 . She was previously in a relationship with former Poison guitarist Richie Kotzen . Brianna is an animal and environmental advocate , and has used her appearances on Total Divas to promote awareness of environmental and animal cruelty issues .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves used by both
Bella Buster ( Sitout facebuster ) — 2008 – 2013
Twin Magic ( Simultaneously switching places on a distracted referee , often followed by a Bella Buster or a small package )
Brie 's finishing moves
Bella Buster ( Sitout facebuster , sometimes while running or diving ) — 2008 – 2016
" Yes ! " Lock ( Omoplata ) – 2014 – 2016 ; adopted from her husband
Nikki 's finishing moves
Rack Attack ( Argentine backbreaker drop ) — 2013 – 2015
Signature moves used by both
Abdominal stretch , transitioned into a modified chinlock , to a seated opponent
Diving crossbody
Flying clothesline , sometimes done repeatedly in succession
Fireman 's carry takeover , followed by an armbar
Hair @-@ pull mat slam
Jumping snapmare
Monkey flip
Multiple pinning variations
Roll @-@ up
Schoolgirl , sometimes out of a corner
Reverse chinlock
Snapmare , followed by a rolling neck snap
Running one @-@ handed bulldog
Slingshot suplex
Snap suplex
Springboard arm drag
Suicide dive
Sunset flip powerbomb , from an elevated position
Brie 's signature moves
Backflip knee arm drag
DDT
Flying clothesline , sometimes from the ring apron
Multiple kick variations
Baseball slide
Missile drop , from the second rope , with theatrics
Running low drop , to the head or side of a kneeling opponent
Running single leg drop
Repeated shoot , to the chest , back or midsection of a kneeling or cornered opponent
Bicycle toe
Multiple pinning variations
Crucifix
Small package
Multiple elbow drop strikes , to an seated opponent 's shoulder
Modified headscissors armbar
Running knee , to a seated opponent 's head , with theatrics
Single leg Boston crab , sometimes while kneeling on the opponent 's back
Thesz press , followed by multiple punches
Nikki 's signature moves
Alabama slam
Back body drop
Cross armbreaker
Front powerslam , while applying a hammerlock
Headscissors , sometimes transitioned into figure @-@ four and followed by multiple push @-@ up facebusters
Handstand cornered backflip calf kick , to an oncoming opponent
One @-@ handed thesz press , followed by multiple mat slams
Modified achilles lock
Running elbow or forearm smash , sometimes to an oncoming opponent
Snapmare knee attack
Spinebuster , sometimes to an oncoming opponent
Springboard roundhouse kick
Tilt @-@ a @-@ whirl headscissors takedown
Tag team moves
Double team finishing moves
Double superkick
Rolling double leg slam
double hair @-@ pull
mat slam
Double team signature moves
Double arm wringer hair @-@ pull mat slam
Double dropkick , to an oncoming opponent
Double flapjack
Double hiptoss
With Alicia Fox
Double team signature moves
Double axe handle , to an opponent 's midsection , sometimes followed by a legsweep ( Nikki )
Diving double axe handle , from the second rope , to the opponent 's arm
Double suplex
Managers
Eva Marie
Alicia Fox
Wrestlers managed
The Colóns ( Carlito and Primo )
Daniel Bryan
John Cena
John Morrison
The Miz
Luke Robinson
Jerry Lawler
Team Rhodes Scholars ( Cody Rhodes and Damien Sandow )
Eva Marie
Alicia Fox
Entrance themes
" You Can Look ( But You Can 't Touch ) " performed by Kim Sozzi and composed by Jim Johnston ( 2008 – 2016 )
" Beautiful Life " by CFO $ ( Brie Bella , 2014 - 2016 )
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
PWI ranked Brie 16 of the best 50 female singles wrestlers in the PWI Female 50 in 2014
PWI ranked Nikki 1 of the best 50 female singles wrestlers in the PWI Female 50 in 2015
Rolling Stone
Diva of the Year ( 2015 ) – Nikki
Wrestling Observer Newsletter'
Worst Feud of the Year ( 2014 ) Brie vs. Nikki
Worst Feud of the Year ( 2015 ) Team PCB vs. Team B.A.D. vs. Team Bella
Worst Worked Match of the Year ( 2013 ) with Cameron , Eva Marie , JoJo , Naomi and Natalya vs. AJ Lee , Aksana , Alicia Fox , Kaitlyn , Rosa Mendes , Summer Rae and Tamina Snuka on November 24
WWE
WWE Divas Championship ( 3 times ) – Brie ( 1 ) , Nikki ( 2 )
Slammy Awards ( 4 times )
Couple of the Year ( 2013 , 2014 ) – Brie ( with Daniel Bryan )
Diva of the Year ( 2013 , 2015 ) — ( 2013 – both , 2015 – Nikki )
= Jack Swagger =
Donald Jacob " Jake " Hager Jr . ( born March 24 , 1982 ) is an American professional wrestler , and former amateur wrestler , signed to WWE where he performs on the Raw brand under the ring name Jack Swagger .
Hager attended the University of Oklahoma as a two @-@ sport athlete , participating in both football and wrestling . He switched to wrestling full @-@ time in his sophomore year , and in 2006 , set the record for most pins in a season with 30 as an All @-@ American . Following a try @-@ out , Hager signed a WWE contract in mid @-@ 2006 . Since being in WWE , Swagger is a two time world @-@ champion having won the World Heavyweight Championship and ECW Championship each once , and a one @-@ time United States Champion .
= = Early life = =
Hager started wrestling at the age of five . He wrestled in high school with Danny Hodge 's grandson and remains good friends with Hodge as he grew up living two blocks away from him in Perry , Oklahoma .
Hager was a two @-@ sport athlete in high school , competing in wrestling and American football . He was also class president as a sophomore and junior . Hager was the No. 5 @-@ ranked 215 @-@ pounder by Wrestling USA in 1999 . He won the 215 @-@ pound division of the state wrestling championship as a junior after being a runner @-@ up as a sophomore . Hager then joined the Junior National USA wrestling team as a heavyweight during the summer of 2000 . His junior year , while playing football , he recorded 45 tackles and 6 sacks in 3 games in before breaking his ankle . He recorded 75 tackles and 3 fumble recoveries as a senior , helping Perry post a 10 – 3 mark .
The University of Oklahoma recruited Hager as a two @-@ sport athlete in football and wrestling . He was the second @-@ string defensive tackle behind eventual National Football League players Tommie Harris and Dusty Dvoracek . He stopped playing football and concentrated fully on wrestling his sophomore year . During his junior year , he was introduced to Jim Ross , who was World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) ' s Head of Talent Relations at the time , through former OU defensive tackle Dusty Dvoracek , Hager ’ s close friend and college roommate . Ross encouraged Hager to contact him after graduating to see about a career in professional wrestling . At the 2005 NCAA Division I championships , he lost to University of Pennsylvania 's Matt Feast in the second round , and did not place . As a senior in 2006 , Hager had a seventh @-@ place finish in the NCAA championships and also defeated the future national champion , Dustin Fox from Northwestern University . Hager was named an All @-@ American at season 's end while setting the Oklahoma record for most pins in a single season with 30 .
In 2006 , Hager graduated from the University of Oklahoma with a Bachelor 's degree in finance . Following his graduation , he was going to work with a firm in Dallas , Texas , but signed with WWE after they offered a contract the day he was scheduled to start .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = World Wrestling Entertainment / WWE = = =
= = = = Deep South Wrestling ( 2006 – 2007 ) = = = =
In 2006 , Hager had a WWE tryout in Deep South Wrestling ( DSW ) , and in September 2006 , under his real name , he made his in @-@ ring debut for DSW , defeating Antonio Mestre in a dark match .
= = = = Ohio Valley Wrestling ( 2007 ) = = = =
He competed mainly in dark matches before being moved to Ohio Valley Wrestling ( OVW ) in January 2007 . He debuted for the promotion by defeating Atlas DaBone , and in the following months began a feud with K.C. James . Hager began teaming with a multitude of opponents to feud with James and his tag team partner Cassidy James . During his time in the developmental territories he appeared as a security guard during a brawl between John Cena and Umaga on Raw .
= = = = Florida Championship Wrestling ( 2007 – 2008 ) = = = =
In August 2007 , Hager was reassigned to Florida Championship Wrestling ( FCW ) , where he began a feud with TJ Wilson . On February 15 , 2008 , at the Florida State Fair in Tampa , Florida , Hager and Ted DiBiase Jr. were the final two men remaining in a 23 @-@ man battle royal to determine the two contenders for the FCW Florida Heavyweight Championship . Hager then defeated DiBiase to become champion . On March 22 , 2008 , Hager went against the FCW Southern Heavyweight Champion Heath Miller in New Port Richey , Florida to determine the true Heavyweight Champion . Both championships were on the line , and Hager defeated Miller to become the undisputed heavyweight champion in FCW . He later defended the championship against Miller , TJ Wilson , James Curtis , and Gabe Tuft .
During this time , Hager had a gimmick of having an undefeated streak in FCW . His first loss came in the form of a Raw dark match , at the TV taping on August 18 , 2008 , when he lost to William Regal . He also lost to D 'Lo Brown in a dark match , before defeating Jamie Noble in a dark match prior to a SmackDown taping on August 29 . He then lost the FCW Florida Heavyweight Championship to Sheamus O 'Shaunessy on September 18 , after debuting for the ECW brand .
= = = = ECW Champion ( 2008 – 2009 ) = = = =
On September 9 , 2008 , Hager made his debut on the ECW brand under the ring name Jack Swagger , winning a match against a local competitor . He immediately established himself as a heel by starting a feud with Tommy Dreamer . He attacked Dreamer on the September 23 episode of ECW , when Dreamer attempted to stop Swagger from attacking Chase Stevens . He later defeated Dreamer in a wrestling match and an " Amateur Wrestling Challenge " competition . After weeks of feuding , their rivalry ended in November in an Extreme Rules match , which Swagger won to extend his undefeated streak in ECW .
He then sought to challenge Matt Hardy for the ECW Championship and was named the number one contender on the December 30 episode of ECW . In 2009 , on the January 13 episode of ECW , Swagger defeated Hardy to win his first title in WWE , the ECW Championship . His undefeated streak in singles competition ended on the February 3 episode of ECW when he lost to Finlay in a non @-@ title match . After successfully defending his title against Hardy at the Royal Rumble and Finlay at No Way Out , Swagger began a feud with the returning Christian , to whom he lost the ECW Championship at Backlash , which ended his 104 @-@ day reign as champion . He attempted to regain the championship title in a singles match against Christian at Judgment Day and in a triple threat hardcore match at Extreme Rules , but was unsuccessful in both attempts . His attempt to win the ECW Championship at The Bash in an ECW Championship Scramble also failed .
On June 29 , 2009 , Swagger was traded to the Raw brand , making his debut as part of a three @-@ on @-@ one gauntlet match against WWE Champion Randy Orton , in which he got himself purposely counted out in order to make an impression on Orton . On the July 13 episode of Raw , he won his first match on the brand by defeating Montel Vontavious Porter ( MVP ) . He then feuded with MVP for several weeks , culminating at SummerSlam , in a match that MVP won . After his short feud with MVP ended , Swagger began pursuing the WWE United States Championship . He had his first singles match for the championship on September 21 against Kofi Kingston , but lost the match by countout after stealing the championship and leaving the arena with it , although Kingston later took it back while Swagger was in a physical confrontation with The Miz . Swagger made another unsuccessful attempt at the championship at the Hell in a Cell pay @-@ per @-@ view in a Triple Threat match against Kingston and The Miz . On January 31 at the Royal Rumble , Swagger entered at number 26 in the Royal Rumble match , but was later eliminated by Kofi Kingston .
= = = = World Heavyweight Champion ( 2010 ) = = = =
On the March 1 , 2010 episode of Raw , Swagger defeated Santino Marella to qualify for the Money in the Bank ladder match at WrestleMania XXVI , where he won , earning a contract for any WWE world championship over the following year . On the first episode of Raw following WrestleMania , Swagger tried to cash in his Money in the Bank contract against the WWE Champion John Cena , but changed his mind when he realized that Cena was not incapacitated enough to be defeated easily . As the match had never started , Swagger retained the contract for use at a future date .
Swagger cashed in the contract during the SmackDown taping on March 30 , 2010 , after the World Heavyweight Champion Chris Jericho had been speared by Edge . Swagger went on to defeat Jericho to win the World Heavyweight Championship for the first time . Following his championship win , Swagger began to develop a more serious persona : previously he had been known for doing pushups and beating his chest during his ring entrance . He successfully defended his championship against Edge and Jericho in a triple threat match on the April 16 episode of SmackDown , and against Randy Orton in an Extreme Rules match at the Extreme Rules pay @-@ per @-@ view . At Over the Limit , Swagger retained the title against The Big Show by intentionally disqualifying himself . At the Fatal 4 @-@ Way pay @-@ per @-@ view on June 20 , Swagger lost the championship to Rey Mysterio in a fatal four @-@ way match , also involving CM Punk and The Big Show . Following the Fatal 4 @-@ Way pay @-@ per @-@ view , Swagger began attacking Mysterio in the lead up to his rematch at the Money in the Bank pay @-@ per @-@ view in July , however he failed to regain the championship .
= = = = Various alliances and United States Champion ( 2010 – 2012 ) = = = =
In late 2010 , Swagger began being accompanied to the ring by his mascot , the Swagger Soaring Eagle , who was portrayed by Chavo Guerrero . At TLC : Tables , Ladders and Chairs , Swagger competed in a triple threat ladder match for the Intercontinental Championship against Kofi Kingston and champion Dolph Ziggler , in which Ziggler retained . On the February 28 episode of Raw , Swagger was announced as Michael Cole 's trainer for his match at WrestleMania XXVII against Jerry Lawler . On the March 28 episode of Raw , Swagger faced Lawler in a singles match , which he won by disqualification after Lawler attacked him with a steel chair . At WrestleMania , Swagger receive a Stone Cold Stunner from the guest referee , Stone Cold Steve Austin when attempting to withdraw Cole from the match . Cole went on to win the match via disqualification . On April 26 , Swagger was drafted to the Raw brand as part of the 2011 supplemental draft . On May 1 at Extreme Rules , Swagger teamed with Cole to defeat Jerry Lawler and Jim Ross in a Country Whipping match . Swagger ended his partnership with Cole on the May 16 episode of Raw , after Cole insulted him .
Beginning on May 23 , Swagger feuded with Evan Bourne , with both men trading victories on several episodes of Raw . At Capitol Punishment , Bourne defeated Swagger to end the feud . Swagger competed in his second Money in the Bank ladder match at the Money in the Bank pay @-@ per @-@ view , however he was unsuccessful as the match was won by Alberto Del Rio .
On the August 15 episode of Raw , after defeating Alex Riley , Swagger suggested to Vickie Guerrero that she should manage multiple clients , in the vein of managers like Bobby Heenan and Freddie Blassie . The following week , Swagger had a " tryout " match , but was distracted by Guerrero arguing with Dolph Ziggler at ringside , and lost the match . Swagger and Ziggler continued to fight over Guerrero for the next few weeks , which led to a match being for Ziggler 's United States Championship at Night of Champions , also involving Riley and John Morrison . At the pay @-@ per @-@ view , Swagger was unsuccessful in winning the title as Ziggler retained . On the September 19 episode of Raw , Guerrero agreed to manage Swagger . As a result , Swagger and Ziggler formed an alliance , with Swagger helping Ziggler retain his championship . At both the Hell in a Cell and Vengeance pay @-@ per @-@ views , Swagger and Ziggler unsuccessfully challenged Air Boom ( Evan Bourne and Kofi Kingston ) for the Tag Team Championship .
On the January 16 , 2012 , episode of Raw , Swagger won the United States Championship for the first time by defeating Zack Ryder . At Elimination Chamber , Swagger successfully defended his title against Justin Gabriel . On the February 27 episode of Raw , Swagger and Ziggler unsuccessfully challenged Primo and Epico for the Tag Team Championship in a Triple Threat tag team match , also involving Kofi Kingston and R @-@ Truth . On the March 5 episode of Raw , Swagger lost the United States Championship to Santino Marella . On the following episode of SmackDown , Swagger failed to regain the United States Championship in a steel cage match , after Marella escaped through the cage door . On the March 19 episode of Raw , Swagger was announced as a member of Team Johnny at Wrestlemania XXVIII . On the April 2 episode of Raw , Swagger and Ziggler unsuccessfully challenged Marella for the United States Championship in a triple threat match . In May , Swagger and Ziggler unsuccessfully challenged Kofi Kingston and R @-@ Truth for WWE Tag Team Championship , first at Over the Limit and second on the May 28 episode of Raw . On the June 11 episode of Raw , Swagger and Ziggler competed in a fatal four way elimination match for a number one contenders spot to the World Heavyweight Championship , however he was eliminated after Ziggler pinned him . The following week , Guerrero , finally tired of the bickering between Swagger and Ziggler , arranged for a match between them ; Ziggler won the match , thus ending their partnership .
On the June 25 episode of Raw , Swagger once again unsuccessfully challenged Santino Mare
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completed on 1 September 1909 , just over four years after her keel was laid .
= = = Italo @-@ Turkish War = = =
Amalfi and sister ship Pisa both entered service in 1909 , but there is little information in sources on their activities until the 1911 Italo @-@ Turkish War . On 24 September 1911 , five days before Italy declared war against the Ottoman Empire to start the conflict , Amalfi departed from Syracuse for Tripoli as part of a squadron that included battleships Roma and Napoli ; armored cruisers Pisa , Giuseppe Garibaldi , Varese , and Francesco Ferruccio ; and two flotillas of destroyers . Five days later , Amalfi and several of the other ships were seen taking on coal at Malta , before heading on to blockade Tripoli .
On 2 October , a division headed by the battleship Benedetto Brin relieved Amalfi 's groups in blockade duty , allowing them to proceed to the east to join the main Italian fleet . Napoli , Amalfi , and Pisa were joined by the recently commissioned armored cruiser San Marco , three destroyers , and two torpedo boats . The group escorted several Italian transports that arrived off Derna on 15 October . After negotiations for a surrender of the town fell apart , Pisa shelled the barracks and a fort . There was no return fire from Derna , so a boat with offers of a truce was sent in . When it was greeted by a volley of rifle fire Amalfi and the other armored cruisers opened fire on the town with their 190 @-@ millimeter ( 7 @.@ 5 in ) guns and , according to a contemporary account , " completely destroyed " the town in 30 minutes time . A landing party dispatched at 14 : 00 was unable to reach the shore because of rough seas and gunfire from the shore . Amalfi and company then shelled the beach until 16 : 00 . Weather conditions prevented a landing until the 18th , when 1 @,@ 500 men took possession of the Derna .
On 13 April 1912 , Amalfi sailed from Taranto as part of the Italian 1st Squadron , which consisted of the battleships Vittorio Emanuele ( the squadron flagship ) , Roma , and Napoli ; fellow armored cruisers Pisa , San Marco , and Vettor Pisani . The squadron was initially destined for Tripoli , but was diverted to the Aegean Sea to bombard the Turkish coast . The 2nd Squadron — consisting of battleships Regina Margherita ( squadron flagship ) , Benedetto Brin , Ammiraglio di Saint Bon , and Emanuele Filiberto ; and armored cruisers Francesco Ferrucio , Varese , and Giuseppe Garibaldi — sailed from Tobruk and Augusta at the same time . The two squadrons rendezvoused at Stampalia on 17 April . At 06 : 30 , Pisa and Amalfi steamed into the Dardanelles in advance of the Italian fleet in an attempt to draw out the Turkish fleet . Four Turkish shore batteries , outfitted with 18 Krupp guns ranging from 8 to 11 inches ( 200 to 280 mm ) in size fired on the Italian fleet . The Italians , firing at a range of 8 @,@ 000 metres ( 8 @,@ 700 yd ) , returned fire in an exchange that lasted more than two hours . Official Italian reports claimed that no ships were hit and specifically rebutted Turkish claims that Varese had been set on fire , but a summary in The New York Times reports that Varese was hit twice . On 19 April , the Italian fleet departed for home , but left Amalfi , Pisa , and an assortment of smaller craft to continue destroying telegraph stations and cutting cables .
One other action of note involving Amalfi occurred on 28 April when a party of 250 men recruited from her complement and that of Pisa took the Turkish garrison on the island of Astropalia . The 1912 Treaty of Lausanne that ended the war was signed on 18 October .
= = = Interwar period = = =
In the period between the end of the Italo @-@ Turkish War in 1912 and Italy 's entry into the First World War in 1915 , Amalfi is mentioned in several news accounts that offer hints of her peace @-@ time activities . In June 1913 , Amalfi escorted King Victor Emmanuel III and his wife , Queen Elena , on the royal yacht Trinacria to the annual regatta at Kiel , Germany . While there , Victor Emmanuel met with Kaiser Wilhelm II , to discuss — it was speculated in a contemporary news report — the ongoing Balkan War . After departing from Kiel , Amalfi escorted the King and Queen on Trinacria to their next stop at Stockholm .
By November , Amalfi was back in Italian waters when Admiral Cattolica , the former Italian Minister of the Marine , and the captains of Amalfi and the battleship Emanuele Filiberto greeted United States Navy Admiral Charles J. Badger at Naples on his flagship , USS Wyoming . During the Wyoming 's stay , one stop on the battleship 's 1913 Mediterranean tour , Badger returned the visits and toured Amalfi as part of his courtesy calls .
= = = First World War = = =
At the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914 , Italy declined to join its Triple Alliance partners Germany and Austria @-@ Hungary when they declared war against the Entente Powers , opting instead to remain neutral . Pressure from the United Kingdom and France swayed Italy to sign the secret Treaty of London on 26 April 1915 . In the agreement , Italy promised to leave the Triple Alliance and declare war against its former allies within a month in return for territorial gains after the end of the war .
At the beginning of May , Amalfi was part of the squadron headquartered at Brindisi that included six pre @-@ dreadnought battleships — Regina Elena , Vittorio Emanuele , Roma , Napoli , Benedetto Brin , and Ammiraglio di Saint Bon — and four armored cruisers — Pisa , San Marco , San Giorgio , and Amalfi herself .
After Italy 's declaration of war against Austria @-@ Hungary on 23 May , Admiral Anton Haus , the fleet commander of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy sortied his fleet to bombard the Italian coast on the night of 23 / 24 May in an attempt to disrupt the Italian mobilization . Of the many targets , Ancona was hardest hit , with disruptions to the town 's gas , electric , and telephone service ; the city 's stockpiles of coal and oil were left in flames . All of the Austrian ships safely returned to port , making it seem that they had been able to attack with impunity , putting political pressure on the Regia Marina from Rome . When the Austrians resumed attacks on the Italian coast in mid @-@ June , Italian Admiral Paolo Thaon di Revel responded by sending Amalfi and the other armored cruisers at Brindisi — the navy 's newest — to Venice to supplement the older ships already there . Historian Lawrence Sondhaus argues that the arrival of the four fast armored cruisers in Venice should have been a major deterrent against future Austrian coastal raids , but concedes that they ended up becoming more inviting targets for Austrian U @-@ boats instead .
= = = Sinking = = =
Shortly after the arrival of the quartet of cruisers at Venice , Amalfi participated in a " reconnaissance in force " mission near the Austro @-@ Hungarian port of Pula on the night of 6 / 7 July 1915 . After completion of the mission , the cruiser was about 20 nautical miles ( 37 km ; 23 mi ) from Venice when she was torpedoed by the Austrian submarine U @-@ 26 at dawn on 7 July . U @-@ 26 — in actuality the German submarine UB @-@ 14 , marked as an Austrian vessel and flying the Austrian flag since Italy and Germany were not at war — was under the command of Oberleutnant zur See Heino von Heimburg , and on her first patrol .
Amalfi immediately began listing to port and , after initial damage control efforts proved fruitless , her commander ordered the ship evacuated . The cruiser sank less than 30 minutes after she was torpedoed . Distress calls were answered by other ships of the division which rescued a large number of the ship 's complement . The loss of men was reported as about 200 at the time , but later reports list only 67 fatalities . Amalfi was among the largest ships sunk by U @-@ boats during the war . As a result of Amalfi 's sinking , sister ship Pisa and the other pair of armored cruisers at Venice rarely ventured out of port for most of the next year , and were eventually transferred to Valona in April 1916 .
= Johngarthia lagostoma =
Johngarthia lagostoma is a species of terrestrial crab that lives on Ascension Island and three other islands in the South Atlantic . It grows to a carapace width of 110 mm ( 4 @.@ 3 in ) on Ascension Island , where it is the largest native land animal . It exists in two distinct colour morphs , one yellow and one purple , with few intermediates . The yellow morph dominates on Ascension Island , while the purple morph is more frequent on Atol das Rocas . The species differs from other Johngarthia species by the form of the third maxilliped .
Johngarthia lagostoma lives in burrows among vegetation , at altitudes of up to 400 m ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) , emerging at night to feed on plant matter and occasionally on animals . From January to March there is an annual migration to the sea to release the planktonic larvae . The species was first described ( as Gecarcinus lagostoma ) by Henri Milne @-@ Edwards in 1837 from material sent to him by the naturalists Jean René Constant Quoy and Joseph Paul Gaimard , collected by the French ship Astrolabe .
= = Distribution and biogeography = =
Johngarthia lagostoma is found on Ascension Island , Ilha Trindade , Fernando de Noronha and Atol das Rocas . On Ascension Island , J. lagostoma is restricted outside the breeding season to the slopes of Green Mountain , where there is sufficient moisture and vegetation , the rest of the island being too arid for the crab to survive . All the land above 400 metres ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) is suitable habitat for the crabs , as is much of the land above 200 m ( 660 ft ) . They are occasionally found at lower altitudes , including the well @-@ watered gardens of Georgetown , and the sooty tern breeding colony in the south @-@ west of the island ( known as the Wideawake Fairs ) . On Ilha Trindade , J. lagostoma is abundant wherever plants grow , included the highest parts of the island .
The geographic distribution of J. lagostoma across a small number of islands in the southern Atlantic Ocean is very unusual , and difficult to explain by planktonic dispersal . Its nearest relatives are the other species of Johngarthia , two of which ( J. malpilensis and J. planata ) inhabit islands in the Pacific Ocean off Central America , and one ( J. weileri ) is found on islands in the Gulf of Guinea . Some authors have suggested the existence of former islands , now submerged , which could have acted as " stepping stones " for the colonisation of Ascension Island ; the isolation of Ascension Island from any other land mass makes transportation of either larvae or adults difficult .
= = Description = =
Mature specimens of J. lagostoma are typically 70 – 110 millimetres ( 2 @.@ 8 – 4 @.@ 3 in ) wide across the carapace on Ascension Island ; individuals from Atol das Rocas are somewhat smaller . In the family Gecarcinidae , species are normally separated by the form of the first pleopod ( gonopod ) , which is used by males during mating , but there is no difference in the gonopod between J. lagostoma and J. planata . Instead , J. lagostoma differs from other species in the genus by the form of the third maxilliped ; it has a fissure which is a narrow slit , but which gapes open in other species . The third maxilliped is also larger , covering the epistome and the antennules in J. lagostoma but not in other species .
Within the species , two distinct colour morphs can be seen . The " yellow " morph has a bright yellow or orange exoskeleton , with white patches on the underside of the walking legs and claws . The " purple " morph has a dark purple exoskeleton , but with the same white patches as on the yellow morph . A few intermediate individuals occur , which are predominantly yellow , but with purple patches on the carapace . On Ascension Island , the yellow morph is the more frequent one , while on Atol das Rocas , the distribution is more equal . Darker individuals are thought to be better concealed from predators , but more prone to heat stress during long migrations ; Atol das Rocas is much smaller than Ascension Island , and the migration routes are therefore shorter , which may explain the difference in frequency of the two morphs .
= = Ecology and conservation = =
Before Ascension Island was colonised by Europeans in the 19th century , Johngarthia lagostoma was the only large land animal on the island . Since then , many species of mammal have been introduced to Ascension Island , and now compete with J. lagostoma ; they include mice , rats and rabbits .
J. lagostoma is active at night and after rain , when it emerges from its burrows , which can be up to 1 metre ( 3 ft 3 in ) deep . In 1915 , H. A. Baylis reported that it feeds on " decaying vegetation and perhaps a certain amount of excreta from sea @-@ birds " ; most of its diet is thought to be made up of plant matter , but can also include animals . In the Wideawake Fairs , J. lagostoma feeds on chicks and eggs of the sooty tern , and they have been proposed as a limiting factor in the breeding of petrels on Ascension Island . In May , green sea turtles ( Chelonia mydas ) hatch , and J. lagostoma is one of several predators to target the emerging hatchlings , alongside the Ascension frigatebird ( Fregata aquila ) and feral cats . The crabs find water on and under rocks , especially after condensation has begun to form on their cool surfaces at night .
In the late nineteenth century , a bounty was levied on J. lagostoma in order to reduce its numbers . Hunters were paid 6 pence ( alternatively paid in rum ) for every hundred claws collected . In 1879 , the total bag for the island comprised 66 cats , 4 @,@ 013 mice , 7 @,@ 683 rats and 80 @,@ 414 land crabs ; in the eight years to 1887 , bounties were collected on more than 330 @,@ 000 crabs . The current population is much smaller , and the low level of recruitment and lack of juveniles suggests that the species may become endangered .
= = Life cycle = =
Although juvenile and adult J. lagostoma are almost exclusively terrestrial , the larvae are marine and planktonic . In order to release their offspring , the adults therefore have to migrate to the sea , as seen in other land crabs , such as the Christmas Island red crab , Gecarcoidea natalis . In most members of the family Gecarcinidae , migration coincides with the rainy season , which reduces the risk of desiccation ; migration in J. lagostoma occurs from January until March , while the period of highest rainfall is from March to May .
The crabs travel approximately 450 m ( 1 @,@ 480 ft ) per day , and mating can take place anywhere along the route . The proportion of males on the migration therefore decreases as the migration continues . The eggs are larger than in other gecarcinid species and consequently fewer in number ; females with a carapace width of 94 mm ( 3 @.@ 7 in ) had a mean fecundity of 72 @,@ 000 . Spawning occurs in the last quarter of the lunar cycle , during neap tides , on rocky shores .
= = Taxonomy and history = =
Johngarthia lagostoma was first described by Henri Milne @-@ Edwards in 1837 , under the name Gecarcinus lagostoma . The specific epithet lagostoma means " hare @-@ lip " , from the Greek λαγός ( lagos , " hare " ) and στόμα ( stoma , " mouth " ) ; Milne @-@ Edwards also named the species in French gécarcin bec @-@ de @-@ lièvre ( " hare @-@ lipped land crab " ) . Milne @-@ Edwards erroneously gave the type locality as " l 'Australasie " ( Australasia ) ; he had been given the material he used for the description by Jean René Constant Quoy and Joseph Paul Gaimard , who were working on the molluscs collected on the Astrolabe excursion , which had visited Australasia and stopped at Ascension Island in 1829 . G. lagostoma was placed in the subgenus Johngarthia by Michael Türkay in 1970 , who raised the subgenus to the rank of genus in 1987 .
Many subsequent voyages halted at Ascension Island , and many visitors commented on the land crabs they found there , including William Dampier , Charles Darwin and Charles Wyville Thomson . Bernard Stonehouse reported on an expedition by the British Ornithologists ' Union to Ascension Island , stating :
We met land crabs , too , and were sadly disappointed . They were small , no larger than an ordinary edible crab , with bloated shells and moderately long pincers . Some were of beetroot purple , others yellow or orange , apparently two colour @-@ phases of the same species . They were shy , freezing with pincers erect when alarmed , usually to be found within a short distance of their burrows and ready to scuttle down at the drop of a hat . In rainy weather they promenaded more freely , sometimes appearing at the side of road with arms waving like diminutive but aggressive hitch @-@ hikers . Fringed mandibles [ third maxillipeds ] suggest a permanently turned @-@ down mouth , giving them a disgruntled , unhappy expression ; they were disagreeable rather than sinister and fell far short of their reputation . The first land crab I met was sitting in a prickly pear bush , sadly munching one of the brilliant red fruits and dribbling juice . I could never take them seriously after that .
The closely related crabs from the islands of the Gulf of Guinea were formerly included in Gecarcinus lagostoma , but are now treated as a separate species , Johngarthia weileri .
= Tropical Storm Debby ( 1994 ) =
Tropical Storm Debby was a weak but costly tropical cyclone that affected the Lesser Antilles in September 1994 . It was the fourth named tropical storm of the 1994 Atlantic hurricane season ; it developed on September 9 east of Barbados . Debby made landfall on Saint Lucia early on September 10 , producing heavy rainfall and tropical storm @-@ force wind gusts . The rains caused flooding and landslides , damaging about half of the island 's banana plantations . Several villages were isolated after roads and bridges were damaged . Damage totaled about $ 103 million ( 1994 USD ) . On nearby Dominica , Debby damaged crops and fisheries .
While Debby was crossing Saint Lucia , its strongest thunderstorms were located north and east of the center due to wind shear . A station in Martinique reported hurricane @-@ force winds , and about 20 @,@ 000 people on the island lost power . After entering the eastern Caribbean Sea , Debby attained peak winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) , although continued wind shear caused the storm to dissipate on September 11 . In Puerto Rico , one person died due to high waves . The storm caused power outages and flooding in the Dominican Republic . Throughout its path , Debby killed nine people .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Tropical Storm Debby were from a tropical wave that moved off the coast of Africa on September 4 . By September 6 , satellite images indicated a vigorous tropical wave with intense convection about midway between Africa and the Lesser Antilles . Encountering northwesterly vertical wind shear , convection markedly decreased and weakened on the following day , only to redevelop on September 8 after the shear dropped . Post @-@ analysis indicate that the sixth tropical depression of the season developed on September 9 at 1200 UTC , about 185 mi ( 300 km ) east of Barbados ; however , it was not operationally classified as Tropical Depression Six until almost 24 hours later . Early on September 10 , satellite imagery indicated a surface circulation just north of Barbados , around which time the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) initiated advisories .
The increasing organization of the tropical depression prompted a reconnaissance aircraft investigation , which reported flight @-@ level winds of around 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) in an intense rainband northeast of the center . The same flight estimated surface winds of 58 mph ( 93 km / h ) , which indicated that the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Debby . However , ongoing wind shear removed all thunderstorms from the circulation . At 0300 UTC on September 10 , the storm made landfall on Saint Lucia with winds of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) . Although Debby was not very well @-@ organized on satellite imagery , stations on Martinique and nearby ships reported that the storm intensified further in the eastern Caribbean Sea to a peak strength of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) at 0600 UTC . Such winds were not known while the storm was active , and around the time of Debby 's peak intensity , the NHC operationally estimated winds of only 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) . The storm continued quickly to the west @-@ northwest , affected by strong wind shear while maintaining strong winds . A reconnaissance flight on September 12 did not observe a closed circulation ; as a result , it is estimated that Debby dissipated at around 0600 UTC that day to the south of Puerto Rico . The remnants of Debby continued to the west and diminished over Mexico on September 15 , although residual clouds spread into the Gulf of Mexico .
= = Preparations and impact = =
When the first advisory was issued for Debby , the governments of Barbados , Saint Lucia , Saint Vincent , and Dominica issued tropical storm warnings . In addition , the Saint Lucia Meteorological Service issued a flood warning before Debby developed . Although the NHC recommended a tropical storm warning to be issued in Martinique , government officials there issued a heavy rain warning instead . Debby first affected Barbados as it passed the island to the north , producing winds of 27 mph ( 43 km / h ) . In Saint Vincent to the southwest of Barbados , there was minor roof damage . In Dominica to the north , the storm damaged roads and caused power outages . Across Dominica , the combination of winds and heavy rains damaged 2 @,@ 800 acres of bananas , 143 acres of plantains , 355 acres of root crops , and 355 acres of tree crops . Damage to crops and fisheries were estimated at EC $ 30 million ( $ 12 million 1994 USD ) . After the storm , Windward Islands Crop Insurance ( WINCROP ) paid 2189 claims in the country , amounting to EC $ 1 @.@ 6 million ( $ 660 @,@ 000 1994 USD ) .
Tropical Storm Debby struck Saint Lucia , and wind gusts on the island reached 46 mph ( 74 km / h ) in Vigie . Damage throughout Debby 's path was heaviest on this island , and the storm affected most of Saint Lucia . Debby produced heavy rainfall and thunderstorms over a six @-@ hour period , which caused flooding along rivers and in low @-@ lying areas . High rainfall totals wrecked houses on hillsides , forcing about 150 people to evacuate to shelters . Roadways were washed out or covered by landslides , and 10 bridges were destroyed or severely damaged . This limited access to villages across the island . Landslides also affected the town of Pont Saint @-@ Jacques . Heavy rains covered Hewanorra International Airport with 2 in ( 51 mm ) of silt , and in Anse La Raye , floods reached waist @-@ deep levels . In that town , residents had to be rescued by boat . The storm damaged about half of the banana plantations on the island . Several towns lost access to their water supplies , which prompted the governments of Martinique and Saint Vincent to provide fresh water to the country . Overall , there were 24 injuries and 4 deaths across Saint Lucia ; all of the deaths were from two landslides . During the storm , nine prisoners escaped the jail in Castries , and there were also reports of looting . In the capital city of Castries , the storm damaged a ward of an evacuated hospital ; it had been scheduled for reconstruction , and the effects from Debby provided a new assessment for the rebuilding . Damage on Saint Lucia was estimated at EC $ 250 million ( $ 103 million 1994 USD ) . After the storm , WINCROP paid 5 @,@ 802 claims for insured crop damage in the country , totaling EC $ 7 @.@ 8 million ( $ 3 @.@ 2 million 1994 USD ) . As of 2008 , Debby was the largest event in WINCROP 's 20 year history of insurance claims for disasters . The Saint Lucia government responded to the damage from Debby by repairing damaged buildings and bridges , diversifying crops , and removing silt from major rivers .
While Debby was moving across Saint Lucia , a station in Le Vauclin in southeastern Martinique reported 10 minute sustained winds of 64 mph ( 103 km / h ) , with a gust to 97 mph ( 156 km / h ) ; the observation provided the basis for Debby 's peak intensity . When the storm was active , however , the strongest winds known at the time were a 10 minute wind of 35 mph ( 56 km / h ) , and a gust of 58 mph ( 93 km / h ) at Martinique Aimé Césaire International Airport . About half of the island experienced 4 in ( 100 mm ) of precipitation , and the highest rainfall total on the island was 7 @.@ 24 in ( 184 mm ) in Saint @-@ Joseph . High rains caused flooding across the island , and one woman drowned when a flooded river washed away her car . High winds downed trees and covered some roads , and there was damage to the banana crop . About 20 @,@ 000 people lost power during the storm .
When Debby was still active , a NASA satellite fired lasers at the storm to measure cloud heights , the first such experiment . As Debby moved into the Caribbean Sea , a tropical storm warning was issued for Puerto Rico and the United States Virgin Islands . High winds spread across Puerto Rico ; Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport reported a peak wind gust of 44 mph ( 71 km / h ) . The winds downed trees and power lines across the island and caused isolated roof and house damage . High seas entered several coastal homes and prevented ferry passage from Culebra . In Cabo Rojo , Puerto Rico , high waves swept away two men fishing from the coast ; one was injured and the other was killed . Later , a tropical storm warning was issued for the southern coasts of the Dominican Republic and Haiti . After Debby dissipated , its remnants maintained strong winds , and a station in the Dominican Republic reported a gust of 62 mph ( 100 km / h ) on September 11 . The storm downed power lines , leaving hundreds of homes without electricity and contributing to three deaths . An expressway and some rivers also flooded in the country .
= New York State Route 101 =
New York State Route 101 ( NY 101 ) is a 3 @.@ 58 @-@ mile ( 5 @.@ 76 km ) long state highway in northwestern Nassau County , New York , in the United States . It runs north – south as Port Washington Boulevard from NY 25A in Flower Hill , west of Roslyn and north of Manhasset , to Astor Lane in Sands Point . It continues south along Searingtown Road to Shelter Rock Road ( County Route 8 or CR 8 ) and north on Middle Neck Road to a dead end at Long Island Sound as the unsigned County Route 101 .
NY 101 was assigned c . 1931 while the county route continuations were assigned in 1958 . CR 101 was initially signed ; however , signage for the route was removed in 1973 . In the 1950s and 1960s , a proposal was made to construct a freeway in western Nassau County . The Western Nassau Expressway , as it was known , would have extended from NY 27 to NY 101 and utilized the NY 101 corridor north of NY 25A . The proposal was shelved in the 1970s .
= = Route description = =
= = = Southern segment of CR 101 = = =
CR 101 's southern segment begins at an intersection with Shelter Rock Road ( CR 8 ) and Herricks Road near Herricks High School . The route heads eastward as Searingtown Road , passing to the south of the high school and to the north of a small pond . One block east of Herricks Road , CR 101 intersects with Old Searingtown Road , a former alignment of the current CR 101 alignment . At this point , the highway curves to the northeast and passes through a small area of trees nestled amongst a large , residential area bordering Williston Park . Old Searingtown Road rejoins CR 101 at the northern edge of the forested area .
The route continues north , serving as the boundary between Searingtown and Albertson as it proceeds past side streets lined by homes . At I.U. Willets Road , CR 101 serves Henry Wiscardi School and enters Searingtown . Just inside of the community , CR 101 intersects Hilldale Drive and Dogwood Road , two local streets connecting to Herricks Middle School . The route continues on through Searingtown into the village of North Hills , where the homes give way to trees as it turns to the northeast and passes under the Northern State Parkway . A short distance after the Northern Parkway overpass , CR 101 meets the Long Island Expressway ( Interstate 495 ) by way of Nassau Boulevard — the southern service road — and North Service Road .
North of the Long Island Expressway , CR 101 passes by the Christopher Morley Park and Golf Course to the east and residential neighborhoods to the west . Past the park , CR 101 enters an area with more residential development as it begins to run along the western boundary of Roslyn Estates and the eastern edge of Manhasset . The homes give way to commercial developments as the highway approaches Flower Hill and NY 25A ( Northern Boulevard ) . Searingtown Road becomes Port Washington Boulevard and CR 101 becomes NY 101 upon intersecting NY 25A .
= = = NY 101 = = =
NY 101 continues north from NY 25A as a four @-@ lane , undivided highway , passing homes , businesses and small patches of trees situated near the junction with NY 25A . At an intersection with Park Avenue North , NY 101 becomes a divided highway with two lanes in each direction . The highway continues north through Flower Hill to St. Francis Hospital , where it curves to the northwest to serve the center of Flower Hill . Here , NY 101 passes east of Flower Hill Park and west of North Hempstead Country Club before curving back to the north and entering Port Washington .
In Port Washington , NY 101 passes Nassau Knolls Cemetery and narrows to become a four @-@ lane undivided highway as it enters the center of the hamlet . It proceeds north – south through downtown , passing several blocks of commercial buildings and Paul D. Schreiber Senior High School ahead of a junction with Main Street . North of this point , the surroundings of NY 101 become more residential as the route narrows to two lanes and passes into the village of Sands Point . NY 101 ends shortly afterward at an intersection with Astor Lane , at which point Port Washington Boulevard is continued by Middle Neck Road and designated as CR 101 .
= = = Northern segment of CR 101 = = =
The northern segment of CR 101 heads northward along Middle Neck Road , passing local residences and local commercial buildings to the west and the Village Club of Sands Point to the east . North of the club , the highway curves to the northwest and becomes surrounded by several blocks of residential homes to the southwest and patches of trees to the northeast as it heads deeper into the village .
From this point west to the highway 's end on Long Island Sound , CR 101 follows a mostly east – west alignment through Sands Point . Along this last stretch , the route passes to the south of Sands Point County Park and north past Sands Point Golf Club as the surroundings around the route become increasingly forested and undeveloped . At Tibbits Lane , the route turns to the northwest and continues to the road 's end at a dead end on the southern shore of Long Island Sound .
= = History = =
In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , several of the routes assigned during the 1920s were renumbered or modified . At the same time , hundreds of state @-@ maintained highways that did not yet have a route number were assigned one . One of these highways was Port Washington Boulevard , a roadway connecting NY 25A ( Northern Boulevard ) in Flower Hill to Astor Lane in Sands Point , which was designated as NY 101 by the following year . In 1959 , the Nassau County Department of Public Works created a numbered highway system as part of their " Master Plan " for the county highway system . This plan marked CR 101 along its current alignment .
Since 2005 , the traffic counts contained within the annual New York State Department of Transportation ( NYSDOT ) Traffic Data Report have indicated that the northern terminus of NY 101 is at an intersection with Beacon Hill Road . However , other documents produced by NYSDOT , such as their official description of routes in New York , give the highway 's northern terminus as Astors [ sic ] Lane .
In 1952 , the New York State Department of Public Works laid out plans for a six @-@ lane expressway in western Nassau County . The proposed highway would begin at Atlantic Avenue in Freeport and head north to an intersection with NY 25A ( Northern Boulevard ) in Roslyn . Local residents opposed the plan , stating that the area was being developed too quickly . The proposed expressway was cancelled , and the $ 45 million that would have been used for the 11 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 18 @.@ 5 km ) expressway went to extending the Meadowbrook State Parkway northward instead .
Although the original plan was shelved , the need for a highway in western Nassau County still existed . In 1963 , the Department of Public Works revived the project ; however , the routing was altered to extend from the Sunrise Highway ( NY 27 ) north to an intersection with CR 101 ( Middle Neck Road ) in Sands Point . Part of the route would use modern NY 101 and the right @-@ of @-@ way of an abandoned Long Island Rail Road line . In 1971 , several proposed crossings of the Long Island Sound were studied . One crossing , a bridge connecting Sands Point to New Rochelle to Westchester County , may have become a northward extension of the highway if it was constructed . By 1971 , though , hopes had begun to fade on the highway 's prospects of becoming reality . Even if construction had begun in that year , the highway would not be open to traffic until 1975 . The project was eventually shelved .
= = CR 101A = =
CR 101A was a designation for the 0 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) portion of Middle Neck Road between NY 25A and NY 101 . The highway was a spur of CR 101 in name only as it never connected to CR 101 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Nassau County .
= Rhinemaidens =
The Rhinemaidens are the three water @-@ nymphs ( Rheintöchter or " Rhine daughters " ) who appear in Richard Wagner 's opera cycle Der Ring des Nibelungen . Their individual names are Woglinde , Wellgunde and Flosshilde ( Floßhilde ) , although they are generally treated as a single entity and they act together accordingly . Of the 34 characters in the Ring cycle , they are the only ones who did not originate in the Old Norse Eddas . Wagner created his Rhinemaidens from other legends and myths , most notably the Nibelungenlied which contains stories involving water @-@ sprites ( nixies ) or mermaids . The key concepts associated with the Rhinemaidens in the Ring operas — their flawed guardianship of the Rhine gold , and the condition ( the renunciation of love ) through which the gold could be stolen from them and then transformed into a means of obtaining world power — are wholly Wagner 's own invention , and are the elements that initiate and propel the entire drama .
The Rhinemaidens are the first and the last characters seen in the four @-@ opera cycle , appearing both in the opening scene of Das Rheingold , and in the final climactic spectacle of Götterdämmerung , when they rise from the Rhine waters to reclaim the ring from Brünnhilde 's ashes . They have been described as morally innocent , yet they display a range of sophisticated emotions , including some that are far from guileless . Seductive and elusive , they have no relationship to any of the other characters , and no indication is given as to how they came into existence , beyond occasional references to an unspecified " father " .
The various musical themes associated with the Rhinemaidens are regarded as among the most lyrical in the entire Ring cycle , bringing to it rare instances of comparative relaxation and charm . The music contains important melodies and phrases which are reprised and developed elsewhere in the operas to characterise other individuals and circumstances , and to relate plot developments to the source of the narrative . It is reported that Wagner played the Rhinemaidens ' lament at the piano , on the night before he died in Venice , in 1883 .
= = Origins = =
Alone of the Ring 's characters , the Rhinemaidens do not originate from the Poetic Edda or Prose Edda , the Icelandic sources for most of Norse mythology . Water @-@ sprites ( German : Nixen ) appear in many European myths and legends , often but not invariably in a form of disguised malevolence . Wagner drew widely and loosely from those legends when compiling his Ring narrative , and the probable origin of his Rhinemaidens is in the German Nibelungenlied . In one part of the Nibelungenlied narrative Hagen and Gunther encounter certain " wise women " ( thereafter described as water @-@ sprites ) , bathing and refreshing themselves in the waters of the Danube . Hagen creeps softly towards them , but he is seen , whereupon the sprites retreat and mock him from a distance . Hagen then steals their clothes . To obtain the return of these , one of the sprites , Hadeburg , promises falsely that Hagen and Gunther will find honor and glory when they enter Etzel 's kingdom . After their clothes are returned , another sprite , Sigelinde ( a name Wagner would adopt again for use elsewhere ) , tells Hagen that her sister has lied . If they go to Etzel 's land , they will die there .
This story , itself unrelated to the Ring drama , is echoed by Wagner both in the opening Das Rheingold scene and in the first scene in Act III of Götterdämmerung . Wagner first adapted the story for use in his early libretto of Siegfried 's Death ( which eventually became Götterdämmerung ) , introducing three unnamed water @-@ maids ( Wasserjungfrauen ) , and locating them in the Rhine , where they warn Siegfried of his impending death . Later these water @-@ maids became Rhinemaidens ( Rheintöchter ) , and were given individual names : Flosshilde , Wellgunde , and Bronnlinde . As Wagner continued working on his reverse chronology from Siegfried 's death , he arrived at what he determined was the initial act of the drama — Alberich 's theft of the Rhine gold . Believing that a simple abduction of the unguarded gold would lack dramatic force , Wagner made the Rhinemaidens the guardians of the gold , and he introduced the " renunciation of love " condition . Bronnlinde became Woglinde , probably to avoid confusion with Brünnhilde .
Wagner may also have been influenced by the Rhine River @-@ based German legend of Lorelei , the lovelorn young maiden who drowns herself in the river and becomes a siren , luring fishermen onto the rocks by her singing . Further possible sources lie in Greek mythology and literature . Similar
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to have attained sainthood exclusively on the basis of her intense devotion to Vithoba , a devotion reflected in her abhangas .
Kanhopatra 's life has been recounted in a 1937 Marathi film Kanhopatra written and directed by Bhalji Pendharkar . She was also the subject of the popular 1931 Marathi drama named Sant Kanhopatra , in which Bal Gandharva played the lead . Kanhopatra 's abhangas Aga Vaikunthichya Raya and Patita tu pavanahe ; and Nako Devaraya Anta Aata are used in that drama and in the 1963 Marathi film Sadhi Manase respectively . A 2014 short film Katha Sant Kanhopatra by Sumeet video featured Pallavi Subhash as Kanhopatra .
Kanhopatra 's abhangas are still sung in concerts and on radio , and by Varkaris on their annual pilgrimage to Pandharpur . The tree that rose at her burial spot in the Pandharpur temple is worshipped as her samadhi by devotees even today . A small shrine is also dedicated to her in her home town Mangalvedhe .
= Fire Emblem Awakening =
Fire Emblem Awakening ( ファイアーエムブレム 覚醒 , Faiā Emuburemu : Kakusei ) is a tactical role @-@ playing video game , developed by Intelligent Systems and Nintendo SPD and published by Nintendo for the Nintendo 3DS handheld video game console on April 2012 in Japan , and April 2013 outside Japan . It is the thirteenth game in the Fire Emblem series , and the first to be developed for the Nintendo 3DS . The gameplay , like previous Fire Emblem games , focuses on tactical movement of characters across a battlefield fighting enemy units . Other features include the ability to build relationships between the characters to improve their abilities , adjustable difficulty levels , a mode that disables the permanent death of characters , and multiple camera perspectives in battle .
The story is set on the continents of Archanea from the original Fire Emblem and Valentia from Fire Emblem Gaiden , focusing on a group of soldiers from the kingdom of Ylisse . The player controls a customized Avatar suffering from amnesia . The Avatar is taken in by Chrom , the prince of Ylisse , and his personal army . Over the course of the story , the Avatar aids Chrom 's army in defending Ylisse from monsters called the Risen , and attacks from the hostile nation of Plegia .
Development of Fire Emblem Awakening began in 2010 , with multiple veterans of the Fire Emblem series filling key development roles . Development was handled by Intelligent Systems with supervision from Nintendo . As the series had seen declining sales with previous installments , Awakening was designed as the possible last entry in the series , with elements from all previous Fire Emblem games incorporated . Due to the 3DS still being fine tuned by developers , the team 's decisions for content and graphics were made based on what they thought was feasible for what they had available to them . However , some gameplay options and proposals were met with mixed feelings , such as the option to disable permanent character death , a staple to the Fire Emblem franchise .
Upon release , the game received universal critical acclaim and achieved strong sales worldwide , with many critics praising the new additions to the traditional gameplay , and accessibility to newcomers of the series . After release , the game was nominated for multiple awards from video game publications , often being cited as one of the best games on the 3DS platform , and is also credited with boosting sales for the 3DS . Awakening 's commercial success ensured the continuation of the series . A new game by the same development team , Fire Emblem Fates , was released in Japan in June 2015 , and in Western territories in 2016 .
= = Gameplay = =
In Fire Emblem Awakening , the player begins the game as one of the central characters , a customizable Tactician Avatar : the Avatar 's gender , hair color , feature types , and voice can all be customized . There are two modes of play : Casual Mode and Classic Mode . In Classic mode , characters defeated in battle are permanently dead , unable to be used for the rest of the game . Casual Mode enables the player to disable permanent character deaths . With permanent death disabled , fallen units are restored after the completion of the level . Should Chrom or the Avatar die in battle in any mode , the player receives a " Game Over " message and must restart the battle . The game has multiple difficulty levels : the three standard modes are Normal , Hard and Lunatic . A fourth difficulty level , Lunatic + , is unlocked after completing the game on Lunatic mode . The playing mode and difficulty level are selected at the beginning of a new game .
After the player is given access to a party of characters , they can travel across a world map both to new locations and revisit old locations . The time of day on the world map is synced to the player 's time zone and time of day . New locations can contain main story missions as well as side stories where new characters can be recruited . Previously visited locations have shops where the player can acquire new weapons . They also can contain random enemy skirmishes . Between missions , players can go to a customizable central base called the Barracks , where the player can watch scenes between characters and perform other activities . The player can recruit approximately forty characters , not including characters included in downloadable content . The game features multiple uses of the Nintendo 3DS @-@ exclusive SpotPass and StreetPass functions via the world map . During navigation , the player can encounter other players and interact via StreetPass . The player can do battle with a party of up to ten characters from another player 's world . Whichever player wins the battle gains access to the party . Avatars can also be either befriended or defeated in battle , and loaned out to other players using this function .
= = = Battle system = = =
Awakening uses a turn @-@ based tactical role @-@ playing battle system . The terrain is displayed on the top screen of the 3DS , while unit information is displayed on the bottom screen . Before each battle , the player selects a limited number of characters from their roster for use in battle . The player can either control each unit manually or activate an auto @-@ battle option . Character movement is dictated by a tile @-@ based movement system . During combat , player @-@ controlled sprite characters and enemy units controlled by the game 's artificial intelligence ( AI ) each get one turn where they position their units . An additional turn is added when unaffiliated AI @-@ controlled units are in the field . Playable characters positioned next to each other in the field will support one @-@ another , granting buffs , and performing actions such as blocking attacks . Two characters can also pair up as a single mobile unit , enabling both units to attack at once . As the relationship between characters strengthens , they gain greater bonuses to their strength and effectiveness when paired up in battle . During combat , the perspective switched to a 3D scene between combatants . Optional camera angles , including a first @-@ person view through the eyes of playable characters , can be activated using the 3DS stylus .
During battles , characters earn experience points ( XP ) through successful actions during battle . When the character has reached 100 XP , their level is raised by one , increasing various stats including health and attack power . New skills are also learned by each character . The game includes a character class system , with approximately forty classes available . Each character , including the Avatar , has a starting class . When a unit reaches Level 10 , they can either upgrade or change their classes using special items called Master Seals and Second Seals . A Master Seal promotes the character 's class , improving character stats and giving access to new ability sets or weapons . A Second Seal allows a character to change class , or " reclass " , when they are either at Level 10 or have reached their current Advanced Class . Upon reclassing , a character 's experience level is reset to Level 1 while their stats and abilities are retained . The classes that most characters can reclass into are limited . The exception to this is the Avatar , who is able to reclass into any class available to their gender . Regardless of future changes , characters retain learned skills from earlier classes . A character 's class affects both their attack capabilities and their mobility on the battlefield : for example , mages and archers can attack at greater ranges than melee units , mounted units have more powerful attacks than foot units , while flying units have greater mobility and range .
Relationships between characters are built up through Support conversations between chapters . The normal rankings of relationships are C to A , with A standing for a close friendship . For characters of opposing genders , an additional S ranking is available , in which the characters fall in love , marry and have children . Relationships also have a direct impact during battles , with certain character pairings granting positive effects such as increased mobility or an automatic guarding action . A couple 's children can be found and recruited in optional chapters made available by the parent characters ' marriage , with their appearance and in @-@ game abilities varying depending on who their parents were . Most characters have a specific list of units which they can have Support conversations with ; the Avatar can build a relationship with all characters , and ( depending on their chosen gender ) marry any unit from any generation as long as they are not a direct descendant .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting and characters = = =
The game takes place approximately 1000 years after the events of Fire Emblem : Shadow Dragon and the Blade of Light . In ancient times , the Fell Dragon Grima attempted to destroy the world . To stop Grima , the Divine Dragon Naga chose the ruler of the Halidom of Ylisse ( known as the Exalt ) and granted them power through two magical objects : Falchion , a sword with the power to slay dragons ; and the Fire Emblem , a magical shield . Using these , the Exalt struck down Grima , sending it into a long slumber . In the intervening period , the continents of Archanea and Valentia became known as Ylisse and Valm .
By the present time , the land of Ylisse is divided between Halidom of Ylisse , which continues to worship Naga , and is ruled by Exalt Emmeryn and defended by her brother Chrom ; the kingdom of Plegia , which worships Grima ; and Regna Ferox , a country whose rulers periodically compete for dominance . Fifteen years prior to Awakening , the last Exalt of Ylisse , Emmeryn 's father , waged a religious war against Plegia , which greatly damaged both countries and left bitterness on both sides . Ylisse has slowly recovered from the war thanks to Emmeryn 's peaceful actions .
= = = Plot = = =
After dreaming of killing Chrom , the amnesiac Avatar wakes up in a field and is found by Chrom and members of his personal army , the Shepherds . The Avatar joins the Shepherds , after exhibiting the qualities of a tactician when they defend a nearby town from Plegian bandits . After gaining an alliance with Regna Ferox , the Shepherds move to fight both Plegia 's forces and revenant monsters called the Risen ; they are helped by a masked woman calling herself " Marth " . After a confrontation between Plegia and the Shepherds , Emmeryn is almost killed by Validar and his minions . The assassination plot is foiled with aid from " Marth " , who has prior knowledge of the event . Soon after , Plegian forces capture Emmeryn as she goes to parley with King Gangrel , Plegia 's ruler , and prevent another war . Gangrel demands the Fire Emblem in exchange for Emmeryn 's life . Though Chrom almost accepts Gangrel 's terms , Emmeryn stops him by throwing herself over a cliff , becoming a martyr to both Ylisse and Plegia . Eventually , the Shepherds triumph over Plegia , defeating Gangrel and restoring peace to Archanea .
Two years after Gangrel 's defeat , Chrom inherits the throne of Ylisse , marries , and fathers a newborn daughter named Lucina . Chrom leads the Shepherds again when Emperor Walhart of Valm threatens to invade Archanea . During the campaign , " Marth " returns , and reveals that she is Lucina from an alternate timeline from more than 10 years in the future , where Grima has been resurrected . Lucina used a time traveling spell devised by Naga to return to the past and prevent the events leading to her future . To combat Grima , Chrom must perform the " Awakening " , a ritual that grants him Naga 's power , by combining the Fire Emblem with five magical gems divided among the nations . During and after the war in Valm , the Shepherds manage to retrieve four of the gemstones . They are then ambushed by Validar , the new king of Plegia and the Avatar 's father , after he offers them the last gemstone . Validar takes control of the Avatar and steals the Fire Emblem from Chrom . He also reveals that the Avatar was born as the ideal vessel for Grima . Lucina realizes that Grima used the Avatar to kill Chrom in her timeline , and attempts to execute them ; Chrom forces her to stand down , remaining confident the Avatar can overcome Grima 's control . The Shepherds manage to track down Validar , who uses the Avatar to attack Chrom , mirroring the events of their nightmare . However , the Avatar uses their foreknowledge to prevent Chrom 's death , allowing the Shepherds to kill Validar and recover the Fire Emblem .
At this point , the possessed Avatar from Lucina 's future appears , revealing that the present timeline Avatar 's amnesia was caused by Grima 's unsuccessful attempt to possess them . The future Avatar then uses the power gathered for Grima 's resurrection to restore its dragon form . In a race against time , Chrom performs the Awakening and summons Naga . Although Chrom now has the power to stop Grima , Naga reveals that she only has enough power to put Grima to sleep for another thousand years . Naga explains that the only way to truly destroy Grima is to have him destroy himself through the Avatar , which could come at cost of the Avatar 's life . Naga tells them that the Avatar will only survive if their bonds with Chrom and the Shepherds are strong enough . In the final battle , the Shepherds manage to weaken Grima . Chrom , already set against the sacrifice of the Avatar , offers to deliver the final blow to the fell dragon . Depending on the player 's final choice , the game will reach one of two different endings . If the player lets Chrom deal the final blow , Grima is put back to sleep for another thousand years , though the Avatar is left with regrets . If the player stops Chrom from dealing the final blow , the Avatar will kill Grima , causing both to vanish . Chrom and the Shepherds refuse to believe that the Avatar is dead , and vow to find them and bring them home . In a post @-@ credits scene , the Avatar wakes up in a field similar to the beginning of the game , where Chrom and Lissa find them and welcome them home .
= = Development = =
The original planning for Fire Emblem Awakening began in 2010 , when Nintendo SPD director Genki Yokota was finishing his work on Xenoblade Chronicles . The game was co @-@ developed by Nintendo and regular Fire Emblem developer Intelligent Systems . Among the staff members were veterans of the Fire Emblem series , including project manager Masahiro Higuchi , who had first worked on Fire Emblem : Genealogy of the Holy War , and Intelligent Systems producer Kouhei Maeda , who first worked as a scenario writer for Fire Emblem : The Binding Blade . The first proposals were made after the completion of Fire Emblem : New Mystery of the Emblem , a remake for the Nintendo DS of the third game . Development was very slow for the first year , during which time producer Hitoshi Yamagami organized the game 's development structure . Once this was completed , he handed the main production duties over to co @-@ director Genki Yokota . The art director was Toshiyuki Kusakihara . Character designs were done by Kusakihara and Yūsuke Kozaki . Kusakihara was brought on board to offer a fresh perspective on the Fire Emblem series and new ideas for the team , while Kozaki was brought in to help create a distinctive art style that would be well received overseas , as had his previous work for the Wii title No More Heroes . During development , Kusakihara and Kozaki had lengthy meetings about various aspects of the game . These meetings became so time @-@ consuming that Kusakihara compared his situation to the legend of Urashima Tarō .
Due to declining sales for the series , the developers were told by Nintendo that Awakening would be the last Fire Emblem game if it failed to sell above 250 @,@ 000 units . This caused panic for the team , with them considering including a high number of elements new to the game . Among the concepts were a modern @-@ day setting or using the planet Mars as a setting . Eventually , the team decided that these elements would alienate rather than attract players and stuck to the medieval setting and style of previous Fire Emblem titles . As a compromise , the team decided to make it the " culmination " of all the games in Fire Emblem series to that point , incorporating gameplay elements from multiple titles . This approach was approved by the team and the proposal was completed within a month , though the decision also created difficulties with choosing which elements to include , and how to balance them so they did not clash with one another . The game 's final title , " Awakening " , was born from this concept of an ultimate Fire Emblem game . It was initially just casually suggested by Yamagami when discussing ideas for a title with Yokota , and Yokota liked it . As development progressed , the team continued to come up with ideas that increased workload , but they maintained a positive attitude and pushed forward in spite of the consequent pressures . Internally , the game was known as Fire Emblem Fin : The Children from the Brink .
Maeda was mainly responsible for the original scenario , thinking out the rough outline before the team created the events of each chapter in detail . Some plot points , such as the true identity of " Marth " , were planned from an early stage , while many of the other plot twists came about during its development . Many of them were added at the suggestion of team members from both Intelligent Systems and Nintendo . Two key story themes while developing the game were the love for the characters , and the bonds characters developed over the course of the story . The latter theme was expressed in gameplay through the cooperative behavior of adjacent characters . While voice acting was included , it was limited to snappy lines meant to evoke a certain feeling . This was because the team had concerns about the amount of content in the game , which would increase a great deal with full voice acting , and its effect on the pacing . The team also used multiple well @-@ known Japanese voice actors for the characters . Special voice overs and visuals were created for the character " confession " sequences . All the main characters had a personalized back story , and appropriate personalities were chosen for them . The first one to be finalized was the child character Inigo , who was created by character planner Nami Kumoru . A large team of writers were employed to create the character dialogue , and a story bible containing the characters ' personality traits was created for the writers to work from . While developing the playable and enemy characters , the team used feedback from fans saying they should name all the characters , including foot soldiers . Wanting to give the impression of every character having their own lives , they created full artwork for all characters . Creating the characters proved to be one of the hardest parts of development . While designing the characters , Kozaki took their backstories into account : for example , the thief character Gaius was drawn with a sack of sweets , as he had a love for them . Kozaki was also responsible for creating the 2D artwork which represented the characters during conversations .
= = = Design = = =
Once Nintendo gave the go @-@ ahead for development , Intelligent Systems formed a small internal development team to handle the project . Awakening was the first Fire Emblem game for the Nintendo 3DS . The platform was as yet unreleased and still undergoing final development . Because of this , the team had a large number of ideas for features to include , but they also only had a limited idea of what the system was capable of . Consequently , they had difficulties deciding how the 2D sprites and 3D environments would interact with each other , and ensuring they did not clip through objects . One notable feature missing from in @-@ game character models was their feet . The original idea was to add a unique and uniform deformation to characters . As the team did not have much knowledge of the platform 's CPU strength , the amount of character bones they could include were intentionally limited . This meant that the bones needed for the operation of ankles and feet were omitted . Later , it was discovered that ankles and feet could be included , but the team decided to leave that for a future game if it came to pass . A different explanation given was that the team wanted players to focus on the top half of characters , so made their heads the largest part of their character models while shrinking their feet .
The concept for character graphics on the map underwent changes . Initially , some of the team felt that accurately displaying a character 's equipment and class would be enough , but later it was decided to give them all individual characteristics . They were also able to add more unique character expressions than previous Fire Emblem games , enabling a greater emotional range during scenes of drama . A different element was the environmental effects the team incorporated , such as dust clouds when characters performed actions in battle . For the full @-@ motion cutscenes , the team wanted to create a sense of grandeur and spectacle , using the openings of Taiga drama series as inspiration . Japanese animation company Kamikaze Douga was in charge of supervising the production and art assets of the game 's cutscenes . Cutscene animation was handled by Studio Anima . According to team members , their request to Studio Anima was to make the world " come alive " during the full @-@ motion sequences , which were included at crucial moments in the plot .
The first part of the game to receive full attention from the team was the gameplay . As a test map , the team used the opening map for Mystery of the Emblem . One of the early options was switching between 16x16 and 24x24 pixel characters depending on the camera 's overhead distance . In the end , the team used a hardware @-@ based scaling system instead of switching between graphic types so as to keep the frame rate consistent in battle . While designing the levels , the team created both maps with a plot @-@ driven structure and maps that allowed for player freedom . An aspect of the battle system new to the series was the inclusion of an optional first @-@ person viewpoint during battles . This was done with western players in mind , as developers wanted to both give players an option on their perspective in battle and demonstrate the platform 's 3D effects . The difficulty levels proved a point of debate amongst the team , ranging from the naming of difficulties to whether to include the ability to adjust it on the fly , which some felt was contrary to Fire Emblem traditions . There was also debate about both the inclusion and mechanics of the marriage system . While some aspects went smoothly , there was contention about the ability to marry any of the characters , and Kusakihara 's suggestion of having characters kissing at the conclusion of each romance was vetoed by the team . An effort was made to make the interface and graphics easy for players to understand . An example of this was the cursor , which in previous games had been a triangular shape and for Awakening was changed to a pointing hand . One of the more controversial ideas that made it into the final game was the " Casual Mode " , first introduced in New Mystery of the Emblem . Initially opposed by staff members at Nintendo and Intelligent Systems , Yamagami and others successfully defended the feature . Yamagami 's stance was that modern gamers would not be pleased with needing to invest extra time because a character had died . In another interview , team members said that Awakening was the first time the team conformed to the popular image of Nintendo games being easy to play and user @-@ friendly .
= = Release = =
The game was first announced in September 2011 as part of Nintendo 's 2012 lineup for the 3DS , alongside titles such as Monster Hunter 4 and Bravely Default . As part of its release , Nintendo created a limited edition Nintendo 3DS bundle with Awakening pre @-@ installed . The game 's localization and western release was planned from an early stage , hence the inclusion of multiple aesthetic and gameplay elements meant to appeal to a western audience . The localization process was handled collaboratively by independent video game localization company 8 @-@ 4 and Nintendo of America . The localization process took approximately one year . The game was first announced for release in Europe in February 2012 , with the stated release period being that year . In April of the same year , Nintendo of America registered a web domain for Fire Emblem Awakening . Its North American release was confirmed in June through Nintendo 's Twitter account . The release windows for western regions were announced in December . For its western release , the game included both the English and Japanese voice tracks . Like in Japan , a limited 3DS bundle with Awakening pre @-@ installed was created for North America and Europe , with Europe also receiving the 3DS XL model as part of the bundle . There was some confusion upon its release in North America : on the day of release , while it was available through Nintendo 's online store , multiple online retailers did not have it stocked . While Nintendo was fairly non @-@ committal on the incident , they did state that due to variabilities in shipping , retailers could received stocks on different days .
= = = Downloadable content = = =
Fire Emblem Awakening was the first packaged title released by Nintendo to receive downloadable content ( DLC ) after launch , taking the form of additional maps and characters from previous entries in the Fire Emblem series . The idea for DLC content came up when the game was close to completion . Due to this , the team could not do anything that would invalidate the main story . For the additional playable characters , the team focused on the main cast , picked out the most suitable , and left the final choice to Maeda . Starting from the game 's release , over twenty different playable maps were released over several months at the rate of one map per week . Nintendo decided to release downloadable content for the game in all available regions . After it becomes available , the DLC can be accessed using the game 's SpotPass system : within the context of the game 's world , after a certain point in the game , the characters can access an area called the Outrealm Gate , being transported to the DLC maps . Various artists have contributed illustrations for the downloadable characters , including those who have worked on previous titles , such as Senri Kita , and newcomers , such as Kimihiko Fujisaka . One of the DLC maps received censorship upon release in North America and Europe , with a shot of a female playable character altered to hide her knickers .
= = Reception = =
Fire Emblem Awakening has received widespread critical acclaim , holding an aggregate score of 92 / 100 on Metacritic , based on 72 reviews . After its release , Awakening was placed on GameSpot 's list of the best games on the 3DS , and reached second place on a similar list by GameTrailers . IGN included the game on two different lists : it reached # 2 on their list of the top 25 Nintendo 3DS games , and # 21 on their list of the top 125 Nintendo games of all time . Slant Magazine 's staff ranked it the eleventh best video game of 2013 .
Famitsu said in its review that the game could be enjoyed by hardcore fans and newcomers alike , as it made accommodations for both , and particularly praised the new gameplay features . IGN 's Audrey Drake called Awakening " the most fluid and stunning strategy RPG experience available on a portable , and features the best storytelling and production value of any 3DS game to date . " Jeremy Parish , writing for 1UP.com , said that though the Fire Emblem series had changed little over the years while holding a place of respect within the genre , the changes Intelligent Systems implemented made Awakening " an engrossing title that should enjoy impressive shelf life . " His main criticism was against the enemy AI , which occasionally unbalanced the gameplay . Ray Carsillo of Electronic Gaming Monthly , while sharing Parish 's opinion on the lack of a restart option , called Awakening " probably the best Fire Emblem to come to the States yet . " While Eurogamer 's Rich Stanton , giving the game a perfect score , called it " a special game " , praising its story themes and how it made him care about his characters .
GameTrailers said that the game " takes positive strides forward with new additions like enhancements to the social system and battle mechanics , and the series ’ established formula is all the better for it . " Despite feeling mixed about the interface and multiplayer , GameSpot 's Heidi Kemps called Awakening the best installment in the series for some time . Alexa Ray Corriea , writing for Polygon , said that the development team had " added just enough to the time @-@ tested Fire Emblem formula to bolster its challenges without cutting away its roots . " Game Informer 's Kimberley Wallace said that " [ Awakening ] made me scratch and claw for victory , and I savored every moment . " Chris Carter of Destructoid , similar to Famitsu , recommended it to old and new players , saying : " If you 've been itching to get into a Fire Emblem game , this is a great place to start . If you 've been playing them all along , you 'll feel right at home . "
= = = Awards = = =
Awakening was nominated for multiple awards after release . At the 2012 Famitsu Awards 2012 , Awakening was among the games awarded the magazine 's Excellence Award . In the west , it was nominated in the " Best RPG " category at the Spike Video Game Awards 2013 . It was nominated in multiple categories in Destructoid 's 2013 Game of the Year awards , including Game of the Year , Best Role @-@ Playing Game , Best Story , and Best Soundtrack . It was also nominated for GameSpot 's Game of the Year 2013 in the Nintendo 3DS category . In IGN 's Best of 2013 awards , it won in both the Best 3DS Strategy Game and Best 3DS Story categories . At the Game Developers Choice Awards 2014 , it was nominated in the Best Handheld / Mobile Game category .
= = = Sales = = =
The game 's Japanese version sold exceptionally well , with it being the fastest selling entry in the series since detailed weekly tallies began . During its opening week , the game managed to sell 242 @,@ 600 units , reaching the top of the sales charts and beating the debut sales of the previous two Fire Emblem releases . It sold through 81 @.@ 63 % of its initial shipment , causing sell @-@ outs in some stores . Japanese sales tracker Media Create attributed the initial high sales to Nintendo 's promotional campaign . Demand for the limited Japanese bundle also exceeded Nintendo 's expectations , as the pre @-@ order website crashed from the amount of people trying to buy it . As marketing the game as any product other than a limited edition would have violated a Japanese commercial law , Nintendo were unable to reopen the pre @-@ orders after the initial sales period despite complaints . By the beginning of 2013 , the game had sold 455 @,@ 268 units , placing it among the top 30 high @-@ selling titles for 2012 . In addition to the main game , Nintendo reported that 1 @.@ 2 million units of downloadable content had been sold by September 2012 , bringing in an additional 380 million yen ( about $ 4 @.@ 8 million ) .
Sales in the west were equally good . During its first month on sale in North America , the game sold 180 @,@ 000 units , with 63 @,@ 000 units of the total sales being eShop downloads . These figures gave Awakening the best ever first month sales for the franchise in North America . Sales of the title continued to rise in the coming months , with the total figure reaching 240 @,@ 000 units by April , including a further 20 @,@ 000 digital sales . By September , total sales in North America had reached 390 @,@ 000 units . In the UK , Awakening debuted in third place on the charts behind Injustice : Gods Among Us and BioShock Infinite . The game and the hardware bundle collectively boosted sales of the 3DS and 3DS XL by nearly 50 % over the previous week . As of December 2014 , the game had sold just over 1 @.@ 9 million copies worldwide , and has become the best @-@ selling Fire Emblem title in the west .
= = Legacy = =
The game 's strong sales , well exceeding the figure set by Nintendo during development , saved the Fire Emblem series from cancellation . In January 2015 , a new Fire Emblem title created for the 3DS by the same team as Awakening , Fire Emblem Fates , was announced for a worldwide release . The success of Awakening has been credited with popularizing the 3DS platform among other Japanese RPG developers , such as Square Enix and Atlus .
Awakening 's success has also resulted in characters making appearances in other Nintendo games . Lucina and the Avatar , under their default character name " Robin " and using their default male and female appearance , were featured in the crossover fighting video game Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U. Chrom was considered for the game , but was deemed too similar to other Fire Emblem characters in the game , so his appearance was relegated to a small non @-@ playable cameo . Lucina and the Avatar were also made available as playable characters in Code Name : S.T.E.A.M. for those who purchased their Amiibo figures and connected them to the 3DS . Costumes based on Chrom and Lucina are also available in Capcom 's Monster Hunter : Frontier G video game , in a cross @-@ promotion done with Nintendo . During promotion for Fates , a Fire Emblem @-@ themed trading card game was released . A set themed after Awakening includes a code to download Lucina as a playable character in Fates . Chrom & Lucina are both playable units in Project X Zone 2 , and multiple characters from Awakening feature in Tokyo Mirage Sessions ♯ FE , a crossover with the Megami Tensei series .
= Background of the Spanish Civil War =
The background of the Spanish Civil War dates back to the end of the 19th century , when the owners of large estates , called latifundia , held most of the power in a land @-@ based oligarchy . The landowners ' power was unsuccessfully challenged by the industrial and merchant sectors . In 1868 popular uprisings led to the overthrow of Queen Isabella II of the House of Bourbon . In 1873 Isabella 's replacement , King Amadeo I of the House of Savoy , abdicated due to increasing political pressure , and the short @-@ lived First Spanish Republic was proclaimed . After the restoration of the Bourbons in December 1874 , Carlists and anarchists emerged in opposition to the monarchy . Alejandro Lerroux helped bring republicanism to the fore in Catalonia , where poverty was particularly acute . Growing resentment of conscription and of the military culminated in the Tragic Week in Barcelona in 1909 . After the First World War , the working class , the industrial class , and the military united in hopes of removing the corrupt central government , but were unsuccessful . Fears of communism grew . A military coup brought Miguel Primo de Rivera to power in 1923 , and he ran Spain as a military dictatorship . Support for his regime gradually faded , and he resigned in January 1930 . There was little support for the monarchy in the major cities , and King Alfonso XIII abdicated ; the Second Spanish Republic was formed , whose power would remain until the culmination of the Spanish Civil War . Monarchists would continue to oppose the Republic .
The revolutionary committee headed by Niceto Alcalá @-@ Zamora became the provisional government , with Zamora as the President and Head of State . The Republic had broad support from all segments of society ; elections in June 1931 returned a large majority of Republicans and Socialists . With the onset of the Great Depression , the government attempted to assist rural Spain by instituting an eight @-@ hour day and giving tenure to farm workers . Land reform and working conditions remained important issues throughout the lifetime of the Republic . Fascism remained a reactive threat , helped by controversial reforms to the military . In December a new reformist , liberal , and democratic constitution was declared . The constitution secularised the government , and this , coupled with their slowness to respond to a wave of anti @-@ clerical violence prompted committed Catholics become disillusioned with the incumbent coalition government . In October 1931 Manuel Azaña became Prime Minister of a minority government . The Right won the elections of 1933 following an unsuccessful uprising by General José Sanjurjo in August 1932 , who would later lead the coup that started the civil war .
Events in the period following November 1933 , called the " black two years " , seemed to make a civil war more likely . Alejandro Lerroux of the Radical Republican Party ( RRP ) formed a government with the support of CEDA and rolled back all major changes made under the previous administration , he also granted amnesty to General José Sanjurjo , who had attempted an unsuccessful coup in 1932 . Some monarchists moved to the Fascist Falange Española to help achieve their aims . In response , the socialist party ( PSOE ) became more extreme , setting up a revolutionary committee and training the socialist youth in secret.Open violence occurred in the streets of Spanish cities and militancy continued to increase right up until the start of the civil war , reflecting a movement towards radical upheaval rather than peaceful democratic means as a solution to Spain 's problems . In the last months of 1934 , two government collapses brought members of the Spanish Confederation of the Autonomous Right ( CEDA ) into the government , making it more right @-@ wing . Farm workers ' wages were halved , and the military was purged of republican members and reformed . A Popular Front alliance was organised , which won the 1936 elections . Azaña led a weak minority government , but soon replaced Zamora as president in April . Prime Minister Casares failed to heed warnings of a military conspiracy involving several generals , who decided that the government had to be replaced if the dissolution of Spain was to be prevented . They organised a military coup in July , which started the Spanish Civil War .
= = Constitutional monarchy = =
= = = 19th century = = =
The 19th century was a turbulent time for Spain . Those in favour of reforming Spain 's government vied for political power with conservatives , who tried to prevent reforms from taking place . Some liberals , in a tradition that had started with the Spanish Constitution of 1812 , sought to limit the power of the monarchy of Spain
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924 . Nordic combined required athletes to first compete in the open 18 kilometer cross @-@ country ski race alongside the other cross @-@ country competitors . Their times would be assigned a point value . Two days later the athletes would take two jumps off the ski jump hill . The jumps would be given a point value and the longest jump would be combined with their cross @-@ country time to create a score . Traditional Nordic combined power Norway was stunned at the 1948 Games when Finland 's Heikki Hasu became the first non @-@ Norwegian to win the event . In fact Norway did not even make the podium . Hasu 's teammate Martti Huhtala took the silver and Sven Israelsson from Sweden won the bronze .
= = = Ski jumping = = =
The Norwegians swept the ski jumping event . Birger Ruud had won the gold medal in the ski jumping event at both the 1932 and 1936 Winter Games . The twelve @-@ year hiatus due to World War II meant that Ruud was 36 years old in 1948 . He had retired from competition and was coaching the Norwegian team . However , when he arrived at the Games he decided to come out of retirement and compete one last time . Despite not having competed for several years he earned a silver medal . Norwegian Petter Hugsted won the gold and teammate Thorleif Schjelderup won the bronze .
= = = Demonstration sports = = =
Two demonstration sports were held at the 1948 Games . Military patrol had been a demonstration sport at the 1924 , 1928 , and 1936 Winter Olympic Games . It entailed a combination of cross @-@ country skiing and shooting at targets . Eventually the competition would be renamed Biathlon and was made an official Olympic medal sport at the 1960 Games in Squaw Valley , United States . Winter pentathlon involved five competitions : 10 kilometer cross @-@ country ski race , shooting , downhill skiing , fencing and horseback riding . This was the first and last time the event was held . Fourteen competitors took part in the event .
= = Calendar = =
All dates are in Central European Time ( UTC + 1 )
The opening ceremonies were held at 10 : 00 am on January 30 along with the initial hockey games and the first two runs of the two @-@ man bobsled . The closing ceremonies were held at 4 : 00 pm on February 8 . All of the medals were awarded at the closing ceremonies rather than immediately after the event as current tradition dictates .
= = Venues = =
The Stad Olympique ( Olympic Stadium ) hosted the opening and closing ceremonies . The stadium was also used for speed skating , the figure skating competition and the medal games for ice hockey . Most of the ice hockey games were held at the Suvretta and Kulm stadiums in St. Moritz . Bobsled was held at the St. Moritz @-@ Celerina Olympic Bobrun . Skeleton was contested on the Cresta Run track . Olympia Bob Run was built in 1897 and modernized for the 1948 Games while the Cresta Run was first constructed in 1885 . The ski jump competitions were held at Olympiaschanze ski jump hill in St. Moritz . It was built in 1927 for the 1928 Games , and remained in use until 2006 . The alpine events were held on ski @-@ runs in and around Piz Nair .
= = Participating nations = =
28 nations competed in St. Moritz , the same number as the previous Winter Games in 1936 . Chile , Denmark , Iceland , Korea , and Lebanon all made their Winter Olympic debut at these Games . Germany and Japan were not invited because of their involvement in World War II . Italy , despite being an Axis power originally , was allowed to send athletes after their defection to the Allies in 1943 . Estonia , Latvia and Lithuania had been annexed by the Soviet Union in 1940 , and would not compete again as independent nations until 1992 . Argentina returned to the Winter Games after missing the 1932 and 1936 Games , and Australia and Luxembourg did not compete in 1948 , even though they had participated in 1936 .
= = Medal count = =
These are the top ten nations that won medals at the 1948 Winter Games .
= Polikarpov I @-@ 6 =
The Polikarpov I @-@ 6 was a Soviet biplane fighter prototype of the late 1920s . It was designed with traditional wooden construction in comparison with the wood and steel tube construction Polikarpov I @-@ 5 . Its development took longer than planned and the lead designer , Nikolai Polikarpov , was arrested for industrial sabotage , which only further delayed the project . Only two prototypes were built , as the I @-@ 5 was selected for production .
= = Design and development = =
Development of the I @-@ 6 ( Istrebitel ' — fighter ) began in September 1928 with a deadline for delivery for the first prototype of 1 August 1929 after the first prototypes of the Polikarpov I @-@ 3 were completed . Although the new fighter shared many of the characteristics of the earlier design , including the staggered sesquiplane , single @-@ bay , layout of the wings , it was a new design which used a nine @-@ cylinder , single @-@ row , air @-@ cooled Bristol Jupiter radial engine rather the water @-@ cooled inline engine of its predecessor . It was designed by the OSS ( Russian : Otdel Sookhoputnykh Samolyotov — Landplane Department ) , later redesignated as OPO @-@ 1 ( Russian : Opytnyy Otdel — Experimental Department ) of Aviatrest ( " Aviation Trust " ) under the supervision of Nikolai Polikarpov , head designer of the department . It was originally intended to be compared to the I @-@ 3 , but this was changed to an evaluation of construction methods with the wooden construction I @-@ 6 compared to the mixed construction Polikarpov I @-@ 5 . Both aircraft used the Jupiter VI engine for which a license had recently been negotiated .
The I @-@ 6 had an oval @-@ section semi @-@ monocoque fuselage covered with ' shpon ' , molded birch plywood , with a small headrest faired into the fuselage , although the engine was enclosed in a metal cowling that left the cylinder heads exposed for better cooling . The two @-@ spar wings were covered in plywood and fabric and had a Clark Y profile . Internal bracing wires were fitted to reinforce the wings . The control surfaces were framed in duralumin , but covered in fabric . The duralumin N @-@ type struts that separated the wings , and attached the upper wing to the fuselage , had a teardrop profile . They were reinforced with steel bracing wires . The conventional undercarriage was fixed with rubber shock absorbers . The wooden propeller was given a spinner . The lighter weight of the air @-@ cooled Jupiter engine , which required neither a heavy radiator nor coolant , meant that the I @-@ 6 had an empty weight only 62 % of that of the I @-@ 3 .
Polikarpov was arrested and imprisoned by the OGPU in September 1929 for the crime of industrial sabotage when neither the I @-@ 6 nor the I @-@ 5 projects met their stipulated deadlines , and this delayed the first flight of the I @-@ 6 until 30 March 1930 . The second prototype was completed shortly thereafter and both aircraft appeared in that year 's May Day fly @-@ past over Moscow . Both aircraft likely used imported engines before they were replaced by the Soviet @-@ built copy of the Jupiter , the Shvetsov M @-@ 22 . One I @-@ 6 crashed on 13 June 1930 after the test pilot bailed out , without justification , in the opinion of the Soviet aviation historian Vadim B. Shavrov .
The I @-@ 5 and the I @-@ 6 were virtually identical in performance , although the I @-@ 6 took 15 seconds to complete a full circle versus the 9 @.@ 5 seconds of the I @-@ 5 . Both aircraft were armed with two 7 @.@ 62 mm ( 0 @.@ 3 in ) PV @-@ 1 machine guns , but the production model of the I @-@ 5 was expected to be armed with four , although this proved to impose too great a penalty to the I @-@ 5 's performance . The exact reasons for the selection of the I @-@ 5 over the I @-@ 6 , which was debated for a full year , are not known , but likely relate to both of these factors . Curiously , Polikarpov was not informed of the selection of the I @-@ 5 until his release in 1933 after his initial sentence of death had been commuted to ten years of imprisonment in a labor camp .
= = Specifications = =
Data from Shavrov , Istoriia konstruktskii samoletov v SSSR do 1938 g .
General characteristics
Crew : 1
Length : 6 @.@ 8 m ( 22 ft 4 in )
Wingspan : 10 m ( 32 ft 10 in )
Height : ( )
Wing area : 20 @.@ 5 m ² ( 220 @.@ 7 ft ² )
Empty weight : 868 kg ( 1 @,@ 914 lb )
Loaded weight : 1 @,@ 280 kg ( 2 @,@ 822 lb )
Powerplant : 1 × Shvetsov M @-@ 22 radial engine , 313 kW ( 420 hp )
Performance
Maximum speed : 280 km / h ( 151 kn , 174 mph )
Range : 700 km ( 378 nmi , 435 mi )
Service ceiling : 7 @,@ 500 m ( 24 @,@ 606 ft )
Wing loading : 62 kg / m ² ( 13 lb / ft ² )
Power / mass : 245 W / kg ( 0 @.@ 15 hp / lb )
Time to altitude : 10 minutes to 5 @,@ 000 m ( 16 @,@ 405 ft )
Horizontal turn time : 15 sec
Armament
2 × 7 @.@ 62 mm ( 0 @.@ 30 in ) PV @-@ 1 machine guns
= Pilot ( Parks and Recreation ) =
" Pilot " is the pilot episode of the American comedy television series Parks and Recreation . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on April 9 , 2009 . The episode was written by series co @-@ creators Michael Schur and Greg Daniels , and directed by Daniels .
The episode introduces the protagonist Leslie Knope , played by Amy Poehler , as well as the other regular characters played by cast members Rashida Jones , Paul Schneider , Aziz Ansari , Aubrey Plaza and Nick Offerman . Knope is a mid @-@ level bureaucrat in the Parks and Recreation department in the fictional town of Pawnee , Indiana . In " Pilot " , Knope sets out to turn a construction pit into a park after local nurse Ann Perkins ( Jones ) complains about the dangerous pit during a town meeting . Her anti @-@ government boss Ron Swanson ( Offerman ) reluctantly allows her to form an exploratory committee after her friend and colleague Mark Brendanawicz ( Schneider ) secretly intervenes on her behalf .
Daniels and Schur first started writing the script in the summer of 2008 , when they were in the early stages of conceiving the series . Like the rest of the series , the pilot was filmed in the same mockumentary style as The Office , the NBC comedy series also directed by Daniels . About one month before the pilot aired , a focus group report discussing several perceived problems with the episode was leaked to the media , which led to speculation that Parks and Recreation was not ready for prime @-@ time television . The pilot episode featured a number of cultural references to such people as Bobby Knight , Larry Bird and Laura Linney , as well as female political figures to whom Leslie compares herself , such as Hillary Rodham Clinton , Sarah Palin , and Nancy Pelosi .
" Pilot " received generally mixed reviews , although Poehler herself was widely praised by most television critics . According to Nielsen Media Research , " Pilot " was watched by 6 @.@ 77 million households in its original airing . Although it received lower ratings than the two Office episodes it aired between , television critics pointed out it achieved an identical rating to the popular NBC show 30 Rock , which was broadcast the same night . The pilot , along with the rest of the first season of Parks and Recreation , was released on DVD in the United States on September 8 , 2009 .
= = Plot = =
The episode opens with Leslie Knope ( Amy Poehler ) , the deputy director of the Department of Parks and Recreation with six years of experience in the town of Pawnee , Indiana , discussing with a documentary crew her strong belief in the power of government to help other people . Later , Leslie hosts a community outreach public forum at an elementary school along with her jaded colleague Tom Haverford ( Aziz Ansari ) . Leslie is enthusiastic despite the low turnout and angry complaints , which she describes as " people caring loudly at me " . Local nurse Ann Perkins ( Rashida Jones ) complains about a giant pit near her house , which was dug out by a condominium developer that went bankrupt in the middle of the construction project . Ann says that her boyfriend Andy Dwyer ( Chris Pratt ) broke both his legs after falling into the pit , and she demands something be done about it . Leslie is inspired by the challenge and makes a " pinky promise " that she will fill in the pit and build a park on the land .
Leslie seeks advice from city planner Mark Brendanawicz ( Paul Schneider ) , who feels the project would prove practically impossible due to the logistics and bureaucratic red tape , but Leslie is undeterred . Leslie later fondly tells the documentary crew that she and Mark made love five years ago , but Mark only vaguely recalls the encounter . Leslie , Tom and uninterested intern April Ludgate ( Aubrey Plaza ) visit Ann and meet Andy , a lazy and demanding musician whom she is forced to wait on and support financially . Afterward , Leslie and Ann visit the pit , which Leslie accidentally falls into as Tom and April make fun of her . Ann quickly provides medical assistance . Afterward , Leslie leaves , and Ann tells the documentary crew , " She 's a little doofy , but she 's sweet " . Some time later , Leslie asks her boss Ron Swanson ( Nick Offerman ) for permission to form an exploratory committee for the pit project . Ron initially refuses , but eventually agrees to consider it so that Leslie will leave his office . Ron explains that he does not want the Parks Department to build any parks because he believes government is a waste of money , and that all government should be privatized and run by corporations for profit . Leslie repeatedly pesters Ron about the park project , but he refuses to commit .
Meanwhile , Tom and April continue to make fun of Leslie , much to the displeasure of Mark . Mark , who tells the documentary crew he is impressed that Leslie has somehow maintained her optimism about government for six years , secretly asks Ron to give her the park project . Mark said doing so would return a favor Ron owes him for unspecified reasons . Leslie and Ann are extremely excited about the new exploratory subcommittee , and the department celebrates by getting drunk . Despite her skepticism about politics and government , a drunken Ann pledges to do whatever it takes to help get the pit filled in , " even if it takes two months " . The episode ends with Ron explaining to the documentary crew how he makes his office as uninviting as possible .
= = Production = =
= = = Conception = = =
Immediately after Ben Silverman was named co @-@ chairman of NBC 's entertainment division in 2007 , he asked Greg Daniels to create a new comedy series . Silverman and Daniels previously worked together on The Office , a half @-@ hour comedy Daniels adapted from the British comedy of the same name by Ricky Gervais and Stephen Merchant . Daniels wrote the pilot for what eventually became Parks and Recreation along with series co @-@ creator Michael Schur , who had served as a writer on The Office . Daniels and Schur had been considering ideas for a possible show with cast members Rashida Jones and Aziz Ansari , but the concept for the series did not form until they learned Amy Poehler could play the lead character . Once that casting was determined , the script for the pilot episode was first written in the summer of 2008 revolving around her as a city bureaucrat seeking to turn an enormous construction pit into a park . They also decided the script would include the mockumentary comedy style of The Office and , like that show , would allow for improvisation on set . However , they did not consider the script an Office spin @-@ off and NBC officials vehemently insisted to media outlets that the show was a completely separate series , despite the similarities between the two shows .
= = = Writing = = =
The first draft of the script portrayed Leslie and Mark as slightly less likable characters . Originally , Mark asked Ron to green @-@ light the park project not to help Leslie , but because he was attracted to Ann and wanted another excuse to keep seeing her . These elements of the script were changed after press tours and focus group screenings . The show 's writers spent time researching local California politics and attended Los Angeles City Council meetings . Daniels and Schur wanted the pilot to establish that one of Leslie 's duties was talking to the public on a regular basis , and they deliberately portrayed her public forum meetings as poorly attended except by a select group of angry residents . Schur said , " I 've been to some community meetings in my life , and it is often this feeling of utter sparseness . That nobody cares . " In writing the script , Schur wanted Mark and Leslie to have a long history together before the events of the episode , rather than having the two characters meet for the first time on screen , which he felt had already been done in many television shows . The first shot of the pilot was originally a scene with Ann standing over the pit and staring at it with an annoyed expression , followed by a documentary interview with Ann and Andy . The opening scene was changed because Daniels and Schur decided they wanted the first scene of the series to be set in a park . As a result , the episode started with a cold open of Leslie interviewing children in a park , then using a broom to push a drunk man out of spiral slide . Daniels had such a specific vision for the scene , he drew an elaborate and detailed storyboard sketch of a drunk man stuck in a tubular slide .
Some parts of the episode consisted of a mixture of written dialogue and comedic improvisation from the actors . In one such scene , Aziz Ansari attempts to flirt with Rashida Jones when she speaks at a Parks and Recreation public forum . The scene was included in the script , but Ansari continued to improvise long after his dialogue ended , and Jones said she found it difficult to keep a straight face during filming . Schur encouraged Ansari to continue , and suggested the line in which Ansari asks to go away with Jones for the weekend . Daniels called the scene " probably the highlight of the pilot . " The ending included another example of written dialogue mixed with improvisation , when Ansari recited a list of unusual things Leslie has attempted to do while drunk . In other scenes , the written dialogue was abandoned altogether in favor of improvisation , such as the scene of Ann and Andy talking on Ann 's couch after Leslie fell into the pit and injured herself . Chris Pratt improvised a number of other lines and scenes in the episode , including when Andy asked Leslie to pass him his " itch stick " , which he then used to scratch under his leg cast in an awkward and disgusting way .
The pilot script included several political cultural references . Leslie compares herself to Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton and House Speaker Nancy Pelosi in describing the prevalence of women in government . Leslie invokes former U.S. Presidents Richard Nixon and George W. Bush as shining examples of democracy . The episode also features several references to sports figures . Ron has a poster of Bobby Knight , the famous retired basketball coach , hanging in his office . The Bobby Knight image later had to be removed from the show for legal reasons . Leslie has an autographed photo of Indiana @-@ born basketball player Larry Bird on her desk . It reads , " To Lesly , Sink That Shot , Larry B. " This is a reference to a deleted scene in which Tom reveals he has tricked Leslie into believing he has brunch with Bird once a month . Tom himself actually faked the autograph , and deliberately misspelled her name " Lesly " as a joke .
= = = Filming = = =
Michael Schur made his directorial debut with the pilot episode . The original cut of the pilot episode was 48 minutes long , and had to be trimmed down to 22 minutes . Due to the improvisational style and hand @-@ held camerawork of the series , a great deal of extra footage is filmed in each episode and ultimately has to be discarded for the final cut . Amy Poehler said of this , " For every show , there could probably be a second show of stuff we 've edited out . " Brief portions of those deleted scenes were interwoven into short montage sequences that played along with dialogue from the documentary @-@ style interviews conducted within the episode with the characters .
Although the series shared the same mockumentary style as The Office , Daniels and Schur sought to establish a slightly different tone in the camerawork of the pilot episode of Parks and Recreation . For example , the documentary @-@ style interviews with characters sometimes feature two separate angles on the same person , with footage of the two different angles intercut into a single scene for the final episode . This distinguishing technique was inspired by The Five Obstructions , a 2003 documentary by Lars von Trier and Jørgen Leth , which Daniels watched at the suggestion of actor Paul Schneider . The pilot episode also makes use of the jump cut technique more often than in The Office . In one example from the pilot episode , a scene repeatedly jumps cuts to several brief clips in which Leslie seeks permission from Ron to pursue the pit project .
The pilot episode was filmed in southern California . The construction pit featured in the episode was dug out by the episode 's producers at an undeveloped property in Van Nuys , a district in Los Angeles . The producers went door @-@ to @-@ door to neighboring residents to seek their permission , then rented construction equipment to dig the hole in the ground . The pit was guarded 24 hours a day , and paparazzi regularly came to the set to take photos of the actors during filming . The exterior of the Pawnee government building , and several of the hallway scenes , were shot at the Pasadena city hall building . The interior parks and recreation department scenes were filmed on a sound stage . The windows could drop water that would simulate falling rain , and the windowsills included fake pigeons . The cold open scene was filmed in an actual playground in Los Angeles . The spiral tube slide used in the scene was the only one of its type left in the city , because the rest had been deemed too dangerous and removed . The public forum scenes were filmed in a Los Angeles middle school . The script originally called for the meeting to be held in a classroom because the auditorium door was locked . However , Daniels said the writers thought the school 's auditorium was such a " cool location " that they added a scene in which the auditorium lights were turned off in the middle of the meeting .
Singer @-@ songwriter Loudon Wainwright III makes a cameo as Barry , one of the citizens who makes wild complaints at the parks and recreations community meeting . Wainwright was selected for the part at the suggestion of casting director Allison Jones . Comedian and actor Ian Roberts , who worked with Amy Poehler on the Upright Citizens Brigade sketch comedy troupe , also made a cameo at the public meeting as Ian Winston , a man complaining about cursing at the park . During filming , guest star Chris Pratt said Poehler " [ went ] out of her way " to welcome him , and that her polite behavior put him at ease during filming .
= = Reception = =
= = = Pre @-@ broadcast feedback = = =
Parks and Recreation was rushed into production for the pilot to meet the April 9 premiere date . As a result , when the series was paneled at a January 2009 television critics press tour , NBC did not have a finished episode to air , and only had a copy of the pilot episode script available for critics to review . Some of the parts were not yet cast , and without a finalized title , the series was known only as The Untitled Amy Poehler Project or TUAPP . Alan Sepinwall , television writer for The Star @-@ Ledger , said he found the script very funny even though he normally hates reading comedy scripts " because they 're rarely as funny on the page as they are coming out of an actor 's mouth " .
According to a March 18 report that was leaked to television journalist Nikki Finke , focus groups responded poorly to a screening of the rough @-@ cut version of the pilot . Several viewers felt the show was a " carbon copy " of The Office , and needed to be differentiated from that series to avoid coming across as forced and unoriginal . Some viewers found it predictable , slow @-@ paced and lacking character development , and felt the beginning of the episode needed to better explain the situation and setting . Several viewers said the show lacked quality male characters , particularly a " datable " lead male . Other viewers , however , said The Office needed time to develop into a quality show , and they felt audiences would be more patient with Parks and Recreation than other shows due to its connection to The Office . Viewers also said the show 's portrayal of bureaucracy of local government was " very believable " and could provide quirky and silly situations for the show , and they liked Poehler 's character and performance . The release of the report led to speculation in the media that Parks and Recreations was not ready for prime @-@ time television . In response to the leaked negative feedback , Ben Silverman said rough cuts of shows are usually received negatively , even for ultimately successful shows . Schur also said there had been at least four complete edits to the pilot since the focus @-@ group results came in .
= = = Ratings and reviews = = =
The Parks and Recreation pilot first aired on April 9 , 2009 , in the United States on NBC . It was shown in a time slot between two fifth season episodes of The Office : " Dream Team " and " Michael Scott Paper Company " . In its original American broadcast on April 9 , the pilot was watched by 6 @.@ 77 million overall households , according to Nielsen Media Research . Media outlets described it as a solid rating for the premiere , and said it was comparable to average ratings for 30 Rock , the NBC show that also airs Thursday nights ; 30 Rock achieved the same 6 @.@ 8 million overall household rating during the 9 : 30 p.m. time slot on April 9 . " Pilot " also had a 40 percent higher rating than the final episode of Kath & Kim , which previously held the show 's time slot . However , " Pilot " did not capture the same amount of viewers as the Office episodes that ran before and after it . " Dream Team " , which ran at 8 p.m. , drew 7 @.@ 2 million households , and " Michael Scott Paper Company " , which ran at 9 p.m. , drew 8 million households .
The episode received mixed reviews from television critics . Daniel Carlson of The Hollywood Reporter said Parks and Recreation appears to be a " genuinely funny and engaging comedy " and that inevitable comparisons to The Office are not fair ; he also said Poehler " proves instantly she 's got the comic intelligence to carry a series like this one " . Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly said " Pilot " lacked the " snap and clear character delineation " of The Office , but pointed out that show also appeared flat in early episodes ; Tucker said he liked the performances , attitude and atmosphere of the show , although it had few laugh out loud moments . Matthew Gilbert of The Boston Globe said the show has the potential to become a " flip , witty political allegory " and praised Poehler and the supporting cast . Los Angeles Times television critic Robert Lloyd praised the show for providing strong female leads , which he said was rare on television . He also said , " It has a kind of sunny charm , a premise fit for a novel ... Poehler and Jones have a nice , contrapuntal rhythm . I stamp this show : approved . "
Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger said the series needs to find a way to distinguish Leslie from Steve Carell 's Michael Scott from The Office , but he said the pilot episode was funny , particularly the Aziz Ansari character . Sepinwall also said The Office did not find its footing until the second season , so comparisons simply based on the pilot were not fair . ( Ironically , most critics now agree that Parks and Recreation set a significantly higher standard after the second season . ) Alessandra Stanley of The New York Times said the supporting cast needed stronger writing and reinforcements , but that Poehler was excellent in a lead role unique for women because it is based on weakness and wrongheadedness , but still a positive and strong part . Stanley said , " The pilot episode isn ’ t perfect , but Ms. Poehler very nearly is . " Verne Gay of Newsday said Poehler has " plenty of appeal here " so he felt the show might have potential , but felt the pilot was for the most part a " near knockoff " of The Office . Likewise , Paige Wiser of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times said " so far it 's a pale Xerox of the paper company " , although she said " there are lots of funny little moments that could add up to a great series . " Robert Bianco said the episode was not funny , and the way in which the scripts and supporting cast ridicule and ignore the Leslie character leaves a " sour whiff of gratuitous cruelty . " He also called the pilot unoriginal and described it as " a style in search of a show , " despite Poehler 's likability . Similarly , Rob Owen of the Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette said , " Watching Poehler 's pathetic character have her dreams stomped on by apathetic bureaucrats is off @-@ putting , more so than Michael Scott 's obliviousness , " although Owen said the Ansari character was amusing .
Philadelphia Inquirer television critic Jonathan Storm strongly criticized the show , calling it a flat , " miscast mess " with serious structural problems . Storm also said the Leslie character lacked energy and Poehler was playing the part against her comedic strengths . Tom Shales of The Washington Post said , " Poehler 's show unfortunately isn 't worthy of her . It 's dry and hesitant when one longs for it to be raucous and madcap . " David Hinckley of New York Daily News said the show was not funny enough to deserve Poehler 's comedic talents , and compared the dialogue to a Saturday Night Live sketch that he said could not sustain a whole sitcom . New York Post television critic Linda Stasi said the pilot lacked laughs and was so similar to The Office that " it 's starting to look like a one @-@ trick pony outfit that 's gonna keep dressing that horse up in new saddles , hoping that no one will guess it 's been around the track so many times , it 's worn a ditch in the dirt . " The pilot episode premiered in Australia on Channel Seven on December 1 , 2009 , when episodes from the critically acclaimed second season were already playing in the United States . Sacha Moritorisz of The Sydney Morning Herald said of the episode , " To be frank , tonight 's premiere is weak . But the potential is obvious and word from the US is that it gets much better . "
= = DVD release = =
The pilot episode , along with the five other first season episodes of Parks and Recreation , was released on a one @-@ disc DVD set in the United States on September 8 , 2009 . The DVD included cast and crew commentary tracks for each episode , as well as about 30 minutes of deleted scenes . The deleted scenes included on the DVD were originally featured on the official Parks and Recreation website after the episode aired . In one of them , Tom talks about changing his name because he thought it sounded too foreign for politics , although he admits this was not a problem for U.S. President Barack Obama . The scene was eventually worked into the second season episode , " The Stakeout " .
= Manic Monday =
" Manic Monday " is a song by the American pop rock band The Bangles , and the first single released from their second studio album , Different Light ( 1986 ) . It was written by American musician Prince , using the pseudonym " Christopher " . Originally intended for the group Apollonia 6 in 1984 , he offered the song to The Bangles two years later . Lyrically , it describes a woman who is waking up to go to work on Monday , wishing it were still Sunday where she could relax .
The song , which was released on Monday January 27 , 1986 by Columbia Records , received generally positive reviews from music critics and some comparisons with The Mamas & the Papas ' " Monday , Monday " . It became The Bangles ' first hit , reaching number two in the United States and the United Kingdom , as well as in Austria , Canada , Germany and Ireland , and peaked within the top five of New Zealand , Norway and Switzerland . It was later certified silver in the UK by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) . The song has been covered by a number of other artists .
= = Background and composition = =
Prince wrote " Manic Monday " in 1984 , and recorded it as a duet for the band Apollonia 6 's self @-@ titled album ; however , he eventually pulled the song . Two years later , he offered the single to The Bangles under the pseudonym " Christopher " , a character he played in the 1986 film Under the Cherry Moon . It was rumored by various writers that after Prince listened to the band 's 1984 debut album All Over the Place , he gave the song to Bangles rhythm guitarist Susanna Hoffs , so that in return she would sleep with him .
Debbi Peterson explained in an interview with MTV UK in 1989 about why Prince gave them the song : " [ Prince ] really liked our first album . He liked the song ' Hero Takes a Fall ' , which is a great compliment , because we liked his music . He contacted us , and said , ' I 've got a couple of songs for you . I 'd like to know if you 're interested , ' and of course we were . One of the songs Prince brought to the group was ' Manic Monday ' , written under the pseudonym of Christopher . " Peterson talked about the evolution of what Prince brought them : " It was a Banglefication of a Prince arrangement . He had a demo , that was very specifically him . It was a good song , but we didn 't record it like ' This is our first hit single ! Oh my God ! I can feel it in my veins ! ' We just did the song , and the album , and then sat back and thought about it . "
A pop song written in D Major , " Manic Monday " moves at a tempo of 116 beats per minute and is set in common time . The song has a sequence of G – A7 – D – G – A7 – D as its chord progression . Lyrically , the song is about someone waking up from a romantic dream at six o 'clock on Monday morning , and facing a hectic journey to work when she would prefer to still be enjoying relaxing on Sunday — her " I @-@ don 't @-@ have @-@ to @-@ run day " . Actor Rudolph Valentino is referred in the first verse .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
The single received generally positive reviews by music critics , some of them compared the song with the single " Monday , Monday " by the band The Mamas & the Papas . In a review for AllMusic , Mark Deming said that the single " was a far cry from anything the Bangles had recorded before " ; while Matthew Greenwald , also from the website , said " It 's a clever and deceptively simple pop narrative , an infectious pop confection ... There is also an excellently written bridge that shows Prince / Christopher to be an excellent craftsman , and , to their credit , the Bangles carry it off with style and wit " . Robert Hilburn from Los Angeles Times called the song " a candidate for best single of the year " . Dorian Lynskey commented about the painful rhyming of " Sunday " with " I @-@ don 't @-@ have @-@ to @-@ run day . "
Mark Moses from The Phoenix noted " the lack of lyrical substance is so glaring that Prince 's lame ' Manic Monday ' seems like a thematic highlight " . Greg Baker of The Miami News wrote in the album 's review that " the song should put [ T ] he Bangles on the ' pop ' n ' roll ' map " . A writer in Toledo Blade noted that " Manic Monday " , is a " infectious " and , along with " If She Knew What She Wants " , both are " refreshingly melodic " . Chris Willman from Los Angeles Times commented : " The first single ' Manic Monday ' represents slumming songwriter Prince 's attempt mostly successful save for the inevitable getting down interlude to concoct a modern day Mamas and the Papas hit . "
= = = Chart performance = = =
" Manic Monday " debuted at number eighty @-@ six on the Billboard Hot 100 , on the week ending January 25 , 1986 , and reached a peak of number two , on the issue dated April 19 , 1986 , being blocked from the top of the chart by Prince and the Revolution 's single " Kiss " . In the United Kingdom " Manic Monday " debuted at number eighty @-@ five on February 8 , 1986 , and entered the top forty , at number twenty @-@ four , on February 22 , 1986 . The song eventually reached its peak position , at number two , the next month . In Germany , the single debuted at number twenty @-@ nine on March 17 , 1986 , reaching the top ten in the next three weeks , and its peak , also at number two , on April 14 , 1986 , where it stayed two weeks . It remained in the top ten for four more weeks leaving the charts on July 20 , 1986 .
In Switzerland " Manic Monday " debuted at number twelve on March 30 , 1986 , becoming the highest debut of the week . It reached its peak two weeks later at number four , where it remained another week . In the Netherlands , the single debuted at number forty @-@ three on February 22 , 1986 ; and managed to reach the number twenty @-@ four . It stayed on the chart for seven weeks . In Norway , " Manic Monday " debuted at number nine in the tenth week of 1986 , becoming the second highest debut of the week . It also reached the number four two weeks later , where it stayed another two . The song also peaked within the top five in the Austrian , the Irish , and the New Zealand charts .
= = Cover versions = =
" Manic Monday " has been covered by several artists . The Chipettes covered the song for the 1986 Alvin and the Chipmunks episode " Sweet Smell of Success " . A cover by Japanese rock band Missile Innovation was included on their self @-@ titled mini @-@ album , released on July 27 , 2005 . The Japanese J @-@ Pop singer Bonnie Pink included it on her cover album Reminiscence . In 2005 , the Christian rock band Relient K covered the song for the compilation album Punk Goes 80 's . In his album review for AllMusic , Tim Sendra described the cover as " quirky " , and it resulted " [ somehow ] a tribute to Quiet Riot " . In 2006 , the Finnish rock band Leningrad Cowboys covered the song on their seventh studio album Zombies Paradise . In 2014 , the song was covered by British singer Sophie Ellis @-@ Bextor for a live performance at ITV 's program Weekend , featuring Ed Harcourt at the piano . Swedish band Drifters recorded the song on the 2010 album Stanna hos mig .
= = Track listing and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Prince Nelson as " Christopher " – writer and composer
David Kahne – producer
Susanna Hoffs – lead vocals , guitar
Vicki Peterson – guitar , background vocals
Michael Steele – bass , background vocals
Debbi Peterson – drums
Leslie Libman – music video director
Source :
= = Charts and certification = =
= North American river otter =
The North American river otter ( Lontra canadensis ) , also known as the northern river otter or the common otter , is a semiaquatic mammal endemic to the North American continent found in and along its waterways and coasts . An adult river otter can weigh between 5 @.@ 0 and 14 kg ( 11 @.@ 0 and 30 @.@ 9 lb ) . The river otter is protected and insulated by a thick , water @-@ repellent coat of fur .
The river otter , a member of the subfamily Lutrinae in the weasel family ( Mustelidae ) , is equally versatile in the water and on land . It establishes a burrow close to the water 's edge in river , lake , swamp , coastal shoreline , tidal flat , or estuary ecosystems . The den typically has many tunnel openings , one of which generally allows the otter to enter and exit the body of water . Female otters give birth in these underground burrows , producing litters of one to six young .
North American river otters , like most predators , prey upon the most readily accessible species . Fish is a favored food among the otters , but they also consume various amphibians ( such as salamanders and frogs ) , freshwater clams , mussels , snails , small turtles and crayfish . Instances of river otters eating small mammals and occasionally birds have been reported as well .
The range of the North American river otter has been significantly reduced by habitat loss , beginning with the European colonization of North America . In some regions , though , their population is controlled to allow the trapping and harvesting of otters for their pelts . River otters are very susceptible to the effects of environmental pollution , which is a likely factor in the continued decline of their numbers . A number of reintroduction projects have been initiated to help stabilize the reduction in the overall population .
= = Taxonomy and evolution = =
The North American river otter was first described by German naturalist Johann Christian Daniel von Schreber in 1777 . The mammal was identified as a species of otter and has a variety of common names , including North American river otter , northern river otter , common otter and , simply , river otter . Other documented common names are American otter , Canada otter , Canadian otter , fish otter , land otter , nearctic river otter , and Prince of Wales otter .
The river otter was first classified in the genus Lutra ; Lutra was the early European name . The species name was Lutra canadensis . The species epithet canadensis means " of Canada " .
In a new classification , the species is called Lontra canadensis , where the genus Lontra includes all the New World river otters . Molecular biological techniques have been used to determine when the river otter and the giant otter diverged . These analyses suggest they diverged in the Miocene epoch 23 @.@ 03 to 5 @.@ 33 million years ago ( Mya ) , which is " much earlier " than indicated in the fossil record . Fossils of a giant river otter dating back 3 @.@ 5 Mya have been found in the US Midwest , however fossils of the modern river otter did not appear in North America until about 1 @.@ 9 Mya . The earliest known fossil of Lontra canadensis , found in the US Midwest , is from the Irvingtonian stage ( 1 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 to 300 @,@ 000 years ago ) . The oldest fossil record of an Old World river otter comes from the late Pliocene epoch ( 3 @.@ 6 to 1 @.@ 8 Mya ) . The New World river otters originated from the Old World river otters after a migration across the Bering Land Bridge , which existed off and on between 1 @.@ 8 million and 10 @,@ 000 years ago . The otters migrated to North America and southwards again across the Panamanian Land Bridge , which formed 3 Mya .
= = = Subspecies = = =
Listed alphabetically
L. c. canadensis ( Schreber , 1777 ) – ( eastern Canada , USA , Newfoundland )
L. c. kodiacensis ( Goldman , 1935 ) – ( Kodiak Islands , Alaska )
L. c. lataxina ( Cuvier , 1823 ) – ( USA )
L. c. mira ( Goldman , 1935 ) – ( Alaska , British Columbia )
L. c. pacifica ( J. A. Allen , 1898 ) – ( Alaska , Canada , northern USA , south to central California , northern Nevada , and northeastern Utah )
L. c. periclyzomae ( Elliot , 1905 ) – ( British Columbia )
L. c. sonora ( Rhoads , 1898 ) – ( USA , Mexico )
= = Physical characteristics = =
The North American river otter is a stocky animal of 5 to 14 kilograms ( 11 to 31 lb ) , with short legs , a muscular neck no smaller than the head , and an elongated body that is broadest at the hips . An average adult male weighs about 11 @.@ 3 kilograms ( 25 lb ) against the female 's average of 8 @.@ 3 kilograms ( 18 lb ) . Its body length ranges from 66 to 107 centimetres ( 26 to 42 in ) . About one @-@ third of the animal 's total length consists of a long , tapered tail . Tail lengths range from 30 to 50 centimetres ( 12 to 20 in ) . Large male North American river otters can exceed a weight of 15 kilograms ( 33 lb ) . It differs from the European otter by its longer neck , narrower visage , the smaller space between the ears and its shorter tail .
A broad muzzle is found on the river otter 's flat head , and the ears are round and inconspicuous . The rhinarium is bare , with an obtuse , triangular projection . Eyes of the animal are small and placed anteriorly . A short , broad rostrum for exhaling and a long , broad cranium define the relatively flat skull . The river otter 's nostrils and ears close during submersion , inhibiting water from entering them . Its vibrissae ( whiskers ) are long and thick , enhancing sensory perception underwater and on land .
The fur of the species is short ( guard hairs average 23 @.@ 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 94 in ) ) , with a density of about 57 @,@ 800 hairs / cm2 ( 373 @,@ 000 hairs / in2 ) in the midback section . The pelage has a high luster and varies from light brown to black . The throat , chin , and lips are grayer than the rest of the body . Fur of senescent river otters may become white @-@ tipped , and rare albinos may occur .
Sexual dimorphism exists among the river otters . Males are , on average , 5 % larger than females . In Idaho , juvenile , yearling , and adult males averaged 8 , 11 , and 17 % heavier , respectively , than females of the same age . A clinical reduction in size may exist from north to south along the Pacific coast , but not from east to west .
North American river otters live an average of 21 years of age in captivity , but they can reach 25 years of age . However , they normally live about 8 to 9 years in the wild , but are capable of living up to 13 years of age .
= = = Form and function = = =
The river otter is physically well @-@ equipped for aquatic life . The ears are short , the neck is the same diameter as the head , the legs are short and powerful , the toes are fully webbed , and the tail ( one @-@ third of body length ) is tapered . These qualities give the river otter a streamlined profile in water , but reduce agility on land . The smell and hearing abilities of the river otter are acute . The otter has a delicate sense of touch in the paws in addition to great dexterity . River otters characteristically approach within a few feet of a boat or a person on shore because they 're near @-@ sighted , a consequence of vision adapted for underwater sight . River otters have transparent nictitating membranes to protect their eyes while swimming .
The right lung of the river otter is larger than the left , having four lobes compared with two for the left . Reduced lobulation of the lungs is presumed to be adaptive for underwater swimming . In addition , the length of the trachea of the river otter is intermediate between that of terrestrial carnivores and marine mammals . The mean tracheal length of the river otter is 15 @.@ 3 cm ( 6 @.@ 0 in ) , or 23 @.@ 2 % of the body length . A shorter trachea may improve air exchange and increase lung ventilation in diving mammals .
Most mustelids , including otters , have specialized teeth , including sharp canines and carnassials that inflict lethal bites to prey . Also , river otters have large molars used for crushing hard objects , such as the shells of molluscs . An adult river otter has a total of 36 teeth . Additional premolars may be present . The dental formula is 3 @.@ 1 @.@ 4 @.@ 13 @.@ 1 @.@ 3 @.@ 2 .
= = Behavior = =
River otters are active year @-@ round , and are most active at night and during crepuscular hours . They become much more nocturnal in the spring , summer , and fall seasons , and more diurnal during winter . They may migrate as a result of food shortages or environmental conditions , but they do not migrate annually .
= = = Movement = = =
Otters swim by quadrupedal paddling , forelimb paddling , alternate hind @-@ limb paddling , simultaneous hind @-@ limb paddling , or body and tail dorsoventral undulation . The tail , which is stout and larger in surface area than the limbs , is used for stability while swimming and for short bursts of rapid propulsion . While swimming at the surface , the dorsal portion of the river otter 's head , including nostrils , ears , and eyes , is exposed above water . It must remain in motion to maintain its position at the surface .
On land , the river otter can walk , run , bound , or slide . Foot falls during walking and running follow the sequence of left limb , right limb , right limb , left limb . During walking , the limbs are moved in a plane parallel to the long axis of the body . Bounding is the result of simultaneous lifting of the limbs off the ground . As the front feet make contact with the ground , the back feet are lifted and land where the front paws first contacted the ground , producing a pattern of tracks in pairs typical of most mustelids . Sliding occurs mostly on even surfaces of snow or ice , but can also occur on grassy slopes and muddy banks . Sliding across snow and ice is a rapid and efficient means of travel , and otters traveling over mountain passes , between drainages , or descending from mountain lakes often slide continuously for several hundred meters . Rear leg paddling enables continuous sliding where gravity is an insufficient or an opposing force . During winter , the river otters heavily use openings in the ice , and may excavate passages in beaver dams for accessing open water .
North American river otters are highly mobile and have the capacity of traveling up to 42 km ( 26 mi ) in one day . Daily movements of yearling males and females in Idaho averaged 4 @.@ 7 and 2 @.@ 4 km ( 2 @.@ 9 and 1 @.@ 5 mi ) in spring , 5 @.@ 1 and 4 @.@ 0 km ( 3 @.@ 2 and 2 @.@ 5 mi ) in summer , and 5 @.@ 0 and 3 @.@ 3 km ( 3 @.@ 1 and 2 @.@ 1 mi ) in autumn , respectively . Daily movements of family groups averaged 4 @.@ 7 , 4 @.@ 4 , and 2 @.@ 4 km ( 2 @.@ 9 , 2 @.@ 7 , and 1 @.@ 5 mi ) in spring , summer , and winter , respectively . Both
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the release date of the game on September 25 , 2007 . The soundtrack was officially announced on October 17 , 2007 .
The score to the game was used extensively for marketing purposes , even before the release of the game . The first piece heard was entitled " Finish the Fight " , and was used in the announcement trailer for Halo 3 at Electronic Entertainment Expo 2006 . This piece was accented with O 'Donnell 's well @-@ known Halo theme , which now included a trumpet fanfare and heavy brass section ; O 'Donnell stated " I want the viewer to have a feeling of anticipation and wonder for the first fifty seconds or so , up until Master Chief is revealed and they realize that it 's Cortana trying to tell them something . " The track opens with a piano section written by Matt Daspit , uncharacteristic for the series at that point ; O 'Donnell suspected " no [ other announcement at E3 ] would start with a piano " , thus grabbing attention . O 'Donnell designed the opening to lull the listener into a sense of suspense , then wonder ; " I want them to feel pride and longing the moment Master Chief walks out of the smoke . " he said . " I want them to be left with that , ' I can hardly wait to play this game ' feeling " . Another reworked theme from Halo was used as the background music for the Halo 3 E3 2007 trailer ; O 'Donnell later offered this track for free online .
In addition to the music composed by O 'Donnell and Salvatori , the announcement of the Halo 3 Soundtrack was followed with a call for entries to all artists or bands to submit their own original sound to be included on the final CD . The submissions were judged by O 'Donnell , producer Nile Rodgers , and other artists including Steve Vai . Rodgers stated that more than 21 @,@ 000 songs were entered , and at least 30 % were " amazing " ; the winner was Greg Haupt and his band Princeton , whose song " LvUrFR3NZ " appears as the final track on the second disc .
= = Reception = =
Reception to the soundtrack was positive . Scorenotes.com gave the soundtrack high marks , praising the presentation as well as the piano motif introduced ; the reviewer judged that the soundtrack for the third game surpassed those of the previous titles . UGO Networks praised the reworked main theme , stating that the video game " would not have been the same " without O 'Donnell 's score . Game Informer 's Brendan Vore concurred , saying that " there 's nothing like hearing Halo 's signature ' da @-@ da @-@ da @-@ duuum ' as you rush into a squad of Brutes . " Conversely , IGN found the piano theme was perennially overplayed , and felt that the soundtrack " begins with a bit of a bang and then eventually sputters out " . The Halo 3 Soundtrack reached a peak position of # 18 on Billboard 's Top Soundtracks list , # 20 on Top Independent Albums , and the bottom position on the Billboard 200 on December 15 , 2007 . The soundtrack had an impact outside of the gaming world ; fueled by interest in Halo 's chants , Universal Music aggressively promoted a chant @-@ based album , Chant : Music for the Soul , that sold 55 @,@ 000 copies in its first two weeks .
Halo 3 's music has been featured at several concerts , including Play ! A Video Game Symphony . O 'Donnell also specially arranged the Halo music for a performance of Video Games Live , and appeared at a London performance . Video Games Live has incorporated the music from Halo 3 into many of its performances , including the opening to the London Games Festival , and the 2008 Game Developer 's Conference in San Francisco . Arrangements featuring music from Halo 3 appears on the album releases Video Games Live , Vol . 1 and Video Games Live , Level 2 .
= = = Awards = = =
The audio and sound for Halo 3 were nominated for numerous awards , including the 2007 Spike TV Video Game Awards " Best Original Score " . Both the sound and score of Halo 3 were also nominated as finalists in the 6th Annual Game Audio Network Guild Awards , and X @-@ Play 's " Best of 2007 " Awards in the " Best Original Soundtrack " category .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
All information is taken from the CD credits .
Martin O 'Donnell ( ASCAP ) – composer
Michael Salvatori ( ASCAP ) – composer
C Paul Johnson ( ASCAP ) – addition composition on tracks " To Kill a Demon " , " This Is Our Land " , " Keep What you Steal " , and " Greatest Journey "
Simon James – concert master / contractor
David Sabee – Northwest Sinfonia conductor
Joe Crnko – choir conductor
Stan LePard – additional orchestration
Nile Rodgers – producer
Matt Daspit - pianist
= Tommy Amaker =
Harold Tommy Amaker ( / ˈæməkər / ; born June 6 , 1965 ) is an American NCAA Division I college basketball coach and the head coach of the Harvard University men 's basketball team . He has also coached for the University of Michigan and Seton Hall University . He played point guard and later served as an assistant coach at Duke University under Mike Krzyzewski . An All @-@ American player , Amaker set numerous records and earned many honors and awards . He took Seton Hall to the post season in each of his four seasons as their coach , helped Michigan win the National Invitation Tournament the year after a probationary ban from postseason play , and had the three highest single @-@ season win totals in the history of Harvard basketball , the school 's first five Ivy League championships and first NCAA tournament victory .
Amaker was a high school basketball McDonald 's All @-@ American and a Parade All @-@ American . As a college basketball player , he set most of the assists records and many steals records for Duke basketball . He also set the Atlantic Coast Conference single @-@ season games played and games started records . Among his numerous accolades , he was the first winner of the NABC Defensive Player of the Year , and he was a third team All @-@ American .
Amaker was an assistant coach for the Duke Blue Devils men 's basketball under Krzyzewski for nine seasons . His first four seasons were part of a five @-@ year streak of Final Four appearances by Duke ( including back @-@ to @-@ back national championships ) . As a head coach , Amaker took the Seton Hall Pirates to postseason tournaments ( NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament – 2000 and National Invitation Tournament – 1998 , 1999 , and 2001 ) in each of his four seasons as their coach . He dealt with the turmoil and self @-@ imposed sanctions of the University of Michigan basketball scandal in his first years with Michigan , where he eventually won the 2004 National Invitation Tournament with the 2003 – 04 Michigan Wolverines men 's basketball team and finished as the runner @-@ up with Michigan in the 2006 National Invitation Tournament .
In his tenure as Harvard men 's basketball coach , Amaker was the first coach to lead the Crimson to victory over a ranked opponent with the 2008 – 09 team . He also coached the 2009 – 10 Harvard Crimson men 's basketball team into the postseason ( 2010 CollegeInsider.com Tournament ) in his third year there , which included the highest single @-@ season victory total ( 21 ) in school history . In the summer of 2010 , the NCAA ruled that Amaker had committed a recruiting violation , resulting in NCAA @-@ mandated recruiting restrictions , the university 's first NCAA penalty of the men 's basketball program . The 2010 – 11 team became the first Harvard men 's basketball team to clinch a share of the Ivy League championship and surpassed the prior season win total ( 23 ) . The 2011 – 12 team became the first in school history to appear in the Associated Press ( AP ) and Coaches Polls and , for the third year in a row , established a new school record for wins ( 26 ) . Amaker 's 2011 – 12 , 2012 – 13 , 2013 – 14 and 2014 – 15 teams repeated as Ivy League champions . The 2012 – 13 team gave Harvard its first NCAA tournament victory . The 2013 – 14 team posted a record 27 wins .
= = Early years = =
Amaker was born in Falls Church , Virginia , in 1965 . He was raised by a single mother , Alma Amaker , a high school English teacher . Although not a part of Amaker 's young life , his father attended some of Amaker 's high school basketball games .
Amaker resided in Falls Church , but he attended W.T. Woodson High School in Fairfax , Virginia , because his mother was a teacher in Fairfax County . Her job allowed her to choose among the county schools , her choice made because the school 's basketball coach , Red Jenkins , who called Amaker " T @-@ bird , " had been impressed with his performances at his youth summer league since Amaker was 10 years old . He began playing varsity for Woodson by December , making him the first freshman to play varsity in the school 's history . His mother , whom Jenkins called " his first coach and his best coach , " attended his practices and graded papers in the coach 's office .
Duke University basketball head coach Mike Krzyzewski , who had just completed his first season as Duke coach , was in town to evaluate Johnny Dawkins in a 1981 Washington D.C. summer league game , but was convinced to stay for a second game to see Amaker play . Krzyzewski met Amaker 's mother and said , " Mrs. Amaker , your son is going to look great in Duke blue . " At the time , Amaker had wanted to play for the Maryland Terrapins because his sister Tami went to the University of Maryland , College Park and Amaker idolized Maryland star guard John Lucas . He was recruited eventually to Duke by assistant coach Chuck Swenson , who would later become an assistant coach during Amaker 's first five seasons at Michigan from 2001 to 2006 .
Amaker played on the 1983 McDonald 's All @-@ American Team and was also named to the Parade All @-@ American team . According to the Fairfax Connection , the county changed the rules regarding where teachers could send their children due to Amaker 's success at Woodson .
= = College career = =
Amaker was a star point guard at Duke after becoming a freshman starter for head coach Krzyzewski . He led the team in assists three years and in steals four seasons . While at Duke his roommate for away games was Mike Brey .
= = = Freshman and sophomore years = = =
Dawkins played point guard for the 1982 – 83 Blue Devils , but moved to shooting guard the following year to make way for Amaker . When Amaker joined the 1983 – 84 Blue Devils , unranked Duke , led by Dawkins and Amaker , won its first seven games , the longest winning streak of fourth @-@ year head coach Krzyzewski 's career . Amaker had a field goal accuracy of over 65 percent in those games . He led Duke to the NCAA Tournament during his 1984 freshman and 1985 sophomore seasons , but neither team advanced to the Sweet Sixteen ( regional semifinals ) . In the quarterfinal round of the 1984 ACC Men 's Basketball Tournament against the Mark Price @-@ led Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets , Amaker hit the game @-@ winning shot with the score tied and less than 10 seconds left in overtime . In some instances , Amaker 's defense changed the game by limiting dribble penetration and forcing low shooting percentages regardless of whether he had notable offensive contributions .
= = = Junior year = = =
During Amaker 's junior year ( 1985 – 86 ) , Duke won the inaugural NIT Season Tip @-@ Off ( then known as the preseason National Invitation Tournament ) and Amaker had nine assists in the championship game against a Danny Manning @-@ led Kansas team . In the March Carolina – Duke rivalry game against North Carolina Amaker stole the ball from Jeff Lebo and made a layup that gave Duke a late first half three @-@ point lead it never surrendered . The win clinched Duke 's first regular season ACC Championship since 1966 . According to ESPN college basketball color commentator Dick Vitale , Amaker had a reputation for putting pressure on the ball . That year , he helped the team win the 1986 ACC Men 's Basketball Tournament , including a championship game victory over the Price @-@ led Georgia Tech .
Duke entered the 1986 NCAA Tournament ranked number one with a team that was built around the defensive efforts of its guards , Dawkins and Amaker . In the final four with Duke clinging to a 69 – 67 lead in a rematch against Kansas , Amaker pulled down the final rebound and sank two clinching free throws in the final five seconds . The win sent Duke to the championship game , giving the team its 21st consecutive victory and an NCAA record 37 single @-@ season victories . Chicago Tribune journalist Robert Markus described Amaker and Dawkins as the best guard combination in the country , although Vitale described Amaker as unknown .
The 1985 – 86 Blue Devils finished as national runner @-@ up in the 1986 NCAA Tournament to Louisville . That year , Amaker recorded 81 steals , second to Jim Spanarkel at that point in Duke history . He set the career steals record , which stood until Shane Battier broke it in 2001 . Amaker also holds the Duke single @-@ year NCAA Tournament record with 18 steals in 1986 , which had been a tournament record . That year , he had seven steals in two tournament games — against Old Dominion in the second round on March 15 and Louisville in the final on March 31 . This seven @-@ steal total stood as the single @-@ game NCAA tournament record for seven years until the 1993 NCAA Tournament when Darrell Hawkins had eight for Arkansas against Holy Cross and Grant Hill had eight for Duke against California . The seven steals was a championship game record that was tied by Mookie Blaylock in the 1988 NCAA Tournament for Oklahoma against Kansas and was surpassed by Ty Lawson in the 2009 NCAA Tournament for North Carolina against Michigan State . Amaker was selected to the 1986 Division I Basketball Tournament All @-@ NCAA Final Four Team . The 1986 Duke team graduated four of its five starters ( Dawkins , Mark Alarie , Jay Bilas and David Henderson ) , leaving Amaker with an inexperienced supporting cast for his senior season . That year , Amaker was a spokesman against drug and alcohol abuse as part of an NCAA @-@ Fiesta Bowl drug education television program .
= = = Senior year = = =
Muggsy Bogues , Amaker 's ACC rival , was his roommate during the July 1986 FIBA World Championship . He played in at least two games in the tournament , the first for a mere two minutes against Puerto Rico , but he played a prominent role in the USA 's win over Italy . Amaker won a gold medal while serving on the US national team in the FIBA World Championship , which served as the basketball tournament for the 1986 Goodwill Games .
Senior Amaker served as team captain for the 1986 – 87 Blue Devils , and he led Duke back to the 1987 NCAA tournament , where they advanced to the Sweet Sixteen before losing to eventual champion Indiana . The key players on the team that year were Amaker and sophomore Danny Ferry . During his senior season , the National Collegiate Athletic Association instituted the three @-@ point field goal . Amaker led Duke in three point shooting that year . He hit a three @-@ point shot with 1 : 39 remaining in overtime against 17 – 0 ( 4 – 0 ACC ) Horace Grant @-@ led Clemson to give Duke the lead for good . A few weeks later , with the score tied in regulation at 60 against Notre Dame and on a two @-@ on @-@ one fast break with 16 seconds left , Amaker took a jump shot . Krzyzewski said Duke lost the game because it did not play as smart as its opponent and Markus described this example in his column . In Amaker 's final home game , he made a jump shot with 1 : 15 remaining that put number seventeen Duke , which made all six of its free throws in the final 45 seconds , ahead for good in its rematch against number thirteen Clemson . In the 1987 tournament he led Duke in scoring in its final two games , including 23 against the Rick Calloway / Keith Smart / Steve Alford @-@ led Indiana , who was coached by Bobby Knight , Krzyzewski 's college coach .
That year , the National Association of Basketball Coaches ( NABC ) awarded Amaker with the first Henry Iba Corinthian Award ( also known as the NABC Defensive Player of the Year ) . Amaker was selected to the 1987 NCAA Men 's Basketball All @-@ American third team by the NABC . He was named to the 1987 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament All @-@ Midwest Regional Team . He was a 1987 All @-@ ACC 2nd @-@ team honoree and earned the team co @-@ MVP award with Ferry that year . Amaker earned a bachelor 's degree in economics in 1987 from Duke .
= = = Accomplishments = = =
Amaker set many Duke career and single @-@ season assists records . He held the record for single @-@ season assists in the years between 1986 and 1990 , which was broken by Bobby Hurley . Hurley also broke Amaker 's records in career assists per game ( 5 @.@ 1 , 1987 – 93 ) and career assists ( 708 , 1987 – 92 ) . Steve Wojciechowski broke Amaker 's records in single @-@ season assists to turnover ratio ( 2 @.@ 88 , 1985 – 97 ) and career assists to turnover ratio ( 2 @.@ 11 , 1987 – 98 ) . Although his single @-@ season assists records were surpassed by Hurley 's freshman , sophomore and senior season totals , it still remains a record for a Duke junior . He also held Duke 's career NCAA tournament assist average record with 57 in 12 games for a 4 @.@ 7 average until Hurley surpassed it with 145 in 20 games for a 7 @.@ 3 average . His school single @-@ game assists record of 14 that he tied ( Kevin Billerman , March 2 , 1974 , vs. North Carolina ) vs. Miami on February 19 , 1986 , was not broken until Hurley 's senior 1993 season and is still a record for a junior .
Amaker holds several Duke and ACC records for games played . Amaker , Alarie and Dawkins have all started 40 games for the 1985 – 86 Duke team and both Ferry and Billy King have played 40 games in a season . Amaker 's 138 consecutive games started surpassed Alarie and Dawkins ' totals of 133 . His 138 consecutive games played was a Duke record until Chris Duhon played 144 in a row ending in 2004 . Consecutive games started is not shown in the 2009 – 10 Atlantic Coast Conference Media Guide records section . However , no ACC player has ever played more than 40 games in a season .
= = Pro career = =
Following his college basketball career , Amaker was drafted by the Seattle SuperSonics in the 3rd round of the 1987 NBA Draft with the 55th pick overall . He was also drafted in the first round of the April 1987 United States Basketball League 's draft by the Staten Island Stallions . He was regarded to be too small to play in the NBA at 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) and 155 pounds ( 70 kg ) . He was cut from the SuperSonics team on October 21 , 1987 . Subsequently , he spent three days with the Wyoming Wildcatters of the Continental Basketball Association in Casper , Wyoming . He quickly decided he wanted to return to Duke to pursue a Master of Business Administration ( MBA ) .
= = Coaching career = =
= = = Duke = = =
Amaker accepted a graduate assistant position on Krzyzewski 's staff at Duke in 1988 while pursuing his MBA degree from the Fuqua School of Business ; the team reached the Final Four of the 1989 NCAA Tournament . He was an assistant coach from 1989 through 1997 , during which Duke won two NCAA Championships ( 1991 and 1992 ) and made two other Final Four appearances ( 1990 and 1994 ) . By 1992 , Duke had been to five consecutive final fours . While an assistant coach , he declined numerous Division I head coaching opportunities . Duke also won four regular season Atlantic Coast Conference men 's basketball championships ( 1991 , 1992 , 1994 and 1997 ) and the 1992 ACC Men 's Basketball Tournament . The 1994 – 95 season was turbulent . In October 1994 , Krzyzewski underwent back surgery . He attempted to return to coaching two weeks later but eventually was re @-@ admitted to Duke University Hospital for four days in January due to related complications . He eventually relinquished control of the team for the season to interim coach Pete Gaudet .
After Wimp Sanderson was forced out as coach of Alabama in 1992 , Amaker was under consideration to replace him . In 1993 , he was the leading candidate to assume the head coaching job at Northwestern when Bill Foster stepped aside to serve as interim athletic director , but at age 27 , he declined the job when it was offered , noting that he had only been married one year and saying " It boiled down to us looking at a situation where we were extremely flattered , but a situation that wasn 't right for us now . " That summer Amaker was one of two college basketball members of the 10 @-@ man selection committee for the United States Olympic Team . In 1994 , he was on the short list to replace Kevin O 'Neill , who left Marquette for a job at Tennessee . In 1995 , USC was in negotiations to hire Amaker to replace interim coach Charlie Parker , who replaced George Raveling following a car accident . The reason his negotiations with USC failed was compensation since Amaker was both a Duke assistant coach and earned an additional $ 100 @,@ 000 ( US $ 155 @,@ 296 in 2016 dollars ) through a summer youth day camp . That summer , Duke promoted Amaker from assistant basketball coach to associate head coach . Krzyzewski returned to coaching in October 1995 . USC went on to hire Parker , who did not last a full season as head coach . In 1996 , Amaker was rumored to be on the short list to replace interim coach Steve Lavin at UCLA in 1997 . When the Northwestern job opened up again in 1997 , he was not under consideration because athletic director Rick Taylor sought a candidate with Division I head coaching postseason experience .
= = = Seton Hall = = =
In 1997 , Amaker took the head coaching position at Seton Hall , who had missed the post season in the two prior years . At 31 , Amaker became the youngest head basketball coach in Big East Conference history . Then , he took Seton Hall to the NCAA tournament once ( 2000 ) – when his team reached the " Sweet Sixteen " – and to the National Invitation Tournament three times ( 1998 , 1999 and 2001 ) .
The 1997 – 98 Seton Hall team earned the sixth seed in the 1998 Big East Men 's Basketball Tournament , but were ousted in the first round by eleventh @-@ seeded Boston College in overtime in the first round . They ended up in the 1998 National Invitation Tournament where they lost in the first round to Georgia Tech to fall to a final record of 15 – 15 . After returning Seton Hall to the post season , Amaker was considered for the Michigan job , but they decided to make interim coach Brian Ellerbe a full @-@ time head coach .
Seton Hall 's 1998 – 99 team earned the ninth seed in the 1999 Big East Men 's Basketball Tournament . They defeated eighth @-@ seeded Notre Dame in the first round , but lost by one point to top @-@ seeded Connecticut , who went on to win the national championship . They were invited to the 1999 National Invitation Tournament where they lost in the first round to Old Dominion and again finished 15 – 15 .
According to ESPN , Amaker recruited the # 2 recruiting class in the nation for the class of 2000 while at Seton Hall . The class consisted of Eddie Griffin ( ranked by some as the top high school player in the nation ) , Andre Barrett , and Marcus Toney @-@ El . The Pirates were ranked high on many experts ' pre @-@ season rankings . The 1999 – 2000 Seton Hall team earned the fifth seed in the 2000 Big East Men 's Basketball Tournament and earned a victory against twelfth @-@ seeded Providence in the first round , but lost to fourth @-@ seeded Connecticut . The first round win gave the team 20 victories and no Big East team had achieved that number of victories without getting invited to the NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament in the 21 @-@ year history of the conference . They were invited to the 2000 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament where they were seeded tenth in the East Region . They knocked off seventh @-@ seeded Oregon and second @-@ seeded Temple . In the Sweet Sixteen round they were ousted by third @-@ seeded Oklahoma State and finished with a 22 – 10 record .
The 2000 – 01 Pirates earned the Big East West Division 's sixth seed in the 2001 Big East Men 's Basketball Tournament and beat the East Division three seed St. John 's and west two seed Georgetown . They were defeated in the semifinals by east top seed Boston College and ended the year at 16 – 15 . They were invited to the 2001 National Invitation Tournament where they lost in the first round to Alabama . The following season , Amaker resigned as the Seton Hall head coach and became head coach at Michigan , replacing Ellerbe , who had been fired . Amaker met with Michigan athletic director Bill Martin in a hotel lobby instead of renting a room because Martin wanted to save money . Word of the meeting got back to ESPN and the New Jersey press was not kind to Amaker , hinting that he was devious and selfish .
= = = Michigan = = =
Amaker inherited a Michigan Wolverines men 's basketball team that was five years into the investigation of the University of Michigan basketball scandal . The Wolverines opposed Amaker 's former mentor Krzyzewski and the 2001 – 02 Duke Blue Devils in his seventh game as head coach , but his team lost . Although the 2001 – 02 Wolverines finished at 11 – 18 , Amaker was able to lead the tenth @-@ seeded team to a victory over seventh @-@ seeded Northwestern in the 2002 Big Ten Conference Men 's Basketball Tournament before losing to two seed , Ohio State .
Michigan finished the 2002 – 03 season with a 17 – 13 record , but sat out both that year 's NCAA and NIT tournaments due to the self @-@ imposed postseason ban . The team had banned itself from post season play before the season started . Nonetheless , over the course of the season the team had earned a three seed and a first round bye in the 2003 Big Ten Conference Men 's Basketball Tournament , but was upset in the second round by Indiana . At the conclusion of the season , the NCAA added a second year of post season ineligibility to bring the severity of the punishment to a level it deemed more appropriate .
Amaker 's 2003 – 04 team earned a fifth seed and first round bye in the 2004 Big Ten Conference Men 's Basketball Tournament where it defeated fourth @-@ seeded Iowa before losing to top @-@ seeded Illinois . The team experienced successive wins in the 2004 National Invitation Tournament against Missouri , Oklahoma , Hawaii and Oregon . The team won the championship game against Rutgers , giving Amaker his highest single @-@ season victory total up to that point in time with a 23 – 11 record . Amaker , who has tended to avoid the spotlight , was not on the court as his team celebrated the college basketball tradition of cutting of the nets in celebration of a championship at the 2004 NIT .
The 2004 – 05 team only achieved a nine seed in the 2005 Big Ten Conference Men 's Basketball Tournament when it lost in the first round to eighth @-@ seeded Northwestern . It posted a 13 – 18 record ( 4 – 12 in conference ) and finished ninth in the conference .
The Wolverines ' 2005 – 06 team was a high percentage shooting , disciplined and balanced team . It was seeded seventh in the 2006 Big Ten Conference Men 's Basketball Tournament but lost to the tenth seeded Minnesota Golden Gophers . The team had been ranked 37th in the Ratings Percentage Index prior to the game , making them a solid contender for an 2006 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament invitation . The loss sent them to the 2006 National Invitation Tournament where they were a number one seed , and they finished as the runner @-@ up to South Carolina . Along the way to its runner @-@ up finish , the team defeated ninth @-@ seeded UTEP , fifth @-@ seeded Notre Dame ( 2OT ) , third @-@ seeded Miami and fifth @-@ seeded Old Dominion . The team ended with a 22 – 11 ( 8 – 8 ) record .
Michigan 's 2006 – 07 team earned an eight seed in the 2007 Big Ten Conference Men 's Basketball Tournament , when it defeated the ninth @-@ seeded Minnesota Golden Gophers before succumbing to top @-@ seeded Ohio State . After receiving a three seed , Michigan advanced to the second round of the 2007 National Invitation Tournament by beating Utah State before falling to Florida State . The team finished with a 22 – 13 record yet only 8 – 8 in conference play .
Amaker was credited for helping to restore the ethical reputation of a Michigan program which had been tarnished by scandal . However , he was criticized in the press for being unable to take the Wolverines to the NCAA tournament in six seasons at the helm . Some fans and sportswriters argued that Amaker 's Michigan teams tended to underachieve and fall apart in pressure situations , particularly in conference , on the road and at the end of the regular season . On March 17 , 2007 , Amaker was fired by the University of Michigan . Amaker was paid $ 900 @,@ 000 to buy out the remaining years on his contract .
= = = Harvard = = =
On April 11 , 2007 , Amaker was named head men 's basketball coach at Harvard University . Harvard 's recruiting process had included interviewing the underclassmen on the team who preferred Amaker to alternatives that included Mike Jarvis and Mike Gillian . Upon his arrival , Harvard had endured five consecutive non @-@ winning seasons , a streak that Amaker would not halt until his third year . Amaker became the only African American among the head coaches of Harvard 's 32 athletic teams . Amaker 's Harvard team beat his former team , Michigan , in his eighth game as coach at Harvard during the 2007 – 08 season . It was the school 's first win ever against a BCS conference school .
The New York Times published an accusatory article in March 2008 , raising allegations of diminished academic standards among Amaker 's first class of recruits and potentially improper recruiting practices . Prodded by this negative publicity , the Ivy League office conducted a four @-@ month investigation and " determined that no violations of NCAA or Ivy League rules occurred " , clearing Amaker and his staff completely . Typically , the NCAA would accept the results of a formal investigation performed by a conference office but , in this case , the NCAA initially tabled and then eventually rejected the Ivy League 's findings completely . The NCAA commenced its own investigation which ultimately took two years to complete .
Amaker 's Harvard squad defeated then @-@ ranked Boston College ( # 17 AP Poll – # 24 Coaches ' Poll ) on January 7 , 2009 for the first win over a ranked team in the program 's history . His 2008 – 09 recruiting class was the first time an Ivy League institution was ranked in the top 25 by ESPN .
The following season , the 2009 – 10 Harvard team played competitively against # 14 ranked Connecticut getting 30 points and 9 rebounds from senior Jeremy Lin on December 6 . Although they held the lead only once , they were within 4 points in the final seconds of the game . They also won their December 9 rematch with Boston College by a 74 – 67 margin . After coaching Harvard to its highest single @-@ season win total ever behind the play of Lin , Harvard was invited to participate in the 2010 CollegeInsider.com Tournament . The team was defeated in the first round by Appalachian State . During the season , Amaker was a nominee for the first Ben Jobe Award as the top minority Division I college basketball coach , and was recognized by Fox Sports as the 2010 Ivy League Coach of the Year . Amaker was mentioned for the 2010 head coach opening at St. John 's .
In the summer of 2010 , the NCAA informed Harvard that Amaker 's behavior constituted impermissible recruiting behavior . Harvard and the NCAA negotiated a settlement in which the university would " declare " what the NCAA consented to classify as secondary violations . Under the terms of the agreement , Harvard accepted punitive recruiting restrictions for the 2010 – 11 season . These were the first NCAA penalties ever assessed against the Harvard men 's basketball program and the first instance of the Ivy League being overruled on a formal rules interpretation .
Under Amaker 's leadership , the 2010 – 11 team tied with Princeton for the 2010 – 11 Ivy League men 's basketball season championship , which was the school 's first men 's basketball Ivy League championship since the league was formed in the 1956 – 57 season . Harvard finished the season a perfect 14 – 0 at home , which surpassed the prior season 's school record of 11 home wins . Harvard 's 12 conference game wins established a school record . The team 's victory over Colorado was the Crimson 's first against a Big 12 Conference opponent since that conference commenced play in 1996 . His fourth season also marked the fourth straight season that Harvard defeated at least one power conference opponent . Although Harvard never appeared in the 2010 – 11 NCAA Division I men 's basketball rankings , for a few weeks during the season they received a vote in the AP Poll . On March 7 , Harvard received a vote in both the AP Poll and the Coaches ' Poll . Harvard faced Ivy League co @-@ champion Princeton in a one @-@ game playoff and lost by a 63 – 62 margin . Princeton earned the 2011 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament automatic bid , while Harvard earned an at @-@ large bid to the 2011 National Invitation Tournament , marking the school 's first appearance in the National Invitation Tournament . On March 15 , Harvard was defeated by Oklahoma State by a 71 – 54 margin in the first round . The final record of 23 – 7 established a school record for number of wins , surpassing the prior season 's total of 21 . Amaker was again a finalist for the Ben Jobe Award , was a finalist for the Hugh Durham Award and was selected by the NABC as the District 13 Coach of the Year . He was named Ivy League coach of the year by Collegeinsider.com.
The 2011 – 12 Harvard team defeated then @-@ ranked Florida State ( # 22 AP Poll – # 20 Coaches ' Poll ) on November 25 , 2011 for the school 's second win over a ranked team in the program 's history , and the highest ranked opponent in the Coaches ' Poll that Harvard had defeated up to that point . On December 5 , 2011 , Harvard made its first appearance in either the AP Poll ( 25 ) or Coaches ' Poll ( 24 ) . It left Brown as the only remaining Ivy League school to have never been ranked in the AP Poll and leaves only seven schools that have played Division I basketball since the AP Poll began that have never been ranked in it . Harvard was the first Ivy League team ranked in the Coaches ' Poll since the 2009 – 10 Cornell Big Red and the first Ivy League team ranked in the AP Poll since the 1997 – 98 Princeton Tigers , who finished 8th in the poll . By January 2 , the team achieved rankings of 22 in the AP Poll and 21 in the Coaches ' Poll . The team was also ranked 21st in the Coaches ' Poll on February 6 . The team established a new record for single @-@ season wins as well as single @-@ season non @-@ league wins and tied the record for conference game wins . Amaker was selected by the U.S. Basketball Writers Association as the 2011 – 12 Men 's District I ( ME , VT , NH , RI , MA , CT ) Coach of the Year . He won the NABC Coach of the Year for District 13 and was again a finalist for both the Ben Jobe Award and the Hugh Durham Award . On March 6 , 2012 , Harvard earned its first bid to the NCAA Tournament since 1946 .
On October 6 , 2012 , Amaker was inducted into his high school 's inaugural hall of fame class . Amaker 's 2012 – 13 Harvard team entered the season affected by the 2012 Harvard cheating scandal . Instead of being the favorite as originally expected , the team was predicted to finish second to Princeton by various media sources because Kyle Casey and Brandyn Curry withdrew due to the scandal . Casey and Curry had been first @-@ team and second @-@ team All @-@ Ivy selections for the 2011 – 12 Ivy League men 's basketball season , respectively . Both players withdrew in hopes of preserving their final year of athletic eligibility following the investigation . During the season , the team defeated Boston College its fifth consecutive victory against Boston College Eagles men 's basketball , making Amaker a perfect 6 – 0 against the Atlantic Coast Conference . The 2012 – 13 Harvard team overcame the withdrawal of its senior co @-@ captains to repeat as 2013 Ivy League champions , which earned Harvard a trip to the 2013 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament . On March 21 , 14th @-@ seeded Harvard earned the school 's first NCAA Tournament victory by a 68 – 62 margin and its first victory over a top 10 opponent when it defeated 3rd @-@ seeded New Mexico ( # 10 AP Poll – # 10 Coaches ' Poll ) . Two nights later , Harvard lost to Arizona 74 – 51 . Following the season , Amaker was inducted into the New England Basketball Hall of Fame class of 2013 . Amaker won the National Sportscasters and Sportswriters Association ( NSSA ) Clarence " Big House " Gaines College Basketball Coach of the Year in Division I as the top minority coach , the NABC Coach of the Year for District 13 and was again a finalist for the Ben Jobe Award . In August , Amaker was inducted into his fourth Hall of Fame ( Washington Metro Basketball Hall of Fame ) .
The 2013 – 14 team won the 2013 Great Alaska Shootout and 2013 – 14 Ivy League conference regular season championship with a 13 – 1 record and posting a school record 27 wins against 5 defeats . The team entered the 2014 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament with a number twelve seed where it defeated a ( # 15 AP Poll – # 14 Coaches ' Poll ) Cincinnati team that was seeded fifth . Harvard eventually lost to number ( # 11 / 13 ) four seed Michigan State . The team was the first Ivy League school to win games in consecutive NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournaments since the 1983 – 84 Princeton Tigers .
The 2014 – 15 team was the first Ivy League team to make a fifth consecutive postseason appearance since the 2001 – 02 Princeton Tigers men 's basketball team completed a seven @-@ year run for Princeton . They were the third Ivy team to make four consecutive NCAA Basketball Tournament appearances , a feat last accomplished by the 1991 – 92 Princeton Tigers men 's basketball team .
= = Personal life = =
Amaker is married to Stephanie Pinder @-@ Amaker , who is a licensed clinical psychologist . The couple met at Duke . Amaker 's grandmother is Annie Deskins . Amaker 's mother , Alma , continued to make him the sauce for his favorite meal of spaghetti and express mail it to him from her home in Falls Church , Virginia , during his career at least until his days at Michigan . According to Duke teammate Bilas , Amaker was quite fashion @-@ conscious and attempted to be a trendsetter .
At Michigan , his daily routine included breakfast at a local hotel where he read USA Today . At Harvard , once a month , he convenes for breakfast at the Cambridge , Massachusetts , restaurant Henrietta 's Table with a group of noted African @-@ American scholars and businessmen led by Harvard Law School professor Charles Ogletree to discuss sociopolitical issues . Amaker is known for his trademark mock turtleneck shirts , each of which has his initials monogrammed into the collar , and for wearing a sports coat at each news conference . Unlike most of his peers , Amaker avoids the press and will not do a radio or television show .
Amaker was enshrined in the Duke Athletic Hall of Fame in 2001 . He was a member of the board of directors for USA Basketball . During his time on the board he served as a member of the Men 's Collegiate and Men 's Senior National Committees , where he helped select members of the United States 1996 Olympic gold medal team . Amaker owns two vintage Mercedes @-@ Benz cars and is a Washington Redskins fan .
= = Head coaching record = =
= Yugoslav torpedo boat T3 =
The Yugoslav torpedo boat T3 was a 250t @-@ class , T @-@ group sea @-@ going torpedo boat built for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy as 78 T in 1914 . She was armed with two Škoda 66 mm ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) L / 30 guns , four 450 mm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes , and could carry 10 – 12 naval mines . She saw active service during World War I , performing convoy , escort and minesweeping tasks , and anti @-@ submarine operations . Following Austria @-@ Hungary 's defeat in 1918 , she was allocated to the Navy of the Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes , which subsequently became the Royal Yugoslav Navy , and was renamed T3 .
During the German @-@ led Axis invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941 , she was captured by the Italians and after her main armament was modernised she served with the Royal Italian Navy under her Yugoslav designation . Following the Italian capitulation in September 1943 , she was captured by Germany , and after she was fitted with additional anti @-@ aircraft guns she served with the Kriegsmarine as TA48 . In German service her crew of 52 consisted entirely of Croatian officers and enlisted men . She was sunk by Allied aircraft in February 1945 while in the port of Trieste .
= = Background = =
In 1910 , the Austria @-@ Hungary Naval Technical Committee initiated the design and development of a 275 @-@ long @-@ ton ( 279 t ) coastal torpedo boat , specifying that it should be capable of sustaining 30 knots ( 56 km / h ) for 10 hours . This specification was based an expectation that the Strait of Otranto , where the Adriatic Sea meets the Ionian Sea , would be blockaded by hostile forces during a future conflict . In such circumstances , there would be a need for a torpedo boat that could sail from the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy ( German : kaiserliche und königliche Kriegsmarine ) base at Cattaro to the Strait during darkness , locate and attack blockading ships and return to port before morning . Steam turbine power was selected for propulsion , as diesels with the necessary power were not available , and the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy did not have the practical experience to run turbo @-@ electric boats . Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino ( STT ) of Trieste was selected for the contract to build eight vessels , ahead of one other tenderer . The T @-@ group designation signified the builder , STT .
= = Description and construction = =
The 250t @-@ class , T @-@ group boats had a waterline length of 58 @.@ 2 m ( 190 ft 11 in ) , a beam of 5 @.@ 7 m ( 18 ft 8 in ) , and a normal draught of 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 ft 11 in ) . While their designed displacement was 262 tonnes ( 258 long tons ) , they displaced about 320 tonnes ( 310 long tons ) fully loaded . The crew consisted of 39 officers and enlisted men . The boats were powered by a Parsons steam turbine driving two propellers , using steam generated by two Yarrow water @-@ tube boilers , one of which burned fuel oil and the other coal . The turbine was rated at 5 @,@ 000 shp ( 3 @,@ 700 kW ) with a maximum output of 6 @,@ 000 shp ( 4 @,@ 500 kW ) and designed to reach a top speed of 28 knots ( 52 km / h ; 32 mph ) . They carried 18 tonnes ( 17 @.@ 7 long tons ) of coal and 24 tonnes ( 23 @.@ 6 long tons ) of fuel oil , which gave them a range of 980 nmi ( 1 @,@ 810 km ; 1 @,@ 130 mi ) at 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) . The T @-@ group had one funnel rather than the two funnels of the later groups of the class . Despite the specifications of the contract being very close to the requirements for the coastal torpedo boat , the STT boats were classified as sea @-@ going .
The boats were originally to be armed with three Škoda 66 mm ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) L / 30 guns , and three 4
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Lantis released the remaining five dramas . " School Days Drama CD Vol . 1 Himitsu Hanazono " ( ヒ ・ ミ ・ ツの花園 ) , a merrymaking of the series six main girls , was released on August 8 , 2007 . A second , " School Days Drama CD Vol 2 . Koi no Nou @-@ hau " ( 恋のノ ・ ウ ・ ハ ・ ウ ) , was released October 24 , 2007 . Radio School Days was compiled into three separate albums : " Futakumidake no Taiikusai " ( 二組だけの体育祭 ) was released on November 21 , 2007 , " Futakumidake no Shakaika Kengaku " ( 二組だけの社会科見学 ) on February 6 , 2008 , and " Futakumi Ijou no Rakkasan Butai " ( 二組以上の落下傘部隊 ) on June 21 .
= = = Merchandise = = =
Considerable effort was made to market and promote School Days before and after its release , including the sale of brand merchandise and use of incentives . Through public venues and through the company 's online store , 0verflow sold brand keystraps , mousepads , phonecards , book covers , mugs , t @-@ shirts , dakimakura cases , PVC figures , lanyards , business card holders and cosplay material such as the girls ' school uniforms and plastic dōzuki .
= = Reception = =
UK Anime Network , a British online anime and manga magazine , gave the television series a 7 out of 10 , summarizing it as " An utter subversion of the high school romance genre , which is disturbing and unsettling ... yet oddly compelling in its own way . " THEM Anime Reviews , a website devoted to the review of anime , gave the series a less favorable 1 out of 5 stars , citing " overblown , shallow , and flat " characters and that although " School Days looks fascinating when you see screenshots of it and read episode guides " , the reviewer found it to be " annoying , stupid , mean @-@ spirited , and full of some of the biggest idiots [ he had ] seen in an anime in a long time . "
= Russkiy Toy =
The Russian Toy ( also known as the Russian Toy Terrier , and in Russia as the Russkiy Toy , Russian : Русский той ) is a very small breed of dog originally bred in Russia from the English Toy Terrier which is known today as the Manchester Terrier . There are two types coats in the breed : smooth coat and long coat . The smooth coated variety was previously known as the Russian Toy Terrier and long coated as the Moscow Long Haired Toy Terrier . Both were brought together under the same Russian Toy Terrier name in 1988 and the " Terrier " was dropped from the name when the breed was added in 2006 to the official list of breeds registered with the Fédération Cynologique Internationale and has been registered in the Foundation Stock Service of the American Kennel Club since 2008 , allowed to compete in AKC companion events since 2010 . The first official breed standard of the two varieties was written in 1966 in Russia .
The breed was nearly wiped out twice ; first in the 1920s with the rise of Communism due to the toy dog 's traditional link to the aristocracy and again in the 1990s with the influx of foreign breeds following the fall of the Iron Curtain . The smooth coat type is the older of the two , with the long coat type first appearing in 1958 .
Until the 1990s , the breed was almost unknown outside of Russia , and so relatively few details on associated health issues are known . The Russian Toy was originally bred as a rat fighter and as a watchdog , and can still exhibit the vocalization expected from the latter . It is a friendly dog and can become very attached to the family unit . Due to its size and similarities to the chihuahua , the two are often compared .
= = Description = =
The Russian Toy is one of the smallest breeds in the world , measuring between 20 cm and 28 cm and weighing anywhere between 1 kg and 3 kg . It has a small distinctive head with large eyes and triangular ears . In countries where docking is prohibited , the tail is curved in the shape of a sickle . There are two types in the breed , distinguished by their coats ; one is long coated and the other smooth coated . The smooth coated dog has a short , shiny , close @-@ lying coat . The long coated variety has a longer coat and profuse feathering in the ears , legs and tail . The feathering or " fringe " on the ears is usually 3 to 5 cm long , can be straight or with a slight wave . It will be grown by the age of three and should completely cover the outer edges and tips of the ears .
The smooth coat type of the breed closely resembles the Pražský Krysařík breed of the Czech Republic . The Pražský on average is a little shorter on leg and a little heavier than the Russian Toy .
Both of the Russian Toy varieties can be crossed and produce smooth and long coated puppies from the same litter . In addition , when two smooth coated dogs are bred together , they may occasionally bear a long coated offspring if the long hair gene is present in their pedigrees . However , there have been no records of two long coated Russian Toys breeding together and producing smooth coated offspring .
The breed has four main colors : black and tan , blue and tan , brown and tan , solid red of various shades . Red includes sable ( red where the tips of the hairs are black , known as overlay ) and red sable ( red with brown overlay ) .
= = Health = =
A Russian Toy will often require the help of a veterinarian to remove any retained deciduous teeth ( known as " puppy teeth " or " baby teeth " ) that fail to fall out and make way for the permanent teeth . Without this intervention , usually done under anesthetic , the baby and permanent teeth will occupy the same socket in the jaw , which can cause tartar deposits , tooth decay , gingivitis and periodontitis , and can lead to premature loss of teeth . Retained puppy teeth can also cause misalignment of the teeth .
As with most breeds of dog , the Russian Toy can suffer from patellar luxation , which is where the knee cap slips out of place when the knee bends as the groove that normally holds it in place is too shallow . It is usually an inherited defect , which occurs during the development of the foetus and rarely by trauma .
Russian Toys can suffer from bone fractures due to their small and sometimes delicate nature .
= = Temperament = =
Active and cheerful , the Russian Toy was originally bred both as an anti @-@ rat dog and a watch dog . The second quality is still active in the breed , and they can be very vocal . They can become quite attached to their family , regardless of the ages of the family members . Russian Toys are usually very reserved with strangers , but very loyal to their owners , always ready to protect them from any perceived danger .
= = History = =
The first evidence of English style terriers in Russia can be seen in the Museum of Zoology in Saint Petersburg . On display is an English style terrier dated 1716 – 1726 with a sign that reads " This dog is a short hair terrier named Lizetta . It personally belonged to the Russian Emperor Peter the Great . " Indeed , the breed was developed as a companion dog for Russian nobility . According to some accounts , records indicate that eight smooth coated Russian Toys competed in a dog show in St. Petersburg as far back as 1874 . The more generally accepted first reference to the breed appears in May 1907 when 11 Russian Toys were shown at an exhibition in St. Petersburg . In 1923 , two dogs appeared at a Moscow dog show and in 1924 , three more were awarded medals at a show in Odessa . But as a result of the October Revolution , the Russian Toy diminished in popularity and in numbers as these types of dogs were closely linked to the aristocracy and therefore frowned upon . In 1947 , only one dog was shown in St. Petersburg . When breeding began to revitalize the stock of Russian Toys in Russia , only a few of the dogs left had pedigrees or were purebred .
The lack of numbers and political isolation of the country at the time caused the creation of a new breed quite distinct from the former English style toy dog as breeders sought to stabilise the remaining toy sized terriers into a standard breed . The resulting contemporary Russian Toy has most of the features of the classic toy terrier , with the addition of some new characteristics . The head is high but not wide , the cheeks are flat and the eyes are round . By 1960 , 76 dogs were entered into an exhibition and the first standard for the two Russian Toy varieties was written in 1966 and authorized by the Ministry of Agriculture .
In 1988 , the Russian Kynological Federation published a new breed standard , combining the short coated Russian Toy Terrier and the long coated Moscow Toy Terrier under " Russian Toy Terrier . " However , after the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989 , the popularity of imported exotic breeds nearly drove the Russian Toy into extinction . A resurgence occurred thanks to a new energetic generation of dog breeders , but the breed remained virtually unknown outside of Russia until the 1990s . Several kennels have now been established outside Russia , the most successful ones located in Finland , Estonia , Belarus , Ukraine and Czech Republic . Interest in the breed is on the rise in the USA and Japan .
The Russian Toy was provisionally recognised by the Federation Cynologique Internationale in 2006 and is expected to gain definitive recognition in 2016 .
The United Kennel Club and The Foundation Stock Service of the American Kennel Club both accepted the breed in 2008
Russian Toys are also recognized by the American Rare Breed Association and International All Breed Canine Association .
= = = Development of the long coated Russian Toy = = =
The original long coated Russian Toy is arguably a dog named Chikki born on 12 October 1958 to two smooth coated dogs that both had slightly longer hair than was typical . Initially , the puppy was not to be registered as its coat was too long meet the breed standard , and usually such dogs would not participate in breeding programs and would often be put down . Chikki , however , was registered with a pedigree and purchased by Evgeniya Fominichna Zharova . Zharova is thus the long coated variety 's founding breeder as the first breeder to intentionally retain and breed a dog with a longer coat . Chikki developed an ear fringe and was mated with a female named Irma , who also had a longer coat than most smooth coated dogs , and together they produced a litter of three long coated puppies . Zharova developed the breed in Moscow , and so it came to be known as the Moscow Toy Terrier . The breed made its first appearance at a dog show in 1964 and the standard was set in 1966 . Ten years after Chikki 's birth , between 1968 and 1969 , approximately 300 long coated dogs were registered - a significant amount considering that Russian Toy litters tend to be small , typically one to three puppies . Today , the long coated variety has an established presence in Poland , Czech Republic , Estonia , Ukraine and a number of other countries , but the breeding program is particularly strong in Finland .
The first Russian Toy was brought to Finland in 1988 when a long coated male named Black @-@ Champion @-@ Bonaparte was imported from Russia and registered by Sirpa Lehtinen under Kennel Jojamint 's . A female named Ste @-@ Shihu was brought later that same year from Estonia by the same owner , and the two produced Finland 's first Russian Toy litter ( Jojamint 's Agostini and Jojamint 's Alboreto ) also in 1988 . Black @-@ Champion @-@ Bonaparte and Ste @-@ Shihu were the first Russian Toys to appear in a dog show in Finland in 1989 .
= = American Kennel Club history = =
The Foundation Stock Service ( FSS ) of the American Kennel Club ( AKC ) accepted the Russian Toy into its records in August 2008 , and in July 2009 , the Russian Toy was approved to compete in AKC companion events from 1 January 2010 onwards . Russian Toys can also be shown and earn Certificate of Merit Points at FSS Open shows .
In 2008 , the AKC board and FSS also acknowledged the Russian Toy Club of America ( RTCA ) . The following year , the AKC board and FSS acknowledged Russian Toy Dog Club of America , Inc . ( RTDCA ) .
In 2010 this second club , RTDCA , decided to become the National Club for the Russian Toy breed in the United Kennel Club ( UKC ) , where it became known as the Russkiy Toy Dog Club of America , Inc . ( RTDCA ) . In 2013 , the RTDCA was asked by AKC to separate into two distinct clubs with different officers to form two independent clubs : one to represent the AKC club and the other to represent the UKC Club . The AKC Russian Toy Dog Club of America added the word " The " to their name and became The Russian Toy Dog Club of America ( TRTDCA ) while the UKC club retained the original Russkiy Toy Dog Club of America name ( RTDCA ) .
In August 2013 , AKC stated that the two clubs RTCA and TRTDCA must combine into one club to represent the Russian Toy breed in the AKC .
= Agua Mala =
" Agua Mala " is the thirteenth episode of the sixth season of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on February 21 , 1999 in the United States . The episode was written by David Amann , and directed by Rob Bowman . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " Agua Mala " earned a Nielsen household rating of 10 @.@ 1 , being watched by 16 @.@ 9 million people in its initial broadcast . The episode received mostly mixed to negative reviews .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In this episode , Arthur Dales , now living in a Florida trailer park , calls Mulder and Scully for help when a neighboring family disappears ; and , with a hurricane approaching , Mulder and Scully find themselves trapped with a group of residents in a building where there is something in the water .
" Agua Mala " was Amann 's second story for The X @-@ Files . The original idea for the episode featured a monster loose in an abandoned gold mine . Darren McGavin makes a second appearance as Arthur Dales after being introduced in " Travelers . " After suffering a stroke , he would later be replaced by M. Emmet Walsh in " The Unnatural . " The episode was notable for its sheer amount of water and its lack of bright lighting , a stylistic approach that Gillian Anderson likened to filming in Vancouver .
= = Plot = =
In Goodland , Florida during a fierce hurricane , Sara Shipley and her son , Evan , desperately try to flip the washing machine but fail to do so as tentacles ensnare them . After receiving a call , FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) arrive at the home of retired FBI agent Arthur Dales ( Darren McGavin ) , the first to look into the X @-@ Files . He tells them about the Shipley family and how Sara Shipley called him in a panic after her husband was attacked by something in the bathroom with tentacles . Scully is dubious about this but believes that something has indeed happened to the Shipley family during this hurricane .
Mulder and Scully go to the Shipley house and find the bathroom door barricaded shut , no sign of any people . The two have a brief run @-@ in with Deputy Greer who believes they are burglars until Mulder disarms the man and Scully shows him her FBI ID . They attempt to go to the airport but are trapped by the hurricane . Elsewhere at the Breakers Condominiums , Deputy Greer encounters the creature after finding a dead man covered in a slimy substance on a toilet . Mulder and Scully later find the deputy 's vehicle parked outside the apartments . Searching the building , they discover Greer on the ground , his neck covered with red welts . Mulder goes around the complex to find the rest of the people and warn them that the thing is in the plumbing . He encounters Dougie , a looter , Walter Suarez whose girlfriend Angela Villareal is nine months pregnant , and George Vincent , an anti @-@ government Second Amendment activist . Mulder attempts to get Vincent to come out and join them for his own protection . Vincent refuses but , after being attacked by the creature in his apartment , relents . Mulder hypothesizes that the entity attacking them was driven from the bottom of the sea by the hurricane into the city 's water system .
Dougie steals the deputy 's wedding ring and knocks over a container of Epsom salts into the tub where the unconscious Greer is soaking after Scully removed several specimens from his neck wounds . While Angela Villareal relieves herself , she spots the creature in the tub with the deputy . Mulder and Scully enter the bathroom and find the clothes of the deputy but the man gone . Mulder theorizes that the entity does not just live in water but is a living form of water , becoming visible only when it attacks . He believes that the creature uses people as hosts to reproduce , with the body 's water content being used to feed the growth of new creatures . Mulder realizes that everyone needs to evacuate .
Charging outside , Mulder is attacked by the creature in the hall . When he returns with the welts all over his throat , George Vincent slams the door and takes them all hostage , leaving Mulder to die in the hallway . Angela goes into labor and Scully finds herself forced to deliver a baby . However , water collects in the light fixture above them and the creature appears . It grabs George Vincent by the neck . Scully tells Walter Suarez to aim for the sprinklers , realizing that the freshwater kept the creature at bay , as with the deputy until Epsom salt was added to the water . Suarez shoots the sprinklers and saves Vincent 's life . Meanwhile , Mulder realizes that freshwater is the key also , and runs out into the rain to heal his wounds .
The next morning , the creature has vanished , the newborn baby has survived and is healthy , and Mulder starts recovering quite well . After telling the story to Dales , he is relieved and felt that he would have not retired from the FBI if he had a partner like Scully . He decides to celebrate with the agents now that the storm is over ; he asks them if they would like some water , to which they quickly reply " No ! "
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
" Agua Mala " was written by David Amann and was his second story for The X @-@ Files after " Terms of Endearment . " " Agua Mala " went through several very different drafts . Amann was originally tasked with bringing back the character of Arthur Dales . His original story was of a monster loose in an abandoned gold mine . Frank Spotnitz , the show 's executive producer , did not particularly like the idea of a gold mine , but he enjoyed the concept of a monster loose in an enclosed space . Amann quickly decided to set the episode during a hurricane and feature a sea monster as the primary antagonist . Originally , the sea monster was blown onto dry land and crawled into the building , before Amann decided to re @-@ write it as living water .
Director Rob Bowman was worried that the episode 's monster would not appear " scary " and that the story would not be " compelling " . By utilizing unique camera angles and quick action Bowman was able to make the episode feel " a hell of a lot better than [ he ] was afraid it might " . The monster was created by special effects makeup supervisor John Vulich , a task he considered " the single most difficult thing [ he ] did all season " . The tentacles were created out of a combination of silicone and urethane to make them translucent , but give them a flexible feel . The " octopus bite marks " numbered in the hundreds and required 90 minutes to apply . The episode 's title , " Agua Mala " , means bad water in Spanish . Aguamala is also the slang name for the Portuguese Man o ' War , a venomous jellyfish similar in form to the episode 's primary antagonist .
= = = Casting = = =
Darren McGavin makes an appearance as Arthur Dales in the episode , his second after being introduced in " Travelers " . McGavin , noted for his role in Kolchak : The Night Stalker which was instrumental in the tone of The X @-@ Files , was originally the casting directors ' first choice for the role of Senator Matheson in the second season episode " Little Green Men " . McGavin was later sought out to play the role of Mulder 's dad . In the end , McGavin finally agreed to appear on the show playing Arthur Dales , the agent who originally founded the X @-@ Files . McGavin was originally supposed to also appear in the Duchovny @-@ penned episode " The Unnatural " , but two days after filming began , he suffered a stroke , forcing the producers to remove his scenes from the episode and replace them with another " Arthur Dales " , played by M. Emmet Walsh .
= = = Filming = = =
The episode was notable for its sheer amount of water and its lack of bright lighting . Director Rob Bowman noted that he did not film " anything for that episode during daylight , or with anything brighter than a flashlight or an emergency lamp in the hallway " . Bowman explained that " Agua Mala " was extremely difficult to film because every time a crew or cast member got wet , they " had to stop everything to dry them off " . Gillian Anderson and David Duchovny , in particular , were " water @-@ logged " for a majority of the episode 's filming . Anderson later joked , " I mean , we got drenched . It was like we were back in Vancouver ! " The show had previously filmed in Vancouver from season one to five before moving to Los Angeles , California at the beginning of the sixth season .
The apartment featured in the episode was built from scratch on a soundstage . Production designer Corey Kaplan received the script for " Agua Mala " around Christmas and , realizing the amount of work , immediately began drawing up plans for the set . By the time the episode was finished , the entire set was trashed and water @-@ logged and had to be thrown away . Costume designer Christine Peters was required to bring six dry replicas of each character 's wardrobe to prevent pneumonia .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Agua Mala " first aired in the United States on February 21 , 1999 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 1 , meaning that roughly 10 @.@ 1 percent of all television @-@ equipped households were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 16 @.@ 90 million viewers . The episode aired in the United Kingdom and Ireland on Sky1 on June 6 , 1999 and received 0 @.@ 95 million viewers , making it the third most watched episode that week . Fox promoted the episode with the tagline " Tonight , a creature living in our water has just gotten thirsty , for us . "
= = = Reviews = = =
The episode received mixed to negative reviews from critics . Michael Liedtke and George Avalos , in a review of the sixth season in The Charlotte Observer , called the episode " just plain bad " . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club roundly criticized the episode and awarded it a " D – " , calling it " a famously bad episode of The X @-@ Files . " He noted that " the worst thing about ' Agua Mala ' is that it comes so very , very close to working that it ’ s frustrating to see just how little it actually does " due to its bizarre structure and convoluted antagonist . VanDerWerff criticized Darren McGavin 's appearance in the episode , calling it a " glorified cameo " , and noted that his character function as the " kind of old man who stands on his porch and yells about the good old days to the neighborhood kids . " He did however , call the shot of the " writhing tentacle in the overhead lamp " the " one good thing " in the episode . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five , writing that the episode 's " laughs aren 't clever , and the scares are silly " .
Not all reviews were completely negative ; others were more mixed . Tom Kessenich , in his book Examination : An Unauthorized Look at Seasons 6 – 9 of the X @-@ Files gave the episode a mixed review , writing " as far as [ Monsters of the Weeks ] go , ' Agua Mala ' was pretty standard fare . " However , he criticized the episodes resolution , noting that Scully should have had no way to know pure water would kill the creature . Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a mixed review and awarded it two stars out of four . Vitaris wrote that , " ' Agua Mala ' won 't end up on anybody 's ' best of ' list , but it 's so silly that it 's sort of fun . " Timothy Sexton from Yahoo ! News named " The Hurricane Monster " as one of " The Best X @-@ Files Monsters of the Week " , writing , " I 'll tell you one thing about this X @-@ Files episode and this X @-@ Files monster : you 'll never go to the bathroom during a rainstorm again without thinking twice . "
= = = Awards = = =
" Agua Mala " earned an ASC Award by the American Society of Cinematographers for Outstanding Achievement in Cinematography – Regular Series .
= Hurricane Andres ( 2009 ) =
Hurricane Andres was the first named storm and hurricane of the 2009 Pacific hurricane season . Forming on June 21 , Andres gradually intensified as it tracked along the Mexican coastline . Deep convection developed around the center of circulation and by June 23 , the storm attained hurricane @-@ status , peaking with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . Upon attaining this intensity , the storm featured a developing eyewall within a central dense overcast . Within 36 hours , the storm rapidly degenerated , having most of the convection being displaced by high wind shear , becoming a non @-@ tropical trough during the afternoon of June 24 .
Prior to becoming a tropical depression , Andres produced heavy rainfall in Oaxaca and Honduras , resulting in two deaths . Rough seas off the coast of Guerrero resulted in one fatality . Inland , flooding caused by heavy rains killed two additional people . An additional 20 people were injured . Several dozen structures were damaged and a few were destroyed . Total losses from the hurricane reached MXN 3 million ( $ 231 @,@ 000 USD ) in Colima . Following the storm , roughly 350 people were left homeless .
= = Meteorological history = =
Hurricane Andres originated out of a tropical wave that entered the eastern Pacific basin on June 16 after crossing Central America . Over the following few days , showers and thunderstorms began to organize around the wave . At this time , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) remarked upon the possibility for tropical cyclone formation . By June 20 , the wave spawned an area of low pressure roughly 175 mi ( 280 km ) south @-@ southeast of Acapulco , Mexico . Around 1200 UTC the following day , the system had become sufficiently organized for the NHC to designate the low as Tropical Depression Two @-@ E. The depression briefly track westward before turning towards the northwest , a track which it would maintain for the remained of its existence , due to a mid @-@ tropospheric ridge located northeast of the system .
It continued to organize throughout the day on June 21 , developing banding features and increased convection . Several hours after being classified a depression , the system intensified into a tropical storm , at which time it received the name Andres . Upon being named , Andres marked latest date that the first named storm of a season developed since 1969 when Tropical Storm Ava developed on July 1 of that year . By the morning of June 22 , very deep thunderstorm activity existed near the center , and the overall convective pattern had become more symmetric in nature . Favorable conditions , warm sea surface temperatures , allowed Andres to gradually intensify as it tracked near the Mexican coastline . However , strong wind shear , a factor that generally weakens tropical cyclones , had little effect on the developing storm .
By the evening of June 22 , satellite imagery indicated the formation of an eyewall ; by this time Andres was near hurricane @-@ status . Early the next day , the center of circulation became embedded within a central dense overcast and Andres intensified into a hurricane , the first of the season , around 0600 UTC . At this time , the storm attained its peak intensity with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 984 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 06 inHg ) ; the storm was located roughly 80 mi ( 130 km ) southwest of Lázaro Cárdenas upon attaining this intensity . Twelve hours after becoming a hurricane , most of the deep convection associated with the storm had weakened ; however , Hurricane Hunters still recorded 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) winds despite the ragged appearance of Andres .
By the evening of June 23 , Andres weakened to a tropical storm due to increasing wind shear , decreasing sea surface temperatures as it entered a more stable air mass . The system began to rapidly degenerate , as convection became dislocated from the center and the overall structure of Andres degraded . By 1200 UTC on June 24 , the storm weakened into a tropical depression while situated roughly 100 mi ( 155 km ) west of Cabo Corrientes , Mexico . Shortly after , the depression sharply turned north and degenerated into a trough of low pressure , no longer a tropical cyclone .
= = Preparations and impact = =
The NHC issued several watches and warnings for portions of the Mexican coastline ; the first was a tropical storm watch for areas between Zihuatanejo and Manzanillo on June 22 . Several hours later , a portion of the watch was upgraded to a warning as Andres neared the coastline . By 1500 UTC , a hurricane watch was declared for areas between Lazaro Cardenas and Cabo Corrientes and the tropical storm watch for Zihuatanejo to Lazaro Cardenas was discontinued . Roughly six hours later , a hurricane warning was raised for Punto San Telmo to Cabo Corrientes and the tropical storm warning and hurricane watch were extended northward to Punto San Telmo . By the following afternoon , the hurricane watch was discontinued and several hours later , areas under a tropical storm warning followed suit . Early on June 24 , all watches and warnings associated with Andres were discontinued as it rapidly dissipated offshore . Authorities closed ports in Lázaro Cárdenas , Manzanillo and Puerto Vallarta because of rough seas . Schools throughout Colima were closed prior to the storm and Mexican officials raised the awareness level to orange .
Prior to classification as a tropical cyclone , the storm dropped over 160 mm ( 6 @.@ 3 in ) of rainfall in some areas , triggering flooding and landslides . Heavy rain , produced by the wave that spawned Andres , in Honduras killed two people . A river overflowed its banks , flooding homes and surrounding land . On Mexican Federal Highway 200 , gusty winds blew down about fifteen trees . In the city of Acapulco , it was reported that fallen trees damaged two cars . Rough seas led to the drowning of a fishermen in a lagoon at Tecpán de Galeana , Guerrero , while flooding caused by the storm prompted the evacuation of 200 people ; 14 shelters were opened to accommodate the evacuees . Additionally , some trees were downed along the coast . Swells up to 4 m ( 13 ft ) caused structural damage along the Mexican coastline , with the worst being around Acapulco where several bars and restaurants were damaged or destroyed . In Jalisco , 20 temporary shelters were opened to house evacuees following the storm . The Civil Protection System prepared relief materials , consisting of 600 blankets , 600 mattresses and 700 cots to house people in emergency shelters .
In the municipality of Atoyac de Alvarez , in the community of Cerro Prieto , 350 people were left homeless by the storm . Similarly , the paths that connect the towns of San Vicente de Jesus San Vicente and La Soledad Benítez @-@ Paradise in this town , there were cuts in solitary vehicle traffic . In the community of La Soledad , heavy rains accompanied by hail hit 38 homes , crops and coffee grounds cultivation in the region . In Colima , 50 homes and two hotels were inundated by flood waters , leaving MXN 3 million ( $ 231 @,@ 000 USD ) in damage . In Puebla , heavy rains produced by the outer bands of the hurricane triggered flooding that killed two people . In addition to the fatalities , 20 people were injured by the storm . In the wake of the storm , the Government of Mexico allocated roughly MXN 3 million ( $ 231 @,@ 000 USD ) in funds which would be distributed to 96 businesses significantly affected by the storm . These funds accounted for supplies , such as refrigerators and stoves to help restart their industries .
= Fireworks ( 30 Rock ) =
" Fireworks " is the eighteenth episode of NBC 's first season of 30 Rock . It was written by two of the season 's co @-@ executive producers Brett Baer and Dave Finkel , and it was directed by Beth McCarthy . It first aired on April 5 , 2007 in the United States . Guest stars in this episode include Will Arnett , Kay Cannon , Matt Dickinson , Dave Finkel , Evan Harrington , Chris Parnell , Maulik Pancholy , Maury Povich , Keith Powell , Stu Richel , Al Roker , Mahadeo Shivraj , Kissy Simmons , Jason Sudeikis and Brendon Walsh .
In this episode , Jack Donaghy ( played by Alec Baldwin ) stages a televised firework display , in an attempt to show up his rival , Devon Banks ( Will Arnett ) . Devon , upon their first meeting , develops a crush on Kenneth Parcell ( Jack McBrayer ) . Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) follows Floyd ( Jason Sudeikis ) , a colleague whom she is attracted to , into Alcoholics Anonymous ( AA ) in an attempt to get closer to him . Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) discovers that he is related to Thomas Jefferson and decides to honor his ancestor . James " Toofer " Spurlock ( Keith Powell ) discovers a shocking secret about one of his own ancestors .
= = Plot = =
When Devon Banks , the Vice President of West Coast News , Web Content , and Theme Park Talent Relations visits from Los Angeles , Jack fears that he is trying to take his job . After having his assistant Jonathan spy on Banks , he learns that Banks is gay and that he is interested in Kenneth . Jack sends Kenneth to try to gather information on what Banks is planning to do , but Kenneth is inept and fails at the task . Jack then enlists Liz to help him come up with some ideas so that he can impress the network and win the power coup over Banks . Jack sends Kenneth to seduce Banks again so that he will be late for the important meeting , but Banks sees through the plan and arrives at the meeting anyway .
Meanwhile , Liz sees Floyd , the corporate employee who she has a crush on , go into a church on a Tuesday afternoon . The next week , she follows him in and finds that he is attending an AA meeting . Liz pretends to be an alcoholic so that she can get closer to Floyd and hear his secrets . After finding out that members of the same AA group are not allowed to date , Liz confesses to Floyd that she was never an alcoholic and that she made it up to get close to him . He gets mad and feels betrayed , so she apologizes and tells him all of her secrets to make it up to him . Floyd forgives her and they begin dating .
When it comes time for Jack 's important meeting with the network and showdown against Devon Banks , Liz is too busy pursuing Floyd to help Jack with his idea . Jack has to attend the meeting alone , but his idea for a fireworks special impresses the network and he successfully defends his job against Devon Banks . When the fireworks special actually airs , however , the fireworks are shot off in midtown New York outside Rockefeller Center and it ends up looking like a terrorist attack . Panic results and the mayor calls , causing the event to be unceremoniously ended .
Tracy is served with paternity papers and insists that the child is not his . After the DNA test , Tracy learns that the child isn 't his but that he is a direct descendant of Thomas Jefferson . The news angers Tracy and he talks to Toofer and Frank about it . Toofer learns that he is a direct descendant of Tobias Spurlock , a black Confederate soldier . Tracy and Toofer are upset about the news until Tracy has a dream in which Thomas Jefferson ( portrayed by Jack Donaghy ) appears to him on The Maury Povich Show . In the dream , Jefferson takes credit for " inventing " America and tells Tracy to forget his past . Tracy decides that he wants Toofer to write a movie about their experiences and Thomas Jefferson 's life . Tracy intends to play all of the parts in the movie , except he intends for the film to be a drama .
= = Production = =
This is Jack McBrayer and Will Arnett 's third time working together . McBrayer made guest appearances as a country club waiter in " Burning Love " and " S.O.B.s " , two episodes of the situation comedy Arrested Development . Arnett , a member of the main cast of Arrested Development , played George Oscar " G.O.B. " Bluth II in that series . The plot of the Arrested Development episode in which McBrayer appeared revolved around G.O.B. accidentally becoming a waiter at the Bluth family 's country club .
This episode was advertised by NBC as a " supersized " episode , with the total runtime extended from 30 minutes to 40 minutes . It aired at 8 : 40 pm , after " The Negotiation " episode of The Office , as opposed to 9 : 00 pm which was the series ' usual timeslot .
The husband and wife characters who appear in the 10 @-@ second internet sitcom , Makin ' It Happen , are played by Dave Finkel and Kay Cannon . Finkel and Cannon are both staff writers on 30 Rock . Cannon was , at the time , also married to guest star Jason Sudeikis and Finkel co @-@ wrote this episode . A series of Makin ' It Happen was produced and the webisodes aired on NBC.com.
Star Wars is frequently referenced in 30 Rock , beginning with the pilot episode where Tracy Jordan is seen shouting that he is a Jedi . Liz Lemon admits to being a huge fan of Star Wars , saying that she had watched it many times with Pete Hornberger ( Scott Adsit ) , and saying she dressed up as the Star Wars character Princess Leia during four Halloweens . Fey , a fan of Star Wars herself , said that the weekly Star Wars joke or reference " started happening organically " when the crew realized that they had a Star Wars reference " in almost every show " . Fey said that from then on " it became a thing where [ they ] tried to keep it going " , and that even though they could not include one in every episode , they still had a " pretty high batting average " . Fey attributed most of the references to Robert Carlock , who she described as " the resident expert " . In this episode , Star Wars is referenced twice : once when Liz tells Floyd that she and Pete are watching the movies on the AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies list , but they only own Star Wars and Tootsie so they keep watching those two films . It is again referenced during Tracy 's dream , when Thomas Jefferson holds his hand up to Tracy and says " May the Force be with you " .
= = Reception = =
" Fireworks " brought in an average of 5 @.@ 4 million American viewers upon its original broadcast in the United States , achieving a 2 @.@ 5 / 7 in the key 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old demographic . The 2 @.@ 5 refers to 2 @.@ 5 % of all people of ages 18 – 49 years old , and the 7 refers to 7 % of all people of ages 18 – 49 years old watching television at the time of the broadcast . Compared to the previous episode , " The Fighting Irish " , which aired on March 8 , 2007 , " Fireworks " gained 200 @,@ 000 viewers .
Matt Webb Mitovich of TV Guide thought that Will Arnett , who appeared as Devon Banks , was " shrewdly cast " . Webb Mitovich added that this episode displayed some " good , good stuff " . Anna Johns of AOL 's TV Squad declared " Fireworks " as " one of the best episodes so far this season " citing that " the writers juggled a handful of storylines very , very well " . She wrote that the best part of the episodes were " the one @-@ liners . They had [ her ] laughing so hard that [ she ] frequently had to pause the TiVo to recover . " Robert Canning of IGN wrote that this episode " was another prime example of what this show is capable of " . He thought that " the choice of Arnett as Jack Donaghy 's nemesis was perfect , right down to their shared graveled vocal delivery " , and that recurring character Chris Parnell 's " short , quick hitting scenes are always nonsensical perfection " .
= Doris Mackinnon =
Doris Mackinnon ( 30 September 1883 – 10 September 1956 ) was a British zoologist . Born in Scotland , her father was a Consular Agent and her mother managed a " women 's home " . Influenced by Maria Gordon , Mackinnon studied botany and geology at Aberdeen University , graduating in 1906 . She received the " Carnegie scholarship " , studying abroad for two years before returning to Scotland . She achieved her doctorate from Aberdeen University in 1914 , becoming a lecturer at Dundee University in 1916 .
During World War I , Mackinnon worked in military hospitals in Britain , researching and helping to diagnose amoebic dysentery . Her work in the military hospitals fuelled her interest in the topic , which she focussed on during the following years . In 1919 , Mackinnon joined King 's College , London as a lecturer and became Chair of Zoology in 1927 , the first female Chair at the college . She remained in the role as Chair and professor for 22 years . Her research work focussed on parasitic protozoa , and she gave many lectures on the subject over the period of 30 years . She also gave broadcast lectures for schools .
= = Biography = =
Doris Livingston Mackinnon was born on 30 September 1883 in Aberdeen . Her father , Lachlan Mackinnon , worked as an advocate and Consular Agent for France and Belgium . In his spare time , he was an amateur scientist , interested in botany , ornithology and astronomy . Her mother , Theodora Thompson Mackinnon , granddaughter of George Thompson , founded and managed a " women 's home " for unemployed women . Mackinnon had three siblings . One sister became a silhouette artist whilst the other , Lillias Mackinnon , became a concert pianist . A brother became an author .
Encouraged by Maria Gordon , Mackinnon studied botany and geology at Aberdeen University , receiving her B.Sc. in 1906 with a distinction . She was awarded the " Carnegie scholarship " , affording her the chance to study for a year under Richard Hertwig in Munich . Afterward , she joined Milano Vlès to research at Station biologique de Roscoff and then relocated to the Quick Laboratory under George Nuttall . Mackinnon returned to Aberdeen in 1908 , where she became an assistant to John Arthur Thomson at Aberdeen University . In 1909 , she became an assistant to D 'Arcy Thompson at University College , Dundee . Whilst there , she worked on her thesis " Studies on protozoa " , which she submitted to Aberdeen University in 1914 , receiving her doctorate . Within two years , in 1916 , Mackinnon was promoted to lecturer in Dundee .
Whilst at Dundee , Mackinnon was given a leave of absence to help with the war effort during World War I. She worked in military hospitals in Liverpool and Southampton , where she used her knowledge of protozoology to help diagnose amoebic dysentery and other infections for the War Office . In 1918 , she was recalled to University College , Dundee , as D 'Arcy Thompson had taken a new role at St Andrews University , Mackinnon became the acting head of zoological department .
Mackinnon joined King 's College , London , first as a lecturer in 1919 under Arthur Dendy ; she was promoted to reader two years later . When Julian Huxley resigned as Chair of Zoology in 1927 , Mackinnon stepped up to the role which held also the title of Professor , where she would remain until her retirement in 1949 . In doing so , Mackinnon became the first female chair at King 's College . Her department produced notable academics such as Francis Brambell . After retiring , Mackinnon worked on an undergraduate textbook , " An introduction to the study of protozoa " . She fell ill before it was published , eventually dying from a stroke on 10 September 1956 , so the book was completed and edited by R. S. J. Hawes .
= = Work = =
Between May 1917 and May 1918 , Mackinnon worked at the University War Hospital in Southamptom with William Fletcher from the Royal Army Medical Corps , focussing on the diagnosis and treatment of dysentery . The pair focussed on two forms of Shigella dysenteriae which had been identified by Simon Flexner and Kiyoshi Shiga . They discovered that the Flexner bacillus could go into intermission and be undetectable for periods of four to five weeks , making it very difficult to say when someone was no longer a carrier . They also found that men who were carriers of Shiga 's bacillus would be prone to depression and would be no longer fit to be soldiers .
Mackinnon published over 40 academic papers , primarily on parasitic species of protozoa ( especially flagellates and sporozoa ) . She had a reputation for her skill as a lecturer , which stemmed from her time at University College , Dundee . Mackinnon gave broadcast talks for schools and numerous lectures , with a reputation that she never repeated a lecture in 30 years of teaching . These included lectures on the diseases spread by flies , and how good hygiene and the prevention of flies breeding could stop typhoid . She also set up a research centre in protozoology , the only non @-@ medical protozoological research centre in Britain .
= = Recognition = =
During the 1930s , two genus of protozoa , Dorisa and Dorisiella , were named after Mackinnon in recognition of her work . In 1943 , for the 50th anniversary of their first women 's admissions , Aberdeen University awarded Mackinnon and two other women an honorary LL.D. When Mackinnon retired in 1949 , she was elected professor emeritus of Kings College . She became a fellow of the Linnean Society of London and served on their council .
= = Select bibliography = =
Books
Mackinnon , D. L. ; Hawes , R. S. J. ( 1961 ) . An introduction to the study of protozoa . Oxford : The Clarendon Press .
Journals
= KCOM Stadium =
The KCOM Stadium is a multi @-@ purpose facility in the city of Kingston upon Hull , England . The stadium was previously called the KC Stadium , but was renamed as part of a major rebrand by the stadium 's sponsors , telecommunications provider KCOM , on 4 April 2016 . Conceived as early as the late 1990s , it was completed in 2002 at a cost of approximately £ 44 million . The stadium is owned by Hull City Council and operated by the Stadium Management Company ( SMC ) , who are looking to expand the stadium up to 32 @,@ 000 .
The bowl @-@ shaped stadium contains a continuous single tier of seats with a second tier on the west side . Its current capacity is 25 @,@ 400 . The stadium accommodates fans of its two tenants , association football club Hull City A.F.C. , which moved there from Boothferry Park , and rugby league football club Hull F.C. , relocated from the Boulevard . The ground also hosts international association football and rugby league football competitions and acts as a venue for concerts by musical artists , such as Elton John and The Who .
= = History = =
The idea of a new stadium for Kingston upon Hull , whose professional football club Hull City had played at Boothferry Park since 1946 , was first mooted in 1997 , but funds to finance such a project only became available when the city council sold a portion of its holdings in Kingston Communications . The council provided most of the funds , more than £ 42 million , with the rest stemming from government single regeneration budget grants and from the Football Stadium Improvement Fund .
The council appointed John Topliss to head the stadium construction project . He and his team partnered with consulting firm Drivers Jonas to explore preliminary issues such as stadium location , seating capacity , and facilities offered . Stated Mr. Topliss : " We had a totally blank canvas and , working with consultants , made a thorough assessment of what was needed . "
The project team considered over a dozen sites , inside and outside of the city , before settling on The Circle in West Park . Factors contributing to the decision include transport guidance , central government planning guidelines , existing athletic facilities , isolation from residential areas , and council ownership .
The final recommendation of Drivers Jonas included additional facilities for both indoor and outdoor sports for the people of West Hull in addition to the main stadium , planned to seat from 25 @,@ 000 to 30 @,@ 000 spectators . Professional services firm Arup Associates provided initial concept proposals for the stadium . The Miller Partnership , an architectural and interior design firm , adopted these proposals during the stadium 's design .
In spite of obstacles during the course of the project , including Hull City A.F.C. ' s receivership in 2001 ( just after the granting of planning permission ) , the stadium complex was completed on time ( in fourteen months ) and on budget ( at approximately GB £ 44 million ) . The stadium opened its doors on 18 December 2002 . Hull City beat Sunderland A.F.C. 1 – 0 in a friendly match to mark the occasion . Steve Melton scored the goal , the first at the KC Stadium .
= = Structure and facilities = =
The all @-@ seater stadium consists of a single @-@ tier , asymmetrical bowl that can seat approximately 20 @,@ 000 , with a second tier on the Cranswick plc West Stand that can seat approximately 5 @,@ 000 . Current capacity is 25 @,@ 586 . Plans provide for future expansion to a capacity of approximately 30 @,@ 000 by the addition of a second tier on the Ideal Standard Community East Stand . Each stand has a name for corporate sponsorship purposes . On 4 July 2011 , Hull City revealed that the stadium 's west stand would be sponsored by the local Cranswick plc under a two @-@ year agreement , which was extended on 26 July 2013 . On 10 July 2013 it was announced the east stand would be sponsored by Ideal Standard and become known as the Ideal Standard Community East Stand .
Corporate hospitality is provided by 28 executive boxes located between the two tiers of the Cranswick plc West Stand , while security of the stadium is handled using 57 closed @-@ circuit television ( CCTV ) cameras that cover the stadium . Over the summer of 2007 , SMC installed an LED screen in the Smith & Nephew North Stand to replace the old electronic scoreboard . The screen has an area of approximately 40 m ² ( 430 ft . ² ) and displays such content as live home game feeds , match highlights , interviews , and action replays .
The stadium 's seats are mostly black , with a band of white and amber seats around the circumference . White and amber seats form the word Hull in the north and south stands . In the Ideal Standard Community East Stand , the seats form an image of a coronet , a symbol of the city that also appears in the club crest for Hull and in the coat of arms of the city council . Black , white , and amber were chosen to remain neutral toward the colours of its two tenants : black and white for Hull and black and amber for Hull City A.F.C. The blue and gold of owner Hull City Council appear in the stadium 's four external columns .
The size of the playing surface is 114 x 74 metres ( 125 x 81 yd ) and made of rye grass with a 3 % additive of artificial grass . This provides ample room for a FIFA @-@ regulation association football pitch of 105 x 68 metres ( 115 x 74 yd ) and a standard rugby league football pitch of 100 x 68 metres ( 109 x 74 yd ) . The playing surface has an automated watering system and below @-@ surface heating .
Set within Hull 's West Park , the stadium is the first in England to be built in a parkland setting . The stadium complex also includes the 1 @,@ 500 seat Bonus Arena , a skate park , two multi @-@ use all weather pitches , a community learning zone complete with classrooms , a health & fitness suite , a cyber cafe , and a library .
The KCOM Stadium has received several honours . It was named the chief new development in Yorkshire at the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors Pro @-@ Yorkshire Awards . It was also on the shortlist for the Prime Minister 's Award for Better Public Building and received a high commendation in the British Construction Industry Awards in the Best Value category . In a 2005 poll that was carried out by Drivers Jonas and decided by football fans from across the country , the KC Stadium was rated highest in comfort , services and view among all grounds in the Football League and was also rated the most @-@ improved venue .
On 13 August 2013 a Goal Decision System by Hawk @-@ Eye was installed in the ground ahead of the 2013 – 14 Premier League season which requires the use of goal @-@ line technology to indicate if a goal is scored .
= = Tenants = =
= = = Hull City A.F.C. = = =
The stadium replaced Boothferry Park as home to Hull City Association Football Club , and was the backdrop for the club 's recent climb through the English Football League . It first hosted the club 's home games during the second half of the 2002 – 03 season ; the first competitive match was against Hartlepool United , a game that Hull City won by a score of 2 – 0 . Hull City , nicknamed the Tigers , attracted an average attendance of almost 17 @,@ 000 in their first full season at the KC Stadium , 2003 – 04 . This figure is more than three times the average Third Division attendance for that season , and was only matched or exceeded by clubs in the Premier League and the First Division . However , the level of support was not matched by on @-@ field performances ; the Tigers finished 13th in their first season at the KC Stadium . However , in 2003 – 04 ( their first full season at the new ground ) , Hull won promotion as Third Division runners @-@ up , securing their place in the newly named League One ( previously the Second Division ) . A second successive promotion to the Championship , again as runners @-@ up , followed in 2004 – 05 .
Attendances for Hull City 's league games at the KCOM Stadium have averaged above 16 @,@ 000 in each full season they have played there . The stadium hosted Premier League football in the 2008 – 09 and 2009 – 10 seasons , with all 20 @,@ 500 available season tickets selling out shortly after Hull City 's Championship play @-@ off victory at Wembley Stadium . The record attendance for a Premier League match is 25 @,@ 030 set on 9 May 2010 for the last match of the season against Liverpool beating the previous record of 25 @,@ 023 set on 13 March 2010 against Arsenal . While playing in the Championship , the record stood at 24 @,@ 350 on 26 April 2008 for the visit of Crystal Palace , beating that of 24 @,@ 311 on 30 January 2007 for the visit of local rivals Leeds United . Segregation between home fans and away fans prevents the stadium 's stated capacity from being reached .
Plans have been prepared for the potential extension of the stadium following Hull City 's promotion to the Premier League . 4 @,@ 500 seats could be added in a second tier to the east stand , and 2 @,@ 000 seats each in the north and south stands , giving the stadium a capacity of approximately 34 @,@ 000 . In 2011 , the club 's owner Assem Allam announced that he wanted to buy the stadium freehold so he could develop , as he stated , " a sports park " on the site .
After Hull City Council refused , Allam stated " I had in mind £ 30 million to spend on the infrastructure of the club , to increase the stadium by 10 @,@ 000 and to have commercial activities around the stadium – cafeterias , shops , supermarkets – to have all this to create income for the club so that in the future it can be self @-@ financing and not relying on me . "
On 9 August 2013 , Allam announced that the club will discard its 109 @-@ year @-@ old name and , henceforth , be " marketed " as Hull City Tigers locally and Hull Tigers to national and international audiences . Announcing the change in the Hull Daily Mail newspaper , he said : " ' Hull City ' is irrelevant ... it is common . I want the club to be special . It is about identity . ' City ' is a lousy identity . ' Hull City Association Football Club ' is so long . " The club 's Managing Director Nick Thompson urged supporters " to judge it in the fullness of time . " The announcement stated that all references to " AFC " on club
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branding will be phased out , although they will remain on the shirt crest during their first season back in the Premier League .
Allam justified the name change as part of his plans to create " additional sources of revenue " for the club . He dismissed fans ' protests against the name change , stating " nobody questions my decisions in my business . "
= = = Hull F.C. = = =
Professional rugby league 's Hull Football Club play their home games at the KCOM Stadium , having relocated from the Boulevard . During their time at the KCOM Stadium , they have consistently ended each season on a high note : in 2003 , the team just missed play @-@ off qualification ; in 2004 , the club finished third . They finished fourth in 2005 , and enjoyed even greater success in the Challenge Cup , in which they beat the Leeds Rhinos in the final . Hull FC reached the Super League Grand Final in 2006 . Attendances average around 14 @,@ 000 , but are often well above that figure when the club hosts local rivals Hull Kingston Rovers , this local derby producing a record crowd of 23 @,@ 004 for 2 September 2007 fixture .
= = Other sporting events = =
It hosted four England under @-@ 21 internationals . The results were as follows .
The KCOM Stadium is now also a regular venue for international rugby league games , and has hosted Great Britain matches in both the Tri @-@ Nations and the Ashes competitions . The stadium hosted the 2004 Tri @-@ Nations match in which New Zealand lost by a score of 26 – 24 . The stadium also hosted the Tri @-@ Nations game between Great Britain and Australia in 2005 ; the final score was 26 – 14 to Australia .
On Saturday 9 November 2013 , the stadium hosted the England versus Fiji Rugby League World Cup match , in which England won 34 – 12 in front of an attendance of 25 @,@ 114 . Before the match , there was a minute 's silence , followed by spontaneous applause , to mark the early death of former England International Steve Prescott .
In 2009 , the KC Stadium was shortlisted as a possible venue for games at the 2018 FIFA World Cup should England win the right to host it , but when the list of venues was announced on 16 December that year , the KC Stadium was not included .
It has also played host to two exhibition Twenty20 cricket matches between Yorkshire County Cricket Club and Lashings World XI .
= = Concerts = =
As well as serving as a sporting venue , the KCOM Stadium also hosts musical events , including such artists as Sir Elton John , Bryan Adams , Neil Diamond , R.E.M. , Bon Jovi , and The Who .
JLS have also performed here in front of 20 @,@ 000 fans as part of their 2010 JLS Tour .
Rod Stewart performed at the stadium on 14 June 2016 .
= = Rugby League Test Matches = =
List of test and International tournament matches played at KCOM Stadium since its opening in 2002 .
= = Gallery = =
= Ugly ( Sugababes song ) =
" Ugly " is a song by British girl group Sugababes from their fourth studio album , Taller in More Ways ( 2005 ) . Written and produced by Dallas Austin , inspiration for the song was conceptualised in the midst of reading negative comments about members of the band . The song released on 5 December 2005 in the United Kingdom as the second single from the album . " Ugly " is a midtempo pop song that contains lyrics about personality and body @-@ image issues . It received comparisons to " Unpretty " by girl group TLC and " Beautiful " by Christina Aguilera . Ugly is the band 's final single released under the second line up of Sugababes , after original member Mutya Buena departed the group in December 2005 .
" Ugly " garnered positive reviews from music critics , many of whom praised the emotional and empowering concept behind it . The song peaked at number three on the UK Singles Chart . It achieved international commercial success , where it reached the top five in Denmark and New Zealand , and the top @-@ ten the Czech Republic , Finland , Hungary , Ireland , the Netherlands and Norway . The song 's accompanying music video is set in a warehouse in New York City , and features people of different ages and races showcasing their talents . The Sugababes have performed the song at the V Festival in both 2006 and 2008 , and at the Indig02 in London , all of which received positive reviews from critics . " Ugly " has been used in schools within Wales to promote diversity and eliminate prejudice .
= = Background and development = =
" Ugly " was written and produced by Dallas Austin for the Sugababes ' fourth studio album , Taller in More Ways . Paul Sheehy , Doug Harms , Graham Marsh and Ian Rossiter served as the assistant recording engineers for the song . " Ugly " was mixed by Jeremy Wheatley for 365 Artists at TwentyOne Studio , London . Tony Reyes provided the accompanying guitar and bass guitar for the track , while the drums and keys were provided by Austin . " Ugly " was recorded at DARP Studios , at Atlanta & Home Recordings , London .
During an interview with Jess Cartner @-@ Morley of The Guardian , the Sugababes revealed that Austin wrote the song after reading " the cuttings file he was sent about the band " . Keisha Buchanan , one of the group 's members , elaborated upon this : " All the rubbish and nasty stuff that 's been written about us , calling us the Sugalumps , that sort of thing . " The title of the song 's parent album , Taller in More Ways , was inspired by a line in " Ugly " , which reads : " I grew taller than them in more ways / But there 'll always be one who will say / Something bad to make them feel great " .
= = Composition and theme = =
" Ugly " is a midtempo pop song that has a length of three minutes and fifty @-@ three seconds . The song was composed in the key of C major using common time with a tempo of 117 beats per minute . The Sugababes ' vocal range on the song span from the lower note of G3 to the higher note of E5 . Instrumentation consists of a guitar , bass guitar , drums and keys . Nick Southall of Stylus Magazine noted that the song incorporates acoustic guitars " buoyed by peripheral detail " .
K. Ross Hoffman of Allmusic described " Ugly " as a " towering ballad " with romantic and body @-@ image issues . The song received numerous comparisons to " Unpretty " by American girl group TLC , another track composed by Austin . Group member Heidi Range compared the song 's lyrics to " Beautiful " , a song performed by American recording artist Christina Aguilera . Harry Rubenstein of The Jerusalem Post also noted that the song is reminiscent of both " Unpretty " and " Beautiful " . The lyrical content makes reference to feeling ugly from having different eyes and hair , in addition to being shorter than other people .
= = Release and response = =
" Ugly " was released as a CD single in the United Kingdom on 5 December 2005 , containing the radio edit of the song , and " Come Together " . The extended play version of " Ugly " was released on the same day and contains the album version of the song , a B @-@ side titled " Future Shokk ! " , a Desert Eagle Discs remix , and a Suga Shaker Vocal Mix . On 9 December 2005 , " Ugly " was released as a CD single in Germany , which contains the same tracks on the extended play release , in addition to the single 's music video .
" Ugly " garnered generally positive reviews from music critics . Phil Udell of Hot Press regarded it as a " classy , catchy pop tune with a human heart " . Peter Robinson of The Observer felt that the track was one of the album 's standouts , stating that it " immediately hits on the Sugababes ' core values " , which according to him are " cool , but so unswervingly radio @-@ friendly that it would hardly be out of place as this year 's Children in Need single " . Talia Kraines of BBC described " Ugly " as a " ballad full of true Sugababes attitude " . K. Ross Hoffman of AllMusic considered the track as an " aptly pitched inspirational mini @-@ epic " , and a writer for The Liverpool Daily Post & Echo characterised it as an " empowering anthem " . Nick Southall of Stylus Magazine called it " vastly superior self @-@ help pop " and " lovingly produced " . However , Ben Hogwood of musicOMH thought the song was unconvincing , while Alex Roginski of Sydney Morning Herald criticized the songwriting as " flat " .
= = Chart performance = =
" Ugly " entered the UK Singles Chart at number three on 11 December 2005 ― for the week ending dated 17 December 2005 ― with sales of 21 @,@ 107 , becoming the Sugababes ' second consecutive top @-@ three single . The song spent four weeks in the chart 's top @-@ ten and 15 weeks on the chart overall . " Ugly " has sold 170 @,@ 000 copies in the UK and ranks as the group 's seventh best @-@ selling single in the country . " Ugly " debuted and peaked at number seven on the Irish Singles Chart , becoming the Sugababes ' second consecutive top @-@ ten single in Ireland . The song peaked at number four in Denmark , becoming the Sugababes ' fourth top @-@ five single in the country . " Ugly " also reached number seven in Hungary and the Netherlands , earning the Sugababes their second consecutive top @-@ ten single in both countries .
" Ugly " also became a commercial success in many other European countries . The single number eight in the Czech Republic and Finland , and number nine in Norway . In Belgium , the song reached numbers eight and 13 on the Wallonia Ultratip and Flanders Ultratop charts , respectively . " Ugly " attained top @-@ twenty positions in Austria , Sweden and Switzerland ; it charted at number 26 in Germany and number 68 in Slovakia . " Ugly " also achieved success outside of Europe . In New Zealand , it entered the chart at number seven and peaked at number five two weeks later , becoming the Sugababes ' second consecutive top @-@ five single in the country . It remained in the chart for 16 weeks . In Australia , " Ugly " debuted at number 16 and peaked at number 13 on its fourth week on the chart , becoming their second @-@ best performing single in the country .
= = Music video = =
The accompanying music video for " Ugly " was directed by Toby Tremlett and filmed on 1 November 2005 . It is set in a warehouse in New York City that is used for people who are taking part in an audition . It begins with a yellow taxi driving on a New York City road with apartment complexes . As the song begins , Buena sings her verse while looking into a mirror , and other people in the warehouse begin to hold up signs of the song 's lyrics . During the chorus , they begin to showcase their talents such as dancing and juggling . Buchanan 's chorus features her sitting on a staircase ; during this part , a child holds up a sign reading " short " while a woman carries a sign saying " loneliness " . As Range sings the bridge , she is leaning on a wall in the warehouse while more people begin dancing . When Sugababes sing the chorus again , they dance with the people who also begin to show other talents , including instrumentation and magic tricks . As the video ends , a row of people hold up signs containing one word from the song 's lyrics , " people are all the same " .
= = Live performances and school usage = =
Sugababes performed " Ugly " at the V Festival in 2006 as part of a set list , which included Hole in the Head , Red Dress and Push the Button . Reviewers from The Sun said that the Sugababes " proved both that pop can work at festivals and that losing Mutya has not caused them to miss a beat " . In 2008 , they performed the song at the same event in the JJB Champion Arena , as part of a set list which included Push the Button and About You Now . The performance received positive reviews , with a reviewer from MTV UK calling it " a highlight of our festival in the JJB Arena " . In August 2007 , former group member Mutya Buena , who left the band shortly following the single 's release , performed the song at the V Festival in Chelmsford ; before playing it , she stated : " This song is one I sang with my previous group ... It 's called ' Ugly ' " . On 18 September 2007 , Sugababes performed an acoustic version of " Ugly " at the Indig02 as part of a set list , which included such songs as " Freak Like Me " , " Round Round " , " In the Middle " , " Red Dress " and " Too Lost In You " . Nick Levine of Digital Spy felt the performance " proves that no member 's a slacker in the trilling department " .
In March 2006 , it was announced by The Commission for Racial Equality Croeso initiative that the Sugababes would take part in supporting diversity and opposing injustice in Wales . The group allowed all schools located in Wales to use " Ugly " as part of an assembly , in which the schools can use the same resources provided by the Croeso initiative .
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
= = Charts = =
= HIP 78530 b =
HIP 78530 b is an object that is either a planet or a brown dwarf in the orbit of the star HIP 78530 . It was observed as early as 2000 , but the object was not confirmed as one in orbit of the star HIP 78530 until a direct imaging project photographed the star in 2008 . The image caught the attention of the project 's science team , so the team followed up on its initial observations . HIP 78530 b orbits a young , hot , bright blue star in the Upper Scorpius association . The planet itself is over twenty @-@ three times more massive than Jupiter , orbiting eighteen times further from its host star than Pluto does from the Sun by the estimates published in its discovery paper . In this predicted orbit , HIP 78530 b completes an orbit every twelve thousand years .
= = Discovery = =
Between 2000 and 2001 , the ADONIS system at the ESO 3 @.@ 6 m Telescope in Chile detected a faint object in the vicinity of HIP 78530 . This object was reported in 2005 and 2007 , although the astronomers investigating the star were not able to tell , based on their observations , if the faint object was an orbiting companion or not . The team did not follow up on this .
The random selection of ninety @-@ one stars in the Upper Scorpius association provided a sample of stars to be observed using the Near Infrared Imager and Spectrometer ( NIRI ) and Altitude conjugate Adaptive Optics for the Infrared ( ALTAIR ) adaptive optics system at the Gemini Observatory . Among the ninety stars selected for direct imaging was the star HIP 78530 , which was first imaged by the camera on May 24 , 2008 . This initial image revealed the presence of the same faint object within the vicinity of HIP 78530 .
Follow @-@ up imaging took place on July 2 , 2009 and August 30 , 2010 using the same instruments , as astronomers hoped to reveal this companion object 's proper motion , or the rate that it moves over time . Additional follow @-@ up data was recovered in the spring and summer of 2010 , but large errors in the data 's astrometry led the investigating astronomers to disregard it . The observations over the three years was compiled , with the data used to filter out pixelated portions of the images and improve the images ' quality . The result suggested not only that the faint object in the image was nearby the star HIP 78530 , but that it was a brown dwarf or planet in size . Further study would be needed to prove its true nature .
On July 2 , 2009 , July 3 , 2009 , and August 8 , 2009 , use of the NIFS integral field spectrograph with ALTAIR allowed the astronomers to collect data on the spectrum of the faint object and its star . Analysis of the spectra and the objects ' astrometry ( how the star and the faint object change position in the sky ) led to the confirmation of the companion HIP 78530 b .
The confirmation of HIP 78530 b was reported on January 24 , 2011 . In imaging the ninety @-@ one stars , HIP 78530 b and 1RXSJ1609 @-@ 2105b were discovered . The discoveries of these two orbiting bodies allowed astronomers to predict that bodies with such low planet / brown dwarf @-@ to @-@ star mass ratios ( below 0 @.@ 01 ) orbiting at a distance of hundreds of AU exists in the orbits of 2 @.@ 2 + 5 @.@ 5
− 1 @.@ 9 % of all stars . However , this number is a lower limit , as astronomers have been unable to detect smaller , low @-@ mass planets that fit this scenario .
= = Host star = =
HIP 78530 is a bright , blue B @-@ type main sequence star in the Upper Scorpius association , a loose star cluster composed of stars with a common origin . The star is estimated to be approximately 2 @.@ 5 times the mass of the Sun . Ages of the Upper Scorpius group have been quoted at 5 million years , however a more recent estimate suggests that the group is somewhat older ( approximately 11 million years old ) . Its effective temperature is estimated at 10500 K , less than twice the effective temperature of the Sun .
HIP 78530 has an apparent magnitude of 7 @.@ 18 . It is incredibly faint , if visible at all , as seen from the unaided eye of an observer on Earth .
= = Characteristics = =
HIP 78530 b is most likely a brown dwarf , a massive object that is large enough to fuse deuterium ( something that planets are too small to do ) but not large enough to ignite and become a star . Because HIP 78530 b 's characteristics blend the line between whether or not it is a brown dwarf or a planet , astronomers have tried to determine what HIP 78530 b is by predicting whether it was created in a planet @-@ like or star @-@ like ( how brown dwarves are formed ) manner .
Its estimated mass is over 23 @.@ 04 times that of Jupiter . Additionally , HIP 78530 b orbits its host star at an estimated average distance of 710 AU , which is 710 times the average distance between the Earth and the Sun assuming the brown dwarf has a circular orbit . The average distance between dwarf planet Pluto and the Sun is 39 @.@ 482 AU , meaning that HIP 78530 b orbits its host star nearly eighteen times further than Pluto orbits the Sun . In accordance with the data , HIP 78530 b would complete an orbit approximately every 12 @,@ 000 years , although the actual orbital motion of HIP 78530 b is most likely smaller than 710 AU , but it has not been directly observed long enough to know definitively .
= Freedom ( Sugababes song ) =
" Freedom " is a song by English girl group Sugababes . It was written by Jason Pebworth , Jon Shave , George Astasio , Kyle Abrahams , Peter Ighile , Mariah Young @-@ Jones and Rowan Martin , and produced by The Invisible Men in collaboration with Parker & James . The song premiered in May 2011 during a music festival in Morocco , and was promoted with various snippets and teasers in addition to an advertisement for the Nokia N8 . It is an electropop song with elements of dubstep . It is the final song the group released before their split in 2011 .
" Freedom " was due for release as the lead single from their anticipated eighth studio album , although the song was cancelled as an official single and instead made a free digital download via Amazon . Despite the controversy surrounding its release , the song received positive reviews from critics , who complimented its sound and the use of dubstep . The music video , which was directed by Sean De Sparigo and filmed in July 2011 , features the Sugababes in an underground club . The trio performed " Freedom " at the T4 on the Beach festivial on 10 July 2011 .
= = Background = =
Following the release of their seventh studio album Sweet 7 , which was met with poor reviews and low sales , it was confirmed that the Sugababes had begun work on their eighth album . In February 2011 , group member Heidi Range stated that the Sugababes were aiming to finish the album in time for a summer 2011 release . She revealed that the group completed a song which they believed could be the album 's lead single . The Sugababes confirmed in May 2011 that they would premiere " Freedom " at the Mawazine Festival in Morocco . In July 2011 , the group 's management confirmed that the group had left their longtime record company Island Records and signed a three @-@ album deal with Sony 's RCA label . The artwork for " Freedom " was revealed in August 2011 ; it features the Sugababes on a sofa wearing deep green clothing .
= = Composition and lyrics = =
" Freedom " was written by Jason Pebworth , Jon Shave , George Astasio , Kyle Abrahams , Peter Ighile , Mariah Young @-@ Jones and Rowan Martin . Pebworth , Shave and Astasio produced the song under their stage name The Invisible Men , in collaboration with Parker & James , consisting of Abrahams and Ighile . " Freedom " is an electropop song with elements of dubstep . It is backed by synthesizers with a " moody " arrangement . According to the British website Orange , " Freedom " is a " controlled , steady anthem " with a " darker , deeper and more soulful " sound . During the pre @-@ chorus , the group chants the lines " So raise your hands / One fist in the air / For free @-@ ee @-@ ee @-@ ee dom @-@ dom @-@ dom " over a prominent dubstep beat . Sugababes member Amelle Berrabah interpreted the track as about " being free , liberated and being powerful " .
= = Release and reception = =
A snippet of " Freedom " appeared online on 1 June 2011 as part of an advertising campaign for the Nokia N8 . In July 2011 , the Sugababes released a teaser of the song online , while the full version premiered online in August 2011 . " Freedom " was due to be officially released on 5 September 2011 , although the date was pushed back to 25 September . The song was made available to pre @-@ order on the iTunes Store , however , four days before its release date , the pre @-@ order link was removed and " Freedom " was cancelled as an official single . Instead , the song was released as a free digital download via Amazon . The decision was clarified in a statement posted on the Sugababes ' official Facebook page : " As a thank you to their fans , the Sugababes are offering their new single , ' Freedom ' as a free download via Amazon . "
Several media outlets reported that the single 's release was cancelled due to major radio stations ' reluctance to play the song , as well as the presumption that it would underperform in the charts . Despite the controversy surrounding its release , " Freedom " received positive reviews from critics . Robert Copsey of Digital Spy gave it a four out of five star rating , and wrote : " Truth be told , by the time the head @-@ spinning dubstep moment kicks in , we 're too busy throwing our finest shapes to care who 's in the band anyway . " A journalist from Orange regarded " Freedom " as an " unusual club track " , and praised it as a " fine addition " to the Sugababes ' collection of songs .
= = Promotion = =
The music video for " Freedom " was directed by Sean De Sparengo , and filmed in London in July 2011 . It took one day to film , and is primarily set in an underground club with red lighting , reminiscent of that featured in the group 's 2002 single " Freak like Me " . De Sparengo commented on the concept and visual attributes of the video , saying : " One of the interesting things for the concept for this video is that we knew we had to make everything look incredibly beautiful . It was about making a video where the Sugababes felt like they were at the top of their game . " The video made its premiere in August 2011 . A behind the scenes clip was uploaded to the Sugababes official VEVO channel on YouTube . Daily Mirror praised the band 's appearance in the video .
The Sugababes performed " Freedom " on 10 July 2011 at the T4 on the Beach festivial . It was the first performance of the song on television , in which group member Jade Ewen told 4Music that they were " really excited about it . " The group performed an acoustic version of the song in September 2011 on the TV series Super Saturday . In September 2011 , the trio performed " Freedom " on Sam and Mark 's television series Big Friday Wind Up , and at London 's nightclub G @-@ A @-@ Y , where they wore coordinating rubber outfits .
= Liquorice ( song ) =
" Liquorice " is a song by American rapper Azealia Banks , taken from her debut extended play ( EP ) titled 1991 ( 2012 ) . The song was released onto Banks ' Tumblr account on December 18 , 2011 , and was later released for digital download on December 4 , 2012 . Built around Lone 's song " Pineapple Crush " , " Liquorice " is an acid house track that incorporates synthesizers in its composition . Lyrically , the song contains wordplay from Harlem , Banks ' origin , and is inspired by interracial dating . A music video for the single was directed by Rankin and was released in June 2012 .
" Liquorice " received mostly positive reviews from music critics , who praised the use of " Pineapple Crush " on the song and deemed it catchy . The single charted at number 73 on the Flemish Ultratip of Belgium in July 2012 . In support of the song and 1991 , Banks included " Liquorice " on the set list for her Mermaid Ball tour and performed the song at BBC 's Radio 1 's Hackney Weekend in 2012 and the 2013 Glastonbury Festival .
= = Composition = =
" Liquorice " was described as an acid house track by Dart Chris from Exclaim ! magazine . The song is built around " Pineapple Crush " , a house song produced by British electronic musician Lone , who also produced " Liquorice " . The track features synthesizers in its instrumentation . Michael Cragg from The Guardian described Banks ' vocals on the track as " playfully aggressive , featherlight and brilliantly smutty . " According to Banks herself , the song was partly inspired by American producer Diplo .
Lyrically , " Liquorice " contains " Harlem @-@ street @-@ slang @-@ derived wordplay " , which comes from Banks ' origin , Harlem ( for example : " skrilla " means " money " , and " ye " stands for " cocaine " ) . The song is also inspired by interracial dating ; Banks explained : " I date lots of white guys . It 's still seen as slightly taboo in African American culture , but I thought , ' Let me put this in your face and tell it how it is . ' "
= = Release and reception = =
Banks posted " Liquorice " onto her Tumblr on December 18 , 2011 . It was released as a digital download single on December 4 , 2012 . The single debuted at number 73 on the Flemish Ultratip chart of Belgium on July 7 , 2012 .
Dan Weiss from Boston Phoenix named " Liquorice " a " genuinely 1991 @-@ sounding " song , while Sarah Murphy from Exclaim ! deemed it " undeniably catchy . "
Larry Fitzmaurice of Pitchfork Media named " Liquorice " the " Best New Track " following its release ; he praised the use of " Pineapple Crush " on the song , commenting : " Lone 's bright tones and winding sense of melody meshes well with Banks ' light , airy vocals , while Azealia spits quick over ' Pineapple Crush ' ' s breakbeat rhythmic pattern without losing a handle on the beat , unleashing clever rhymes [ ... ] without breaking a sweat . " In a mixed review , Alex Macpherson from Fact wrote that Banks " feels slightly overwhelmed by its broad synth brushstrokes . "
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Liquorice " was released on June 14 , 2012 . The video was directed by Rankin and styled by Nicola Formichetti . The visual sees Banks as a cowgirl riding through the desert on horseback . Becky Bain from Idolator wrote : " Azealia sports bull horns , wields a baseball bat , seductively licks a Popsicle and takes a mouthful of a hot dog . " Robin Murray from Clash deemed the video for the song as " lavish . "
= = Live performances = =
In June 2012 , Banks included " Liquorice " on the set list for her first headlining concert tour , Mermaid Ball , in support of 1991 and Banks ' mixtape Fantasea . On June 24 , 2012 , Banks performed " Liquorice " at Radio 1 's Hackney Weekend . The song was also included on Banks ' set list at Glastonbury Festival 2013 .
= = Track listing = =
Digital download
" Liquorice " – 3 : 16
= = Charts = =
= The Prince of Egypt =
The Prince of Egypt is a 1998 American animated epic musical drama biblical film and the first traditionally animated film produced and released by DreamWorks Pictures . The film is an adaptation of the Book of Exodus and follows the life of Moses from being a prince of Egypt to his ultimate destiny to lead the children of Israel out of Egypt . The film was directed by Brenda Chapman , Simon Wells and Steve Hickner . The film featured songs written by Stephen Schwartz and a score composed by Hans Zimmer . The voice cast featured a number of major Hollywood actors in the speaking roles , while professional singers replaced them for the songs , except for Michelle Pfeiffer , Ralph Fiennes , Steve Martin , Martin Short , and Ofra Haza ( who also sang her character 's number , " Deliver Us " , in seventeen other languages for the film 's dubbing ) , who sang their own parts .
Jeffrey Katzenberg had frequently suggested an animated adaption of the 1956 film The Ten Commandments while working for The Walt Disney Company , and he decided to put the idea into production after founding DreamWorks in 1995 . To make this inaugural project , DreamWorks Animation employed artists who had worked for Walt Disney Feature Animation and the recently disbanded Amblimation , totaling a crew of 350 people from 34 different nations . The film has a blend of traditional animation and computer @-@ generated imagery , created using software from Toon Boom Animation and Silicon Graphics .
The Prince of Egypt was released in theaters on December 18 , 1998 , and on home video on September 14 , 1999 . Reviews were positive , with critics praising the animation , music and voice work . The film went on to gross $ 218 @,@ 613 @,@ 188 worldwide in theaters , which made it the most successful non @-@ Disney animated feature at the time . The film 's success led to the direct @-@ to @-@ video prequel Joseph : King of Dreams ( 2000 ) and the development of a stage adaptation . The song " When You Believe " became a commercially successful single in a pop version performed by Whitney Houston and Mariah Carey , and went on to win Best Original Song at the 1999 Academy Awards .
= = Plot = =
In Ancient Egypt , Yocheved ( Ofra Haza ) , a Hebrew mother , and her two children , Miriam and Aaron , watch in horror as the newborn Hebrew boys are taken and ruthlessly killed as ordered by Pharaoh Seti I ( Patrick Stewart ) , who fears that an alarming increase could lead to rebellion . Fearing for her own newborn son 's safety , Yocheved places him in a basket afloat on the Nile River , not before bidding him farewell with a final but powerful lullaby . Miriam follows the basket to the Pharaoh 's palace and witnesses her baby brother safely adopted by Queen Tuya ( Helen Mirren ) , who names him Moses .
Years later , Moses ( Val Kilmer ) and his brother Rameses II ( Ralph Fiennes ) are scolded by their father for accidentally destroying a temple during one of their youthful misadventures , though Moses tries to take the blame . That evening at a palace banquet , Seti , who wants to give Rameses the opportunity to prove that he is responsible , names him Prince Regent and gives him authority over Egypt 's temples . As a tribute , the high priests Hotep ( Steve Martin ) and Huy ( Martin Short ) offer him a beautiful young Midianite woman , Tzipporah ( Michelle Pfeiffer ) , and Rameses gives her to Moses . Rameses then appoints him Royal Chief Architect .
Later that evening , Moses follows Tzipporah as she escapes from the palace and runs into his siblings Miriam ( Sandra Bullock ) and Aaron ( Jeff Goldblum ) . Miriam is overjoyed to see her younger brother again , but Aaron is fearful to watch the confrontation . Despite Aaron 's attempts to protect his sister , Miriam tries to tell Moses about his past , but he refuses to listen . Miriam then sings her mother 's lullaby , which causes Moses to remember the melody . Moses runs to the palace , eager to return to familiar surroundings . The truth about his past is later confirmed by a nightmare , and finally by Seti himself . The next morning , Moses accidentally pushes an Egyptian guard off the scaffolding of the temple when trying to stop him from whipping a Hebrew slave , and the guard falls to his death .
Ashamed and confused , Moses flees into the desert in exile , despite Rameses ' pleas to stay . While in the desert Moses defends three young girls from bandits , only to find out their older sister is Tzipporah , whom he helped escape from Egypt . Moses is welcomed by Tzipporah 's father and the high priest of Midian , Jethro ( Danny Glover ) . After assimilating this new culture , Moses becomes a shepherd and marries Tzipporah . While chasing a stray lamb , Moses discovers a burning bush through which God tells him to go back to Egypt and guide the Hebrew slaves to freedom . God bestows Moses ' shepherding staff with his power and promises that he will tell Moses what to say . Moses and Tzipporah return to Egypt , where Moses is happily greeted by Rameses , who is now Pharaoh .
When Moses requests the Hebrews ' release and changes his staff into an Egyptian cobra , to demonstrate his alliance with God , Hotep and Huy boastfully recreate this transformation , only to have their snakes eaten by Moses ' snake . Rather than persuaded , Rameses doubles the Hebrews ' workload . Moses and Tzipporah thereafter live with Miriam , who convinces Aaron and the other Hebrews to trust them . Later , Moses inflicts nine of the Plagues of Egypt , but Rameses refuses to relent despite each plague being worse than the one before . Against Moses ' warning ( foreshadowing the final plague ) , Rameses makes it clear that he will never release the Hebrew slaves . Disheartened by Rameses ' words , Moses prepares the Hebrews for the tenth and final plague , instructing them to sacrifice a lamb and mark the doorposts with the lamb 's blood . That night , the final plague kills all the firstborn children of Egypt , including Rameses ' son , while sparing those of the Hebrews . The next day , a grief @-@ stricken Rameses , mourning the loss of his son , finally gives Moses permission to free the Hebrews . Moses breaks down crying from the guilt of hurting Rameses , and from hearing the cries of numerous families across the city .
The following morning , the Hebrews leave Egypt , led by Moses , Miriam , Aaron , and Tzipporah . At the Red Sea , they discover that Rameses is closely pursuing them with his army . Upon the arrival , Moses uses his staff to part the sea , while a fire blocks the army 's way . The Hebrews cross the open sea bottom ; and when the fire vanishes and the army gives chase , the water closes over the Egyptian soldiers , sparing Rameses alone , who is washed ashore on the other side of the sea . Thereafter , Moses sadly bids farewell to his brother , and leads the Hebrews to Mount Sinai , where he receives the Ten Commandments .
= = Cast = =
Val Kilmer as Moses , a Hebrew who was adopted by Pharaoh Seti .
Val Kilmer also provides ( uncredited ) the voice of God
Amick Byram provides Moses ' singing voice .
Ralph Fiennes as Rameses , Moses ' adoptive brother and eventual successor to his father , Seti .
Michelle Pfeiffer as Tzipporah , Jethro 's oldest daughter and Moses ' wife .
Sandra Bullock as Miriam , Moses and Aaron 's biological sister .
Sally Dworsky provides Miriam 's singing voice .
Eden Riegel provides both the speaking and singing voice of a younger Miriam .
Jeff Goldblum as Aaron , Moses and Miriam 's biological brother .
Patrick Stewart as Pharaoh Seti , Rameses ' father , Moses ' adoptive father and the first Pharaoh in the film .
Danny Glover as Jethro , Tzipporah 's father and Midian 's high priest .
Brian Stokes Mitchell provides Jethro 's singing voice .
Helen Mirren as Queen Tuya , Seti 's consort , Rameses ' mother , and Moses ' adoptive mother .
Linda Dee Shayne provides Queen Tuya 's singing voice .
Steve Martin as Hotep , one of the high priests who serves as advisor to Seti , and later Rameses .
Martin Short as Huy , Hotep 's fellow high priest .
Ofra Haza as Yocheved , the biological mother of Miriam , Aaron , and Moses .
Director Brenda Chapman briefly voiced Miriam when she sings the lullaby to Moses . The vocal had been recorded for a scratch audio track , which was intended to be replaced later by Sally Dworsky . The track turned out so well that it remained in the film .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Former Disney chairman Jeffrey Katzenberg had always wanted to do an animated adaption of The Ten Commandments . While working for The Walt Disney Company , Katzenberg suggested this idea to Michael Eisner , but he refused . The idea for the film was brought back at the formation of DreamWorks SKG in 1994 , when Katzenberg 's partners , Amblin Entertainment founder Steven Spielberg , and music producer David Geffen , were meeting in Spielberg 's living room . Katzenberg recalls that Spielberg looked at him during the meeting and said , " You ought to do The Ten Commandments . "
The Prince of Egypt was " written " throughout the story process . Beginning with a starting outline , Story Supervisors
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, in which the residents are actually characters from various fairy tales that were transported to the " real world " town by a powerful curse . In this episode , Emma Swan ( Jennifer Morrison ) runs for Sheriff against Regina 's ( Lana Parrilla ) candidate , Sidney Glass ( Esposito ) . Meanwhile , in the episode 's flashbacks , Rumpelstiltskin 's ( Robert Carlyle ) backstory is revealed .
" Desperate Souls " first aired in the United States on ABC on January 8 , 2012 . Its broadcast was watched by an estimated 10 @.@ 35 million viewers , a 29 percent increase from the previous episode . Television critics gave mostly positive reviews to the episode ; most praised Carlyle 's performance , but one noted that the storytelling was beginning to " feel stale . "
= = Plot = =
= = = Opening Sequence = = =
Zoso is shown in the forest .
= = = In Storybrooke = = =
It has been two weeks since Sheriff Graham 's ( Jamie Dornan ) death , and the citizens of Storybrooke continue to mourn . Mr. Gold ( Robert Carlyle ) convinces Emma Swan ( Jennifer Morrison ) she ought to be sheriff , but Regina ( Lana Parrilla ) has already appointed Sidney Glass ( Giancarlo Esposito ) for the job . Henry ( Jared S. Gilmore ) suspects Regina is responsible for Graham 's death and starts to believe good cannot defeat evil because good plays by the rules . Gold offers Emma his support and reveals to her the town charter which states the Mayor can only choose a candidate for Sheriff and therefore an election must be held . Emma decides to run , so Regina declares Sidney Glass will as well . Henry becomes worried when he finds out Gold is Emma 's benefactor , considering how dangerous it is to owe him one favor , let alone two . Regina is furious that Gold would work against her .
Gold 's plan was to set a fire at the Mayor 's office with Emma there , knowing her conscience would force her to save Regina and look like a hero . This goes off perfectly , making Emma the town favorite going into the debate . When she finds out that Gold did this , Emma realizes Henry might be right about evil not playing by the rules . At the debate , Sidney explains what would make him the best sheriff following Regina 's script to the letter . Emma reveals to the public that Gold set the fire , demonstrating her own honesty and integrity as well as Gold 's ruthlessness . Later that evening at Granny 's Cafe , Emma consoles herself with liquor when Henry walks in with the walkie talkies , saying that he was proud of her and they might continue " Operation Cobra . " Regina , Archie ( Raphael Sbarge ) , Mary Margaret ( Ginnifer Goodwin ) and Sidney arrive to tell Emma she was elected Sheriff . Regina gives her the badge and admits they have one thing in common : their distrust of Gold . Emma receives a visit from her new ally who reveals the rest of his plan . Gold knew Emma would do the right thing and tell everyone what he did , winning her the election . He also tells her that while the town feared Regina , they feared him more . In standing up to him , Emma became even more compelling to the townsfolk than when she rescued Regina . Now that Emma is Sheriff , Gold expects to be paid back for his favors .
= = = In the Characters ' Past = = =
In the Enchanted Forest , Rumpelstiltskin 's ( Carlyle ) backstory is revealed . During the ogre wars , children are conscripted to military service at age 14 . The Duke 's men gather young soldiers with the help of " The Dark One " who possesses great magical power . Rumpelstiltskin 's son , Baelfire ( Dylan Schmid ) , will turn 14 in three days and he is desperate to keep his child out of battle . As father and son flee from the village , they are confronted by the Duke 's men . They mock Rumpelstiltskin for running away when he was supposed to serve , and reveal that his cowardice caused his wife to leave him . Rumpelstiltskin begs for his son 's life but he has nothing to offer but fealty . The Duke 's chief soldier commands Rumpelstiltskin to kiss his boot , but when the desperate man bends down the soldier kicks him to the ground . The old beggar ( Brad Dourif ) by the side of the road sees this and offers the pair assistance since they spared him a coin . The beggar tells Rumpelstiltskin a secret , the Duke possesses a dagger that allows him to command The Dark One and all his power . If Rumpelstiltskin steals the dagger , he will control The Dark One himself . If he kills The Dark One with the dagger , he will possess his magic . Rumpelstiltskin sets fire to the Duke 's castle ( in a parallel with Mr. Gold 's actions ) and steals the dagger which reads the name of The Dark One , " Zoso " .
Baelfire is worried about his father 's plan to wield the dagger 's power but Rumpelstiltskin just sends him home . Rumpelstiltskin summons Zoso and declares he is The Dark One 's master . Zoso is not impressed and wonders aloud what the timid little man would have him do . Rumpelstiltskin 's answer is " Die ! " He kills The Dark One who reveals himself to be the beggar from before . Zoso laughs and tells Rumpelstiltskin that " All magic comes with a price . " Rumpelstiltskin becomes the new Dark One and his name is now inscribed on the dagger . He returns home and uses his power to save his son from the Duke 's men . Baelfire is terrified of this man who no longer seems like his father at all .
= = Production = =
" Desperate Souls " was written by consulting producer Jane Espenson , while Friday Night Lights veteran Michael Waxman served as director . The episode was Espenson 's second writing credit for the series at that point . She intended the episode to reveal " some crucial facts about where Rumpel comes from , " believing him to be " a wild card " whose " ulterior motives are still always very complicated . "
" Desperate Souls " partly deals with the aftermath of Sheriff Graham 's death from the previous episode . Though her character is associated with evil , actress Lana Parrilla attempted to keep Regina as human as possible . She clarified , " You will see how there is a genuine love and care for Graham … There was a physical connection to the character . He did become sort of a boy toy in both worlds . But , you know , at the end of the day , in Storybrooke , she ’ s still trying to fill this void that Maleficent warned her about . " Leading up to the episode broadcast , Parrilla also gave a preview of what viewers could expect . Of the episode 's plot , she explained , " We will be seeing some dirty politics between Regina and Mr. Gold . You ’ re going to see how threatening that is to Regina , and , as you know , she really takes on these challenges full force . "
In early October 2011 , TV Guide reported that actor Brad Dourif would be making a guest appearance as a " beggar who befriends evil Rumpelstiltskin . " Other guest stars included Meghan Ory as Ruby , Patti Allan as Miss Ginger , Beverley Elliott as Granny , Giancarlo Esposito as Sidney , Dylan Schmid as Baelfire , Conner Dwelly as Morraine , Ty Olsson as Hordor , Michael Phenicie as The Duke ( scenes deleted ) , C. Ernst Harth as Burly Man , David @-@ Paul Grove as Doc , and Gabe Khouth as Mr. Clark . The episode was included in Reawakened : A Once Upon a Time Tale – a novelization of the first season – which was published by Hyperion Books in 2013 .
= = Cultural references = =
Morraine , BaelFire , and the Dark One are inspired by the Wheel of Time series by Robert Jordan . A large Mickey Mouse figurine and small Minnie Mouse figurine are visible during Emma 's confrontation with Gold over the fire . Zoso , the name of the Dark One , is a reference to the band Led Zeppelin , as it is a nickname for the guitarist Jimmy Page .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Desperate Souls " first aired in the United States on January 8 , 2012 . It earned a 3 @.@ 7 / 8 among 18 @-@ 49s and an overall 5 @.@ 9 / 9 rating , with an estimated 10 @.@ 35 million viewers . It ranked second in its timeslot , beaten by NFL Overrun on CBS but ahead of Dateline on NBC and The Simpsons and The Cleveland Show on Fox . Once Upon a Time 's ratings were up 28 percent compared to the last original episode . In Canada , the episode finished in eighteenth place for the week with 1 @.@ 297 million viewers , a decrease from the 1 @.@ 6 million of the previous episode .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Desperate Souls " received mostly positive reviews from television critics .
In her first review of the series , Hillary Busis of Entertainment Weekly expressed her enjoyment of the episode , believing the following week would be " pretty difficult to top tonight 's ep . " Busis praised the final fairytale scenes as " intense , effective ... [ and ] ... awesome . " IGN writer Amy Ratcliffe rated the episode 7 / 10 , giving praise to Robert Carlyle and guest actor Brad Dourif , but criticizing Lana Parrilla 's constant " dagger stares and pursed lips " to Emma . Ratcliffe did however believe Ginnifer Goodwin and Joshua Dallas had " electric chemistry , " and wished viewers could see more scenes between the two . Like Ratcliffe , Digital Spy columnist Catriona Wightman lauded Parrilla and Carlyle 's performances , believing the latter " continues to be one of the best things about Once Upon A Time - this completely new version of Rumpelstiltskin we saw was illuminating . Turns out he does cowardly and pathetic quite well . "
The Huffington Post editor Laura Prudom and TV Fanatic 's C. Orlando also highlighted Carlyle 's acting and storyline . Prudom liked Dourif 's casting , but singled out praise for Mary Margaret and David 's poster scene , calling it " beautifully written and played , understated and filled with longing . " The A.V. Club 's Oliver Sava was more critical of the episode , and graded " Desperate Souls " with a C. He remarked that Once Upon a Time " lacks Lost 's sophistication and insight , instead laying out plot in the plainest terms possible , no matter how tedious that may be ... It hasn ’ t even been ten episodes , and the formula is already starting to feel stale . " Despite this , Sava saw potential for the series , noting that " the writers just need to take fuller advantage of the wealth of mythology that the fairy tale stories give them . "
= D.P.O. =
" D.P.O. " is the third episode of the third season of television series The X @-@ Files . The episode first aired in the United States on October 6 , 1995 , on Fox , being written by Howard Gordon and directed by Kim Manners . The episode is a stand @-@ alone episode , like most episodes of The X @-@ Files , and follows the normal Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week pattern of the show . " D.P.O. " earned a Nielsen household rating of 10 @.@ 9 , being watched by 15 @.@ 57 million people in its initial broadcast , and received positive reviews .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In this episode , Mulder and Scully investigate a series of lightning @-@ related deaths in Oklahoma , which are eventually connected to the only person to have survived a lightning strike , an emotionally charged youth .
The original concept for the episode was a one line concept card stating " Lightning Boy " that had been tacked to a board in series creator Chris Carter 's office since the first season . The episode contained several scenes of elaborate lightning effects . Notably , a " lightning machine " used for the sequence where Darin is struck by lightning was created by Special Effects Supervisor David Gauthier and buried under the ground .
= = Plot = =
At a video arcade in Connerville , Oklahoma , two young men , Jack Hammond and Darin Peter Oswald , argue over a game of Virtua Fighter 2 . Hammond pushes Oswald to the ground , after which the power in the arcade mysteriously shuts down — except to a jukebox , which plays " Ring the Bells " by James . This makes Hammond nervous and he leaves , but when he goes outside to start his car , he finds the same song playing on the radio . He is then fatally electrocuted through the ignition . Oswald , who witnesses Hammond 's death , returns to the game .
Fox Mulder and Dana Scully arrive in Connerville , where Hammond is the latest of five men who have died due to lightning @-@ related causes . Upon visiting the arcade , Scully talks to Bart " Zero " Liquori , the arcade owner ( and a friend of Oswald 's ) who happened to be present the night Hammond died . Mulder finds Oswald 's high scores on the game 's display , realizing that he was playing the game on the night Hammond died ; Oswald was the first of the victims , and the only one to have survived . Elsewhere , Oswald is at work at an automobile repair shop , when his boss 's wife walks in and he ogles her without her noticing . He then tries talking to her , but she nervously rebuffs him ; it is revealed that he had hit on her the day before , and she turned him down . His boss returns and tells Oswald that Mulder and Scully want to talk with him . When the agents visit Oswald to question him , he claims to have not witnessed anything . However , Mulder 's cell phone mysteriously overheats in Oswald 's presence , to which Oswald acts unsurprised .
Alarmed by the FBI 's presence , Zero visits Oswald at his home that night ; a drunk and rowdy Oswald dismisses Zero 's worries and summons lightning to strike down nearby cattle . The lightning strikes him instead , but he appears unharmed . The next day , the agents visit the scene and find a melted shoe print in the ground , linking it to Oswald . Meanwhile , Oswald uses his abilities to manipulate local traffic lights , causing a car accident . The agents visit Oswald 's home and find a cut @-@ out picture of Sharon Kiveat , Oswald 's former high school teacher and current boss 's wife , inside a porn magazine .
At the scene of the car accident , Oswald 's boss suffers an oddly timed heart attack ; Oswald then saves his boss by using his electrical powers as a makeshift defibrillator , much to the paramedics ' surprise . The agents question Sharon at the hospital , who claims that he told her about his powers . The agents also go through Oswald 's medical records , showing that he exhibited acute hypokalemia — electrolytic imbalance in his blood . Oswald is brought in for questioning by the agents , but he proclaims his innocence and is eventually released by the skeptical , unfriendly local sheriff , much to the agents ' dismay . Later , at the arcade , Zero is closing down for the night , and turns off the power . However , the Virtua Fighter 2 machine does not turn off . When Zero goes to investigate , the machine shuts off , except for the jukebox next to him ( playing " Hey Man , Nice Shot " , a song Oswald was listening to earlier ) . Knowing Oswald is now hunting him , Zero runs outside and claims he did not betray Oswald to the agents ; he is then suddenly struck by lightning and dies . It is then revealed that Oswald is standing on the arcade rooftop ..
After learning of Oswald 's release , the agents rush to the hospital to protect the Kiveats , but the power goes out when they arrive . Oswald confronts Scully and Sharon , and the latter fearfully agrees to leave with him in return for her husband 's safety . The sheriff arrives and tries to stop him . While pursuing a fleeing Sharon , Oswald summons lightning but ends up striking himself once again and , in the process , kills the sheriff . Oswald is put in a psychiatric hospital , although the local district attorney has no idea how they will be able to prosecute him . As the agents observe Oswald , he uses his powers to change the channels of the TV in his room . ( The song " Live Fast , Diarrhea " by The Vandals is heard , presumably a band he liked as he wore multiple Vandals T @-@ shirts )
= = Production = =
The original concept for the episode was a one line concept card stating " Lightning Boy " that had been tacked to a board in series creator Chris Carter 's office since the first season . Carter 's idea was solely about a boy who could control lightning , and the concept wasn 't fleshed out into an episode until the third season . Writer Howard Gordon stated that the key moment in the episode 's conception came when he decided to use the boy 's power as a metaphor for disenfranchised adolescence . Gordon described the episode 's concept as " Beavis and Butt @-@ head electrified " . Gordon claimed that the episode suffered conceptually having come directly after a trilogy of mythology episodes . Story editor Frank Spotnitz claims that there were originally ideas on incorporating some of the events from that trilogy into this episode , but those ideas were eventually scrapped due to the producer 's desire for each episode to be able to have its own integrity and stand alone . Spotnitz said the episode was a risky one to do for a show with an adult audience due to the high school setting and the fact that the episode was about adolescence and violent impulses when one is a kid .
The sheriff , Teller , was named after Teller from the illusion and comedy duo Penn and Teller . The pair had wanted to appear on an episode of the show , but when Chris Carter could find no way to work them into the show this reference was added instead . The Astadourian Lightning Observatory was named after Mary Astadourian , Chris Carter 's executive assistant . Darin Oswald was named after writer Darin Morgan .
Giovanni Ribisi won the part as Darin after some coaching from casting director Rick Millikan after Ribisi 's initial audition failed to provide what Chris Carter was looking for . Spotnitz described Ribisi 's performance as " really , really good " . Director Kim Manners ' best friend was killed during the third day of shooting . There was consideration on replacing him with another director for the episode but at his insistence he completed the episode .
A " lightning machine " used for the sequence where Darin is struck by lightning was created by special effects supervisor David Gauthier and buried under the ground . Giovanni Ribisi stood on a stand with the device rigged underneath him . Mirrors were used to establish the effect of the lightning flaring up and outward , and were augmented by sparks and smoke . A special anti @-@ fire product was applied to the costumes of the actors hit by lightning . Art Director Graeme Murray states that the biggest construction event in the episode was the scene where Darin manipulated the traffic lights . The producers had to plant telephone poles and build a billboard for the scene . Murray tried to make the psychiatric ward in the episode 's closure not resemble the one from season 2 's " Soft Light " , to avert repetition despite the similar ending . The farmhouse used for Darin 's home , situated in Albion , British Columbia , was owned by a 94 @-@ year @-@ old man and also used for the movies Jumanji and Jennifer Eight . The producers had difficulty obtaining permission to use a dead cow in the episode due to concerns over animal rights groups . When the fake cow created failed to look realistic enough , the producers were able to use a dead cow obtained from a slaughterhouse for the episode .
= = Reception = =
" D.P.O. " was first broadcast in the US on October 6 , 1995 , on Fox . The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 9 , with a 20 share , meaning that roughly 10 @.@ 9 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 20 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . The episode was watched by 15 @.@ 57 million viewers .
Entertainment Weekly gave " D.P.O. " a B + , considering that despite the lack of action , it managed to " keep you glued " for the photography and " truly hilarious sociopathic high jinks " . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club gave the same grade , praising Ribisi and Black 's performances and " sequences that confidently walk the tricky line between horror and broad comedy " , and marking it as the point where " the show 's direction , always good , made the leap from consistently interesting to look at to consistently cinematic . " Jane Goldman , in The X @-@ Files Book of the Unexplained felt like the combination of Howard Gordon 's " acutely observed dialogue " and Ribisi 's " compelling performance " made Darin Oswald " one of season three 's most memorable characters " . Writing for Den of Geek , Nina Sordi put " D.P.O. " only behind " Clyde Bruckman ’ s Final Repose " as the best standalone season 3 episode , praising Ribisi 's " all quiet , creepy power that eventually explodes into homicidal rage " and Jack Black 's " weary and ultimately doomed sidekick " .
= Chillin ( Wale song ) =
" Chillin " is a song by American rapper Wale , featuring singer Lady Gaga . It was released as the lead single from his debut album , Attention Deficit , on April 14 , 2009 , by Allido Records . Wale had wanted to collaborate with Gaga , and were introduced to each other through the rapper 's mentor , Mark Ronson . " Chillin " was composed by a number of songwriters , including Wale and Gaga , while it was produced by Cool & Dre . Recorded in New York City , the song discusses Wale 's life in his hometown . It has musical influence of 1990s style rapping , and contains two samples from the 1969 song , " Na Na Hey Hey Kiss Him Goodbye " by Steam , and the 1987 song , " Top Billin ' " by Audio Two .
The song received mixed reviews from contemporary critics . Some praised Wale and Gaga 's collaboration and composition , while others criticized it . " Chillin " reached number 12 on the UK Singles Chart , while in the United States it peaked at number 99 on the Billboard Hot 100 . The song also reached the lower regions of the record charts in some other nations . The accompanying music video features both Wale and Gaga in various locations in and around Washington D.C. and Boston , Massachusetts .
= = Background and writing = =
Wale had wanted to collaborate with Lady Gaga on the track since January 2009 , believing that she embodied the party @-@ record feel of the song . He explained : " If music was a high school , I feel like I 'll be the dude on the football team , and it would be like , ' OK , Gaga 's having a party ! ' And you know all the bad girls are going to be out there . " Upon hearing that some were surprised by the collaboration , Wale went on to say , " If Jay @-@ Z can work with Coldplay , then Wale should be able to work with Gaga . " Wale 's mentor , Mark Ronson , sent the track to Gaga . She commented that her portion of the song , which includes lyrics such as " Lookin ' at , lookin ' at , lookin ' at me / Eyes all stickin ' like honey on bees " , is narcissistic , but in a positive way . The lyrics capture the life and image of Wale 's home areas Maryland and District of Columbia . About incorporating the hook in the song , Gaga said :
I really wanted to sit down with Wale before I wrote the hook , because to me , it 's really lame when people send you tracks , and they 're like , ' All right , Gaga , throw your vocals on it . ' This is Wale 's record . It 's not my record . It 's one of those songs , one of those tracks and one of those videos that you can 't stop listening to .
= = Recording and composition = =
Along with Wale and Gaga , songwriters who worked on " Chillin " included Gary De Carlo , Dale Frashuer , Roy C Hammond , Paul Leka , Andre Christopher Lyon , Makeba Riddick , Kirk Robinson and Marcello Valenzano . " Chillin " has influence of 1990s style rapping , and samples from the 1969 song " Na Na Hey Hey Kiss Him Goodbye " by Steam , and the 1987 song " Top Billin ' " by Audio Two . The song is written in the time signature of common time with a tempo of 100 beats per minute , and is composed in the key of G minor . Nathan Rabin from The A.V. Club called it a " throwback slab of electro @-@ funk " , with robotic new wave inspired vocals by Gaga . After starting with the Steam sample , the song has a stripped @-@ down beat with a bass drum and synth @-@ claps , and synthesizers on the verses and the sample being looped in the chorus , with Gaga interjecting her verses in @-@ between . Lyrically it has Wale 's name repeated throughout and the rapper talking about things he has in comparison to other people , opening with the line " This how you start off ' 09 , kickin ' in the door and I 'm everybody 's problem " . He also refers to fellow rapper M.I.A. with the line " I 'm the same way , M.I.A. / Me , Cool and Dre get high like planes " .
Produced by Cool & Dre , the song was recorded at Allido Sound Studios in New York , by Derek Pacuk , while the mixing was done by Serban Ghanea . Wale recalled in a 2011 interview with MTV News for Lady Gaga : Inside the Outside special , that the recording session did not go easy . He had traveled to the New York recording studio from Washington D.C. after a long night of partying . Gaga was already in the studio in her exuberant style with a big ribbon atop her head by which Wale was taken aback , and was a " cultural difference " for him . In an effort to warm up to each other they made small talk about their respective record deals with Interscope . By the end of the session , Gaga had created five different hooks for " Chillin " and added her vocals on the track . The rapper added , " It took a while . Once we finally got the ball rolling , it was almost time to go . It was natural though . It 's wack when you get in the studio with somebody and it 's automatically music time — it feels fake . We were trying to feel each other out . " Wale later added that he would like to collaborate with Gaga again on a track but it was unknown to him if Gaga would be interested .
= = Music video = =
The music video for the song was directed by Chris Robinson and was posted on Interscope 's YouTube channel on the June 12 , 2009 . It features guest appearances from rappers Young Chris , Tre , Pusha T , Anwan Glover and Bun B .. The video shows Wale and Gaga at the District of Columbia 's Cardozo Senior High School and Wale in various venues and streets in the District , including South Boston Waterfront . This includes one scene in the famous hidden clothing store Bodega in Boston where Wale tries on various clothes . One of Gaga 's characteristic Great Danes , which had also previously appeared in the music videos for " Just Dance " and " Poker Face " , appears in the video for " Chillin " , wearing Beats by Dr. Dre headphones . Several posters of Barack Obama appear in the video . The music video was added to BET 's TV rotation . Chrissy Andrews from MuchMusic complimented Gaga 's appearance in the music video , saying that " this is the most ' toned down ' I 've ever seen Lady Gaga . She 's wearing a short dress with pumps , but she 's surprisingly without her facial lightning bolt , crystal staff or orbiting head piece ( as seen on her Ellen appearance ) . One of the two massive dogs from her other videos does make an appearance , however ... with headphones on ! Even without all of the crazy things we know Gaga for , she 's still great in this video . "
= = Critical reception = =
" Chillin " received mixed reviews from critics . Steve Roberts from MTV praised Gaga 's verse and for employing a similar singing style to M.I.A .. Jason Lipshutz from Billboard complimented the " club @-@ ready single " for its " bouncy hook and slick verses " and called the song " the perfect precursor to Wale 's long @-@ awaited debut " . Mehan Jayasuriya from PopMatters commended the song for being a " token party jam " on the album track list . She added that " for all the flack that the [ track ] has caught , it 's still an indisputably catchy song , even if the 9th Wonder and Nick Catchdubs reworking from [ Wale 's ] Back to the Feature stands as the definitive version . " Andres Tardio from HipHopDX believed the composition of the song as " Pop @-@ friendly " . A reviewer for XXL compared and described " Chillin " as " distinctly D.C.-sounding anthem " . David Jeffries from AllMusic praised Wale 's " natural delivery and quirky sense of humor " in the song , likening his vocals to that of Jay @-@ Z and Gaga 's vocals to that of singer Rihanna . Describing " Chillin " as a " club @-@ friendly hopper " , Chris Richards from The Washington Post believed that using Rihanna or M.I.A. on the track would have made it successful , rather than Gaga who was then considered a relatively unknown singer . Richards recalled a similar situation when Washington D.C. based go @-@ go band Experience Unlimited had collaborated with androgynous singer Grace Jones on a track . Sobhi Youssef from Sputnikmusic noticed that the song 's production made it sound like a different track than the rest of Attention Deficit .
New York Post critic Ryan Brockington liked the song , but questioned Gaga 's emulation of M.I.A. Mosi Reeves from Spin criticized Gaga 's " wanna @-@ be @-@ M.I.A. cadences " , calling it " unnecessarily crass " . Another review from Spin by Brandon Soderberg panned the song , saying that " [ i ] t wasn 't a Wale song and it wasn 't a Gaga song with Wale wedged in there somewhere , either . ' Chillin ' became something of an Internet rap watershed moment " . Sean Fennessey from Pitchfork Media described the song as " much @-@ maligned " , adding that " there won 't be much to gain from [ ' Chillin ' ] ... This was the first step in Wale 's multiple personality debacle and he seems to know as much — nothing else on Attention Deficit resembles the goofy sneakers @-@ shouting writing here . " In another review , Ryan Dombal from the same website criticized Wale 's repetition of his name and the usage of the samples calling it " unnecessary " . Brian Howe from Paste described the track as " flashy and hollow " . The Greyhound gave the song a negative review and believed that " with a lackluster hook and the repetition of the name ' Wale , ' the airplay and sales of this single will depend greatly upon the vocals of Lady Gaga . " Wilson McBee from Slant Magazine criticized both " Chillin " and the follow @-@ up single , " World Tour " , as " tepid Cool & Dre productions in which Wale seems to be attempting Black Eyed Peas @-@ style halftime @-@ show rap . " McBee believed that the songs did not represent the true nature of the album . Prefix magazine was also critical of the song saying that " just when you think Wale understands the consequences of mindlessly horny partying ... he gives us the dumb , cheaply agreeable Lady Gaga feature ' Chillin ' . "
= = Chart performance = =
The song performed moderately on the record charts . In the United States , the song debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 99 but fell off the next week . It also reached a peak of number 26 on the Rhythmic Top 40 chart . According to Nielsen SoundScan , " Chillin " has sold 354 @,@ 000 units in the US as of December 2010 . In Canada the song reached a peak of number 73 . " Chillin " charted on the ARIA Charts of Australia where it debuted number 29 , and was present for a total of eight weeks . The song performed moderately in the United Kingdom and Ireland , where it reached peaks of number 12 and 19 , respectively . It also charted on Billboard 's Euro Digital Songs , peaking at number 18 .
= = Track listing and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from Attention Deficit album liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= Trøndelag Commuter Rail =
The Trøndelag Commuter Rail ( Norwegian : NSB Lokaltog Trøndelag , previously Trønderbanen ) is a commuter train service operating in Nord @-@ Trøndelag and Sør @-@ Trøndelag , Norway . It is operated by Norwegian State Railways ( NSB ) with Class 92 diesel multiple units . The service provides a commuter service connecting Trondheim to its suburbs , between towns in Innherred and as an airport rail link for Trondheim Airport , Værnes . Although passenger services have operated along the lines since 1864 , the commuter train was created with an increase of service with existing rolling stock in 1993 . In 2006 , the system had at least 1 @,@ 180 @,@ 000 passengers .
The main service operates from Lerkendal in Trondheim via Trondheim Central Station and Trondheim Airport Station to Steinkjer on the Nordland Line . The service runs every hour , with additional rush @-@ hour services , and reduced service in the evenings and on the weekend . A secondary services runs from Trondheim along the Dovre Line to Støren and along the Røros Line to Røros . The Mittnabotåget service operates twice a day from Trondheim along the Meråker Line and the Central Line in Sweden to Östersund Central Station .
= = Route = =
The main hub for the commuter system is Trondheim Central Station ( Trondheim S ) . It also serves as coach and bus station and the terminus of the intercity trains along the Dovre and Nordland Line . The service runs north @-@ eastwards through Trondheim , stopping at the stations Lademoen / Nedre Elvehavn ( which serves a mixed residential and commercial area ) , Lilleby ( which serves a residential area ) , Leangen and Rotvoll ; the latter two serve each their campus of Sør @-@ Trøndelag University College . In Malvik , the line serves two stations : Vikhammer and Hommelvik . After entering Stjørdal , the first station in Hell , where the Meråker Line branches off from the Nordland Line . Northwards is first Trondheim Airport , Stjørdal ( the main station to serve the town ) and Skatval .
After entering Levanger , the line serves the villages of Åsen , Ronglan ( limited services only ) and Skogn . It then enters the town center , where there are three stations : Innherred Sykehus serves Levanger Hospital , Levanger serves the town center and bus station , and HiNT Røstad serves the campus of Nord @-@ Trøndelag University College . The line then enters Verdal , where is serves the suburb at Bergsgrav before the town center at Verdal . Inderøy is served by the village station Røra , before the line enters Steinkjer , where it serves the village of Sparbu before terminating in the town center at Steinkjer .
South of Trondheim S , both the main service and the Røros service runs along the Dovre Line , stopping at Skansen , where there is transfer to the Trondheim Tramway , and Marienborg , located beside St. Olavs University Hospital . After Marienborg , the main service branches off along the Stavne – Leangen Line to the terminus at Lerkendal , which serves the Gløshaugen campus of the Norwegian University of Science and Technology and Lerkendal Stadion , the home ground of Rosenborg BK .
The Røros service continues south , making two more stops within Trondheim : Selsbakk and Heimdal . It continues through Melhus , where it makes five stops , one in the town center at Melhus and then in the villages of Kvål , Ler , Lundamo and Hovin . In Midtre Gauldal , the service stops at Støren , where the Røros Line branches from the Dovre Line . The single daily service to Oppdal runs southwards , with an intermediate stop at Berkåk . The Røros service continues along the Røros Line , stopping at Singsås before entering Holtålen , where there are stops at Haltdalen and Ålen . The terminus is at Røros , where there is a transfer to regional rail services southwards .
Mittnabotåget start at Heimdal and operate northwards via Trondheim S to Hell , where they branch off and follow the Meråker Line . In Stjørdal , it serves Hegra before entering Meråker , where it serves the villages at Meråker and Kopperå before reaching the Swedish border at Storlien . Here the services continues along the Central Line , where stops are made at Enafors , Ånn , Duved , Åre , Undersåker , Järpen , Krokom , Östersund West and Östersund Central Station .
= = Service = =
The operating deficits are covered through subsidies by the Norwegian Ministry of Transport and Communications . The trackage and other infrastructure is owned by the government agency Norwegian National Rail Administration , while the rolling stock is owned and operated by the Norwegian State Railways ( NSB ) . Rolling stock maintenance is performed by NSB @-@ owned Mantena .
The Trondheim – Steinkjer services operates with a fixed , hourly , headway during the day with additional rush @-@ hour services giving a half @-@ hour headway . In the evenings and weekends , there is a two @-@ hour headway . Travel time from Lerkendal to Trondheim S is 10 minutes ; from Trondheim S travel time to Trondheim Airport is 35 minutes , to Stjørdal 41 minutes , to Levanger 1 hour and 25 minutes , to Verdal 1 hour and 41 minutes and to Steinkjer 2 hours and 5 minutes . The Trondheim – Røros service is provided five times per day in each direction . From Trondheim S , travel time to Melhus is 24 minutes , to Støren 1 hour and to Røros 2 hours and 25 minutes . An single morning one @-@ direction service is offered from Oppdal to Trondheim S ; this service takes 1 hour and 45 minutes . The Mittnabotåget service to Östersund provides two round trips per day , with travel time from Trondheim S to Östersund C 3 hours and 46 minutes . This service is operated jointly between NSB and Veolia Transport .
= = Rolling stock = =
NSB operates fourteen Class 92 diesel @-@ electric multiple units , of which most are used for the commuter rail . They were built by Duewag in 1984 and 1985 and consist of two cars , giving a seating capacity of 168 people . A double @-@ unit is 49 @.@ 45 metres ( 162 @.@ 2 ft ) long and weights 92 tonnes ( 91 long tons ; 101 short tons ) , of which the motor car weighs 58 tonnes ( 57 long tons ; 64 short tons ) . Only the one car is powered , and is equipped with a Daimler @-@ Benz OM424A prime mover which powers two electric motors , giving a power output of 714 kilowatts ( 957 hp ) . The trains are capable of 140 kilometres per hour ( 87 mph ) and are equipped with vending machines .
= = Stations = =
The commuter rail system serves 39 railway stations , most of which predate the commuter rail service . When the Røros , Meråker and Nordland Lines were built , stations buildings were built at all places with a passing loop , and most of these stations the buildings remain , although they are not necessarily open to travelers . However , only Trondheim , Stjørdal , Steinkjer and Røros are manned . Several of the station and operation buildings along the line have been preserved by the Norwegian Directorate for Cultural Heritage . These include the stations at Singsås , Hell , Skatval , Langstein , Skogn and Levanger . The system 's depot is located at Marienborg , although trains also overnight at terminal stations .
= = History = =
The rearrangement of the train services in Trøndelag was made in 1993 , when NSB announced the brand Trønderbanen . The concept was based on the Jæren Commuter Rail which had been established the previous year , operating between Stavanger and Egersund . The Trøndelag Commuter Rail would operate several services , north of Trondheim to Steinkjer and south to Oppdal and Tynset . The initial plans called to the continued use of the Class 92 rolling stock , but saw change in schedules and new upgraded platforms for NOK 15 million . This involved building a small platform house with a roof and glass walls , but a framework of wood , at each station . They were optimized to give good protection from various types weather .
The service started on 1 September 1993 . The changes to the schedule involved almost a doubling of the number of departures , particularly between Trondheim and Stjørdal , where a one @-@ hour headway was introduced . The service from Trondheim to Steinkjer had ten daily round trips . While local trains had existed previously north of Trondheim , the services south to Oppdal were all new in an area which was previously only served by intercity and night trains . The initial services consisted of four services from Trondheim — northwards along the Nordland Line to Steinkjer , east along the Meråker Line to Storlien , south along the Dovre Line to Oppdal and south @-@ east along the Røros Line to Tynset .
After six months operation , the service had experienced a 40 % traffic increase . On 15 November 1994 , the Trøndelag Commuter Rail became the first airport rail link in the Nordic Countries , when a new terminal and Trondheim Airport Station opened at Trondheim Airport , Værnes . NSB stated that their primary goal was not to compete with the four hourly airport coaches which operated to the hotels in Trondheim , but instead to provide services to communities in Nord @-@ Trøndelag and south of Trondheim . The investment at the airport cost NOK 24 million .
From January 1995 , the frequency between Steinkjer and Melhus was increased slightly . On 26 September 1995 , the train station in Trondheim reopened as a renovated station that serves both buses , coaches and trains . The investment cost NOK 50 million . In 1997 , NSB stated that the Trøndelag Commuter Rail was unprofitable and threatened to terminate it , along with an array of other services , if funding was not increased . The same year , 750 @,@ 000 people traveled with the commuter rail . The 20 % increase that year was in part due to the FIS Nordic World Ski Championships 1997 being held in Trondheim , and was the service in the country with the largest growth .
Following the Åsta accident on 4 January 2000 , when a Class 92 was wrecked and taken out of service , NSB announced that they would terminate two of the commuter rail services south of Støren towards Oppdal . At the same time , the company announced a reduction in the number of services from Trondheim to Steinkjer . From 11 June 2000 , all services on the Dovre Line south of Støren were terminated , leaving only intercity services . At the same year , plans by local politicians and commerce were launched to halve the travel time between Trondheim and Steinkjer , under the motto " Trondheim to Steinkjer in one hour " . NSB hoped to introduce a faster airport link , similar to the Airport Express Train in Oslo , which would allow the trains to operate from Trondheim to the airport in 20 minutes . The plans would have called for the termination of service at 17 of 21 stations and investments at about NOK 3 @.@ 7 billion .
In March 2000 , NSB announced that they were considering reducing the number of stations on the commuter rail from the then 31 stations to between 15 and 20 . NSB stated that 50 % of the stations were responsible for only 2 % of the traffic , and that a bus service to these areas — which would transport people to the closest railway station — would be more economic and reduce travel time for the remaining passengers . NSB also stated that they indented to re @-@ brand the service as part of the Puls brand used for the other commuter rail services . Part of the reason for the change of service was that Nord @-@ Trøndelag County Municipality had permitted TrønderBilene to double the number of services on their competing coach service along the route and the commuter rail needed to increase its speed to not lose customers to the coach .
From 7 January 2001 , NSB made several major changes to the commuter rail . A fixed , hourly headway was introduced on the trains from Steinkjer to Trondheim ; including extra rush @-@ hour trains from Lerkendal to Stjørdal , giving 23 departures per day in each direction . South of Trondheim , the service was rerouted to terminate at Lerkendal . Six stations were closed : Muruvik , Solbakken , Mære , Østborg , Rinnan and Elberg . At the same time , the station at Marienborg and Røstad opened . NSB also introduced a fare zone system , which gave up to NOK 20 discount for single @-@ fare travelers and about the same fares for month @-@ pass holders . Part of the reason for the expansion was that the delivery of the new Class 93 trains for regional services freed up more Class 92 units . This also allowed NSB to operate some of services with double unit ( four @-@ car ) trains in rush @-@ hour .
The restructuring also called for the reduction of four services on the Meråker Line and two services to Oppdal , terminating all commuter train services on the lines . For the service to Oppdal , NSB had an operating deficit of NOK 1 @.@ 7 million and 21 @,@ 000 passengers in 1998 . The Meråker Line had about twice the number of passengers . The National Rail Administration stated that if any private companies wanted to operate the routes without subsidies , they were free to do so . As compensation , travelers between Trondheim and Rennebu and Oppdal with month passes were allowed to not pay for seat reservations on the intercity services . Sør @-@ Trøndelag County Municipality applied to the ministry to take over responsibility and purchase the commuter train services , so they could continue the service to Oppdal , but this was rejected by the ministry .
From June 2001 , NSB introduced additional rush @-@ hour trains between Trondheim and Steinkjer , giving a half @-@ hour headway . From 22 September 2002 , NSB and the Public Transportation Authority in Jämtlands County started a cooperation that involved two daily round trips with a Class 92 trains between Trondheim and Östersund in Sweden . The trains were manned by NSB on the Norwegian side of the border , and by BK Tåg staff on the Swedish side , after the latter had won a public service obligation contract with the Swedish authority . From 16 June 2003 , NSB reintroduced commuter trains between Trondheim and Oppdal . From 1 January 2004 , the commuter rail service was reorganized . The brand Trønderbanen was abandoned and the administration was assimilated into the functional departments and partially moved to Oslo . In 2005 and 2006 , the Class 92 trains were renovated and received a new exterior and interior color . On 8 January
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the People 's Republic of China on the north ; the Mahakali Zone of the Far @-@ Western Region , Nepal on the east ; and the Indian states of Uttar Pradesh to the south and Himachal Pradesh to the west and north @-@ west as well as Haryana to its south @-@ western corner . The state is divided into two divisions , Garhwal and Kumaon , with a total of 13 districts . The interim capital of Uttarakhand is Dehradun , the largest city in the region , which is a railhead . The High Court of the state is in Nainital .
Archaeological evidence support the existence of humans in the region since prehistoric times . The region formed a part of the Kuru and the Panchal kingdoms ( mahajanpads ) during the Vedic age of ancient India . Among the first major dynasties of Kumaon were the Kunindas in the 2nd century BCE who practised an early form of Shaivism . Ashokan edicts at Kalsi show the early presence of Buddhism in this region . During the medieval period the region was consolidated under the Kumaon Kingdom and Garhwal Kingdom . In 1816 most of modern Uttarakhand was ceded to the British as part of the Treaty of Sugauli . Although the erstwhile hill kingdoms of Garhwal and Kumaon were traditional rivals , the proximity of different neighbouring ethnic groups and the inseparable and complementary nature of their geography , economy , culture , language , and traditions created strong bonds between the two regions which further strengthened during the Uttarakhand movement for statehood in the 1990s .
The natives of the state are generally called Uttarakhandi or more specifically either Garhwali or Kumaoni depending on their place of origin . According to the 2011 Census of India , Uttarakhand has a population of 10 @,@ 116 @,@ 752 , making it the 19th most populous state in India . A large portion of the population consists of Rajputs and Brahmins . About 83 % of the population follow Hinduism . Islam is the second largest majority religion in the state , followed by the Minority Sikhism & Micro @-@ Minority Christianity , Buddhism , and Jainism . Garhwali and Kumaoni along with other hilly dialects and sub @-@ dialects are the main regional languages , whereas Hindi is the most widely spoken language . Uttarakhand is the only state in India with Sanskrit as one of its official languages .
= = Etymology = =
Uttarakhand 's name is derived from the Sanskrit words uttara ( उत ् तर ) meaning ' north ' , and khaṇḍa ( खण ् ड ) meaning ' land ' , altogether simply meaning ' Northern Land ' . The name finds mention in early Hindu scriptures as the combined region of " Kedarkhand " ( present day Garhwal ) and " Manaskhand " ( present day Kumaon ) . Uttarakhand was also the ancient Puranic ( पौराणिक ) term for the central stretch of the Indian Himalayas .
However , the region was given the name Uttaranchal by the Bharatiya Janata Party led central government and Uttar Pradesh state government when they started a new round of state reorganisation in 1998 . Chosen for its allegedly less separatist connotations , the name change generated enormous controversy among many activists for a separate state who saw it as a political act . The name Uttarakhand remained popular in the region , even while Uttaranchal was promulgated through official usage .
In August 2006 , India 's Union Cabinet assented to the demands of the Uttaranchal state assembly and leading members of the Uttarakhand statehood movement to rename Uttaranchal state as Uttarakhand . Legislation to that effect was passed by the Uttarakhand Legislative Assembly in October 2006 , and the Union Cabinet brought in the bill in the winter session of Parliament . The bill was passed by Parliament and signed into law by then President A. P. J. Abdul Kalam in December 2006 , and since January 1 , 2007 the state is known as Uttarakhand .
= = History = =
Ancient rock paintings , rock shelters , paleolithic stone tools ( hundreds of thousands of years old ) , and megaliths provide evidence that the mountains of the region have been inhabited since prehistoric times . There are also archaeological remains which show the existence of early Vedic ( c . 1500 BCE ) practices in the area . The Pauravas , Kushanas , Kunindas , Guptas , Gurjara @-@ Pratihara , Katyuris , Raikas , Palas , Chands , Parmars or Panwars , Sikhs , and the British have ruled Uttarakhand in turns . The region was originally settled by Kol people , an aboriginal people of the Austro @-@ Asiatic physical type who were later joined by the Indo @-@ Aryan Khasas tribe that arrived from the northwest by the Vedic period ( 1700 – 1100 BCE ) . At that time , present @-@ day Uttarakhand also served as a habitat for Rishis and Sadhus . It is believed that the sage Vyasa scripted the Hindu epic Mahabharata in the state . Among the first major dynasties of Garhwal and Kumaon were the Kunindas in the 2nd century BCE who practised an early form of Shaivism and traded salt with Western Tibet . It is evident from the Ashokan edict at Kalsi in Western Garhwal that Buddhism made inroads in this region . Folk shamanic practices deviating from Hindu orthodoxy also persisted here . However , Garhwal and Kumaon were restored to nominal Hindu rule due to the travails of Shankaracharya and the arrival of migrants from the plains . Between the 4th and 14th centuries , the Katyuri dynasty dominated lands of varying extent from the Katyur ( modern day Baijnath ) valley in Kumaon . The historically significant temples at Jageshwar are believed to have been built by the Katyuris and later remodelled by the Chands . Other peoples of the Tibeto @-@ Burman group known as Kirata are thought to have settled in the northern highlands as well as in pockets throughout the region , and are believed to be ancestors of the modern day Bhotiya , Raji , Buksa , and Tharu people .
By the medieval period , the region was consolidated under the Garhwal Kingdom in the west and the Kumaon Kingdom in the east . During this period , learning and new forms of painting ( the Pahari school of art ) developed . Modern @-@ day Garhwal was likewise unified under the rule of Parmars who , along with many Brahmins and Rajputs , also arrived from the plains . , the seat of the Kumaon Kingdom . The Garhwal Kingdom was re @-@ established from a smaller region in Tehri , as the larger portion of Tehri , along with eastern Garhwal and Kumaon ceded to the British as part of the Treaty of Sugauli .
After India attained independence from the British , the Garhwal Kingdom was merged into the state of Uttar Pradesh , where Uttarakhand composed the Garhwal and Kumaon Divisions . Until 1998 , Uttarakhand was the name most commonly used to refer to the region , as various political groups , including the Uttarakhand Kranti Dal ( Uttarakhand Revolutionary Party ) , began agitating for separate statehood under its banner . Although the erstwhile hill kingdoms of Garhwal and Kumaon were traditional rivals the inseparable and complementary nature of their geography , economy , culture , language , and traditions created strong bonds between the two regions . These bonds formed the basis of the new political identity of Uttarakhand , which gained significant momentum in 1994 , when demand for separate statehood achieved almost unanimous acceptance among both the local populace and national political parties . The most notable incident during this period was the Rampur Tiraha firing case on the night of 1 October 1994 , which led to a public uproar . On 24 September 1998 , the Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly and Uttar Pradesh Legislative Council passed the Uttar Pradesh Reorganisation Bill , which began the process of creating a new state . Two years later the Parliament of India passed the Uttar Pradesh Reorganisation Act , 2000 and thus , on 9 November 2000 , Uttarakhand became the 27th state of the Republic of India .
Uttarakhand is also well known for the mass agitation of the 1990s that led to the formation of the Chipko environmental movement and other social movements . Though primarily a livelihood movement rather than a forest conservation movement , it went on to become a rallying point for many future environmentalists , environmental protests , and movements the world over and created a precedent for non @-@ violent protest . It stirred up the existing civil society in India , which began to address the issues of tribal and marginalized people . So much so that , a quarter of a century later , India Today mentioned the people behind the " forest satyagraha " of the Chipko movement as amongst " 100 people who shaped India " . One of Chipko 's most salient features was the mass participation of female villagers . Both female and male activists played pivotal roles in the movement . Gaura Devi was the main activist who started this movement other participants were Chandi Prasad Bhatt , Sundarlal Bahuguna , and Ghanshyam Raturi , the popular Chipko poet .
= = Geography = =
Uttarakhand has a total area of 53 @,@ 483 km2 , of which 86 % is mountainous and 65 % is covered by forest . Most of the northern part of the state is covered by high Himalayan peaks and glaciers . In the first half of the nineteenth century , the expanding development of Indian roads , railways and other physical infrastructure was giving rise to concerns over indiscriminate logging , particularly in the Himalaya . Two of the most important rivers in Hinduism originate in the region , the Ganges at Gangotri and the Yamuna at Yamunotri . These two along with Badrinath and Kedarnath form the Chota Char Dham , a holy pilgrimage for the Hindus . The state hosts the Bengal tiger in Jim Corbett National Park , the oldest national park of the Indian subcontinent . The Valley of Flowers , a UNESCO World Heritage Site located in the upper expanses of Bhyundar Ganga near Joshimath in Gharwal region , is known for the variety and rarity of its flowers and plants . One who raised this was Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker , Director of the Royal Botanic Gardens , Kew , who visited the region . As a consequence , Lord Dalhousie issued the Indian Forest Charter in 1855 , reversing the previous laissez @-@ faire policy . The following Indian Forest Act of 1878 put Indian forestry on a solid scientific basis . A direct consequence was the founding of the Imperial Forest School at Dehradun by Dietrich Brandis in 1878 . Renamed the ' Imperial Forest Research Institute ' in 1906 , it is now known as the Forest Research Institute ( India ) . The model “ Forest Circles ” around Dehradun , used for training , demonstration and scientific measurements , had a lasting positive influence on the forests and ecology of the region . The Himalayan ecosystem provides habitat for many animals ( including bharal , snow leopards , leopards and tigers ) , plants , and rare herbs . Two of India 's largest rivers , the Ganges and the Yamuna , originate in the glaciers of Uttarakhand , where they are fed by myriad lakes , glacial melts and streams .
Uttarakhand lies on the southern slope of the Himalaya range , and the climate and vegetation vary greatly with elevation , from glaciers at the highest elevations to subtropical forests at the lower elevations . The highest elevations are covered by ice and bare rock . Below them , between 3 @,@ 000 and 5 @,@ 000 metres ( 9 @,@ 800 and 16 @,@ 400 ft ) are the western Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows . The temperate western Himalayan subalpine conifer forests grow just below the tree line . At 3 @,@ 000 to 2 @,@ 600 metres ( 9 @,@ 800 to 8 @,@ 500 ft ) elevation they transition to the temperate western Himalayan broadleaf forests , which lie in a belt from 2 @,@ 600 to 1 @,@ 500 metres ( 8 @,@ 500 to 4 @,@ 900 ft ) elevation . Below 1 @,@ 500 metres ( 4 @,@ 900 ft ) elevation lie the Himalayan subtropical pine forests . The Upper Gangetic Plains moist deciduous forests and the drier Terai @-@ Duar savanna and grasslands cover the lowlands along the Uttar Pradesh border in a belt locally known as Bhabar . These lowland forests have mostly been cleared for agriculture , but a few pockets remain .
In June 2013 several days of extremely heavy rain caused devastating floods in the region , resulting in more than 5000 people missing and presumed dead . The flooding was referred to in the Indian media as a " Himalayan Tsunami " .
= = Demographics = =
The native people of Uttarakhand are generally called Uttarakhandi and sometimes specifically either Garhwali or Kumaoni depending on their place of origin in either the Garhwal or Kumaon region . According to the 2011 census of India , Uttarakhand has a population of 10 @,@ 116 @,@ 752 comprising 5 @,@ 154 @,@ 178 males and 4 @,@ 962 @,@ 574 females , with 69 @.@ 45 % of the population living in rural areas . The state is the 20th most populous state of the country having 0 @.@ 84 % of the population on 1 @.@ 69 % of the land . The population density of the state is 189 people per square kilometre having a 2001 – 2011 decadal growth rate of 19 @.@ 17 % . The gender ratio is 963 females per 1000 males . The crude birth rate in the state is 18 @.@ 6 with the total fertility rate being 2 @.@ 3 . The state has an infant mortality rate of 43 , a maternal mortality rate of 188 and a crude death rate of 6 @.@ 6 .
Uttarakhand has a multiethnic population spread across two geocultural regions : the Gahrwal , and the Kumaon . A large portion of the population is Rajput ( various clans of erstwhile landowning rulers and their descendants ) , including members of the native Garhwali , Kumaoni and Gujjar communities , as well as a number of immigrants . According to a 2007 study by Centre for the Study of Developing Societies , Uttarakhand has the highest percentage of Brahmins of any state in India , with approximately 20 % of the population being Brahmin . Approximately one @-@ fifth of the population belongs to the Scheduled Castes ( an official term for the lower castes in the traditional Hindu caste system ) . Scheduled Tribes ( an official term for natives outside the Indian social system ) , such as the Raji , who live near the border with Nepal , constitute less than 3 percent of the population . More than four @-@ fifths of Uttarakhand ’ s residents are Hindus . Muslims , Sikhs , Christians , Buddhists , and Jains make up the remaining population with the Muslims being the largest minority .
The Garhwali and Kumaoni , dialects of Central Pahari are spoken in Kumaon and Garhwal regions , respectively . Jaunsari and Bhoti languages are spoken by tribal communities in the west and north , respectively . The urban population , however , converses mostly in Hindi , which is an official language of the state . Uttarakhand is the only Indian state to give official language status to Sanskrit .
= = Government and politics = =
Following the Constitution of India , the State of Uttarakhand , like all Indian states , has a parliamentary system of representative democracy for its government .
The Governor is the constitutional and formal head of the government and is appointed for a five @-@ year term by the President of India on the advice of the Union government . The present Governor of the state is Krishan Kant Paul . The Chief Minister , who holds the real executive powers , is the head of the party or coalition garnering the majority in the state elections . The current Chief Minister of Uttarakhand is Harish Rawat . The Uttarakhand Legislative Assembly consists of elected members and special office bearers such as the Speaker and Deputy Speaker that are elected by the members . Assembly meetings are presided over by the Speaker , or the Deputy Speaker in the Speaker 's absence . A Council of Ministers is appointed by the Governor of Uttarakhand on the advice of the Chief Minister of Uttarakhand and reports to the Legislative Assembly . Uttarakhand has a unicameral house with 71 Members of the Legislative Assembly or MLAs . Auxiliary authorities that govern at a local level are known as panchayats in rural areas , municipalities in urban areas and municipal corporation in metro areas . All state and local government offices have a five @-@ year term . The state also contributes 5 seats to Lok Sabha and 3 seats to Rajya Sabha of the Indian Parliament . The judiciary consists of the Uttarakhand High Court , located at Nainital , and a system of lower courts . The present Chief Justice of Uttarakhand is Justice K. M. Joseph .
Politics in Uttarakhand is dominated by the Indian National Congress and the Bharatiya Janata Party . Since the formation of the state these parties have ruled the state in turns . Following the hung mandate in the Uttarakhand Legislative Assembly election , 2012 , the Indian National Congress , having the maximum number of seats , formed a coalition government headed by Harish Rawat that collapsed on 27 March 2016 , following the political turmoil as about nine MLAs of INC rebelled against the party and supported the opposition party BJP , causing Harish Rawat government to lose the majority in assembly . However , on 21 April 2016 the High Court of Uttarakhand quashed the President 's Rule questioning its legality and maintained a status quo prior to 27 March 2016 when 9 rebel MLAs of INC voted against the Harish Rawat government in assembly on state 's money appropriation bill . This has been seen as a big blow to central government which is expected to take the matter to the Supreme Court of India to challenge the verdict of High Court . On 22 April 2016 the Supreme Court of India stayed the order of High Court till 27 April 2016 , thereby once again reviving the President 's Rule . In later developments regarding this matter , the Supreme Court ordered a floor test to be held on 10 May with the rebels being barred from voting . On 11 May at the opening of sealed result of the floor test , under the supervision of Supreme Court , the Harish Rawat government was revived following the victory in floor test held in Uttarakhand Legislative Assembly .
= = Sub @-@ divisions = =
There are 13 districts in Uttarakhand which are grouped into two divisions , Kumaon and Garhwal . Four new districts named Didihat , Ranikhet , Kotdwar , and Yamunotri were declared by then Chief Minister of Uttarakhand , Ramesh Pokhriyal , on 15 August 2011 but yet to be officially formed .
Districts of two divisions are as follows :
Each district is governed by a district commissioner or district magistrate . The districts are further divided into sub @-@ divisions , which are governed by sub @-@ divisional magistrates ; sub @-@ divisions comprise blocks containing panchayats ( village councils ) and town municipalities .
According to the 2011 census , Haridwar , Dehradun , and Udham Singh Nagar are the most populous districts , each of them having a population of over one million .
= = Culture = =
Uttarakhand 's diverse ethnicities have created a rich literary tradition in languages including Hindi , Kumaoni , Garhwali , Jaunsari , and Bhoti . Many of its traditional tales originated in the form of lyrical ballads and chanted by itinerant singers and are now considered classics of Hindi literature . Ganga Prasad Vimal , Manohar Shyam Joshi , Prasoon Joshi , Shekhar Joshi , Shailesh Matiyani , Shivani , Sangeet Natak Akademi Awardee Mohan Upreti , B. M. Shah , Sahitya Akademi awardee Manglesh Dabral and Jnanpith awardee Sumitranandan Pant are some major literary figures from the region . Prominent philosopher and environmental activist Sundarlal Bahuguna and Vandana Shiva are also from Uttarakhand.So is country music singer , Bobby Cash .
The dances of the region are connected to life and human existence and exhibit myriad human emotions . Langvir Nritya is a dance form for males that resembles gymnastic movements . Barada Nati folk dance is another famous dance of Dehradun , which is practised during some religious festivals . Other well @-@ known dances include Hurka Baul , Jhora @-@ Chanchri , Jhumaila , Chauphula , and Chholiya . Music is an integral part of the Uttarakhandi culture . Popular types of folk songs include Mangal , Basanti , Khuded and Chhopati . These folk songs are played on instruments including dhol , damau , turri , ransingha , dholki , daur , thali , bhankora , mandan and mashakbaja . " Bedu Pako " is a popular folk song of Uttarakhand with international fame and legendary status within the state . It serves as unofficial state song of Uttarakhand . Music is also used as a medium through which the gods are invoked . Jagar is a form of spirit worship in which the singer , or Jagariya , sings a ballad of the gods , with allusions to great epics , like Mahabharat and Ramayana , that describe the adventures and exploits of the god being invoked . Narendra Singh Negi and Mina Rana are popular folk singers of the region .
Among the prominent local crafts is wood carving , which appears most frequently in the ornately decorated temples of Uttarakhand . Intricately carved designs of floral patterns , deities , and geometrical motifs also decorate the doors , windows , ceilings , and walls of village houses . Beautifully worked paintings and murals are used to decorate both homes and temples . Pahari painting is a form of painting that flourished in the region between the 17th and 19th century . Mola Ram started the Garhwal Branch of the Kangra school of painting . Guler State was famous as the cradle of Kangra paintings . Kumaoni art often is geometrical in nature , while Garhwali art is known for its closeness to nature . Other crafts of Uttarakhand include handcrafted gold jewellery , basketry from Garhwal , woollen shawls , scarves , and rugs . The latter are mainly produced by the Bhotiyas of northern Uttarakhand .
The primary food of Uttarakhand is vegetables with wheat being a staple , although non @-@ vegetarian food is also served . A distinctive characteristic of Uttarakhand cuisine is the sparing use of tomatoes , milk , and milk based products . Coarse grain with high fibre content is very common in Uttarakhand due to the harsh terrain . Another crop which is associated with Uttarakhand is Buckwheat ( locally called Madua or Jhingora ) , particularly in the interior regions of Kumaon and Garhwal . Generally , either Desi Ghee or Mustard oil is used for the purpose of cooking food . Simple recipes are made interesting with the use of hash seeds " Jakhiya " as spice . Bal Mithai is a popular fudge @-@ like sweet . Other popular dishes include Dubuk , Chains , Kap , Chutkani , Sei , and Gulgula . A regional variation of Kadhi called Jhoi or Jholi is also popular .
One of the major Hindu pilgrimages , Haridwar Kumbh Mela , takes place in Uttarakhand . Haridwar is one of the four places in India where this mela is organised . Haridwar most recently hosted the Purna Kumbh Mela from Makar Sankranti ( 14 January 2010 ) to Vaishakh Purnima Snan ( 28 April 2010 ) . Hundreds of foreigners joined Indian pilgrims in the festival which is considered the largest religious gathering in the world . Kumauni Holi , in forms including Baithki Holi , Khari Holi and Mahila Holi , all of which start from Vasant Panchami , are festivals and musical affairs that can last almost a month . Ganga Dashahara , Vasant Panchami , Makar Sankranti , Ghee Sankranti , Khatarua , Vat Savitri , and Phul Dei are other major festivals . In addition , various fairs like Kanwar Yatra , Kandali Festival , Ramman , Harela mela , Nauchandi mela , Uttarayani mela and Nanda Devi Raj Jat Mela take place .
= = Economy = =
The Uttarakhand state is the second fastest growing state in India . It 's gross state domestic product ( GSDP ) ( at constant prices ) more than doubled from ₹ 24 @,@ 786 crore in FY2005 to ₹ 60 @,@ 898 crore in FY2012 . The real GSDP grew at 13 @.@ 7 % ( CAGR ) during the FY2005 – FY2012 period . The contribution of the service sector to the GSDP of Uttarakhand was just over 50 % during FY 2012 . Per capita income in Uttarakhand is ₹ 1 @,@ 03 @,@ 000 ( FY 2013 ) which is higher than the national average of ₹ 74 @,@ 920 ( FY2013 ) . According to the Reserve Bank of India , the total foreign direct investment in the state from April 2000 to October 2009 amounted to US $ 46 @.@ 7 million .
Like most of India , agriculture is one of the most significant sectors of the economy of Uttarakhand . Basmati rice , wheat , soybeans , groundnuts , coarse cereals , pulses , and oil seeds are the most widely grown crops . Fruits like apples , oranges , pears , peaches , litchis , and plums are widely grown and important to the large food processing industry . Agricultural export zones have been set up in the state for leechi , horticulture , herbs , medicinal plants , and basmati rice . During 2010 , wheat production was 831 thousand tonnes and rice production was 610 thousand tonnes , while the main cash crop of the state , sugarcane , had a production of 5058 thousand tonnes . As 86 % of the state consists of hills , the yield per hectare is not very high . 86 % of all croplands are in the plains while the remaining is from the hills .
Other key industries include tourism and hydropower , and there is prospective development in IT , ITES , biotechnology , pharmaceuticals and automobile industries . The service sector of Uttarakhand mainly includes tourism , information technology , higher education , and banking .
During 2005 – 2006 , the state successfully developed three Integrated Industrial Estates ( IIEs ) at Haridwar , Pantnagar , and Sitarganj ; Pharma City at Selaqui ; Information Technology Park at Sahastradhara ( Dehradun ) ; and a growth centre at Siggadi ( Kotdwar ) . Also in 2006 , 20 industrial sectors in public private partnership mode were developed in the state .
= = Flora and fauna = =
Uttarakhand has a great diversity of flora and fauna . It has a recorded forest area of 34 @,@ 651 km2 which constitutes 65 % of the total area of the state . Uttarakhand is home to rare species of plants and animals , many of which are protected by sanctuaries and reserves . National parks in Uttarakhand include the Jim Corbett National Park ( the oldest national park of India ) at Ramnagar in Nainital District , and Valley of Flowers National Park and Nanda Devi National Park in Chamoli District , which together are a UNESCO World Heritage Site . A number of plant species in the valley are internationally threatened , including several that have not been recorded from elsewhere in Uttarakhand . Rajaji National Park in Haridwar District and Govind Pashu Vihar National Park and Sanctuary and Gangotri National Park in Uttarkashi District are some other protected areas in the state .
Leopards are found in areas which are abundant in hills but may also venture into the lowland jungles . Smaller felines include the jungle cat , fishing cat , and leopard cat . Other mammals include four kinds of deer ( barking , sambar , hog and chital ) , sloth and Himalayan black bears , Indian gray mongooses , otters , yellow @-@ throated martens , bharal ( goat antelopes ) , Indian pangolins , and langur and rhesus monkeys . In the summer , elephants can be seen in herds of several hundred . Marsh crocodiles ( Crocodylus palustris ) , gharials ( Gavialis gangeticus ) and other reptiles are also found in the region . Local crocodiles were saved from extinction by captive breeding programs and subsequently re @-@ released into the Ramganga river . Several freshwater terrapins and turtles like the Indian sawback turtle ( Kachuga tecta ) , brahminy river turtle ( Hardella thurgii ) , and Ganges softshell turtle ( Trionyx gangeticus ) are found in the rivers . Butterflies and birds of the region include red Helen ( Papilio helenus ) , the great eggfly ( Hypolimnos bolina ) , common tiger ( Danaus genutia ) , pale wanderer ( Pareronia avatar avatar ) , jungle babbler , tawny @-@ bellied babbler , great slaty woodpecker , red @-@ breasted parakeet , orange @-@ breasted green pigeon and chestnut @-@ winged cuckoo . In 2011 , a rare migratory bird , the bean goose , was also seen in the Jim Corbett National Park .
Evergreen oaks , rhododendrons , and conifers predominate in the hills . Shorea robusta ( sal ) , silk cotton tree ( Bombax ciliata ) , Dalbergia sissoo , Mallotus philippensis , Acacia catechu , Bauhinia racemosa , and Bauhinia variegata ( camel 's foot tree ) are some other trees of the region . Albizia chinensis , the sweet sticky flowers of which are favoured by sloth bears , are also part of the region 's flora . A decade long study by Prof. C.P. Kala concluded that the Valley of Flowers is endowed with 520 species of higher plants ( angiosperms , gymnosperms and pteridophytes ) , of these 498 are flowering plants . The park has many species of medicinal plants including Dactylorhiza hatagirea , Picrorhiza kurroa , Aconitum violaceum , Polygonatum multiflorum , Fritillaria roylei , and Podophyllum hexandrum . In the summer season of 2016 , a large portion of forests in Uttarakhand caught fires and rubbled to ashes during infamous Uttarakhand forest fires incident which resulted in the damage of forest resources worth billions of rupees and death of 6 people with hundreds of wild animals died during fires .
= = Transport = =
Uttarakhand has 28 @,@ 508 km of roads , of which 1 @,@ 328 km are national highways and 1 @,@ 543 km are state highways . The State Road Transport Corporation ( SRTC ) , which has been reorganised in Uttarakhand as the Uttarakhand Transport Corporation , is a major constituent of the transport system in the state . The Corporation began to work on 31 October 2003 and provides services on interstate and nationalised routes . As of 2012 , approximately 1000 buses are being plied by the " Uttarakhand Transport Corporation " on 35 nationalised routes along with many other non @-@ nationalised routes . There are also private transport operators operating approximately 3000 buses on non @-@ nationalised routes along with a few interstate routes in Uttarakhand and the neighbouring state of U.P. For travelling locally , the state , like most of the country , has auto rickshaws and cycle rickshaws . In addition , remote towns and villages in the hills are connected to important road junctions and bus routes by a vast network of crowded share jeeps .
The air transport network in the state is gradually improving . Jolly Grant Airport in Dehradun , is the busiest airport in the state with six daily flights to Delhi Airport . Pantnagar Airport , located in Pantnagar of the Kumaon region have 1 daily air service to delhi and return too . There government is planning to develop Naini Saini Airport in Pithoragarh , Bharkot Airport in Chinyalisaur in Uttarkashi district and Gauchar Airport in Gauchar , Chamoli district . There are plans to launch helipad service in Pantnagar and Jolly Grant Airports and other important tourist destinations like Ghangaria and Hemkund Sahib .
As over 86 % of Uttarakhand 's terrain consists of hills , railway services are very limited in the state and are largely confined to the plains . In 2011 , the total length of railway tracks was about 345 km . Rail , being the cheapest mode of transport , is most popular . The most important railway station in Kumaun Division of Uttarakhand is at Kathgodam , 35 kilometres away from Nainital . Kathgodam is the last terminus of the broad gauge line of North East Railways that connects Nainital with Delhi , Dehradun , and Howrah . Other notable railway stations are at Pantnagar , Lalkuan and Haldwani .
Dehradun railway station is a railhead of the Northern Railways . Haridwar station is situated on the Delhi – Dehradun and Howrah – Dehradun railway lines . One of the main railheads of the Northern Railways , Haridwar Junction Railway Station is connected by metre gauge and broad gauge lines . Roorkee comes under Northern Railway region of Indian Railways on the main Punjab – Mughal Sarai trunk route and is connected to major Indian cities . Other railheads are Rishikesh , Kotdwar and Ramnagar linked to Delhi by daily trains .
= = Tourism = =
Uttarakhand has many tourist spots due to its location in the Himalayas . There are many ancient temples , forest reserves , national parks , hill stations , and mountain peaks that draw large number of tourists . There are 44 nationally protected monuments in the state . Oak Grove School in the state is on the tentative list for World Heritage Sites . Two of the most holy rivers in Hinduism the Ganges and Yamuna , originate in Uttarakhand .
Uttarakhand has long been called " Land of the Gods " as the state has some of the holiest Hindu shrines , and for more than a thousand years , pilgrims have been visiting the region in the hopes of salvation and purification from sin . Gangotri and Yamunotri , the sources of the Ganges and Yamuna , dedicated to Ganga and Yamuna respectively , fall in the upper reaches of the state and together with Badrinath ( dedicated to Vishnu ) and Kedarnath ( dedicated to Shiva ) form the Chota Char Dham , one of Hinduism 's most spiritual and auspicious pilgrimage circuits . Haridwar , meaning " Gateway to the God " , is a prime Hindu destination . Haridwar hosts the Kumbha Mela every twelve years , in which millions of pilgrims take part from all parts of India and the world . Rishikesh near Haridwar is known as the preeminent yoga centre of India . The state has an abundance of temples and shrines , many dedicated to local deities or manifestations of Shiva and Durga , references to many of which can be found in Hindu scriptures and legends . Uttarakhand is , however , a place of pilgrimage not only for Hindus . Piran Kaliyar Sharif near Roorkee is a pilgrimage site to Muslims , Gurdwara Hemkund Sahib , nested in the Himalayas , is a prime pilgrimage centre for Sikhs . Tibetan Buddhism has also made itself felt with the reconstruction of Mindrolling Monastery and its Buddha Stupa , described as the world 's highest at Clement Town , Dehradun .
Some of the most famous hill stations in India are in Uttarakhand . Mussoorie , Nainital , Dhanaulti , Lansdowne , Pauri , Sattal , Almora , Kausani , Bhimtal , and Ranikhet are some popular hill stations in Uttarakhand . The state has 12 National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries which cover 13 @.@ 8 percent of the total area of the state . They are located at different altitudes varying from 800 to 5400 metres . The oldest national park on the Indian sub @-@ continent , Jim Corbett National Park , is a major tourist attraction . The park is famous for its varied wildlife and Project Tiger run by the Government of India . Rajaji National Park is famous for its elephants . In addition , the state boasts Valley of Flowers National Park and Nanda Devi National Park in Chamoli District , which together are a UNESCO World Heritage Site . Vasudhara Falls , near Badrinath is a waterfall with a height of 122 metres ( 400 ft ) set in a backdrop of snow @-@ clad mountains . The state has always been a destination for mountaineering , hiking , and rock climbing in India . A recent development in adventure tourism in the region has been whitewater rafting in Rishikesh . Due to its proximity to the Himalaya ranges , the place is full of hills and mountains and is suitable for trekking , climbing , skiing , camping , rock climbing , and paragliding . Roopkund is a popular trekking site , famous for the mysterious skeletons found in a lake , which was featured by National Geographic Channel in a documentary . The trek to Roopkund passes through the beautiful meadows of Bugyal .
= = Education = =
On 30 September 2010 there were 15 @,@ 331 primary schools with 1 @,@ 040 @,@ 139 students and 22 @,@ 118 working teachers . At the 2011 census the literacy rate of the state was 79 @.@ 63 % with 88 @.@ 33 % literacy for males and 70 @.@ 70 % literacy for females . The language of instruction in the schools is either English or Hindi . There are mainly government @-@ run , private unaided ( no government help ) , and private aided schools in the state . The main school affiliations are CBSE , CISCE or UBSE , the state syllabus defined by the Department of Education of the Government of Uttarakhand .
Uttarakhand is also home to a number of universities and degree colleges .
= = Sports = =
The high mountains and rivers of Uttarakhand attract many tourists and adventure seekers interested in sports such as mountaineering , rock climbing , skiing , ice skating , sailing , parasailing , kayaking , canoeing , yachting , trekking and hiking . It is also a favorite destination for adventure sports , such as paragliding , sky diving , rafting and bungee jumping .
More recently , golf has also become popular , with Ranikhet being a favorite destination .
The Uttarakhand Cricket Association is the governing body for cricket activities and the Uttarakhand Cricket Team .
The Uttarakhand Football Association is the governing body for Association Football . The Uttarakhand football team represents Uttarakhand in the Santosh Trophy and other leagues .
= = = Sports Stadiums = = =
This is a list of stadiums in Uttarakhand :
Abhimanyu Cricket Academy – Dehradun
Ambedkar Stadium – Dehradun
Nainital Stadium ( commonly known as " Flats " ) – Nainital
Udayraj Sports Stadium – Kashipur
Sports Stadium – Kashipur
Somnath Stadium – Ranikhet
Jeevan Chandra Upadhyaya Stadium – Pithoragarh
Mini Stadium ( under construction ) – Dehradun
Mini Stadium ( under construction ) – Kaladhungi
Indira Gandhi International Sports Complex ( under construction ) – Haldwani
Rajiv Gandhi International Cricket Stadium , Dehradun ( under construction ) – Dehradun
Sports Stadium – Rudrapur
Stevenson Stadium – Pantnagar
= Apollo program =
The Apollo program , also known as Project Apollo , was the third United States human spaceflight program carried out by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA ) , which accomplished landing the first humans on the Moon from 1969 to 1972 . First conceived during Dwight D. Eisenhower 's administration as a three @-@ man spacecraft to follow the one @-@ man Project Mercury which put the first Americans in space , Apollo was later dedicated to President John F. Kennedy 's national goal of " landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth " by the end of the 1960s , which he proposed in an address to Congress on May 25 , 1961 .
Kennedy 's goal was accomplished on the Apollo 11 mission when astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin landed their Lunar Module ( LM ) on July 20 , 1969 , and walked on the lunar surface , while Michael Collins remained in lunar orbit in the Command / Service Module ( CSM ) , and all three landed safely on Earth on July 24 . Five subsequent Apollo missions also landed astronauts on the Moon , the last in December 1972 . In these six spaceflights , twelve men walked on the Moon .
Apollo ran from 1961 to 1972 , with the first manned flight in 1968 . It achieved its goal of manned lunar landing , despite the major setback of a 1967 Apollo 1 cabin fire that killed the entire crew during a prelaunch test . After the first landing , sufficient flight hardware remained for nine follow @-@ on landings with a plan for extended lunar geological and astrophysical exploration . Budget cuts forced the cancellation of three of these . Five of the remaining six missions achieved successful landings , but the Apollo 13 landing was prevented by an oxygen tank explosion in transit to the Moon , which damaged the CSM 's propulsion and life support . The crew returned to Earth safely by using the Lunar Module as a " lifeboat " for these functions . It used Saturn family rockets as launch vehicles , which were also used for an Apollo Applications Program , which consisted of Skylab , a space station that supported three manned missions in 1973 – 74 , and the Apollo – Soyuz Test Project , a joint Earth orbit mission with the Soviet Union in 1975 .
Apollo set several major human spaceflight milestones . It stands alone in sending manned missions beyond low Earth orbit . Apollo 8 was the first manned spacecraft to orbit another celestial body , while the final Apollo 17 mission marked the sixth Moon landing and the ninth manned mission beyond low Earth orbit . The program returned 842 pounds ( 382 kg ) of lunar rocks and soil to Earth , greatly contributing to the understanding of the Moon 's composition and geological history . The program laid the foundation for NASA 's current human spaceflight capability , and funded construction of its Johnson Space Center and Kennedy Space Center . Apollo also spurred advances in many areas of technology incidental to rocketry and manned spaceflight , including avionics , telecommunications , and computers .
= = Background = =
The Apollo program was conceived during the Eisenhower administration in early 1960 , as a follow @-@ up to Project Mercury . While the Mercury capsule could only support one astronaut on a limited Earth orbital mission , Apollo would carry three astronauts . Possible missions included ferrying crews to a space station , circumlunar flights , and eventual manned lunar landings . The program was named after the Greek god of light , music , and the sun by NASA manager Abe Silverstein , who later said that " I was naming the spacecraft like I 'd name my baby . " Silverstein chose the name at home one evening , early in 1960 , because he felt " Apollo riding his chariot across the Sun was appropriate to the grand scale of the proposed program . "
= = = Spacecraft feasibility studies = = =
In July 1960 , NASA Deputy Administrator Hugh L. Dryden announced the Apollo program to industry representatives at a series of Space Task Group conferences . Preliminary specifications were laid out for a spacecraft with a mission module cabin separate from the command module ( piloting and re @-@ entry cabin ) , and a propulsion and equipment module . On August 30 , a feasibility study competition was announced , and on October 25 , three study contracts were awarded to General Dynamics / Convair , General Electric , and the Glenn L. Martin Company . Meanwhile , NASA performed its own in @-@ house spacecraft design studies led by Maxime Faget , to serve as a gauge to judge and monitor the three industry designs .
= = = Political pressure builds = = =
In November 1960 , John F. Kennedy was elected president after a campaign that promised American superiority over the Soviet Union in the fields of space exploration and missile defense . Up to the election of 1960 , Kennedy had been speaking out against the " missile gap " that he and many other senators felt had formed between the Soviets and themselves due to the inaction of President Eisenhower . Beyond military power , Kennedy used aerospace technology as a symbol of national prestige , pledging to make the US not " first but , first and , first if , but first period . " Despite Kennedy 's rhetoric , he did not immediately come to a decision on the status of the Apollo program once he became president . He knew little about the technical details of the space program , and was put off by the massive financial commitment required by a manned Moon landing . When Kennedy 's newly appointed NASA Administrator James E. Webb requested a 30 percent budget increase for his agency , Kennedy supported an acceleration of NASA 's large booster program but deferred a decision on the broader issue .
On April 12 , 1961 , Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first person to fly in space , reinforcing American fears about being left behind in a technological competition with the Soviet Union . At a meeting of the US House Committee on Science and Astronautics one day after Gagarin 's flight , many congressmen pledged their support for a crash program aimed at ensuring that America would catch up . Kennedy was circumspect in his response to the news , refusing to make a commitment on America 's response to the Soviets .
On April 20 , Kennedy sent a memo to Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson , asking Johnson to look into the status of America 's space program , and into programs that could offer NASA the opportunity to catch up . Johnson responded approximately one week later , concluding that " we are neither making maximum effort nor achieving results necessary if this country is to reach a position of leadership . " His memo concluded that a manned Moon landing was far enough in the future that it was likely the United States would achieve it first .
On May 25 , 1961 , twenty days after the first US manned spaceflight Freedom 7 , Kennedy proposed the manned Moon landing in a Special Message to the Congress on Urgent National Needs :
" Now it is time to take longer strides - time for a great new American enterprise - time for this nation to take a clearly leading role in space achievement , which in many ways may hold the key to our future on Earth .
... I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal , before this decade is out , of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth . No single space project in this period will be more impressive to mankind , or more important in the long @-@ range exploration of space ; and none will be so difficult or expensive to accomplish . " Full text
= = NASA expansion = =
At the time of Kennedy 's proposal , only one American had flown in space — less than a month earlier — and NASA had not yet sent an astronaut into orbit . Even some NASA employees doubted whether Kennedy 's ambitious goal could be met . By 1963 , Kennedy even came close to agreeing to a joint US @-@ USSR Moon mission , to eliminate duplication of effort .
With the clear goal of a manned landing replacing the more nebulous goals of space stations and cislunar flights , NASA had to hit the ground running , and decided to discard the feasibility study designs of Convair , GE , and Martin , and proceed with Faget 's command / service module design . The mission module was determined to be only useful as an extra room , and therefore deemed unnecessary . They used Faget 's design as the specification for another competition for spacecraft procurement bids in October 1961 . On November 28 , 1961 , it was announced that North American Aviation had won the contract , although its bid was not rated as good as Martin 's . Webb , Dryden and Robert Seamans chose it in preference due to North American 's longer association with NACA .
Landing men on the Moon by the end of 1969 required the most sudden burst of technological creativity , and the largest commitment of resources ( $ 24 billion ) ever made by any nation in peacetime . At its peak , the Apollo program employed 400 @,@ 000 people and required the support of over 20 @,@ 000 industrial firms and universities .
On July 1 , 1960 , NASA established of the Marshall Space Flight Center ( MSFC ) in Huntsville , Alabama . MSFC designed the heavy lift @-@ class Saturn launch vehicles , which would be required for Apollo .
= = = Manned Spacecraft Center = = =
It became clear that managing the Apollo program would exceed the capabilities of Robert R. Gilruth 's Space Task Group , which had been directing the nation 's manned space program from NASA 's Langley Research Center . So Gilruth was given authority to grow his organization into a new NASA center , the Manned Spacecraft Center ( MSC ) . A site was chosen in Houston , Texas , on land donated by Rice University , and Administrator Webb announced the conversion on September 19 , 1961 . It was also clear NASA would soon outgrow its practice of controlling missions from its Cape Canaveral Air Force Station launch facilities in Florida , so a new Mission Control Center would be included in the MSC .
In September 1962 , by which time two Project Mercury astronauts had orbited the Earth , Gilruth had moved his organization to rented space in Houston , and construction of the MSC facility was under way , Kennedy visited Rice to reiterate his challenge in a famous speech :
" But why , some say , the Moon ? Why choose this as our goal ? And they may well ask , why climb the highest mountain ? Why , 35 years ago , fly the Atlantic ? ...
We choose to go to the Moon . We choose to go to the Moon in this decade and do the other things , not because they are easy , but because they are hard ; because that goal will serve to organize and measure the best of our energies and skills ; because that challenge is one that we are willing to accept , one we are unwilling to postpone , and one we intend to win ... . Full text
The MSC was completed in September 1963 . It was renamed by the US Congress in honor of Lyndon Johnson soon after his death in 1973 .
= = = Launch Operations Center = = =
It also became clear that Apollo would outgrow the Canaveral launch facilities in Florida . The two newest launch complexes were already being built for the Saturn I and IB rockets at the northernmost end : LC @-@ 34 and LC @-@ 37 . But an even bigger facility would be needed for the mammoth rocket required for the manned lunar mission , so land acquisition was started in July 1961 for a Launch Operations Center ( LOC ) immediately north of Canaveral at Merritt Island . The design , development and construction of the center was conducted by Kurt H. Debus , a member of Dr. Wernher von Braun 's original V @-@ 2 rocket engineering team . Debus was named the LOC 's first Director . Construction began in November 1962 . Upon Kennedy 's death , President Johnson issued an executive order on November 29 , 1963 , to rename the LOC and Cape Canaveral in honor of Kennedy .
The LOC included Launch Complex 39 , a Launch Control Center , and a 130 million cubic foot ( 3 @.@ 7 million cubic meter ) Vertical Assembly Building ( VAB ) in which the space vehicle ( launch vehicle and spacecraft ) would be assembled on a Mobile Launcher Platform and then moved by a transporter to one of several launch pads . Although at least three pads were planned , only two , designated A and B , were completed in October 1965 . The LOC also included an Operations and Checkout Building ( OCB ) to which Gemini and Apollo spacecraft were initially received prior to being mated to their launch vehicles . The Apollo spacecraft could be tested in two vacuum chambers capable of simulating atmospheric pressure at altitudes up to 250 @,@ 000 feet ( 76 km ) , which is nearly a vacuum .
= = = Organization = = =
Administrator Webb realized that in order to keep Apollo costs under control , he had to develop greater project management skills in his organization , so he recruited Dr. George E. Mueller for a high management job . Mueller accepted , on the condition that he have a say in NASA reorganization necessary to effectively administer Apollo . Webb then worked with Associate Administrator ( later Deputy Administrator ) Seamans to reorganize the Office of Manned Space Flight ( OMSF ) . On July 23 , 1963 , Webb announced Mueller 's appointment as Deputy Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight , to replace then Associate Administrator D. Brainerd Holmes on his retirement effective September 1 . Under Webb 's reorganization , the directors of the Manned Spacecraft Center ( Gilruth ) Marshall Space Flight Center ( von Braun ) and the Launch Operations Center ( Debus ) effectively reported to Mueller .
Based on his industry experience on Air Force missile projects , Mueller realized some skilled managers could be found among high @-@ ranking officers in the United States Air Force , so he got Webb 's permission to recruit General Samuel C. Phillips , who gained a reputation for his effective management of the Minuteman program , as OMSF program controller . Phillips ' superior officer Bernard A. Schriever agreed to loan Phillips to NASA , along with a staff of officers under him , on the condition that Phillips be made Apollo Program Director . Mueller agreed , and Phillips managed Apollo from January 1964 , until it achieved the first manned landing in July 1969 , after which he returned to Air Force duty .
= = Choosing a mission mode = =
Once Kennedy had defined a goal , the Apollo mission planners were faced with the challenge of designing a spacecraft that could meet it while minimizing risk to human life , cost , and demands on technology and astronaut skill . Four possible mission modes were considered :
Direct Ascent : The spacecraft would be launched as a unit and travel directly to the Moon and land . It would return , leaving its landing stage on the Moon . This design would have required development of the extremely powerful Nova launch vehicle .
Earth Orbit Rendezvous ( EOR ) : Multiple rocket launches ( up to 15 in some plans ) would carry parts of a Direct Ascent spacecraft and propulsion units for translunar injection ( TLI ) . These would be assembled into a single spacecraft in Earth orbit .
Lunar Orbit Rendezvous ( LOR ) : A single Saturn V could launch a spacecraft that was composed of a mother ship which would remain in orbit around the Moon , while a smaller , two @-@ stage lander would carry two astronauts to the surface , return to dock with the mother ship , and then be discarded . Landing only a small part of the spacecraft on the Moon and returning an even smaller part to lunar orbit minimized the total mass to be launched from the Earth .
Lunar Surface Rendezvous : Two spacecraft would be launched in succession . The first , an automated vehicle carrying propellant for the return to Earth , would land on the Moon , to be followed some time later by the manned vehicle . Propellant would have to be transferred from the automated vehicle to the manned vehicle .
In early 1961 , direct ascent was generally the mission mode in favor at NASA . Many engineers feared that a rendezvous — let alone a docking — neither of which had been attempted even in Earth orbit , would be extremely difficult in lunar orbit . Dissenters including John Houbolt at Langley Research Center emphasized the important weight reductions that were offered by the LOR approach . Throughout 1960 and 1961 , Houbolt campaigned for the recognition of LOR as a viable and practical option . Bypassing the NASA hierarchy , he sent a series of memos and reports on the issue to Associate Administrator Robert Seamans ; while acknowledging that he spoke " somewhat as a voice in the wilderness , " Houbolt pleaded that LOR should not be discounted in studies of the question .
Seamans ' establishment of an ad @-@ hoc committee headed by his special technical assistant Nicholas E. Golovin in July 1961 , to recommend a launch vehicle to be used in the Apollo program , represented a turning point in NASA 's mission mode decision . This committee recognized that the chosen mode was an important part of the launch vehicle choice , and recommended in favor of a hybrid EOR @-@ LOR mode . Its consideration of LOR — as well as Houbolt 's ceaseless work — played an important role in publicizing the workability of the approach . In late 1961 and early 1962 , members of the Manned Spacecraft Center began to come around to support LOR , including the newly hired deputy director of the Office of Manned Space Flight , Joseph Shea , who became a champion of LOR . The engineers at Marshall Space Flight Center ( MSFC ) , which had much to lose from the decision , took longer to become convinced of its merits , but their conversion was announced by Wernher von Braun at a briefing on June 7 , 1962 .
But even after NASA reached internal agreement , it was far from smooth sailing . Kennedy 's science advisor Jerome Wiesner , who had expressed his opposition to manned spaceflight to Kennedy before the President took office , and had opposed the decision to land men on the Moon , hired Golovin , who had left NASA , to chair his own " Space Vehicle Panel " , ostensibly to monitor , but actually to second @-@ guess NASA 's decisions on the Saturn V launch vehicle and LOR by forcing Shea , Seamans , and even Webb to defend themselves , delaying its formal announcement to the press on July 11 , 1962 , and forcing Webb to still hedge the decision as " tentative " .
Wiesner kept up the pressure , even making the disagreement public during a two @-@ day September visit by the President to Marshall Space Flight Center . Wiesner blurted out " No , that 's no good " in front of the press , during a presentation by von Braun . Webb jumped in and defended von Braun , until Kennedy ended the squabble by stating that the matter was " still subject to final review " . Webb held firm , and issued a request for proposal to candidate Lunar Excursion Module ( LEM ) contractors . Wiesner finally relented , unwilling to settle the dispute once and for all in Kennedy 's office , because of the President 's involvement with the October Cuban missile crisis , and fear of Kennedy 's support for Webb . NASA announced the selection of Grumman as the LEM contractor in November 1962 .
Space historian James Hansen concludes that :
Without NASA 's adoption of this stubbornly held minority opinion in 1962 , the United States may still have reached the Moon , but almost certainly it would not have been accomplished by the end of the 1960s , President Kennedy 's target date .
The LOR method had the advantage of allowing the lander spacecraft to be used as a " lifeboat " in the event of a failure of the command ship . Some documents prove this theory was discussed before and after the method was chosen . A 1964 MSC study concluded , " The LM [ as lifeboat ] ... was finally dropped , because no single reasonable CSM failure could be identified that would prohibit use of the SPS .
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" Ironically , just such a failure happened on Apollo 13 when an oxygen tank explosion left the CSM without electrical power . The Lunar Module provided propulsion , electrical power and life support to get the crew home safely .
= = Spacecraft = =
Faget 's preliminary Apollo design employed a cone @-@ shaped command module , supported by one of several service modules providing propulsion and electrical power , sized appropriately for the space station , cislunar , and lunar landing missions . Once Kennedy 's Moon landing goal became official , detailed design began of a Command / Service Module ( CSM ) in which the crew would spend the entire direct @-@ ascent mission and lift off from the lunar surface for the return trip , after being soft @-@ landed by a larger landing propulsion module . The final choice of lunar orbit rendezvous changed the CSM 's role to the translunar ferry used to transport the crew , along with a new spacecraft , the Lunar Excursion Module ( LEM , later shortened to Lunar Module , LM ) which would take two men to the lunar surface and return them to the CSM .
= = = Command / Service Module = = =
The Command Module ( CM ) was the conical crew cabin , designed to carry three astronauts from launch to lunar orbit and back to an Earth ocean landing . It was the only component of the Apollo spacecraft to survive without major configuration changes as the program evolved from the early Apollo study designs . Its exterior was covered with an ablative heat shield , and had its own reaction control system ( RCS ) engines to control its attitude and steer its atmospheric entry path . Parachutes were carried to slow its descent to splashdown . The module was 11 @.@ 42 feet ( 3 @.@ 48 m ) tall , 12 @.@ 83 feet ( 3 @.@ 91 m ) in diameter , and weighed approximately 12 @,@ 250 pounds ( 5 @,@ 560 kg ) .
A cylindrical Service Module ( SM ) supported the Command Module , with a service propulsion engine and an RCS with propellants , and a fuel cell power generation system with liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen reactants . A high @-@ gain S @-@ band antenna was used for long @-@ distance communications on the lunar flights . On the extended lunar missions , an orbital scientific instrument package was carried . The Service Module was discarded just before re @-@ entry . The module was 24 @.@ 6 feet ( 7 @.@ 5 m ) long and 12 @.@ 83 feet ( 3 @.@ 91 m ) in diameter . The initial lunar flight version weighed approximately 51 @,@ 300 pounds ( 23 @,@ 300 kg ) fully fueled , while a later version designed to carry a lunar orbit scientific instrument package weighed just over 54 @,@ 000 pounds ( 24 @,@ 000 kg ) .
North American Aviation won the contract to build the CSM , and also the second stage of the Saturn V launch vehicle for NASA . Because the CSM design was started early before the selection of lunar orbit rendezvous , the service propulsion engine was sized to lift the CSM off of the Moon , and thus was oversized to about twice the thrust required for translunar flight . Also , there was no provision for docking with the Lunar Module . A 1964 program definition study concluded that the initial design should be continued as Block I which would be used for early testing , while Block II , the actual lunar spacecraft , would incorporate the docking equipment and take advantage of the lessons learned in Block I development .
= = = Lunar Module = = =
The Lunar Module ( LM ) was designed to descend from lunar orbit to land two astronauts on the Moon and take them back to orbit to rendezvous with the Command Module . Not designed to fly through the Earth 's atmosphere or return to Earth , its fuselage was designed totally without aerodynamic considerations , and was of an extremely lightweight construction . It consisted of separate descent and ascent stages , each with its own engine . The descent stage contained storage for the descent propellant , surface stay consumables , and surface exploration equipment . The ascent stage contained the crew cabin , ascent propellant , and a reaction control system . The initial LM model weighed approximately 33 @,@ 300 pounds ( 15 @,@ 100 kg ) , and allowed surface stays up to around 34 hours . An Extended Lunar Module weighed over 36 @,@ 200 pounds ( 16 @,@ 400 kg ) , and allowed surface stays of over 3 days . The contract for design and construction of the Lunar Module was awarded to Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corporation , and the project was overseen by Thomas J. Kelly .
= = Launch vehicles = =
Before the Apollo program began , Wernher von Braun and his team of rocket engineers had started work on plans for very large launch vehicles , the Saturn series , and the even larger Nova series . In the midst of these plans , von Braun was transferred from the Army to NASA , and made Director of the Marshall Space Flight Center . The initial direct ascent plan to send the three @-@ man Apollo Command / Service Module directly to the lunar surface , on top of a large descent rocket stage , would require a Nova @-@ class launcher , with a lunar payload capability of over 180 @,@ 000 pounds ( 82 @,@ 000 kg ) . The June 11 , 1962 , decision to use lunar orbit rendezvous enabled the Saturn V to replace the Nova , and the MSFC proceeded to develop the Saturn rocket family for Apollo .
= = = Little Joe II = = =
Since Apollo , like Mercury , would require a launch escape system ( LES ) in case of a launch failure , a relatively small rocket was required for qualification flight testing of this system . A size bigger than the NAA Little Joe would be required , so the Little Joe II was built by General Dynamics / Convair . After an August 1963 qualification test flight , four LES test flights ( A @-@ 001 through 004 ) were made at the White Sands Missile Range between May 1964 and January 1966 .
= = = Saturn I = = =
Since Apollo , like Mercury , used more than one launch vehicle for space missions , NASA used spacecraft @-@ launch vehicle combination series numbers : AS @-@ 10x for Saturn I , AS @-@ 20x for Saturn IB , and AS @-@ 50x for Saturn V ( compare Mercury @-@ Redstone 3 , Mercury @-@ Atlas 6 ) to designate and plan all missions , rather than numbering them sequentially as in Project Gemini . This was changed by the time manned flights began .
Saturn I , the first US heavy lift launch vehicle , was initially planned to launch partially equipped CSMs in low Earth orbit tests . The S @-@ I first stage burned RP @-@ 1 with liquid oxygen ( LOX ) oxidizer in eight clustered Rocketdyne H @-@ 1 engines , to produce 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 pounds @-@ force ( 6 @,@ 670 kN ) of thrust . The S @-@ IV second stage used six liquid hydrogen @-@ fueled Pratt & Whitney RL @-@ 10 engines with 90 @,@ 000 pounds @-@ force ( 400 kN ) of thrust . A planned Centaur ( S @-@ V ) third stage with two RL @-@ 10 engines , never flew on Saturn I.
The first four Saturn I test flights were launched from LC @-@ 34 , with only live first stages , carrying dummy upper stages filled with water . The first flight with a live S @-@ IV was launched from LC @-@ 37 . This was followed by five launches of boilerplate CSMs ( designated AS @-@ 101 through AS @-@ 105 ) into orbit in 1964 and 1965 . The last three of these further supported the Apollo program by also carrying Pegasus satellites , which verified the safety of the translunar environment by measuring the frequency and severity of micrometeorite impacts .
In September 1962 , NASA planned to launch four manned CSM flights on the Saturn I from late 1965 through 1966 , concurrent with Project Gemini . The 22 @,@ 500 @-@ pound ( 10 @,@ 200 kg ) payload capacity would have severely limited the systems which could be included , so the decision was made in October 1963 to use the uprated Saturn IB for all manned Earth orbital flights .
= = = Saturn IB = = =
The Saturn IB was an upgraded version of the Saturn I. The S @-@ IB first stage increased the thrust to 1 @,@ 600 @,@ 000 pounds @-@ force ( 7 @,@ 120 kN ) by uprating the H @-@ 1 engine . The second stage replaced the S @-@ IV with the S @-@ IVB @-@ 200 , powered by a single J @-@ 2 engine burning liquid hydrogen fuel with LOX , to produce 200 @,@ 000 pounds @-@ force ( 890 kN ) of thrust . A restartable version of the S @-@ IVB was used as the third stage of the Saturn V. The Saturn IB could send over 40 @,@ 000 pounds ( 18 @,@ 100 kg ) into low Earth orbit , sufficient for a partially fueled CSM or the LM . Saturn IB launch vehicles and flights were designated with an AS @-@ 200 series number , " AS " indicating " Apollo Saturn " and the " 2 " indicating the second member of the Saturn rocket family .
= = = Saturn V = = =
Saturn V launch vehicles and flights were designated with an AS @-@ 500 series number , " AS " indicating " Apollo Saturn " and the " 5 " indicating Saturn V. The three @-@ stage Saturn V was designed to send a fully fueled CSM and LM to the Moon . It was 33 feet ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) in diameter and stood 363 feet ( 110 @.@ 6 m ) tall with its 96 @,@ 800 @-@ pound ( 43 @,@ 900 kg ) lunar payload . Its capability grew to 103 @,@ 600 pounds ( 47 @,@ 000 kg ) for the later advanced lunar landings . The S @-@ IC first stage burned RP @-@ 1 / LOX for a rated thrust of 7 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 pounds @-@ force ( 33 @,@ 400 kN ) , which was upgraded to 7 @,@ 610 @,@ 000 pounds @-@ force ( 33 @,@ 900 kN ) . The second and third stages burned liquid hydrogen , and the third stage was a modified version of the S @-@ IVB , with thrust increased to 230 @,@ 000 pounds @-@ force ( 1 @,@ 020 kN ) and capability to restart the engine for translunar injection after reaching a parking orbit .
= = Astronauts = =
NASA 's Director of Flight Crew Operations during the Apollo program was Donald K. " Deke " Slayton , one of the original Mercury Seven astronauts who was medically grounded in September 1962 due to a heart murmur . Slayton was responsible for making all Gemini and Apollo crew assignments .
Thirty @-@ two astronauts were assigned to fly missions in the Apollo program . Twenty @-@ four of these left Earth ’ s orbit and flew around the Moon between December 1968 and December 1972 ( three of them twice ) . Half of the 24 walked on its surface , though none of them returned to the Moon after landing once . One of the moonwalkers was a trained geologist . Of the 32 , Gus Grissom , Edward H. White , and Roger Chaffee were killed during a ground test in preparation for their Apollo 1 mission .
The Apollo astronauts were chosen from the Project Mercury and Gemini veterans , plus from two later astronaut groups . All missions were commanded by Gemini or Mercury veterans . Crews on all development flights ( except the Earth orbit CSM development flights ) through the first two landings on Apollo 11 and Apollo 12 , included at least two ( sometimes three ) Gemini veterans . Dr. Harrison Schmitt , a geologist , was the first NASA scientist astronaut to fly in space , and landed on the Moon on the last mission , Apollo 17 . Schmitt participated in the lunar geology training of all of the Apollo landing crews .
NASA awarded all 32 of these astronauts its highest honor , the Distinguished Service Medal , given for " distinguished service , ability , or courage " , and personal " contribution representing substantial progress to the NASA mission " . The medals were awarded posthumously to Grissom , White , and Chaffee in 1969 , then to the crews of all missions from Apollo 8 onward . The crew that flew the first Earth orbital test mission Apollo 7 , Walter M. Schirra , Donn Eisele , and Walter Cunningham , were awarded the lesser NASA Exceptional Service Medal , because of discipline problems with the Flight Director 's orders during their flight . The NASA Administrator in October , 2008 , decided to award them the Distinguished Service Medals , by this time posthumously to Schirra and Eisele .
= = Lunar mission profile = =
The nominal planned lunar landing mission proceeded as follows :
= = = Profile variations = = =
After Apollo 12 placed the second of several seismometers on the Moon , the S @-@ IVBs on subsequent missions were deliberately crashed on the Moon instead of being sent to solar orbit , as an active seismic experiment to induce vibrations in the Moon .
The first three lunar missions ( Apollo 8 , Apollo 10 , and Apollo 11 ) used a free return trajectory , keeping a flight path coplanar with the lunar orbit , which would allow a return to Earth in case the SM engine failed to make lunar orbit insertion . Landing site lighting conditions on later missions dictated a lunar orbital plane change , which required a course change maneuver soon after TLI , and eliminated the free @-@ return option .
Starting with Apollo 13 , descent orbit insertion was to be performed using the Service Module engine instead of the LM engine , in order to allow a greater fuel reserve for landing . This was actually first done for the first time on Apollo 14 , since the Apollo 13 mission was aborted before landing .
On Apollo 12 and later missions , the jettisoned LM ascent stages were deliberately crashed on the Moon at known locations , as another active seismic experiment . The only exceptions to this were the Apollo 13 LM which burned up in the Earth 's atmosphere , and Apollo 16 , where a loss of attitude control after jettison prevented making a targeted impact .
= = Development history = =
= = = Unmanned flight tests = = =
Two Block I CSMs were launched from LC @-@ 34 on suborbital flights in 1966 with the Saturn IB . The first , AS @-@ 201 launched on February 26 , reached an altitude of 265 @.@ 7 nautical miles ( 492 @.@ 1 km ) and splashed down 4 @,@ 577 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 477 km ) downrange in the Atlantic Ocean . The second , AS @-@ 202 on August 25 , reached 617 @.@ 1 nautical miles ( 1 @,@ 142 @.@ 9 km ) altitude and was recovered 13 @,@ 900 nautical miles ( 25 @,@ 700 km ) downrange in the Pacific Ocean . These flights validated the Service Module engine and the Command Module heat shield .
A third Saturn IB test , AS @-@ 203 launched from pad 37 , went into orbit to support design of the S @-@ IVB upper stage restart capability needed for the Saturn V. It carried a nosecone instead of the Apollo spacecraft , and its payload was the unburned liquid hydrogen fuel , the behavior of which engineers measured with temperature and pressure sensors , and a TV camera . This flight occurred on July 5 , before AS @-@ 202 , which was delayed because of problems getting the Apollo spacecraft ready for flight .
= = = Preparation for manned flight = = =
Two manned orbital Block I CSM missions were planned : AS @-@ 204 and AS @-@ 205 . The Block I crew positions were titled Command Pilot , Senior Pilot , and Pilot . The Senior Pilot would assume navigation duties , while the Pilot would function as a systems engineer . The astronauts would wear a modified version of the Gemini spacesuit .
After an unmanned LM test flight AS @-@ 206 , a crew would fly the first Block II CSM and LM in a dual mission known as AS @-@ 207 / 208 , or AS @-@ 278 ( each spacecraft would be launched on a separate Saturn IB ) . The Block II crew positions were titled Commander ( CDR ) Command Module Pilot ( CMP ) and Lunar Module Pilot ( LMP ) . The astronauts would begin wearing a new Apollo A6L spacesuit , designed to accommodate lunar extravehicular activity ( EVA ) . The traditional visor helmet was replaced with a clear " fishbowl " type for greater visibility , and the lunar surface EVA suit would include a water @-@ cooled undergarment .
Deke Slayton , the grounded Mercury astronaut who became Director of Flight Crew Operations for the Gemini and Apollo programs , selected the first Apollo crew in January 1966 , with Grissom as Command Pilot , White as Senior Pilot , and rookie Donn F. Eisele as Pilot . But Eisele dislocated his shoulder twice aboard the KC135 weightlessness training aircraft , and had to undergo surgery on January 27 . Slayton replaced him with Chaffee . NASA announced the final crew selection for AS @-@ 204 on March 21 , 1966 , with the backup crew consisting of Gemini veterans James McDivitt and David Scott , with rookie Russell L. " Rusty " Schweickart . Mercury / Gemini veteran Wally Schirra , Eisele , and rookie Walter Cunningham were announced on September 29 as the prime crew for AS @-@ 205 .
In December 1966 , the AS @-@ 205 mission was canceled , since the validation of the CSM would be accomplished on the 14 @-@ day first flight , and AS @-@ 205 would have been devoted to space experiments and contribute no new engineering knowledge about the spacecraft . Its Saturn IB was allocated to the dual mission , now redesignated AS @-@ 205 / 208 or AS @-@ 258 , planned for August 1967 . McDivitt , Scott and Schweickart were promoted to the prime AS @-@ 258 crew , and Schirra , Eisele and Cunningham were reassigned as the Apollo 1 backup crew .
= = = = Program delays = = = =
The spacecraft for the AS @-@ 202 and AS @-@ 204 missions were delivered by North American Aviation to the Kennedy Space Center with long lists of equipment problems which had to be corrected before flight ; these delays caused the launch of AS @-@ 202 to slip behind AS @-@ 203 , and eliminated hopes the first manned mission might be ready to launch as soon as November 1966 , concurrently with the last Gemini mission . Eventually the planned AS @-@ 204 flight date was pushed to February 21 , 1967 .
North American Aviation was prime contractor not only for the Apollo CSM , but for the Saturn V S @-@ II second stage as well , and delays in this stage pushed the first unmanned Saturn V flight AS @-@ 501 from late 1966 to November 1967 . ( The initial assembly of AS @-@ 501 had to use a dummy spacer spool in place of the stage . )
The problems with North American were severe enough in late 1965 to cause Manned Space Flight Administrator George Mueller to appoint program director Samuel Phillips to head a " tiger team " to investigate North American 's problems and identify corrections . Phillips documented his findings in a December 19 letter to NAA president Lee Atwood , with a strongly worded letter by Mueller , and also gave a presentation of the results to Mueller and Deputy Administrator Robert Seamans . Meanwhile , Grumman was also encountering problems with the Lunar Module , eliminating hopes it would be ready for manned flight in 1967 , not long after the first manned CSM flights .
= = = = Disaster strikes = = = =
Grissom , White , and Chaffee decided to name their flight Apollo 1 as a motivational focus on the first manned flight . They trained and conducted tests of their spacecraft at North American , and in the altitude chamber at the Kennedy Space Center . A " plugs @-@ out " test was planned for January , which would simulate a launch countdown on LC @-@ 34 with the spacecraft transferring from pad @-@ supplied to internal power . If successful , this would be followed by a more rigorous countdown simulation test closer to the February 21 launch , with both spacecraft and launch vehicle fueled .
The plugs @-@ out test began on the morning of January 27 , 1967 , and immediately was plagued with problems . First the crew noticed a strange odor in their spacesuits , which delayed the sealing of the hatch . Then , communications problems frustrated the astronauts and forced a hold in the simulated countdown . During this hold , an electrical fire began in the cabin , and spread quickly in the high pressure , 100 % oxygen atmosphere . Pressure rose high enough from the fire that the cabin inner wall burst , allowing the fire to erupt onto the pad area and frustrating attempts to rescue the crew . The astronauts were asphyxiated before the hatch could be opened .
NASA immediately convened an accident review board , overseen by both houses of Congress . While the determination of responsibility for the accident was complex , the review board concluded that " deficiencies existed in Command Module design , workmanship and quality control . " At the insistence of NASA Administrator Webb , North American removed Harrison Storms as Command Module program manager . Webb also reassigned Apollo Spacecraft Program Office ( ASPO ) Manager Joseph Francis Shea , replacing him with George Low .
To remedy the causes of the fire , changes were made in the Block II spacecraft and operational procedures , the most important of which were use of a nitrogen / oxygen mixture instead of pure oxygen before and during launch , and removal of flammable cabin and space suit materials . The Block II design already called for replacement of the Block I plug @-@ type hatch cover with a quick @-@ release , outward opening door . NASA discontinued the manned Block I program , using the Block I spacecraft only for unmanned Saturn V flights . Crew members would also exclusively wear modified , fire @-@ resistant A7L Block II space suits , and would be designated by the Block II titles , regardless of whether a LM was present on the flight or not .
= = = = Unmanned Saturn V and LM tests = = = =
On April 24 , 1967 , Mueller published an official Apollo mission numbering scheme , using sequential numbers for all flights , manned or unmanned . The sequence would start with Apollo 4 to cover the first three unmanned flights while retiring the Apollo 1 designation to honor the crew , per their widows ' wishes .
In September 1967 , Mueller approved a sequence of mission types which had to be successfully accomplished in order to achieve the manned lunar landing . Each step had to be successfully accomplished before the next ones could be performed , and it was unknown how many tries of each mission would be necessary ; therefore letters were used instead of numbers . The A missions were unmanned Saturn V validation ; B was unmanned LM validation using the Saturn IB ; C was manned CSM Earth orbit validation using the Saturn IB ; D was the first manned CSM / LM flight ( this replaced AS @-@ 258 , using a single Saturn V launch ) ; E would be a higher Earth orbit CSM / LM flight ; F would be the first lunar mission , testing the LM in lunar orbit but without landing ( a " dress rehearsal " ) ; and G would be the first manned landing . The list of types covered follow @-@ on lunar exploration to include H lunar landings , I for lunar orbital survey missions , and J for extended @-@ stay lunar landings .
The delay in the CSM caused by the fire enabled NASA to catch up on man @-@ rating the LM and Saturn V. Apollo 4 ( AS @-@ 501 ) was the first unmanned flight of the Saturn V , carrying a Block I CSM on November 9 , 1967 . The capability of the Command Module 's heat shield to survive a trans @-@ lunar reentry was demonstrated by using the Service Module engine to ram it into the atmosphere at higher than the usual Earth @-@ orbital reentry speed . This was followed on April 4 , 1968 , by Apollo 6 ( AS @-@ 502 ) which carried a CSM and a LM Test Article as ballast . The intent of this mission was to achieve trans @-@ lunar injection , followed closely by a simulated direct @-@ return abort , using the Service Module engine to achieve another high @-@ speed reentry . The Saturn V experienced pogo oscillation , a problem caused by non @-@ steady engine combustion , which damaged fuel lines in the second and third stages . Two S @-@ II engines shut down prematurely , but the remaining engines were able to compensate . The damage to the third stage engine was more severe , preventing it from restarting for trans @-@ lunar injection . Mission controllers were able to use the Service Module engine to essentially repeat the flight profile of Apollo 4 . Based on the good performance of Apollo 6 and identification of satisfactory fixes to the Apollo 6 problems , NASA declared the Saturn V ready to fly men , cancelling a third unmanned test .
Apollo 5 ( AS @-@ 204 ) was the first unmanned test flight of LM in Earth orbit , launched from pad 37 on January 22 , 1968 , by the Saturn IB that would have been used for Apollo 1 . The LM engines were successfully test @-@ fired and restarted , despite a computer programming error which cut short the first descent stage firing . The ascent engine was fired in abort mode , known as a " fire @-@ in @-@ the @-@ hole " test , where it was lit simultaneously with jettison of the descent stage . Although Grumman wanted a second unmanned test , George Low decided the next LM flight would be manned .
= = = Manned development missions = = =
Apollo 7 , launched from LC @-@ 34 on October 11 , 1968 , was the C mission , crewed by Schirra , Eisele and Cunningham . It was an 11 @-@ day Earth @-@ orbital flight which tested the CSM systems .
Apollo 8 was planned to be the D mission in December 1968 , crewed by McDivitt , Scott and Schweickart , launched on a Saturn V instead of two Saturn IBs . In the summer it had become clear that the LM would not be ready in time . Rather than waste the Saturn V on another simple Earth @-@ orbiting mission , ASPO Manager George Low suggested the bold step of sending Apollo 8 to orbit the Moon instead , deferring the D mission to the next mission in March 1969 , and eliminating the E mission . This would keep the program on track . The Soviet Union had sent animals around the Moon on September 15 , 1968 , aboard Zond 5 , and it was believed they might soon repeat the feat with human cosmonauts . The decision was not announced publicly until successful completion of Apollo 7 . Gemini veterans Frank Borman and Jim Lovell , and rookie William Anders captured the world 's attention by making ten lunar orbits in 20 hours , transmitting television pictures of the lunar surface on Christmas Eve , and returning safely to Earth .
The following March , LM flight , rendezvous and docking were successfully demonstrated in Earth orbit on Apollo 9 , and Schweickart tested the full lunar EVA suit with its Portable Life Support System ( PLSS ) outside the LM . The F mission was successfully carried out on Apollo 10 in May 1969 by Gemini veterans Thomas P. Stafford , John Young and Eugene Cernan . Stafford and Cernan took the LM to within 50 @,@ 000 feet ( 15 km ) of the lunar surface .
The G mission was achieved on Apollo 11 in July 1969 by an all @-@ Gemini veteran crew consisting of Neil Armstrong , Michael Collins and Buzz Aldrin . Armstrong and Aldrin performed the first landing at the Sea of Tranquility at 20 : 17 : 40 UTC on July 20 , 1969 . They spent a total of 21 hours , 36 minutes on the surface , and spent 2 hours , 31 minutes outside the spacecraft , walking on the surface , taking photographs , collecting material samples , and deploying automated scientific instruments , while continuously sending black @-@ and @-@ white television back to Earth . The astronauts returned safely on July 24 .
That 's one small step for [ a ] man , one giant leap for mankind .
= = = Production lunar landings = = =
In November 1969 , Gemini veteran Charles " Pete " Conrad and rookie Alan L. Bean made a precision landing on Apollo 12 within walking distance of the Surveyor 3 unmanned lunar probe , which had landed in April 1967 on the Ocean of Storms . The Command Module Pilot was Gemini veteran Richard F. Gordon , Jr . Conrad and Bean carried the first lunar surface color television camera , but it was damaged when accidentally pointed into the Sun . They made two EVAs totaling 7 hours and 45 minutes . On one , they walked to the Surveyor , photographed it , and removed some parts which they returned to Earth .
The success of the first two landings allowed the remaining missions to be crewed with a single veteran as Commander , with two rookies . Apollo 13 launched Lovell , Jack Swigert , and Fred Haise in April 1970 , headed for the Fra Mauro formation . But two days out , a liquid oxygen tank exploded , disabling the Service Module and forcing the crew to use the LM as a " life boat " to return to Earth . Another NASA review board was convened to determine the cause , which turned out to be a combination of damage of the tank in the factory , and a subcontractor not making a tank component according to updated design specifications . Apollo was grounded again , for the remainder of 1970 while the oxygen tank was redesigned and an extra one was added .
The contracted batch of 15 Saturn Vs were enough for lunar landing missions through Apollo 20 . NASA publicized a preliminary list of eight more planned landing sites , with plans to increase the mass of the CSM and LM for the last five missions , along with the payload capacity of the Saturn V. These final missions would combine the I and J types in the 1967 list , allowing the CMP to operate a package of lunar orbital sensors and cameras while his companions were on the surface , and allowing them to stay on the Moon for over three days . These missions would also carry the Lunar Roving Vehicle ( LRV ) increasing the exploration area and allowing televised liftoff of the LM . Also , the Block II spacesuit was revised for the extended missions to allow greater flexibility and visibility for driving the LRV .
= = = = Mission cutbacks = = = =
About the time of the first landing in 1969 , it was decided to use an existing Saturn V to launch the Skylab orbital laboratory pre @-@ built on the ground , replacing the original plan to construct it in orbit from several Saturn IB launches ; this eliminated Apollo 20 . NASA 's yearly budget also began to shrink in light of the successful landing , and NASA also had to make funds available for the development of the upcoming Space Shuttle . By 1971 , the decision was made to also cancel missions 18 and 19 . The two unused Saturn Vs became museum exhibits at the John F. Kennedy Space Center on Merritt Island , Florida , George C. Marshall Space Center in Huntsville , Alabama , Michoud Assembly Facility in New Orleans , Louisiana , and Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center in Houston , Texas .
The cutbacks forced mission planners to reassess the original planned landing sites in order to achieve the most effective geological sample and data collection from the remaining four missions . Apollo 15 had been planned to be the last of the H series missions , but since there would be only two subsequent missions left , it was changed to the first of three J missions .
Apollo 13 's Fra Mauro mission was reassigned to Apollo 14 , commanded in February 1971 by Mercury veteran Alan Shepard , with Stuart Roosa and Edgar Mitchell . This time the mission was successful . Shepard and Mitchell spent 33 hours and 31 minutes on the surface , and completed two EVAs totalling 9 hours 24 minutes , which was a record for the longest EVA by a lunar crew at the time .
In August 1971 , just after conclusion of the Apollo 15 mission , President Richard Nixon proposed canceling the two remaining lunar landing missions , Apollo 16 and 17 . Office of Management and Budget Deputy Director Caspar Weinberger was opposed to this , and persuaded Nixon to keep the remaining missions .
= = = = Extended missions = = = =
Apollo 15 was launched on July 26 , 1971 , with David Scott , Alfred Worden and James Irwin . Scott and Irwin landed on July 30 near Hadley Rille , and spent just under 2 days , 19 hours on the surface . In over 18 hours of EVA , they collected about 77 kilograms ( 170 lb ) of lunar material .
Apollo 16 landed in the Descartes Highlands on April 20 , 1972 . The crew was commanded by John Young , with Ken Mattingly and Charles Duke . Young and Duke spent just under 3 days on the surface , with a total of over 20 hours EVA .
Apollo 17 was the last of the Apollo program , landing in the Taurus @-@ Littrow region in December 1972 . Eugene Cernan commanded Ronald E. Evans and NASA 's first scientist @-@ astronaut , geologist Dr. Harrison H. Schmitt . Schmitt was originally scheduled for Apollo 18 , but the lunar geological community lobbied for his inclusion on the final lunar landing . Cernan and Schmitt stayed on the surface for just over 3 days and spent just over 23 hours of total EVA .
= = Mission summary = =
Source : Apollo by the Numbers : A Statistical Reference ( Orloff 2004 ) .
= = Samples returned = =
The Apollo program returned over 838 pounds ( 380 kg ) of lunar rocks and soil to the Lunar Receiving Laboratory in Houston . Today , 75 % of the samples are stored at the Lunar Sample Laboratory Facility built in 1979 .
The rocks collected from the Moon are extremely old compared to rocks found on Earth , as measured by radiometric dating techniques . They range in age from about 3 @.@ 2 billion years for the basaltic samples derived from the lunar maria , to about 4 @.@ 6 billion years for samples derived from the highlands crust . As such , they represent samples from a very early period in the development of the Solar System , that are largely absent on Earth . One important rock found during the Apollo Program is dubbed the Genesis Rock , retrieved by astronauts David Scott and James Irwin during the Apollo 15 mission . This anorthosite rock is composed almost exclusively of the calcium @-@ rich feldspar mineral anorthite , and is believed to be representative of the highland crust . A geochemical component called KREEP was discovered by Apollo 12 , which has no known terrestrial counterpart . KREEP and the anorthositic samples have been used to infer that the outer portion of the Moon was once completely molten ( see lunar magma ocean ) .
Almost all the rocks show evidence of impact process effects . Many samples appear to be pitted with micrometeoroid impact craters , which is never seen on Earth rocks , due to the thick atmosphere . Many show signs of being subjected to high pressure shock waves that are generated during impact events . Some of the returned samples are of impact melt ( materials melted near an impact crater . ) All samples returned from the Moon are highly brecciated as a result of being subjected to multiple impact events .
Analysis of composition of the lunar samples supports the giant impact hypothesis , that the Moon was created through impact of a large astronomical body with the Earth .
= = Costs = =
When President Kennedy first chartered the Moon landing program , a preliminary cost estimate of $ 7 billion was generated , but this proved an extremely unrealistic guess of what could not possibly be determined precisely , and James Webb used his judgment as administrator to change the estimate to $ 20 billion before giving it to Vice President Johnson .
When Kennedy made his 1962 speech at Rice University , the annual space budget was $ 5 @.@ 4 billion , and he described this cost as 40 cents per person per week , " somewhat less than we pay for cigarettes and cigars every year " , but that the Moon program would soon raise this to " more than 50 cents a week for every man , woman and child in the United States " .
Webb 's estimate shocked many at the time ( including the President ) but ultimately proved to be reasonably accurate . In January 1969 , NASA prepared an itemized estimate of the run @-@ out cost of the Apollo program . The total came to $ 23 @.@ 9 billion , itemized as follows :
Apollo spacecraft : $ 7 @,@ 945 @.@ 0 million
Saturn I launch vehicles : $ 767 @.@ 1 million
Saturn IB launch vehicles : $ 1 @,@ 131 @.@ 2 million
Saturn V launch vehicles : $ 6 @,@ 871 @.@ 1 million
Launch vehicle engine development : $ 854 @.@ 2 million
Mission support : $ 1 @,@ 432 @.@ 3 million
Tracking and data acquisition : $ 664 @.@ 1 million
Ground facilities : $ 1 @,@ 830 @.@ 3 million
Operation of installations : $ 2 @,@ 420 @.@ 6 million
The final cost of Apollo was reported to Congress as $ 25 @.@ 4 billion in 1973 . It took up the majority of NASA 's budget while it was being developed . For example , in 1966 it accounted for about 60 percent of NASA 's total $ 5 @.@ 2 billion budget . A single Saturn V launch in 1969 cost up to $ 375 million , compared to the National Science Foundation 's fiscal year 1970 budget of $ 440 million .
In 2009 , NASA held a symposium on project costs which presented an estimate of the Apollo program costs in 2005 dollars as roughly $ 170 billion . This included all research and development costs ; the procurement of 15 Saturn V rockets , 16 Command / Service Modules , 12 Lunar Modules , plus program support and management costs ; construction expenses for facilities and their upgrading , and costs for flight operations . This was based on a Congressional Budget Office report , A Budgetary Analysis of NASA 's New Vision for Space , September 2004 . The Space Review estimated in 2010 the cost of Apollo from 1959 to 1973 as $ 20 @.@ 4 billion , or $ 109 billion in 2010 dollars .
= = Apollo Applications Program = =
Looking beyond the manned lunar landings , NASA investigated several post @-@ lunar applications for Apollo hardware . The Apollo Extension Series ( Apollo X , ) proposed up to 30 flights to Earth orbit , using the space in the Spacecraft Lunar Module Adapter ( SLA ) to house a small orbital laboratory ( workshop ) . Astronauts would continue to use the CSM as a ferry to the station . This study was followed by design of a larger orbital workshop to be built in orbit from an empty S @-@ IVB Saturn upper stage , and grew into the Apollo Applications Program ( AAP ) . The workshop was to be supplemented by the Apollo Telescope Mount , which could be attached to the ascent stage of the lunar module via a rack . The most ambitious plan called for using an empty S @-@ IVB as an interplanetary spacecraft for a Venus fly @-@ by mission .
The S @-@ IVB orbital workshop was the only one of these plans to make it off the drawing board . Dubbed Skylab , it was constructed complete on the ground rather than in space , and launched in 1973 using the two lower stages of a Saturn V. It was equipped with an Apollo Telescope Mount . Skylab 's last crew departed the station on February 8 , 1974 , and the station itself re @-@ entered the atmosphere in 1979 .
The Apollo @-@ Soyuz Test Project also used Apollo hardware for the first joint nation space flight , paving the way for future cooperation with other nations in the Space Shuttle and International Space Station programs .
= = Recent observations = =
In September 2007 , the X PRIZE Foundation and Google announced the Google Lunar X Prize , to be awarded for a robotic lunar landing mission which transmits close @-@ up images of the Apollo Lunar Modules and other artificial objects on the surface .
In 2008 , Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency 's SELENE probe observed evidence of the halo surrounding the Apollo 15 Lunar Module blast crater while orbiting above the lunar surface . In 2009 , NASA 's robotic Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter , while orbiting 50 kilometers ( 31 mi ) above the Moon , began photographing the remnants of the Apollo program left on the lunar surface , and photographed each site where manned Apollo flights landed . All of the U. S. flags left on the Moon during the Apollo missions were found to still be standing , with the exception of the one left during the Apollo 11 mission , which was blown over during that mission 's lift @-@ off from the lunar surface and return to the mission Command Module in lunar orbit ; the degree to which these flags retain their original colors remains unknown .
In a November 16 , 2009 editorial , The New York Times opined :
[ T ] here 's something terribly wistful about these photographs of the Apollo landing sites . The detail is such that if Neil Armstrong were walking there now , we could make him out , make out his footsteps even , like the astronaut footpath clearly visible in the photos of the Apollo 14 site . Perhaps the wistfulness is caused by the sense of simple grandeur in those Apollo missions . Perhaps , too , it ’ s a reminder of the risk we all felt after the Eagle had landed – the possibility that it might be unable to lift off again and the astronauts would be stranded on the Moon . But it may also be that a photograph like this one is as close as we ’ re able to come to looking directly back into the human past ...
There the [ Apollo 11 ] lunar module sits , parked just where it landed 40 years ago , as if it still really were 40 years ago and all the time since merely imaginary .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Science and engineering = = =
The Apollo program has been called the greatest technological achievement in human history . Apollo stimulated many areas of technology , leading to over 1 @,@ 800 spinoff products as of 2015 . The flight computer design used in both the Lunar and Command Modules was , along with the Polaris and Minuteman missile systems , the driving force behind early research into integrated circuits ( IC ) . By 1963 , Apollo was using 60 percent of the United States ' production of ICs . The crucial difference between the requirements of Apollo and the missile programs was Apollo 's much greater need for reliability . While the Navy and Air Force could work around reliability problems by deploying more missiles , the political and financial cost of failure of an Apollo mission was unacceptably high .
= = = Cultural impact = = =
The crew of Apollo 8 sent the first live televised pictures of the Earth and the Moon back to Earth , and read from the creation story in the Book of Genesis , on Christmas Eve , 1968 . An estimated one @-@ quarter of the population of the world saw — either live or delayed — the Christmas Eve transmission during
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@,@ 500 troops he was to command in Wayne 's operation . When he joined Wayne at Fort Jefferson on October 21 , 1793 , he had only been able to raise 1 @,@ 000 men .
On November 4 , Wayne ordered Scott 's militiamen to destroy a nearby Delaware village . Still resentful and distrustful of federal officers and aware that Wayne would not launch a major offensive so close to winter , the men were not enthusiastic about the mission , which many of them considered trivial . That night , 501 of them deserted their camp , though Wayne noted in his report that he believed Scott and his officers had done all they could do to prevent the desertions . Scott attempted to continue the mission with his remaining men , but inclement weather prevented him from conducting a major offensive . Ultimately , the men were only able to disperse a small hunting camp before continuing on to Fort Washington and mustering out on November 10 . Wayne ordered Scott to return with a full quota of troops after the winter .
Tensions cooled between Wayne and the Kentuckians over the winter of 1793 – 94 . Wayne noticed that , despite their obstinance , the Kentucky volunteers appeared to be good soldiers . The militiamen , after observing Wayne , concluded that he – unlike Harmar and St. Clair – knew how to combat the Indians . Wayne augmented his popularity in Kentucky by building Fort Recovery over the winter on the site of St. Clair 's defeat . The Indians ' victory over St. Clair had become a part of their lore and inspired them to continue the fight against the western settlers ; Wayne 's construction of a fort on this site was a blow to the Indian psyche , and his re @-@ burial of some 600 skulls that the Indians had dug up and scattered across the area was popular with Kentuckians , since many of their own were among the dead . While Scott came to respect Wayne personally , his friend , James Wilkinson , began an anonymous campaign to tarnish Wayne 's image , coveting command of the Northwest expedition for himself . Scott , on leave in Philadelphia at the time , wrote to Secretary of War Henry Knox to defend Wayne 's reputation , breaching his friendship with Wilkinson .
Scott returned to Kentucky from Philadelphia in June 1794 , mustered 1 @,@ 500 militiamen , and joined Wayne at Fort Greeneville on July 27 . He and Thomas Barbee led this force in support of Wayne 's 1 @,@ 000 regular troops . The combined force marched quickly and captured the recently evacuated Indian town of Grand Glaize on August 8 . Here , Wayne ordered the construction of Fort Defiance , which took approximately a week . Scott was responsible for the naming of the fort ; while observing its construction , he declared , " I defy the English , Indians , and all the devils in hell to take it . " Based upon intelligence provided by Scott 's mounted volunteers , Wayne ordered his force to march toward Fort Miami on August 14 , anticipating a battle with a combined British and Indian force of 2 @,@ 400 there . About 8 : 45 a.m. on August 20 , Major William Price 's brigade of volunteers engaged the Indian force near Fort Miami , beginning the Battle of Fallen Timbers . The well @-@ positioned Indian force turned back Price 's men , but Wayne ordered his regulars to conduct a vigorous bayonet charge , which routed the Indians . Major William Campbell , the British commander of Fort Miami , refused to open the fort to his Indian allies , and Wayne 's force won a decisive victory .
Following the battle , Wayne ordered Scott 's volunteers to conduct numerous raids within a fifty @-@ mile radius of their position . Due to a lack of pack horses in Wayne 's force , the mounted volunteers were also employed transporting supplies between forts throughout September 1794 . They eventually grew weary of garrison duty and complained that the use of their personal horses to transport goods had injured the animals . Many threatened to mutiny if not discharged . On October 13 , 1794 , Wayne finally ordered them home . In a commendation of Wayne issued on December 4 , 1794 , the U.S. House of Representatives specifically thanked Scott and his men for their service at the Battle of Fallen Timbers . The Treaty of Greenville formally ended the war in mid @-@ 1795 .
= = Later political career = =
In 1795 , Scott traveled to Philadelphia to help clarify service records that would determine the final pay of the men who served under him before returning to his farm in Kentucky . He continued to serve , nominally , as major general of the 2nd militia division of the state militia until 1799 . Celebrations of Scott 's military heroism were held all over Kentucky , sparking his interest in a political career . With the advent of the First Party System , he declared himself a Democratic @-@ Republican , as did most Kentuckians . In 1800 , he was chosen as a presidential elector for his district by a vote of 75 to 44 over Caleb Wallace . Scott and his fellow electors all cast their votes for the ticket of Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr .
In 1803 , Secretary of War Henry Dearborn appointed Scott and Governor James Garrard to evaluate sites in Kentucky on which to construct a replacement for Fort Washington . Garrard , a central Kentucky native , insisted that the fort should be built at Frankfort . Scott disagreed , contending that the fort should not be in the state 's interior and that the hilly terrain around Frankfort was unsuitable for constructing a fort . He waited several days for an appointment with Garrard to try and reach an agreement , but when he was unable to secure one , he asked Dearborn for permission to act alone . Dearborn granted the request and accepted Scott 's recommendation of a site in Newport , Kentucky . In 1804 , Scott was again chosen a presidential elector with minimal opposition .
Tragedy marred Scott 's political rise , however . In 1797 , his son Daniel , who had settled in Virginia , died . In late 1799 or early 1800 , his last son , Charles , Jr . , also died . His daughter Martha married future U.S. Senator George M. Bibb in 1799 and moved to Daviess County . Daughter Mary had married and left the farm prior to Scott 's return from military service , and youngest daughter Nancy left the farm near the turn of the 19th century , although she never married . After the death of his wife on October 6 , 1804 , he moved in with his daughter and son @-@ in @-@ law , John and Mary Postlethwait , in Lexington . He sold his farm in Woodford County in October 1805 .
As tensions between the U.S. and Great Britain escalated in the wake of the June 22 , 1806 , Chesapeake – Leopard Affair , Scott applied to Governor Christopher Greenup to raise a mounted militia unit in anticipation of an outbreak of hostilities . Although Greenup granted the requested authorization , Scott remarried on July 25 , 1807 , and never assembled the militia unit . His second wife , Judith Cary ( Bell ) Gist , was the 57 @-@ year @-@ old widow of Colonel Nathaniel Gist , who had been a prisoner of war with Scott during the Revolutionary War . After their marriage , they moved to Canewood , Gist 's family 's plantation in Bourbon and Clark counties .
= = = Gubernatorial election of 1808 = = =
As the celebrations in honor of Scott 's military career continued across Kentucky , he began to consider the possibility of running for governor in 1808 . By mid @-@ 1806 , state senator Thomas Posey and Lexington lawyer Thomas Todd had already declared their candidacies . Posey had been chosen speaker pro tem of the state Senate and , with the death of Lieutenant Governor John Caldwell in 1804 , had assumed the role of acting lieutenant governor and presiding officer in the Senate . He subsequently lost his senatorial re @-@ election bid , but continued to act as lieutenant governor and preside over the Senate . His opponents claimed that since he was no longer a member of the Senate , he was not qualified to act as lieutenant governor ; additionally , they charged that he was sympathetic to the hated Federalist Party , even though he self @-@ identified as a Democratic @-@ Republican . Although he was not successfully unseated as the Senate 's presiding officer , the controversy diminished his chances in the 1808 election . In 1807 , Todd removed himself from contention as well , accepting Governor Greenup 's appointment to the Kentucky Court of Appeals .
Posey 's diminished candidacy and Todd 's exit from the race left only one major impediment to Scott 's potential candidacy . A movement began in Kentucky to draft former Governor Isaac Shelby as a candidate for another term . Known as " Old King 's Mountain " for his heroic role in the Revolutionary War Battle of King 's Mountain , Shelby could match Scott 's military appeal , and as a former delegate to Kentucky 's statehood and constitutional conventions and a former governor , his political experience far exceeded Scott 's . Ultimately , however , Shelby declined to run , and Scott officially declared his candidacy on February 11 , 1808 . John Allen had by then declared his candidacy and Green Clay 's announcement followed Scott 's by about a month . Scott 's campaign was managed by his stepson @-@ in @-@ law , Jesse Bledsoe , a law professor at Transylvania University . Bledsoe was among the most able politicians in the state , though he preferred the role of " kingmaker " to that of candidate .
Allen and Clay , both lawyers by profession , were hurt by a general distrust of lawyers by the Kentucky electorate . Further , Allen had served as general counsel for Aaron Burr , and several anonymous letters to the state 's newspapers accused him of being privy to Burr 's alleged scheme to create an independent state in the southwest . Henry Clay was among those who vigorously defended Allen from the charges . Scott also frequently spoke in highly complimentary terms of Allen . As a legislator , Green Clay pushed for measures favorable to debtors ; he consequently enjoyed strong support from settlers south of the Green River , many of whom were squatters and land speculators who owed substantial debts to the state . To counter Scott 's hero image , Clay supporters pointed to his service with George Rogers Clark in a 1782 expedition against the Shawnee , but the impact of this line of campaigning was minimal . As the most senior Revolutionary War officer in Kentucky , Scott became the recognized leader of the state 's veterans ' lobby . The Independence Day celebrations held around the state just before the August 1 election provided a boost for his campaign . On election day , he garnered 22 @,@ 050 votes , compared to 8 @,@ 430 votes for Allen and 5 @,@ 516 votes for Clay .
= = = Governorship = = =
Among Scott 's first acts as governor was appointing Jesse Bledsoe as Secretary of State . Bledsoe delivered Scott 's first address to the legislature on December 13 , 1808 . Later that winter , Scott was injured when he slipped on the icy steps of the governor 's mansion ; the injury left him confined to crutches for the rest of his life and rendered him even more dependent on Bledsoe to perform many of his official functions . His physical condition continued to worsen throughout his term as governor .
In domestic matters , Scott advocated increased salaries for public officials , economic development measures , and heavy punishments for persistent criminals . While he desired a tax code that would preclude the need for the state to borrow money , he encouraged legislators to keep taxes as low as possible . He also urged them to convert the militia into a youth army . The General Assembly routinely ignored his calls for reform but did pass a measure he advocated that allowed debtors a one @-@ year stay on collection of their debts if they provided both bond and security .
Scott frequently clashed with the legislature , including once when the Senate refused to confirm the appointment of Dr. Walter Brashear as lieutenant colonel commandant of the state militia 's second regiment . The governor refused to nominate anyone else for the position , saying that Brashear was the best person for it , and he assumed the senators would not want to be sent a worse nomination . He employed his gubernatorial veto three times over the course of his tenure , but all three were overridden by the legislature . Measures creating Harrison County and allowing squatters to purchase occupied land on more favorable terms were both vetoed because Scott felt that they had been passed too hastily to allow proper debate . Scott also vetoed the revocation of a pension granted to recently retired Kentucky Court of Appeals justice George Muter , because he felt it undermined citizens ' confidence in the promises of their government .
Throughout his term , Scott was dogged by rumors of heavy drinking and frequent use of profanity . On one occasion , an unnamed individual believed his reputation had been injured by something Scott had said and challenged him to a duel . He ignored the challenge , after which the challenger threatened to expose him as a coward . Scott was supposed to have replied , " Post and be damned ; but if you do , you will only post yourself a damned liar , and everybody else will say so . " On another occasion , after reviewing a speech written for him by Bledsoe , the governor was said to have remarked , " Well , Mr. Bledsoe , I know you think you are a damned sight smarter than I am , and so you are in many respects ; but this message as it is now , won 't do at all ; I 'll be damned if it will . " When Bledsoe asked what was wrong with the speech , he reportedly replied , " Why , damn it to hell , why don 't you put a good solemn prayer at the end of it , and talk about Providence , and the protection of Heaven , and all that ? " After the governor campaigned for Humphrey Marshall 's opponent in the 1809 legislative elections , Marshall published an article in the Western World newspaper that accused him of appearing in front of the court house drunk on election day .
For most of Scott 's tenure as governor , tensions between the U.S. and Great Britain escalated . Sentiment in favor of a U.S. declaration of war against the British was particularly strong in Kentucky . Most Kentuckians resented the replacement of the Embargo Act of 1807 with the weaker Non @-@ Intercourse Act of 1809 and Macon 's Bill Number 2 . Kentucky Senator Henry Clay became the acknowledged leader of the war hawks in Congress . During an address to the General Assembly on December 4 , 1810 , Scott expressed little hope of peacefully resolving U.S. grievances against Great Britain . He reminded the General Assembly , however , that France had also violated the United States ' maritime rights and urged equal treatment of the two countries for their offenses .
In September 1811 , William Henry Harrison , then governor of Indiana Territory , visited Kentucky and directed Colonel Samuel Wells to recruit Kentuckians for a new federal regiment then being formed by the authority of Secretary of War William Eustis . Harrison had not applied to Scott for permission to recruit in the state , and many Kentuckians – from Scott 's political enemy , Humphrey Marshall , to his trusted advisor , Jesse Bledsoe – perceived this as a slight to the governor . Ignoring Bledsoe 's indignation , Scott refused to make an issue of the faux pas and instead became one of the staunchest supporters of Harrison 's rising career .
In November 1811 , a messenger brought news to Kentucky of former Kentucky Attorney General Joseph Hamilton Daveiss 's death at the Battle of Tippecanoe , amplifying Kentuckians ' outcry for war with the British and Indians . In anticipation of a federal call for volunteers , Scott published messages in the state 's newspapers in February and April 1812 whipping up support for the impending war effort . By the end of July , the state 's quota of 5 @,@ 500 volunteers had been met . On August 14 , 1812 , Scott greeted two regiments of soldiers at the governor 's mansion just prior to their muster at Georgetown . He hobbled among the soldiers with his crutch , then turned and hammered it against the mansion 's steps and was heard to mutter " If it hadn 't been for you , I could have gone with the boys myself . "
On August 25 , 1812 , Scott 's last day in office , he appointed Harrison brevet major general over the Kentucky militia . The appointment was made on advice from incoming Governor Isaac Shelby and Henry Clay . The brevet ensured that Harrison , and not James Winchester – who was unpopular in Kentucky and with his own troops – would lead the state 's military forces in the war . Biographer Harry M. Ward noted that Harrison 's commission was unconstitutional both because he was not a citizen of the state and because the state militia 's allotment of major generals had already been filled . Kentucky historian Lowell H. Harrison concurred that the commission was " probably illegal " , but further noted that it was " acclaimed across the state " . The show of confidence from Scott and his aides influenced President James Madison to appoint Harrison as supreme commander of the Army of the Northwest .
= = = Death and legacy = = =
Following his term as governor , Scott retired to his Canewood estate with his wife and youngest step @-@ daughter , Mary Cecil Gist . Two of his stepdaughters had married during his term as governor . Anna Maria Gist married Captain Nathaniel G. S. Hart in 1809 ; Hart was killed in the River Raisin Massacre in January 1813 . Eliza Violet Gist married Francis Preston Blair on July 21 , 1812 , just prior to the expiration of Scott 's term as governor . The governor opined that Blair , who was slightly built , stoop @-@ shouldered , and suffering from tuberculosis , would leave Eliza a widow within six months . Blair , however , survived the tuberculosis and went on to become a trusted advisor to President Andrew Jackson . He outlived Scott 's prediction for him by more than sixty years .
By mid @-@ 1813 , Scott 's health had begun to fail rapidly . He died on October 22 , 1813 , and was buried on the grounds of Canewood . At the time of his death , he was one of the last surviving generals of the Revolutionary War . His remains were re @-@ interred at Frankfort Cemetery in 1854 . Scott County , Kentucky , and Scott County , Indiana , are named in his honor , as are the cities of Scottsville , Kentucky , and Scottsville , Virginia .
= Buckingham Palace =
Buckingham Palace ( UK / ˈbʌkɪŋəm / / ˈpælɪs / ) is the London residence and administrative headquarters of the reigning monarch of the United Kingdom . Located in the City of Westminster , the palace is often at the centre of state occasions and royal hospitality . It has been a focal point for the British people at times of national rejoicing and mourning .
Originally known as Buckingham House , the building at the core of today 's palace was a large townhouse built for the Duke of Buckingham in 1703 on a site that had been in private ownership for at least 150 years . It was acquired by King George III in 1761 as a private residence for Queen Charlotte and became known as " The Queen 's House " . During the 19th century it was enlarged , principally by architects John Nash and Edward Blore , who constructed three wings around a central courtyard . Buckingham Palace became the London residence of the British monarch on the accession of Queen Victoria in 1837 .
The last major structural additions were made in the late 19th and early 20th centuries , including the East front , which contains the well @-@ known balcony on which the royal family traditionally congregates to greet crowds . The palace chapel was destroyed by a German bomb during World War II ; the Queen 's Gallery was built on the site and opened to the public in 1962 to exhibit works of art from the Royal Collection .
The original early 19th @-@ century interior designs , many of which survive , include widespread use of brightly coloured scagliola and blue and pink lapis , on the advice of Sir Charles Long . King Edward VII oversaw a partial redecoration in a Belle Époque cream and gold colour scheme . Many smaller reception rooms are furnished in the Chinese regency style with furniture and fittings brought from the Royal Pavilion at Brighton and from Carlton House . The palace has 775 rooms , and the garden is the largest private garden in London . The state rooms , used for official and state entertaining , are open to the public each year for most of August and September , and on selected days in winter and spring .
= = History = =
= = = Site = = =
In the Middle Ages , the site of the future palace formed part of the Manor of Ebury ( also called Eia ) . The marshy ground was watered by the river Tyburn , which still flows below the courtyard and south wing of the palace . Where the river was fordable ( at Cow Ford ) , the village of Eye Cross grew . Ownership of the site changed hands many times ; owners included Edward the Confessor and his queen consort Edith of Wessex in late Saxon times , and , after the Norman Conquest , William the Conqueror . William gave the site to Geoffrey de Mandeville , who bequeathed it to the monks of Westminster Abbey .
In 1531 , King Henry VIII acquired the Hospital of St James ( later St James 's Palace ) from Eton College , and in 1536 he took the Manor of Ebury from Westminster Abbey . These transfers brought the site of Buckingham Palace back into royal hands for the first time since William the Conqueror had given it away almost 500 years earlier .
Various owners leased it from royal landlords and the freehold was the subject of frenzied speculation during the 17th century . By then , the old village of Eye Cross had long since fallen into decay , and the area was mostly wasteland . Needing money , James I sold off part of the Crown freehold but retained part of the site on which he established a 4 @-@ acre ( 16 @,@ 000 m2 ) mulberry garden for the production of silk . ( This is at the northwest corner of today 's palace . ) Clement Walker in Anarchia Anglicana ( 1649 ) refers to " new @-@ erected sodoms and spintries at the Mulberry Garden at S. James 's " ; this suggests it may have been a place of debauchery . Eventually , in the late 17th century , the freehold was inherited from the property tycoon Sir Hugh Audley by the great heiress Mary Davies .
= = = First houses on the site = = =
= = = = Goring House = = = =
Possibly the first house erected within the site was that of a Sir William Blake , around 1624 . The next owner was Lord Goring , who from 1633 extended Blake 's house and developed much of today 's garden , then known as Goring Great Garden . He did not , however , obtain the freehold interest in the mulberry garden . Unbeknown to Goring , in 1640 the document " failed to pass the Great Seal before King Charles I fled London , which it needed to do for legal execution " . It was this critical omission that helped the British royal family regain the freehold under King George III .
= = = = Arlington House = = = =
The improvident Goring defaulted on his rents ; Henry Bennet , 1st Earl of Arlington obtained the mansion and was occupying it , now known as Goring House , when it burned down in 1674 . Arlington House rose on the site — the southern wing of today 's palace — the next year . In 1698 , John Sheffield , later the first Duke of Buckingham and Normanby , acquired the lease .
= = = = Buckingham House = = = =
The house which forms the architectural core of the palace was built for the first Duke of Buckingham and Normanby in 1703 to the design of William Winde . The style chosen was of a large , three @-@ floored central block with two smaller flanking service wings . Buckingham House was eventually sold by Buckingham 's descendant , Sir Charles Sheffield , in 1761 to George III for £ 21 @,@ 000 . Sheffield 's leasehold on the mulberry garden site , the freehold of which was still owned by the royal family , was due to expire in 1774 .
= = = From Queen 's House to palace = = =
Under the new crown ownership , the building was originally intended as a private retreat for King George III 's wife , Queen Charlotte , and was accordingly known as The Queen 's House — 14 of their 15 children were born there . St James 's Palace , however , remained the official and ceremonial royal residence .
Remodelling of the structure began in 1762 . After his accession to the throne in 1820 , King George IV continued the renovation with the idea in mind of a small , comfortable home . While the work was in progress , in 1826 , the King decided to modify the house into a palace with the help of his architect John Nash . Some furnishings were transferred from Carlton House , and others had been bought in France after the French Revolution . The external façade was designed keeping in mind the French neo @-@ classical influence preferred by George IV . The cost of the renovations grew dramatically , and by 1829 the extravagance of Nash 's designs resulted in his removal as architect . On the death of George IV in 1830 , his younger brother King William IV hired Edward Blore to finish the work . At one stage , William considered converting the palace into the new Houses of Parliament , after the destruction of the Palace of Westminster by fire in 1834 .
= = Home of the monarch = =
Buckingham Palace finally became the principal royal residence in 1837 , on the accession of Queen Victoria , who was the first monarch to reside there ; her predecessor William IV had died before its completion . While the state rooms were a riot of gilt and colour , the necessities of the new palace were somewhat less luxurious . For one thing , it was reported the chimneys smoked so much that the fires had to be allowed to die down , and consequently the court shivered in icy magnificence . Ventilation was so bad that the interior smelled , and when a decision was taken to install gas lamps , there was a serious worry about the build @-@ up of gas on the lower floors . It was also said that staff were lax and lazy and the palace was dirty . Following the queen 's marriage in 1840 , her husband , Prince Albert , concerned himself with a reorganisation of the household offices and staff , and with the design faults of the palace . The problems were all rectified by the close of 1840 . However , the builders were to return within the decade .
By 1847 , the couple had found the palace too small for court life and their growing family , and consequently the new wing , designed by Edward Blore , was built by Thomas Cubitt , enclosing the central quadrangle . The large East Front , facing The Mall , is today the " public face " of Buckingham Palace , and contains the balcony from which the royal family acknowledge the crowds on momentous occasions and after the annual Trooping the Colour . The ballroom wing and a further suite of state rooms were also built in this period , designed by Nash 's student Sir James Pennethorne .
Before Prince Albert 's death , the palace was frequently the scene of musical entertainments , and the greatest contemporary musicians entertained at Buckingham Palace . The composer Felix Mendelssohn is known to have played there on three occasions . Johann Strauss II and his orchestra played there when in England . Strauss 's " Alice Polka " was first performed at the palace in 1849 in honour of the queen 's daughter , Princess Alice . Under Victoria , Buckingham Palace was frequently the scene of lavish costume balls , in addition to the usual royal ceremonies , investitures and presentations .
Widowed in 1861 , the grief @-@ stricken Queen withdrew from public life and left Buckingham Palace to live at Windsor Castle , Balmoral Castle and Osborne House . For many years the palace was seldom used , even neglected . In 1864 , a note was found pinned to the fence of Buckingham Palace , saying : " These commanding premises to be let or sold , in consequence of the late occupant 's declining business . " Eventually , public opinion forced the Queen to return to London , though even then she preferred to live elsewhere whenever possible . Court functions were still held at Windsor Castle , presided over by the sombre Queen habitually dressed in mourning black , while Buckingham Palace remained shuttered for most of the year .
= = = Interior = = =
The palace measures 108 metres ( 354 ft ) by 120 metres ( 390 ft ) , is 24 metres ( 79 ft ) high and contains over 77 @,@ 000 m2 ( 830 @,@ 000 sq ft ) of floorspace . The floor area is smaller than the Royal Palace of Madrid , the Papal Palace in Rome , the Louvre in Paris , the Hofburg Palace in Vienna , or the Forbidden City . There are 775 rooms , including 19 state rooms , 52 principal bedrooms , 188 staff bedrooms , 92 offices , and 78 bathrooms . The palace also has its own post office , cinema , swimming pool , doctor 's surgery , and jeweller 's workshop .
The principal rooms are contained on the piano nobile behind the west @-@ facing garden façade at the rear of the palace . The centre of this ornate suite of state rooms is the Music Room , its large bow the dominant feature of the façade . Flanking the Music Room are the Blue and the White Drawing Rooms . At the centre of the suite , serving as a corridor to link the state rooms , is the Picture Gallery , which is top @-@ lit and 55 yards ( 50 m ) long . The Gallery is hung with numerous works including some by Rembrandt , van Dyck , Rubens and Vermeer ; other rooms leading from the Picture Gallery are the Throne Room and the Green Drawing Room . The Green Drawing Room serves as a huge anteroom to the Throne Room , and is part of the ceremonial route to the throne from the Guard Room at the top of the Grand Staircase . The Guard Room contains white marble statues of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert , in Roman costume , set in a tribune lined with tapestries . These very formal rooms are used only for ceremonial and official entertaining , but are open to the public every summer .
Directly underneath the State Apartments is a suite of slightly less grand rooms known as the semi @-@ state apartments . Opening from the Marble Hall , these rooms are used for less formal entertaining , such as luncheon parties and private audiences . Some of the rooms are named and decorated for particular visitors , such as the 1844 Room , decorated in that year for the State visit of Tsar Nicholas I of Russia , and , on the other side of the Bow Room , the 1855 Room , in honour of the visit of Emperor Napoleon III of France . At the centre of this suite is the Bow Room , through which thousands of guests pass annually to the Queen 's Garden Parties in the Gardens . The Queen and Prince Philip use a smaller suite of rooms in the north wing .
Between 1847 and 1850 , when Blore was building the new east wing , the Brighton Pavilion was once again plundered of its fittings . As a result , many of the rooms in the new wing have a distinctly oriental atmosphere . The red and blue Chinese Luncheon Room is made up from parts of the Brighton Banqueting and Music Rooms with a large oriental chimney piece sculpted by Richard Westmacott . The Yellow Drawing Room has wallpaper supplied in 1817 for the Brighton Saloon , and a chimney piece which is a European vision of how the Chinese chimney piece may appear . It has nodding mandarins in niches and fearsome winged dragons , designed by Robert Jones .
At the centre of this wing is the famous balcony with the Centre Room behind its glass doors . This is a Chinese @-@ style saloon enhanced by Queen Mary , who , working with the designer Sir Charles Allom , created a more " binding " Chinese theme in the late 1920s , although the lacquer doors were brought from Brighton in 1873 . Running the length of the piano nobile of the east wing is the great gallery , modestly known as the Principal Corridor , which runs the length of the eastern side of the quadrangle . It has mirrored doors , and mirrored cross walls reflecting porcelain pagodas and other oriental furniture from Brighton . The Chinese Luncheon Room and Yellow Drawing Room are situated at each end of this gallery , with the Centre Room obviously placed in the centre .
The original early 19th @-@ century interior designs , many of which still survive , included widespread use of brightly coloured scagliola and blue and pink lapis , on the advice of Sir Charles Long . King Edward VII oversaw a partial redecoration in a Belle époque cream and gold colour scheme .
When paying a state visit to Britain , foreign heads of state are usually entertained by the Queen at Buckingham Palace . They are allocated a large suite of rooms known as the Belgian Suite , situated at the foot of the Minister 's Staircase , on the ground floor of the north @-@ facing Garden Wing . The rooms of the suite are linked by narrow corridors , one of them is given extra height and perspective by saucer domes designed by Nash in the style of Soane . A second corridor in the suite has Gothic influenced cross over vaulting . The Belgian Rooms themselves were decorated in their present style and named after Prince Albert 's uncle Léopold I , first King of the Belgians . In 1936 , the suite briefly became the private apartments of the palace when they were occupied by King Edward VIII .
= = = Court ceremonies = = =
= = = = Court dress = = = =
Formerly , men not wearing military uniform wore knee breeches of an 18th @-@ century design . Women 's evening dress included obligatory trains and tiaras or feathers in their hair ( or both ) . The dress code governing formal court uniform and dress has progressively relaxed . After World War I , when Queen Mary wished to follow fashion by raising her skirts a few inches from the ground , she requested a lady @-@ in @-@ waiting to shorten her own skirt first to gauge the king 's reaction . King George V was horrified , so the queen kept her hemline unfashionably low . Following their accession in 1936 , King George VI and his consort , Queen Elizabeth , allowed the hemline of daytime skirts to rise . Today , there is no official dress code . Most men invited to Buckingham Palace in the daytime choose to wear service uniform or lounge suits ; a minority wear morning coats , and in the evening , depending on the formality of the occasion , black tie or white tie .
= = = = Presentation of débutantes = = = =
Court presentations of aristocratic young ladies to the monarch took place at the palace from the reign of Edward VII . These young women were known as débutantes , and the occasion — termed their " coming out " — represented their first entrée into society . Débutantes wore full court dress , with three tall ostrich feathers in their hair . They entered , curtsied , and performed a choreographed backwards walk and a further curtsy , while manoeuvring a dress train of prescribed length . ( The ceremony , known as an evening court , corresponded to the " court drawing rooms " of Victoria 's reign . ) After World War II , the ceremony was replaced by less formal afternoon receptions , usually without choreographed curtsies and court dress .
In 1958 , the Queen abolished the presentation parties for débutantes , replacing them with Garden Parties .
= = = = Investitures = = = =
Investitures , which include the conferring of knighthoods by dubbing with a sword , and other awards take place in the palace 's Ballroom , built in 1854 . At 36 @.@ 6 m ( 120 ft ) long , 18 m ( 59 ft ) wide and 13 @.@ 5 m ( 44 ft ) high , it is the largest room in the palace . It has replaced the throne room in importance and use . During investitures , the Queen stands on the throne dais beneath a giant , domed velvet canopy , known as a shamiana or a baldachin , that was used at the Delhi Durbar in 1911 . A military band plays in the musicians ' gallery as award recipients approach the Queen and receive their honours , watched by their families and friends .
= = = = State banquets = = = =
State banquets also take place in the Ballroom ; these formal dinners are held on the first evening of a state visit by a foreign head of state . On these occasions , for up to 170 guests in formal " white tie and decorations " , including tiaras , the dining table is laid with the Grand Service , a collection of silver @-@ gilt plate made in 1811 for the Prince of Wales , later George IV . The largest and most formal reception at Buckingham Palace takes place every November when the Queen entertains members of the diplomatic corps . On this grand occasion , all the state rooms are in use , as the royal family proceed through them , beginning at the great north doors of the Picture Gallery . As Nash had envisaged , all the large , double @-@ mirrored doors stand open , reflecting the numerous crystal chandeliers and sconces , creating a deliberate optical illusion of space and light .
= = = = Other ceremonies and functions = = = =
Smaller ceremonies such as the reception of new ambassadors take place in the " 1844 Room " . Here too , the Queen holds small lunch parties , and often meetings of the Privy Council . Larger lunch parties often take place in the curved and domed Music Room , or the State Dining Room . On all formal occasions , the ceremonies are attended by the Yeomen of the Guard in their historic uniforms , and other officers of the court such as the Lord Chamberlain .
Since the bombing of the palace chapel in World War II , royal christenings have sometimes taken place in the Music Room . The Queen 's first three children were all baptised there .
The largest functions of the year are the Queen 's Garden Parties for up to 8 @,@ 000 invitees in the Garden .
= = = = Security breaches = = = =
The boy Jones was an intruder who gained entry to the palace on three occasions between 1838 and 1841 as recorded by Charles Dickens some 40 years later . In 1982 , Michael Fagan broke into the palace twice but , contrary to media reports of the time , did not speak to the Queen . It was only in 2007 that trespassing on the palace grounds became a criminal offence .
= = = Garden , Royal Mews and The Mall = = =
At the rear of the palace is the large and park @-@ like garden , which together with its lake is the largest private garden in London . There , the Queen hosts her annual garden parties each summer , and also holds large functions to celebrate royal milestones , such as jubilees . It covers 40 acres ( 16 ha ) , and includes a helicopter landing area , a lake , and a tennis court .
Adjacent to the palace is the Royal Mews , also designed by Nash , where the royal carriages , including the Gold State Coach , are housed . This rococo gilt coach , designed by Sir William Chambers in 1760 , has painted panels by G. B. Cipriani . It was first used for the State Opening of Parliament by George III in 1762 and has been used by the monarch for every coronation since George IV . It was last used for the Golden Jubilee of Elizabeth II . Also housed in the mews are the coach horses used at royal ceremonial processions .
The Mall , a ceremonial approach route to the palace , was designed by Sir Aston Webb and completed in 1911 as part of a grand memorial to Queen Victoria . It extends from Admiralty Arch , across St James 's Park to the Victoria Memorial . This route is used by the cavalcades and motorcades of visiting heads of state , and by the royal family on state occasions such as the annual Trooping the Colour .
= = Modern history = =
In 1901 the accession of Edward VII saw new life breathed into the palace . The new King and his wife Queen Alexandra had always been at the forefront of London high society , and their friends , known as " the Marlborough House Set " , were considered to be the most eminent and fashionable of the age . Buckingham Palace — the Ballroom , Grand Entrance , Marble Hall , Grand Staircase , vestibules and galleries redecorated in the Belle époque cream and gold colour scheme they retain today — once again became a setting for entertaining on a majestic scale but leaving some to feel King Edward 's heavy redecorations were at odds with Nash 's original work .
The last major building work took place during the reign of King George V when , in 1913 , Sir Aston Webb redesigned Blore 's 1850 East Front to resemble in part Giacomo Leoni 's Lyme Park in Cheshire . This new , refaced principal façade ( of Portland stone ) was designed to be the backdrop to the Victoria Memorial , a large memorial statue of Queen Victoria , placed outside the main gates . George V , who had succeeded Edward VII in 1910 , had a more serious personality than his father ; greater emphasis was now placed on official entertaining and royal duties than on lavish parties . He arranged a series of command performances featuring jazz musicians such as the Original Dixieland Jazz Band ( 1919 ) – the first jazz performance for a head of state , Sidney Bechet , and Louis Armstrong ( 1932 ) , which earned the palace a nomination in 2009 for a ( Kind of ) Blue Plaque by the Brecon Jazz Festival as one of the venues making the greatest contribution to jazz music in the United Kingdom . George V 's wife Queen Mary was a connoisseur of the arts , and took a keen interest in the Royal Collection of furniture and art , both restoring and adding to it . Queen Mary also had many new fixtures and fittings installed , such as the pair of marble Empire @-@ style chimneypieces by Benjamin Vulliamy , dating from 1810 , which the Queen had installed in the ground floor Bow Room , the huge low room at the centre of the garden façade . Queen Mary was also responsible for the decoration of the Blue Drawing Room . This room , 69 feet ( 21 metres ) long , previously known as the South Drawing Room , has a ceiling designed specially by Nash , coffered with huge gilt console brackets .
During World War I , the palace , then the home of King George V and Queen Mary , escaped unscathed . Its more valuable contents were evacuated to Windsor but the royal family remained in situ . The King imposed rationing at the palace , much to the dismay of his guests and household . To the King 's later regret , David Lloyd George persuaded him to go further by ostentatiously locking the wine cellars and refraining from alcohol , to set a good example to the supposedly inebriated working class . The workers continued to imbibe and the King was left unhappy at his enforced abstinence . In 1938 , the north @-@ west pavilion , designed by Nash as a conservatory , was converted into a swimming pool .
During World War II , the palace was bombed nine times , the most serious and publicised of which resulted in the destruction of the palace chapel in 1940 . Coverage of this event was played in cinemas all over the UK to show the common suffering of rich and poor . One bomb fell in the palace quadrangle while King George VI and Queen Elizabeth were in residence , and many windows were blown in and the chapel destroyed . War @-@ time coverage of such incidents was severely restricted , however . The King and Queen were filmed inspecting their bombed home , the smiling Queen , as always , immaculately dressed in a hat and matching coat seemingly unbothered by the damage around her . It was at this time the Queen famously declared : " I 'm glad we have been bombed . Now I can look the East End in the face " . The royal family were seen as sharing their subjects ' hardship , as The Sunday Graphic reported :
By the Editor : The King and Queen have endured the ordeal which has come to their subjects . For the second time a German bomber has tried to bring death and destruction to the home of Their Majesties … When this war is over the common danger which King George and Queen Elizabeth have shared with their people will be a cherished memory and an inspiration through the years .
On 15 September 1940 , known as the Battle of Britain Day , an RAF pilot , Ray Holmes of No. 504 Squadron RAF rammed a German bomber he believed was going to bomb the Palace . Holmes had run out of ammunition and made the quick decision to ram it . Holmes bailed out . Both aircraft crashed . In fact the Dornier Do 17 bomber was empty . It had already been damaged , two of its crew had been killed and the remainder bailed out . Its pilot , Feldwebel Robert Zehbe , landed , only to die later of wounds suffered during the attack . During the Dornier 's descent , it somehow unloaded its bombs , one of which hit the Palace . It then crashed into the forecourt of London Victoria station . The bomber 's engine was later exhibited at the Imperial War Museum in London . The British pilot became a King 's Messenger after the war , and died at the age of 90 in 2005 .
On VE Day — 8 May 1945 — the palace was the centre of British celebrations . The King , Queen , Princess Elizabeth ( the future Queen ) , and Princess Margaret appeared on the balcony , with the palace 's blacked @-@ out windows behind them , to the cheers from a vast crowd in the Mall . The damaged Palace was carefully restored after the War by John Mowlem & Co .
= = = 21st century : Royal use and public access = = =
Every year some 50 @,@ 000 invited guests are entertained at garden parties , receptions , audiences and banquets . The Garden Parties , usually three , are held in the summer , usually in July . The Forecourt of Buckingham Palace is used for Changing of the Guard , a major ceremony and tourist attraction ( daily from April to July ; every other day in other months ) .
The palace , like Windsor Castle , is owned by the Crown . It is not the monarch 's personal property , unlike Sandringham House and Balmoral Castle . Many of the contents from Buckingham Palace , Windsor Castle , Kensington Palace , and St James 's Palace are part of the Royal Collection , held in trust by the Sovereign ; they can , on occasion , be viewed by the public at the Queen 's Gallery , near the Royal Mews . Unlike the palace and the castle , the purpose @-@ built gallery is open continually and displays a changing selection of items from the collection . It occupies the site of the chapel destroyed by an air raid in World War II . The palace 's state rooms have been open to the public during August and September and on selected dates throughout the year since 1993 . The money raised in entry fees was originally put towards the rebuilding of Windsor Castle after the 1992 fire devastated many of its state rooms . 476 @,@ 000 people visited the palace in the year to 31 March 2015 .
Her Majesty 's Government is responsible for maintaining the palace in exchange for the profits made by the Crown Estate . In November 2015 , the State Dining Room was closed for six months because its ceiling had become potentially dangerous . A backlog of repairs , including new plumbing , wiring , and the removal of a large quantity of asbestos , would cost an estimated £ 150 million .
Thus , Buckingham Palace is a symbol and home of the British monarchy , an art gallery and a tourist attraction . Behind the gilded railings and gates which were completed by the Bromsgrove Guild in 1911 and Webb 's famous façade , which has been described in a book published by the Royal Collection as looking " like everybody 's idea of a palace " , is not only a weekday home of the Queen and Prince Philip but also the London residence of the Duke of York and the Earl and Countess of Wessex . The palace also houses the offices of the Queen , Prince Philip , the Duke of York , the Earl and Countess of Wessex , the Princess Royal , and Princess Alexandra , and is the workplace of more than 800 people .
= 28 cm SK L / 40 gun =
The 28 cm SK L / 40 was a German naval gun that was used in World War I and World War II by two classes of German pre @-@ dreadnought battleships . It was the first large German naval gun to use a horizontal sliding block breech design rather than the interrupted screw more commonly used in guns of this size ; it was also the last large German naval gun to load all its propellant in a single case . It was adapted for land service after the pre @-@ dreadnoughts began to be disarmed beginning in 1916 . Four guns served on coast defense duties on the island of Wangerooge during World War I on fixed mounts . During World War II these guns were transferred to Brest . Others were used in railway mountings in both World Wars .
= = Description = =
The 28 cm SK L / 40 gun weighed 45 @.@ 3 tonnes ( 44 @.@ 6 long tons ; 49 @.@ 9 short tons ) , had an overall length of 11 @.@ 2 meters ( 36 ft 9 in ) and its bore length was 10 @.@ 401 meters ( 34 ft 1 @.@ 5 in ) . Although designated as 28 cm ( 11 in ) , its actual caliber was 28 @.@ 3 centimeters ( 11 @.@ 1 in ) . Early guns , possibly designated as the 28 cm K L / 40 , were built using the older hoop method of construction , but later guns used more modern built @-@ up techniques with an inner gun tube and several outer jackets . It was the first large German naval gun to use Krupp 's horizontal sliding block , or " wedge " , as it is sometimes referred to , breech design rather than the interrupted screw used commonly used in heavy guns of other nations . This required that the propellant charge be loaded in a metal case ( usually brass ) which provides obduration – it seals the breech to prevent escape of the expanding propellant gas . The 28 cm SK L / 40 was the last large German naval gun to load all its propellant in a single case ; later guns required a fore charge in addition to the main charge in the cartridge case .
= = = Naval turrets = = =
These guns were used in twin gun turrets as the main armament of the Braunschweig- and Deutschland @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnoughts . The Drh.L. C / 01 turret was used by the Braunschweig- and Deutschland @-@ class battleships , one twin gun turret at each end . Its guns could depress 4 ° and elevate 30 ° and could traverse about 150 ° on either side of the centerline . It could fire a 240 kg ( 530 lb ) L / 2 @.@ 6 armor @-@ piercing shell to a maximum range of 18 @,@ 830 meters ( 20 @,@ 590 yd ) at maximum elevation . These ships stowed 85 rounds per gun . The rate of fire for both types of turrets was about 2 rounds per minute .
= = = Land mountings = = =
Beginning in 1916 some guns were adapted for use ashore . One obvious change made for land service was the placement of a large counterweight just forward of the trunnions to counteract the preponderance of weight towards the breech . This , although heavy , was simpler than adding equilibrators to perform the same function . It was fitted with a hydro @-@ pneumatic system to absorb the recoil from firing and to return the gun to its firing position , ready for the next round . The first four guns were placed in Bettungsschiessgerüst ( firing platform ) ( BSG ) mountings in 1917 for coast defense duties as part of " Batterie Graf Spee " on the island of Wangerooge . These were a semi @-@ portable mount that could be emplaced anywhere after several weeks of labor to prepare the position . It rotated on a pivot at the front of the mount and the rear was supported by rollers resting on a semicircular rail and was sometimes equipped with a gun shield . The gun 's rate of fire in these mounts was about one round per five minutes .
Other guns from the battleships were put on railroad mountings as the 28 cm SK L / 40 " Bruno " and used as railway guns .
= = = Ammunition = = =
Before and during World War I , the gun used about 73 kg ( 161 lb ) of RP C / 12 ( Rohr @-@ Pulver – tube powder ) propellant that was a mix of nitrocellulose , nitroglycerin and small amounts of other additives with a calorific value of 950 and an uncooled explosion temperature of 2975 kelvins . In World War II , it was replaced by RP C / 38 that substituted diethylene glucol dinitrite for the nitroglycerine which had a calorific value of 810 and an uncooled explosion temperature of 2495 K. This had the virtue of being harder to ignite , lessening the risk of a catastrophic fire or explosion , and reduced the erosive effects of the gaseous propellant on the gun 's bore . Sources differ on the amount of RP C / 38 used by the gun during World War II ; Campbell says 70 kg ( 154 lb ) , but Hogg says 67 kg ( 148 lb ) .
These guns mounted fired two types of shells during World War I : armor @-@ piercing ( AP ) L / 2 @.@ 6 and high explosive ( HE ) L / 2 @.@ 9 types . During World War II , the guns fired a wider variety of shells , including high explosive L / 2 @.@ 9 , L / 4 @.@ 3 , and L / 4 @.@ 1 shells and a heavy HE L / 4 @.@ 4 projectile ; the AP and HE rounds weighed 240 kg ( 529 lb ) , while the heavy projectile weighed 284 kg ( 626 lb ) .
Due to the greater elevation available in the BSG mount , the Sprgr L / 4 @.@ 4 m . Bdz. u . Kz . ( mit Haube ) had a maximum range of 27 @,@ 750 m ( 30 @,@ 350 yd ) .
= = = = Armor penetration = = = =
One source credits the Pzgr L / 2 @.@ 6 shell with the ability to penetrate 160 millimeters ( 6 @.@ 3 in ) of side armor at 12 @,@ 000 meters ( 13 @,@ 000 yd ) .
= = History = =
= = = Naval guns = = =
The Treaty of Versailles allowed the Germans to retain four pre @-@ dreadnoughts , although only two , Schleswig @-@ Holstein and Schlesien , were rearmed with their original 28 cm SK L / 40 guns . The former fired the first shots of World War II when she began bombarding Polish defenses on the Westerplatte on 1 September 1939 while the latter also participated in the Polish Campaign . However both ships were relegated to training duties shortly afterwards .
= = = Coast defense guns = = =
Some of the 28 cm SK L / 40 guns were transferred to the German Army from the Navy ( Kaiserliche Marine ) when the pre @-@ dreadnoughts began to be disarmed and relegated to training duties in 1916 after the Battle of Jutland had proved that they were not suitable for contemporary naval combat . The first four guns , formerly used on SMS Lothringen , were placed in BSG mountings in 1917 for coast defense duty as part of " Batterie Graf Spee " on the island of Wangerooge .
During World War II only seven guns were used on as coast defense duties on BSG mountings . The four guns of " Batterie Graf Spee " had survived World War I and were transferred to Brest , France in 1940 .
= = = Railway guns = = =
Approximately twenty other guns from the battleships were put on railroad mountings as the 28 cm SK L / 40 " Bruno " and used as railway guns . A number were kept by the Kaiserliche Marine and used on coastal defense duties , but the others were used by the Heer in more traditional roles as long @-@ range heavy artillery . Surviving weapons were used by the Germans in World War II as coast defense duties .
= Thomas Gage =
Thomas Gage ( 10 March 1718 / 19 – 2 April 1787 ) was a British general , best known for his many years of service in North America , including his role as military commander in the early days of the American Revolution .
Born to an aristocratic family in England , he entered military service , seeing action in the French and Indian War , where he served alongside his future opponent George Washington in the 1755 Battle of the Monongahela . After the fall of Montreal in 1760 , he was named its military governor . During this time he did not distinguish himself militarily , but proved himself to be a competent administrator .
From 1763 to 1775 he served as commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the British forces in North America , overseeing the British response to the 1763 Pontiac 's Rebellion . In 1774 he was also appointed the military governor of the Province of Massachusetts Bay , with instructions to implement the Intolerable Acts , punishing Massachusetts for the Boston Tea Party . His attempts to seize military stores of Patriot militias in April 1775 sparked the Battles of Lexington and Concord , beginning the American War of Independence . After the Pyrrhic victory in the June Battle of Bunker Hill he was replaced by General William Howe in October 1775 , and returned to Great Britain .
= = Early life = =
Thomas Gage was born on 10 March 1718 / 19 and christened 31 March 1719 at Westminster St James , Middlesex , England , son of Thomas Gage , 1st Viscount Gage and Benedicta Maria Teresa Hall . Firle Place , Firle , Sussex , is where the Gage family had been seated since the 15th century . His father , Thomas Gage , 1st Viscount Gage , was a noted nobleman given titles in Ireland . Thomas Gage ( the elder ) had three children , of whom Thomas was the second . The first son , William Hall Gage , 2nd Viscount Gage , was born 6 January 1717 / 18 and christened 29 January 1717 / 18 , also at Westminster St James . In 1728 Gage began attending the prestigious Westminster School where he met such figures as John Burgoyne , Richard Howe , Francis Bernard , and George Germain . Despite the family 's long history of Catholicism , Viscount Gage had adopted the Anglican Church in 1715 . During his school years Thomas the younger became firmly attached to the latter church ; he eventually developed a dislike for the Roman Catholic Church that became evident in later years . After graduating from Westminster in 1736 there is no record of Gage 's activities until he joined the British Army , eventually receiving a commission as ensign . His early duties consisted of recruiting in Yorkshire . In January 1741 he purchased a lieutenant 's commission in the 1st Northampton Regiment , where he stayed until May 1742 , when he transferred to Battereau 's Regiment with the rank of captain @-@ lieutenant . Gage received promotion to captain in 1743 , and saw action in the War of the Austrian Succession with British forces in Flanders , where he served as aide @-@ de @-@ camp to the Earl of Albemarle in the Battle of Fontenoy . He saw further service in the Second Jacobite Uprising , which culminated in the 1746 Battle of Culloden . From 1747 to 1748 , Gage saw action under Albemarle in the Low Countries . In 1748 he purchased a major 's commission and transferred to the 55th Foot Regiment ( which was later renumbered to the 44th ) . The regiment was stationed in Ireland from 1748 to 1755 ; Gage was promoted to lieutenant colonel in March 1751 .
During his early service years , he spent leisure time at White 's Club , where he was a member , and occasionally travelled , going at least as far as Paris , Mexico . He was a popular figure in the army and at the club , even though he neither liked alcohol nor gambled very much . His friendships spanned class and ability . Charles Lee once wrote to Gage , " I respected your understanding , lik 'd your manners and perfectly ador 'd the qualities of your heart . " Gage also made some important political connections , forming relationships with important figures like Lord Barrington , the future Secretary at War , and Jeffery Amherst , a man roughly his age who rose to great heights in the French and Indian War .
In 1750 , Gage became engaged to a " lady of rank and fortune , whom he persuaded to yield her hand in an honourable way " . The engagement was eventually broken , leaving Gage broken @-@ hearted . In 1753 , both Gage and his father stood for seats in Parliament . Both lost in the April 1754 election , even though his father had been a Member of Parliament for some years prior . They both contested the results , but his father died soon after , and Gage withdrew his protest in early 1755 , as his regiment was being sent to America following the outbreak of the French and Indian War .
= = French and Indian War = =
In 1755 Gage 's regiment was sent to North America as part of General Braddock 's expeditionary force , whose objective was the expulsion of French forces from the Ohio Country , territory disputed between French and British colonies where there had been military clashes in 1754 . On this expedition Gage 's regiment was in the vanguard of the troops when they came upon a company of French and Indians who were trying to set up an ambush . This skirmish began the Battle of the Monongahela , in which Braddock was mortally wounded , and George Washington distinguished himself for his courage under fire and his leadership in organising the retreat . The commander of the 44th , Colonel Sir Peter Halkett , was one of many officers killed in the battle and Gage , who temporarily took command of the regiment , was slightly wounded . The regiment was decimated , and Captain Robert Orme ( General Braddock 's aide @-@ de @-@ camp ) levelled charges that poor field tactics on the part of Gage had led to the defeat ; as a result of his accusations Gage was denied permanent command of the 44th Regiment . Gage and Washington maintained a somewhat friendly relationship for several years after the expedition , but distance and lack of frequent contact likely cooled the relationship . By 1770 , Washington was publicly condemning Gage 's actions in asserting British authority in Massachusetts .
= = = Creation of the light infantry = = =
In the summer of 1756 Gage served as second @-@ in @-@ command of a failed expedition to resupply Fort Oswego , which fell to the French while the expedition was en route . The following year , he was assigned to Captain @-@ General John Campbell Loudoun in Halifax , Nova Scotia , where a planned expedition against Louisbourg turned back when confronted by a larger French fleet .
In December 1757 , Gage proposed to Loudoun the creation of a regiment of light infantry that would be better suited to woodland warfare . Loudoun approved the plan before he was recalled that month , also recommending Gage to the king for promotion to full colonel . Gage spent the winter in New Jersey , recruiting for the newly raised 80th Regiment of Light @-@ Armed Foot , the " first definitely light @-@ armed regiment in the British army . " While it is uncertain exactly when he met the Kembles , his choice of the Brunswick area may well have been motivated by his interest in Margaret Kemble , a well @-@ known beauty of the area , a descendant of the Schuyler family , and the granddaughter of New York Mayor Stephanus Van Cortlandt . Recruiting and courtship were both successful . By February 1758 Gage was in Albany , preparing for that year 's campaign , and he and Margaret were married on 8 December of that year .
The campaign for which Gage went to Albany culminated in the disastrous Battle of Carillon , in which 16 @,@ 000 British forces were defeated by barely 4 @,@ 000 French forces . Gage , whose regiment was in the British vanguard , was again wounded in that battle , in which the British suffered more than 2 @,@ 000 casualties . Gage , who had been brevetted a brigadier general for the 1758 campaign , received in 1759 a full promotion to the position , largely through the political manoeuvring of his brother , Lord Gage .
= = = Failure to act against La Galette = = =
The new general was placed in command of the Albany post , serving under Major General Jeffery Amherst . In 1759 , shortly after capturing Ticonderoga without a fight , General Amherst learned of the death of General John Prideaux whose expedition had captured Fort Niagara . Amherst then ordered Gage to take Prideaux 's place , and to take Fort de La Présentation ( also known as Fort La Galette ) at the mouth of the Oswegatchie River on Lake Ontario . When Amherst learned that the French had also abandoned Fort St. Frédéric , he sent a messenger after Gage with more explicit instructions to capture La Galette and then , if at all possible , to advance on Montreal .
When Gage arrived at Oswego , which had been captured in July by troops under Frederick Haldimand 's command , he surveyed the situation , and decided that it was not prudent to move against La Galette . Expected reinforcements from Fort Duquesne had not arrived , the French military strength at La Galette was unknown , and its strength near Montreal was believed to be relatively high . Gage , believing an attack on La Galette would not gain any significant advantage , decided against action , and sent Amherst a message outlining his reasons . Although there was no immediate censure from either Amherst or the government , Amherst was incensed at the failure , and Gage 's troops were in the rear of Amherst 's army in the 1760 expedition that resulted in Montreal 's surrender .
= = Early governorship = =
After the French surrender , Amherst named Gage the military Governor of Montreal , a task Gage found somewhat thankless , because it involved the minute details of municipal governance along with the administration of the military occupation . He was also forced to deal with civil litigation , and manage trade with the Indians in the Great Lakes region , where traders disputed territorial claims , and quarrelled with the Indians . Margaret came to stay with him in Montreal and that is where his first two children , Harry , the future 3rd Viscount Gage , and Maria Theresa , were born . In 1761 , he was promoted to major general , and in 1762 , again with the assistance of his brother , was placed in command of the 22nd Regiment , which assured a command even in peacetime .
By all accounts , Gage appeared to be a fair administrator , respecting people 's lives and property , although he had a healthy distrust of the landowning seigneurs and of the Roman Catholic clergy , who he viewed as intriguers for the French . When peace was announced following the 1763 Treaty of Paris , Gage began lobbying for another posting , as he was " very much [ tired ] of this cursed Climate , and I must be bribed very high to stay here any longer " . In October 1763 the good news arrived that he would act as commander @-@ in @-@ chief of North America while Amherst was on leave in Britain . He immediately left Montreal , and took over Amherst 's command in New York on 17 November 1763 . When he did so , he inherited the job of dealing with the Indian uprising known as Pontiac 's Rebellion .
= = = Pontiac 's Rebellion = = =
Following the conquest of New France , Amherst , who had little respect for Indians , instituted policies that severely hampered British @-@ Indian relations , principally forbidding the sale of ammunition to them . Combined with widespread concern about British expansion into their territories , this prompted the tribes of the Ohio Country and the formerly French Pays d 'en Haut to rise against the British . In May 1763 , under the leadership of the Ottawa leader Pontiac , they launched a series of attacks on lightly garrisoned British frontier forts , successfully driving the British from some , threatening others , and also terrorising the settlers in those areas .
Hoping to end the conflict diplomatically , Gage ordered Colonel John Bradstreet and Colonel Henry Bouquet out on military expeditions and also ordered Sir William Johnson to engage in peace negotiations . Johnson negotiated the Treaty of Fort Niagara in the summer of 1764 with some of the disaffected tribes , and Colonel Bouquet negotiated a cease @-@ fire of sorts in October 1764 , which resulted in another peace treaty finalised by Johnson in 1765 . In 1765 , the 42nd Royal Highland Regiment finally got through to Fort Cavendish , the last fort still in French hands . The conflict was not fully resolved until Pontiac himself travelled to Fort Ontario and signed
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= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Personnel = =
Aside from their real names , members of the band are referred to by numbers zero through eight .
= Sick Cycle Carousel =
" Sick Cycle Carousel " is a song by American alternative rock band Lifehouse . It is the second single released from their debut studio album No Name Face ( 2000 ) . The track was written by Lifehouse lead singer Jason Wade and Scott Faircloff , who says he felt freedom when writing songs for the album . American record producers Ron Aniello and Brendan O 'Brien produced and mixed the song , respectively . Musically , " Sick Cycle Carousel " is a moderate rock song with an influence of soft rock . The song was released on June 4 , 2001 by DreamWorks Records .
The song received positive reviews from critics , who applauded how the producers brought out Wade 's vocals over the instrumentation . It managed to chart on the Billboard Alternative Songs chart at number 21 . The track later charted in the Netherlands and New Zealand at number 71 and 47 , respectively . An official music video for the song premiered on VH1.com on June 27 , 2001 that features effects to make objects look smaller than they really are .
= = Background , release and composition = =
The song was written by Lifehouse lead singer Jason Wade and was produced by American record producer Ron Aniello . When asked about his experience with making songs for No Name Face in an interview with Billboard , Wade said , " DreamWorks has been amazing in letting us make the record . They 're super @-@ artist @-@ friendly . They let us make our record the way we wanted to make it . It 's the best label we could be on . " In an interview with MTV Radio , Wade explained the message behind " Sick Cycle Carousel " and said , " It 's one of those songs I 'm really afraid to put an explanation to as far as what it 's about for me personally . I don 't want it to lose its mystery and mystique . Everyone interprets it differently . It 's funny hearing people telling what 's it 's about to them because then I can go , ' Maybe that 's what it 's about . ' It 's got a weird mystique to me still . " It was released on March 25 , 2002 by DreamWorks Records .
" Sick Cycle Carousel " was described as being a rock song with an influence of soft rock . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Sony / ATV Music Publishing , the song is set in common time with a moderate tempo of 92 beats per minute . It is composed in the key of A minor with Wade 's vocal range spanning from the low @-@ note of C4 to the high @-@ note of G5 . The song has a basic chord progression of F – G – Am7 – F – G – Am7 . John DiBiase of Jesus Freak Hideout called it " a song about the preverbial merry go round we feel like we 're on when we keep committing the same sins over and over " . Liana Jonas of Allmusic applauded on how Aniello and O 'Brien " brought Wade 's vocals and lyrics to the forefront of the mix " for all the songs on the album .
= = Chart performance = =
" Sick Cycle Carousel " had limited commercial success after the success of Lifehouse 's first single , " Hanging by a Moment " . The track debuted at number 33 on the Billboard Alternative Songs chart for the week of May 26 , 2001 . After it spent 12 consecutive weeks on the chart , the song eventually peaked at number 21 for two consecutive weeks . In the Netherlands , the song debuted at number 84 on the Mega Single Top 100 for the week of December 8 , 2001 . It eventually peaked at number 71 after it spent six consecutive weeks on the chart . On the New Zealand Singles Chart , the track debuted at number 50 for the week of August 19 , 2001 . The song then peaked at number 47 during the week of September 2 , 2001 before leaving the chart .
= = Music video = =
The music video was filmed in June 2001 at an airplane hangar at Los Angeles International Airport and at a Lifehouse show in London . It was directed by Marcos Siega , who is most notable for his work with Blink @-@ 182 and Papa Roach . In an interview with MTV , Wade talked about the idea behind the music video and said , " This is the closest we 'll probably ever come to being in a Tim Burton fantasy world . It was done in a real ' Jack and the Beanstalk ' style . And Marcos used some camera tricks that make it look amazing . From far away , the stage set looked normal , but when you get closer you get smaller and it gets huge . We were being filmed in front of this bookcase that was like 150 feet high . It 's a real visual trip . " It premiered on VH1.com on June 27 , 2001 .
It begins with a shot of Wade 's face and the guitar introduction . He then sings the first line of lyrics , which is followed by a transition to a boy lying on a bed . As the video switches between Wade and the boy , it zooms on the bed frame ( which has the same face from the album cover ) and opens into another area . The boy is then seen walking around the new area looking around until he goes up nearby stairs . While going up the stairs , the video switches between shots of the boy going up the stairs and Wade singing the lyrics . Once up the stairs , the boy looks around and then walks into a bright light that he sees nearby . He walks through the bright archway into a dark room as the video switches to Lifehouse playing the song . After this , it switches to the boy as he looks up and the camera zooms out to reveal that he is in a giant maze . He then walks back where he came from to find that he is in a house with Lifehouse playing on the television . He then jumps off a window sill and appears tiny as he walks up to a book that is bigger than him . It then transitions to Lifehouse playing the song as the boy gets up on a chair which slowly transcends into his original bed . The video then zooms out on the boy lying on his bed and then switches to the band . It ends with the boy walking into darkness and Wade 's face looking on the floor .
= = Promotion = =
On January 10 , 2001 , MTV confirmed that Lifehouse would serve as an opening act on a 14 @-@ day tour for Matchbox Twenty , who were promoting their album Mad Season ( 2000 ) . The tour started February 27 , 2001 in Minneapolis and ended on March 29 , 2001 in Universal City . In July 2001 , Lifehouse went on tour with 3 Doors Down as an opening act on 12 select dates , and performed songs from No Name Face , including " Sick Cycle Carousel " . Before they went on tour with 3 Doors Down , the band went on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno on June 25 , 2001 and performed " Sick Cycle Carousel " .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Songwriting – Jason Wade , Scott Faircloff
Production – Ron Aniello
Mixing – Brendan O 'Brien
Engineering – Bob Kearny , Marc Green , Paul Hayden
Credits and personnel adapted from Allmusic .
= = Track listing = =
Australian CD single
European CD single
= = Charts = =
= End of Watch =
End of Watch is a 2012 American crime drama film written and directed by David Ayer . It stars Jake Gyllenhaal and Michael Peña as Brian Taylor and Miguel Zavala , two Los Angeles Police Department officers who work in South Central Los Angeles . The film focuses on their day @-@ to @-@ day police work , their dealings with a certain group of gang members , and their personal relationships .
Ayer , who had written several police procedural films previously , wanted End of Watch to focus more on the friendship between partners and honest police work rather than corruption . Gyllenhaal , Peña , and other cast members underwent an intensive training program to prepare for their roles as police officers . Filming took place in Los Angeles in August 2011 with a budget of $ 7 million .
End of Watch premiered on September 8 , 2012 at the Toronto International Film Festival and was released in American theaters on September 21 , grossing over $ 57 million at the box office . The film was well received by critics and received a number of accolades , including two Independent Spirit Award nominations .
= = Plot = =
Brian Taylor and Miguel Zavala are close friends and partners in the Newton Division of the Los Angeles Police Department ( LAPD ) in South Central Los Angeles . Taylor , a former Marine , is recording their police activities for a film project .
Upon responding to a public disturbance call , Tre , a Bloods gang member , yells racist insults at Zavala , who responds by accepting a fight . Zavala beats and arrests him , but wins Tre 's respect for not charging him with assault . Later that night , Tre and his fellow Bloods gang members are attacked by a group of Sureños in a drive @-@ by shooting and one of Tre 's friends is killed . The next day , the officers respond to a noise complaint at a house party full of Sureños , where Taylor encounters a gang member named Big Evil , whose truck he later finds is filled with ornately @-@ decorated firearms and a large amount of money .
Taylor and Zavala are awarded the Medal of Valor after rescuing three children from a house fire . Upon further investigating a house , they arrest a man who is also in possession of several ornate firearms , and is guarding a cell full of human trafficking victims . When ICE agents arrive , one agent informs the officers that the house is tied to the Sinaloa Cartel , and strongly urges them to " lay low " due to possible reprisals . Around this time , Taylor begins dating a woman named Janet , and Zavala 's wife Gabby gives birth to their first child .
One night , Taylor and Zavala respond to a call from their fellow officer , Sook , and find her partner Van Hauser with a knife through his eye . He leads them to Sook , who is being savagely beaten nearby . After arresting the culprit , the officers learn that Van Hauser is not returning to patrol and Sook is leaving the force . Taylor marries Janet , and at their wedding Zavala tells Taylor that , should anything happen to him , he will take care of Janet . The next day , the officers perform a welfare check on an elderly woman . In her house , they discover drugs , dismembered corpses , and a message from the cartel . Unbeknownst to them , a cartel member has " green @-@ lit " the officers , and the gangsters from the earlier drive @-@ by begin following them .
Shortly after Janet gets pregnant , the officers are baited into chasing a reckless driver into an apartment complex , where they are ambushed by the same group of Latino gang members . They fight their way into an alley , where Taylor is shot in the chest . As Zavala desperately attends to his partner , the assassins arrive and shoot him several times in the back , killing him . Police backup eventually arrives and the gangsters are killed after refusing to surrender .
Taylor survives , having been shielded by Zavala 's body . At Zavala 's funeral , Taylor tries to deliver a eulogy , but only manages to say a few words : " He was my brother . " In a flashback to the day of the shooting , Zavala recounts to Taylor a story from his teens before the two receive the call from dispatch .
= = Cast = =
Jake Gyllenhaal as Brian Taylor
Michael Peña as Miguel " Mike " Zavala
Natalie Martinez as Gabby Zavala
Anna Kendrick as Janet Taylor
Frank Grillo as Sarge
America Ferrera as Officer Orozco
Cody Horn as Officer Davis
David Harbour as Van Hauser
Cle Sloan as Tre
Shondrella Avery as Bonita
Kristy Wu as Sook
= = Production = =
David Ayer , who wrote and directed End of Watch , grew up in South Central Los Angeles and has had numerous friends in the LAPD . He had written several films previously about police officers in Los Angeles , but while these depicted rogue and corrupt officers , he wanted to feature honest , ethical police work in End of Watch . In contrast to his previous works , Ayer wanted to focus on the friendship between Taylor and Zavala and " have all the cop stuff drop away and become secondary to the chemistry of these guys " . Ayer wrote the screenplay over six days in December 2010 . Jaime FitzSimons , a longtime friend of Ayer and a former police officer with the LAPD , served as the film 's technical advisor , and his experiences from working in Los Angeles inspired several plot points of the film .
Jake Gyllenhaal was the first to be cast in the film ; after receiving the script , he read it in an hour and immediately contacted Ayer . Michael Peña was cast shortly after , following a string of auditions . He and Gyllenhaal did not bond immediately but gradually became close friends over the process of training and filming . Gyllenhaal and Peña undertook five months of intensive training under the guidance of FitzSimons to prepare for their roles — this included 12 @-@ hour ride @-@ alongs with multiple Greater Los Angeles Area law enforcement agencies up to three times a week , as well as training in hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat , police tactics and weapons . On his first ride @-@ along , Gyllenhaal witnessed a murder during a drug bust . Tactical training was also given to the other actors playing police officers , including David Harbour , America Ferrera , Cody Horn , and Frank Grillo .
End of Watch was filmed on location in South Central Los Angeles , primarily in the area of the LAPD 's Newton Division , one of the most violent and gang @-@ affiliated areas of the city . Filming took place over 22 days in August 2011 , with a budget of $ 7 @.@ 5 million . The film was shot in a combination of found footage style and traditional photography . Most scenes were captured by four cameras simultaneously : these included a handheld camera operated by Gyllenhaal , cameras clipped to Gyllenhaal and Peña 's vests , and dashboard footage from their patrol car . Some scenes were shot entirely by Gyllenhaal . An alternate ending of the film was shot where both of the main characters died , but Ayer ultimately chose to retain the original ending .
= = Release = =
The world premiere of End of Watch was held on September 8 , 2012 at the Toronto International Film Festival . It was originally scheduled to be released theatrically on September 28 , 2012 , but the release was later moved to September 21 .
= = = Home media = = =
End of Watch was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray on January 22 , 2013 by Universal Studios Home Entertainment .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
Over its opening weekend in the United States , the film grossed $ 13 @.@ 1 million and was the highest @-@ grossing film at the box office for the weekend . It was especially popular among Hispanics , who made up 32 % of the audience on the opening weekend , and a writer for The Hollywood Reporter attributed the film 's popularity to strong word of mouth . The film was initially released in 2 @,@ 730 theaters and expanded to 2 @,@ 780 locations in its second week of release . On December 7 , the film was given a nationwide re @-@ release in 1 @,@ 259 theaters shortly after it received two Independent Spirit Award nominations . On the first weekend of its re @-@ release , it grossed $ 752 @,@ 000 .
After a total of 119 days , the film ended its American theatrical run in January 2013 with a gross of $ 41 million . It grossed $ 16 @.@ 6 million from other territories , making a worldwide total gross of $ 57 @.@ 6 million .
= = = Critical response = = =
End of Watch received positive reviews from critics , who praised Ayer 's direction and the performances of Gyllenhaal and Peña . The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported an 85 % approval rating with an average rating of 7 @.@ 1 / 10 , based on 168 reviews . The website 's consensus states : " End of Watch has the energy , devotion to characters , and charismatic performances to overcome the familiar pitfalls of its genre and handheld format . " At Metacritic , the film received a score of 68 out of 100 , based on 37 critics , which indicates " generally favorable reviews " .
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times gave the film 4 out of 4 stars , calling it " one of the best police movies in recent years , a virtuoso fusion of performances and often startling action " , and went on to name the film the fourth best of 2012 . Film critic James Berardinelli described End of Watch as " satisfying and emotionally potent ... a good , gritty drama of the sort that seems increasingly rare within the thriller genre " , giving the film 3 @.@ 5 out of 4 stars . Olly Richards , writing for Empire , gave the film 4 out of 5 stars and summarized it as " a collection of cop @-@ movie clichés but presented with sufficient flair and strong performances that the ride is enough , even if its on rails " . While New York 's Bilge Ebiri found the film largely unrealistic and Ayer 's direction " serviceable at best " , he wrote that " Ayer and his cast appear to have so convincingly nailed the way these characters talk and act that you might not even notice the film slipping from workaday grit into out @-@ and @-@ out myth . "
Critics praised End of Watch for its avoidance of clichés often used in police films , particularly the buddy cop genre . Peter Debruge of Variety wrote that " Like a knife in the eye , End of Watch cuts past the cliches of standard police procedurals " and praised Ayer for depicting the LAPD as " an honorable and efficient organization of people working together " . Entertainment Weekly 's Lisa Schwarzbaum , who gave the film an A- , described it as " one of the best American cop movies I 've seen in a long time [ and ] also one of the few I 've seen that pay serious attention to what cop life feels like , both on and off duty " . In a review for The Globe and Mail , however , Rick Groen opined that the focus on " saintly " police officers was less interesting than Ayer 's " trademark grit and authenticity " .
The performances of Peña and Gyllenhaal were also praised by critics . Peter Debruge commended the realism that the two actors brought to their roles , saying , " Gyllenhaal and Peña so completely reinvent themselves in @-@ character . Instead of wearing the roles like costumes or uniforms , they let the job seep into their skin . " The Los Angeles Times 's Betsy Sharkey applauded the chemistry between the two lead actors , as well as their individual performances , writing , " As good as Gyllenhaal is in this , Peña nearly steals the show . " In a review for USA Today , Claudia Puig commended Gyllenhaal for " giv [ ing ] his best performance since Brokeback Mountain " and Peña for " shin [ ing ] with charisma " . Roger Ebert highlighted End of Watch as " one of the performances of [ Peña 's ] career " and praised the performances given by the supporting cast , including Natalie Martinez and Anna Kendrick .
An aspect of the film criticized in numerous reviews was its handheld camerawork and cinematography . Richard Corliss wrote for Time that the found footage style of cinematography " borders on the ludicrous " and that " the tactic fatally substitutes photo realism for fauxto realism " . Similarly , The Washington Post 's Michael O 'Sullivan found the aesthetic gimmicky , overused , and " an unnecessary distraction from the story " . On the other hand , Amy Biancolli of the San Francisco Chronicle felt that although the cinematography was inconsistent , " it 's used to deepen its main characters " and " lends the film a lively intimacy " .
Other reviewers criticized the casting of minorities as gang members . Manohla Dargis of The New York Times pointed out that " almost all of [ the crimes are ] committed by the black and mainly brown people " , while The Globe and Mail 's Rick Groen criticized " the script 's penchant for overdemonizing the ghetto 's black residents " .
= = = Accolades = = =
= Bolton Wanderers F.C. =
Bolton Wanderers Football Club ( / ˈboʊltən / ) is a professional association football club based in Bolton , Greater Manchester . For the 2016 – 17 Season , the team will play in League One , the third tier of the English football league system .
The club was formed as Christ Church Football Club in 1874 , and adopted its current name in 1877 . Founder members of the Football League in 1888 , Bolton have spent the highest number of seasons of any club in the top flight without winning the title ( the 2011 – 12 season was their 73rd , non @-@ consecutive year in the top flight ) . The closest they have come to the title is third in the First Division on three occasions ( 1891 – 92 , 1920 – 21 and 1924 – 25 ) . As of 2015 , the club has spent more seasons in the top division than any other club outside the current Premier League .
Bolton were a successful cup side in the 1920s , winning the FA Cup three times . The club won the cup a fourth time in 1958 . A leaner spell followed , reaching a nadir in 1987 when the club spent a season in the Fourth Division . The club regained top @-@ flight status in 1995 after a 15 @-@ year absence . In a period of relative success , the club qualified for the UEFA Cup twice , reaching the last 32 in 2005 – 06 and the last 16 in 2007 – 08 .
The club played at Burnden Park for 102 years from 1895 . On 9 March 1946 , The Burnden Park disaster occurred , which was a human crush in which 33 Bolton fans lost their lives . In 1997 it moved out of town to the Reebok Stadium , named after long @-@ term club sponsor Reebok . The stadium was renamed the Macron Stadium in July 2014 , to reflect the club 's new deal with Italian sportswear company Macron .
= = History = =
= = = Early history ( 1877 – 1929 ) = = =
The club was founded by the Reverend Joseph Farrall Wright , Perpetual curate of Christ Church Bolton and Thomas Ogden , the schoolmaster at the adjacent church school in 1874 as Christ Church F.C. It was initially run from the church of the same name on Deane Road , Bolton , on the site where the Innovation factory of the University of Bolton now stands . The club left the location following a dispute with the vicar , and changed its name to Bolton Wanderers in 1877 . The name was chosen as the club initially had a lot of difficulty finding a permanent ground to play on , having used three venues in its first four years of existence .
Bolton were one of the 12 founder members of the Football League , which formed in 1888 . At the time Lancashire was one of the strongest footballing regions in the country , with 6 of the 12 founder clubs coming from within the boundaries of the historic county of Lancashire . Having remained in the Football League since its formation , Bolton have spent more time in the top flight ( Premier League / old First Division ) than out of it .
In 1894 Bolton reached the final of the FA Cup for the first time , but lost 4 – 1 to Notts County at Goodison Park . A decade later they were runners @-@ up a second time , losing 1 – 0 to local rivals Manchester City at Crystal Palace on 23 April 1904 .
The period before and after the First World War was Bolton 's most consistent period of top @-@ flight success as measured by league finishes , with the club finishing outside the top 8 of the First Division on only two occasions between 1911 – 12 and 1927 – 28 . In this period Bolton equalled their record finish of third twice , in 1920 – 21 and 1924 – 25 , on the latter occasion missing out on the title by just 3 points ( in an era of 2 points for a win ) .
On 28 April 1923 , Bolton won their first major trophy in their third final , beating West Ham United 2 – 0 in the first ever Wembley FA Cup final . The match , famously known as The White Horse Final was played in front of over 127 @,@ 000 supporters . Bolton 's centre @-@ forward , David Jack scored the first ever goal at Wembley Stadium . Driven by long @-@ term players Joe Smith in attack , Ted Vizard and Billy Butler on the wings , and Jimmy Seddon in defence , they became the most successful cup side of the twenties , winning three times . Their second victory of the decade came in 1926 , beating Manchester City 1 – 0 in front of over 91 @,@ 000 spectators , and the third came in 1929 as Portsmouth were beaten 2 – 0 in front of nearly 93 @,@ 000 fans .
In 1928 the club faced financial difficulties and so was forced to sell David Jack to Arsenal to raise funds . Despite the pressure to sell , the agreed fee of £ 10 @,@ 890 was a world record , more than double the previous most expensive transfer of a player .
= = = Top flight run and cup success ( 1929 – 1958 ) = = =
From 1935 to 1964 , Bolton enjoyed an uninterrupted stay in the top flight – regarded by fans as a golden era – spearheaded in the 1950s by Nat Lofthouse . The years of the Second World War saw most of the Wanderers ' playing staff see action on the front , a rare occurrence within elite football , as top sportsmen were generally assigned to physical training assignments , away from enemy fire . However , 15 Bolton professionals , led by their captain Harry Goslin , volunteered for active service in 1939 , and were enlisted in the 53rd Bolton Artillery regiment . By the end of the war , 32 of the 35 pre @-@ war professionals saw action in the British forces . The sole fatality was Goslin , who had by then risen to the rank of Lieutenant and was killed by shrapnel on the Italian front shortly before Christmas 1943 . 53rd Bolton Artillery took part in the Battle of Dunkirk and also served in the campaigns of Egypt , Iraq and Italy . Remarkably , a number of these soldiers managed to carry on playing the game in these theatres of war , taking on as ' British XI ' various scratch teams assembled by , among others , King Farouk of Egypt in Cairo and Polish forces in Baghdad .
On 9 March 1946 , the club 's home was the scene of the Burnden Park disaster , which at the time was the worst tragedy in British football history . 33 Bolton Wanderers fans were crushed to death , and another 400 injured , in an FA Cup quarter @-@ final second leg tie between Bolton and Stoke City . There was an estimated 67 @,@ 000 @-@ strong crowd crammed in for the game , though other estimates vary widely , with a further 15 @,@ 000 locked out as it became clear the stadium was full . The disaster led to Moelwyn Hughes 's official report , which recommended more rigorous control of crowd sizes .
In 1953 Bolton played in one of the most famous FA Cup finals of all time – The Stanley Matthews Final of 1953 . Bolton lost the game to Blackpool 4 – 3 after gaining a 3 – 1 lead . Blackpool were victorious thanks to the skills of Matthews and the goals of Stan Mortensen .
Bolton Wanderers have not won a major trophy since 1958 , when two Lofthouse goals saw them overcome Manchester United in the FA Cup final in front of a 100 @,@ 000 crowd at Wembley Stadium . The closest they have come to winning a major trophy since then is finishing runners @-@ up in the League Cup , first in 1995 and again in 2004 .
= = = Few highs and many lows ( 1958 – 1995 ) = = =
While Bolton finished 4th the following season , the next 20 years would prove to be a fallow period . The club suffered relegation to the Second Division in 1963 – 64 , and were then relegated again to the Third Division for the first time in their history in 1970 – 71 . This stay in the Third Division lasted just two years before the club were promoted as champions in 1972 – 73 . Hopes were high at Burnden Park in May 1978 when Bolton sealed the Second Division title and gained promotion to the First Division . However , they only remained there for two seasons before being relegated .
Following relegation in 1980 , Bolton signed former Manchester United European Cup winning striker Brian Kidd from Everton for £ 150 @,@ 000 as they prepared to challenge for a quick return to the First Division . Kidd scored a hat @-@ trick in his third game for Bolton , a 4 – 0 win over Newcastle United in the league , but the rest of the season was a struggle as Bolton finished close to the relegation places . By the end of the 1981 – 82 season , Bolton were no closer to promotion and had lost several key players including Peter Reid and Neil Whatmore . The following season Bolton were relegated to the Third Division after losing 4 – 1 at Charlton Athletic on the final day .
Despite a new @-@ look , much younger team and an 8 – 1 win over Walsall , Bolton 's best league win for 50 years , Bolton failed to win promotion in the 1983 – 84 season , and would remain in the Third Division for another three seasons . In 1986 Nat Lofthouse was appointed President of the football club , a position he would hold until his death on 15 January 2011 . At the end of the 1986 – 87 season , Bolton Wanderers suffered relegation to the Fourth Division for the first time in their history , but won promotion back to the Third Division at the first attempt . The club won the Sherpa Van Trophy in 1989 , defeating Torquay United 4 – 1 . During the 1990 – 91 season , Bolton were pipped to the final automatic promotion place by Southend United and lost to Tranmere Rovers in the play @-@ off final , but they failed to build on this and the following season saw the club finish 13th .
The early 1990s saw Bolton gain a giant @-@ killing reputation in cup competitions . In 1993 Bolton beat FA Cup holders Liverpool 2 – 0 in a third round replay at Anfield , thanks to goals from super John McGinlay and Andy Walker . The club also defeated higher division opposition in the form of Wolverhampton Wanderers ( 2 – 1 ) that year before bowing out to Derby County . Bolton also secured promotion to the second tier for the first time since 1983 . In 1994 Bolton again beat FA Cup holders , this time in the form of Arsenal , 3 – 1 after extra time in a fourth round replay , and went on to reach the quarter @-@ finals , bowing out 1 – 0 at home to local rivals ( and then Premiership ) Oldham Athletic . Bolton also defeated top division opposition in the form of Everton ( 3 – 2 ) and Aston Villa ( 1 – 0 ) that year .
= = = Return to the top flight , into Europe ( 1995 – 2008 ) = = =
Bolton reached the Premiership in 1995 thanks to a 4 – 3 victory over Reading in the Division One play @-@ off Final . Reading took a 2 – 0 lead before Bolton scored two late goals to take the game to extra time , scoring twice more before a late Reading consolation . The same year Bolton progressed to the League Cup Final , but were defeated 2 – 1 by Liverpool . Bolton were bottom for virtually all of the 1995 – 96 Premiership campaign and were relegated as they lost their penultimate game 1 – 0 to Southampton .
The club won promotion back to the Premiership at the first attempt thanks to a season in which they achieved 98 league points and 100 goals in the process of securing the Division One championship , the first time since 1978 that they had finished top of any division . This season also marked the club 's departure from Burnden Park to the Reebok Stadium , the last game at the stadium being a 4 – 1 win over Charlton Athletic .
Bolton were relegated on goal difference at the end of the 1997 – 98 Premiership campaign . The following season they reached the 1999 Division One play @-@ off Final but lost 2 – 0 to Watford .
In 2000 Bolton reached the semi @-@ finals of the FA Cup , Worthington Cup and play @-@ offs but lost on penalties to Aston Villa , 4 – 0 on aggregate to Tranmere Rovers and 7 – 5 on aggregate to Ipswich Town respectively . In 2000 – 01 Bolton were promoted back to the Premiership after beating Preston North End 3 – 0 in the play @-@ off final .
Bolton struggled in the following two seasons , but survived in the Premiership . The 2001 – 02 season began with a shock as they destroyed Leicester 5 – 0 at Filbert Street to go top of the table . Despite a 2 – 1 win away at Manchester United , becoming the first team since the formation of the Premiership to come from behind and win a league game at Old Trafford , they went into a deep slump during the middle of the season and needed a Fredi Bobic hat @-@ trick against Ipswich Town to survive . Despite losing the final three games , 16th place was secured . The 2002 – 03 season began with a poor start and , despite another win away at Manchester United , they were bottom until a 4 – 2 win against Leeds United at Elland Road . Despite suffering from a lack of consistency , Bolton achieved the results needed and secured survival in a final day 2 – 1 victory over Middlesbrough .
Bolton reached the League Cup final in 2004 , but lost 2 – 1 to Middlesbrough . Nevertheless , the club finished eighth in the league , at the time the highest finish in their Premiership history .
In 2005 , Bolton finished sixth in the league , thus earning qualification for the UEFA Cup for the first time in their history . The following season , they reached the last 32 but were eliminated by French team Marseille as they lost 2 – 1 on aggregate . Between 2003 – 04 and 2006 – 07 , Bolton recorded consecutive top @-@ eight finishes , a record of consistency bettered only by the big four of Chelsea , Manchester United , Liverpool and Arsenal .
The 2007 – 08 season saw Bolton survive with a 16th @-@ place finish , their safety being confirmed on the final day of the season , as they went on an unbeaten run for their final five games , as well as getting to the last sixteen of the UEFA Cup . During the European run , Bolton gained an unexpected draw at former European champions Bayern Munich as well as becoming the first British team to beat Red Star Belgrade in Belgrade . They also defeated Atlético Madrid on aggregate before being knocked out by Sporting Lisbon .
= = = Recent history ( 2008 – ) = = =
Bolton broke their record transfer fee with the signing of Johan Elmander from Toulouse on 27 June 2008 , in a deal which cost the club a reported £ 8 @.@ 2 million and saw Norwegian striker Daniel Braaten head in the opposite direction . In the 2010 – 11 FA Cup , Bolton progressed all the way to the semi @-@ finals , but were beaten 5 – 0 by Stoke at Wembley , with the match being described as " a massive anti @-@ climax " .
The following season began as the previous one had ended with just one win and six defeats , their worst start since the 1902 – 03 season when they were relegated . On 17 March 2012 , manager Owen Coyle travelled to the London Chest Hospital with Fabrice Muamba who had suffered from a cardiac arrest whilst playing against Tottenham Hotspur at White Hart Lane in a FA Cup match . Muamba stayed in a critical condition for several weeks and Coyle was widely praised for the manner in which he represented the club during the period . That 13 May , Bolton were relegated to the Championship by one point on the last day of the season after drawing 2 – 2 with Stoke City .
The Championship season started badly for Bolton , with only three wins in ten league matches and a second round exit from the League Cup following a loss at Crawley Town . As a result of poor performances leaving them in 16th place , Bolton sacked Coyle on 9 October 2012 , replacing him with Crystal Palace 's Dougie Freedman . They finished in 7th place , losing out on a play @-@ off place to Leicester City on goal difference . The 2013 – 14 began with a trip to Turf Moor , in celebration of the 125th anniversary of the Football League .
In December 2015 , Bolton , who were £ 172 @.@ 9 million in debt , were handed a winding @-@ up petition from HM Revenue and Customs over unpaid taxes , and a transfer embargo for the following month 's window . After ending a 17 @-@ game winless run , manager Neil Lennon , who had been investigated by the club due to allegations about his personal life , said that the club had " been through hell " . On 18 January 2016 , the club avoided an immediate winding @-@ up order after their case was adjourned until 22 February to give it time to either close a deal with a potential buyer or raise sufficient short @-@ term funds from asset sales . The club was said to owe HM Revenue and Customs £ 2.2m. On 9 April , Bolton lost 4 – 1 away at Derby County to confirm their relegation to the third tier for the first time since 1993 .
= = Colours and badge = =
Bolton Wanderers ' home colours are white shirts with navy and red trim , worn with navy shorts and white and navy hooped socks . Their current away kit is a red jersey with blue trim worn with red shorts and red and blue hooped socks . Bolton did not always wear the white kit they do today , in 1884 they wore white with red spots , leading to the club 's original nickname of " The Spots " . This nickname has fallen into disuse since the club adopted its now @-@ traditional colours of white shirts with navy blue shorts . The navy blue shorts were dispensed with in 2003 , in favour of an all @-@ white strip , but they returned in 2008 . The club had previously experimented with an all @-@ white kit in the 1970s .
The Bolton Wanderers club badge previously consisted of the initials of the club in the shape of a ball , with red and blue ribbons beneath . The ribbons controversially replaced the Red Rose of Lancashire , coinciding with the club 's 125th anniversary , celebrated in 2002 . The club 's original badge was the town crest of Bolton . The badge has been changed again for the 2013 – 14 season , to be similar to the older style with the ' Red Rose ' . It also shows the year when the club started using their current name . The re @-@ design has been welcomed by fans who saw the ribbons as a poor choice .
The club 's nickname of " The Trotters " has several claimed derivations ; that it is simply a variation on " Wanderers " , that it is an old local term for a practical joker , or that one of the grounds used before the club settled at Pikes Lane resided next to a piggery , causing players to have to " trot " through the pig pens to retrieve the ball if it went over the fence .
= = Stadiums = =
When the club was first founded , Christ Church had a nomadic existence , playing at a number of locations in the area . The club , which had by then been renamed Bolton Wanderers , started playing regularly at Pike 's Lane in 1881 . Spending £ 150 on pitch improvements , season tickets cost a guinea . They played here for fourteen years until the tenancy expired and they moved to Burnden Park .
Situated in the Burnden area of Bolton , approximately one mile from the centre of the town , the ground served as the home of the town 's football team for 102 years . In its heyday , Burnden Park could hold up to 70 @,@ 000 supporters but this figure was dramatically reduced during the final 20 years of its life . A section of The Embankment was sold off in 1986 to make way for a new Normid superstore . At this time , Bolton were in a dire position financially and were struggling in the Football League Third Division , so there was a low demand for tickets and the loss of part of the ground gave the Bolton directors good value for money .
By 1992 the club 's directors had decided that it would be difficult to convert Burnden Park into an all @-@ seater stadium for a club of Bolton 's ambition , as the Taylor Report required all first- and second @-@ tier clubs to do . A decision was made to build an out of town stadium in the suburb of Horwich , with the eventual location chosen 5 miles due west of the town centre . The stadium opened in August 1997 , as a modern , all @-@ seater stadium with a capacity of around 29 @,@ 000 . In recognition of the club 's former ground the stadium stands on " Burnden Way " . It has four stands , though the lower tier seating is one continuous bowl . It was originally known as the Reebok Stadium after long @-@ time team sponsor , Reebok . This was initially unpopular with many fans , as it was considered impersonal , and that too much emphasis was being placed on financial considerations . This opposition considerably lessened since the stadium was built . In April 2014 , the stadium was renamed as part of a four @-@ year deal with new sponsors Macron sportswear .
In 2014 the club established Bolton Wanderers Free School at the stadium , a sixth form offering sports and related courses for 16 to 19 @-@ year @-@ olds
= = Support = =
Bolton Wanderers Supporters ' Association ( BWSA ) is the official supporters ' association of Bolton Wanderers Football Club . The Supporters ' Association was formed in 1992 , on the initiative of a fan , Peter Entwistle . Later that year the Directors of the football club , satisfied that the Association had proven itself to be organised and responsible , officially recognised Bolton Wanderers Supporters ' Association as the club 's supporters ' group .
In 1997 , shortly after the move from Burnden Park to the Reebok Stadium , the BWSA accepted the invitation from the football club to hold its monthly meetings at the new stadium . The Macron Stadium has continued to be their venue ever since . In the year 2000 , the Association expanded significantly when its invitation to affiliate was accepted by Bolton Wanderers supporters groups in other parts of Britain , and also by groups around the world . All of these foreign groups have come on board to become independent , but integral , parts of the official Bolton Wanderers supporters ' family . Requests for affiliated status continue to be received regularly from other places around the world where Wanderers fans find themselves gather together .
= = = Rivalries = = =
Bolton 's main rivals historically have been with near neighbours Bury , though this has lessened since the Second World War as the two clubs have rarely been in the same league . The club also has a rivalry with Blackburn Rovers , as the two sides are separated by just fifteen miles and are both founder members of the Football League . More recently , Bolton have developed an enmity with Wigan Athletic , whose fans generally regard Bolton as their main rivals . Bolton fans maintain a mutual dislike with the fans of Tranmere Rovers , Burnley , and Wolverhampton Wanderers .
= = Ownership and finances = =
The holding company of Bolton Wanderers F.C. is Burnden Leisure plc , which is a private company limited by shares . Burnden Leisure was previously a public company traded on the AIM stock exchange until its voluntary delisting in May 2003 following Eddie Davies 's takeover . The club itself is 100 % owned by Burnden Leisure , with Sports Shield Consortium leader holding 94 @.@ 5 % of issued shares in Burnden Leisure since the takeover from Eddie Davies in 2016 . The remaining stakes are held by over 6 @,@ 000 small shareholders with less than 0 @.@ 1 % holding each .
Since exiting the Premier League , Eddie Davies , the then owner of the club revoked his investment into the club . This led to published debts of almost £ 200m and bought the club very close to being wound up over unpaid tax bills owed to HMRC . As a gesture of his goodwill and as incentive to sell the club , Davies promised to wipe over £ 125m of debt owed to him when the club was sold , which wiped a significant proportion of debt the club owed .
= = = Sponsorship = = =
Bolton Wanderers had a long @-@ established partnership with sporting goods firm Reebok , which was formed in the town . Between 1997 and 2009 this partnership encompassed shirt sponsorship , kit manufacture and stadium naming rights . The combined shirt sponsorship ( 1990 – 2009 ) and kit manufacture ( 1993 – 2012 ) deals covering 22 years represent the longest kit partnership in English football history . The stadium 's naming rights were held by Reebok since its opening in 1997 and was due to run until the end of the 2015 – 16 season . Bolton 's kit manufacturer from the 2014 – 15 season changed to Italian sportswear brand Macron who also manufacture kits for clubs including Aston Villa , Lazio and Napoli . The stadium was also re @-@ branded as the Macron Stadium from July 2014 in an agreement that will last for an initial four years .
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ovny and Anderson . According to Tom Kessenich in his book Examinations , Anderson reportedly " wasn 't thrilled " with the lack of attention her character was getting ; instead , the writers were crafting episodes solely for Doggett because he was the show 's new " voice " . Duchovny , on the other hand , was unhappy because Mulder 's abduction was never properly examined . Reportedly , Duchovny offered to write and direct an episode based around the conceit of Mulder being trapped in the alien spaceship , as seen in the season opener " Within " and " Without " . Carter , however , nixed the idea because " it was not about Doggett . "
= = = Casting = = =
The show 's seventh season was a time of closure for The X @-@ Files . Characters within the show were written out — including Cigarette Smoking Man ( William B. Davis ) and Mulder 's mother ( Rebecca Toolan ) — and several plot threads were resolved , including the fate of Fox Mulder 's sister Samantha . Furthermore , after settling his contract dispute , Duchovny quit the show . This contributed to uncertainties over the likelihood of an eighth season . Carter and most fans felt the show was at its natural endpoint with Duchovny 's departure , and Carter penned " Requiem " , the finale episode of the seventh season , as a possible series finale . However , at the last minute , a new season was ordered and Duchovny agreed to star part @-@ time , returning for 12 episodes instead of 21 . Due to this change , the producers found it difficult to write Duchovny 's character out of the script , but also eventually explain Mulder 's absence if there were to be an upcoming season . Eventually , it was decided to have the character abducted by aliens .
Hoping to continue the series , Carter introduced a new central character to replace Mulder : John Doggett . More than 100 actors auditioned for the role , with only about ten considered by the producers . Lou Diamond Phillips and Hart Bochner were among the auditionees , and Phillips , Bochner and Bruce Campbell ( who played Wayne Weinsider in a previous episode of The X @-@ Files ) were considered for the role , but the producers eventually choose Robert Patrick . The season also introduced Monica Reyes ( portrayed by Annabeth Gish ) , who would become a main character in the following season .
= = = Crew = = =
Chris Carter , who also served as executive producer and showrunner during the season , wrote or co @-@ wrote the bulk of the episodes for the season , with nine of the twenty one episodes . Of the nine , four were co @-@ written with executive producer Frank Spotnitz . Carter also wrote five episodes solo , and Spotnitz wrote four episodes solo . The rest of the writing staff contributed one or two episodes . Vince Gilligan was promoted to executive producer and wrote one episode . John Shiban was promoted to co @-@ executive producer and wrote one episode . David Amann was promoted to producer and wrote one episode . Jeffrey Bell was promoted to executive story editor and wrote one episode . Greg Walker was promoted to executive story editor and wrote two episodes . Steven Maeda was promoted to story editor and wrote two episodes . Daniel Arkin , who wrote a freelance episode for the series previously , returned to contribute to the story for one episode .
Kim Manners was promoted to co @-@ executive producer and directed the most of episodes of the season with seven . Directors who directed multiple episodes for the season included Tony Wharmby who directed four , Rod Hardy directed three , and Richard Compton directed two . Peter Markle , Terrence O 'Hara , and Barry K. Thomas each directed one episode . Carter directed a single episode , while writer Spotnitz made his directorial debut .
= = Cast = =
= = = Main cast = = =
David Duchovny as Special Agent Fox Mulder ( 12 episodes ) a
Gillian Anderson as Special Agent Dana Scully ( 20 episodes ) b
Robert Patrick as Special Agent John Doggett ( 21 episodes )
a ^ Although appearing in only 12 episodes , Duchovny is listed credited as " starring " in the opening credits for the episodes in which he appeared .
b ^ She does not appear in " The Gift " , except in archived footage .
= = = Recurring cast = = =
= = = = Also starring = = = =
Mitch Pileggi as Walter Skinner ( 12 episodes )
Annabeth Gish as Monica Reyes ( 4 episodes )
Nicholas Lea as Alex Krycek ( 3 episodes )
= = = = Guest starring = = = =
= = Episodes = =
Episodes marked with a double dagger ( ) are episodes in the series ' Alien Mythology arc .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
Reportedly , Patrick was cast due to the hopes that his featured role in Terminator 2 : Judgment Day ( 1991 ) would attract a great 18- to 35 @-@ year @-@ old male demographic to the show . Early on , Fox executives reported a 10 percent overall increase in the demographic , solely due to Patrick 's casting . " Within " , the season 's first episode , earned a Nielsen household rating of 9 @.@ 5 , meaning that it was seen by 9 @.@ 5 % of the nation 's estimated households . The episode was viewed by 15 @.@ 87 million viewers , which marked an 11 % decrease from the seventh season opener , " The Sixth Extinction . " The highest @-@ rated episode of the season was " This is Not Happening " , which was viewed by 16 @.@ 9 million viewers , making it the most @-@ watched episode of the series , in terms of viewers , since " The Sixth Extinction " . The season finale , " Existence " , earned a Nielsen household rating of 8 @.@ 4 , meaning that it was seen by 8 @.@ 4 % of the nation 's estimated households . The episode was watched by 14 million viewers , overall . The nine episodes of the season that did not feature Mulder averaged only 13 million viewers , whereas the twelve episodes that did feature Mulder averaged 13 @.@ 93 million viewers , almost a difference of one million . The season averaged a total of 13 @.@ 53 million viewers , down from the seventh season 's 14 @.@ 2 million .
During 2000 , companies were paying Fox $ 225 @,@ 000 for every 30 @-@ second spot that would air between acts of The X @-@ Files . Many Information technology ( IT ) companies were buying commercials during the show , largely due to the fact that " many [ ' coders IT geeks ' ] get their weekly fix of science fiction from this prime @-@ time show . "
= = = Reviews = = =
The show 's eighth season received mixed to positive reviews from critics . The A.V. Club noted that the first eight seasons of The X @-@ Files were " good @-@ to @-@ great " , and that the eighth season of the show was " revitalized by the new ' search for Mulder ' story @-@ arc . " John C. Snider of SciFiDimensions gave the season a favorable review , calling it " great " and describing its episodes as " pretty strong " . Collin Polonowonski of DVD Times said that the season included " more hits than misses overall " but was throughout negative about the mythology episodes claiming them to be the " weakest " episodes in the season . Many critics eventually accepted Doggett 's character . Anita Gates of The New York Times said that most fans had " accepted " the introduction of the character and further stated that he actually looked " Like a Secret Service Agent . " Carter commented on the character , saying " Everybody likes Robert Patrick and the character " , but further stating that the fans " miss " Duchovny 's character , Mulder . Dave Golder of SFX called Patrick " superb " and noted that his entrance in the series " inject [ ed ] a sense of pragmatism and good old @-@ fashioned plain @-@ speaking in to the show which we didn 't realise was missing until we got it . " Entertainment Weekly reviewer Ken Tucker said that Patrick 's portrayal of Doggett was " hardboiled alertness " , giving mostly positive reviews about his inclusion . Cynthia Littleton of The Hollywood Reporter described the season as the show 's " swan song " .
Not all reviews were positive . Jesse Hassenger from PopMatters gave a negative review to the season , claiming that Patrick was mis @-@ cast and calling David Duchovny 's appearances as Fox Mulder shallow . Golder criticized the season for " recycling plots with gusto " and for featuring Mulder falling into Scully 's eye in the opening credits , noting that it " gives Duchovny too much of a lingering presence on the show , reinforcing prejudices against Patrick as some kind of ' imposter ' . "
= = = Accolades = = =
" This Is Not Happening " was nominated for an American Society of Cinematographers award for cinematography . Robert Patrick won a Saturn Award in the category " Best Television Actor " in 2001 for his role as Doggett , that year Gillian Anderson was nominated in the category " Best Actress on Television " and the series itself was nominated in the category " Best Network Television Series " in the Saturn Awards , but failed to win . Anderson was nominated for a Screen Actors Guild award the very same year in the category " Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Drama Series " . The X @-@ Files won its last Emmy Award with " Deadalive " , and Bill Roe received a nomination for " Outstanding Cinematography for a Single @-@ Camera Series " .
= = DVD release = =
= Emmett Till =
Emmett Louis Till ( July 25 , 1941 – August 28 , 1955 ) was an African @-@ American teenager who was lynched in Mississippi at the age of 14 after reportedly flirting with a white woman .
Till was from Chicago , Illinois , and visiting relatives in Money , a small town in the Mississippi Delta region . He spoke to 21 @-@ year @-@ old Carolyn Bryant , the married proprietor of a small grocery store there . Several nights later , Bryant 's husband Roy and his half @-@ brother J. W. Milam went to Till 's great @-@ uncle 's house and abducted the boy . They took him away and beat and mutilated him before shooting him and sinking his body in the Tallahatchie River . Three days later , Till 's body was discovered and retrieved from the river .
Till 's body was returned to Chicago . His mother , who had mostly raised him , insisted on a public funeral service with an open casket to show the world the brutality of the killing . " The open @-@ coffin funeral held by Mamie Till Bradley exposed the world to more than her son Emmett Till 's bloated , mutilated body . Her decision focused attention not only on American racism and the barbarism of lynching but also on the limitations and vulnerabilities of American democracy " . Tens of thousands attended his funeral or viewed his casket and images of his mutilated body were published in black @-@ oriented magazines and newspapers , rallying popular black support and white sympathy across the U.S. Intense scrutiny was brought to bear on the condition of black civil rights in Mississippi , with newspapers around the country critical of the state . Although initially local newspapers and law enforcement officials decried the violence against Till and called for justice , they soon began responding to national criticism by defending Mississippians , which eventually transformed into support for the killers .
In September 1955 , Bryant and Milam were acquitted of Till 's kidnapping and murder . Protected against double jeopardy , Bryant and Milam publicly admitted in an interview with Look magazine that they killed Till . Problems identifying Till affected the trial , partially leading to Bryant 's and Milam 's acquittals , and the case was officially reopened by the United States Department of Justice in 2004 . As part of the investigation , the body was exhumed and autopsied resulting in a positive identification . He was reburied in a new casket , which is the standard practice in cases of body exhumation . His original casket was donated to the Smithsonian Institution .
The trial of Bryant and Milam attracted a vast amount of press attention . Till 's murder is noted as a pivotal catalyst to the next phase of the Civil Rights Movement . Events surrounding Emmett Till 's life and death , according to historians , continue to resonate . Some writers have suggested that almost every story about Mississippi returns to Till , or the region in which he died , in " some spiritual , homing way " .
= = Early childhood = =
Emmett Till was the son of Mamie Carthan ( 1921 – 2003 ) and Louis Till ( 1922 – 1945 ) . Emmett 's mother was born in the small Delta town of Webb , Mississippi . The Delta region encompasses the large , multi @-@ county area of northwestern Mississippi in the watershed of the Yazoo and Mississippi rivers . When Carthan was two years old , her family moved to Argo , Illinois , as part of the Great Migration of rural black families out of the South to the North to escape lack of opportunity and unequal treatment under the law . Argo received so many Southern migrants it was named " Little Mississippi " ; Carthan 's mother 's home was often used as a way station for people who had just moved from the South as they were trying to find jobs and housing . Mississippi was the poorest state in the U.S. in the 1950s , and the Delta counties were some of the poorest in Mississippi .
In Tallahatchie County , where Mamie Carthan was born , the average income per household in 1949 was $ 690 ( $ 6 @,@ 755 in 2013 dollars ) ; for black families it was $ 462 ( $ 4 @,@ 523 in 2013 dollars ) . Economic opportunities for blacks were almost nonexistent . Most of them were sharecroppers who lived on land owned by whites . Blacks had essentially been excluded from voting and the political system since the white @-@ dominated legislature passed a new constitution in 1890 , and had very few legal rights .
Till was born in Chicago and nicknamed " Bobo " as an infant by a family friend . His mother Mamie largely raised him with her mother ; she and Louis Till separated in 1942 after she discovered he had been unfaithful . Louis later choked her to unconsciousness , to which she responded by throwing scalding water at him . For violating court orders to stay away from Mamie , Emmett 's father Louis was forced by a judge to choose between jail or enlisting in the U.S. Army in 1943 ; he was executed in Italy in 1945 after being convicted of rape and murder by a court @-@ martial . At the age of six Emmett contracted polio , leaving him with a persistent stutter . Mamie and Emmett moved to Detroit , where she met and married " Pink " Bradley in 1951 . Emmett preferred to live in Chicago , so he relocated to live with his grandmother ; his mother and stepfather rejoined him later that year . After the marriage dissolved in 1952 , Bradley returned to Detroit .
Mamie Till Bradley and Emmett lived together in a busy neighborhood in Chicago 's South Side , near extended relatives . She began working as a civilian clerk for the U.S. Air Force for a better salary and recalled that Emmett was industrious enough to help with chores at home , although he sometimes got distracted . His mother remembered that he did not know his own limitations at times . Following his and Mamie 's separation , Bradley visited and began threatening her . At eleven years old , Emmett , with a butcher knife in hand , told Bradley he would kill him if Bradley did not leave . Usually , however , Emmett was happy . He and his cousins and friends pulled pranks on each other ( Emmett once took advantage of an extended car ride when his friend fell asleep and placed the friend 's underwear on his head ) , and spent their free time in pickup baseball games . He was a natty dresser and often the center of attention among his peers .
In 1955 , Emmett was stocky and muscular , weighing about 150 pounds ( 68 kg ) and standing 5 feet 4 inches ( 1 @.@ 63 m ) . Despite his being 14 years old , whites in Mississippi claimed Till looked like an adult . Mamie Till Bradley 's uncle , 64 @-@ year @-@ old Mose Wright , visited her and Emmett in Chicago during the summer and told Emmett stories about living in the Mississippi Delta . Emmett wanted to see for himself . Bradley was ready for a vacation and planned to take Emmett with her , but after he begged her to visit Wright , she relented . Wright planned to accompany Till with a cousin , Wheeler Parker , and another , Curtis Jones , would join them soon . Wright was a sharecropper and part @-@ time minister who was often called " Preacher " . He lived in Money , Mississippi , a small town in the Delta that consisted of three stores , a school , a post office , a cotton gin , and a couple hundred residents , 8 miles ( 13 km ) north of Greenwood . Before Emmett departed for the Delta , his mother cautioned him that Chicago and Mississippi were two different worlds , and he should know how to behave in front of whites in the South . He assured her he understood .
Since 1882 , when statistics on lynchings began to be collected , more than 500 African Americans had been killed by extrajudicial violence in Mississippi alone , and more than 3 @,@ 000 across the South . Most of the incidents took place between 1876 and 1930 ; though far less common by the mid @-@ 1950s , these racially motivated murders still occurred . Throughout the South , whites publicly prohibited interracial relationships ( while indulging in affairs with black women ) as a means to maintain white supremacy . This was meant to " protect " white women from black men . Even the suggestion of sexual contact between black men and white women could carry severe penalties for black men . A resurgence of the enforcement of such Jim Crow mores was evident following World War II , when African @-@ American veterans started pressing for equal rights in the South .
Racial tensions increased further after the United States Supreme Court 's 1954 decision in Brown v. Board of Education to end segregation in public education , which it ruled as unconstitutional . Many segregationists believed the ruling would lead to interracial marriage . Whites strongly resisted the court 's ruling , in the case of a Virginia county , closing all the public schools to prevent integration . Other jurisdictions simply ignored the ruling . In other ways , whites used stronger measures to keep blacks politically disenfranchised , which they had been since the turn of the century. in the South was to constrain blacks forcefully from any semblance of social equality .
A week before Till arrived in Mississippi , a black activist named Lamar Smith was shot and killed in front of the county courthouse in Brookhaven for political organizing . Three white suspects were arrested , but they were soon released .
= = Encounter between Till and Carolyn Bryant = =
Till arrived in Money , Mississippi on August 21 , 1955 . On August 24 , he and cousin Curtis Jones skipped church where his great @-@ uncle Wright was preaching , joining some local boys as they went to Bryant 's Grocery and Meat Market to buy candy . The teenagers were children of sharecroppers and had been picking cotton all day . The market was owned by a white couple , 24 @-@ year @-@ old Roy Bryant and his 21 @-@ year @-@ old wife Carolyn ; it mostly served the local sharecropper population . Carolyn was alone in the store that day ; her sister @-@ in @-@ law was in the rear of the store watching children . Jones left Till with the other boys while Jones played checkers across the street .
According to Jones , the other boys reported that Till had a photograph of an integrated class at the school he attended in Chicago , and Till bragged to the boys that the white children in the picture were his friends . He pointed to a white girl in the picture , or referred to a picture of a white girl that had come with his new wallet , and said she was his girlfriend . One or more of the local boys dared Till to speak to Bryant .
The facts of what took place in the store are still disputed . According to several versions , including comments from some of the kids standing outside the store when Till walked in , Till may have wolf @-@ whistled at Bryant . A newspaper account following his disappearance stated that Till sometimes whistled to alleviate his stuttering . His speech was sometimes unclear ; his mother said he had particular difficulty with pronouncing " b " sounds , and he may have whistled to overcome problems asking for bubble gum . According to other stories , Till may have grabbed Bryant 's hand and asked her for a date , or said " Bye , baby " as he left the store , or " You needn 't be afraid of me , baby , I 've been with white women before . "
Bryant testified during the murder trial that Till grabbed her hand while she was stocking candy and said , " How about a date , baby ? " She said that after she freed herself from his grasp , the young man followed her to the cash register , grabbed her waist and said , " What 's the matter baby , can 't you take it ? " Bryant said she freed herself , and Till said , " You needn 't be afraid of me , baby , " used " one ' unprintable ' word " and said " I 've been with white women before . " Bryant also alleged that one of Till 's companions came into the store , grabbed him by the arm , and ordered him to leave .
Till 's cousin , Simeon Wright , writing about the incident decades later , challenged Carolyn Bryant 's account . Entering the store " less than a minute " after Till was left inside alone with Bryant , Wright saw no inappropriate behavior and heard " no lecherous conversation . " Wright said Till " paid for his items and we left the store together . " The FBI noted in their 2006 investigation of the cold case that a second anonymous source , who was confirmed to have been in the store at the same time as Till and his cousin , supported Wright 's account .
In any event , Bryant was allegedly so alarmed she ran outside to a car to retrieve a pistol from under the seat . Upon seeing her do this , the teenagers left immediately . It was acknowledged that while Bryant was running to her car , Till whistled . However , it is disputed whether Till whistled toward Carolyn or toward a checkers game that was occurring just across the street .
One of the other boys ran across the street to tell Curtis Jones what happened in the store . When the older man with whom Jones was playing checkers heard the story , he urged the boys to leave quickly , fearing violence . Bryant told others of the events at the store , and the story spread quickly . Jones and Till declined to tell his great @-@ uncle Mose Wright , fearing they would get in trouble . Till said he wanted to return home to Chicago . Carolyn 's husband Roy Bryant was on an extended trip hauling shrimp to Texas and did not return home until August 27 .
= = Murder = =
When Roy Bryant was told of what had happened , he aggressively questioned several young black men who entered the store . That evening , Bryant , with a black man named J. W. Washington , approached a young black man walking along a road . Bryant ordered Washington to seize the young man , put him in the back of a pickup truck , and took him to be identified by a companion of Carolyn 's who had witnessed the episode with Till . Friends or parents vouched for the young men in Bryant 's store , and Carolyn 's companion denied that the young man Bryant and Washington seized was the one who had accosted her . Somehow , Bryant learned that the young man in the incident was from Chicago and was staying with Mose Wright . Several witnesses overheard Bryant and his 36 @-@ year @-@ old half @-@ brother John William " J. W. " Milam discussing taking Till from his house .
In the early morning hours — between 2 : 00 am and 3 : 30 am — on August 28 , 1955 , Bryant , Milam , and another man ( who may have been black ) drove to Mose Wright 's house . Milam was armed with a pistol and a flashlight . He asked Wright if he had three boys in the house from Chicago . Till shared a bed with another cousin ; there were eight people in the small two @-@ bedroom cabin . Milam asked Wright to take them to " the nigger who did the talking " . When they asked Till if it was him , he replied , " Yeah " , for which they threatened to shoot him and told him to get dressed . The men threatened to kill Wright if he reported what he had seen . Till 's great @-@ aunt offered the men money , but they did not respond .
They put Till in the back of a pickup truck and drove to a barn at the Clint Shurden Plantation in Drew . Till was pistol @-@ whipped and placed in the bed of the pickup truck again and covered with a tarpaulin . Throughout the course of the night , Bryant , Milam , and witnesses recall their being in several locations with Till . According to some witnesses , they took Till to a shed behind Milam 's home in the nearby town of Glendora , where they beat him again and tried to decide what to do . Witnesses recall between two and four white men and two and four black men who were either in or surrounding the pickup truck where Till was seated . Others passed by Milam 's shed and heard someone being beaten . Accounts differ as to when Till was shot ; either in Milam 's shed or by the Tallahatchie River . The group drove with him in the truck to Bryant 's store , where several people noticed blood pooling in the truck bed . Bryant explained he killed a deer , and in one instance showed the body to a black man who questioned him , saying " that 's what happens to smart niggers " .
In an interview with William Bradford Huie , published in Look magazine in 1956 , Bryant and Milam said they intended to beat Till and throw him off an embankment into the river to frighten him . They told Huie that while they were beating Till , he called them bastards , declared he was as good as they , and had had sexual encounters with white women . They put Till in the back of their truck , drove to a cotton gin to take a 70 @-@ pound ( 32 kg ) fan — the only time they admitted to being worried , thinking that by this time in early daylight they would be spotted and accused of stealing — and drove for several miles along the river looking for a place to dispose of Till . They shot him by the river and weighted his body with the fan .
Mose Wright stayed on his front porch for twenty minutes waiting for Till to return . He did not go back to bed . He and another man went into Money , got gasoline , and drove around trying to find Till . Unsuccessful , they returned home by 8 : 00 am . After hearing from Wright that he would not call the police because he feared for his life , Curtis Jones placed a call to the Leflore County sheriff and another to his mother in Chicago . Distraught , she called Emmett 's mother Mamie Till Bradley . Wright and his wife also drove to Sumner , where Elizabeth Wright 's brother contacted the sheriff .
Bryant and Milam were questioned by Leflore County sheriff George Smith . They admitted they had taken the boy from his great @-@ uncle 's yard but claimed they had released him the same night in front of Bryant 's store . Bryant and Milam were arrested for kidnapping . Word got out that Till was missing , and soon Medgar Evers , Mississippi state field secretary for the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People ( NAACP ) and Amzie Moore , head of the Bolivar County chapter , became involved . They disguised themselves as cotton pickers and went into the cotton fields in search of any information that might help find Till .
Three days after his abduction , Till 's swollen and disfigured body was found by two boys fishing in the Tallahatchie River . His head was very badly damaged . He had been shot above the right ear , an eye was dislodged from the socket , there was evidence that he had been beaten on the back and the hips , and his body weighted by the fan blade , which was fastened around his neck with barbed wire . He was nude , but wearing a silver ring with the initials " L. T. " and " May 25 , 1943 " carved in it .
Confusion about Till 's whereabouts and a positive identification of the body retrieved from the river compounded issues in the case that eventually influenced the trial . Hodding Carter in the Delta Democrat @-@ Times , a local Mississippi newspaper , reported that Till may have been hidden by his relatives or perhaps returned to Chicago for his safety . The body 's face was unrecognizable due to trauma and having been submerged in water . Mose Wright was called to the river and identified Till . The silver ring Till wore was removed and returned to Wright , and further passed to the district attorney . Stories from witnesses , both black and white , conflict about whether the ring was on Till 's body and who knew he had worn it previously .
= = Funeral and reaction = =
Although lynchings and racially motivated murders had occurred throughout the South for decades , the circumstances surrounding Emmett Till and the timing acted as a catalyst to attract national attention to the case of a 14 @-@ year @-@ old boy who had unknowingly defied a severe social caste system . Till 's murder aroused feelings about segregation , law enforcement , relations between the North and South , the social status quo in Mississippi , the NAACP , White Citizens ' Councils , and the Cold War , all of which were played out in a drama staged in newspapers all over the U.S. and abroad .
When Till went missing , a three @-@ paragraph story was printed in the Greenwood Commonwealth and quickly picked up by other Mississippi newspapers . They reported on his death when the body was found , and the next day , when a picture of him his mother had taken the previous Christmas showing them smiling together appeared in the Jackson Daily News and Vicksburg Evening Post , editorials and letters to the editor were printed expressing shame at the people who had caused Till 's death . One read , " Now is the time for every citizen who loves the state of Mississippi to ' Stand up and be counted ' before hoodlum white trash brings us to destruction . " The letter said that Negroes were not the downfall of Mississippi society , but whites like those in White Citizens ' Councils that condoned violence .
Till 's body was clothed , packed in lime , and put in a pine coffin and prepared for burial . It may have been embalmed while in Mississippi . Mamie Till Bradley demanded that the body be sent to Chicago ; she later said that she worked to halt an immediate burial in Mississippi and called several local and state authorities in Illinois and Mississippi to make sure that her son was returned to Chicago . A doctor did not examine Till post @-@ mortem .
Mississippi 's governor , Hugh L. White , deplored the murder , asserting that local authorities should pursue a " vigorous prosecution " . He sent a telegram to the national offices of the NAACP promising a full investigation and assuring them " Mississippi does not condone such conduct " . Delta residents , both black and white , also distanced themselves from Till 's murder , finding the circumstances abhorrent . Local newspaper editorials denounced the murderers without question . Leflore County Deputy Sheriff John Cothran stated , " The white people around here feel pretty mad about the way that poor little boy was treated , and they won 't stand for this . "
Soon , however , discourse about Till 's murder became more complex . Robert B. Patterson , executive secretary of the segregationist White Citizens ' Council , lamented Till 's death by reiterating that racial segregation policies were in force for blacks ' safety and that their efforts were being neutralized by the NAACP . In response , NAACP executive secretary Roy Wilkins characterized the incident as a lynching and said that Mississippi was trying to maintain white supremacy through murder . He said , " there is in the entire state no restraining influence of decency , not in the state capital , among the daily newspapers , the clergy , nor any segment of the so @-@ called better citizens " . Mamie Till Bradley told a reporter that she would seek legal aid to help law enforcement find her son 's killers and that the State of Mississippi should share the financial responsibility . She was misquoted ; it came out as " Mississippi is going to pay for this " .
The A. A. Rayner Funeral Home in Chicago received Till 's body . Upon arrival , Bradley insisted on viewing it to make a positive identification , later stating that the stench from it was noticeable two blocks away . She decided to have an open @-@ casket funeral , saying , " There was just no way I could describe what was in that box . No way . And I just wanted the world to see . " Tens of thousands of people lined the street outside the mortuary to view Till 's body , and days later thousands more attended his funeral at Roberts Temple Church of God in Christ .
Photographs of his mutilated corpse circulated around the country , notably appearing in Jet magazine and The Chicago Defender , both black publications , and drew intense public reaction . According to The Nation and Newsweek , Chicago 's black community was " aroused as it has not been over any similar act in recent history " . Till was buried on September 6 in Burr Oak Cemetery in Alsip , Illinois .
News about Emmett Till spread to both coasts . Chicago Mayor Richard J. Daley and Illinois Governor William Stratton also became involved , urging Governor White to see that justice be done . The tone in Mississippi newspapers changed dramatically . They falsely reported riots in the funeral home in Chicago . Bryant and Milam appeared in photos smiling in military uniforms and Carolyn Bryant 's beauty and virtue were extolled . Rumors of an invasion of outraged blacks and northern whites were printed throughout the state so that the Leflore County sheriff took them seriously . Local businessman , surgeon , and civil rights proponent T. R. M. Howard , one of the wealthiest blacks in the state , warned of a " second civil war " if " slaughtering of Negroes " was allowed . Following Wilkins ' comments , white opinion began to shift . According to historian Stephen Whitfield , a specific brand of xenophobia in the South was particularly strong in Mississippi , urging whites to reject the influence of Northern opinion and agitation . This independent attitude was profound enough in Tallahatchie County that it earned the nickname " The Freestate of Tallahatchie " , according to a former sheriff , " because people here do what they damn well please " , making the county often difficult to govern .
Tallahatchie County Sheriff Clarence Strider , who initially positively identified Till 's body and stated that the case against Milam and Bryant was " pretty good " , on September 3 announced his doubts that the body pulled from the Tallahatchie River was that of Till , who , he speculated , was probably still alive . Strider suggested that the recovered body had been planted by the NAACP : a cadaver stolen by T. R. M. Howard , who colluded to place Till 's ring on it . Strider changed his account after the comments made in the press about the people of Mississippi , later saying , " The last thing I wanted to do was to defend those peckerwoods . But I just had no choice about it . "
Bryant and Milam were indicted for murder . The grand jury 's prosecuting attorney , Hamilton Caldwell , was not confident that he could get a conviction in a case of white violence against a black male accused of insulting a white woman . A local black paper was surprised at the indictment and praised the decision , as did the New York Times . The high @-@ profile comments made in Northern newspapers and by the NAACP concerned the prosecuting attorney , Gerald Chatham ; he worried that his office would not be able to secure a guilty verdict , despite their compelling evidence . Having limited funds , Bryant and Milam initially had difficulty finding attorneys to represent them , but five attorneys at a Sumner law firm offered their services pro bono . Collection jars were placed in stores and other public places in the Delta , eventually gathering $ 10 @,@ 000 for the defense .
= = Trial = =
The town of Sumner in Tallahatchie County served as the venue for the trial as the body had been found there . Sumner had one boarding house ; the small town was besieged by reporters from all over the country . David Halberstam called it " the first great media event of the civil rights movement " . A reporter who had covered the trials of Bruno Hauptmann and Machine Gun Kelly remarked that this was the most publicity for any trial he had ever seen . No hotels were available for black visitors . Mamie Till Bradley arrived to testify and the trial also attracted black congressman Charles Diggs from Michigan . Bradley , Diggs , and several black reporters stayed at Howard 's home in Mound Bayou . Located on a large lot and surrounded by Howard 's armed guards , it resembled a compound . The day before the start of the trial , a young black man named Frank Young arrived to tell Howard he knew of two witnesses to the crime . Levi " Too Tight " Collins and Henry Lee Loggins were black employees of Leslie Milam , J. W. ' s brother , in whose shed Till was beaten . Collins and Loggins were spotted with J. W. Milam , Bryant , and Till . The prosecution team was unaware of Collins and Loggins . Sheriff Strider , however , booked them into the Charleston , Mississippi jail to keep them from testifying .
The trial was held in September 1955 , lasting for five days ; and attendees remember the weather being very hot . The courtroom was filled to its 280 @-@ spectator capacity , and as a matter of course was racially segregated . Press from major national newspapers attended , including black publications ; black reporters were made to sit segregated from the white press , farther from the jury . Sheriff Strider welcomed black spectators coming back from lunch with a cheerful , " Hello , Niggers ! " Some visitors from the North found the court to be run with surprising informality . Jury members were allowed to drink beer on duty , and many white men in the audience wore handguns holstered to their belts .
The defense 's primary strategy was arguing that the body pulled from the river could not be positively identified , and they questioned whether Till was dead at all . The defense asserted that Bryant and Milam had taken Till , but had let him go . They attempted to prove that Mose Wright — who was addressed as " Uncle Mose " by the prosecution and " Mose " by the defense — could not identify Bryant and Milam as the men who took Till from his cabin . Only Milam 's flashlight was in use , and no other lights in the house were turned on . Milam and Bryant identified themselves to Wright the evening they took Till — the third man did not speak — but Wright only saw Milam clearly . Wright 's testimony was considered remarkably courageous and a first in the state for a black man implicating the guilt of a white man in court .
Journalist James Hicks , who worked for the black news wire service , the National Negro Publishers Association , ( later renamed the National Newspaper Publishers Association ) , was present in the courtroom ; he was especially impressed that Wright stood to identify Milam , pointing to him and saying " Thar he " ( There he is ) , calling it a historic moment and one filled with " electricity " . A writer for the New York Post noted that following his identification , Wright sat " with a lurch which told better than anything else the cost in strength to him of the thing he had done " . A reporter who covered the trial for the New Orleans Times @-@ Picayune stated it was " the most dramatic thing I saw in my career " .
Mamie Till Bradley testified that she instructed her son to watch his manners in Mississippi and that should a situation ever come to his being asked to get on his knees to ask forgiveness of a white person , he should do it without a thought . The defense questioned her identification of her son in the casket in Chicago and a $ 400 life insurance policy she had taken out on him .
While the trial progressed , Leflore County Sheriff George Smith , Howard , and several reporters , both black and white , attempted to locate Collins and Loggins . They could not , but found three witnesses who had seen Collins and Loggins with Milam and Bryant on Leslie Milam 's property . Two of them testified that they heard someone being beaten , blows , and cries . One testified so quietly the judge ordered him several times to speak louder ; he said he heard the victim call out , " Mama , Lord have mercy . Lord have mercy . " Judge Curtis Swango allowed Carolyn Bryant to testify , but not in front of the jury , after the prosecution objected that her testimony was irrelevant to Till 's abduction and murder . It may have been leaked in any case to the jury . Sheriff Strider testified for the defense his theory that Till was alive , and that the body retrieved from the river was white . A doctor from Greenwood stated on the stand that the body was too decomposed to identify , and therefore had been in the water too long for it to be Till .
In the concluding statements , one prosecuting attorney admitted that what Till did was wrong , but it warranted a spanking , not murder . Gerald Chatham passionately called for justice and mocked the sheriff and doctor 's statements that alluded to a conspiracy . Mamie Bradley indicated she was very impressed with his summation . The defense stated that the prosecution 's theory of the events the night Till was murdered were improbable , and said the jury 's " forefathers would turn over in their graves " if they convicted Bryant and Milam . Only three outcomes were possible in Mississippi for capital murder : life imprisonment , the death penalty , or acquittal . On September 23 the all @-@ white jury acquitted both defendants after a 67 @-@ minute deliberation ; one juror said , " If we hadn 't stopped to drink pop , it wouldn 't have taken that long . "
In post @-@ trial analyses , blame for the outcome varied . Mamie Till Bradley was criticized for not crying enough on the stand . The jury was noted to have been picked almost exclusively from the hill country section of Tallahatchie County , which , due to its poorer economic make @-@ up , found whites and blacks competing for land and other agrarian opportunities . Unlike the population living closer to the river ( and thus closer to Bryant and Milam in Leflore County ) , who possessed a noblesse oblige toward blacks , according to historian Stephen Whitaker , those in the eastern part of the county were virulent in their racism . The prosecution was criticized for dismissing any potential juror who knew Milam or Bryant , for the fear that such a juror would vote to acquit . Afterward , Whitaker noted that this was a mistake , as anyone who had personally known the defendants usually disliked them . One juror voted twice to convict , but on the third discussion , acquiesced and voted with the rest of the jury to acquit . In later interviews , the jurors acknowledged that they knew Bryant and Milam were guilty , but simply did not believe life imprisonment or the death penalty fit punishment for whites who had killed a black man . This is somewhat disputed by later interviews with two jurors who stated as late as 2005 that they believed the defense 's case , that the prosecution had not proven that Till had died , nor that it was his body that was removed from the river .
In November 1955 , a grand jury declined to indict Bryant and Milam for kidnapping , despite the testimony given that they had admitted taking Till . Mose Wright and a young man named Willie Reed , who testified to seeing Milam enter the shed from which screams and blows were heard , both testified in front of the grand jury . T. R. M. Howard after the trial paid to relocate to Chicago Wright , Reed , and another black witness who testified against Milam and Bryant , to protect them from reprisal for testifying . Reed , who later changed his name to Willie Louis to avoid being found , continued to live in the Chicago area until his death on July 18 , 2013 . He avoided publicity and kept his history secret from his wife until she was told by a relative . Reed began to speak publicly about the case in the PBS documentary The Murder of Emmett Till in 2003 .
= = Media discourse = =
Reactions from newspapers in major international cities and Catholic , Protestant , Jewish , and socialist publications were furious about the verdict and very critical of American society . Southern newspapers , particularly in Mississippi , wrote that the court system had done its job . Till 's story continued to make news for weeks following the trial , especially sparking debate between Southern , Northern , and black newspapers , the NAACP and various high @-@ profile segregationists about justice for blacks and the propriety of Jim Crow society .
In October 1955 , the Jackson Daily News reported facts about Till 's father that had been suppressed by the U.S. military . While serving in Italy , Louis Till raped two women and killed a third . He was court @-@ martialed and hanged by the Army near Pisa in July 1945 . Mamie Till Bradley and her family knew none of this , having been told only that Louis had been killed for " willful misconduct " . Mississippi senators James Eastland and John C. Stennis probed Army records to uncover Louis Till 's crimes . Although Emmett Till 's murder trial was over , news about his father remained on the front pages of Mississippi newspapers for weeks in October and November 1955 , further engaging debate about Emmett Till 's actions and Carolyn Bryant 's integrity . Stephen Whitfield writes that the lack of attention paid to identifying or finding Till is " strange " compared to the amount of published discourse about his father . Emmett Till 's urges , to white Mississippians , were genetic instincts that were violently expressed by his father Louis Till . According to historians Davis Houck and Matthew Grindy , " Louis Till became a most important rhetorical pawn in the high @-@ stakes game of north versus south , black versus white , NAACP versus White Citizens ' Councils " .
Protected against double jeopardy , Bryant and Milam struck a deal with Look magazine in 1956 to tell their story to journalist William Bradford Huie for between $ 3 @,@ 600 and $ 4 @,@ 000 . The interview took place in the law firm of the attorneys who had defended Bryant and Milam . Huie did not ask the questions ; Bryant and Milam 's own attorneys did . Neither attorney had heard their clients ' accounts of the murder before . According to Huie , the older Milam was more articulate and sure of himself than the younger Bryant . Milam admitted to shooting Till and neither of them thought of themselves as guilty or that they had done anything wrong .
Reaction to Huie 's interview with Bryant and Milam was explosive . Their brazen admission that they had slain Till caused prominent civil rights leaders to push the federal government harder to investigate the case . Till 's murder was one of several reasons the Civil Rights Act of 1957 was passed ; it allowed the U.S. Department of Justice to intervene in local law enforcement issues when civil rights were being compromised . Huie 's interview , in which he said that Milam and Bryant had acted alone , overshadowed inconsistencies in earlier versions of the stories . Details about Collins and Loggins and anyone else who had possibly been involved in Till 's abduction , murder , or the clean @-@ up of it , were , according to historians David and Linda Beito , forgotten .
= = Representation in culture = =
The story of Emmett Till began to seep into the consciousness of Americans through media and literature . Langston Hughes dedicated an untitled poem ( eventually to be known as " Mississippi — 1955 " ) to Till in his October 1 , 1955 column in The Chicago Defender . It was reprinted across the country and continued to be republished with various changes from different writers . Author William Faulkner , a prominent Mississippi native who often focused on racial issues , wrote two essays on Till : one before the trial in which he pleaded for American unity and one after , a piece titled " On Fear " that was published in Harper 's in 1956 . In it he questioned why the tenets of segregation were based on irrational reasoning .
Till 's murder was the focus of a 1957 television episode for the U.S. Steel Hour titled " Noon on Doomsday " written by Rod Serling , who was fascinated by how quickly Mississippi whites supported Bryant and Milam . Although the script was rewritten to avoid mention of Till , and did not say that the murder victim was black , White Citizens ' Councils vowed to boycott U.S. Steel . The eventual episode bore little resemblance to the Till case .
Gwendolyn Brooks wrote a poem titled " A Bronzeville Mother Loiters in Mississippi . Meanwhile , A Mississippi Mother Burns Bacon " ( 1960 ) . The same year Harper Lee published To Kill a Mockingbird , in which a white attorney is committed to defending a black man named Tom Robinson , accused of raping a white woman . Lee , whose novel had a profound effect on civil rights , has not publicly stated Robinson 's origins . Literature professor Patrick Chura notes several compelling similarities between Till 's case and that of Robinson . Writer James Baldwin loosely based his 1964 drama Blues for Mister Charlie on the Till case . He later divulged that Till 's murder had been bothering him for several years .
Bob Dylan recorded a song titled " The Death of Emmett Till " in 1962 . Till was mentioned in the 1968 autobiography of Anne Moody , Coming of Age in Mississippi , in which she states she first learned to hate during the fall of 1955 . Audre Lorde 's poem " Afterimages " ( 1981 ) focuses on the perspective of a black woman thinking of Carolyn Bryant 24 years after the murder and trial . Bebe Moore Campbell 's 1992 novel Your Blues Ain 't Like Mine centers on the events of Till 's death . Toni Morrison 's only play as of 2010 is Dreaming Emmett ( 1986 ) , a feminist look at the roles of men and women in black society , which she was inspired to write while considering " time through the eyes of one person who could come back to life and seek vengeance " . Emmylou Harris includes a song called " My Name is Emmett Till " on her 2011 album , Hard Bargain . According to scholar Christopher Metress , Till is often reconfigured in literature as a specter that haunts the white people of Mississippi , causing them to question their involvement in evil , or silence about injustice.The 2002 book Mississippi Trials , 1955 is a fictionalized account of Till 's death .
= = Later events = =
After Bryant and Milam admitted to Huie that they had killed Till , their support base in Mississippi eroded . Many of their former friends and supporters , including those who had contributed to their defense funds , cut them off . Their shops went bankrupt and closed after blacks boycotted them , and banks refused them loans to plant crops . After struggling to secure a loan and find someone who would rent to him , Milam managed to secure 217 acres and a $ 4 @,@ 000 loan to plant cotton , but blacks refused to work for him . He was forced to pay whites higher wages . Eventually , Milam and Bryant relocated to Texas , but their infamy followed them , and they continued to generate extreme animosity from locals . After several years , they returned to Mississippi . Milam found work as a heavy equipment operator , but ill health forced him into retirement . Over the years , Milam was tried for offenses such as assault and battery , writing bad checks , and using a stolen credit card . He died of spinal cancer in 1980 , at the age of 61 .
Bryant worked as a welder while in Texas , until increasing blindness forced him to give up this employment . At some point , he and Carolyn divorced ; he remarried in 1980 . He opened a store in Ruleville , Mississippi , and was convicted in 1984 and 1988 of food stamp fraud . In a 1985 interview , he denied that he had killed Till , but said : " if Emmett Till hadn 't got out of line , it probably wouldn 't have happened to him . " Fearing economic boycotts and retaliation , Bryant lived a private life and refused to allow himself to be photographed or reveal the exact location of his store , explaining : " this new generation is different and I don 't want to worry about a bullet some dark night " . He died of cancer in 1994 , at the age of 63 .
Till 's mother married Gene Mobley , became a teacher , and changed her surname to Till @-@ Mobley . She continued her life as an activist working to educate people about her son 's murder . In 1992 , Till @-@ Mobley had the opportunity to listen while Bryant was interviewed about his involvement in Till 's murder . With Bryant unaware that Till @-@ Mobley was listening , he asserted that Till had ruined his life , expressed no remorse , and said , " Emmett Till is dead . I don 't know why he can 't just stay dead . "
In 1996 , documentary filmmaker Keith Beauchamp , who was greatly moved by Till 's open @-@ casket photograph , started background research for a feature film he planned to make about Till 's murder . He asserted that as many as 14 people may have been involved , including Carolyn Bryant Donham ( who had remarried ) . Mose Wright heard someone with " a lighter voice " affirm that Till was the one in his front yard immediately before Bryant and Milam drove away with the boy . Beauchamp spent the next nine years producing The Untold Story of Emmett Louis Till , released in 2003 . That same year , PBS aired an installment of American Experience titled The Murder of Emmett Till . In 2005 , CBS journalist Ed Bradley aired a 60 Minutes report investigating the Till murder , part of which showed him tracking down Carolyn Bryant at her home in Greenville , Mississippi .
A 1991 book written by Stephen Whitfield , another by Christopher Metress in 2002 , and Mamie Till @-@ Mobley 's memoirs the next year all posed questions as to who was involved in the murder and cover @-@ up , leading federal authorities to try to resolve the questions about the identity of the body pulled from the Tallahatchie River .
In 2004 , the U.S. Department of Justice announced that it was reopening the case to determine whether anyone other than Milam and Bryant was involved . David T. Beito , a professor at the University of Alabama , states that Till 's murder " has this mythic quality like the Kennedy assassination " . It was one of a number of cold cases dating to the Civil Rights era that Justice was investigating .
The body was exhumed and an autopsy conducted by the Cook County coroner in 2005 . Using DNA from Till 's relatives , dental comparisons to images taken of Till , and anthropological analysis , the body exhumed was positively identified as Till 's . It had extensive cranial damage , a broken left femur , and two broken wrists . Metallic fragments were found in the skull consistent with being shot with a .45 caliber gun .
In February 2007 , a Leflore County grand jury , composed primarily of black jurors and empaneled by Joyce Chiles , a black prosecutor , found no credible basis for Beauchamp 's claim that 14 people took part in Till 's abduction and murder . Beauchamp was angry with the finding , but David Beito and Juan Williams , who worked on the reading materials for the Eyes on the Prize documentary , were critical of Beauchamp for trying to revise history and taking attention away from other cold cases . The grand jury failed to find sufficient cause for charges against Carolyn Bryant Donham . Neither the FBI nor the grand jury found any credible evidence that Henry Lee Loggins , identified by Beauchamp as a suspect who could be charged , had any role in the crime . Other than Loggins , Beauchamp refused to name any of the people he alleged were involved .
" When it comes to a lynching , it is not just the actual killers who are guilty , " Till @-@ Mobley wrote , in her book . " It is the dominant culture , the entire society that permits such a thing , that encourages it . Bryant and Milam were not the only guilty parties in the lynching of my son . Witnesses have pointed to at least six or seven people . But , in a way , there were so many thousands more . People who were responsible , powerful , influential . People who could have chosen to lead , and chose instead to incite . People who could have condemned hate crimes and chose instead to condone them . People who could have come clean and chose instead to live the rest of their lives with blood on their hands . "
= = Influence on civil rights = =
Through the constant attention it received , Till 's case became emblematic of the disparity of justice for blacks in the South . In 1955 The Chicago Defender urged its readers to react to the acquittal by voting in large numbers , a reminder that most blacks in the South had been disfranchised since the turn of the century under laws passed by white Democrat @-@ dominated legislatures . Myrlie Evers , widow of Medgar Evers , stated in 1985 that Till 's case resonated so strongly because it " shook the foundations of Mississippi — both black and white , because ... with the white community ... it had become nationally publicized ... with us as blacks ... it said , even a child was not safe from racism and bigotry and death . " The NAACP asked Mamie Till Bradley to tour the country relating the events of her son 's life , death , and the trial of his murderers . It was one of the most successful fundraising campaigns the NAACP had ever known . Journalist Louis Lomax acknowledges Till 's death to be the start of what he terms the " Negro revolt " and scholar Clenora Hudson @-@ Weems characterizes Till as a " sacrificial lamb " for civil rights . NAACP operative Amzie Moore considers Till the start of the Civil Rights Movement , at the very least , in Mississippi .
The 1987 14 @-@ hour Emmy award @-@ winning documentary Eyes on the Prize begins with the murder of Emmett Till . Accompanying written materials for the series , Eyes on the Prize and Voices of Freedom ( for the second time period ) exhaustively encompass the major figures and events of the Civil Rights Movement . Furthermore , Stephen Whitaker states , as a result of the attention Till 's death and the trial received ,
Mississippi became in the eyes of the nation the epitome of racism and the citadel of white supremacy . From this time on , the slightest racial incident anywhere in the state was spotlighted and magnified . To the Negro race throughout the South and to some extent in other parts of the country , this verdict indicated an end to the system of noblesse oblige . The faith in the white power structure waned rapidly . Negro faith in legalism declined , and the revolt officially began on December 1 , 1955 , with the Montgomery , Alabama , bus boycott .
In Montgomery , Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat to a white bus rider , sparking a year @-@ long well @-@ organized grassroots boycott of the public bus system , designed to force the city to change its segregation policies . Parks later said when she did not get up and move to the rear of the bus , " I thought of Emmett Till and I just couldn 't go back . " According to author Clayborne Carson , Till 's death and the widespread coverage of the students integrating Little Rock Central High School in 1957 were especially profound for younger blacks : " It was out of this festering discontent and an awareness of earlier isolated protests that the sit @-@ ins of the 1960s were born . " After seeing pictures of Till 's mutilated body , in Louisville , Kentucky , young Cassius Clay ( later famed boxer Muhammad Ali ) and a friend took out their frustration by vandalizing a local railyard , causing a locomotive engine to derail . It is thought that Till 's story influenced Harper Lee to create the character Tom Robinson in her novel To Kill A Mockingbird .
In 1963 , Sunflower County resident Fannie Lou Hamer , herself a sharecropper , was jailed and beaten for attempting to register to vote . The next year , she led a massive voter registration drive in the Delta region , and volunteers worked on Freedom Summer throughout the state . Before 1954 , 265 black people were registered to vote in three Delta counties , where they were a majority ; they made up 41 % of the total state population . The summer Emmett Till was killed , the number of registered voters in those three counties dropped to 90 . By the end of 1955 , fourteen Mississippi counties had no registered black voters . The Mississippi Freedom Summer of 1964 registered 63 @,@ 000 black voters in a simplified process administered by the project ; they formed their own political party because they were closed out of the Democratic Regulars in Mississippi .
Till continues to be the focus of literature and memorials . A statue was unveiled in Denver in 1976 ( and has since been moved to Pueblo , Colorado ) featuring Till with Martin Luther King , Jr . Till was included among the forty names of people who had died in the Civil Rights Movement ( listed as martyrs ) on the granite sculpture of the Civil Rights Memorial in Montgomery , Alabama , dedicated in 1989 . In 1991 , a 7 @-@ mile ( 11 km ) stretch of 71st Street in Chicago , was renamed " Emmett Till Road " . Mamie Till @-@ Mobley attended many of the dedications for the memorials , including a demonstration in Selma , Alabama on the 35th anniversary of the march over the Edmund Pettis Bridge . She later wrote in her memoirs , " I realized that Emmett had achieved the significant impact in death that he had been denied in life . Even so , I had never wanted Emmett to be a martyr . I only wanted him to be a good son . Although I realized all the great things that had been accomplished largely because of the sacrifices made by so many people , I found myself wishing that somehow we could have done it another way . " Till @-@ Mobley died in 2003 , the same year her memoirs were published .
James McCosh Elementary School in Chicago , where Till had been a student , was renamed the " Emmett Louis Till Math And Science Academy " in 2005 . The " Emmett Till Memorial Highway " was dedicated between Greenwood and Tutwiler , Mississippi , the same route his body took to the train station on its way to Chicago . It intersects with the H. C. " Clarence " Strider Memorial Highway . In 2007 , Tallahatchie County issued a formal apology to Till 's family , reading " We the citizens of Tallahatchie County recognize that the Emmett Till case was a terrible miscarriage of justice . We state candidly and with deep regret the failure to effectively pursue justice . We wish to say to the family of Emmett Till that we are profoundly sorry for what was done in this community to your loved one . " The same year , Georgia congressman John Lewis , whose skull was fractured while being beaten during the 1965 Selma march , sponsored a bill that provides a plan for investigating and prosecuting unsolved Civil Rights era murders . The Emmett Till Unsolved Civil Rights Crime Act was signed into law in 2008 .
= = = Casket = = =
On July 9 , 2009 , a manager and three laborers at Burr Oak Cemetery were charged with digging up bodies , dumping them in a remote area , and reselling the plots . Till 's grave was not disturbed , but investigators found his original glass @-@ topped casket rusting in a dilapidated storage shed . When Till was reburied in a new casket in 2005 , there were plans for an Emmett Till memorial museum , where his original casket would be installed . The cemetery manager , who administered the memorial fund , pocketed donations intended for the memorial . It is unclear how much money was collected . Cemetery officials also neglected the casket , which was discolored , the interior fabric torn , and bore evidence that animals had been living in it , although its glass top was still intact . The Smithsonian 's National Museum of African American History and Culture in Washington , D.C. acquired the casket a month later . According to director Lonnie Bunch III , it is an artifact with potential to stop future visitors and make them think .
= Bowmouth guitarfish =
The bowmouth guitarfish ( Rhina ancylostoma ) , also called the shark ray or mud skate , is a species of ray and the sole member of the family Rhinidae . Its evolutionary affinities are not fully resolved , though it may be related to true guitarfishes and skates . This rare species occurs widely in the tropical coastal waters of the western Indo @-@ Pacific , at depths of up to 90 m ( 300 ft ) . Highly distinctive in appearance , the bowmouth guitarfish has a wide and thick body with a rounded snout and large shark @-@ like dorsal and tail fins . Its mouth forms a W @-@ shaped undulating line , and there are multiple thorny ridges over its head and back . It has a dorsal color pattern of many white spots over a bluish gray to brown background , with a pair of prominent black markings over the pectoral fins . This large species can reach a length of 2 @.@ 7 m ( 8 @.@ 9 ft ) and weight of 135 kg ( 298 lb ) .
Usually found near the sea floor , the bowmouth guitarfish prefers sandy or muddy areas near underwater structures . It is a strong @-@ swimming predator of bony fishes , crustaceans , and molluscs . This species gives live birth to litters of two to eleven pups , which are nourished during gestation by yolk . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has assessed the bowmouth guitarfish as Vulnerable because it is widely caught by artisanal and commercial fisheries for its valuable fins and meat . It is viewed as a nuisance by trawlers , however , because its bulk and thorny skin cause it to damage netted catches . Habitat degradation and destruction pose an additional , significant challenge to this ray 's survival . The bowmouth guitarfish adapts well to captivity and is displayed in public aquariums .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
German naturalists Marcus Elieser Bloch and Johann Gottlob Schneider described the bowmouth guitarfish
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in their 1801 Systema Ichthyologiae . Their account was based on a 51 cm ( 20 in ) long specimen , now lost , collected off the Coromandel Coast of India . The genus name Rhina comes from the Greek rhinos ( " snout " ) ; the specific epithet ancylostoma is derived from the Greek ankylos ( " curved " or " crooked " ) and stoma ( " mouth " ) . Although Block and Schneider wrote the epithet as ancylostomus and that form appears in some literature , most modern sources regard the correct form to be ancylostoma . Other common names for this species include shark ray , mud skate , shortnose mud skate , bow @-@ mouthed angel fish , and bow @-@ mouthed angel shark .
The evolutionary relationships between the bowmouth guitarfish and other rays are debated . Morphological evidence generally points to a close relationship between Rhina and Rhynchobatus , which are a group of rays known as the wedgefishes that also have large , shark @-@ like fins . Morphological analyses have tended to place these two genera basally among rays , though some have them as basal to just the guitarfishes ( Rhinobatidae ) and skates ( Rajidae ) while others have them basal to all other rays except sawfishes ( Pristidae ) . A 2012 study based on mitochondrial DNA upheld Rhina and Rhynchobatus as sister taxa related to the guitarfishes , but also unexpectedly found that they formed a clade with the sawfishes rather than the skates .
In terms of classification , Bloch and Schneider originally placed the bowmouth guitarfish in the order Abdominales , a now @-@ obsolete grouping of fishes defined by the positioning of their pelvic fins directly behind the pectoral fins . Modern sources have included it variously in the order Rajiformes , Rhinobatiformes , Rhiniformes , or the newly proposed Rhinopristiformes . The placement of the bowmouth guitarfish in the family Rhinidae originates from the group " Rhinae " , consisting of Rhina and Rhynchobatus , in Johannes Müller and Jakob Henle 's 1841 Systematische Beschreibung der Plagiostomen . Later authors have also assigned this species to the family Rhinobatidae or Rhynchobatidae . Joseph Nelson , in the 2006 fourth edition of Fishes of the World , placed this species as the sole member of Rhinidae in the order Rajiformes , which is supported by morphological but not molecular data .
= = Description = =
The bowmouth guitarfish is a heavily built fish growing to 2 @.@ 7 m ( 8 @.@ 9 ft ) long and 135 kg ( 298 lb ) in weight . The head is short , wide , and flattened with an evenly rounded snout ; the front portion of the head , including the medium @-@ sized eyes and large spiracles , is clearly distinct from the body . The long nostrils are transversely oriented and have well @-@ developed skin flaps on their anterior margins . The lower jaw has three protruding lobes that fit into corresponding depressions in the upper jaw . There are around 47 upper and 50 lower tooth rows arranged in winding bands ; the teeth are low and blunt with ridges on the crown . The five pairs of ventral gill slits are positioned close to the lateral margins of the head .
The body is deepest in front of the two tall and falcate ( sickle @-@ shaped ) dorsal fins . The first dorsal fin is about a third larger than the second and originates over the pelvic fin origins . The second dorsal fin is located midway between the first dorsal and the caudal fin . The broad and triangular pectoral fins have a deep indentation where their leading margins meet the head . The pelvic fins are much smaller than the pectoral fins , and the anal fin is absent . The tail is much longer than the body and ends in a large , crescent @-@ shaped caudal fin ; the lower caudal fin lobe is more than half the length of the upper .
The entire dorsal surface of the bowmouth guitarfish has a grainy texture from a dense covering of tiny dermal denticles . A thick ridge is present along the midline of the back , which bears a band of sharp , robust thorns . There are also a pair of thorn @-@ bearing ridges in front of the eyes , a second pair running from above the eyes to behind the spiracles , and a third pair on the " shoulders " . This species is bluish to brownish gray above , lightening towards the margins of the head and over the pectoral fins . There are prominent white spots scattered over the body and fins , a white @-@ edged black marking above each pectoral fin , and two dark transverse bands atop the head between the eyes . The underside is light gray to white . Young rays are more vividly colored than adults , which are browner with fainter patterning and proportionately smaller spots .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
While uncommon , the bowmouth guitarfish is widely distributed in the coastal tropical waters of the western Indo @-@ Pacific . In the Indian Ocean , it is found from KwaZulu @-@ Natal in South Africa to the Red Sea ( including the Seychelles ) , across the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia ( including the Maldives ) , to Shark Bay in Western Australia . Its Pacific range extends northward to Korea and southern Japan , eastward to New Guinea , and southward to New South Wales . Found between 3 and 90 m ( 10 and 300 ft ) deep , this ray spends most of its time near the sea floor but can occasionally be seen swimming in midwater . It favors sandy or muddy habitats , and can also be found in the vicinity of rocky and coral reefs and shipwrecks .
= = Biology and ecology = =
The bowmouth guitarfish is a strong swimmer that propels itself with its tail like a shark . It is more active at night and is not known to be territorial . This species feeds mainly on demersal bony fishes such as croakers and crustaceans such as crabs and shrimp ; bivalves and cephalopods are also consumed . Its bands of flattened teeth allow it to crush hard @-@ shelled prey . Curiously , two bowmouth guitarfishes examined in a 2011 stable isotope study were found to have fed on pelagic rather than demersal animals , in contrast to previous observations .
The tiger shark ( Galeocerdo cuvier ) is known to prey on the bowmouth guitarfish . The ray is protected by the thorns on its head and back , and it may ram perceived threats . Parasites documented from this species include the tapeworms Carpobothrium rhinei , Dollfusiella michiae , Nybelinia southwelli , Stoibocephalum arafurense , and Tylocephalum carnpanulatum , the leech Pontobdella macrothela , the trematode Melogonimus rhodanometra , the monogeneans Branchotenthes robinoverstreeti and Monocotyle ancylostomae , and the copepods Nesippus vespa , Pandarus cranchii , and P. smithii . There is a record of a bowmouth guitarfish being cleaned by bluestreak cleaner wrasses ( Labroides dimidiatus ) .
Reproduction in the bowmouth guitarfish is viviparous , with the developing embryos sustained to term by yolk . Adult females have a single functional ovary and uterus . The litter size varies between two and eleven pups , and newborns measure 45 – 51 cm ( 18 – 20 in ) long . Sexual maturity is attained at lengths of 1 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 8 m ( 4 @.@ 9 – 5 @.@ 9 ft ) for males and over 1 @.@ 8 m ( 5 @.@ 9 ft ) in females . Females grow larger than males .
= = Human interactions = =
Throughout its range , the bowmouth guitarfish is caught incidentally or intentionally by artisanal and commercial fisheries using trawls , gillnets , and line gear . The fins are extremely valuable due to their use in shark fin soup , and are often the only parts of the fish kept and brought to market . However , the meat may also be sold fresh or dried and salted , and it is highly esteemed in India . When caught as bycatch in trawls , the bowmouth guitarfish is considered a nuisance because its strength and rough skin make it difficult to handle , and as the heavy ray thrashes in the net it can damage the rest of the catch . In Thailand , the enlarged thorns of this species are used to make bracelets .
The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has assessed the bowmouth guitarfish as Vulnerable . It is threatened by fishing and by habitat destruction and degradation , particularly from blast fishing , coral bleaching , and siltation . Its numbers are known to have declined substantially in Indonesian waters , where it is one of the large rays targeted by a mostly unregulated gillnet fishery . The IUCN has given this species a regional assessment of Near Threatened in Australian waters , where it is not a targeted species but is taken as bycatch in bottom trawls . The installation of turtle excluder devices on some Australian trawlers has benefited this species . Since it is rare and faces many conservation threats , the bowmouth guitarfish has been called " the panda of the aquatic world " .
It is a popular subject of public aquariums and fares relatively well , with one individual having lived for seven years in captivity . In 2007 , the Newport Aquarium in Kentucky initiated the world 's first captive breeding program for this species . Newport Aquarium announced in January 2014 that the female , " Sweet Pea " , had become pregnant and given birth to seven pups . By February 2014 , all seven pups had died . On January 7 , 2016 , Sweet Pea gave birth to nine shark pups which were eating on their own and still gaining weight by February 10 , 2016 . Newport Aquarium later announced that the pups would be moved into a coral reef exhibit where they can be viewed by the public starting on June 24 .
= Putsy Caballero =
Ralph Joseph " Putsy " Caballero ( born November 5 , 1927 ) is a retired infielder in Major League Baseball . Caballero played eight seasons in Major League Baseball , all for the Philadelphia Phillies during the Whiz Kids era , and holds the record as the youngest person in major league history to appear at third base .
After graduating high school at age 16 , the Phillies signed Caballero to a contract worth $ 10 @,@ 000 . After a few short stints at the major league level and playing parts of three seasons in the minor leagues , Caballero was named the starter at third base in 1948 . In his one season as an everyday player , Caballero batted .245 in 380 plate appearances at age 20 . After another stint in the minors in 1949 , he was a backup infielder , pinch hitter , and pinch runner for the 1950 season , and continued in that role through 1952 . After three more seasons in the minors , Caballero retired from baseball after the 1955 season .
After baseball , Caballero worked as an exterminator . His Louisiana home was destroyed in 2005 during Hurricane Katrina , and he lives in Lakeview , New orleans .
= = Early career and minor leagues = =
Caballero attended Jesuit High School in New Orleans , Louisiana , where he played baseball during the 1943 and 1944 seasons . During his first season , the Jesuit High team won both the city championship and the American Legion championship . The Philadelphia Phillies signed Caballero as an amateur free agent on September 9 , 1944 , the same year that fellow Whiz Kid shortstop Granny Hamner joined the organization . Caballero planned on attending Louisiana State University , where he had been offered a scholarship to play baseball and basketball . Mel Ott , a scout for the New York Giants and former outfielder , wanted Caballero to sign with the Giants , but counseled him to sign with " ' whoever offers you the most money ' " . The Phillies offered Caballero a $ 10 @,@ 000 signing bonus ( $ 169 @,@ 000 today ) , and his father advised him to sign the contract offered by general manager Herb Pennock and owner Bob Carpenter . At 16 years old , Caballero appeared in four games for the 1944 Phillies , getting four at @-@ bats without reaching base . In so doing , Caballero became the youngest third baseman ever to play in Major League Baseball , a record he still holds .
For the 1945 season , the Phillies sent Caballero to the Class @-@ A Utica Blue Sox of the Eastern League , where he played in 130 games at third base , batting .272 with 132 hits , 9 doubles , and 10 triples . While there , he was managed by Eddie Sawyer , and played with Hamner and Richie Ashburn , with whom he lived for two seasons . Caballero appeared in nine games with the Phillies in 1945 , scoring his first major league run and batting in a run as well . In 1946 , Caballero lost playing time as he and Hamner were both summoned to military service ; however , he did play in 76 games with the Terre Haute Phillies in the Class @-@ B Three @-@ I League and 1 game with the Blue Sox . That year , Caballero hit the first two home runs of his minor league career with Terre Haute , along with nine doubles and four triples .
Most of Caballero 's 1947 season was played at Utica as well , where he posted a .287 batting average , 114 hits , and 13 doubles while splitting time with Hamner at second base . His last cup of coffee with the Phillies came at the end of 1947 , when he notched his first major league hit and first walk in eight at @-@ bats .
= = Major league career = =
= = = 1948 – 1949 = = =
1948 was Caballero 's first full season in the major leagues ; he played 79 games during the year at third base — where he was the regular starter over Willie " Puddin ' Head " Jones — and 23 games at second base . At the plate , Caballero had a .245 batting average , the second @-@ lowest among the team 's starters that season — higher only than catcher Andy Seminick . He posted 86 hits ( 13 for extra bases ) in 380 plate appearances . In the field , Caballero played 102 games , he made 18 errors in 363 chances for a .950 fielding percentage . He started a triple play in a game against Cincinnati when Virgil Stallcup hit a sharp line drive to third base ; Caballero forced Ted Kluszewski out at second base with a throw to Hamner and Danny Litwhiler was picked off first trying to return to complete the third out . Additionally , Caballero notched the team 's only hit in a one @-@ hit pitching performance by Brooklyn Dodgers starting pitcher Rex Barney .
In the middle of the season , the Phillies promoted Caballero 's former manager Eddie Sawyer from their Triple @-@ A farm team , the Toronto Maple Leafs of the International League , to replace Ben Chapman at the helm . Teammate Robin Roberts described Caballero , as well as Hamner , Ashburn , and catcher Stan Lopata , as having " the highest respect for [ Sawyer ] " — all having played under his tutelage at Utica ; Caballero himself gave Sawyer the credit for his development , along with that of several other Whiz Kids . Caballero regressed in 1949 , playing 22 games with the Phillies but spending the majority of his season playing second base for the Maple Leafs in Triple @-@ A. He played in 48 games , amassing a .318 batting average ( the second @-@ highest total on the team ) and eight extra @-@ base hits .
= = = 1950 : The " Whiz Kids " = = =
Entering the Phillies ' 1950 season at 22 years old , Caballero was described as having " great potential " , but the Phillies wanted Mike Goliat to take over as the everyday second baseman . Caballero went to the major league club 's spring training as a non @-@ roster invitee ; his .379 average in the Grapefruit League won him a roster spot and a utility infield role with the Phillies . Media reports speculated that the Phillies would challenge the Dodgers for the National League pennant , and one of Caballero 's most valuable roles as a utility player was as a pinch runner off of the bench . In the second game of a July 25 doubleheader against the Chicago Cubs at Shibe Park , starting pitcher Roberts batted in the bottom of the ninth in a 0 – 0 shutout . With Bob Rush on the mound for Chicago , Roberts managed a walk and was replaced on base by Caballero , who promptly took second base on a hit and run groundout by first baseman Eddie Waitkus . A single to center field by Richie Ashburn allowed the speedy Caballero to score from second and completed the doubleheader sweep for Philadelphia — Bubba Church having pitched a three @-@ hit shutout in the first game earlier in the day .
As a pinch hitter , Caballero came through with hits in clutch situations , notably against the St. Louis Cardinals on August 30 . Behind 6 – 3 at Sportsman 's Park in St. Louis , the Phillies sent Caballero to the plate to pinch hit in the top of the seventh inning . He led off the inning with a single , scoring the first run of a seesaw come @-@ from @-@ behind rally that ended with a 9 – 8 Phillies victory , closer Jim Konstanty 's 13th of the season . Caballero displayed his running skills again in September , replacing Goliat in the ninth inning of another game against the Cardinals , and scoring a late @-@ inning run in place of Lopata against the Cincinnati Reds several days later to tie a close game that the Phillies eventually lost in 18 innings . On September 26 , Caballero scored another crucial run against the Boston Braves when he pinch @-@ ran for outfielder Dick Sisler . Waiting on third base after advancing from first on a Del Ennis single to center field , Jones hit a high ground ball to Boston shortstop Sibby Sisti , who booted the ball and allowed Caballero to score the game @-@ tying run ; the Phillies won , 8 – 7 .
In the final game of the season , in which the Phillies defeated the Dodgers , Caballero appeared as a pinch @-@ runner , replacing catcher Andy Seminick in the ninth inning . Philadelphia advanced to the 1950 World Series to play the New York Yankees , where they were defeated , four games to none . In the series , Caballero made three appearances : two as a pinch @-@ runner — for Seminick in Game 2 , and for Goliat in Game 3 — and one as a pinch @-@ hitter for Konstanty in Game 4 , where he struck out . For the season , Caballero appeared in 46 games and posted a .167 batting average .
= = = 1951 – 1952 = = =
Caballero continued as a utility player after the Whiz Kids ' defeat in the World Series , but the talented young players would never return to the Fall Classic with the Phillies . He played mostly second base during the 1951 season , fielding the position in 54 games . He posted a .186 batting average at the plate and hit his only major league home run , along with 3 doubles and 2 triples in 84 games played . With 10 hits in 42 at @-@ bats in what would be his final season in the major leagues , Caballero achieved a .238 average in the 1952 season , hitting three doubles . On June 15 , Caballero had a three @-@ hit game against the Pittsburgh Pirates in the second game of a doubleheader , one of the top performances of his career . He also batted in three runs in one game against the Giants on September 27 .
= = Return to the minors = =
In 1953 , Caballero played for the minor league Baltimore Orioles , where he batted .268 in 133 games , the most played in his professional career . He added 25 doubles , 2 triples , and 5 home runs to his total , but did not earn a promotion back to the major leagues . He returned to the Phillies system , playing for the Syracuse Chiefs . After batting .258 with 2 home runs and 41 runs batted in during the 1954 season and declining to a .225 average in 1955 , Caballero retired from baseball .
= = After baseball = =
After retiring from baseball , Caballero returned to Louisiana , where he worked as a salesman for an exterminating company , partnering with E.J. D ’ Arensbourg in 1963 . Eventually , he opened his own company in Metairie , Louisiana . Caballero lives in Lake View , Louisiana , where his home was destroyed by Hurricane Katrina . He lost memorabilia signed by Babe Ruth , Eddie Mathews , and Pete Rose in the flood , calling the hurricane damage " a catastrophe " . He lives with his wife , Clare ; they have seven children and nine grandchildren . Caballero rejoined some of his old teammates in 2008 to celebrate the Whiz Kids on Alumni Weekend .
= Theodosius ( son of Maurice ) =
Theodosius ( Greek : Θεοδόσιος ; August 4 , 583 / 585 – after November 27 , 602 ) was the eldest son of Byzantine Emperor Maurice ( r . 582 – 602 ) and was co @-@ emperor from 590 until his deposition and execution during a military revolt in November 602 . Along with his father @-@ in @-@ law Germanus , he was briefly proposed as successor to Maurice by the troops , but the army eventually favoured Phocas instead . Sent in an abortive mission to secure aid from Sassanid Persia by his father , Theodosius was captured and executed by Phocas 's supporters a few days after Maurice . Nevertheless , rumours spread that he had survived the execution , and became popular to the extent that a man who purported to be Theodosius was entertained by the Persians as a pretext for launching a war against Byzantium .
= = Biography = =
Theodosius was the first child of Maurice and his wife , the Augusta Constantina . He was born on August 4 , 583 ( according to the contemporary John of Ephesus and other chroniclers ) or 585 ( according to the later histories of Theophanes the Confessor and Kedrenos ) . He was the first son to be born to a reigning emperor since Theodosius II in 401 , and was accordingly named after the previous ruler . The papal envoy , or apocrisiarius , to Constantinople , the future Pope Gregory the Great , acted as his godfather . The scholar Evagrius Scholasticus composed a work celebrating Theodosius ' birth , for which he was rewarded by Maurice with the rank of consul .
A few years after his birth , possibly in 587 , Theodosius was raised to the rank of Caesar and thus became his father 's heir @-@ apparent , while on March 26 , 590 , he was publicly proclaimed as co @-@ emperor .
In November 601 or early February 602 , Maurice married Theodosius to a daughter of the patrician Germanus , a leading member of the Byzantine Senate . The historian Theophylact Simocatta , the major chronicler of Maurice 's reign , also records that on February 2 , 602 , Germanus saved Theodosius from harm during food riots in Constantinople .
Later in the same year , during the revolt of the Danubian armies in autumn , Theodosius and his father @-@ in @-@ law were hunting in the outskirts of Constantinople . There they received a letter from the mutinous troops , in which they demanded Maurice 's resignation , a redress of their grievances , and offered the crown to either of the two . They presented the letter to Maurice , who rejected the army 's demands . The emperor however began suspecting Germanus of playing a part in the revolt . Theodosius promptly informed his father @-@ in @-@ law of this and advised him to hide , and on 21 November Germanus fled first to a local church and then to the Hagia Sophia , seeking sanctuary from the Byzantine emperor 's emissaries .
On the very next day however , Maurice and his family and closest associates fled the capital before the advancing rebel army under Phocas , and crossed over to Chalcedon . From there , Theodosius was dispatched along with the praetorian prefect Constantine Lardys to seek the aid of Khosrau II , the ruler of Sassanid Persia . Maurice however soon recalled him , and on his return Theodosius fell into the hands of Phocas ' men and was executed at Chalcedon . His father and younger brothers had been executed a few days earlier on November 27 .
= = = Rumours of survival and pseudo @-@ Theodosius = = =
Subsequently , rumours emerged of Theodosius 's survival and spread far and wide . It was alleged that his father @-@ in @-@ law Germanus had bribed his executioner , a leading Phocas supporter named Alexander , to spare his life . In this story , Theodosius then fled , eventually reaching Lazica , where he died . Theophylact Simocatta reports that he thoroughly investigated these rumours and found them false .
However , the general Narses , who rose against Phocas in Mesopotamia , exploited these rumours : he produced a false Theodosius , and claimed to be fighting in his name . The imposter was then presented to Khosrau II by Narses . The Persian ruler in turn used him as a pretext for his own invasion of Byzantium , claiming that it was done in order to avenge the murder of Maurice and his family and place the " rightful " heir Theodosius on the throne .
= = = Coinage = = =
Theodosius does not appear on most of the regular coinage of Maurice 's reign , with two exceptions : the copper nummi of the Cherson mint , which show him along with his father and mother , and a special silver siliqua issue ( apparently cut in 591 / 592 to celebrate his proclamation as co @-@ emperor ) from the Carthage mint .
= Bruce Straley =
Bruce Straley is an American game director , artist and designer for the video game developer Naughty Dog , known for his work in the video games The Last of Us and Uncharted 4 : A Thief 's End . Straley 's first video game work was as an artist at Western Technologies Inc , where he worked on two titles . Following this , he worked as a designer on titles for different companies , prior to his employment at Crystal Dynamics , where he worked as a designer on Gex : Enter the Gecko and Gex 3 : Deep Cover Gecko .
Straley was employed at Naughty Dog in 1999 . He worked as an artist on Crash Team Racing and the Jak and Daxter series . Following this , he became co @-@ art director on Uncharted : Drake 's Fortune , and was appointed to game director of Uncharted 2 : Among Thieves . He was later chosen to lead development on The Last of Us as game director , a role he continued during the development of Uncharted 4 : A Thief 's End . Straley has received praise for his work . In particular , his work on The Last of Us was highly praised , and the game received several awards and nominations .
= = Career = =
Straley worked in the art and design department on two games at Western Technologies Inc : the Menacer 6 @-@ game cartridge in 1992 , and X @-@ Men in 1993 . Following this , he worked as designer on Pacific Softscape 's Generations Lost in 1994 , and on Zono Incorporated 's Mr. Bones in 1996 . He was later employed at Crystal Dynamics , where he worked alongside Amy Hennig , who later became creative director of the Uncharted series , and Evan Wells , who later became co @-@ president of Naughty Dog , as well as other future Naughty Dog employees . At Crystal Dynamics , Straley worked as designer on Gex : Enter the Gecko ( 1998 ) , and provided additional art for Gex 3 : Deep Cover Gecko ( 1999 ) . Following the release of Gex 3 in March 1999 , Straley was employed at Naughty Dog .
At Naughty Dog , Straley worked as an artist on Crash Team Racing in 1999 . Although he was employed as a texture artist , the small size of the team resulted in Straley performing various jobs , including design , background modeling and foreground animating , among others . As the size of the studio grew , the tasks became more specific . Straley acted as artist on Jak and Daxter : The Precursor Legacy ( 2001 ) , Jak II ( 2003 ) and Jak 3 ( 2004 ) . Straley is credited with creating the technology that managed the appearance of the Jak and Daxter series , and having the knowledge to understand the technical and artistic features , bridging the communication gap between the two departments . For Uncharted : Drake 's Fortune ( 2007 ) , Straley was appointed the role of co @-@ art director , alongside Bob Rafei , which involved advancing the team 's technology from the PlayStation 2 to the PlayStation 3 . He was then given the role of game director for Uncharted 2 : Among Thieves , which was released in 2009 .
Following the development of Uncharted 2 , Naughty Dog split into two teams to work on projects concurrently . With one team working on Uncharted 3 : Drake 's Deception ( 2011 ) , co @-@ presidents Evan Wells and Christophe Balestra chose Straley and Neil Druckmann to lead development on a new game ; Straley was selected to lead the project , as game director , based on his experience and his work on previous projects . Though they were originally set to develop a new game in the Jak and Daxter series , the team felt that they " weren 't doing service to the fans of [ the ] franchise " , and decided to create a new game , titled The Last of Us .
Straley and Druckmann had previously worked together on Uncharted 2 , and found that they shared similar interests . During the development of The Last of Us , Straley and Druckmann often joked that their relationship was " like a marriage " , in which they have many differing ideas , but ultimately wish to achieve the same goal . Straley 's role in developing The Last of Us was to handle gameplay . However , in the final weeks of development , Straley undertook roles from different departments that were busy with other tasks ; for example , he was seen hand @-@ arranging the texts on the game 's training screens , a task that lead artist Nate Wells found unusual . " I have never even heard of a game director doing that ! That 's like ... an intern task , " Wells said . At the Electronic Entertainment Expo 2012 , Straley showcased a gameplay demonstration of The Last of Us at Sony 's press conference ; his stance on the stage became an Internet meme , and was referred to as " The Bruce " . The game was released on June 14 , 2013 to critical acclaim . For his work on the game , Straley and Druckmann were nominated for Best Director from The Daily Telegraph ; it was ultimately awarded to Davey Wreden for his work on The Stanley Parable ( 2013 ) . Straley later continued his role as game director for the downloadable expansion pack The Last of Us : Left Behind ( 2014 ) .
Following Hennig 's departure from Naughty Dog in March 2014 , it was announced that Straley and Druckmann were working on Uncharted 4 : A Thief 's End ( 2016 ) as game director and creative director , respectively . Initial reports claimed that Hennig was " forced out " of Naughty Dog by Straley and Druckmann , though co @-@ presidents Evan Wells and Christophe Balestra later denied this . Straley presented gameplay demonstrations of Uncharted 4 at the PlayStation Experience in December 2014 , and at the Electronic Entertainment Expo in June 2015 .
= = Works = =
= = = Video games = = =
= = = Literature = = =
= = = Film and television = = =
= William Pantulf =
William Pantulf ( died 16 April probably in 1112 ) was an Anglo @-@ Norman nobleman and Baron of Wem . He was born in Calvados , a region of Normandy , where his family had lived since around 1030 . Pantulf held lands in Shropshire following the Norman Conquest of England . A vassal of Roger of Montgomery , the Earl of Shrewsbury , Pantulf was accused of murdering Roger 's wife but proved his innocence of the charge by a trial by ordeal . When Roger 's son Robert of Belleme rebelled against King Henry I of England , Pantulf did not take part and sided with the king . Upon his death , which most likely occurred in 1112 , William 's eldest son Philip inherited his Norman lands , and his second son Robert received the English lands .
= = Background and family = =
Pantulf was from Noron in the Calvados region of Normandy . His family had lived there since at least around 1030 , as a charter of Jumièges Abbey shows the family as vassals of the House of Montgomery in the Montgomery lands near Sées . Pantulf 's mother was named Beatrice , and his sister was named Helwise , but his father 's name and other siblings are not known .
= = After the Conquest = =
After the Norman Conquest of England , Pantulf held lands in Shropshire from Earl Roger de Montgomery . The earl settled a number of his Norman vassals , including Pantulf , on his new lands in Sussex and Shropshire . Pantulf 's grants totalled eleven manors located in Hodnet Hundred . Pantulf 's lands in England were centered on Wem , and are considered a feudal barony , making Pantulf the first Baron of Wem .
Pantulf was present at the consecration of the church at Bec Abbey on 23 October 1077 , along with King William the Conqueror of England . Pantulf lost his lands temporarily because he was suspected of murdering Roger 's wife Mabel de Bellême , around 1077 . Pantulf came under suspicion because Mabel had seized a castle at Peray en Saonnais held by Pantulf . When he was accused of the murder , Pantulf was in southern Italy , which had also been conquered by Normans . Pantulf sought refuge at the Abbey of Saint @-@ Evroul in Normandy while he was under suspicion ; he and his family were under the protection of the abbot .
Pantulf regained his lands after he cleared himself of the charge , through the mechanism of a trial by ordeal . It is not clear why the ordeal was required , with the historian David Bates speculating that either the evidence of Pantulf 's involvement was not conclusive or that murder victim 's family demanded the ordeal because they suspected any evidence pointing to Pantulf 's innocence . By 1086 he held 29 manors in Shropshire , along with other lands in Staffordshire and Warwickshire . When Roger 's son Robert de Bellême became Earl of Shrewsbury in 1098 , Pantulf was once more deprived of those lands he held as a vassal of the Earl .
= = Role in rebellion = =
In 1102 Robert de Bellême rebelled against King Henry I of England . Although Pantulf was still deprived of his previous holdings , he offered to support Robert , but was rebuffed and instead supported the king . Henry placed Stafford Castle in Pantulf 's custody . Besides controlling Stafford Castle , Pantulf mediated between Henry and some of the Welsh princes , who had previously sided with Robert , and helped secure their support for the king . Later Pantulf again acted as an envoy for the king , being sent to secure the switch of sides of Robert 's men who were holding Bridgnorth . Pantulf won their change of sides by offering the men lands worth a 100 pounds on the king 's behalf . His services to the king earned Pantulf the restoration of his confiscated estates as well as the grant of further lands — including the fief of Roger de Courcelles .
= = Death and legacy = =
Pantulf married Lescelina and they had four sons – Philip , Ivo , Arnald and Robert . He and his wife founded Noron Priory , in 1073 . This was located in Normandy and was founded as a small dependent priory of Saint Evroul . Besides Noron , Pantulf was also a benefactor of the Saint @-@ Evroul . In 1092 Pantulf journeyed to southern Italy again , this time to secure a relic of Saint Nicholas for his foundation at Noron . During this visit , he was offered extensive lands in Apulia by Robert Guiscard , but declined the offer and returned to the north . Pantulf died on 16 April , probably in 1112 , when his English lands were transferred to his second son Robert . The Norman lands went to the eldest son , Philip . Pantulf and his wife were buried at Noron in the cloister of his priory there .
= 2007 – 2008 Nazko earthquakes =
The 2007 – 2008 Nazko earthquakes were a series of small volcanic earthquakes measuring less than 4 @.@ 0 on the Richter magnitude scale . They took place in the sparsely populated Nazko area of the Central Interior of British Columbia , Canada starting on October 9 , 2007 and ending on June 12 , 2008 . They occurred just west of Nazko Cone , a small tree @-@ covered cinder cone that last erupted about 7 @,@ 200 years ago .
No damage or casualties resulted from the Nazko earthquakes , which were too small to be felt by people , but local seismographs recorded them . The earthquake swarm occurred at the eastern end of a known volcanic zone called the Anahim Volcanic Belt . This is an east @-@ west trending line of volcanic formations extending from the Central Coast to the Central Interior of British Columbia .
= = Geology = =
The 2007 – 2008 Nazko earthquake swarm is interpreted to have originated 25 km ( 16 mi ) below the surface . The character of the seismic waves indicated that the swarm originated from a magmatic source . It could have formed as a result of rock fracturing at the tip of a dike and / or by movement along fault planes due to changes in the local stress field by the expansion and movement of magma . This magmatic activity is potentially linked to the hypothesized Anahim hotspot , a mantle plume that is probably responsible for older volcanism throughout the Anahim Volcanic Belt . This volcanic belt includes the Rainbow , Ilgachuz and Itcha range shield volcanoes west of the Nazko swarm . Individual Anahim volcanoes generally become older to the west of the Nazko swarm , indicating that the North American Plate is moving in a westerly direction with respect to the hotspot , carrying the volcanoes along with it at a rate of 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) to 3 @.@ 3 cm ( 33 mm ) per year . Because the area where the 2007 – 2008 Nazko earthquake swarm originated is at the eastern end of the volcanic belt , it probably represents the youngest portion of the hotspot track . This suggests any future volcanic earthquakes will occur in the Nazko region or further to the east .
Before the Nazko earthquake swarm began in 2007 , the Anahim hotspot was not known to be an earthquake zone . On October 10 of the following year , a swarm of earthquakes occurred . These earthquakes were normally no more than magnitude 1 @.@ 0 on the Richter magnitude scale , but at least one earthquake was as strong as magnitude 3 @.@ 9 . Since the appearance of the Nazko swarm , Natural Resources Canada has expressed interest in the adjacent 7 @,@ 200 ‑ year ‑ old Nazko Cone .
Even though earthquake swarms can be dangerous , scientists are able to model such events to analyze their structure . During the earthquake swarm in 2007 , a group of scientists investigated the possibility that a volcanic eruption would occur . Five additional seismographs were placed in the earthquake zone , and scientists closely monitored the seismic activity . After additional data were gathered , scientists with the United States Geological Survey , the University of Washington , and other organizations , agreed that the Nazko earthquakes probably originated from movement of magma beneath the surface near Nazko Cone . However , because of the number and small size of the Nazko earthquakes , no volcanic eruption is likely . Other recent earthquakes in North America that have been attributed to magma but did not result in a volcanic eruption include the 2003 earthquakes under Lake Tahoe in the U.S. state of California and a 2004 earthquake swarm at Jordan Craters in the U.S. state of Oregon .
= = Number of earthquakes = =
More than 1 @,@ 000 earthquakes were recorded by regional seismic networks within three weeks of October 20 , 2007 . Because the seismometers that recorded the Nazko swarm were more than 25 km ( 16 mi ) away from where the earthquakes took place , the locations of the hypocenters were measured with poor resolution . Following the earthquake , five seismometers were placed by the Geological Survey of Canada from September 2007 to June 2008 close to the hypocenter . Analysis of the data recorded by these seismometers indicates a much larger total number of earthquakes . For example , at least 597 earthquakes were recognized during a period of only six hours .
At least two episodes of earthquakes constitute the Nazko swarm . In the first seismic phase from October 29 to November 1 , 2007 , a total of 153 earthquakes took place . During the second seismic phase between September 25 , 2007 and June 12 , 2008 , 4 @,@ 428 earthquakes occurred . These two seismic episodes were cross @-@ correlated by scientists to understand changes in the development of the earthquake swarm . Correlation coefficients were around 1 @.@ 0 for the beginnings of the periods of activity , indicating almost identical situations , and then decayed to around 0 @.@ 5 , indicating a decrease in similarity between the later stages of the two events .
= = Scientific response = =
The earthquake swarm was noted on October 12 , 2007 in the Prince George Citizen by citizen staff , three days after the earthquakes began . Scientists mentioned in the report were seismologist John Cassidy of Natural Resources Canada and volcanologist Catherine Hickson , who was part of the Geological Survey of Canada at the time . At the time of the report , scientists did not know the origin of the swarm . Seismologist John Cassidy stated , " the depth is enough to rule out hydrothermal but it 's up in the air as to whether the cause is tectonic shifts or volcanic activity . If it is volcanic there are certain characteristics that we would expect , there 's a tremor @-@ like character to it . And so we 'll be looking for the types of events that we see beneath volcanoes and we 'll be looking to see if they 're getting closer to the surface or if they 're migrating at all . "
Even if the Nazko swarm were a warning of a volcanic eruption , Hickson doubted it would turn out to be a highly explosive eruption like those that can occur in subduction @-@ zone volcanoes . " We 're not talking about an injection of tonnes of ash many kilometers into the air like the 1980 Mount St. Helens eruption or the 1991 Mount Pinatubo eruption . We 're talking about something very small , relatively localized that should have a fairly limited impact ... but it 'll be extremely exciting " , Hickson said . If an eruption were to occur , Hickson suggested that it would be characterized by
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0 nautical miles — 860 miles , or 1 @,@ 390 km — west of Hawaii ) , and evacuated 47 civilians to Hawaii the following month . A convoy assignment took Mahan to Samoa , where she joined Task Force 17 ( including the carrier Yorktown , two cruisers and five destroyers ) . The task force carried out raids on Jaluit Atoll , Mili Atoll and Makin Atoll ( Butaritari ) in the Marshall Islands and Gilbert Islands . Mahan moved on to Canton Island in late February 1942 , temporarily assigned to offshore patrol duty . By early April , she was at sea with a convoy bound for San Pedro , California . The ship then steamed north to the Mare Island Naval Shipyard for overhaul , docking on 18 April 1942 .
Mahan was back operating in the waters off Pearl Harbor in August 1942 . By mid @-@ October , she had steamed out of Pearl Harbor as part of Task Force 16 with the carrier Enterprise , the battleship South Dakota , two cruisers and seven destroyers . On 24 October they joined Task Force 17 , which included the carrier Hornet , four cruisers and six destroyers . The two carrier groups formed Task Force 61 under the command of Rear Admiral Thomas C. Kinkaid , and was ordered to the Santa Cruz Islands to strike the Japanese if they moved on Guadalcanal .
After the task force anchored off the islands on the morning of 26 October , Enterprise 's search planes spotted the enemy carrier force and dropped two 500 @-@ pound bombs on the Japanese aircraft carrier Zuiho , setting the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands in motion . When it subsided , the Navy had lost 74 aircraft , the carrier Hornet and one destroyer ; Enterprise , South Dakota , one cruiser and one destroyer were damaged . The Japanese lost about 100 aircraft , but their ship casualties were much lower . Nimitz and Halsey expressed their satisfaction with Kinkaid 's force and their battle against heavy odds , and the destroyers in the Hornet and Enterprise screens were commended for a stellar effort .
En route to Noumea , New Caledonia , on 27 October , a Japanese submarine contact caused the American ships to take evasive action . In the confusion , Mahan and battleship South Dakota collided : both ships were seriously damaged . Commander R. W. Simpson was Mahan 's captain at the time , having taken command in early 1941 . Temporary repairs were made to Mahan at Noumea , and she headed back to Pearl Harbor for a new bow .
Fully repaired , Mahan left Pearl Harbor on 9 January 1943 for the South Pacific . In subsequent months she escorted convoys between the New Hebrides and the Fiji Islands , performed patrol assignments off New Caledonia , and engaged in operations in Australian waters . By August her base of operations was Milne Bay , New Guinea , which along with Buna , Papua New Guinea , was used as a staging area for an advance to gain possession of the Japanese @-@ held northeast coast of New Guinea . The operation began in August 1943 , with plans to strike Lae , New Guinea . Two weeks earlier , Mahan , under Lieutenant Commander James T. Smith , and three other US destroyers had cleared the Lae approaches and the waters between Salamaua and Finschhafen , bombarding Japanese installations at Finschhafen . In early September the Lae Task Force , under Rear Admiral Daniel E. Barbey , left Milne Bay for Lae with 8 @,@ 000 Australian troops . By the evening of 4 September , the troop landing was completed . On 11 September Salamaua was under Allied control , and Lae was taken by 16 September . Mahan and other US destroyers had provided cover for the amphibious landings .
Defeated at Lae , the Japanese pulled back to Finschhafen , which the Americans and Australians chose as the site of their next offensive . On 21 September an assault force under Barbey left Buna , escorted by US destroyers including Mahan , and stopped at Lae to pick up an Australian infantry brigade . Additional US destroyers were attached to the force , preceding the convoy to the rendezvous point . On 22 September , before daylight , the amphibious force stormed the beach at Finschhafen ; by noon , all troops were ashore . As the destroyers began to withdraw from the area , ten Japanese torpedo planes winged across the water , targeting Mahan and five other US destroyers . The ships returned fire , shooting down eight of the ten planes ; the remaining two escaped . This scrimmage ended without any hits by enemy planes . By 2 October , Finschhafen was in the hands of the Allies .
On 14 December 1943 , the amphibious force led by Barbey mustered at Buna , New Guinea , in preparation for the landing at Arawe , New Britain . With it was a bombardment group , composed of Mahan and four other US destroyers . Setting sail on the 14th , the force dropped anchor off Arawe early the next morning , and Mahan and her sister ships bombarded the Japanese shore defenses at the main landing point . The shelling from the 5 " / 38 guns and the bazooka @-@ fired rockets sent the Japanese into retreat , and by mid @-@ morning the beachhead was secured . Christmas 1943 found Mahan steaming with Barbey 's amphibious force to Borgen Bay , near Cape Gloucester , New Britain . The entrance to Borgen Bay was risky , with uncharted waters ; Mahan and Flusser were picked to sound out the channel and mark the way . They moved through the channel , with two minesweepers laying buoys in their wake . The force shadowed the buoys , and made its way through the passage . On the morning of the 26th , the Marines landed on the beach unopposed . The Japanese struck forcefully later that afternoon , but the Americans would not be dislodged .
In late February 1944 , Mahan was in action with the Seventh Fleet supporting the troop landing at Los Negros Island in the Admiralty Islands . Although the supporting ships came under heavy fire , the troops made it ashore . Three weeks later , the Japanese force at Los Negros was defeated .
In early 1944 , after extended wartime duty in the Pacific , the veteran destroyer was ordered to California for overhaul and moored again at the Mare Island Naval Shipyard . Mahan left the yard in early July for Pearl Harbor , participating in exercises there until 15 August . She returned to New Guinea on 20 October via Eniwetok , Jaluit , Guam , Saipan and Ulithi , escorting convoys between Hollandia ( Jayapura ) and Leyte . By the end of November 1944 , Mahan was performing anti @-@ submarine patrol off Leyte in the Philippines .
= = Sinking = =
In November 1944 , bad weather and hostile terrain bogged down the ground campaign to seize Leyte from the Japanese . The chief impediment to retaking Leyte was the Japanese ability to reinforce and resupply its headquarters at Ormoc City , on the west side of Leyte , and the Americans ' inability to counter this advantage . Thus , the unavoidable decision was made for an amphibious attack on Ormoc .
On the morning of 7 December 1944 , three years to the day after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor , troops of the US 77th Infantry Division landed south of Ormoc City . At the same time , Mahan was patrolling the channel between Leyte and Ponson Island . The amphibious strike by the infantry met with little opposition , but nine Japanese bombers and four escort fighters converged on Mahan . In Kamikaze ( 1997 ) , Raymond Lamont @-@ Brown wrote : " Observers were to record of this , one of the most unusual and devastating of kamikaze assaults of 1944 , that the Japanese aircraft used torpedo @-@ launching tactics , but when they had been hit ... they switched to kamikaze attacks , diving on Mahan " . During the assault , US Army fighters downed three Japanese aircraft and damaged two more . Mahan shot down four but took three direct kamikaze hits , as David Sears observed in At War With the Wind ( 2008 ) , " ... the most calamitous [ being ] a direct hit to the superstructure near the No. 2 gun . "
Exploding and awash in flames , Mahan was turned by Commander E. G. Campbell toward the picket line in a last hope to save her before issuing the order to abandon ship . The destroyers Lamson and Walke rescued the survivors ; one officer and five men were missing , and thirteen seriously wounded ( including burns ) . A US destroyer sank Mahan with torpedoes and gunfire because she was not salvageable .
Mahan ’ s captain praised the performance of his crew during the ordeal . He described their response as disciplined and courageous .
= = Honors = =
Mahan received five battle stars for her World War II service .
= M54 motorway =
The M54 is a 23 @-@ mile ( 37 km ) east @-@ west motorway in the English counties of Shropshire and Staffordshire . It is also referred to as the Telford Motorway , after the road 's primary westbound destination , the new town of Telford . The motorway cost £ 65 million to construct , and is two @-@ lane dual carriageway for the majority of its length , with sections of three @-@ lane .
The M54 spur connects the M6 motorway near Essington , Staffordshire with the A5 trunk road at Wellington , Shropshire . The motorway forms part of the strategic route to North Wales , roughly following the path of the Roman Watling Street and the A5 north @-@ westwards , towards the port of Holyhead . It is the only motorway in Shropshire , and forms a vital part of the county 's road network . The motorway handles an AADT of between 50 @,@ 300 ( J2 @-@ 3 ) and 41 @,@ 800 ( J4 @-@ 5 ) vehicles .
= = History = =
= = = Planning = = =
The idea of the M54 was originally presented due to the high volumes of traffic on the A5 , London to Holyhead road which was largely constructed by civil engineer Thomas Telford in the early 19th century following the route of the Roman Watling Street , which connected Rochester , Kent with Wroxeter , Shropshire . The initial plan for a motorway following the M54 's present route was therefore designed to alleviate the roads which handled the commercial traffic to the port of Holyhead , destined for Ireland . With the proposal in the early 1960s for a new town to provide an overspill housing area for the West Midlands conurbation , then named Dawley New Town ( designated as Telford in 1967 ) , the M54 was becoming more likely to be built ; the government also wanted to increase transport provision to the rest of Shropshire .
In 1967 the Ministry of Transport invited construction company Freeman Fox , Wilbur Smith Associates ( FFWSA ) to investigate and report on the impact of the New Town proposals on traffic demand between the proposed New Town site and Wolverhampton , and the best highway solution to meet this demand . The predicted demand was that of 75 @,@ 000 vehicles per day by 1990 and a need for a dual 3 @-@ lane motorway . Two corridors were identified for a possible new motorway route , and a third option to possibly upgrade existing roads . The route could have followed the A5 Corridor to the M6 South of Gailey , at junction 12 , or a new corridor could have been established to the M6 , north @-@ east of Featherstone , at junction 11 . Additionally , it was proposed that the existing A5 could be upgraded to full dual carriageway grade separated standards together with improvements to the A41 and A464 trunk routes .
= = = The Wellington bypass = = =
The first section of the M54 was opened in 1975 , then named the A5 Wellington bypass ( bypassing one of the existing towns which formed part of Telford ) , but renumbered the M54 in 1983 when the motorway was extended . The bypass removed traffic from the heavily congested route through the urbanised areas of Oakengates and Wellington , and removed one of the country 's most notorious bottlenecks at the Bucks Head crossroads , in Wellington ; delays of up to six hours could be experienced in the summer months .
= = = Construction = = =
The Wellington bypass was constructed by contractor M. J. Gleeson Ltd , from 1973 to 1975 . Many problems followed in the two years after completion ; the rigid concrete carriageway broke up , due to the road being built on a poor subbase with rigid concrete along a historically heavily mined route . The aesthetic and constructional design of the bridges was also heavily criticised . Over the next 15 years , almost all of the original carriageway had to be replaced with asphalt .
The 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) section between the junction with the M6 , and Telford , excluding the Wellington bypass , was divided into four contracts each awarded to different companies ; all sections remained under the design of Sir Owen Williams and Partners .
Contract 1 ( Shifnal ) was given to A Monk & Co . , who utilised a slip @-@ form paver to construct the concrete section , which led to it becoming a standard in future motorway construction .
Contract 2 ( Donington ) was awarded to R M Douglas Construction Ltd . The two @-@ year contract was completed in only 18 months , due to the dry weather which allowed the earthworks to be completed ahead of schedule .
Contract 3 ( Codsall ) was taken by Alfred McAlpine & Son ( Southern ) Ltd . , and was constructed almost identically to contract 1 .
Contract 4 ( Essington ) was the largest contract , and was awarded to Tarmac Construction ( present day Carillion ) . This section took the longest to complete , and faced opposition from Staffordshire County Council who wanted disruption at the junction with the M6 to remain minimal .
The Forge junction at Telford Town Centre was awarded relatively late , to the company Norwest Holst . The junction precipitated the construction of Telford Shopping Centre , and the central commercial area , as the exchange was upgraded to allow traffic from the motorway to join and exit in both directions . The Forge to Cluddley section , from junction 5 to junction 7 , opened to traffic in December 1975 . The Hilton Park to Forge section , from the M6 to junction 5 , opened in November 1983 . The motorway cost 65 million pounds to build , which when adjusted for inflation would come to approximately 150 million 2006 GBP .
To help alleviate opposition to the intrusive motorway design , the 60 feet ( 18 m ) wide carriageway was built to pass below the natural landscape , where possible . Man @-@ made hills were constructed which , along with the planting of 250 @,@ 000 new trees , helped to camouflage the motorway from view , and cut down on the noise level . This aesthetic improvement project took two and a half years to complete and employed over 100 people .
= = Impact = =
The recent strong economic growth and lower unemployment in the Telford area has been attributed to the construction of the motorway : unemployment in the 1980s was over 20 % , but by 2004 this figure had fallen to 3 @.@ 3 % . The motorway enabled the development of distribution centres in Telford , and industrial estates such as Hortonwood and Stafford Park have provided employment in the area .
Some of the highest pollution levels in the borough of Telford and Wrekin are along the M54 , particularly in the urban area between junctions 5 and 7 .
The M54 is particularly busy in mid @-@ August : it carries traffic to the V Festival at Weston @-@ under @-@ Lizard from the south ( via the M6 ) , and to the Shrewsbury Flower Show from the east .
= = Route = =
The road runs west from junction 10A of the M6 motorway near Essington , Staffordshire ( Map ) . It passes south of Featherstone near junction 1 and then north of Bushbury before reaching junction 2 . Just before junction 3 with Albrighton the road enters Shropshire . It then passes to the north of Shifnal . Between junction 4 and junction 5 , the road passes across the Wolverhampton to Shrewsbury railway line , and through the centre of Telford . Between junctions 6 and 7 , the road runs around the south of Wellington before joining the A5 ( Map ) , which continues on to Shrewsbury as dual carriageway .
Telford Motorway Service Station opened on 18 March 2003 at junction 4 , and is operated by Welcome Break . It is the only service station on this motorway and , if travelling east , the last before Corley on the M6 or Frankley on the M5 .
= = Proposed developments = =
= = = Extension of the M54 to Shrewsbury = = =
The Department for Transport ( DfT ) is currently investigating the possibility of extending the M54 westward to Shrewsbury , thereby placing the county town on the UK motorway map for the first time . Currently traffic has to continue onto the dual carriageway A5 when the M54 ends at Wellington although the road surface or speed limits do not change at all but the road . It is not motorway standard from the M54 J7 to the Shrewsbury ring road , because laybys would need to be removed and a hard shoulder would also need to be built which could cause delays to traffic .
= = = M54 to M6 / M6 ( Toll ) Link Road = = =
The M54 currently meets the M6 at junction 10A where there is no access to the northbound M6 or to the M6 Toll . Northbound access to the M6 is via the A449 from junction 2 and the most direct route to the M6 Toll is via the congested A460 from junction 1 .
Plans for a link road between the M54 and the M6 Toll ( M6 junction 11a ) were supported in principle by the Secretary of State for Transport in 2003 and were put on display in 2006 with an expected construction date of 2012 . The £ 102m cost for the scheme would be paid for by The Macquarie Infrastructure Group ( the company that owns Midland Expressway Ltd and operates the M6 Toll ) .
= = = Other proposals = = =
In February 2009 , local newspaper the Shropshire Star reported plans to create a flyover linking the M54 and A442 in Telford town centre , just south east of Telford Central railway station . Presently traffic has to travel along a single carriageway portion of the A5 , and pass through two roundabouts to access the M54 . Since Junction 5 of the motorway is only 200 metres ( 220 yd ) from the current bridge across the A442 , the plans would involve either having two motorway junctions immediately next to each other , or one complex flyover .
Proposals for a ' Western Bypasses of Wolverhampton and Stourbridge ' were rejected by the government in 2003 .
= = Junctions = =
Data from driver location signs are used to provide distance and carriageway identifier information .
= Sumarr and Vetr =
In Norse mythology , Sumarr ( Old Norse " Summer " ) and Vetr ( Old Norse " Winter " ) are personified seasons . Sumarr and Vetr , personified , are attested in the Poetic Edda , compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources , and the Prose Edda , written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson . In both , the two are given genealogies , while in the Prose Edda the two figure into a number of kennings used by various skalds .
= = Attestations = =
= = = Poetic Edda = = =
In the stanza 26 of the Poetic Edda poem Vafþrúðnismál , the god Odin ( disguised as " Gagnráðr " ) asks the jötunn Vafþrúðnir from where warm Sumarr and Vetr come from , stating that they arrived " first among the Wise powers " . In stanza 27 , Vafþrúðnir responds :
Wind @-@ cool [ Vindsvalr ] he is called , Winter 's [ Vetr 's ] father ,
and Mild @-@ One [ Svásuðr ] , the father of Summer [ Sumarr ] .
The second half of this stanza is missing from early manuscripts , but some later manuscripts feature the addition of :
And both of these shall ever be
Till the gods to destruction go .
= = = Prose Edda = = =
In chapter 19 of the Prose Edda book Gylfaginning , Gangleri ( king Gylfi in disguise ) asks why there 's an evident difference between summer and winter . The enthroned figure of High responds , and ( after scolding him for asking a question everyone knows the answer to ) states that the father of Sumarr is Svásuðr , who is quite pleasant , while the father of Vetr is referred to as Vindsvalr or , alternately , Vindljóni , and that Vetr derives his countenance from his ancestors , as they are " cruel and cold @-@ hearted kinsmen " .
Sumarr and Vetr are additionally personified in the Prose Edda book Skáldskaparmál , where they are referred to in kennings . Kennings for Sumarr are given in chapter 30 , including " son of Svásuðr " , " comfort of the snakes " , " growth of men " , exemplified in an excerpt given from a work by the skald Egill Skallagrímsson where " Valley @-@ fish 's mercy " points to " Snake 's mercy " , which signifies " Summer " . Kennings are given for Vetr in chapter 26 ; " Son of Vindsvalr " , " snake 's death " , and " storm season " . Excerpts of works by the skalds Ormr Steinþórsson ( who uses the kenning " Vindsvalr 's son " ) and Ásgrímr ( who employs the kenning " snake woe " ) are then given as examples . Both Sumarr and Vetr are given as terms for " times " in chapter 63 .
= Lochry 's Defeat =
Lochry 's Defeat , also known as the Lochry massacre , was a battle fought on August 24 , 1781 , near present @-@ day Aurora , Indiana , in the United States . The battle was part of the American Revolutionary War ( 1775 – 1783 ) , which began as a conflict between Great Britain and the Thirteen Colonies before spreading to the western frontier , where American Indians entered the war as British allies . The battle was short and decisive : about one hundred Indians of local tribes led by Joseph Brant , a Mohawk military leader who was temporarily in the west , ambushed a similar number of Pennsylvania militiamen led by Archibald Lochry . Brant and his men killed or captured all of the Pennsylvanians without suffering any casualties .
Lochry 's force was part of an army being raised by George Rogers Clark for a campaign against Detroit , the British regional headquarters . Clark , the preeminent American military leader on the northwestern frontier , worked with Governor Thomas Jefferson of Virginia in planning an expedition to capture Detroit , by which they hoped to bring an end to British support of the Indian war effort . In early August 1781 , Clark and about 400 men left Fort Pitt in Pennsylvania by boat , floating down the Ohio River a few days ahead of Lochry and his men , who were trying to catch up .
Joseph Brant 's force was part of a combined British and Indian army being raised to counter Clark 's offensive . Brant had too few men to challenge Clark , but when he intercepted messengers traveling between Clark and Lochry , he learned about Lochry 's smaller group bringing up the rear . When Lochry landed to feed his men and horses , Brant launched his overwhelmingly successful ambush . Because Clark had been able to recruit only a fraction of the men he needed for his campaign , the loss of Lochry 's men resulted in the cancellation of Clark 's expedition .
= = Background = =
In the Ohio River valley , the American Revolutionary War was fought primarily between American colonists south and west of the Ohio River ( in present @-@ day Western Pennsylvania , West Virginia , and Kentucky ) and American Indians with their British allies north of the river ( now the Midwestern United States ) . From Detroit , the British recruited and supplied Indian war parties to attack American forts and settlements , hoping to divert American military resources from the primary theater of war in the East as well as keeping the Indians — and the lucrative fur trade — firmly attached to the British Empire . Indians of the Ohio Country , primarily the Shawnee , Mingo , Delaware , and Wyandot , hoped to drive American settlers out of Kentucky and reclaim their hunting grounds , which they had lost in the Treaty of Fort Stanwix ( 1768 ) and Lord Dunmore 's War ( 1774 ) .
The Americans sought to hold on to Kentucky and to secure territorial claims to the region by launching sporadic expeditions against hostile Indian settlements north of the Ohio River . George Rogers Clark , a Virginia militia officer in Kentucky , believed that the Americans could ultimately win the border war by capturing Detroit . He laid the groundwork for this objective in 1779 by seizing the British outpost of Vincennes and capturing the British commander of Detroit , lieutenant governor Henry Hamilton . " This stroke " , said Clark , " will nearly put an end to the Indian War . " Clark prepared for a Detroit campaign in 1779 and again in 1780 , but each time called off the expedition because of insufficient men and supplies . " Detroit lost for want of a few Men " , he lamented .
= = Planning Clark 's campaign = =
In late 1780 , Clark traveled east to consult with Thomas Jefferson , the governor of Virginia , about an expedition in 1781 . Jefferson devised a plan which called for Clark to lead 2 @,@ 000 men against Detroit , with the hope of preventing a rumored British offensive against Kentucky . To avoid potential conflicts over rank with Continental Army colonels while organizing the campaign , Clark requested that Jefferson promote him to brigadier general in the Continental Army . Army rules precluded Clark from receiving a Continental commission , however , because Clark held his colonel 's commission from Virginia rather than the United States . Jefferson instead promoted Clark to the Virginia rank of " Brigadier General of the forces to be embodied on an expedition westward of the Ohio " . In January 1781 , Clark left for Fort Pitt in western Pennsylvania to assemble his men and supplies . His goal was to have the expedition ready for departure from Fort Pitt by June 15 .
As with earlier campaigns , recruiting enough men was a problem . Jefferson called for the western counties of Virginia to provide militia manpower for Clark 's campaign , but county officials protested that they could not spare the men . Militiamen did not want to set out on a lengthy expedition — they would be gone for six months to a year — while their families and homes were threatened by Lord Cornwallis 's army in the east , by Indian raids from the north , and by Loyalists at home . Because of this resistance , Jefferson called for volunteers rather than ordering the militia to accompany the expedition .
In addition to volunteers , Jefferson also arranged for a regiment of 200 regular Continental soldiers under Colonel John Gibson to accompany Clark . Longstanding tensions between Continental Army officers and the militia made such cooperation problematic , however . Colonel Daniel Brodhead , the Continental Army commander at Fort Pitt , refused to detach men for Clark 's campaign because he was staging his own expedition against the Delaware Indians , who had recently entered the war against the Americans . Brodhead marched into the Ohio Country and destroyed the Delaware Indian capital of Coshocton in April 1781 . This resulted in the Delaware becoming more determined enemies , and deprived Clark of badly needed men and supplies for the Detroit campaign .
Clark also had problems recruiting men from Pennsylvania : lingering resentment due to the recently settled border dispute between Virginia and Pennsylvania meant that few Pennsylvanians were willing to participate in an expedition headed by a Virginian . Clark 's controversial attempt to draft Pennsylvanians into service created even more ill will . One Pennsylvanian who supported Clark was Colonel Archibald Lochry , commander of the Westmoreland County militia . On July 4 , 1781 , Lochry wrote to Joseph Reed , the President of the Supreme Executive Council of Pennsylvania :
We have very distressing times Here this summer . The Enemy are almost constantly in our County Killing and Captivating the Inhabitants . I see no way we can have of defending ourselves other than by offensive operations . General Clarke [ sic ] has Requested our assistance to Enable him to carry an Expedition into the Indian Country .
With Reed 's approval , Lochry began recruiting men for Clark 's expedition . Many Westmoreland men did not want to leave their homes undefended , and so Lochry was only able to enlist about 100 volunteers for the campaign .
When Clark finally left Fort Pitt in August 1781 , he was accompanied by only 400 men , although he expected to meet Lochry and his Pennsylvanians at Fort Henry ( present Wheeling , West Virginia ) . Clark was angry about the lack of support given his campaign , but he still hoped that the Kentucky militia , who were to rendezvous with him at Fort Nelson ( Louisville , Kentucky ) , would provide additional men . He intended to at least carry out an expedition against enemy Indians if he did not have enough men to attack Detroit .
= = Indian and British preparations = =
Thanks to an effective intelligence network , British officials and their American Indian allies were aware of Clark 's planned expedition as early as February 1781 . In April , a council was held at Detroit in order to prepare a defense . The commander at Detroit was Major Arent DePeyster , Henry Hamilton 's replacement , who reported to Sir Frederick Haldimand , the Governor General of British North America . DePeyster used agents of the British Indian Department such as Alexander McKee and Simon Girty , both of whom had close relations with American Indians of the Ohio Country , to coordinate British and Indian military operations .
Joining the Detroit conference was an Iroquois delegation headed by Joseph Brant ( or Thayendanegea ) , a military leader of the Mohawks , one of the Six Nations of the Iroquois Confederacy . Brant was a minor war chief when the war began , but his ability to speak English and his connections with British officials made him prominent in British eyes . When Brant traveled to London in 1775 to discuss Mohawk land grievances , Lord George Germain , the colonial secretary , vaguely promised him that if the Iroquois supported the Crown during the war , native land grievances would be redressed after the rebellion had been suppressed . Brant returned home and encouraged the Iroquois , who lived mostly in upstate New York , to enter the war as British allies . Four tribes of the Six Nations eventually did so .
Brant became a skilled partisan commander during the war , initially leading about 100 men known as " Brant 's Volunteers " . Because the traditional Iroquois leaders regarded Brant as an upstart who was too closely connected to the British , most of his volunteers were white Loyalists . Brant gained additional native followers during the war and was perhaps the only Indian to be commissioned as a British captain , but he was not , as has sometimes been claimed , the head war chief of the Iroquois . Brant took part in a joint British @-@ Indian invasion of New York in 1777 , which for the British ended in a disastrous surrender at Saratoga . Afterwards , he led numerous frontier raids , both before and after the massive American invasion of 1779 , which left the Iroquois lands devastated .
In April 1781 , with the New York frontier in ruins , the British transferred Brant to Detroit . The official reason for the move was that Brant was needed to help rally Indian support to counter Clark 's anticipated campaign . An apparent unofficial cause was that Brant , who was usually a moderate drinker , had been transferred after getting into a drunken fistfight with an Indian Department officer at Fort Niagara . Although the " Western Indians " of the Ohio Country and Detroit region had strained relations with the Iroquois , they cautiously welcomed Brant 's help .
At the Detroit council , DePeyster encouraged the Indians to unite and to send a force to oppose Clark 's expedition . In May 1781 , Indian leaders and Indian Department officials began to gather warriors at the Wyandot town of Upper Sandusky for this purpose . In mid @-@ August , Brant and George Girty , Simon 's brother , headed south to the Ohio River with about 90 Iroquois , Shawnee , and Wyandot warriors , as well as a few white men , while McKee and Simon Girty continued to collect reinforcements .
= = Lochry follows Clark = =
In early August , Clark moved his troops by boat down the Ohio River to Wheeling , where he was to rendezvous with Lochry and his men . After waiting five days longer than planned , Clark decided to leave Wheeling without Lochry because men were deserting the expedition , and Clark believed that if he got them further away from home , they would be less inclined to run off . When Lochry finally reached Wheeling on August 8 , he found that Clark had departed only a few hours earlier . Lochry sent the following message to Clark :
My dear General . I arrived at this Post this moment . I find that there is neither Boats , provisions or ammunition left . I have sent a small canoe after you to know what is to be done . If you send back these articles mentioned and with directions where I will overtake you , I will follow . We are upwards of one hundred strong including Light Horse .
Writing from Middle Island on August 9 , Clark replied to Lochry :
I am heartily sorry that after waiting so long for you I would set out but a day before your arrival .... I am exceeding unhappy at our not joining at Weelind [ Wheeling ] , but don 't know that either of us are to blame , the militia with us continue to desert , and consequently I cannot remain long in one place otherways should be happy in forming a junction here .... I shall move on slowly for the reasons before recited and you will use the greatest industry as you cannot possibly pass us without our knowledge . I have suffered much lately but you again encourage me .
After building boats , Lochry and his men set off from Wheeling , hoping to catch up with the main body of the expedition . Meanwhile , Clark left Major Charles Cracraft with provisions and a small group of men on Camp Three Island to await Lochry 's arrival . Further down the Ohio , Clark stopped at the mouth of the Kanawha River , but again he decided to keep moving in order to prevent desertion . Clark left a letter fastened to a pole which instructed Lochry to keep following .
On August 14 , Lochry wrote to Clark that his men were " in great spirits and determined to go where ordered " , and that he had even apprehended 16 deserters from Clark 's force and were bringing them along . The next day , Lochry found Major Cracraft on Camp Three Island . Cracraft turned over a large horse boat to Lochry , and then left by canoe to rejoin Clark 's troops . The following day , on August 16 , Lochry sent Captain Samuel Shannon and seven men with a letter to Clark . In the letter , Lochry asked Clark to leave more provisions because he was running short of flour and did not want to be delayed by having to send out hunters . Lochry sent two men out to hunt the next day , but they never returned .
= = Ambush on the Ohio = =
On the night of August 18 , 1781 , Clark and his men floated past the mouth of the Great Miami River , near the present @-@ day border between Ohio and Indiana . Brant 's party was hidden on the northern bank of the Ohio , but with too few men to confront Clark 's larger force , Brant remained silent and let Clark pass unhindered . This was a missed opportunity for the British and Indian war effort : had McKee and Simon Girty not been delayed while gathering reinforcements , they would have been able to ambush Clark , whom the Indians feared more than any other commander , at a moment when desertion had made him vulnerable . According to historian Randolph Downes , " Students of the life of George Rogers Clark have never sufficiently emphasized how close he and his expedition came to utter destruction as they descended the Ohio River in 1781 . "
Although he missed a chance to ambush Clark , Brant soon found another target . On August 21 , Brant captured Major Cracraft and six men who were trying to catch up with Clark . Brant also captured a few men from Captain Shannon 's detachment . From the letters his prisoners carried , Brant learned that Lochry 's party was not far behind . Brant sent a letter to McKee , urging him to hurry because " whilst the enemy are scadred [ scattered ] we can easy manage them " . Brant prepared to attack Lochry regardless of whether McKee 's reinforcements arrived in time .
At about 8 : 00 a.m. on August 24 , the day of the battle , Lochry 's party landed on the northern bank of the Ohio River , near the mouth of a creek about 11 miles ( 18 km ) below the mouth of the Great Miami . According to some brief accounts , Lochry was lured ashore in a ruse by Brant , who left captured Americans in sight and attacked after Lochry landed . According to more detailed accounts , however , Brant had planned this deception , but the Pennsylvanians happened to land a short distance upriver without having seen the captives . Nevertheless , Lochry 's men came ashore close enough that Brant , who had not yet been reinforced by McKee , was still able to make his attack .
Although Lochry knew that he was in hostile territory , he landed his little flotilla after two days of nonstop travel because he needed to feed his men and horses . After landing , the Americans cooked fresh buffalo meat for breakfast and cut grass for their horses , apparently not taking proper security precautions . Concealed in the nearby woods , Brant repositioned his men and then opened fire , taking the Americans completely by surprise . Some Americans fought until their ammunition ran out , although others apparently did not have their weapons ready when the attack began . Some of the Americans attempted to escape by boat , but Brant had anticipated this and had positioned men in canoes to cut off any retreat . Seeing that he was hopelessly trapped , Lochry called for his men to surrender .
Although the two sides were about even in number , Brant had won a lopsided victory . All of the Americans were killed or captured ; none of Brant 's men were injured . According to a detailed list prepared by Brant and sent to Detroit , 37 Americans were killed and 64 were captured . Some of the American dead — some sources say most — had been executed after surrendering . This included Lochry , who was sitting on a log after the battle when a Shawnee warrior killed him with a tomahawk blow to the head . According to some accounts , Brant prevented the Indians from killing even more of the prisoners . The dead were scalped and left unburied .
= = Aftermath = =
After the battle , the native warriors and rangers hesitated to close on Clark 's main force . Brant marched the prisoners up the Miami River . On August 27 , he rendezvoused with about 300 Indians led by McKee and about 100 Butler 's Rangers led by Captain Andrew Thompson . Leaving a detachment to guard the prisoners , the combined Indian and British force of about 500 set off towards Fort Nelson in pursuit of Clark 's main army . On September 9 , two captured Americans revealed that Clark 's expedition had been called off because of a shortage of men . Satisfied that the campaign had been successfully concluded , most of the British @-@ Indian army dispersed , although McKee convinced 200 men to accompany him on a raid into Kentucky , which culminated in what Kentuckians called the " Long Run Massacre " .
The 64 American prisoners were divided between the tribes . A few of these prisoners were subsequently killed . As was their custom , the Indians took some of the prisoners home and ritually adopted them in order to replace fallen warriors . Most , however , were sold to the British in Detroit and then transferred to a prison in Montreal . A few managed to escape from captivity ; the remainder were released after the war ended in 1783 . Of the 100 or more men who had taken part in Lochry 's expedition , the number who eventually made it back home has been estimated from " less than half " to " more than half . "
Lochry 's Defeat , as the battle generally came to be called in American history , was a devastating blow to the people of Westmoreland County . Nearly every home was affected . Residents of the county were alarmed at having lost so many of their most experienced soldiers at a time when they were needed to defend the frontier . On December 3 , 1781 , General William Irvine , the new commander at Fort Pitt , wrote to Joseph Reed :
I am sorry to inform your Excellency that this Country has got a severe stroke by the loss of Colonel Lochry and about one hundred ( tis said ) of the best men of Westmoreland County , including Captain Stockely & his Company of Rangers . They were going down the Ohio on General Clarke 's Expedition , many accounts agree that they were all killed or taken at the mouth of the Miame [ sic ] River . I believe [ they were ] chiefly killed . This misfortune , added to the failure of General Clarke 's Expedition , has filled the people with great dismay . Many talk of retiring to the East side of the Mountain early in the Spring . Indeed there is great reason to apprehend that the Savages , & perhaps the British from Detroit will push us hard in the Spring , and I believe there never were Posts — nor a Country — in a worse state of defence .
The loss of Lochry 's detachment proved to be the fatal setback to Clark 's 1781 campaign . In early September , Clark held a series of councils with Kentucky militia officers at Fort Nelson . Clark still advocated carrying out an expedition into the Ohio Country , saying that " I am ready to lead you on to any Action that has the most distant prospect of Advantage , however daring it may appear to be . " Given the lateness of the season and the shortage of available men , the council overruled Clark and decided instead to remain on the defensive , although they proposed that another campaign against Detroit should be carried out the next year . On October 1 , 1781 , a disappointed Clark wrote , " My chain appears to have run out . I find myself enclosed with a few troops , in a trifling fort , and shortly expect to bear the insults of those who have for several years been in continual dread of me . " Clark led an expedition against the Shawnee towns on the Great Miami River in 1782 , one of the last actions of the war , but he was never able to mount an expedition against Detroit .
Sometime after Lochry 's Defeat , Brant and Simon Girty got into an altercation along the Ohio River . According to contemporary gossip , Girty took exception to Brant 's boasting about the success of the expedition , perhaps because Girty believed his brother George deserved more credit . The two men , who were reportedly drunk , came to blows , which ended when Brant slashed Girty in the head with his sword . The wound , which took several months to heal , left a scar on Girty 's forehead . When Brant returned to Detroit in October , he had a sword cut on his leg , which had become infected and initially looked as if it would result in amputation . The wound was officially reported as accidentally self @-@ inflicted , although gossipers said that it was the result of the fight with Girty . Brant 's Iroquois companions returned home , but Brant was compelled to stay in Detroit over the winter in order to recover .
= = = Articles = = =
Bailey , De Witt . " British Indian Department " . The American Revolution ,
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Long
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wikitext-103-excerpt
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1775 – 1783 : An Encyclopedia 1 : 165 – 77 . Ed . Richard L. Blanco . New York : Garland , 1993 . ISBN 0 @-@ 8240 @-@ 5623 @-@ X.
Belue , Ted Franklin . " Lochry 's Defeat " . The American Revolution , 1775 – 1783 : An Encyclopedia 1 : 954 – 55 . Ed . Richard L. Blanco . New York : Garland , 1993 . ISBN 0 @-@ 8240 @-@ 5623 @-@ X.
Boatner , Mark Mayo , III . " Lochry 's Defeat " . Encyclopedia of the American Revolution : Library of Military History , 2nd ed . , 1 : 645 . Edited by Harold E. Selesky . Detroit : Scribner 's , 2006 . ISBN 0 @-@ 684 @-@ 31513 @-@ 0 .
Duff , William A. " Chapter 12 , Christian Fast " . History of North Central Ohio , Vol . 1 : 97 @-@ 102 . Historical Publishing Co . , Topeka KS and Indianapolis IN , 1931 .
Hunter , W. H. " The Pathfinders of Jefferson County . " Ohio Archaeological and Historical Quarterly 6 , no . 2 ( 1898 ) : 140 – 42 ; 384 – 92 . Accessed online through the Ohio Historical Society 's online archive . Hunter 's initial account of the expedition was expanded and corrected in an addenda .
Maurer , C. J. " The British Version of Lochry 's Defeat . " Bulletin of the Historical and Philosophical Society of Ohio 10 ( July 1952 ) : 215 – 230 .
Pershing , Edgar J. " The Lost Battalion of the Revolutionary War . " National Genealogical Society Quarterly 16 , no . 3 ( 1928 ) : 44 – 51 . Includes captured correspondence and the British list of men killed and taken prisoner . Available online through Fisher Family Genealogy , which also provides a PDF copy of the original article .
Sugden , John . " Joseph Brant " . Encyclopedia of North American Indians , 83 – 85 . Ed . Frederick E. Hoxie . Boston : Houghton Mifflin , 1996 . ISBN 0 @-@ 395 @-@ 66921 @-@ 9 .
Warnes , Kathleen . " Lochry 's Defeat " . The Encyclopedia of the American Revolutionary War : A Political , Social , and Military History . 2 : 726 . Gregory Fremont @-@ Barnes and Richard Alan Ryerson , eds . Santa Barbara , California : ABC @-@ CLIO , 2006 . ISBN 1 @-@ 85109 @-@ 408 @-@ 3 .
= = = Books = = =
Bakeless , John . Background to Glory : The Life of George Rogers Clark . Lincoln : University of Nebraska Press , 1957 . Bison Book printing , 1992 . ISBN 0 @-@ 8032 @-@ 6105 @-@ 5 .
Butterfield , Consul Willshire . History of the Girtys . Cincinnati : Clarke , 1890 .
Downes , Randolph C. Council Fires on the Upper Ohio : A Narrative of Indian Affairs in the Upper Ohio Valley until 1795 . Pittsburgh : University of Pittsburgh Press , 1940 . ISBN 0 @-@ 8229 @-@ 5201 @-@ 7 ( 1989 reprint ) .
English , William Hayden . Conquest of the Country Northwest of the River Ohio , 1778 – 1783 , and Life of Gen. George Rogers Clark . Vol 2 . Indianapolis : Bowen @-@ Merrill , 1896 .
Hassler , Edgar W. Old Westmoreland : A History of Western Pennsylvania during the Revolution . Pittsburgh : Weldon , 1900 .
James , James Alton . The Life of George Rogers Clark . University of Chicago Press , 1928 .
Kelsay , Isabel Thompson . Joseph Brant , 1743 – 1807 , Man of Two Worlds . Syracuse , New York : Syracuse University Press , 1984 . ISBN 0 @-@ 8156 @-@ 0182 @-@ 4 ( hardback ) ; ISBN 0 @-@ 8156 @-@ 0208 @-@ 1 ( 1986 paperback ) .
Lancaster , Bruce ( 1971 ) . The American Revolution . New York : American Heritage . ISBN 0 @-@ 618 @-@ 12739 @-@ 9 .
Mann , Barbara Alice . George Washington 's War on Native America . Westport , Connecticut : Praeger , 2005 . ISBN 0 @-@ 275 @-@ 98177 @-@ 0 .
Martindale , Charles . Loughery 's Defeat and Pigeon Roost Massacre . Indianapolis : Bowen @-@ Merrill , 1888 . Indiana Historical Society Publications 2 , no . 4 : 97 – 127 . Pamphlet which includes Anderson 's journal and other documents .
Nelson , Larry L. A Man of Distinction among Them : Alexander McKee and the Ohio Country Frontier , 1754 – 1799 . Kent , Ohio : Kent State University Press , 1999 . ISBN 0 @-@ 87338 @-@ 620 @-@ 5 ( hardcover ) .
Nester , William . The Frontier War for American Independence . Mechanicsburg , Pennsylvania : Stackpole , 2004 . ISBN 0 @-@ 8117 @-@ 0077 @-@ 1 .
Sugden , John . Blue Jacket : Warrior of the Shawnees . Lincoln : University of Nebraska Press , 2000 . ISBN 0 @-@ 8032 @-@ 4288 @-@ 3 .
Taylor , Alan . The Divided Ground : Indians , Settlers , and the Northern Borderland of the American Revolution . New York : Knopf , 2006 . ISBN 0 @-@ 679 @-@ 45471 @-@ 3 .
Van Every , Dale . A Company of Heroes : The American Frontier , 1775 – 1783 . New York : Morrow , 1962 .
= = = Published primary sources = = =
Several letters of Lochry , Joseph Reed , and General Irvine are published in the Pennsylvania Archives , 1st series , vol . 9 ( Philadelphia 1854 ) . Anderson 's journal is in the Pennsylvania Archives , 6th series , 2 : 403 – 410 , ( Harrisburg 1906 ) , and is available online through Fisher Family Genealogy , which also has a PDF copy of the pages from the Pennsylvania Archives . Many other letters about the campaign are printed in James A. James , ed . , George Rogers Clark Papers , 2 vols . ( 1912 ; reprint New York , AMS Press , 1972 ) .
British letters relating to Lochry 's Defeat were published in Pioneer Collections : Collections and Researches Made by the Pioneer Society of the State of Michigan 2nd ed . , vols . 10 and 19 ( Lansing , 1908 – 13 ) , and are online at the American Memory website , published by the Library of Congress . Highlights include :
Brant to McKee August 21 , 1781 . Brant writes that Clark has just passed and that Lochry is approaching .
Thompson and McKee to DePeyster August 29 , 1781 Thompson and McKee report Brant 's victory and forward captured American correspondence .
De Peyster to Captains Thompson and McKee , September 13 , 1781 . De Peyster expresses satisfaction at Brant 's victory , mixed with disappointment that the Indians did not move against Clark .
John Macomb to Colonel Claus , September 14 , 1781 . A merchant at Detroit reports news of Brant 's victory .
Thompson to DePeyster September 26 , 1781 . Thompson reports on the dispersal of the Indians after news that Clark 's expedition is cancelled .
McKee to DePeyster September 26 , 1781 . McKee relays his activities after the battle , and the difficulty in getting the Indians to pursue Clark .
DePeyster to McKee October 4 , 1781 . DePeyster instructs McKee to tell the Indians that no rum will be distributed at Detroit until he is sure Clark is finished for the season .
Haldimand to DePeyster October 6 , 1781 . Haldimand expresses hope that Brant 's example will inspire the Indians to make further efforts against Clark .
Haldimand to Germain , October 23 , 1781 . Haldimand sends word to London about Brant 's victory .
Haldimand to unknown November 1 , 1781 . Haldimand complains that the money spent on the Indians this year had been " thrown away " , with the exception of Brant and his 100 men .
= Lewis Archer =
Lewis Archer is a fictional character from the British soap opera Coronation Street , played by Nigel Havers . The character was created and introduced as a love interest for Audrey Roberts ( Sue Nicholls ) . Executive producer Kim Crowther revealed the team wanted an actor who was slightly younger than Audrey and who was very charming . Various actors were considered for the part , but the casting director suggested Havers as she knew he was a big fan of the show . The actor said he could not turn down a chance to appear in Coronation Street as his character had an interesting story arc . Havers was contracted until July 2010 and he made his debut as Lewis in the episode broadcast on 18 December 2009 .
Lewis is a gentleman escort , who is described as being suave , charming and charismatic . He is first seen accompanying Claudia Colby ( Rula Lenska ) to a Christmas ball . He is introduced to Audrey , who falls for his charm and later hires him to be her companion to another event . In March 2010 , Lewis was seen advertising his services in The Lady , as part of a crossover between the society magazine and Coronation Street . Rita Sullivan ( Barbara Knox ) sees the advert and books Lewis for a date , forming a love triangle storyline between them and Audrey . Lewis eventually declares his feelings for Audrey , and they plan to leave Weatherfield together .
As their plans to emigrate step up a gear , Lewis forges a plan to steal money from Peter Barlow 's ( Chris Gascoyne ) betting shop by cashing fraudulently franked betting slips . His scam is successful , and he cheats on Audrey when he kisses Deirdre Barlow ( Anne Kirkbride ) . Lewis flees the UK ; he made his last appearance on 13 August 2010 . Just over a year later , it was announced Havers would reprise his role as Lewis and return to Coronation Street in February 2012 . Havers believed Lewis would be a changed man who wanted to apologise to those he had hurt . The character 's first period in the show was well received by television critics . On 22 January 2013 , it was announced that Havers would be leaving Coronation Street once again and Lewis departed on 1 February 2013 .
= = Creation and casting = =
On 14 October 2009 , Daniel Kilkelly of Digital Spy announced Havers had joined the cast of Coronation Street as Lewis , a potential love interest for Audrey Roberts ( Sue Nicholls ) . A writer for What 's on TV said Havers was to make a one @-@ off appearance in December before continuing in the role throughout 2010 . The show 's executive producer , Kim Crowther , told Gareth McLean of the Radio Times that while the team was planning the Audrey and Lewis storyline , they decided they wanted to introduce someone who was very charming , and slightly younger than Audrey . Casting director June West considered various actors for the part , including Anthony Head , but she suggested Havers for the role as she knew he was a big fan of the show . Crowther quipped , " When you think of Nigel , you think of someone suave enough to charm you out of your high heels . Half the work is done . " Havers said he could not refuse the part because his character was fascinating and had an interesting story arc , and that being on the show had always been his ambition . Havers was initially contracted until July 2010 and he made his debut screen appearance as Lewis on 18 December 2009 . In March 2010 , Havers stated that he was keen to renew his contract , as he was enjoying his time with the soap .
= = Development = =
= = = Characterisation and Audrey Roberts = = =
Gareth McLean of the Radio Times said that Lewis was a gentleman escort and he deemed him a " suave companion . " A spokeswoman for the show said , " There is no suggestion that Lewis is anything more than a companion escort for his clients . " A writer for the Metro described Lewis as " charming " and " charismatic " , and a reporter from the Daily Record wrote that he was " Weatherfield 's answer to American Gigolo . " The soap 's official website lists " ungallant behaviour " as something Lewis dislikes . Havers believed Lewis would eventually display " a real dark side " , though he was unaware of what that could be . Lewis is first seen accompanying Claudia Colby ( Rula Lenska ) to a Christmas ball . He is introduced by Audrey Roberts ; Digital Spy 's Daniel Kilkelly stated that she was " immediately bowled over by his charming ways . " Claudia informs Audrey that she booked Lewis through an agency and Audrey decides to hire Lewis to be her companion to another event . Lewis goes to the Rovers Return Inn and pretends not to know Audrey . He then proceeds to chat her up in front of her friends , causing them to wonder how she attracted him . Havers thought the scenes were funny and called the storyline between Lewis and Audrey " fantastic " . In March 2010 , Lewis was seen advertising his escort service in society magazine , The Lady . A reporter for The Belfast Telegraph revealed the character 's classified advert would be seen in the real life magazine in a crossover with the show . A spokeswoman for Coronation Street stated " The Lady heard the magazine was going to feature in an episode , and they approached us with the idea of using the advert in the actual magazine . " In the advert , Lewis claims to have " years of experience " and is " suitable to accompany ladies in any social or corporate event " . On screen , Audrey 's friend Rita Sullivan ( Barbara Knox ) notices the advert and books Lewis for a date .
A love triangle storyline between Audrey , Rita and Lewis then formed and was played out over Easter 2010 . Rita hires Lewis to accompany her to a ball , despite knowing that her friend has fallen for him . Audrey becomes jealous when she tries to book Lewis herself and he explains someone has already hired him . Audrey attends the ball with a friend and is shocked to see Rita with Lewis . The two woman insult each other and Lewis and Rita leave . Susan Hill , writing for the Daily Star said that despite Lewis ' apology for attending an event with Rita , Audrey is furious and confronts her friend . Rita tells Audrey she is " acting like an old fool as Lewis can never be hers " and Audrey slaps Rita across the face . Of Lewis ' view of the situation , Havers commented , " I think Lewis is genuinely concerned about Audrey . When Rita gets involved , he has to box clever , but he 's very good at that . " Audrey decides to stop all contact with Lewis after realising she has fallen in love with him . Audrey 's decision is prompted by her falling out with Rita and the fact she has read Lewis ' diary , which contains details about his clients . Not wanting to get hurt by him , Audrey tells Lewis that she wants end their arrangement . Lewis is shocked and cannot understand why Audrey would want to stop seeing him . A show spokesperson commented , " In the end she has to come clean and tell him how she really feels – which prompts Lewis to kiss her . He then tells her he 's developed feelings for her too . " Audrey is shocked by the kiss and Lewis ' declaration of love .
As their relationship progresses , Audrey invites Lewis to move in with her . Nicholls told Suzanne Byrne of RTÉ Ten that Lewis appears to brush Audrey off , before eventually agreeing to move in . Nicholls said , " And then in his usual charming style he brings her breakfast in bed on her birthday , which she adores him for . He 's clever like that , he knows how to bring the balance back to the relationship . " In May 2010 , the Daily Mirror 's Brian Roberts reported that a new plot for Audrey and Lewis could see them leaving Weatherfield for a new life in Greece . The couple go on holiday to a Greek island and Audrey is taken with Lewis ' idea of opening a hotel and living a glamorous life out there . Roberts likened the plot development to that of the 1989 film , Shirley Valentine . Roz Laws of the Sunday Mercury noted that Lewis seemed uncomfortable with the plan ; Nicholls said that Audrey is unaware of his doubts . Laws also compared the plot to a similar one in another ITV soap opera , Emmerdale , involving Diane Sugden ( Elizabeth Estensen ) and Charlie Haynes ( George Costigan ) , and predicted that both storylines would end in heartache . Nicholls wanted Audrey and Lewis to leave together and have a happy ending , and wanted to see a spin @-@ off series focusing on the pair and their new life in Greece . Olivia Buxton from the Daily Mirror questioned whether Lewis would go through with the plan ; she wrote that two endings to his story arc had been filmed , one of which showed him making a dramatic exit .
= = = Departure = = =
Lewis departed the show on 13 August 2010 . In his exit storyline , he leaves the UK after stealing a large sum of money from Peter Barlow 's ( Chris Gascoyne ) betting shop . Lewis carries out his plan to place fraudulently franked betting slips in the till while Audrey arranges to have her money transferred into a bank account for them to purchase their hotel . On the day of their farewell party in the Rovers , Lewis slips out to collect his money from the betting shop and kisses employee Deirdre Barlow ( Anne Kirkbride ) when she becomes suspicious about his motives for being in the shop . Kate Woodward , writing for Inside Soap , said while Deirdre is attracted to Lewis , she ends their kiss and tells him to return to the party . However , Lewis flees the country , but decides not to take Audrey 's money as well and he writes her a letter ending their relationship . Havers filmed his final scenes on 21 June 2010 at a Manchester hotel , which doubled as an airport bar . While he is at the airport , Lewis meets a businesswoman , Lydia Radcliffe ( Lysette Anthony ) . Chris Johnson of the Daily Mail thought Lydia was a welcome distraction for Lewis , who is feeling guilty about what he has done . Lewis flirts with Lydia and " rolls out some of his well @-@ known chat @-@ up lines " , which she falls for . Lydia mentions she is travelling to Barbados and Lewis reveals he is going there too , so they board the plane together .
= = = Return = = =
Havers returned to Coronation Street on 17 February 2012 . While appearing on Loose Women the previous year , Havers revealed that he had been in talks with Coronation Street producers about a return to the show . He stated that he had adored his role as Lewis and that he had to return and apologise to Audrey . Later that year , ITV announced that Havers would return to Coronation Street in 2012 to reprise his role as Lewis . Series producer Phil Collinson said that Havers had started filming his scenes in January 2012 and he would return on @-@ screen from February . Collinson also said that Lewis would have a lot of ground to cover to win Audrey back , that the character is " a great hoot " and that it was wonderful to have Havers back . Peter Dyke and Katie Begley of the Daily Star wrote that Lewis ' return storyline would show Audrey and her daughter , Gail Platt ( Helen Worth ) , unexpectedly meeting Lewis at a country pub . Havers told Allison Jones of Inside Soap that Lewis then tries to convince them he is his own twin brother , Hugh . Havers said , " Audrey is totally floored to see him again — as you can imagine . And if I said that Gail is angry when they bump into Lewis , it would be a massive understatement ! " Lewis begs Audrey and Gail not to call the police and he decides to return to Weatherfield .
Havers said Lewis was a changed man who wanted to apologise to those he had hurt and to make amends . He said , " There 's always that danger Lewis could fall back into his old ways , and he is down to his last penny . But at the moment , Lewis is trying his hardest and has no ulterior motive — just an awful lot of ice to break instead ! " Lewis returns the money he took from Peter , adding an extra thousand pounds as compensation . Havers said that Lewis feels desperately bad about what he did . Upon entering the Rovers , Lewis is punched by Deirdre . Havers stated that Lewis wants Audrey to forgive him and give him a second chance . Lewis finds Audrey charming and honest and he likes being mothered by her to an extent . Havers said that Lewis did fall in love with Audrey while they were together , but no one believes him as he has told so many lies , and thought Lewis ' one redeeming feature was not taking Audrey 's money when he had the chance . Havers added , " He 's been feeling terrible because he did the dirty on her and he wants to make amends . "
Lewis ' presence on the Street infuriates Gail , who still holds a grudge for the way he treated Audrey . Gail hopes Lewis may have left for good when he attends court on charges of fraud . However , Lewis charms the judge with a speech about the way he let Audrey down , and he is sentenced to community service . The animosity between Gail and Lewis , reaches a peak at The Bisto ; and as Audrey defends Lewis , a food critic from the Weatherfield Gazette walks in . A show spokesperson told Inside Soap 's Katy Moon that Lewis turns on the charm and quickly wins the reviewer over . Audrey 's grandson Nick Tilsley ( Ben Price ) , who owns The Bistro , realises Lewis ' communication skills could be good for his business and he employs Lewis for a trial period at the restaurant .
= = = Reuniting with Audrey = = =
Lewis and Audrey decide to rekindle their relationship in March 2012 . Kate White from Inside Soap wrote that Audrey finds Lewis hard to resist , especially after he has apologised for his previous actions . When Lewis is wrongly accused of taking some money from The Bistro , he plans to leave Weatherfield . Nicholls told White that Audrey feels awful that she too accused Lewis and it is a wake up call for her as she does trust him . The actress said Audrey still fancies Lewis and does not want to lose him again . Lewis and Audrey spend the night together and decide to keep their relationship a secret , especially from Audrey 's family , as his " past indiscretions still loom over them like a dark cloud " . Nicholls said Audrey could be making a mistake , and added , " You read this sort of thing in the papers all the time , women of a certain age being charmed by these men . I 'd ask her to think about what she 's doing . " A writer for Inside Soap said that Audrey and Lewis are very happy as they " bask in the warmth of their revived romance . " However , they have to resort to sneaky measures to spend time together to avoid upsetting Audrey 's family . When Audrey calls in sick at the salon to spend time with Lewis , Gail and David become concerned and check up on her . They see Lewis leaving her house and realise the pair are back together .
Lewis and Audrey decide to go on holiday together and Lewis offers to pay for himself . Digital Spy 's Daniel Kilkelly wrote that Lewis ' renewed relationship with Audrey and their plans to go on a round @-@ the @-@ world cruise would cause a feud between her and David . Audrey 's money is tied up in the salon , so she asks David to sign it back to her so she can pay for the holiday . However , David refuses to sign the salon back as he thinks Lewis might be planning another fraud . Kilkelly said Lewis tries to play peacemaker and suggests postponing the trip until he can save the money himself , but Audrey insists David will co @-@ operate and she tears up their contract .
= = = Departure ( 2013 ) = = =
On 22 January 2013 , Kilkelly confirmed that Havers would leave Coronation Street following the conclusion to the Lewis and Gail storyline on 1 February . The scenes lead to Lewis ' departure from Weatherfield , but Kilkelly commented that " fans will have to wait and see whether Gail loses everything thanks to Lewis " . The door was left open by producers if Havers wanted to reprise the role of Lewis again in the future .
= = Storylines = =
Lewis is hired by Claudia Colby to accompany her to the Weatherfield Traders ' Association Christmas party . Claudia introduces Lewis to her friend , Audrey Roberts , and he flirts with her . Audrey learns Lewis is a male escort and she later hires him to be her date for the Stylists ' Dinner . Audrey contacts Lewis again and invites him to have dinner with her , but she becomes apprehensive and pretends to be ill when he arrives . Lewis persuades Audrey to let him into her home and he listens while she talks about her late husband . They then go out for dinner . Lewis visits the Rovers Return in Coronation Street and pretends not to know Audrey . Norris Cole ( Malcolm Hebden ) recognises Lewis from the Christmas party and when he sees Lewis kissing Audrey , he jumps to the conclusion that they are having an affair .
Rita Sullivan contacts Lewis and they attend the theatre together . Lewis charms Rita and she books him for the Chamber of Commerce Easter Dinner Dance . Lewis is surprised when Audrey turns up at the dance with Claudia . Audrey becomes jealous of Rita , and the women insult each other until Lewis intervenes . Lewis leaves his diary containing his clients ' details in Audrey 's salon . When he returns to collect it , he finds Audrey has read it . Audrey tells Lewis that they cannot continue to be together , but Lewis kisses Audrey and tells her he has feelings for her . They begin dating , despite Rita telling Audrey it will end in tears . After noticing Audrey is not happy with his occupation , Lewis quits and tells Audrey that he is beginning to feel too old for the job . Audrey invites Lewis to move in with her ; and although he hesitates at first , Lewis eventually accepts .
Lewis and Audrey go on holiday to Greece together and Lewis suggests they move there and open a hotel . Audrey agrees and gets a £ 100 @,@ 000 loan towards the purchase of the hotel . Lewis , needing money of his own , decides to steal from Peter Barlow 's betting shop with fraudulently franked betting slips . He begins flirting with Deirdre Barlow , an employee at the betting shop . Lewis sends Deirdre out of the shop to get a corkscrew so they can share a bottle of wine . He places his fraudulent betting slips in the till and when Deirdre returns , he kisses her to distract her . Lewis slips out of Audrey 's farewell party to collect his money and he leaves for the airport . Peter discovers Lewis has stolen from him and Audrey is devastated by his disappearance . She discovers Lewis has left her money alone and she finds a photograph of them with the words ' I tried ' written on the back . While he is in the airport bar waiting for his flight to Barbados , Lewis introduces himself to Lydia Radcliffe and offers to sit with her during the flight .
Lewis enters a country pub and unexpectedly meets Audrey and her daughter Gail . Upon seeing them , he pretends he is his own identical twin brother . Neither Audrey or Gail are fooled and Lewis offers to pay for their drinks . He then leaves the pub and heads to Coronation Street . Lewis visits Peter Barlow , apologises for stealing from him and returns the money he took with an extra £ 1000 as compensation . Lewis then goes to Audrey 's salon and he tells her he did not mean to hurt her . He asks Audrey to drive him to the police station to prove how sorry he is . After he is given bail , Lewis enters the Rovers Return and is punched by Deirdre . Lewis faces hostility from Audrey 's grandson , David ( Jack P. Shepherd ) upon his return to the salon . He begs Audrey for forgiveness but she throws him out . Lewis sends her flowers and Audrey visits his address and finds he is living in a bedsit . David 's wife , Kylie ( Paula Lane ) , introduces herself to Lewis and he defends her against Brian Packham 's ( Peter Gunn ) accusations that she is giving her son the wrong food .
Lewis attends court , where he is found guilty and sentenced to perform forty hours community service . While dining at The Bistro , Lewis charms a food critic and Nick Tilsley offers him a two @-@ week trial as head waiter . Gail disapproves but Audrey defends Lewis and he later buys Audrey a bracelet as a gift of thanks . When Nick finds some money missing from the till , he and Gail believe Lewis took it . Audrey also doubts Lewis but when she learns that Eva Price ( Catherine Tyldesley ) took the money , she tries unsuccessfully to stop Lewis from leaving . Lewis returns for his wages and tells Nick that his community service has finished and he is leaving for good . Audrey arrives to see Lewis , asks him to stay and professes her love for him . They spend the night together at Audrey 's house and agree to keep their relationship secret . Once David and Gail find out about their relationship , Audrey and Lewis make it public . Lewis suggests they go on holiday together to the Mediterranean and Audrey agrees . She asks David to sign her salon back to her so she can help pay for the holiday , but he refuses .
Audrey and David begin feuding over the rights to the salon and Lewis notices that the arguing is taking its toll on Audrey 's health . He suggests they go to Wales for a few days instead . When Audrey serves David with an injunction to try and reclaim her business , an argument breaks out and Audrey suffers a heart attack . Lewis comforts Audrey until the ambulance arrives and stays with her at the hospital . Lewis and Audrey go on holiday . On her return , Audrey reveals to her family that Lewis disappeared from the Eurostar on the way home . Lewis later turns up at the salon to see Audrey and explains that he disappeared because he saw Penny Thornley ( Susan Hanson ) , a woman he once conned . Lewis asks Audrey to run away with him and she agrees . While they are packing , Audrey 's family and Penny arrive . Penny reveals that she is going to call the police , but Audrey stops her and gives her the money Lewis took . When Nick refuses to give Lewis his job back , Gloria Price ( Sue Johnston ) hires him to work at The Rovers Return .
Gloria confides in Lewis that she is dying and he provides her with support . When she asks him to run away with her , he turns her down and tells her he loves Audrey . Lewis then learns that Gloria is not ill and she and Gail were testing his loyalty to Audrey . Lewis is outraged when he realises Audrey knew what was going on and breaks up with her . He then gets revenge on Gloria by revealing that she has cheated in the local pub of the year competition . Lewis gets his job back at The Bistro and he moves into a flat on Victoria Street . Lewis begins to formulate a plan to get back at Gail for ruining his relationship with Audrey . He decides to use her guilt against her . One night at the Bistro , he pretends to slip and hurt his back . Gail takes pity on Lewis and allows him to stay with her , while she cares for him . During his time with Gail , Lewis offers her his support and advice about her problems . Lewis is not happy when he sees Audrey on a date with another man .
While sharing a bottle of wine with Gail , Lewis tries to kiss her . He later introduces her to his friend , Patrick ( Simon Rouse ) , and pretends to turn down a job opportunity in Italy because he loves her . Lewis pays Patrick for his help and tells him that Gail ruined his life , so he is going to do the same to her . Lewis and Gail grow closer and begin dating in secret , although Lewis resists taking things further because of his feelings for Audrey . Lewis attempts to drive a wedge between Gail and her family , before telling her that he has been offered a new life in Italy , running a small hotel . Lewis asks Gail to come with him and she agrees . Audrey is devastated when she learns about their relationship , after catching them together . Gail takes out a £ 40 @,@ 000 loan against her house to fund her trip to Italy , which Lewis plans on taking . He overhears Kylie speaking about a one @-@ night stand she had with Nick and blackmails her into getting Gail 's bank account password for him . Gail gathers her family together to tell them about Italy , but Lewis does not turn up . He instructs them by text message to watch a DVD he has made detailing his revenge plan . He reveals that he has taken Gail 's money and that he deeply loved Audrey . The police later inform Gail that Lewis fled to Belize .
= = Reception = =
Jaci Stephen of the Daily Mail called Havers ' casting " inspired " and wrote that he had become " synonymous with upper @-@ class cads " following his role as Ralph Ernest Gorse in The Charmer . Stephen wrote , " It 's not often that someone like Lewis strays onto the cobbles . Suave and charming , he 's in a different class to Jack Sugden ( sic ) and co . Although at least none of Weatherfield 's men folk have charged ladies for their company , as , despite his plummy veneer , Lewis is just a gigolo . " In March 2012 , Stephen wrote that Lewis is " charm personified , even if he is a reformed fraudster . " A writer for the Liverpool Daily Post wrote , " Since Lewis ( Nigel Havers ) waltzed into the street , things with the over fifty club ( Rita , Audrey and now Deirdre ) haven 't been the same . " Steve Pratt , writing for The Northern Echo , said , " As love rat scumbags go , Lewis Archer is up there with that chap who tried to push Rita under a tram in Blackpool . "
Sue Crawford of the Daily Mirror said , " playing a ladies ' man comes naturally to Nigel Havers so it 's hardly surprising he 's playing a flirt in Coronation Street . " Crawford 's colleague , Simon Boyle , wrote that Lewis was " charming but devious . " Havers ' role in the soap proved popular with female viewers . The actor told entertainment website Digital Spy that he had been sent sackfuls of fan mail and underwear . However , other viewers were unhappy with Havers ' character 's treatment of Audrey and the actor received abuse in the street . In November 2011 , Jon Horsley of Yahoo ! said viewers should be excited about Lewis ' return to Coronation Street . Horsely added " It 'll be great to see the old smoothy back on the cobbles . We 're really looking forward to Audrey 's reaction to him , too . " Lewis ' return to Coronation Street was selected for Digital Spy 's Picture of the Day feature .
In 2013 , Havers won Best Exit at The British Soap Awards for his portrayal of Lewis . He was also nominated for Villain of the Year .
= Rick Ferrell =
Richard Benjamin " Rick " Ferrell ( October 12 , 1905 – July 27 , 1995 ) was an American former professional baseball player , coach , scout , and executive . He played for 18 seasons in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) as a catcher for the St. Louis Browns , Boston Red Sox , and Washington Senators , from 1929 through 1947 . His brother , Wes Ferrell , was a major league pitcher for 15 seasons , and they were teammates from 1933 through part of 1938 on the Red Sox and Senators . Following his three seasons in minor league baseball , he appealed to the Commissioner of Baseball to become a free agent , claiming that he was being held in the minors though he deserved promotion . The Commissioner agreed , and he was granted free agency ; he signed with the St. Louis Browns .
Ferrell was regarded as one of the best catchers in baseball during the 1930s and early 1940s . While playing for the Red Sox in 1933 , he and his brother Wes were selected to play for the American League ( AL ) team in the inaugural 1933 Major League Baseball All @-@ Star Game held on July 6 , 1933 . His 1 @,@ 806 games played as a catcher set an AL longevity record which stood for more than 40 years . A seven @-@ time All @-@ Star , Ferrell was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1984 by the Veterans Committee . After his playing career , he became a coach with the Senators , and later a scout and general manager with the Detroit Tigers . He died in July 1995 .
= = Early life = =
Richard Benjamin Ferrell was born on October 12 , 1905 in Durham , North Carolina , to Rufus and Alice , and grew up on a 160 acre dairy farm near Greensboro , North Carolina . He was one of seven boys , and two of his brothers enjoyed long careers in baseball . Wes Ferrell reached the major leagues as a pitcher while another brother , George Ferrell , played as an outfielder in minor league baseball . Rick attended Guilford College in Greensboro where he played both baseball and basketball .
In 1926 , he was signed by the Detroit Tigers of the American League ( AL ) , and was assigned to play for the Kinston Eagles of the Virginia League . Shortly afterward , he was promoted to the Columbus Senators of the American Association , and in 1928 he posted a .333 batting average with them . His performance that season earned him an American Association All @-@ Star position . During the season , he personally asked Detroit 's owner , Frank Navin , if the organization had a plan in place to bring him up to the Tigers . Navin told him to be patient and return to Columbus . When the season concluded , another Columbus catcher , Hugh McMullen , was called up to the major leagues , but to the Cincinnati Reds instead of the Tigers . Confused as who actually owned his contract , Ferrell inquired the Reds about his status with the organization , and was again told to return to Columbus . After reading through is contract , he believed he was being unfairly held in the minor leagues , so he petitioned the Commissioner of Baseball , Kenesaw Mountain Landis , to grant him a hearing . It was discovered that Columbus owner , Joseph Carr , had been shopping Ferrell 's contract , receiving offers as high as $ 50 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 689 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) , though none were formally presented on paper . Navin protested to Landis , claiming he was unaware of what Carr was doing . After the Commissioner completed his investigation , he determined that the Tigers and Reds had colluded to keep Ferrell in the minor leagues , and directed Carr to shop for buyers . This move by the two teams effectively hid him from the other major league teams ' draft rights to increase Ferrell 's sale price . This was a common , although illegal , practice during this era , so Landis declared Ferrell a free agent , allowing him to sign a contract with any team he chose , except the Tigers . After receiving offers from many major league clubs , he signed a contract with the St. Louis Browns of the AL for $ 25 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 345 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) .
= = Major leagues = =
Ferrell made his major league debut with the Browns on April 19 , 1929 . He spent the 1929 season as a reserve catcher backing up veteran Wally Schang , and had a .229 batting average in 64 games . New Browns manager and former catcher , Bill Killefer , made Ferrell his starting catcher for the next three seasons , and he would catch in more than 100 games in each . His batting average rose to .306 in 1931 , elevating him one to one of the best catchers in the American League . Although he led the league 's catchers in errors and passed balls , he also led the league in assists . In 1932 , Ferrell hit .315 , the best among American League catchers , with 30 doubles and 65 runs batted in . He ended the season ranked thirteenth in voting for the 1932 American League Most Valuable Player Award .
On May 10 , 1933 , the financially strained Browns traded Ferrell , along with Lloyd Brown to the Boston Red Sox , in exchange for Merv Shea and some cash . Two months later , Ferrell was selected along with his brother to play for the American League team in the inaugural Major League Baseball All @-@ Star Game held on July 6 , 1933 . American League manager Connie Mack used Ferrell to catch the entire game in a 4 – 2 American League victory , even though future Baseball Hall of Fame catchers Mickey Cochrane and Bill Dickey were also on the team . When the Red Sox played the Cleveland Indians two weeks later on July 19 , 1933 , Ferrell hit a home run against his brother Wes , who later hit a home run off Boston pitcher Hank Johnson , marking the first time in major league history that brothers on opposing teams had hit home runs in the same game . Ferrell ended the year with a .290 batting average along with a career @-@ high 77 runs batted in . Although Ferrell once again led American League catchers in errors , he also led in assists and in baserunners caught stealing . Despite the Red Sox ' seventh @-@ place finish , Ferrell ranked twelfth in voting for the 1933 American League Most Valuable Player Award .
In 1934 , the Red Sox signed Ferrell 's brother Wes , forming a formidable battery for the next three and half seasons . Rick ended the year with a .297 batting average and led the league 's catchers in fielding percentage and in putouts and finished second in assists . With Ferrell calling the pitches in 1935 , his brother pitched to a 25 – 14 won – loss record , and was runner @-@ up to Hank Greenberg in voting for the 1935 American League Most Valuable Player Award . Ferrell posted a .301 batting average for the year and led the league in baserunners caught stealing .
Ferrell had another good year in 1936 , leading the league with a .439 batting average at the beginning of May to earn the starting catcher 's berth for the American League team in the 1936 All @-@ Star Game . He ended the season with a .312 batting average along with career @-@ highs in home runs ( 8 ) and in on @-@ base percentage ( .406 ) . He also led the league 's catchers in putouts and finished second in fielding percentage . In June 1937 , Ferrell was hitting for a .308 batting average when he was traded to the Washington Senators along with his brother and Mel Almada for pitcher Bobo Newsom and outfielder Ben Chapman . Between 1933 and 1936 , Ferrell broke Red Sox catchers ' records in batting average , doubles , home runs and runs batted in . His .302 batting average with Boston is currently 15th on the club 's all @-@ time list .
Playing with a broken right hand , he ended the year with the Senators and batted .244 over the course of the season . Ferrell rebounded in 1938 with a .298 batting average and led the league in baserunners caught stealing . The Senators released his brother Wes in August 1938 . In May 1941 , Ferrell was traded back to the St. Louis Browns , in exchange for Vern Kennedy , and went on to catch 100 games for the sixth @-@ place Browns . In 1942 , the 36 @-@ year @-@ old Ferrell shared catching duties with Frankie Hayes as the Browns improved to an 82 @-@ 69 won @-@ loss record to finish the year in third place .
Ferrell was once again traded ; this time he returned to the Senators in March 1944 . He earned a reputation as one of the best knuckleball catchers in baseball when he had the arduous task of catching for a Senators ' starting pitching staff made up entirely of knuckleball pitchers . Dutch Leonard , Johnny Niggeling , Roger Wolff , and Mickey Haefner all threw the notoriously difficult @-@ to @-@ catch knuckleball , making Ferrell the first catcher in major league history to accomplish the feat . Although Ferrell led the league in passed balls due to the unpredictability of the knuckleball , he was still named to his seventh All @-@ Star Game . The Senators ended the season in last place while Ferrell 's former team , the St. Louis Browns won the 1944 American League pennant .
Ferrell shared catching duties with Al Evans in 1945 as the Senators started to win regularly . On July 6 , 1945 , Ferrell broke Ray Schalk 's American League record for most games caught with 1 @,@ 721 . The 1945 All @-@ Star Game which was supposed to be played on July 10 was cancelled on April 24 due to wartime travel restrictions , and no All @-@ Stars were officially named that season . In place of the All @-@ Star Game , seven out of eight scheduled interleague games were played on July 9 and 10 that raised funds for the American Red Cross and War Relief Fund . In the final week of the 1945 season , the Senators came within one and a half games of winning the American League pennant , ultimately clinched by the Detroit Tigers . Ferrell retired as a player to become a Senators ' coach for the 1946 season . However , he returned to play as a catcher for 37 games in 1947 , hitting for a .303 batting average . He played his final major league game on September 14 , 1947 at the age of 41 .
= = Post @-@ playing career and legacy = =
In an 18 @-@ year career , Ferrell played in 1 @,@ 884 games , accumulating 1 @,@ 692 hits in 6 @,@ 028 at bats for a .281 career batting average along with 28 home runs , 734 runs batted in and an impressive on @-@ base percentage of .378 . He hit over .300 four times during his career , and his on @-@ base percentage is eighth all @-@ time among the 50 catchers with 3 @,@ 000 at bats . A patient hitter , Ferrell logged just 277 strikeouts during his career , along with 931 bases on balls . He ended his career with a .984 fielding percentage . An eight @-@ time All @-@ Star with a strong throwing arm , he led American League catchers four times in baserunners caught stealing , and twice in assists and putouts . Ferrell retired having caught 1 @,@ 806 games , an American League record that stood until Carlton Fisk surpassed it in 1988 . He currently ranks 12th all @-@ time in games played as a catcher .
Ferrell continued as a coach for the Senators in 1948 and 1949 . He then joined the Detroit Tigers as a coach from 1950 to 1954 before retiring from the field altogether . Afterwards , he served as a scout then as the scouting director for the Tigers before becoming the general manager and vice president in 1959 . During his tenure as a Tigers executive , the team won two World Series championships , in 1968 and in 1984 , and won two American League Eastern Division titles in 1972 and in 1987 .
In his book , The Bill James Historical Baseball Abstract , baseball historian Bill James ranked Ferrell as the third best catcher in the American League during his career , behind only Mickey Cochrane and Bill Dickey . Ferrell was elected by the Veterans Committee , along with Pee Wee Reese , to the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1984 . He retired in 1992 at the age of 87 after 42 years with the Tigers organization .
Ferrell was married to Ruth Virginia Wilson from 1941 until her death in 1968 . Together they had four children , two sons and two daughters . His family first lived in Greensboro , then later in Grosse Pointe , Michigan . He lived in Troy , Michigan for the remaining 18 years of his life , until he was admitted into a nursing home in Bloomfield Hills , Michigan . It was here that he died of arrhythmia on July 27 , 1995 , and is interred at New Garden Cemetery in Greensboro , North Carolina .
= Brien Taylor =
Brien McKeiver Taylor ( born December 26 , 1971 ) is a former pitcher in minor league baseball . He spent seven seasons in the minor leagues , primarily with the New York Yankees organization . In his career , he had a win – loss record of 22 – 30 , a 5 @.@ 12 earned run average ( ERA ) , and 425 strikeouts .
Born in Beaufort , North Carolina , Taylor attended East Carteret High School , where his pitching ability caused him to be chosen by the New York Yankees with the first overall selection in the 1991 Major League Baseball Draft . After two full seasons in the minor leagues , he injured his shoulder in a fight , and was ineffective after returning to baseball . He retired in 2000 , having never played a game above Class AA . Taylor is one of two players to be picked first overall in the MLB draft to never reach the major leagues , the other one being Steve Chilcott .
= = Early life and MLB draft = =
Taylor was born in Beaufort , North Carolina to parents Willie Ray , who worked as a mason , and Bettie , who was a crab picker at the local seafood plant . He was the second of four children , and was named for the lead character in the movie Brian 's Song . Taylor attended East Carteret High School in Beaufort and played on the school baseball team . In high school , Taylor had a win – loss record of 29 @-@ 6 and an earned run average ( ERA ) of 1 @.@ 25 . He also struck out 213 hitters in 88 innings pitched while walking 28 . His fastball often hit 98 and 99 mph . The New York Yankees selected Taylor with the first overall selection in the 1991 Major League Baseball Draft , and he signed Scott Boras as an advisor , who said of him in 2006 , " Brien Taylor , still to this day , is the best high school pitcher I 've seen in my life . "
The Yankees offered Taylor $ 300 @,@ 000 to sign a minor league contract , the typical amount given to the first overall draft choice at that time . However , Boras advised the Taylor family that the previous year 's top @-@ rated high school pitcher , Todd Van Poppel , was given more than $ 1 @.@ 2 million to sign with the Oakland Athletics , and gave up a scholarship to the University of Texas in the process . The Taylors held out for a three @-@ year $ 1 @.@ 2 million contract , even though they had less leverage because Brien 's poor grades in high school prevented him from getting a major college scholarship offer . They threatened the Yankees that Taylor would not sign and instead attend Louisburg College , a local junior college , to get the Yankees to agree to their terms . The Yankees were without the official services of owner George Steinbrenner , who was serving a suspension at the time , but through the media , Steinbrenner said that if the Yankees let Taylor get away , " they should be shot . " Taylor signed for $ 1 @.@ 55 million on August 26 , the day before his classes were set to begin . Further delay would have meant the deal could not be signed until after the school year ended , which coincided with the following year 's draft .
= = Professional career = =
The Yankees originally planned to bring Taylor up through the minor leagues rapidly , like the Mets did with Dwight Gooden . However , they found he needed a better move to first base to hold base runners , and chose not to expedite his major league debut . Before even playing a game , he was named the game 's top prospect by Baseball America before the 1992 season . He began his professional career with the Fort Lauderdale Yankees , the Yankees ' Class @-@ A Advanced minor league affiliate . His performances with Fort Lauderdale included throwing nine strikeouts against the Osceola Astros in an 8 – 5 victory , as well as a 12 @-@ strikeout , two @-@ hit performance in September against the West Palm Beach Expos . For the season , Taylor had a 6 – 8 win @-@ loss record , a 2 @.@ 57 ERA , and 187 strikeouts in 161 @.@ 1 innings pitched .
The next year , Taylor pitched for the Double @-@ A Albany @-@ Colonie Yankees , where the Yankees planned to have Taylor work on his curveball , as they already felt that his fastball was good enough for the major leagues . Entering the season , he was named baseball 's second @-@ best prospect behind Chipper Jones . That year , Taylor had a 13 – 7 record , a 3 @.@ 48 ERA , and 150 strikeouts in 163 innings , and also led the Eastern League with 102 walks . In 1994 , he was expected to pitch for the Triple @-@ A Columbus Clippers of the International League , and start for the Yankees to begin the 1995 season at the latest , dependent on how he would have performed in spring training . After the season ended , the Yankees wanted Taylor to take part in an instructional league to work on his fundamentals . Taylor declined to attend the camp , and instead chose to return to his home in North Carolina .
On December 18 , 1993 , Taylor was injured while defending his brother Brenden in a fistfight . The New York Times reported that Brenden confronted a man named Ron Wilson , who he had fought with in Harlowe , North Carolina . Brenden suffered head lacerations in his fight with Wilson . Once Brien found out his brother had been hurt , he and a cousin went to Wilson 's trailer home to confront him . There , Taylor got into an altercation with Jamie Morris , Wilson 's friend , and Taylor fell on his shoulder . According to Wilson , Taylor attempted to throw a haymaker at Morris , and missed , which caused the injury . In the hours following the altercation Boras told reporters the injury was a bruise . However , when the Yankees had Taylor visit Dr. Frank Jobe , he called the injury one of the worst he 'd seen . The following week , Jobe repaired a torn capsule and a torn glenoid labrum in Taylor 's shoulder , which caused him to miss the 1994 season .
Taylor returned to baseball in 1995 , and spent the season with the Rookie @-@ level Gulf Coast Yankees . When he returned to the game , after surgery , he had lost 8 mph off his fastball and was unable to throw a curveball for a strike . As a result , in his first season back , he had two wins , five losses , a 6 @.@ 08 ERA , and 54 walks in 40 innings pitched . The Yankees planned to have Taylor spend the 1996 season with the Double @-@ A Norwich Navigators , but he continued to struggle with his control in spring training , saying at one point , " Sometimes I get the ball across the plate , sometimes I feel like I 've never held a ball in my life " . He instead spent the year with the Single @-@ A Greensboro Bats and walked 43 batters in 16 @.@ 1 innings , going 0 – 5 with an 18 @.@ 73 ERA in nine games ; the Yankees removed him from their 40 @-@ man roster as a result .
Taylor spent the next two seasons in Greensboro . In 1997 , he walked 52 batters in 27 innings , going 1 @-@ 4 with a 14 @.@ 33 ERA in eight games , and in 1998 , he went 0 @-@ 1 with a 9 @.@ 59 ERA in 13 games . He was released by the Yankees at the end of the 1998 season , and signed with the Seattle Mariners the following year . With the Mariners , Taylor took part in extended spring training , and was released in June due to his inconsistency . After the 1999 season , the Cleveland Indians signed him to a contract and placed him with the Class @-@ A Columbus RedStixx . In 2 @.@ 2 innings pitched over five games for Columbus , he gave up 5 hits and 9 walks for a 27 @.@ 00 ERA .
= = After baseball = =
After retiring from baseball , Taylor moved to Raleigh , North Carolina with his five daughters and worked as a UPS package handler , then worked as a beer distributor . By 2006 , he had moved back home and was working as a bricklayer with his father . In January 2005 , police charged Taylor with misdemeanor child abuse for allegedly leaving four of his children ( ages from 2 to 11 ) alone for more than eight hours . He did not show up for his court date , and at one point there were four outstanding warrants for his arrest .
In March 2012 , Taylor was charged with cocaine trafficking after undercover narcotics agents purchased a large quantity of cocaine and crack cocaine from him over a period of several months . He was federally indicted on cocaine trafficking charges in June 2012 . Taylor plead guilty in August 2012 and was sentenced to 38 months in prison , followed by three years ' supervised release . Taylor was Federal Inmate number 56437 @-@ 056 , and was released on September 12 , 2014 .
= Mato Dukovac =
Mato Dukovac ( 23 October 1918 – September 1990 ) was the leading Croatian fighter ace of World War II , credited with between 40 and 44 confirmed kills . He joined the Air Force of the Independent State of Croatia following the Axis invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941 , and then the Luftwaffe , with which he flew combat missions on the Eastern Front . His tours of the Eastern Front spanned October and November 1942 , February to June 1943 , and October 1943 to March 1944 . He defected to the Soviet Union on 20 September 1944 , and was returned to Yugoslavia in November 1944 . He worked as a flight instructor for the Yugoslav Air Force in Pančevo and Zadar before defecting to Italy in April 1945 .
Dukovac left Italy in 1946 and became a captain in the Syrian Air Force . During the 1948 Arab – Israeli War , he flew combat missions against Israel in an American T @-@ 6 Texan . Following the war , he emigrated to Canada and started a family there . He died in Toronto in 1990 .
= = Early life = =
Dukovac was born on 23 October 1918 in the town of Surčin , near Zemun , then part of the Kingdom of Croatia @-@ Slavonia , Austria @-@ Hungary . He was an avid glider pilot before he entered the 67th class of the Royal Yugoslav Military Academy in Belgrade in 1937 . He graduated on 1 April 1940 with the rank of potporučnik , and commenced pilot training at the 1st Pilot School in Pančevo in October of that year .
= = World War II = =
= = = Croatian Air Force Legion = = =
During the German @-@ led Axis invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941 , Dukovac served with the 2nd Squadron of the Royal Yugoslav Air Force ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : Vazduhoplovstvo Vojske Kraljevine Jugoslavije , VVKJ ) at an airfield in Velika Gorica . After the Kingdom of Yugoslavia was defeated and occupied by the Axis powers , Dukovac became a member of the armed forces of the newly created Independent State of Croatia ( Croatian : Nezavisna Država Hrvatska , NDH ) . He joined the Air Force of the Independent State of Croatia ( Croatian : Zrakoplovstvo Nezavisne Države Hrvatske , ZNDH ) on 29 April 1941 with the rank of poručnik , and was initially posted to the personnel department of ZNDH headquarters .
On 27 June 1941 , the Croatian Legion ( Croatian : Hrvatska Legija ) was formed to fight alongside Germany during its invasion of the Soviet Union , and on 12 July the air component of the Legion was formed . Known as the Croatian Air Force Legion ( Croatian : Hrvatska Zrakoplovna Legija , HZL ) it consisted of a bomber group and a fighter group . The HZL formed part of the German Luftwaffe ; its members swore an oath of loyalty to Adolf Hitler , were subject to German disciplinary regulations and wore Luftwaffe uniforms . After attending Luftwaffe training schools , the fighter group was sent to the Eastern Front and designated as 15 . ( Kroatische ) Staffel ( squadron ) of III . Gruppe ( Group ) of Jagdgeschwader 52 ( 52nd Fighter Wing , or JG 52 ) . Meanwhile , Dukovac was transferred to the Luftwaffe Flugzeugführerschüle A / B 120 ( pilot school 120 ) in Prenzlau , Germany in September or October . In April 1942 he underwent advanced training , and in June he was transferred to Jagdfliegerschüle 4 ( fighter pilot school 4 ) at Fürth . In October 1942 , Leutnant Dubovac and seven other pilots joined 15 . / JG 52 , which was operating in the Caucasus flying Messerschmitt Bf 109G @-@ 2 fighters . On 29 October , Dubovac had his first 15 @-@ minute familiarisation flight , and by the afternoon of that day the new members of the unit were flying as wingmen to the veteran pilots of the Staffel .
= = = First victory = = =
On 11 November 1942 , Dukovac was flying his 12th mission , escorting Junkers Ju 87 Stuka dive bombers to Lazarevskoye . During the mission he and his companion were intercepted by Polikarpov I @-@ 16 Rata fighters , and Dubovac downed one of the attackers over the city of Tuapse to register his first confirmed aerial victory . Dukovac was unable to build upon his success at this time , as four days later the whole Staffel rotated back to the NDH because most of the personnel had endured a year of constant combat . The men of 15 . / JG 52 had a break of three months , commencing their return journey on 12 February 1943 , collecting their aircraft at Kraków in German @-@ occupied Poland on 18 February then flying to Lvov . They flew on to Nikolayev on 21 February . The Eastern Front had changed significantly during their absence , with the strategic initiative passing to the Soviets .
= = = Second tour = = =
On 30 March 1943 , 15 . / JG 52 transferred from Nikolayev to Kerch , and it flew the first missions of its second tour the following day . On 15 April , Dukovac and Feldwebel Viktor Mihelčić took off on a patrol of the Krymskaja – Abinskaja area , and Dukovac shot down a US @-@ made Bell P @-@ 39 Airacobra . Five days later , Dukovac was late taking off and was catching up to his Schwarm when he downed a LaGG @-@ 3 fighter during an engagement with four of the Soviet aircraft , but there were no witnesses to confirm his claim . Later that day , he and three other pilots were escorting a group of Ju 87s and Junkers Ju 88 medium bombers when they came across 25 Soviet fighters and flying boats over the Black Sea . Dukovac claimed another LaGG @-@ 3 , but again no @-@ one witnessed it . The following morning , Dukovac was on patrol with another pilot near Karbardinovka when they came across six Mikoyan @-@ Gurevich MiG @-@ 3 fighters . Dukovac claimed one , but the other pilot 's aircraft was hit and they had to retire . Later that day , Dukovac and another pilot engaged several LaGG @-@ 3s between Novorossiysk and Gelendzhik ; Dukovac claimed two , one of which was not witnessed . On 22 April , Dukovac was attacking shipping in Novorossiysk when he had to force @-@ land his aircraft with engine problems . He flew another mission in a different aircraft later that day over the Black Sea , downing a Ilyushin DB @-@ 3 bomber .
On 25 April , Dukovac and two others flew an escort mission for Henschel Hs 129 ground @-@ attack aircraft and Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 190 fighters attacking shipping near Primorsko @-@ Akhtarsk , during which the Croat pilots assisted in the sinking of two small vessels . On 27 April , Dukovac accounted for another LaGG @-@ 3 between Krymskaja and Abinskaja during a Heinkel He 111 escort . Dukovac claimed a victory over another LaGG @-@ 3 during a patrol three days later , but it was not seen by his wingman , as they had become separated during the fight . On 1 May Dukovac sank a small vessel . The following day , he and three other Croat pilots were escorting a group of He 111s when two LaGG @-@ 3s tried to intercept the formation . Dukovac and another pilot both claimed one of the Soviet fighters each , but their destruction was not witnessed . On 3 May , a morning mission saw Dukovac claim one of four LaGG @-@ 3s encountered near Krimskaja .
In the afternoon of 3 May , Dukovac and another pilot were escorting Hs 129s when they encountered a group of seven Ilyushin Il @-@ 2 ground attack aircraft and six fighters . During the engagement , Dukovac 's aircraft was damaged and he force @-@ landed , but not before claiming one of the Il @-@ 2s . The following morning , Dukovac and two others sortied on a He 111 escort mission , after which Dukovac again force @-@ landed , this time near Varenikovskaya . On 5 May , Dukovac made three claims : two LaGG @-@ 3s in the morning , and another during a Ju 87 escort mission in the evening . The following evening , Dukovac shot down another LaGG @-@ 3 while escorting Ju 87s . On 8 May , he claimed yet another LaGG @-@ 3 during an escort mission for a Fieseler Fi 156 Storch liaison aircraft . On 12 May , reinforcements arrived for 15 . / JG 52 , in the form of some of the pilots that had served on the first tour of the Eastern Front in 1942 , along with more former VVKJ pilots .
Dukovac did not meet further success until 25 May , when he claimed two Supermarine Spitfire V fighters southeast of Temryuk . Two days later , he and two other pilots surprised eight LaGG @-@ 3s west of Trarehof , all of them claiming one , although Dukovac 's claim not witnessed . On 30 May , he was on another He 111 escort mission when he accounted for another LaGG @-@ 3 . At this juncture there were a spate of defections from 15 . / JG 52 , with pilots flying to Soviet airfields . The remaining pilots were questioned by the Luftwaffe , the Staffel was withdrawn from the front , and the commander of the HZL was replaced . This was the end of the second tour of 15 . / JG 52 on the Eastern Front , during which Dukovac had claimed 14 confirmed and six unconfirmed kills , five of which were later confirmed .
= = = Third tour = = =
The Luftwaffe decided to replace most of the remaining pilots of 15 . / JG 52 with newly trained men , and several veterans of the Staffel joined them during their fighter training at Fürth . Twelve graduated on 1 October 1943 , and under newly promoted Staffelkapitan Oberleutnant Dukovac , they and another two pilots arrived at Nikolayev on 21 October , where they were equipped with eight Bf 109G4s and G @-@ 6s . They deployed to their airfield at Bagerovo and commenced combat missions on 26 October . Three days later , Dukovac scored the first victory of the tour by downing a LaGG @-@ 3 south of Kerch . Over the next two days he claimed an Il @-@ 2 and another LaGG @-@ 3 , then a Ju 87 . 1 November was the most successful day for 15 . / JG 52 for the entire war , with pilots claiming eleven aircraft with no loss , including two Il @-@ 2s for Dukovac . He claimed another two Il @-@ 2s the next day , but his aircraft was badly damaged by the escorting fighters and he crash @-@ landed near Mariental , escaping unhurt . He followed this up with a claim for a DB @-@ 3 on 6 November . On 15 November , the Staffel moved to Karankut , and four days later Dukovac downed yet another LaGG @-@ 3 . At the end of November , the approach of winter reduced flying operations almost to a halt , but Dukovac downed two Il @-@ 2s on 6 December near Bagerovo for his 30th and 31st confirmed aerial victories .
It was not until 12 January that Dukovac added to his tally , a Yakovlev Yak @-@ 1 . On 2
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and benefits for foreign domestic workers so that they are in line with those afforded to local workers , particularly with regard to wages and retirement benefits . " The following year , the UN Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women called on the government to " repeal the ' two @-@ week rule ' and to implement a more flexible policy regarding foreign domestic workers . It also calls upon the state party to strengthen its control of employment agencies and to provide migrant workers with easily accessible avenues of redress against abuse by employers and permit them to stay in the country while seeking redress . " The two @-@ week and live @-@ in rules were criticised by the United Nations Human Rights Committee in 2013 .
= = = Abuse by employers = = =
Although the Hong Kong government has enacted legislation which nominally protects migrant workers , recourse is time @-@ consuming and the costs considerable . The legal process can take up to 15 months to reach the District Court or Labour Tribunal , during which workers have no income .
Welfare groups have expressed concerns about the treatment of this segment of the Hong Kong workforce , and the 2014 Erwiana Sulistyaningsih abuse case ( which attracted international news headlines ) focused on the plight of foreign workers in the territory . Thousands took to the streets , demanding justice for Sulistyaningsih . Although the government calls her case an isolated one , welfare groups say that many workers are victims of " modern @-@ day slavery " and abuse by employers . Hong Kong Human Rights Monitor reported that a substantial percentage of workers are mistreated by their employers ; of 2 @,@ 500 workers interviewed , at least 25 percent said they had experienced violations of their contract ( including pay less than the MAW and being denied their mandatory weekly day of rest and statutory holidays ) . More than 25 percent had also experienced physical and verbal abuse , including a " significant incidence " of sexual abuse . According to Caritas Hong Kong , their Asian Migrant Worker Social Service Project helpline received over four thousand calls from workers and 53 workers received assistance to remain in Hong Kong and pursue their claims . According to Belthune House executive director Adwina Antonio , the shelter dealt with 7 @,@ 000 cases of alleged abuse in the first three @-@ quarters of 2013 ( compared with 3 @,@ 000 for all of 2012 ) .
Contributing factors include " artificially low wages " and the live @-@ in requirement . Many workers accumulate six to twelve months ' debt to intermediaries for commissions , although these commissions are limited by law to 10 percent of the first month 's pay . The ease with which foreign workers may be deported and the difficulty of finding employment abroad deters them from reporting violations or discrimination .
= = = = Live @-@ in requirement = = = =
Since workers are required to live with their employers , they are vulnerable to working long hours ; according to Amnesty International and welfare groups , some workers routinely work 16 to 18 hours a day and have no escape from abuse .
= = = Philippine government policy = = =
Filipino workers have protested Philippine government targeting of overseas Filipino workers , and a 1982 protest opposed Executive Order No. 857 ( EO @-@ 857 ) implemented by Ferdinand Marcos . According to the order , overseas contract workers were required to remit 50 to 70 percent of their total earnings through authorised government channels only . Migrant @-@ worker groups say that overseas Filipino workers must pay up to PHP150,000 ( $ 3 @,@ 400 ) in government and recruiting @-@ agency fees before they can leave the country . In 2007 , the Philippine government proposed a law requiring workers to submit to a " competency training and assessment program " which would cost them PHP10,000 to P15,000 ( US $ 215 to US $ 320 ) – about half their average monthly salary ( typically US $ 450 ) . According to the Philippine Department of Labor and Employment , the policy would help protect domestic overseas workers from abuse by employers . Government agencies receive a total of about PHP21 billion ( $ 470 million ) a year from foreign workers in police clearances , National Bureau of Investigation and passport fees , membership in the Overseas Workers Welfare Administration , local health insurance and Philippine Overseas Employment Agency and Home Development Mutual Fund fees . Although charges by Indonesian agencies for dormitory housing , lessons in Cantonese , housework and Chinese cuisine were capped at about HK $ 14 @,@ 000 by the government in 2012 , interest is excluded from the cap . In 2012 , Bloomberg reporters suggested that many agencies contract with workers to convert sums owed before their arrival in Hong Kong into " advances " from moneylenders ( bypassing Hong Kong law ) .
= = = Hong Kong government policy = = =
According to Time , the two @-@ week rule and live @-@ in requirement protect Hong Kong employers of foreign workers . The government argues that the two @-@ week rule is needed to maintain immigration control , preventing job @-@ hopping and imported workers working illegally after their contracts end . " However , it does not preclude the workers concerned from working in Hong Kong again after returning to their place of domicile . " The government implies that in the absence of these rules , workers can easily leave unsatisfactory employers ( creating the disruption of having to find a new employee and incurring an additional fees for a new contract ) . In early 2014 , the government further impeded labour mobility by no longer renewing the visas of workers who change employers more than three times in a year .
Hong Kong regards the Erwiana Sulistyaningsih case as isolated , and its labour minister pledged to increase regulation , enforcement and employment @-@ agency inspections . It has conducted several raids on migrant workers accused of not living at their employer 's residence . However , Robert Godden of Amnesty Asia @-@ Pacific said : " The specifics , many of the factors leading to the abuse [ of Erwiana ] , can be applied to thousands of migrant domestic workers : underpayment , restrictions on movement ; you can see that she was heavily indebted by the illegal recruitment fees charged by the agency , and you can see that she didn 't know how to access justice . " In 2014 , the Labour Department prosecuted an employer who allegedly abused Rowena Uychiat during her nine @-@ month employment .
In March 2016 , an NGO , Justice Centre , reported its findings that deemed one domestic worker in six in Hong Kong to have been forced into labour . It criticised the government for being in denial that Hong Kong is a source , destination and transit area for human trafficking and forced labour , and said Hong Kong lags behind other countries in having a comprehensive set of laws and policies to tackle forced labour or trafficking .
= Japanese battleship Yamato =
Yamato ( 大和 ) was the lead ship of the Yamato class of Imperial Japanese Navy World War II battleships . She and her sister ship , Musashi , were the heaviest battleships ever constructed , displacing 72 @,@ 800 tonnes at full load and armed with nine 46 cm ( 18 @.@ 1 inch ) 45 Caliber Type 94 main guns , which were the largest guns ever mounted on a warship . Neither ship survived the war .
Named after the ancient Japanese Yamato Province , Yamato was designed to counter the numerically superior battleship fleet of the United States , Japan 's main rival in the Pacific . She was laid down in 1937 and formally commissioned a week after the Pearl Harbor attack in late 1941 . Throughout 1942 , she served as the flagship of the Japanese Combined Fleet , and in June 1942 Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto directed the fleet from her bridge during the Battle of Midway , a disastrous defeat for Japan . Musashi took over as the Combined Fleet flagship in early 1943 , and Yamato spent the rest of the year , and much of 1944 , moving between the major Japanese naval bases of Truk and Kure in response to American threats . Although present at the Battle of the Philippine Sea in June 1944 , she played no part in the battle .
The only time Yamato fired her main guns at enemy surface targets was in October 1944 , when she was sent to engage American forces invading the Philippines during the Battle of Leyte Gulf . On the verge of success , the Japanese force turned back , believing they were engaging an entire US carrier fleet rather than the light escort carrier group that was all that stood between the battleship and the vulnerable troop transports .
During 1944 , the balance of naval power in the Pacific decisively turned against Japan , and by early 1945 , its fleet was much depleted and badly hobbled by critical fuel shortages in the home islands . In a desperate attempt to slow the Allied advance , Yamato was dispatched on a one @-@ way mission to Okinawa in April 1945 , with orders to beach herself and fight until destroyed protecting the island . The task force was spotted south of Kyushu by US submarines and aircraft , and on 7 April 1945 she was sunk by American carrier @-@ based bombers and torpedo bombers with the loss of most of her crew .
= = Design and construction = =
During the 1930s the Japanese government adopted an ultranationalist militancy with a view to greatly expand the Japanese Empire . Japan withdrew from the League of Nations in 1934 , renouncing its treaty obligations . After withdrawing from the Washington Naval Treaty , which limited the size and power of capital ships , the Imperial Japanese Navy began their design of the new Yamato class of heavy battleships . Their planners recognized Japan would be unable to compete with the output of U.S. naval shipyards should war break out , so the 70 @,@ 000 ton vessels of the Yamato class were designed to be capable of engaging multiple enemy battleships at the same time .
The keel of Yamato , the lead ship of the class , was laid down at the Kure Naval Arsenal , Hiroshima , on 4 November 1937 , in a dockyard that had to be adapted to accommodate her enormous hull . The dock was deepened by one meter , and gantry cranes capable of lifting up to 350 tonnes were installed . Extreme secrecy was maintained throughout construction , a canopy even being erected over part of the drydock to screen the ship from view . Yamato was launched on 8 August 1940 , with Captain ( later Vice @-@ Admiral ) Miyazato Shutoku in command . A great effort was made in Japan to ensure that the ships were built in extreme secrecy to prevent American intelligence officials from learning of their existence and specifications .
= = = Armament = = =
Yamato 's main battery consisted of nine 46 cm ( 18 @.@ 1 in ) 45 Caliber Type 94 naval guns — the largest caliber of naval artillery ever fitted to a warship , although the shells were not as heavy as those fired by the British 18 @-@ inch naval guns of World War I. Each gun was 21 @.@ 13 metres ( 69 @.@ 3 ft ) long , weighed 147 @.@ 3 tonnes ( 162 @.@ 4 short tons ) , and was capable of firing high @-@ explosive or armor @-@ piercing shells 42 kilometres ( 26 mi ) . Her secondary battery comprised twelve 155 @-@ millimetre ( 6 @.@ 1 in ) guns mounted in four triple turrets ( one forward , one aft , two midships ) , and twelve 127 @-@ millimetre ( 5 @.@ 0 in ) guns in six twin mounts ( three on each side amidships ) . These turrets had been taken off the Mogami @-@ class cruisers when those vessels were converted to a main armament of 20 @.@ 3 @-@ centimetre ( 8 @.@ 0 in ) guns . In addition , Yamato carried twenty @-@ four 25 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) anti @-@ aircraft guns , primarily mounted amidships . When refitted in 1944 and 1945 for naval engagements in the South Pacific , the secondary battery configuration was changed to six 155 mm guns and twenty @-@ four 127 mm guns , and the number of 25 mm anti @-@ aircraft guns was increased to 162 .
= = Service = =
= = = Trials and initial operations = = =
During October or November 1941 Yamato underwent sea trials , reaching her maximum possible speed of 27 @.@ 4 knots ( 50 @.@ 7 km / h ; 31 @.@ 5 mph ) . As war loomed , priority was given to accelerating military construction . On 16 December , months ahead of schedule , the battleship was formally commissioned at Kure , in a ceremony more austere than usual , as the Japanese were still intent on concealing the ship 's characteristics . The same day , under Captain ( later Vice @-@ Admiral ) Gihachi Takayanagi , she joined fellow battleships Nagato and Mutsu in the 1st Battleship Division .
On 12 February 1942 , Yamato became the flagship of Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto 's Combined Fleet . A veteran of Japan 's crushing victory over Russia at the Battle of Tsushima in the Russo @-@ Japanese War , the Pearl Harbor victor was planning a decisive engagement with the United States Navy at Midway Island . After participating in war games Yamato departed Hiroshima Bay on 27 May for duty with Yamamoto 's main battleship group . US codebreakers were aware of Yamamoto 's intentions and the Battle of Midway proved disastrous for Japan 's carrier force , with four fleet carriers and 332 aircraft destroyed . Yamamoto exercised overall command from Yamato 's bridge , but his battleplan had widely dispersed his forces to lure the Americans into a trap , and the battleship group was too far away to take part in the engagement . On 5 June , Yamamoto ordered the remaining ships to return to Japan , so Yamato withdrew with the main battleship force to Hashirajima before making her way back to Kure .
Yamato left Kure for Truk on 17 August 1942 . After 11 days at sea , she was sighted by the American submarine USS Flying Fish , which fired four torpedoes ( all of which missed ) ; Yamato arrived safely at Truk later that day . She remained here throughout the Guadalcanal Campaign because of a lack of 460 mm ammunition suitable for shore bombardment , uncharted seas around Guadalcanal , and her high fuel consumption . Before the year 's end , Captain ( later Rear Admiral ) Chiaki Matsuda was assigned to command Yamato .
On 11 February 1943 , Yamato was replaced by her sister ship Musashi as flagship of the Combined Fleet . Dubbed " Hotel Yamato " by the Japanese cruiser and destroyer crews stationed in the South Pacific , the battleship spent only a single day away from Truk between her arrival in August 1942 and her departure on 8 May 1943 . On that day , she set sail for Yokosuka and from there for Kure , arriving on 14 May . She spent nine days in dry dock for inspection and general repairs , and after sailing to Japan 's western Inland Sea she was again dry @-@ docked in late July for significant refitting and upgrades . On 16 August , Yamato began her return to Truk , where she joined a large task force formed in response to American raids on the Tarawa and Makin atolls . She sortied in late September with Nagato , three carriers , and smaller warships to intercept US Task Force 15 , and again a month later with six battleships , three carriers , and eleven cruisers . Intelligence had reported that the United States Naval Base at Pearl Harbor was nearly empty of ships , which the Japanese interpreted to mean that an American naval force would strike at Wake Island . But there were no radar contacts for six days , and the fleet returned to Truk , arriving on 26 October .
Yamato escorted Transport Operation BO @-@ 1 from Truk to Yokosuka during 12 – 17 December . Subsequently , because of their extensive storage capacity and thick armor protection , Yamato and Musashi were pressed into service as transport vessels . On 25 December , while ferrying troops and equipment — which were wanted as reinforcements for the garrisons at Kavieng and the Admiralty Islands — from Yokosuka to Truk , Yamato and her task group were intercepted by the American submarine Skate about 180 miles ( 290 km ) out at sea . Skate fired a spread of four torpedoes at Yamato ; one struck the battleship 's starboard side toward the stern . A hole 5 metres ( 16 ft ) below the top of her anti @-@ torpedo bulge and measuring some 25 metres ( 82 ft ) across was ripped open in the hull , and a joint between the upper and lower armored belts failed , causing the rear turret 's upper magazine to flood . Yamato took on about 3 @,@ 000 tons of water , but reached Truk later that day . The repair ship Akashi effected temporary repairs on the battleship , and Yamato departed on 10 January for Kure .
On 16 January 1944 , Yamato arrived at Kure for repairs of the torpedo damage and was dry @-@ docked until 3 February . During this time , armor plate sloped at 45 ° was fitted in the area of damage to her hull . It had been proposed that 5 @,@ 000 long tons ( 5 @,@ 100 t ) of steel be used to bolster the ship 's defense against flooding from torpedo hits outside the armored citadel , but this was rejected out of hand because the additional weight would have increased Yamato 's displacement and draft by too much . While Yamato was dry @-@ docked , Captain Nobuei Morishita — former captain of the battleship Haruna — assumed command . On 25 February , Yamato and Musashi were reassigned from the 1st Battleship Division to the Second Fleet .
Yamato was again dry @-@ docked at Kure for further upgrades to all her radar and anti @-@ aircraft systems from 25 February to 18 March 1944 . Each of the two beam @-@ mounted 6 @.@ 1 inch ( 155 @-@ mm ) triple turrets was removed and replaced by three pairs of 5 @-@ inch ( 127 @-@ mm ) AA guns in double mounts . In addition , 8 triple and 26 single 25mm AA mounts were added at this time , increasing the total number of 127 mm and 25 mm anti @-@ aircraft guns to 24 and 162 , respectively . Shelters were also added on the upper deck for the increased AA crews . A Type 13 air search and Type 22 , Mod 4 , surface search / gunnery control radar were installed and the main mast was altered . Her radar suite was also upgraded to include infrared identification systems and aircraft search and gunnery control radars . She left the dry dock on 18 March and went through several trials beginning on 11 April . Yamato left Kure on 21 April and embarked soldiers and materiel the following day at Okinoshima for a mission to Manila , reaching the Philippines on 28 April . She then moved on to Malaya to join Vice @-@ Admiral Jisaburo Ozawa 's Mobile Fleet at Lingga ; this force arrived at Tawi Tawi on 14 May .
= = = Battle of the Philippine Sea = = =
In early June , Yamato and Musashi were again requisitioned as troop transports , this time to reinforce the garrison and naval defenses of the island of Biak as part of Operation Kon . The mission was cancelled when word reached Ozawa 's headquarters of American carrier attacks on the Mariana Islands . Instead , the Imperial Japanese Navy reorganized , concentrating the majority of its remaining fighting strength in the hope of achieving a decisive success against the Americans . By this time though , the entire Japanese navy was inferior in numbers and experience to the U.S. Pacific Fleet . From 19 to 23 June 1944 , Yamato escorted forces of Ozawa 's Mobile Fleet during the Battle of the Philippine Sea , dubbed by American pilots " The Great Marianas Turkey Shoot " . The Japanese lost three aircraft carriers and 426 aircraft ; Yamato 's only significant contribution was mistakenly opening fire on returning Japanese aircraft .
Following the battle , Yamato withdrew with the Mobile Fleet to the Hashirajima staging area near Kure to refuel and rearm . With Musashi she left the fleet on 24 June for the short journey to Kure , where she received five more triple 25 mm anti @-@ aircraft mounts . The opportunity was taken to put in place " emergency buoyancy keeping procedures . " These resulted in the removal of almost every flammable item from the battleship , including linoleum , bedding , and mattresses . In place of the latter , men slept on planks which could be used to repair damage . Flammable paints received a new silicon based overcoat , and additional portable pumps and fire fighting apparatus were installed . Leaving Japan on 8 July , Yamato — accompanied by the battleships Musashi , Kongō , Nagato , and eleven cruisers and destroyers — sailed south . Yamato and Musashi headed for the Lingga Islands , arriving on 16 – 17 July . By this stage of the war , Japan 's tanker fleet had been much reduced by marauding American submarines , so major fleet units were stationed in the East Indies to be near the source of their fuel supply . The battleships remained at the islands for the next three months .
= = = Battle of Leyte Gulf = = =
Between 22 and 25 October 1944 , as part of Admiral Takeo Kurita 's Center Force ( also known as Force A or First Striking Force ) , Yamato took part in one of the largest naval engagements in history — the Battle of Leyte Gulf . In response to the American invasion of the Philippines , Operation Shō @-@ Gō called for a number of Japanese groups to converge on the island of Leyte , where American troops were landing . On 18 October , Yamato was given a coating of black camouflage in preparation for her nighttime transit of the San Bernardino Strait ; the main ingredient was soot taken from her smokestack . While en route to Leyte , the force was attacked in Palawan Passage on 23 October by the submarines USS Darter and Dace , which sank two Takao @-@ class heavy cruisers including Kurita 's flagship , Atago , and damaged a third . Kurita survived the loss of Atago and transferred his flag to Yamato .
= = = = Battle of the Sibuyan Sea = = = =
The following day the Battle of the Sibuyan Sea hurt the Center Force badly with the loss of three more heavy cruisers , eliminating a substantial part of the fleet 's anti @-@ aircraft defence . During the course of the day , American carrier aircraft sortied a total of 259 times . Aircraft from the USS Essex struck Yamato with two armor @-@ piercing bombs and scored one near miss ; Yamato suffered moderate damage and took on about 3 @,@ 370 tonnes ( 3 @,@ 320 long tons ) of water , but remained battleworthy . However , her sister ship Musashi became the focus of the American attacks and eventually sank after being hit with 17 bombs and 19 torpedoes .
= = = = Battle off Samar = = = =
Unknown to the Japanese admiral , the main American defensive force with Admiral William Halsey , Jr. departed Leyte on the evening of 24 October . Convinced that Kurita 's Center Force had been turned back , Halsey took his powerful 3rd Fleet in pursuit of the Japanese Northern Force , a decoy group composed of one fleet aircraft carrier ( Zuikaku ) , three light carriers , two Ise @-@ class hybrid battleship @-@ carriers , and their escorts . The deception was a success , drawing away five fleet carriers and five light carriers with more than 600 aircraft among them , six fast battleships , eight cruisers , and over 40 destroyers . During the hours of darkness , Kurita 's force navigated the San Bernardino Strait and shortly after dawn , in the Battle off Samar , attacked an American formation that had remained in the area to provide close support for the invading troops . Known as " Taffy 3 " , this small group comprised six escort carriers , three destroyers , and four destroyer escorts . In the initial stages of this battle , Yamato engaged enemy surface targets for the only time in her career , hitting several American ships . After Yamato confirmed primary battery hits on the escort carrier USS Gambier Bay , a spread of torpedoes heading for Yamato was spotted ; the battleship was forced to steer away from the fighting to avoid them and was unable to rejoin the battle . Although armed only with torpedoes and 5 inch guns and under attack by large caliber cannons , the light American surface combatants , supported by FM @-@ 2 Wildcats and TBM Avengers from Taffy 3 's escort carriers , attacked so ferociously that Kurita believed his ships were engaging a full American task force of fleet carriers . A mistaken report that he was facing six fleet carriers , three cruisers , and two destroyers led Kurita to order his task force to turn and disengage . Yamato emerged from the battle without serious damage ; only three near misses from bombs and seventeen casualties from strafing were suffered during the battle itself , while carrier strikes during the retreat caused light damage to the ship and injured or killed 21 crewmen . Three more heavy cruisers and one light cruiser were subsequently lost . The Centre Force sank one American escort carrier ( CVE ) , two destroyers , and a destroyer escort . A second CVE was lost by kamikaze attack after the surface engagement .
Following the engagement , Yamato and the remnants of Kurita 's force returned to Brunei . On 15 November 1944 , the 1st Battleship Division was disbanded and Yamato became the flagship of the Second Fleet . On 21 November , while transiting the East China Sea in a withdrawal to Kure Naval Base , Yamato 's battle group was attacked by the submarine USS Sealion . The battleship Kongō and destroyer Urakaze were lost . Yamato was immediately drydocked for repairs and anti @-@ aircraft upgrades on reaching Kure , where several of the battleship 's older anti @-@ aircraft guns were replaced . On 25 November , Captain Aruga Kōsaku was named Yamato 's commander .
= = = Operation Ten @-@ Go = = =
On 1 January 1945 , Yamato , Haruna and Nagato were transferred to the newly reactivated 1st Battleship Division . Yamato left drydock two days later for Japan 's Inland Sea . This reassignment was brief ; the 1st Battleship Division was deactivated once again on 10 February and Yamato was allotted to the 1st Carrier Division . On 19 March , American carrier aircraft from Enterprise , Yorktown and Intrepid raided Kure . Although 16 warships were hit , Yamato sustained only minor damage from a number of near misses and from one bomb that struck her bridge . The intervention of a squadron of Kawanishi N1K1 " Shiden " fighters ( named " George " by the Allies ) flown by veteran Japanese fighter instructors prevented the raid from doing too much damage to the base and assembled ships , while Yamato 's ability to maneuver — albeit slowly — in the Nasami Channel benefited her .
As the final step before their planned invasion of the Japanese mainland , Allied forces invaded Okinawa on 1 April . The Imperial Japanese Navy 's response was to organise a mission codenamed Operation Ten @-@ Go that would see the commitment of much of Japan 's remaining surface strength . Yamato and nine escorts ( the cruiser Yahagi and eight destroyers ) would sail to Okinawa and , in concert with kamikaze and Okinawa @-@ based army units , attack the Allied forces assembled on and around Okinawa . Yamato would then be beached to act as an unsinkable gun emplacement and continue to fight until destroyed . In preparation for the mission , Yamato had taken on a full stock of ammunition on 29 March . According to the Japanese plan , the ships were supposed to take aboard only enough fuel for a one way voyage to Okinawa , but additional fuel amounting to 60 percent of capacity was issued on the authority of local base commanders . Designated the " Surface Special Attack Force " , the ships left Tokuyama at 15 : 20 on 6 April .
Unfortunately for the Japanese , the Allies had intercepted and decoded their radio transmissions , learning the particulars of Operation Ten @-@ Go . Further confirmation of Japanese intentions came around 20 : 00 when the Surface Special Attack Force , navigating the Bungo Strait , was spotted by the American submarines Threadfin and Hackleback . Both reported Yamato 's position to the main American carrier strike force , but neither could attack because of the speed of the Japanese ships — 22 knots ( 25 mph ; 41 km / h ) — and their extreme zigzagging .
The Allied forces around Okinawa began to brace for an assault . Admiral Raymond Spruance ordered six battleships already engaged in shore bombardment in the sector to prepare for surface action against Yamato . These orders were countermanded in favor of strikes from Admiral Marc Mitscher 's aircraft carriers , but as a contingency the battleships together with seven cruisers and twenty one destroyers were sent to interdict the Japanese force before it could reach the vulnerable transports and landing craft .
Yamato 's crew were at general quarters and ready for anti @-@ aircraft action by dawn on 7 April . The first Allied aircraft made contact with the Surface Special Attack Force at 08 : 23 ; two flying boats arrived soon thereafter , and for the next five hours , Yamato fired Common Type 3 or Beehive ( 3 Shiki tsûjôdan ) shells at the Allied seaplanes , but could not prevent them from shadowing the force . Yamato obtained her first radar contact with aircraft at 10 : 00 ; an hour later , American F6F Hellcat fighters appeared overhead to deal with any Japanese aircraft that might appear . None did .
At about 12 : 30 , 280 bomber and torpedo bomber aircraft arrived over the Japanese force . Asashimo , which had earlier fallen out of formation due to engine trouble , was caught and sunk by a detachment of aircraft from San Jacinto . The Surface Special Attack Force increased speed to 24 knots ( 28 mph ; 44 km / h ) , and following standard Japanese anti @-@ aircraft defensive measures , the destroyers began circling Yamato . The first aircraft swooped in to attack at 12 : 37 . Yahagi turned and raced away at 35 knots ( 40 mph ; 65 km / h ) in an attempt to draw off some of the attackers ; it drew off only an insignificant number . Yamato was not hit for four minutes , but at 12 : 41 two bombs obliterated two of her triple 25 mm anti @-@ aircraft mounts and blew a hole in the deck . A third bomb then destroyed her radar room and the starboard aft 127 mm mount . At 12 : 46 , another two bombs struck the battleship 's port side , one slightly ahead of the aft 155 mm centreline turret and the other right on top of the gun . These caused a great deal of damage to the turret and its magazines ; only one man survived . At 12 : 45 a single torpedo struck Yamato far forward on her port side , sending extreme shocks throughout the ship . Because many of the ship 's survivors were later killed by strafing or were trapped when Yamato sank , the details are uncertain , but authors Garzke and Dulin record that little damage was caused . Shortly afterward , up to three more torpedoes struck Yamato . Two impacts , on the port side near the engine room and on one of the boiler rooms , are confirmed ; the third is disputed but is regarded by Garzke and Dulin as probable because it would explain the reported flooding in Yamato 's auxiliary steering room . The attack ended around 12 : 47 , leaving the battleship listing 5 – 6 ° to port ; counterflooding — deliberately flooding compartments on the other side of the ship — reduced the list to 1 ° . One boiler room had been disabled , slightly reducing Yamato 's top speed , and strafing had incapacitated many of the gun crews who manned Yamato 's unprotected 25 mm anti @-@ aircraft weapons , sharply curtailing their effectiveness .
The second attack started just before 13 : 00 . In a coordinated strike , dive bombers flew high overhead to begin their runs while torpedo bombers approached from all directions at just above sea level . Overwhelmed by the number of targets , the battleship 's anti @-@ aircraft guns were less than effective , and the Japanese tried desperate measures to break up the attack . Yamato 's main guns were loaded with Beehive shells fused to explode one second after firing — a mere 1 @,@ 000 m ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) from the ship — but this had little effect . Three or four torpedoes struck the battleship on the port side , and one to starboard . Three hits , close together on the port side , are confirmed : one struck a fireroom that had been hit earlier , one impacted a different fireroom , and the third hit the hull adjacent to a previously damaged outboard engine room , increasing the water that had already been flowing into that space and possibly causing flooding in nearby locations . The fourth , unconfirmed , hit may have struck aft of the third ; Garzke and Dulin believe this would explain the rapid flooding that reportedly occurred in that location . This attack left Yamato in a perilous position , listing 15 – 18 ° to port . Counterflooding all of the remaining starboard void spaces lessened this to 10 ° , but further correction would have required either repairs or flooding the starboard engine and fire rooms . Although the battleship was in no danger of sinking at this point , the list meant that the main battery was unable to fire and her maximum speed was limited to 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) .
The third and most damaging attack developed at about 13 : 40 . At least four bombs hit the ship 's superstructure and caused heavy casualties among her 25 mm anti @-@ aircraft gun crews . Many near misses drove in her outer plating , partially compromising her defense against torpedoes . Most serious were four more torpedo impacts . Three exploded on the port side , increasing water intake into the port inner engine room and flooding yet another fireroom and the steering gear room . With the auxiliary steering room already underwater , the ship lost all maneuverability and became stuck in a starboard turn . The fourth torpedo most likely hit the starboard outer engine room which , along with three other rooms on the starboard side , was in the process of being counterflooded to reduce the port list . The torpedo strike greatly increased the rate of water intake , trapping many crewmen before they could escape .
At 14 : 02 , the order was belatedly given to abandon ship . By this time , Yamato 's speed had dropped to 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) and her list was steadily increasing . Fires were raging out of control in some sections of the ship and alarms had begun to sound on the bridge warning of critical temperatures in the forward main battery magazines . Normal practice would have been to flood the magazines , preventing any explosion , but the pumping stations that should have performed this task had been rendered unusable by previous flooding .
At 14 : 05 , Yahagi sank , the victim of twelve bombs and seven torpedoes . At the same time , a final flight of torpedo bombers attacked Yamato from her starboard side . Her list was now such that the torpedoes — set to a depth of 6 @.@ 1 m ( 20 ft ) — struck the bottom of her hull . The battleship continued her inexorable roll to port . By 14 : 20 , the power went out and her remaining 25 mm anti @-@ aircraft guns began to drop into the sea . Three minutes later , Yamato capsized . Her main 46 cm turrets fell off , and as she rolled suction was created that drew swimming crewmen back toward the ship . When the roll reached approximately 120 ° , one of the two bow magazines detonated in a tremendous explosion . The resulting mushroom cloud — over 6 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) high — was seen 160 kilometres ( 99 mi ) away on Kyūshū . Yamato sank rapidly , losing an estimated 3 @,@ 055 of her 3 @,@ 332 crew , including fleet commander Vice @-@ Admiral Seiichi Itō . The few survivors were recovered by the four surviving destroyers , which withdrew to Japan .
From the first attack at 12 : 37 to the explosion at 14 : 23 , Yamato was hit by at least eleven torpedoes and six bombs . There may have been two more torpedo and bomb hits , but this is not confirmed .
= = Wreck discovery = =
Because of the often confused circumstances and incomplete information regarding their sinkings , few wrecks of Japanese capital ships have been discovered and identified . Drawing on US wartime records , an expedition to the South China Sea in 1982 produced some results , but the wreckage discovered could not be clearly identified . A second expedition returned to the site two years later , and the team 's photographic and video records were later confirmed by one of the battleship 's designers , Shigeru Makino to show the Yamato 's last resting place . The wreck lies 290 kilometres ( 180 mi ) southwest of Kyushu under 340 metres ( 1 @,@ 120 ft ) of water in two main pieces ; a bow section comprising the front two thirds of the ship , and a separate stern section .
On 16 July 2015 , a group of Liberal Democratic Party lawmakers began meetings to study the feasibility of raising the ship from the ocean floor and recovering the remains of crewmembers entombed in the wreckage . The group said that it plans to request government funds to research the technical feasibility of recovering the ship .
= = Cultural significance = =
From the time of their construction , Yamato and her sister Musashi carried significant weight in Japanese culture . The battleships represented the epitome of Imperial Japanese naval engineering , and because of their size , speed , and power , visibly embodied Japan 's determination and readiness to defend its interests against the Western Powers and the United States in particular . Shigeru Fukudome , chief of the Operations Section of the Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff , described the ships as " symbols of naval power that provided to officers and men alike a profound sense of confidence in their navy . " Yamato 's symbolic might was such that some Japanese citizens held the belief that their country could never fall as long as the ship was able to fight .
Decades after the war , Yamato was memorialised in various forms by the Japanese . Historically , the word " Yamato " was used as a poetic name for Japan ; thus , her name became a metaphor for the end of the Japanese empire . In April 1968 , a memorial tower was erected on Cape Inutabu in Japan 's Kagoshima Prefecture to commemorate the lives lost in Operation Ten @-@ Go . In October 1974 , Leiji Matsumoto created a new television series , Space Battleship Yamato , about rebuilding the battleship as a starship and its interstellar quest to save Earth . The series was a huge success , spawning five feature films and two more TV series ; as post @-@ war Japanese tried to redefine the purpose of their lives , Yamato became a symbol of heroism and of their desire to regain a sense of masculinity after their country 's defeat in the war . Brought to the United States as Star Blazers , the animated series proved popular and established a foundation for anime in the North American entertainment market . The motif in Space Battleship Yamato was repeated in Silent Service , a popular manga and anime that explores issues of nuclear weapons and the Japan @-@ US relationship . The crew of the main plot device , a nuclear @-@ powered super submarine , mutinied and renamed their vessel Yamato , in allusion to the World War II battleship and the ideals she symbolises .
In 2005 , the Yamato Museum was opened near the site of the former Kure shipyards . Although intended to educate on the maritime history of post Meiji @-@ era Japan , the museum gives special attention to its namesake ; the battleship is a common theme among several of its exhibits , which includes a section dedicated to Matsumoto 's animated series . The centrepiece of the museum , occupying a large section of the first floor , is a 26 @.@ 3 @-@ metre long model of Yamato ( 1 : 10 scale ) .
Later that year , Toei released a 143 @-@ minute movie , Yamato , based on a book by Jun Henmi , to commemorate the 60th anniversary of the end of World War II ; Tamiya released special editions of scale models of the battleship in conjunction with the film 's release . Based on a book of the same name , the film is a tale about the sailors aboard the doomed battleship and the concepts of honour and duty . The film was shown on more than 290 screens across the country and was a commercial success , taking in a record 5 @.@ 11 billion yen at the domestic box office .
= Work ( Ciara song ) =
" Work " is a song recorded by American recording artist Ciara for her third studio album Fantasy Ride ( 2009 ) . It was released by LaFace Records on July 24 , 2009 , as the album 's fifth and final single . Rapper Missy Elliott provides featured vocals on the song . Ciara and Elliott wrote it in collaboration with its producers Nate " Danja " Hills and Marcella Araica . " Work " is a fast @-@ paced electropop and dance song with elements of house and hip hop . Ciara described it as an energetic club track , and considered it initially as the lead single of Fantasy Ride .
" Work " received mixed opinions overall by critics , some of whom called it the album 's strongest track and praised its hook , while others regarded the song as unoriginal and disappointing . The single peaked at number 52 on the UK Singles Chart and number 46 in Sweden . In Ireland , it reached number 31 , the single 's highest peak position on any chart . Melina Matsoukas directed the song 's music video , in which Ciara performs with her dancers .
= = Background = =
Ciara and Missy Elliott wrote " Work " in collaboration with its primary producer Nate " Danja " Hills and additional producer Marcella Araica . Araica recorded the track at Chalice Recording Studios in Los Angeles and Goldmind Studios in Virginia Beach . Jared Newcomb later assisted her for mixing , at Chalice Recording Studios . The song was announced in June 2008 and was revealed in October to be a duet with Elliott . " Work " was their third collaboration , following Ciara 's " 1 , 2 Step " ( 2004 ) and Elliott 's " Lose Control " ( 2005 ) . Ciara told MTV News on the set for the music video of " Go Girl " that " Work " is " crazy and out of this world . The energy is to the 10th power again . " Ciara elaborated on her collaboration with Elliott in an interview for Blogcritics :
When Missy and I do a record , the energy is on a whole other level . I can 't explain exactly what it is . It 's just the energy , I think . She knows how to really make a party a party . That 's what I want – to make this record to be the ultimate party record . That 's pretty much how that all came about . ... I guess each time we work together , we give 100 % of our energy to each other . It 's crazy . Sometimes you can 't explain what the chemistry is . It 's just how you feel .
Ciara originally planned to release Fantasy Ride in the form of three discs , each representing a particular sound . The third disc " Kingdom of Dance " , which featured dance @-@ oriented music , was set to include " Work " . In an August 2008 interview for Billboard , Ciara regarded the song as energetic and great to listen to while exercising : " you 're going to sweat up a storm in the club . " " Work " and " High Price " were at one point in contention to serve as the album 's lead single , but " Go Girl " was selected instead . " Work " was released worldwide on July 24 , 2009 , as the fifth and final single of Fantasy Ride . On August 21 , 2009 , B @-@ side track " Fit of Love " appeared on the German CD single release of " Work " . The single was digitally released in the United States on December 8 , 2009 .
= = Composition = =
" Work " is an electropop and dance song with elements of house in its production . The fast @-@ paced song features dance and hip hop beats , and uses hand claps and synth bleeps as its backdrop . Andrew Rennie of Canadian magazine Now described the instrumentation as " kick drum @-@ heavy " , and Joey Guerra of The Houston Chronicle called it a " frenetic club track " . Sarah Rodman of The Boston Globe wrote that Ciara " nimbly navigates synth bleats and burps and a shake @-@ and @-@ shimmy beat " . The song opens with lines by Elliott as she raps " When the song come on in the club , turn it up , turn it up , turn it up . " Ciara then opens the first verse , singing " The dance train is coming back again . Extravaganza , you should run and tell a friend . " The hook consists of the repeated remarks " Work ! Work ! " Digital Spy 's David Balls regarded the line " You better shake that thang [ sic ] like a donkey ! " as " thought @-@ provoking " .
= = Critical reception = =
Sarah Rodman of The Boston Globe named " Work " the album 's best track and praised Elliott 's addition . Rodman wrote that Ciara " takes her own advice to ' put some snap into it ' . " About.com writer Bill Lamb named it one of the album 's best , and wrote that it " lands somewhere between Ciara 's contemporary classic ' 1 , 2 Step ' and Missy Elliott 's own ' Lose Control ' . " Andrew Rennie of Now considered it the album 's strongest track and noted Ciara and Elliott 's " trademark chemistry " . IGN 's Finn White wrote that the song " will make all the bad girls sweat on the dance floor " . In his review of Fantasy Ride , Marrio Tarradell of The Dallas Morning News wrote that " Love Sex Magic " is a " dance @-@ floor corker " , and noted that " Work " is " similarly club @-@ ready " , referring both songs to as " ultra @-@ catchy " . Regarding " Work " , Tarradell wrote , " The rapid @-@ fire ' work , work , work ' refrain will bond to your head as if with Krazy Glue . " Writing for Metro Weekly , Doug Rule called the song an " instant classic " and referred it to as a " sequel of sorts to Elliott 's marvelous 2002 hit ' Work It ' . " A writer from Rap @-@ Up named the song one of the album 's top tracks .
David Balls of Digital Spy rated " Work " three stars out of five , writing that it " bears all the ingredients of a smash , but lacks the killer blow to leave you gasping for air . " Balls also noted that Ciara tends to rely on guest artists to guarantee a hit . The Houston Chronicle critic Joey Guerra called the song a " blast of energy " , but observed that it is " too reminiscent of past Ciara / Elliott hits " . Guerra said that " A little variation would have made for a more dynamic tune . " Andy Kellman of Allmusic was more critical and called the song an " over @-@ stuffed dancefloor mess that does not benefit from Missy Elliott 's hoarse hectorin " . Jordan Sargent of PopMatters considered the song a letdown due to Ciara 's " lifeless " vocal delivery . Dan Gennoe of Yahoo ! UK & Ireland referred to the song as " an underwhelming twitch which Missy surely wouldn 't have had anywhere near one of her own albums . "
= = Chart performance = =
On July 11 , 2009 , " Work " entered the UK Singles Chart at number 71 and rose to number 56 the following week . In its third week , it rose by four positions to reach number 52 and was present on the chart for seven weeks . " Work " reached number 31 on the Irish Singles Chart . On July 13 , 2009 , the song entered the Australian Singles Chart at number 98 . After ascending for several weeks , it peaked at number 66 in its fifth week on the chart . In Sweden , " Work " debuted on the Sverigetopplistan chart at number 50 on July 17 , 2009 . The following week , the song ascended to its peak position at number 46 .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Work " was directed by Melina Matsoukas , who previously directed the clip for Ciara 's single " Go Girl " ( 2008 ) . A preview premiered in early June 2009 and promotional photos were later released . The full video premiered in the United Kingdom on June 23 , 2009 at 7 pm on 4Music , and was later broadcast on Channel 4 , at midnight . The following day , the video was added to Ciara 's official profile on Bebo .
The video commences with shots of a construction site , where Ciara arrives in a large construction vehicle . Elliott raps her opening verse from the top of a pile of large tires while Ciara makes her debut in a gray jumpsuit with square aviator sunglasses . She soon appears in a slender black leotard and walks seductively along a construction walkway . Ciara and her dancers move to a dune in front of the site , where they perform a group choreography . The dancers wear white tops , torn blue jeans , construction belts and goggles . The second verse features an intense dance and switches halfway through to Ciara in a turquoise PVC dress and black strap stilettos , dancing in front of a pile of tires . She and her dancers return to the dune and dance to Elliott 's words . The video ends in the sand dune as Ciara and her dancers slowly drop to the ground and then get back up .
= = Formats and track listings = =
CD single / digital download
" Work " – 4 : 05
" Fit of Love " – 3 : 18
US digital download
" Work " – 4 : 05
= = Credits and personnel = =
Songwriting – Ciara Harris , Nate Hills , Marcella Araica , Missy Elliott
Production – Danja
Additional production – The Incredible Lago
Vocal arrangement – Ciara
Mixing – Marcella " Ms. Lago " Araica
Credits are adapted from the liner notes of Fantasy Ride .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= Chitty @-@ Chitty @-@ Bang @-@ Bang =
Chitty @-@ Chitty @-@ Bang @-@ Bang : The Magical Car is a children 's novel written by Ian Fleming for his son Caspar , with illustrations by John Burningham . It was initially published in three volumes , the first of which was released on 22 October 1964 by Jonathan Cape in London .
Fleming , better known as the creator of James Bond , took his inspiration for the subject from a series of aero @-@ engined racing cars called " Chitty Bang Bang " , built by Count Louis Zborowski in the early 1920s at Higham Park . Fleming had known Higham Park as a guest of its later owner , Walter Wigham , chairman of Robert Fleming & Co .
Chitty @-@ Chitty @-@ Bang @-@ Bang was loosely adapted as a 1968 film of the same name with a screenplay by Roald Dahl and Ken Hughes ; a subsequent novelisation was also published . The film was produced by Albert R. Broccoli , co @-@ producer of the James Bond film series . The story was also adapted as a stage musical under the same name . In April 2011 a BBC Radio 4 Extra adaptation was broadcast with Imogen Stubbs as the voice of Chitty . Three sequels to Fleming 's book have been published , all written by Frank Cottrell Boyce .
= = Plot = =
Commander Caractacus Pott is an inventor who buys and renovates an old car after gaining money from inventing and selling whistle @-@ like sweets to Lord Skrumshus , the wealthy owner of a local confectionery factory . The car , a " Paragon Panther " , was the sole production of the Paragon motor @-@ car company before it went bankrupt . It is a four @-@ seat touring car with an enormous bonnet . After the restoration is complete , the car is named for the noises made by its starter motor and the characteristic two loud backfires it makes when it starts .
At first Chitty @-@ Chitty @-@ Bang @-@ Bang is just a big and powerful car , but as the book progresses the car surprises the family by beginning to exhibit independent actions . This first happens while the family is caught in a traffic jam on their way to the beach for a picnic . The car suddenly instructs Commander Pott to pull a switch which causes Chitty @-@ Chitty @-@ Bang @-@ Bang to sprout wings and take flight over the stopped cars on the road . Commander Pott flies them to Goodwin Sands in the English Channel where the family picnics , swims , and sleeps . While the family naps , the tide comes in threatening to drown them . Chitty @-@ Chitty @-@ Bang @-@ Bang wakes them just in time with a hiss of steam . At the car 's direction , Commander Pott pulls another switch which causes it to transform into a hovercraft @-@ like vehicle . They make for the French coast and land on a beach near Calais . They explore along the beach and find a cave boobytrapped with some devices intended to scare off intruders . At the back of the cave is a store of armaments and explosives . The family detonates the cache of explosives and flees the cave .
The gangsters / gun @-@ runners who own the ammunition dump arrive and block the road in front of Chitty @-@ Chitty @-@ Bang @-@ Bang . The gangsters threaten the family , but Commander Pott throws the switch which transforms the car into an aeroplane and they take off , leaving the gangsters in helpless fury . The Potts stay overnight in a hotel in Calais . While the family sleeps , the gangsters break into the children 's room and kidnap them and drive off towards Paris . Chitty tracks the gangsters ' route , wakes Commander and Mrs. Pott , and they drive off in pursuit .
The gangsters are planning to rob a famous chocolate shop in Paris using the children as decoys . The Pott children overhear this and manage to warn the shop owner , Monsieur Bon @-@ Bon . Chitty arrives in time to prevent the gangsters from fleeing . The police arrive and the gangsters are taken away . As a reward Monsieur Bon @-@ Bon 's wife shares the secret recipe of her world famous fudge with the Potts and the two families become good friends . Chitty flies the family away to parts unknown , and the book implies that the car has yet more secrets .
= = Characters = =
Caractacus Pott – eccentric inventor and former commander in the Royal Navy
Mimsie Pott – Caractacus ' wife
Jeremy and Jemima Pott – Caractacus and Mimsie 's twin eight @-@ year @-@ old children
Lord Skrumshus – owner of a sweet factory
Joe the Monster – leader of a criminal gang
Man @-@ Mountain Fink – member of Joe 's gang
Soapy Sam – member of Joe 's gang ; explosives expert
Blood @-@ Money Banks – member of Joe 's gang ; blackmailer
Monsieur Bon @-@ Bon – owner of a famous Parisian chocolate shop and the target of Joe 's gang
= = Background = =
By 1961 Fleming had published nine James Bond books . The most recent of these was Thunderball , a novel Fleming initially published under his own name , but which was the subject of a legal action by its co @-@ authors , Kevin McClory and Jack Whittingham . In March 1961 , McClory read an advance copy of the book and he and Whittingham immediately petitioned the High Court in London for an injunction to stop publication . The case was heard on 24 March 1961 and allowed the book to be published , although the door was left open for McClory to pursue further action at a later date . He did so and , on 19 November 1963 , the case of McClory v Fleming was heard at the Chancery Division of the
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-@ nine @-@ minutes to secure a 2 – 2 home draw with Cambridge United , after having given York the lead in the first half , before Cambridge scored two goals through Jai Reason and Mark Beesley . Goals from Brodie ( 2 ) and Gash gave York a 3 – 2 victory over Kidderminster . Chris Carruthers was signed from Oxford on a one @-@ month loan to provide competition with Ferrell and Meredith on the left @-@ hand side , while O 'Hare was loaned out to Conference North club Gainsborough Trinity .
= = = October = = =
Sangaré scored a goal in stoppage time to earn York a 1 – 1 home draw against Stevenage , who had taken the lead through a Parslow own goal . York beat Tamworth 3 – 2 away , which was the opposition 's first home defeat in 2009 – 10 , with goals from Ferrell , Brodie and Sangaré . The team 's ten @-@ match unbeaten run came to an end following a 1 – 0 away defeat by Salisbury , who scored with a penalty in the second @-@ minute . Boyes rejoined the club on loan from Scunthorpe as cover for the injured Gash ahead of a 1 – 1 home draw with Oxford , who equalised after York had taken the lead through Rankine . Barrett gave them the lead away to Luton Town , before the home side equalised through Asa Hall , the match finishing a 1 – 1 draw . York played Bedworth United in the FA Cup fourth qualifying round , and a 2 – 0 home win was secured with goals from Rankine and Brodie . They were beaten 3 – 1 away by Crawley , after Brodie had given York the lead in the first half .
= = = November = = =
Carruthers ' loan was extended until January 2010 , and after Sangaré picked up an injury , Mansfield defender Luke Graham joined on a one @-@ month loan . York beat League Two side Crewe Alexandra 3 – 2 in the FA Cup first round , with goals from Brodie and Pacquette . Nelthorpe was loaned to fellow Conference Premier team Barrow until January 2010 , having struggled to establish himself in the team . Kevin Gall , a striker released by Darlington , was signed ahead of the match against Chester City , which York won 3 – 2 after Brodie scored a hat @-@ trick . Former Grays Athletic winger Tyrone Berry was signed on non @-@ contract terms , having impressed on trial . Rankine scored the only goal in a 1 – 0 home win over Ebbsfleet . He followed this up with the winning goal after scoring a header in a 1 – 0 away victory over AFC Wimbledon . Lawless scored the only goal in a 1 – 0 victory at home to Gateshead , with a low shot from Gash 's headed assist . Cambridge were beaten 2 – 1 away in the second round of the FA Cup ; Rankine and Brodie scored in the first half , which meant York reached the third round for the first time since 2001 – 02 . Foyle and Brodie respectively were named as the Conference Premier Manager and Player of the Month for November 2009 .
= = = December = = =
Brodie scored the only goal in a 1 – 0 away victory over Rushden . Mansfield agreed to extend Graham 's loan until January 2010 , when he would sign for the club permanently . Goals from Carruthers and Brodie gave York a 2 – 1 home win over Wrexham , a result that equalled the club record for successive victories in all competitions with eight . Youth team defender Dean Lisles was promoted to the first team squad , to provide cover for the injured Sangare , O 'Hare and Purkiss . York drew 0 – 0 away to Hinckley United in the first round of the FA Trophy , and the replay at home was won 3 – 1 , in which Brodie scored his second hat @-@ trick of 2009 – 10 . York beat fellow play @-@ off contenders Mansfield 3 – 0 on Boxing Day , Brodie ( 2 ) and Gash scoring . Berry was released after failing to make an appearance , while Emmerson was loaned out to Ossett Town of the Northern Premier League Premier Division .
= = = January = = =
York were defeated 3 – 1 away by Premier League team Stoke City in the FA Cup third round , after they had taken the lead when Barrett scored a header from a Lawless free kick . Carruthers and Graham signed for the club permanently , with the former signing for eighteen months and the latter until the end of the season . York beat Hayes & Yeading 4 – 1 at home , with Carruthers , Brodie ( 2 ) and Gall scoring . A 0 – 0 away draw with Newport County of the Conference South meant York would have a replay in the FA Trophy second round . Midfielder Courtney Pitt joined on loan from Cambridge for the rest of the season and Russell moved the other way , while Nelthorpe was loaned out to Luton and Gall extended his contract to the end of the season . Barrett scored the only goal with a shot from outside the penalty area to give York a 1 – 0 win away to Cambridge . York won their FA Trophy second round replay against Newport 1 – 0 at home , Pacquette scoring the winning goal in stoppage time . O 'Hare returned to Gainsborough on loan for the rest of the season . York beat Conference North side Corby Town 1 – 0 at home in the FA Trophy third round , the winning goal coming from a penalty scored by Ferrell .
= = = February = = =
Emmerson was released by the club after failing to make any first team appearances , while Ferrell joined Gateshead for a £ 3 @,@ 500 fee and Jamie Clarke signed having been released by Grimsby Town . Purkiss gave York the lead away to Histon before Bradley Hudson @-@ Odoi scored to equalise as the match finished a 1 – 1 draw , which ended a club record run of league victories at nine . A 1 – 0 away win over Kettering came after Rankine scored the only goal with a volley from inside the penalty area . Goalkeeper Simon Miotto joined the club as goalkeeping coach , and later registered as a player . York suffered their first league defeat since October 2009 after being beaten 1 – 0 away to Ebbsfleet ; Brodie was sent off in this match , for which he received a three @-@ match suspension . This was followed by a 0 – 0 draw at home to fellow play @-@ off contenders Luton . York suffered their first home defeat in ten months after being beaten 1 – 0 by Eastbourne Borough .
= = = March = = =
A 2 – 1 away defeat to Barrow saw the team knocked out of the FA Trophy in the quarter @-@ final , Pacquette scoring for York . York suffered a second straight league defeat after being beaten 2 – 1 away by Forest Green Rovers , in which Mackin scored after his shot hit the back of an opposition player . Chester 's expulsion from the Football Conference resulted in York having the three points gained against them from a 3 – 2 victory expunged , meaning the team moved down to sixth in the table . York were defeated 2 – 1 at home by Salisbury , after Sangaré had put the team in the lead . Chesterfield midfielder Paul Harsley joined on loan until the end of the season , and made his debut in a 0 – 0 draw away to Altrincham , a result that ended a run of three consecutive defeats . York 's first victory in six league matches was a 1 – 0 away win over Mansfield , Pitt scoring his first goal for the club . McWilliams was loaned out to Northern Premier League Premier Division team Whitby Town for one month . A second successive victory came after Barrett scored the only goal in a 1 – 0 away victory over Kidderminster . Graham opened the scoring in a 1 – 1 draw with Tamworth , who equalised through former York player Chris Smith . A 4 – 0 victory away to Grays saw Brodie score for the first time since January 2010 with two goals ; Harsley and Barrett also scored .
= = = April and May = = =
York beat Altrincham 2 – 1 at home after going behind to a Chris Denham goal , before McGurk scored the equaliser and Brodie scored the winning goal with a stoppage time penalty . This was followed by a 5 – 0 home win over AFC Wimbledon , Rankine scoring goals in each half and Brodie scoring a first half hat @-@ trick . A seven @-@ match unbeaten run came to an end when York were beaten 3 – 1 away by Eastbourne , conceding three goals in the first thirty @-@ two minutes before Rankine scored a penalty to finish the scoring . York 's place in the play @-@ offs was secured after a 3 – 0 home win over Barrow , with goals from Brodie ( 2 ) and Gash . Before the home match against Grays , Ingham was presented as the 2009 – 10 Clubman of the Year , voted for by the club 's supporters . The match finished a 1 – 1 draw , Brodie giving York the lead before Duran Reynolds equalised for Grays on eighty @-@ nine @-@ minutes .
The team completed their league programme with a 1 – 0 defeat away to champions Stevenage . York finished in fifth place in the Conference Premier table , which meant they would play Luton in the play @-@ off semi @-@ final . Brodie scored on ninety @-@ minutes to give York a 1 – 0 home win first leg . York won the second leg 1 – 0 away with a Carruthers goal , meaning the tie ended 2 – 0 on aggregate . Following the match , the squad were forced to leave Kenilworth Road through the back of a stand after having missiles thrown at them by a section of Luton fans . The team lost the play @-@ off final 3 – 1 to Oxford at Wembley , in which York scored from an own goal conceded by goalkeeper Ryan Clarke .
= = Summary and aftermath = =
York spent most of the season in a play @-@ off place , and rose as high as second in February 2010 while they were as low as seventeenth in August 2009 . Their defensive record of thirty @-@ five goals conceded was the third @-@ best in the division , while their record of two home league defeats was the joint second @-@ best . Meredith made the highest number of appearances during the season , appearing in fifty @-@ six of York 's fifty @-@ seven matches . Brodie was York 's top scorer in the league and in all competitions , with twenty @-@ six league goals and thirty @-@ four in total . Rankine was the only other player to reach double figures , with ten goals .
York released Clarke , Gall , Mimms , Nelthorpe , O 'Hare and Pacquette at the end of the season , while Graham , Purkiss , Russell and Smith left for Kettering , Oxford , Cambridge and Mansfield respectively . Mackin and Sangaré signed new contracts . York 's summer signings were goalkeeper David Knight on a season @-@ long loan from Histon , defenders Duane Courtney from Kidderminster and Greg Young from Altrincham , midfielder Jonathan Smith from Forest Green , wingers David McDermott from Kidderminster and Peter Till from and Walsall , and striker George Purcell from Braintree Town . York handed professional contracts to two two youth team players , winger Jamie Hopcutt and Lisles .
= = Match details = =
= = = Conference Premier = = =
= = = League table ( part ) = = =
= = = FA Cup = = =
= = = FA Trophy = = =
= = = Conference Premier play @-@ offs = = =
= = Transfers = =
= = = In = = =
Brackets around club names denote the player 's contract with that club had expired before he joined York .
= = = Out = = =
Brackets around club names denote the player joined that club after his York contract expired .
= = = Loans in = = =
= = = Loans out = = =
= = Appearances and goals = =
Source :
Numbers in parentheses denote appearances as substitute .
Players with names struck through and marked left the club during the playing season .
Players with names in italics and marked * were on loan from another club for the whole of their season with York .
Players listed with no appearances have been in the matchday squad but only as unused substitutes .
Key to positions : GK – Goalkeeper ; DF – Defender ; MF – Midfielder ; FW – Forward
= Patchway railway station =
Patchway railway station is on the South Wales Main Line , serving the Bristol suburbs of Patchway and Stoke Gifford in South Gloucestershire , England . It is 6 miles ( 10 km ) from Bristol Temple Meads . Its three letter station code is PWY . As of 2015 it is managed by Great Western Railway , which is the third franchise to be responsible for the station since privatisation in 1997 . They provide all train services at the station , mainly a train every hour in each direction between Cardiff Central and Taunton .
The station was opened by the Bristol and South Wales Union Railway in 1863 with a single platform , 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) west of the current location , but was resited in 1885 when the line was widened to double track . The station once had large buildings and a goods yard , but these were demolished in the late 20th century , with small brick shelters built in their place . The line through Patchway is due to be electrified by 2016 as part of the 21st @-@ century modernisation of the Great Western Main Line . The line from Bristol Parkway to Severn Tunnel Junction is due to be closed for several weeks in Autumn 2016 so Network Rail can upgrade the Patchway Tunnels and the Severn Tunnel .
= = Description = =
Patchway railway station is located in the Patchway area of South Gloucestershire , within the Bristol conurbation . There is a large Rolls @-@ Royce industrial area to the west of the station , while the area to the north and east is primarily residential . To the south is a large amount of railway land , including the Filton Triangle depot . The station is on the South Wales Main Line between Bristol Parkway and Newport ( South Wales ) , and just off the Cross Country Route north of Filton Abbey Wood and the east end of the Henbury Loop Line . It is 5 miles 77 chains ( 9 @.@ 6 km ) from Bristol Temple Meads and 114 miles 5 chains ( 183 @.@ 6 km ) from London Paddington via Bristol Parkway . The station is just north of Patchway Junctions 1 and 2 , where the lines from Bristol Parkway , Filton Abbey Wood and Henbury converge . The next station east is Bristol Parkway , the next station south is Filton Abbey Wood , and the next station west is Pilning .
The station is on a rough north / south alignment , curving towards the west at the north end . There are two platforms , separated by two running lines and connected by an open footbridge . Platform 1 , on the east side of the station and adjacent to the Up Tunnel track , is for trains towards Filton Abbey Wood and Bristol Parkway . Platform 2 , on the west side and adjacent to the Down Tunnel track , is for trains towards Pilning . Both platforms are 121 metres ( 132 yd ) long , and the tracks have a speed limit of 90 miles per hour ( 140 km / h ) . The line through Patchway has a loading gauge of W8 , and handles over 15 million train tonnes per year . It is not electrified , though it is planned to be electrified as part of the 21st @-@ century modernisation of the Great Western Main Line .
The main access to the station is from Station Road to the east , however there is also a set of steps and a turnstile into the industrial estate to the west . Facilities at the station are minimal – there are small brick shelters on each platform , but no facilities for buying tickets . There are customer help points , giving next train information for both platforms , as well as dot @-@ matrix displays showing the next trains on each platform . A pay and display car park with 15 spaces , and racks for four bicycles , are on the east side of the station on Station Road . CCTV cameras are in operation at the station . Access to the eastern platform is step @-@ free from the car park , however there is no step @-@ free access to trains . The only public access to the western platform is via the stepped footbridge .
From 2002 to 2014 , annual passenger numbers at Patchway more than quintupled , from 16 @,@ 898 to 92 @,@ 540 , and the station was noted in 2013 as having a high growth trend . However , these numbers are still fairly low : Patchway is the 1,730th busiest station in Great Britain ( of 2 @,@ 540 ) ; and the fifth busiest station in South Gloucestershire , busier only than Pilning .
= = Services = =
Patchway is managed by Great Western Railway , which operates most services from the station . The basic service from Monday to Friday is one train per hour in each direction between Cardiff Central and Taunton , with some trains extended beyond Taunton to Exeter St Davids , Paignton or Plymouth . In addition , there is one early morning service to Portsmouth Harbour and a late night service to Westbury , with similar return workings . There is also an early morning CrossCountry service from Cardiff to Manchester Piccadilly via Bristol Temple Meads , and a return working in the evening . On Saturdays there is a similar level of service throughout most of the day , with one train per hour in each direction between Cardiff and Taunton , in addition to the single CrossCountry return service . On Sundays a more limited service operates , with roughly one train every three hours between Cardiff and Westbury , with trains terminating at either Portsmouth Harbour , Brighton or Warminster . Throughout each day , Great Western Railway services between London Paddington and South Wales pass through non @-@ stop , two trains per hour in each direction on weekdays , one train per hour at weekends .
All trains southbound call next at Filton Abbey Wood , and almost every train westbound calls next at Severn Tunnel Junction . Despite being the next station along the South Wales Main Line , there is only one weekday service which calls at both Patchway and Bristol Parkway , that being an early morning service from Taunton to Cardiff ; and there is only one train per week in each direction which calls at both Patchway and Pilning , that being a Saturdays @-@ only service .
The local services described above are formed using Class 150 , 153 and 158 diesel multiple unit trains . Until 2012 , Class 143 Pacer units were a regular sight , but these have been moved south to work in Devon and Cornwall following a cascade of Class 150 / 1 units from London Midland and London Overground . The CrossCountry services are operated using Class 220 and 221 Voyager diesel @-@ electric multiple units , and the non @-@ stop services between London and Wales use High Speed Train sets .
The standard journey time to Bristol Temple Meads is 13 minutes , and to Cardiff Central is 45 minutes .
= = History = =
Patchway railway station first opened on 8 September 1863 when services began on the Bristol and South Wales Union Railway ( BSWUR ) , which ran from Bristol Temple Meads to New Passage Pier , north of Bristol on the banks of the River Severn . At New Passage , passengers were transferred to a ferry to cross the Severn to continue on in to Wales . The line , engineered by Isambard Kingdom Brunel , was built as single track 7 ft 1 ⁄ 4 in ( 2 @,@ 140 mm ) broad gauge . Patchway was 6 miles 37 chains ( 10 @.@ 4 km ) from Temple Meads , adjacent to the Bristol to Gloucester road , what is now the A38 Gloucester Road . The station was only a small structure , and very little is known about it . There were initially six trains per day on weekdays in each direction , with three trains per day on Sundays . The BSWUR was amalgamated with the Great Western Railway ( GWR ) , which had from the beginning operated all BSWUR services , in 1868 ; and in 1873 the line was converted to 1 @,@ 435 mm ( 4 ft 8 1 ⁄ 2 in ) standard gauge . Although the line made travel from Bristol to Wales easier , the change from train to ferry to train was inconvenient , and so a tunnel was built under the Severn . To cope with the anticipated increase in demand , it was decided that the line should be increased to twin track . However , the gradient between Pilning and Patchway , 1 in 68 , was considered undesirably steep for trains heading up the hill towards Bristol , particularly for heavy coal trains , and so a three @-@ mile deviation was built with a 1 in 100 gradient between Pilning and a point south of Patchway . Trains uphill towards Bristol would use the new line , while trains downhill towards Wales would continue to use the steeper , original track . The deviation left the two tracks at Patchway at significantly different levels , and so made the original site impractical for a station . The station was rebuilt 40 chains ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) south along the line at its present site , 5 miles 77 chains ( 9 @.@ 6 km ) from Bristol Temple Meads . A boulder and information board marks the site of the original station .
The new station opened on 10 August 1885 , and was originally known as " Patchway & Stoke Gifford " , but reverted to " Patchway " from 27 October 1908 . The station was on a north / south alignment and had two platforms , separated by two running lines , with a third line , a goods loop , behind the western platform . There was a goods yard to the south of the station on the eastern side , with an adjacent signal box . As now , the eastern platform was for trains towards Bristol , the western platform for trains towards Wales . The station buildings were of a standard 1880s GWR design , with tall chimneys and fretted wooden canopies . The main building was on the eastern platform , containing the booking office , toilets , and waiting rooms . A matching brick shelter with canopy was built on the western platform . The eastern platform also had a " bicycle house " at the northern end . A large covered and glazed footbridge linked the two platforms . The goods yard included two sidings : a short , south @-@ facing one adjacent to a loading dock ; and a longer north @-@ facing one . There was also a weigh bridge , coal office . At the north end of the station was a south @-@ facing siding and an oil store . The station did not have a dedicated approach road as it was adjacent to the road between Gloucester Road to the west and Gypsy Patch Lane to the south . The road subsequently became known as Station Road . At the time of construction , the station was mostly surrounded by fields , with the Bristol conurbation almost 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) away .
In 1900 , almost all trains from London to Wales travelled via Bath and Bristol , with some still routed via Gloucester . However , the final 15 miles ( 24 km ) to Bristol were relatively slow and congested , so a new route was built further north , the GWR 's Badminton Line , now part of the South Wales Main Line , running from Wootton Bassett to a junction just south of Patchway . The new line opened in 1903 , and allowed faster services to Wales . There was a new triangular junction between Patchway and Filton , with the new line coming in from the east . As part of the work , the station signal box was closed , replaced by a larger one closer to the junction on 19 October 1902 . The signal box would later become one of only a few to be double glazed , due to the noise from jet engine testing from the Bristol Siddeley Aero @-@ Engines factory ( now the Rolls Royce factory ) opposite the box . The Henbury Loop Line opened in 1910 , connecting Avonmouth to the main lines south of Patchway . From 1928 , some trains from Bristol would travel in loops via Patchway and Severn Beach .
When the railways were nationalised in 1948 , Patchway came under the aegis of the Western Region of British Railways . In 1949 , there were 11 trains towards South Wales and 13 towards Bristol each weekday , with three trains per day in each direction on Sundays . However , by 1965 this had reduced to eight trains on weekdays towards South Wales and six towards Bristol , with no Sunday service . Traffic levels fell - the station was closed to goods traffic on 5 July 1965 , and subsequently had all staff withdrawn on 14 October 1968 . The goods loop was taken up and the station buildings demolished , replaced by small brick shelters . The structure of the footbridge remained , but the roof was removed . The goods yard was repurposed as vehicle storage .
In 1974 , when the Local Government Act 1972 came into effect , the southern part of Gloucestershire , including the district of Patchway , became part of the new county of Avon . Avon was disbanded in 1996 , with the region now governed by South Gloucestershire council .
British Rail was split into business @-@ led sectors in the 1980s , at which time operations at Patchway passed to Regional Railways . When the railway was privatised in 1997 , local services were franchised to Wales & West , which was succeeded by Wessex Trains , an arm of National Express , in 2001 . The Wessex franchise was amalgamated with the Great Western franchise into the Greater Western franchise from 2006 , and responsibility passed to First Great Western , a subsidiary company of FirstGroup , and rebranded as Great Western Railway in 2015 . From December 2006 , Virgin CrossCountry began operating a single daily service Newcastle Central to Cardiff Central via Bristol Temple Meads and Patchway . This service was taken over by Arriva CrossCountry when the CrossCountry franchise changed hands in 2007 , and then replaced by a daily service each direction between Cardiff Central and Manchester Piccadilly .
Since the mid @-@ 2000s , the Severnside Community Rail Partnership have been working to enhance Patchway station . One of the first acts was installing new community notice boards . A local working group was formed to " adopt " the station , and the group negotiated with Rolls Royce to use their CCTV system to cover the station . A successful bid was made to the Department for Transport 's " Access for All " scheme , which provided for improved signage , lighting and seats . A station garden was created in partnership with nearby Patchway Community College , and two decorative mosaics were installed . The disused railway land adjacent to the station was cleared through a Community Payback scheme .
= = Future = =
First Great Western declined a contractual option to continue the Greater Western passenger franchise beyond 2013 , citing a desire for a longer @-@ term contract due to the impending upgrade to the Great Western Main Line . The franchise was put out to tender , but the process was halted and later scrapped due to the fallout from the collapse of the InterCity West Coast franchise competition . A two @-@ year franchise extension until September 2015 was agreed in October 2013 , and subsequently extended until March 2019 . The CrossCountry franchise is also due to expire in 2019 .
The South Wales Main Line from London to Cardiff is due to be electrified by 2016 , as is the line to Bristol Temple Meads . However , the lines to Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare and Southampton will not be electrified , so services at Patchway will still be provided by diesel trains , with " Sprinter " units to be replaced by Class 165 and 166 " Turbo " units . The group Friends of Suburban Bristol Railways supports the electrification continuing to Weston , as does MP for Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare John Penrose . The station footbridge is expected to be replaced with a higher bridge to allow the installation of overhead electrification , and it is hoped that adjacent railway land could be used to expand the car park . There are also calls for the station to be made accessible to disabled users .
= 2015 E3 Harelbeke =
The 2015 E3 Harelbeke was the 58th edition of the E3 Harelbeke cycling race . It took place on 27 March and was the sixth race of the 2015 UCI World Tour . The defending champion was Peter Sagan ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) , who won the 2014 edition in a four @-@ man sprint . The race , while important in its own right as part of the spring classics season , is seen as an important part of riders ' preparation for 2015 Tour of Flanders , one of the cycling monuments that takes place on many of the same roads the following week .
The E3 Harelbeke takes place on roads in Flanders , starting and ending in the town of Harelbeke . The primary difficulty in the race is the series of short climbs known as hellingen , some of which are cobbled ; most of these came in the middle part of the race , with a fairly flat final part .
The key move of the race was made on the Oude Kwaremont by Geraint Thomas ( Team Sky ) , Zdeněk Štybar ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) and Peter Sagan . The three riders rode together for over 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) , maintaining a gap to the chasing peloton . With approximately 4 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) remaining , Thomas attacked and was able to take a solo victory . He became the first British rider to win the race . Štybar chased and was able to take second place , but Sagan was caught by the main peloton . Štybar 's teammate Matteo Trentin won the bunch sprint for third place .
The other major feature of the race was a succession of crashes . Sep Vanmarcke ( LottoNL – Jumbo ) slipped on the Paterberg , though this resulted in nothing worse than a broken shoe ; however , a major crash early in the race caused significant problems for a number of riders . The worst affected was Fabian Cancellara ( Trek Factory Racing ) , one of the major favourites for victory ; he broke two vertebrae , ruling him out of the remainder of the classics season .
= = Poster controversy = =
About a month before the race took place , in February 2015 , the race organisers published a publicity poster for the race . This poster showed a woman , with her dress raised and underwear with the race logo visible . A cyclist 's gloved hand was reaching out apparently to pinch the woman 's bottom . The poster bore the caption Wie knijpt ze in Harelbeke ? ( " Who squeezes them in Harelbeke ? " ) . This was a reference to Peter Sagan 's actions after the 2013 Tour of Flanders , when he pinched the bottom of Maja Leye during the podium ceremony after the race .
The poster caused significant controversy , especially as the 2011 race had also featured a poster viewed as sexist . The 2015 poster was described as " demeaning " and " misogynistic " . The poster was criticised by the Union Cycliste Internationale ( UCI ) and by the Belgian Jury of Advertising Ethics . In March , a few weeks before the race was held , the poster was withdrawn and replaced .
= = Route = =
The 2015 edition of the E3 Harelbeke was 215 @.@ 3 kilometres ( 133 @.@ 8 mi ) in length . It started in the Belgian municipality of Harelbeke , where there was a 2 @.@ 8 @-@ kilometre ( 1 @.@ 7 mi ) neutral zone before the official start . Initially , the route headed north , but after a short distance it turned south @-@ east to reach the town of Avelgem after 12 @.@ 8 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 0 mi ) . The route then turned north @-@ east through Oudenaarde and reached the first climb , the Katteberg , after 32 kilometres ( 20 mi ) . The route briefly went south @-@ east again to reach the second climb , the Leberg , 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) later . Between the Katteberg and the Leberg , there were two flat sections of cobbles , the Holleweg and the Haaghoek . The race then entered a long loop without any significant climbs , though it did include the Paddestraat , another flat section of cobbles . This loop first went north @-@ east , reaching Burst after 62 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 38 @.@ 8 mi ) , then south to Appelterre @-@ Eichem . The loop turned west at this point , travelling through Geraardsbergen after 86 @.@ 0 kilometres ( 53 @.@ 4 mi ) .
The third climb came after 99 @.@ 9 kilometres ( 62 @.@ 1 mi ) at La Houppe . This was the longest climb of the day at 3 @.@ 4 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 1 mi ) . The course then turned north to reach the Berg Stene climb after 108 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 67 @.@ 4 mi ) . The next four climbs came in quick succession over the next 18 kilometres ( 11 mi ) : the Boigneberg , the Eikenberg ( the first of the cobbled climbs ) , the Stationberg and the Taaienberg . A 15 @-@ kilometre ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) flat section followed , as the course travelled south @-@ west through Ronse , before a turn to the north to tackle the next climb . This was the Knokteberg , which came after 142 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 88 @.@ 6 mi ) , and it was followed by another turn to the east and the climb of the Hotondberg after 146 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 91 @.@ 1 mi ) . The Rotelenberg ( after 155 @.@ 0 kilometres ( 96 @.@ 3 mi ) ) and the Kortekeer ( after 156 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 97 @.@ 3 mi ) ) were the next two climbs as the route again approached Oudenaarde .
After turning south at Leupegem , there were 53 @.@ 0 kilometres ( 32 @.@ 9 mi ) remaining . With 46 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 28 @.@ 7 mi ) remaining , the riders climbed the Kapelberg . The next section was expected to be the key part of the race : the climbs of the Paterberg and the Oude Kwaremont . The Oude Kwaremont was the final cobbled climb of the day ; at the top of the climb there were 37 @.@ 7 kilometres ( 23 @.@ 4 mi ) left to the end of the race . In past editions of the race this was the section where a decisive breakaway was formed ; the combination of the two climbs is also a major feature of the Tour of Flanders .
The route continued south to the penultimate climb of the day , the Karnemelkbeekstraat , with 29 @.@ 7 kilometres ( 18 @.@ 5 mi ) remaining , then turned north @-@ west for the final part of the race . This section was mostly flat ; the only climb was the Tiegemberg with 18 @.@ 7 kilometres ( 11 @.@ 6 mi ) to the finish line . It was expected that riders dropped in the hilly section of the course would try to regain contact on this section . The route continued west and finished where it had started in Harelbeke .
= = Teams = =
As the E3 Harelbeke is a UCI World Tour event , all 17 UCI WorldTeams were invited automatically and were obliged to send a squad . Seven Professional Continental teams received wildcard invitations .
= = Pre @-@ race favourites = =
The E3 Harelbeke is part of the spring classics season . It is therefore suited to the riders who ride in the several other similar races through the early part of the season , such as the Omloop Het Nieuwsblad , the Tour of Flanders and the Dwars door Vlaanderen , which are often raced over the same roads .
The winner of the 2014 E3 Harelbeke , Peter Sagan ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) was one of the major pre @-@ race favourites , although his early @-@ season form had been mixed and he had won just one race so far in the year . The team 's preparation for the race was also affected by the suspension of the team manager , Bjarne Riis , by the owner Oleg Tinkov , following the team 's poor results .
The other principal favourite was Fabian Cancellara ( Trek Factory Racing ) , who won the race in 2013 , 2011 and 2010 . Although he too had had a relatively unsuccessful Milan – San Remo , finishing seventh , he had shown good form in other races in the season . However , one of his most important teammates , Stijn Devolder , crashed in the Dwars door Vlaanderen earlier in the week , potentially affecting Cancellara 's chances .
The Etixx – Quick @-@ Step team was also expected to feature in the race . Although Tom Boonen , the leader of the team and a five @-@ time winner of the race , had crashed at Paris – Nice and was absent with injury , the team had several other riders who could compete for the win . These included Niki Terpstra , who was second in 2014 , Zdeněk Štybar and Stijn Vandenbergh .
Other favourites included Greg Van Avermaet ( BMC Racing Team ) , Sep Vanmarcke ( LottoNL – Jumbo ) , Alexander Kristoff ( Team Katusha ) and Ian Stannard and Geraint Thomas ( both Team Sky ) . Nairo Quintana ( Movistar Team ) also entered the race as he had the Dwars door Vlaanderen ; he was preparing for cobbled stages at the Tour de France rather than competing for the win .
= = Race report = =
= = = Early stages = = =
The race started without Filippo Pozzato ( Lampre – Merida ) , the 2009 champion , who missed the race due to illness . Shortly after the start , a breakaway was formed by six riders . These were Sjoerd van Ginneken ( Team Roompot ) , Sean De Bie ( Lotto – Soudal ) , Dries Devenyns ( IAM Cycling ) , Sébastien Turgot ( AG2R La Mondiale ) , Kristian Sbaragli ( MTN – Qhubeka ) and Andrea Dal Col ( Southeast Pro Cycling ) . The first significant event took place on the Haaghoek cobbles after about 40 kilometres ( 25 mi ) . A water bottle came loose and caused a large crash in the main peloton . A large number of riders crashed , including Fabian Cancellara ( Trek Factory Racing ) , Sebastian Langeveld ( Cannondale – Garmin ) , Robert Wagner ( LottoNL – Jumbo ) , Lars Boom ( Astana ) and John Degenkolb ( Giant – Alpecin ) . Most of the riders were able to continue , but Cancellara , one of the favourites to win the race , was forced to abandon it in significant pain . It was immediately clear that he would miss Gent – Wevelgem ; soon afterwards it was announced that he had two broken vertebrae and would miss the rest of the spring classics season .
Over the next 70 kilometres ( 43 mi ) , the breakaway continued to build their lead over the peloton ; with 100 kilometres ( 62 mi ) to race , they had a lead of around six minutes , although Dal Col was dropped . Shortly afterwards , the peloton climbed the Taaienberg , where Daniel Oss ( BMC Racing Team ) , Matteo Trentin ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) and Matti Breschel ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) attacked and were soon joined by Tiesj Benoot ( Lotto – Soudal ) . This breakaway was soon brought back by Team Katusha . Nairo Quintana was dropped during this period of racing and abandoned the race . Tinkoff – Saxo , along with Team Sky , took up the chase in earnest and reduced the breakaway 's lead to under two and a half minutes with 67 kilometres ( 42 mi ) left . BMC Racing Team joined in the chase and halved the lead over the next 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) . Van Ginneken was dropped , leaving three riders in the leading group .
= = = Paterberg − Oude Kwaremont = = =
The riders then entered the crucial section of the Paterberg and Oude Kwaremont . Devenyns attacked alone from the breakaway group , while Sep Vanmarcke ( LottoNL – Jumbo ) attacked the peloton . Vanmarcke was riding the climb in the gutter to one side of the road . He slipped in the mud and had to put a foot down on the cobblestones ; this damaged his shoe and left him unable to clip into his pedal , reducing his ability to apply power on the climbs . He continued with the broken shoe over the Paterberg and Oude Kwaremont until he was able to change it on a flat section of road . Vanmarcke was in a small group of riders that earned a gap on the Paterberg , but they were caught soon afterwards . At this point there a chase group of around 30 riders , half a minute behind Devenyns as they entered the Oude Kwaremont .
Marcus Burghardt ( BMC Racing Team ) led the peloton on the first part of the climb , until he was attacked by Geraint Thomas ( Team Sky ) , who was followed by Zdeněk Štybar ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) . After a brief period , Peter Sagan ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) bridged across to Thomas and Štybar ; the three riders then caught and dropped Devenyns . The gap between the leading three and the peloton quickly reached 25 seconds , then was reduced to 15 seconds by BMC .
= = = Final stages = = =
The gap expanded again to 45 seconds at the foot of the final climb , the Tiegemberg ; on the climb , BMC 's pressure reduced the lead by 20 seconds and dropped several riders from the chasing group . At the top , with 17 kilometres ( 11 mi ) left , Oss was leading the group , while Greg Van Avermaet , BMC 's team leader , was a couple of places further back . Van Avermaet was riding on the wheel of Alexandr Kolobnev ( Team Katusha ) , who missed a corner and was forced to brake . Van Avermaet also braked ; this action caused him to somersault over his handlebars and crash , injuring him and taking him out of contention for the rest of the race .
With Van Avermaet injured , BMC were no longer riding at the front of the group and the breakaway 's lead quickly grew to 50 seconds , with only Team Katusha 's Luca Paolini leading the chase . The gap was reduced slightly to 40 seconds as the riders entered the last 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) . With 4 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) left , Thomas attacked the lead group and Štybar waited for Sagan to respond . Sagan , however , was unable to chase Thomas , who built a gap ahead of the other two . Štybar eventually gave chase , but he was unable to catch Thomas . After the race , he attributed his loss to two seconds ' hesitation . Thomas continued alone to win the race ahead of Štybar by 25 seconds . Sagan , meanwhile , was both caught and left behind by the main chase group and finished 30th , over a minute behind Thomas . In the main peloton , Matteo Trentin was led out by his teammates Stijn Vandenbergh and Yves Lampaert . Another teammate , Niki Terpstra , was able to block Alexander Kristoff as he attempted the sprint and Trentin took the third podium place , 38 seconds behind Thomas and 13 behind Štybar .
= = Result = =
= Tadeusz Rejtan =
Tadeusz Reytan ( or Tadeusz Rejtan , rarely Reyten ; 20 August 1742 – 8 August 1780 ) was a Polish @-@ Lithuanian nobleman . He was a member of the Polish Sejm from the constituency of Nowogródek ( today Navahrudak , Belarus ) . Rejtan is remembered for a dramatic gesture he made in September 1773 , as a deputy of the Partition Sejm . There , Rejtan tried to prevent the legalization of the first partition of Poland , a scene that has been immortalized in the painting Rejtan by Jan Matejko . He has been the subject of many other art works , and is a symbol of patriotism in Poland . Despite his efforts , the partition of Poland was legalized soon afterwards .
= = Biography = =
Tadeusz Rejtan was born on 20 August 1742 in Hruszówka ( now , Hrushauka , Belarus ) ( date as given in the Polish Biographical Dictionary , some other sources give other dates ) . He was the son of a minor , but relatively wealthy noble , Dominik Rejtan , podkomorzy of Nowogródek ( today Navahrudak , Belarus ) and Teresa Wołodkowicz . He was likely the oldest of five brothers . His brother , Michał , would come to hold the position of pisarz ( scribe ) of Nowogródek . His grandfather , also named Michał , was the skarbnik ( treasurer ) of Mazyr . The family had been aligned to the powerful Radziwiłł family , and Tadeusz would also pledge his allegiance to them .
Afterwards , he served in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania cavalry , in a chorągiew unit of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania . He might have participated in the Confederation of Bar ( 1768 – 72 ) , but historians are not certain about the validity of that claim .
In 1773 , in the aftermath of the War of the Bar Confederation , a special session of the Sejm ( Polish parliament ) was convened in Warsaw , capital of the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth by its three neighbours ( Russian Empire , Prussia and Austria ) in order to legalize their First Partition of Poland . That Sejm became known as the Partition Sejm . Rejtan was one of the deputies that tried to prevent the legalization of the first partition of Poland , despite threats from the foreign ambassadors . For example , Russian ambassador , Otto von Stackelberg , declared that in the face of refusal the whole capital of Warsaw would be destroyed by the Russians ; other threats included executions , confiscation of estates , and increase of partitioned territory .
Rejtan was a deputy to that Sejm , from the constituency of Nowogródek , and the local sejmik gave him very explicit instructions to defend the Commonwealth . On the Sejm 's first day ( 19 April ) , and possibly even in the discussions on the previous days , Rejtan , working together with the Stanisław Bohuszewicz and Samuel Korsak , strongly protested against the proposal of Adam Poniński who wanted to form a confederated sejm ( such as sejm would be immune to the threat of liberum veto ) . Rejtan 's arguments were primarily legal ; he argued that Poniński had no right to be the Sejm Marshal , and that there are no grounds to form a confederated sejm . He also appropriated one of the two Marshal 's staffs . During a discussion with another deputy , Rejtan stated that he was aware that the foreign powers can force the issue , but his intention was to make it clear that any treaty they force through the Sejm would not be unanimously accepted . Rejtan was thus able to disrupt the proceedings on that day . He would attempt to delay and disrupt the proceedings , but he was ignored , overruled and threatened by other deputies , as on 20 April Poniński returned to the Sejm with an escort of Russian and Prussian soldiers . A quickly convened Sejm court begun deliberating on the potential illegality of Rejtan 's actions , but little discussion occurred on that day .
The next day , the court sentenced him to imprisonment and confiscation of goods ; that was challenged by Rejtan . Eventually , on 21 April , most of the deputies had signed the act of the confederation , which was accepted by the king . Troops made it difficult for the other deputies to be present in the Sejm chambers , although a dwindling number of deputies , including Rejtan , still were present . To finish forming the confederation and elect Poniński its marshal , some confederation deputies entered the Chambers , passed a motion , and were attempting to leave . This is when Rejtan , in a dramatic gesture , is said to have bared his chest and laid himself down in a doorway , blocking the way with his own body in a dramatic attempt to stop the other members from leaving the chamber where the debate was being held ( leaving of the chamber signified the end of the discussion , and the acceptance of the motion ) . Others tried to block the passage too . Their gesture was dramatic but futile , as the leaving deputies just stepped over Rejtan , and in a commotion pushed through the others . Eventually , just a few deputies , including Rejtan , were left inside ; they refused to leave , hoping to be removed by foreign troops , which would be a symbol of the foreign intervention . Around 22 April , Rejtan and the remaining colleagues left the Sejm chamber after about 36 hours of having little sleep and food ( Rejtan is said to have refused to eat in the Sejm chamber , saying it would disrespect it ) . Eventually however , they left in return for a guarantee from the foreign diplomats that the sentence passed on him would be nullified , and no other repercussions would be carried out .
Nonetheless Rejtan would face some difficulties , many orchestrated by Poniński , and had asked general Rupert Scipio von Lentulus , commander of the Prussian garrison stationed in Warsaw for an escort , which he received . Rejtan would remain in Warsaw during the next few years ( the Partition Sejm lasted till 1776 ) , but his influence diminished . He issued a print manifesto in December of 1773 , criticizing the current confederated sejm , and supportive of the Bar Confederation , but it received little publicity .
After the partition Rejtan withdrew from political life . He never married . He spent the rest of his days in a small estate at Hruszówka , where he died on August 8 , 1780 . His mental health had deteriorated ; according to some due to distress with the loss of a part of his homeland , but rumours about his erratic behavior date to soon after the Partition Sejm begun in 1773 , before its final motions were passed in 1776 . He is said to have been escorted by his brothers from Warsaw on 19 March 1775 after he had a fit , and was locked in a small family 's mansion which he would never leave up till his death . Eventually he committed suicide , cutting himself with glass ( most detailed accounts say he swallowed it , to prevent being taken by imaginary Russian soldiers he thought were coming for him ) . His exact place of burial is unknown , and exhumation in Hruszówka in 1930 failed to conclusively find his grave .
= = Legacy = =
Rejtan 's dramatic attempt to prevent the partition earned him lasting recognition in Poland , one that began even during the proceedings , as he was lauded by some other deputies . His action was also praised as patriotic and respectable by the Prussian and Russian military commanders in Warsaw , who offered him a military escort to protect him from some confederates ( particularly Poniński was holding a grudge against him ) . Soon , brochures and newspaper articles spread the information about his patriotic gesture throughout Poland and abroad . During the Great Sejm of 1788 – 92 , a decree was passed , commending Rejtan , and deputies discussed a project to put a plaque to his name in the Sejm Chambers . His gesture in the Sejm was less famously repeated by Jan Suchorzewski during that period .
He was , and to the present day is , considered a shining example of a patriot . He has been the subject of many art works , poems , songs and books . Writers who mentioned him included Stanisław Staszic , Franciszek D. Kniaźnin , Adam Mickiewicz , Józef Szujski , Leon Wegner , Seweryn Goszczyński , Jan Lechoń , Artur Oppman , Seweryna Duchińska , Maria Konopnicka , Kazimierz Brończyk , Wiktor Woroszylski , Marian Brandys , and Jerzy Zawieyski . A bust of Rejtan was funded by his family in 1860 , and is in the National Museum in Kraków . A small monument of him is said to have collapsed in Kraków in 1946 , soon after World War II , and was not rebuilt until 2007 . A medal with his face was issued in the Grand Duchy of Poznań in 1860 . Several portraits of him exist , including one by Franciszek Smuglewicz . However , his most famous depiction is that by Jan Matejko , who showed a more fictionalized version of the events at the Partition Sejm in his 1866 painting , Rejtan na sejmie warszawskim 21 kwietnia 1773 – upadek Polski ( Rejtan at the Warsaw Sejm of 21 April 1773 — the Fall Of Poland ) . Numerous schools , streets and military units in Poland bear his name as well .
= Branch Closing =
" Branch Closing " is the seventh episode of the third season of the American comedy television series The Office and the show 's 35th overall . It was written by co @-@ executive producer Michael Schur and directed by Tucker Gates . An edited version of the episode first aired on November 9 , 2006 on NBC ; later that night , a longer " producer 's cut " edition was released , with deleted scenes edited into the full episode and broadcast on the website NBC.com. This uncut episode is the version included on the Season 3 DVD set .
The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton and Stamford branches of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In this episode , the Scranton branch has varied reactions to news that their branch will close . Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) and Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) head to the CFO 's house to convince him not to . When head of the Stamford branch Josh Porter ( Charles Esten ) announces he is quitting , the employees find that the company 's plans have changed .
According to Nielsen Media Research , an estimated 8 @.@ 05 million viewers watched " Branch Closing " on its first broadcast . Critical reception to the episode was very positive , with one reviewer opining that it " expertly combines character @-@ driven and situational humor , while realistically presenting a major change that advances the stories of all the characters . The result is a fantastically funny , enjoyable and realistic half @-@ hour . "
= = Synopsis = =
Jan Levinson ( Melora Hardin ) informs Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) that the Scranton branch will close , with a few people transferred to Stamford and the rest laid off . Michael takes the news badly , and soon tells the rest of the office prematurely .
Michael and Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) decide to confront the CFO at his home . Back at the office , Ryan Howard ( B.J. Novak ) takes this opportunity to break up with Kelly Kapoor ( Mindy Kaling ) , Meredith Palmer ( Kate Flannery ) tries to remember a promise that she made about sleeping with someone on the last day of work , Creed Bratton ( Creed Bratton ) begins selling off the office equipment for profit , and Stanley Hudson ( Leslie David Baker ) begins relishing the thought of retiring with severance .
Stamford branch manager Josh Porter ( Charles Esten ) reveals that he has leveraged the situation to obtain a better position at Staples , throwing the restructuring into disarray . The new plan is to close Stamford instead , and Jan offers Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) the number two position in Scranton , but he is reluctant to accept it .
The Scranton branch is relieved when they hear they are saved , and Kelly is thrilled that she and Ryan don 't have to break up after all . When Michael and Dwight get the news , they celebrate their success , believing , erroneously , that they accomplished it . After agonizing over the decision , Jim accepts the position and suggests to Karen Filippelli ( Rashida Jones ) that she join him in Scranton . In a talking head interview , Karen admits that even though she does not think he is " into her , " she is " kind of into him " .
= = Production = =
" Branch Closing " was written by co @-@ executive producer Michael Schur and directed by Tucker Gates . On her MySpace blog , actress Jenna Fischer urged readers to watch the episode , declaring that " The stuff [ Michael and Dwight ] do together is the absolute funniest thing ever on our show . And also the most touching ... The entire episode is amazing . I can 't wait for you to see it . " The episode featured recurring guest stars Ed Helms , Rashida Jones , Craig Robinson , and Charles Esten . This episode also marks as Esten 's last appearance in the series .
The same night the episode first aired , NBC.com released a " producer 's cut " , which contained additional scenes and extra footage not shown in the first broadcast . Vivi Zigler , the executive vice president NBC digital entertainment and new media , explained that " this is a first @-@ of @-@ its @-@ kind and a real bonus for fans of The Office . It 's also a natural for this show which has continually pushed the envelope in the digital landscape . We 're seeing an incredible audience reaction to the evolving digital extensions of our programming and anticipate this being one of their favorites . "
In her weekly blog post for TV Guide , actress Kate Flannery wrote of the producer 's cut , " Isn 't that cool ? I think the Office fans are going to really dig it . I love the Stamford characters . Everyone is so much fun to work with . " This version contained two new story lines and other minor additions and changes , including Meredith remembering an agreement to have sex with a coworker on the final day of employment , Creed selling electronics and furniture from the office , Andy having a plan in case he gets laid off , and Ryan admitting that Kelly has a strange power over him .
= = Reception = =
" Branch Closing " first aired on NBC in the United States on November 9 , 2006 . According to Nielsen Media Research , it was watched by an estimated 8 @.@ 05 million viewers . The episode was broadcast again on March 1 , 2007 in its normal timeslot , receiving a viewership of 6 @.@ 5 million people and a 3 @.@ 0 / 8 rating share among adults aged 18 to 49 . This was consistent with other repeat airings of the series on Thursday nights ; the episode also retained 100 percent of its adult audience from its lead @-@ in , My Name Is Earl .
" Branch Closing " has received generally positive reviews from television critics . IGN 's Brian Zoromski rated it 10 out of 10 , making it only one of two third season episodes he deemed a " masterpiece " . He explained that the episode " is a perfect example of why The Office is the best @-@ written comedy currently on the air . The episode expertly combines character @-@ driven and situational humor , while realistically presenting a major change that advances the stories of all the characters . The result is a fantastically funny , enjoyable and realistic half @-@ hour . " Michael Sciannamea of AOL TV felt that because of the poor economy , the episode " surely hit home with quite a number of people , " and added that it shows that Michael " does have a soul ... you ended up rooting for him to save the day . " Sciannamea highlighted Stanley 's reaction to the branch closure as one positive element , though he criticized the Ryan @-@ Kelly storyline as " tiresome . "
Entertainment Weekly columnist Abby West lauded the episode , writing that it " had almost everything we could want : all the major players in the mix , an unexpected ( not @-@ really ) twist , a juicy little revelation , and the short @-@ term promise of a Jim / Pam reunion . " She was pleased with the emphasis on Jim and the way he " wonderfully bookended the conflicting emotions Michael inspires . " West also believed that the " writers did a great job of creating the sense of crisis that resulted in the Scranton branch instead absorbing Stamford ( I never trusted that Josh guy ) even though fans of the original knew it was going to end up that way . " Television Without Pity graded " Branch Closing " with an A.
= Spotted sandgrouse =
The spotted sandgrouse ( Pterocles senegallus ) is a species of ground dwelling bird in the Pteroclididae family . It is found in arid regions of northern and eastern Africa and across the Middle East and parts of Asia as far east as northwest India . It is a gregarious , diurnal bird and small flocks forage for seed and other vegetable matter on the ground , flying once a day to a waterhole for water . In the breeding season pairs nest apart from one another , the eggs being laid in a depression on the stony ground . The chicks leave the nest soon after hatching and eat dry seed , the water they need being provided by the male which saturates its belly feathers with water at the waterhole . The spotted sandgrouse is listed as being of " least concern " by the International Union for Conservation of
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for the disaster . A banner at a mass funeral in Ibagué read , " The volcano didn 't kill 22 @,@ 000 people . The government killed them . "
The relief efforts were hindered by the composition of the mud , which made it nearly impossible to move through without becoming stuck . By the time relief workers reached Armero twelve hours after the eruption , many of the victims with serious injuries were dead . The relief workers were horrified by the landscape of fallen trees , disfigured human bodies , and piles of debris from entire houses . This was the second @-@ deadliest volcanic disaster of the 20th century , surpassed only by the 1902 eruption of Mount Pelée , and is the fourth @-@ deadliest volcanic event recorded since 1500 AD . The event was a foreseeable catastrophe exacerbated by the populace 's unawareness of the volcano 's destructive history ; geologists and other experts had warned authorities and media outlets about the danger over the weeks and days leading up to the eruption . Hazard maps for the vicinity were prepared , but poorly distributed . On the day of the eruption , several evacuation attempts were made , but a severe storm restricted communications . Many victims stayed in their houses as they had been instructed , believing that the eruption had ended . The noise from the storm may have prevented many from hearing the sounds from Ruiz until it was too late .
Nevado del Ruiz has erupted several times since the disaster , and continues to threaten up to 500 @,@ 000 people living along the Combeima , Chinchina , Coello @-@ Toche , and Guali river valleys . A lahar ( or group of lahars ) similar in size to the 1985 event could potentially travel as far as 100 kilometers ( 60 mi ) from the volcano , and could be triggered by a small eruption . To counter this threat , the Colombian government established a specialized office which promotes awareness of natural threats . The United States Geological Survey also created the Volcano Disaster Assistance Program and the Volcano Crisis Assistance Team , which evacuated roughly 75 @,@ 000 people from the area around Mount Pinatubo before its 1991 eruption . In 1988 , three years after the eruption , Dr. Stanley Williams of Louisiana State University stated that , " With the possible exception of Mount St. Helens in the state of Washington , no other volcano in the Western Hemisphere is being watched so elaborately " as Nevado del Ruiz . Additionally , many of Colombia 's cities have programs to raise awareness of natural disaster planning programs which have helped save lives in natural disasters . Near Nevado del Ruiz in particular , locals have become wary of volcanic activity : when the volcano erupted in 1989 , more than 2 @,@ 300 people living around it were evacuated .
= = Background = =
Armero , located 48 kilometers ( 30 mi ) from the Nevado del Ruiz volcano and 169 kilometers ( 105 mi ) from Colombia 's capital of Bogotá , was the third largest town in Tolima Department , after Ibagué and Espinal . A prominent farming town before the eruption , it was responsible for roughly one @-@ fifth of Colombia 's rice production , and for a large share of the cotton , sorghum , and coffee crops . Much of this success can be attributed to Nevado del Ruiz , as the fertile volcanic soil had stimulated agricultural growth .
Built on top of an alluvial fan that had been host to historic lahars , the town was previously destroyed by a volcanic eruption in 1595 and by mudflows in 1845 . In the 1595 eruption , three distinct Plinian eruptions produced lahars that claimed the lives of 636 people . During the 1845 event , 1 @,@ 000 people were killed by earthquake @-@ generated mudflows near the Magdalena River .
Nevado del Ruiz has undergone three distinct eruptive periods , the first beginning 1 @.@ 8 million years ago . During the present period ( beginning 11 @,@ 000 years ago ) , it has erupted at least twelve times , producing ashfalls , pyroclastic flows , and lahars . The historically recorded eruptions have primarily involved a central vent eruption ( in the caldera ) followed by an explosive eruption , then the formation of lahars . Ruiz 's earliest identified Holocene eruption was in about 6660 BC , and further eruptions occurred around 1245 , 850 , 200 BC and in about 350 , 675 , in 1350 , 1541 ( perhaps ) , 1570 , 1595 , 1623 , 1805 , 1826 , 1828 ( perhaps ) , 1829 , 1831 , 1833 ( perhaps ) , 1845 , 1916 , December 1984 through March 1985 , 1987 through July 1991 , and possibly in April 1994 . Many of these eruptions involved a central vent eruption , a flank vent eruption , and a phreatic ( steam ) explosion . Ruiz is the second @-@ most active volcano in Colombia after Galeras .
One week before the eruption , the Palace of Justice siege took place . The assailants ( M @-@ 19 a Marxist , Terrorist Insurgency group ) planned to hold a trial involving Colombian President Belisario Betancur . He refused to participate and sent the national army into the building . The attackers were holding several hundred hostages , including the 24 Supreme Court justices and 20 other judges . In the ensuing battle between the two forces , more than 75 hostages died ( including 11 judges ) . This disaster , coupled with the Armero tragedy , spurred the Colombian government to predict and prepare for a broad range of threats .
= = 1985 activity = =
= = = Precursor = = =
In late 1984 , geologists noticed that seismic activity in the area had begun to increase . Increased fumarole activity , deposition of sulfur on the summit of the volcano , and phreatic eruptions also alerted geologists to the possibility of an eruption . Phreatic events , when rising magma encounters water , continued well into September 1985 ( one major event took place on September 11 , 1985 ) , shooting steam high into the air . Activity began to decline in October , probably because the new magma had finished ascending into Nevado del Ruiz 's volcanic edifice .
An Italian volcanological mission analyzed gas samples from fumaroles along the Arenas crater floor and found them to be a mixture of carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide , indicating a direct release of magma into the surface environment . Publishing a report for officials on October 22 , 1985 , the scientists determined that the risk of lahars was unusually high . To prepare for the eruption , the report gave several simple preparedness techniques to local authorities . Another team gave the local officials seismographs , but no instructions on how to operate them .
Volcanic activity increased again in November 1985 as magma neared the surface . Increasing quantities of gases rich in sulfur dioxide and elemental sulfur began to appear in the volcano . The water content of the fumaroles ' gases decreased , and water springs in the vicinity of Nevado del Ruiz became enriched with magnesium , calcium and potassium , leached from the magma .
The thermodynamic equilibration temperatures , corresponding to the chemical composition of the discharged gases , ranged from 200 to 600 ° C ( 400 to 1 @,@ 100 ° F ) ; this is a measure of the temperature at which the gases equilibrated within the volcano . The extensive degassing of the magma caused pressure to build up inside the volcano in the space above the magma , which eventually resulted in the explosive eruption .
= = = Preparation and attempted evacuation = = =
In September 1985 , as earthquakes and phreatic eruptions rocked the area , local officials began planning for an evacuation . In October , a hazard map was finalized for the area around Nevado del Ruiz . This map highlighted the danger from falling material — including ash and rock — near Murillo , Santa Isabel , and Libano , as well as the threat of lahars in Mariquita , Guayabal , Chinchiná and Armero .
The map was poorly distributed to the people at high risk from Ruiz : many survivors had never heard of it , even though several of the country 's major newspapers featured versions of the map . Henry Villegas of INGEOMINAS ( Colombian Institute of Mining and Geology ) stated that the hazard maps clearly demonstrated that Armero would be affected by the lahars , but that the map " met with strong opposition from economic interests . " He added that because the map was not prepared long before the eruption , mass production and distribution of it in time was difficult .
At least one of the hazard maps published in the prominent El Espectador newspaper in Bogotá included glaring errors . Without proper graphic scaling , it was unclear how big the map 's hazard zones really were . The lahars on the map did not have a distinct ending point , and the main threat seemed to be from pyroclastic flows , not from mudflows . Though the map was colored blue , green , red , and yellow , there was no key to indicate what each color represented , and Armero was located in the green zone ( believed to indicate the safest area .
Another map published by the El Tiempo newspaper featured illustrations which " gave a perception of topography to the public unfamiliar with maps , allowing them to relate hazard zones to the landscape . " In spite of this presentation that was keyed to the audience , the map ended up a more artistic representation of the risk than a purely scientific one .
The day of the eruption , black ash columns erupted from the volcano at approximately 3 : 00 pm local time . The local Civil Defense director was promptly alerted to the situation . He contacted INGEOMINAS , which ruled that the area should be evacuated ; he was then told to contact the Civil Defense directors in Bogotá and Tolima . Between 5 : 00 and 7 : 00 pm , the ash stopped falling , and local officials instructed people to " stay calm " and go inside . Around 5 : 00 pm an emergency committee meeting was called , and when it ended at 7 : 00 pm , several members contacted the regional Red Cross over the intended evacuation efforts at Armero , Mariquita , and Honda .
The Ibagué Red Cross contacted Armero 's officials and ordered an evacuation , which was not carried out because of electrical problems caused by a storm . The storm 's heavy rain and constant thunder may have overpowered the noise of the volcano , and with no systematic warning efforts , the residents of Armero were completely unaware of the continuing activity at Ruiz . At 9 : 45 pm , after the volcano had erupted , Civil Defense officials from Ibagué and Murillo tried to warn Armero 's officials , but could not make contact . Later they overheard conversations between individual officials of Armero and others ; famously , a few heard the Mayor of Armero speaking on a ham radio , saying " that he did not think there was much danger " , when he was overtaken by the lahar .
= = = Eruption = = =
At 9 : 09 pm , on November 13 , 1985 , Nevado del Ruiz ejected dacitic tephra more than 30 kilometers ( 20 mi ) into the atmosphere . The total mass of the erupted material ( including magma ) was 35 million metric tons – only three percent of the amount that erupted from Mount St. Helens in 1980 . The eruption reached 3 on the Volcanic Explosivity Index . The mass of the ejected sulfur dioxide was about 700 @,@ 000 metric tons , or about two percent of the mass of the erupted solid material , making the eruption unusually sulfur rich .
The eruption produced pyroclastic flows that melted summit glaciers and snow , generating four thick lahars that raced down river valleys on the volcano 's flanks , destroying a small lake that was observed in Arenas ' crater several months before the eruption . Water in such volcanic lakes tends to be extremely salty , and may contain dissolved volcanic gases . The lake 's hot , acidic water significantly accelerated the melting of the ice , an effect confirmed by the large amounts of sulfates and chlorides found in the lahar flow .
The lahars , formed of water , ice , pumice , and other rocks , incorporated clay from eroding soil as they traveled down the volcano 's flanks . They ran down the volcano 's sides at an average speed of 60 kilometers ( 40 mi ) per hour , dislodging rock and destroying vegetation . After descending thousands of meters down the side of the volcano , the lahars followed the six river valleys leading from the volcano , where they grew to almost four times their original volume . In the Gualí River , a lahar reached a maximum width of 50 meters ( 160 ft ) .
Survivors in Armero described the night as " quiet " . Volcanic ash had been falling throughout the day , but residents were informed it was nothing to worry about . Later in the afternoon , ash began falling again after a long period of quiet . Local radio stations reported that residents should remain calm and ignore the material . One survivor reported going to the fire department to be informed that the ash was " nothing " .
During the night , the electrical power suddenly turned off and the radios went silent . Just before 11 : 30 pm , a huge stream of water swept through Armero ; it was powerful enough to flip cars and pick up people . A loud roar could be heard from the mountain , but the residents were panicked over what they believed to be a flood .
At 11 : 30 pm , the first lahar hit , followed shortly by the others . One of the lahars virtually erased Armero ; three @-@ quarters of its 28 @,@ 700 inhabitants were killed . Proceeding in three major waves , this lahar was 30 meters ( 100 ft ) deep , moved at 12 meters per second ( 39 ft / s ) , and lasted ten to twenty minutes . Traveling at about 6 meters ( 20 ft ) per second , the second lahar lasted thirty minutes and was followed by smaller pulses .
A third major pulse brought the lahar 's duration to roughly two hours . By that point , 85 percent of Armero was enveloped in mud . Survivors described people holding on to debris from their homes in attempts to stay above the mud . Buildings collapsed , crushing people and raining down debris .
The front of the lahar contained boulders and cobbles which would have crushed anyone in their path , while the slower parts were dotted by fine , sharp stones which caused lacerations . Mud moved into open wounds and other open body parts – the eyes , ears , and mouth – and placed pressure capable of inducing traumatic asphyxia in one or two minutes upon people buried in it . Martí and Ernst state in their work Volcanoes and the Environment that they believe that many who survived the lahars succumbed to their injuries as they were trapped , or contracted hypothermia – though the latter is unlikely , given that survivors described the water as warm .
Another lahar , which descended through the valley of the Chinchina River , killed about 1 @,@ 800 people and destroyed 400 homes in Chinchina . In total , more than 23 @,@ 000 people were killed , approximately 5 @,@ 000 were injured , and 5 @,@ 000 homes throughout thirteen villages were destroyed . Some 230 @,@ 000 people were affected , 27 @,@ 000 acres ( 110 km2 ) were disrupted , and there were nearly 20 @,@ 000 survivor @-@ refugees . The Armero tragedy , as the event came to be known , was the second @-@ deadliest volcanic disaster of the 20th century , surpassed only by the 1902 eruption of Mount Pelée , and is the fourth @-@ deadliest volcanic eruption recorded since 1500 AD . It is also the deadliest lahar , and Colombia 's worst natural disaster .
= = = Impact = = =
The loss of life was exacerbated by the lack of an accurate timeframe for the eruption and the unwillingness of local authorities to take costly preventative measures without clear signs of imminent danger . Because its last substantial eruption had occurred 140 years earlier , in 1845 , it was difficult for many to accept the danger presented by the volcano ; locals even called it the " Sleeping Lion . "
Hazard maps showing that Armero would be completely flooded after an eruption were distributed more than a month before the eruption , but the Colombian Congress criticized the scientific and civil defense agencies for scaremongering . The eruption occurred at the height of guerrilla warfare in Bogotá , Colombia 's capital , and so the government and army were occupied at the time of the eruption .
The day after the eruption , relief workers were appalled at its impact . The lahars had left behind a gray mass which covered the entire town . Armero was dotted with broken trees and horribly disfigured human bodies . Debris from huts and homes protruded from beneath the gray mud . A few bags filled with crops were discovered in the mud . Workers described an acrid smell of " rotting bodies , [ ... ] wood smoke and decaying vegetables . " To the horror of these workers , who were scrambling to begin relief efforts , survivors let out moans of pain and agony . The damages were assessed at six billion dollars , an amount approximately one @-@ fifth of Colombia 's 1985 Gross National Product .
As news of the catastrophe spread around the world , the ongoing Colombian presidential election stopped , and the guerrilla fighters stopped their campaign " in view of the painful tragedy that has befallen our [ the Colombian fighters ] nation . " Tickets for Colombian national championship soccer games added a surcharge of five cents to go to relief efforts .
Scientists who later analyzed the seismograph data noticed that several long @-@ period earthquakes ( which begin strongly and then slowly die out ) had occurred in the final hours before the eruption . Volcanologist Bernard Chouet said that , " the volcano was screaming ' I 'm about to explode ' " , but the scientists who were studying the volcano at the time of the eruption were not able to read the signal .
= = Relief efforts = =
The eruption occurred at the same time as the 1985 Mexico City earthquake , limiting the amount of supplies that could be sent to each of the disasters . Efforts were organized in Ibagué and Bogotá for Armero and in Cali for Chinchina , where medical teams gathered . Makeshift triage stations were established in Lerida , Guayabal , and Mariquita , and soon were overwhelmed with the sheer number of victims . The remaining victims were directed to Ibagué 's hospitals , as local institutions had already been destroyed or were at risk from further lahars .
The US government spent over $ 1 million in aid , and US Ambassador to Colombia Charles S. Gillespie , Jr. donated an initial $ 25 @,@ 000 to Colombian disaster assistance institutions . The Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance of the US Agency for International Development ( AID ) sent one member of the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) , along with an AID disaster @-@ relief expert and 12 helicopters with support and medical personnel from Panama .
The US subsequently sent additional aircraft and supplies , including 500 tents , 2 @,@ 250 blankets , and several tent repair kits . Twenty @-@ four other nations contributed to the rescue and assistance of survivors . Ecuador supplied a mobile hospital , and Iceland 's Red Cross sent $ 4 @,@ 650 . The French government sent their own medical supplies with 1 @,@ 300 tents . Japan sent $ 1 @.@ 25 million , along with eight doctors , nurses , and engineers , plus $ 50 @,@ 000 to the United Nations for relief efforts . Another $ 50 @,@ 000 was donated by the Lions Clubs International Foundation .
Rescue efforts were hindered by the soft mud that was up to 4 @.@ 6 meters ( 15 ft ) deep in some places , making it virtually impossible for anyone to traverse it without sinking in . To make the situation worse , the highway connected to Armero and several bridges to it had been demolished by the lahars . It took twelve hours for the first survivors to be rescued , so those with serious but treatable injuries probably died before the rescuers arrived .
Because Armero 's hospital was destroyed in the eruption , helicopters moved survivors to nearby hospitals . Six local towns set up makeshift emergency relief clinics , consisting of treatment areas and shelters for the homeless . To help with the treatment , physicians and rescue teams came from all over the country . Of the 1244 patients spread over the clinics , 150 died from infection or associated complications . Had antibiotics been readily available and all of their lacerations been thoroughly cleaned , many of these people could have been saved .
On November 20 , 1985 , one week later , rescue efforts began to cease . Nearly 4 @,@ 000 relief workers and rescue team members were still searching for survivors , with little hope of finding any . By then , the official death toll was registered at 22 @,@ 540 people ; additional counts showed that 3 @,@ 300 were missing , 20 @,@ 000 homeless , and 4 @,@ 000 injured . Looters raided the ruins and survivors faced concerns of typhus and yellow fever . For most of the relief workers , their job was over .
The eruption was used as an example for psychiatric recuperation after natural disasters by Robert Desjarlais and Leon Eisenberg in their work World Mental Health : Problems and Priorities in Low @-@ Income Countries . The authors were concerned that only initial treatment for the survivors ' psychological trauma was conducted . One study showed that the victims of the eruption suffered from anxiety and depression , which can lead to alcohol abuse , marital problems and other social issues .
Rafael Ruiz , an Army Major who briefly served as Armero 's provisional mayor after the disaster , stated that there were survivors who , due to the trauma of the event , were " jittery " , experienced " nightmares " , and suffered from " emotional problems . " He added that the progress made by Christmas of 1985 was considerable , but that there was " still a long way to go . "
= = Aftermath = =
A lack of preparation for the disaster contributed to the high death toll . Armero had been built on an alluvial fan that had been overrun by historic mudflows ; authorities had ignored a hazard @-@ zone map that showed the potential damage to the town from lahars . Residents stayed inside their dwellings to avoid the falling ash , as local officials had instructed them to do , not thinking that they might be buried by the mudflows .
The disaster gained international notoriety due in part to a photograph taken by photographer Frank Fournier of a young girl named Omayra Sánchez , who was trapped beneath rubble for three days before she died . Following the eruption , relief workers gathered around the girl , speaking with her and listening to her responses . She attracted the attention of the reporters at the site because of her sense of dignity and courage , and caused controversy when people wondered why the media workers had not saved her ( which was impossible without equipment ) .
An appeal to the government for a pump to lower the water around her was left unanswered , and she succumbed to gangrene and hypothermia after 60 hours of being trapped . Her death epitomized the tragic nature of the Armero disaster – she could have been saved had the government responded promptly and addressed the concerns over the volcano 's potency . The photograph earned the World Press Photo of the Year for " capturing the event of greatest journalistic importance " .
Two photographers from the Miami Herald won a Pulitzer Prize for photographing the effects of the lahar . Dr. Stanley Williams of Louisiana State University said that following the eruption , " With the possible exception of Mount St. Helens in the state of Washington , no other volcano in the Western Hemisphere is being watched so elaborately . " In response to the eruption , the USGS Volcano Crisis Assistance Team was formed in 1986 , and the Volcano Disaster Assistance Program . The volcano erupted several more times between 1985 and 1994 .
= = = Anger over government negligence = = =
Concerns over the alleged negligence of local officials to alert locals of the volcano 's threat led to controversy . The mayor of Armero , Ramon Rodriguez and other local officials had tried to bring the volcano 's potential eruption to the attention of the Colombian government , but to no avail . For months , Rodriguez appealed to various officials , including congressmen and the Governor of Tolima Department . Rodriguez once referred to the volcano as a " time bomb " and told reporters that he believed an eruption would disrupt the natural dam above Armero , resulting in floods .
Despite his persistence , only one congressman managed to inquire about the reality of the situation . Reports from the Colombian Minister of Mines , Minister of Defence , and Minister of Public Works " all asserted that the government was aware of the risk from the volcano and was acting to protect the population " . The lack of responsibility for the disaster prompted lawmakers to campaign for Tolima 's governor ( Eduardo Alzate Garcia ) to resign . In the media , similar thoughts and questions were hotly debated . One of the most aggressive campaigns came from a mass funeral in Ibagué for the victims , claiming that " The volcano didn 't kill 22 @,@ 000 people . The government killed them . "
= = Legacy = =
The volcano continues to pose a serious threat to nearby towns and villages . Of the threats , the one with the most potential for danger is that of small @-@ volume eruptions , which can destabilize glaciers and trigger lahars . Although much of the volcano 's glacier mass has retreated , a significant volume of ice still sits atop Nevado del Ruiz and other volcanoes in the Ruiz – Tolima massif . Melting just 10 percent of the ice would produce lahars with a volume of up to 200 million cubic meters – similar to the lahar that destroyed Armero in 1985 . In just hours , these lahars can travel up to 100 km along river valleys .
Estimates show that up to 500 @,@ 000 people living in the Combeima , Chinchina , Coello @-@ Toche , and Guali valleys are at risk , with 100 @,@ 000 individuals being considered to be at high risk . Lahars pose a threat to the nearby towns of Honda , Mariquita , Ambalema , Chinchina , Herveo , Villa Hermosa , Salgar and La Dorada . Although small eruptions are more likely , the two @-@ million @-@ year eruptive history of the Ruiz – Tolima massif includes numerous large eruptions , indicating that the threat of a large eruption cannot be ignored . A large eruption would have more widespread effects , including the potential closure of Bogotá 's airport due to ashfall .
As the Armero tragedy was exacerbated by the lack of early warnings , unwise land use , and the unpreparedness of nearby communities , the government of Colombia created a special program , the Oficina Nacional para la Atención de Desastres ( National Office for Disaster Preparedness ) , now known as the Dirección de Prevención y Atención de Desastres ( Directorate for Disaster Prevention and Preparedness ) – to prevent such incidents in the future .
All Colombian cities were directed to promote prevention planning to mitigate the consequences of natural disasters , and evacuations due to volcanic hazards have been carried out . About 2 @,@ 300 people living along five nearby rivers were evacuated when Nevado del Ruiz erupted again in 1989 . When another Colombian volcano , Nevado del Huila , erupted in April 2008 , thousands of people were evacuated because volcanologists worried that the eruption could be another " Nevado del Ruiz " .
The lessons from the Armero tragedy have inspired a lahar warning system for Mt . Rainier , which has a similar potential for lahars .
Armero was never rebuilt after the tragedy . Instead , the survivors were relocated to the towns of Guayabal and Lérida , rendering Armero a ghost town .
= = = Commemorations = = =
A little less than one year later , Pope John Paul II flew over Armero and then visited Lérida 's refugee camps with Colombian President Belisario Betancur . He spoke about the disaster and declared the site of Armero " holy land " . Although many victims of the disaster were commemorated , Omayra Sanchez in particular was immortalized by poems , novels , and music pieces . One work ( Adios , Omayra ) by Eduardo Santa illustrated the girl 's last days of life and her symbolism of the catastrophe . Survivors were also recognized in Germán Santa María Barragán 's dramatized television special titled " No Morirás " ( You Will Not Die ) . Much of the cast was composed of victims of the tragedy who appeared at the cast calls to be extras .
= = = Film = = =
At the end of 2015 , it was announced that Armero , a film about the tragedy , would be released sometime in 2016 . Directed by Christian Mantilla , the movie tells the story of the events that took place in November 1985 .
= Hurricane Ismael ( 1983 ) =
Hurricane Ismael was responsible for significant flooding throughout the Inland Empire of the United States in August 1983 . The origins of Hurricane Ismael were from a northward bulge of the Intertropical Convergence Zone ( ITCZ ) in early August , which resulted in the formation of a tropical depression on August 8 . Six hours later , it was upgraded into Tropical storm Ismael . Continuing to intensify , Ismael was upgraded into a hurricane late on August 10 and subsequently developed an eye . After bypassing the Revillagigedo Islands , the storm reached its peak wind speed of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) . Late on August 11 , Hurricane Ismael began to weaken as it encountered cooler waters . The following day , Ismael was downgraded into a tropical storm . On August 14 , the storm was downgraded into a tropical depression approximately 250 mi ( 400 km ) west of Point Ensenada . After turning north , Ismael dissipated later that day near Guadalupe Island .
While still out at sea , Ismael brought 6 – 9 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 – 2 @.@ 7 m ) waves to Southern California , though waves from the storm were less than expected . One person was swept away at a beach . The remnants of the storm later moved over the region , resulting in moderate rainfall . The Yucca Valley was the worst hit by the storm , where nearly every road was washed out . Almost 50 @,@ 000 residents were isolated due to rains . A tornado was spotted near Los Angeles , causing minor damage . In San Bernardino , many buildings were destroyed . Around 80 @,@ 000 homes were left without power across the Inland Empire . Moreover , three interstates were closed . In all , minor injuries were reported , three people died in San Bernardino when their car swept into a channel , and an engineer was killed returning to China Lake when her car was swept into a wash . Damage in the region totaled $ 19 million ( 1983 USD ) . After affecting California , the remnants of the hurricane moved into Nevada . Many parking lots in Laughlin were flooded ; two small towns in Clark County were also isolated . Furthermore , several major streets along the outskirts of Las Vegas were closed because of flooding .
= = Meteorological history = =
Hurricane Ismael originated from a northward bulge of the ITCZ in early August . On August 7 , the Eastern Pacific Hurricane Center ( EPHC ) reported that this bulge had resulted in the formation of a tropical disturbance centered 500 mi ( 800 km ) south of Acapulco . Late on August 8 , the system was upgraded into a tropical depression . Initially , the storm was expected to turn west and remain at sea ; however , the depression turned northwest instead . Six hours after becoming a tropical cyclone , the low was upgraded into Tropical storm Ismael .
After remaining a marginal tropical storm for 18 hours , Ismael began to deepen and by August 10 , it was approaching hurricane intensity . By this time , the storm was forecast to accelerate and approach Guadalupe Island in three days . At 1800 UTC on August 10 , Ismael was upgraded into a hurricane . At 0245 UTC the next day , an eye began to form as the system passed east of the outer Revillagigedo Islands . Nine hours later , the EPHC upgraded the storm into a Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale ( SSHWS ) ; simultaneously , the storm reached its peak of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) . At the time of its peak , Hurricane Ismael was located about 400 mi ( 640 km ) west of Cabo San Lucas . Sandwiched between a ridge to the west of the hurricane and a trough off the coast of California , Ismael turned west north @-@ west and accelerated .
Late on August 11 , Hurricane Ismael began to weaken as it encountered cooler waters . According to the EPHC , the storm was downgraded to a Category 1 on the SSHWS late on August 11 . The following day , Ismael was downgraded into a tropical storm about 380 mi ( 610 km ) west of the Baja California Peninsula . On August 13 , Hurricane Hunters flew through the storm , penetrating the center of circulation twice . During its first penetration , the aircraft reported winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) just east of the center and also noted that the weakening system had a poorly defined eye . Two hours later , the aircraft made its second pass through Tropical Storm Ismael , with the aircraft reporting winds of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) . Based on this , the storm was downgraded into a tropical depression while centered about 250 mi ( 400 km ) west of Point Ensenada . After turning north and entering even cooler waters , the storm made landfall on Guadalupe . The depression dissipated later on August 14 about 20 mi ( 30 km ) southwest of Guadalupe Island which is not normally affected by tropical cyclones .
= = Impact = =
= = = California = = =
While still out at sea , Ismael brought rough seas that lead to one home on the Capistrano Beach being ruled unsafe . Although waves from the storm were less than expected , swells of 6 – 9 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 – 2 @.@ 7 m ) were estimated along south @-@ facing beaches near Santa Barbara . In Malibu , one home was damaged due to the increased surf . In Laguna Beach , in southern Orange County , a 20 @-@ year @-@ old woman was swept off rocks and later died . Overall , Hurricane Ismael was one of six tropical cyclones to bring high waves to the state within a span of a month .
On August 11 , the outer rainband 's of Hurricane Ismael brought unseasonably high humidity and thunderstorms to Southern California . Subsequently , flash flood watches were posted for much of Southern California . The remnants of the storm eventually moved over the area , resulting in significant flooding . Some areas sustained 2 in ( 50 mm ) of rain , leading to water depths of 2 to 4 ft ( 61 to 122 cm ) on roadways . The towns of Joshua Tree , Yucca Valley , Twentynine Palms , California , and Landers were the hardest hit . Nearly every road was washed out in the Yucca Valley .
Almost 50 @,@ 000 residents in Palm Springs were isolated due to brief , but heavy rains . In addition , a tornado damaged two homes and over seven chimneys near Los Angeles . Heavy rains also drenched the cities of Riverside and San Bernardino while flooding several homes . In the latter , many buildings were destroyed , forcing widespread evacuations . In Rancho Mirage , 24 homes were damaged . One woman had to be rescued after she was swept 3 mi ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) downstream a river in Los Angeles . Around 80 @,@ 000 homes were left without power across the Inland Empire , though within 24 hours after the outage , power was restored to all but 4 @,@ 000 residents . Moreover , portions of Interstate 10 , 14 , and 215 were closed . The highway the lead into Palm Springs was closed as well , resulting in major traffic jams . In all , minor injuries were reported . However , three people died in San Bernardino when their car swept into a channel . Damage from the storm totaled $ 19 million ( 1983 USD ) .
= = = Nevada = = =
Heavy rains that preceded the storm forced thousands of gamblers along the Las Vegas Strip to be evacuated and left two people missing . The remnants of the storm later moved into the region , bringing additional flooding . Many parking lots in the resort town of Laughlin were flooded . Furthermore , the villages of Searchlight and Blue Diamond were isolated due to flooding . Several major streets in Paradise were closed because of flooding and sandbag barriers were erected alongside Caesars Palace to prevent further flood damage . In addition , record river levels were measured along the Amargosa River near Death Valley .
= = = Elsewhere = = =
In the Mexican states of Baja California and Baja California Sur , the storm brought high clouds over the region for several days . In Ensenada , minor flooding was recorded . Along the peninsula , waves up to 8 ft ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) were measured .
Residents of Davis County , Utah that were in close proximity of streams were put on alert due to the threat of flooding . The remnants of Hurricane Ismael ultimately brought thunderstorms to Arizona and Utah . In Mohave County , up to 3 in ( 76 mm ) of rain was recorded . Further south and west , in Phoenix , a thunderstorm flooded streets and brought down power lines .
= Buildings and architecture of Bristol =
Bristol , the largest city in South West England , has an eclectic combination of architectural styles , ranging from the medieval to 20th century brutalism and beyond . During the mid @-@ 19th century , Bristol Byzantine , an architectural style unique to the city , was developed , and several examples have survived .
Buildings from most of the architectural periods of the United Kingdom can be seen throughout Bristol . Parts of the fortified city and castle date back to the medieval era , as do some churches dating from the 12th century onwards . Outside the historical city centre there are several large Tudor mansions built for wealthy merchants . Almshouses and public houses of the same period survive , intermingled with areas of more recent development . Several Georgian @-@ era squares were laid out for the enjoyment of the middle class . As the city grew , it merged with its surrounding villages , each with its own character and centre , often clustered around a parish church .
The construction of the city 's Floating Harbour , taking in the wharves on the River Avon and Frome , provided a focus for industrial development and the growth of the local transport infrastructure . Key elements of which include the Isambard Kingdom Brunel designed Clifton Suspension Bridge and Temple Meads terminus ; the latter served from 2002 to 2009 as the British Empire and Commonwealth Museum , but is now closed .
The 20th century saw further expansion of the city , the growth of the University of Bristol and the arrival of the aircraft industry . During World War II , the city centre was extensively bombed in the Bristol Blitz . The redevelopment of shopping centres , office buildings , and the harbourside continues to this day .
= = Medieval ( 11th – 14th century ) = =
= = = Defensive = = =
The city was defended in medieval times by Bristol Castle , a Norman fortification built on the site of a wooden predecessor . The castle played a key role in the civil wars that followed the death of Henry I. Stephen of Blois reconnoitred Bristol in 1138 and claimed that the town was impregnable . After Stephen 's capture , in 1141 , he was imprisoned in the castle . The castle was later taken into royal hands , and Henry III spent lavishly on it , adding a barbican before the main west gate , a gate tower , and a magnificent hall . By the 16th century , the castle had fallen into disuse , but the city authorities had no control over royal property , and so the castle became a refuge for lawbreakers . In 1630 , the city purchased the castle ; Oliver Cromwell ordered its destruction in 1656 . An area outside the castle , known as Old Market , was used as a mustering point for troops . It later became a market for the country people to set up stalls and sell their wares . Old Market was also the site of an autumn fair . The market may have existed as early as the 12th century , and was the site of the first suburb outside the city walls . It had side roads which could accommodate the traffic on market days .
The city had extensive walls built by Geoffrey de Montbray , Bishop of Coutances . These have now largely disappeared , although parts remain on properties in King Street . A gateway in the old wall can now be seen under the tower of the Church of St John the Baptist .
= = = Religious = = =
The earliest surviving church in Bristol is St James ' Priory in Horsefair , Whitson Street . It was founded in 1129 , as a Benedictine priory , by Robert Rufus . The 12th century also saw the founding of All Saints and St Philip and Jacob churches . Temple Church , now in ruins , was built on the site of the oval church of the Knights Templar , a Christian military order forcibly disbanded in 1312 . Either just before or just after the disappearance of the Templars , the church was rebuilt on a rectangular plan and served as a parish church .
Bristol Cathedral was founded as St Augustine 's Abbey in 1140 by Robert Fitzharding , along with its associated school , with the building works continuing in the Gothic style until about 1420 . St Mark 's Church was built around 1220 . Soon after , the foundations were laid for Holy Trinity Church in Westbury on Trym . The 12th century also saw the foundation of St Mary Redcliffe , renowned as one of the finest examples of the 15th century Perpendicular style , and the tallest building in the city . Elizabeth I , on a visit to the city in 1574 , described it as the " fairest , goodliest and most famous parish church in England " . These 12th century churches were followed in the 14th century by the construction of Church of St John the Baptist and St Stephen 's Church .
Westbury College was a 13th @-@ century College of Priests located in Westbury @-@ on @-@ Trym . A gatehouse , now a National Trust property , was added in the 15th century .
= = Tudor ( 15th – early 17th century ) = =
The Tudor architectural period , which lasted from the late 15th century into the early 17th century , saw the development of large estates such as Ashton Court . They were built for the local merchants , who gained much of their wealth from the trade passing through Bristol Harbour . Red Lodge was constructed in 1580 for John Yonge as the lodge for a great house that once stood on the site of the present Colston Hall . In 1615 , a number of houses were demolished for the development of the new Fishmarket .
During the English Civil War , the Royal Fort was considered the strongest part of Bristol 's defences , and it was to the fort that the Royalists retreated when they found themselves under siege from the Parliamentarians . It fell to the parliamentary forces in 1645 and was subsequently demolished . St Nicholas 's Almshouses were built in 1652 to provide care for the poor . Several public houses were also built in this period , including the Llandoger Trow on King Street and the Hatchet Inn . More churches were built , including St Michael on the Mount Without . It served the St Michaels hill area , one of the first areas outside the city walls to be colonised by the wealthy merchants who were by then trying to escape the overcrowded and unhealthy conditions in the city centre . The city was by this time beginning to expand rapidly beyond its traditional city walls , and the surrounding villages were starting to become suburbs , such as the villages of Horfield and Brislington . Both had their own churches , the Church of the Holy Trinity with St Edmund and St Lukes respectively .
= = Stuart ( 1666 – 1713 ) = =
The Stuart or English Baroque period ( 1666 – 1713 ) saw more expansion of the city . Large mansions such as Kings Weston House and Goldney Hall were constructed . The needs of the poor and destitute became the responsibility of institutions such as Colstons and the Merchant Venturers Almshouses . The King Street area was developed outside the " Back Street Gate " of the city , home to the King William and Naval Volunteer Public Houses . The nearby Queen Square was planned during this era . In 1669 , a series of four flights of steps , now called Christmas Steps , was constructed to replace a steep , muddy , and narrow street formerly known as Queene Street . Many of the larger houses of this period , including Queen Square , were built for merchant families who were heavily involved in the slave triangle , importing goods from slave plantations . A few African and creole ( American / Caribbean @-@ born ) slaves came to Bristol as servants .
= = Georgian ( 18th to 19th century ) = =
In 1732 , John Strachan built Redland Court for John Cossins . It now forms one of the buildings making up Redland High School for Girls . In 1760 , the Bristol Bridge Act was carried through parliament by the Bristol MP Sir Jarrit Smyth . That led to the demolition of St Nicholas 's Gate , along with the original St Nicholas church , part of the Old Shambles , and thirty houses that stood on the old bridge . The original bridge was a medieval wooden structure , lined with houses on both sides . A 17th @-@ century illustration shows that these were five stories high , including the attic rooms , and that they overhung the river much as Tudor houses would overhang the street . At the time of the Civil War the bridge was noted for its community of goldsmiths , who may have been attracted by the unusually secure premises . The current St Nicholas church was rebuilt in 1762 – 9 by James Bridges and Thomas Paty , who rebuilt the spire . Part of the old church and town wall survives in the 14th century crypt .
The 1766 Theatre Royal , which claims to be the oldest continually operating theatre in England , joined with the Coopers ' Hall , from 1744 and designed by architect William Halfpenny , to form the Bristol Old Vic .
During the period of Georgian architecture ( about 1720 – 1840 ) the main architects and builders working in Bristol were James Bridges , John Wallis , and Thomas Paty with his sons John and William Paty . They put up hundreds of new buildings , reflecting the increased prosperity that came with the new Floating Harbour and trade based at The Exchange , built in 1741 – 43 by John Wood the Elder . Their early work included the Royal Fort , Blaise Castle House and Arno 's Court estate , with the associated Arno 's Court Triumphal Arch and Black Castle Public House . More modest terraces and squares grew up in the new suburbs such as Hotwells and north into Clifton , including 7 Great George Street , now the Georgian House Museum . It was built around 1790 for John Pinney a successful sugar merchant , and is believed to be the house where the poets William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge first met . It was also home to Pinney 's slave , Pero , after whom Pero 's Bridge at Bristol Harbour is named .
In addition to evidence of the wealth brought by the slave trade there are several significant links to the abolitionists . Bristol 's Hannah More was an influential member of the Society for Effecting the Abolition of the African Slave Trade . In the Seven Stars Public House Thomas Clarkson collected evidence for William Wilberforce on the cruelty of the trade in humans . Bristol Cathedral contains several memorials to people active in the abolition cause , including a bust of Robert Southey . John Wesley opposed the trade in humans and in 1774 his sermon at the New Room against slavery was disturbed by explosion . Several plays adopted by the abolitionists were performed at the Bristol Old Vic , including Oroonoko , the story of an enslaved African and The Padlock , which was praised by Clarkson for its importance to the abolition cause .
Several residential squares with terraces of three @-@ storey houses were laid out around central gardens . An example is Portland Square , which was built between 1789 and 1820 , and is now largely occupied by offices . In the 1830s , much of Queen Square was rebuilt following damage caused during the Bristol Riots , and to the north of the city , Kings Square . The most fashionable areas were at the top of the hill , as in wet weather the cesspits overflowed down the hill . Further development , though in a less formal manner , continued along the radial roads to Stokes Croft and Cheltenham , towards Horfield and in the St Phillips , Redcliffe and Bedminster areas .
Religious needs in the expanding city were met for several denominations with Redland Chapel and other Church of England buildings appearing , including Christ Church and St Werburghs . Whitefield 's Tabernacle , Kingswood was the first Methodist chapel and a Quaker meeting house known as Quakers Friars was built in 1749 .
= = = Regency ( early 19th century ) = = =
The term Regency architecture refers primarily to buildings of the early 19th century , when George IV was still Prince Regent , and also to later buildings of the Victorian period which were designed in the same style . It follows closely on from the neo @-@ classical Georgian style of architecture , adding an elegance and lightness of touch . Many buildings in the Regency style have a white painted stucco facade and an entryway to the main front door — usually coloured black — framed by two columns . Regency houses were typically built as terraces or crescents , often in a setting of trees and shrubs . Elegant wrought iron balconies and bow windows were also fashionable . An instigator of this style was John Nash , whose most notable work in Bristol is Blaise Hamlet , a complex of small cottages surrounding a green . It was built around 1811 , for the retired employees of Quaker banker and philanthropist John Scandrett Harford , who owned Blaise Castle House . The cottages are now owned by the National Trust .
The Clifton and Cotham areas provide examples of the developments from the Georgian to the Regency style , with many fine terraces and villas facing the road , and at right angles to it . In the early 19th century , the romantic medieval gothic style appeared , partially as a backlash to the symmetry of Palladianism , and can be seen in buildings such as Bristol City Museum and Art Gallery , Royal West of England Academy , and The Victoria Rooms . St Mary on the Quay church was built between 1839 and 1843 , by Richard Shackleton Pope , as a Catholic apostolic chapel for the Irvingite congregation : it is now a Roman Catholic church .
= = Victorian ( late 19th century ) = =
The Victorian era saw further expansion of the city , both in its industrial heartland around the docks and in the suburbs , particularly in Clifton .
Palatial squares were developed for the prosperous middle classes . Italianate and Grecian villas , made with Bath Stone and sitting in their own gardens , were built in areas such as Clifton Down . At the same time , hundreds of acres of working class and artisan homes were built , especially in the south and east of the city . To support the growing population , public service buildings such as the Beaufort Hospital ( now Glenside ) , schools such as Clifton College and public houses such as the Mauretania Public House were constructed .
Between 1849 and 187
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miss the playoffs for the second consecutive season .
= = = 2000 : Super Bowl season = = =
The 2000 season was considered a make @-@ or @-@ break season for Fassel . Like his predecessor , Dan Reeves , Fassel had enjoyed great success in his first year , but disappointment in the following two seasons . The conventional wisdom was that the Giants needed to have a strong year for Fassel to retain his job . The Giants ' big draft acquisition was running back Ron Dayne , Heisman Trophy winner from the University of Wisconsin – Madison . Before the draft the team was debating whether to select Dayne or Shaun Alexander . The plan for Dayne was that the power running style he had at Wisconsin would complement Barber 's speed and pass @-@ catching ability . The two were dubbed " Thunder and Lightning " .
After back @-@ to @-@ back November losses at home against St. Louis and Detroit dropped them to 7 – 4 , the Giants playoff prospects were in question . In what would be his defining moment as Giants head coach , at a press conference following the Giants ' loss to Detroit , Fassel guaranteed that " This team is going to the playoffs . " The Giants responded , winning the next week 's game against Arizona and the rest of their regular season games to finish the season 12 – 4 and earn a bye as the NFC 's top seed .
The Giants won their first playoff game against the Philadelphia Eagles , 20 – 10 . In the NFC Championship game faced the Minnesota Vikings , who were appearing in their second NFC Championship game in 3 seasons . Many people predicted that the Vikings and their high powered offense , led by Daunte Culpepper and receivers Randy Moss and Cris Carter would defeat the Giants and go on to the Super Bowl . However , the Giants dominated , winning , 41 – 0 . The win marked the second time the Giants had won a Conference Championship in their home stadium by shutout . After the game Giants co @-@ owner Wellington Mara delivered his famous " worst team ever " speech :
This team was referred to as the worst team ever to win the home @-@ field advantage in the National Football League . And today , on our field of painted mud , we proved we 're the worst team ever to win the NFC championship . In two weeks , we 're going to try to become the worst team ever to win the Super Bowl .
Though the Giants kept the game close in the first half , and went into halftime down 10 – 0 , the Ravens dominated the second half . Their defense ( led by game MVP Ray Lewis ) frustrated Kerry Collins all game long , resulting in Collins turning in one of the worst playoff performances in Super Bowl history . Collins completed 15 of 39 passes for 112 yards and 4 interceptions . The Ravens won the game 34 – 7 in one of the most lopsided Super Bowls ever . The lone Giants score came on a Ron Dixon kickoff return for a touchdown . On the very next kickoff , the Ravens countered as Jermaine Lewis also returned a kickoff for a touchdown .
= = = 2001 – 2003 = = =
The Giants were unable to build on their Super Bowl success in 2001 , finishing the season 7 – 9 and out of the playoffs for the third time in four seasons . Kerry Collins continued to have success as the Giants ' starting quarterback , throwing for over 3 @,@ 700 yards and 19 TD 's . Tiki Barber finished as the Giants leading rusher again , while tying Amani Toomer for the team lead with 72 receptions . But the standout player of the Giants 2001 season was Michael Strahan . Strahan set an NFL record by recording 22 @.@ 5 sacks during the season , and won the NFL Defensive Player of the Year Award . He broke the 17 @-@ year @-@ old NFL record held by Mark Gastineau .
The 2002 season saw the arrival of tight end Jeremy Shockey from the University of Miami , who provided Kerry Collins with yet another target . Collins would enjoy one of his best seasons as a pro in 2002 , throwing for over 4 @,@ 000 yards . Tiki Barber had his best season to date , rushing for 1386 yards and also catching 69 passes for 597 yards . The Giants started the season at 6 – 6 , after which Fassel removed playcalling duties from offensive coordinator Sean Payton . The team responded to win their final four games to finish the year 10 – 6 , and secure a first @-@ round playoff game against the NFC West champion San Francisco 49ers .
The Giants controlled the 49ers throughout the game , and with four minutes left in the third quarter held a 38 – 14 lead , which would have been even larger had not Shockey dropped a touchdown pass in the third quarter . The 49ers rallied however , scoring a field goal and three touchdowns — two on Jeff Garcia touchdown passes , one on a Garcia 14 @-@ yard touchdown run , and two two @-@ point conversions made by Terrell Owens — which gave the 49ers a 39 – 38 lead with a minute to go . Collins then drove the Giants down to the 49ers 23 @-@ yard line with six seconds to play , setting up a 41 @-@ yard potential game @-@ winning field goal attempt by Matt Bryant . However , Bryant never got an opportunity to make the kick . 40 @-@ year @-@ old long snapper Trey Junkin — who had been signed out of retirement for this playoff game — snapped the ball low and punter Matt Allen could not spot the ball for the attempt . With no other options , Allen threw it downfield to offensive lineman Rich Seubert . The Giants were penalized for an illegal man downfield ( Seubert ) , and the game was over . However , after the game , the NFL recognized that San Francisco should have been penalized on that play as well for pass interference . This would have created offsetting penalties and given New York a chance to kick again . After the game a devastated Junkin said " I cost 58 guys a chance to go to the Super Bowl . I 'd give anything in the world , except my family at this point , right now to still be retired . "
The loss was Fassel 's second devastating playoff loss in three postseason appearances ; following the season , Payton was not retained as offensive coordinator . The Giants started out the 2003 season 4 – 4 , but lost their final eight games to finish 4 – 12 . This included seven consecutive losses in the second half of the season , in which the Giants failed to score more than 13 points . With two games remaining in the season , Fassel requested a meeting with team management , and asked , if he was to be fired , that they do so now rather than wait until the end of the season . Management complied with his request , and fired Fassel on ( or around ) Dec. 17 , 2003 . However , in an unusual turn of events , the Giants agreed to allow him coach the team for the remainder of the season so long as Fassel assured them that the team would not " quit " on him .
= = Tom Coughlin era : 2004 – 2016 = =
= = = 2004 NFL Draft and Arrival of Eli Manning = = =
After a brief search , Ernie Accorsi hired Tom Coughlin , a one @-@ time assistant of former Giants ' coach Bill Parcells , to be the Giants new head coach . Coughlin had been the inaugural head coach of the Jacksonville Jaguars , and led them to the AFC championship game twice . He became the 16th head coach in franchise history . His stark , disciplinarian methods contrasted with the lax style employed by the departed Fassel . The Giants decided that their primary need was a franchise quarterback . Accorsi — who had coveted John Elway when he was Colts general manager in 1983 — saw University of Mississippi quarterback Eli Manning as a similar talent . Manning 's brother Peyton , and his father Archie , had already established successful careers as NFL quarterbacks . Though Accorsi wanted Manning , and Manning wanted to play in New York , Accorsi was unable to reach a deal to trade up to acquire him with the San Diego Chargers , who then used the first pick on Manning .
Manning had indicated before the draft that he did not want to play for the Chargers , and appeared unhappy when selected by them . After the pick was made , Chargers general manager AJ Smith called Accorsi to make a deal . Part of the deal was that the Giants would select quarterback Philip Rivers out of North Carolina State University with the fourth pick overall and trade that pick , plus other selections ( including the Giants first round pick the following year ) , to the Chargers for Manning 's rights and additional considerations . When the trade was announced , the crowd in attendance at the draft ( which was held in New York ) cheered .
When Kerry Collins made it known that he did not want to stay with the Giants until they eventually demoted him for Manning , the Giants released Collins . They later signed quarterback Kurt Warner , to serve as the interim quarterback until Manning was deemed ready to play . Warner had led the St. Louis Rams to two Super Bowls , winning one of them . However , Warner had been affected by injuries , specifically a broken hand , which reduced his effectiveness and led to his release by the Rams .
= = = 2004 – 2006 : Eli Manning era begins = = =
After losing the 2004 season opener , the Giants , behind Warner , went on to win five of their next six games to stand at 5 – 2 . The Giants then lost two close games , to the Bears and Cardinals , to drop to 5 – 4 . It was at this point that Coughlin announced that Eli Manning would become the starter for the rest of the season . Manning struggled in his first four starts , and the Giants did not score more than 14 points in any game . However , they played better in narrow losses to the Pittsburgh Steelers and the Cincinnati Bengals . The Giants won their final game of the year against rival Dallas , to finish the season 6 – 10 . Top performers on the season included Tiki Barber , who established a personal career high in rushing yardage with 1 @,@ 518 yards , and also contributed 52 catches and 15 touchdowns . Following the season Ron Dayne was released . Dayne had experienced several mediocre seasons while Shaun Alexander , who the Giants bypassed to draft Dayne , had developed into a consistent Pro Bowler .
The Giants won their first two games of the 2005 season , 42 – 19 , against the Arizona Cardinals and 27 – 10 , against the New Orleans Saints . The Giants lost to the Chargers the following week , 45 – 23 , in a game which was marked by Chargers fans booing and jeering Eli Manning . They rebounded the following week , beating the St. Louis Rams by a score of 44 – 24 .
On October 25 , 2005 , Giants patriarch Wellington Mara died at the age of 89 . Mara had been involved with the Giants since he was 9 years old , when he was a ball boy for the Giants . The Giants dedicated their next game to Mara , and shut out the Washington Redskins 36 – 0 . Just twenty days after Mara 's death , on November 15 , 2005 , the other Giants Executive Officer and well @-@ known businessman Preston Robert Tisch died at the age of 79 . The Giants then lost 24 – 21 to the Seahawks when kicker Josh Brown kicked a 36 @-@ yard game @-@ winning field goal . They then defeated the Cowboys 17 – 10 . The Giants defense made opposing QB Drew Bledsoe go 15 of 39 for 146 yards with only one touchdown pass and two interceptions . On December 17 , 2005 , in their 27 – 17 home victory against the Kansas City Chiefs , Tiki Barber set the team 's single game rushing yard record with 220 yards , breaking the previous record of 218 yards , which had been set by Gene Roberts on November 12 , 1950 .
The Giants won the NFC East title for the first time since 2000 with a 30 – 21 win against the Oakland Raiders in the final game of the season . The Giants lost 23 – 0 to the Carolina Panthers in the first round of the playoffs however . The 2005 Giants had five pro bowlers , including Barber ( who set a team record in rushing yards during the season ) , Shockey , Strahan , Defensive End Osi Umenyiora , and Special teamer David Tyree .
In late September it was also announced that the New York Giants , New York Jets and the New Jersey Sports and Exhibition Authority had reached an agreement where both teams will work together to build a new stadium adjacent to the current Giants Stadium .
The Giants regressed to an 8 – 8 season in 2006 . The season featured inconsistent play , criticism of the coaching by the media and players , and inconsistent play from Manning . The Giants won five consecutive games following a 1 – 2 start to gain a two @-@ game advantage in the NFC Eastern Division , but then key injuries to the offense and defense took their toll . Frustrations with the lack of production and with head coach Tom Coughlin began to surface as the Giants lost six of eight in the second half the season . The most disappointing loss of the season was a 24 – 21 defeat to Tennessee , in which the team surrendered a 21 @-@ point fourth @-@ quarter advantage . Following a season @-@ ending win at Washington , the Giants claimed a wildcard berth in the NFC playoffs , but were defeated in the first round by Philadelphia .
In his final season before retirement , Tiki Barber led the Giants with 1 @,@ 662 yards and over 2 @,@ 000 yards from scrimmage , Eli Manning threw for 3 @,@ 244 yards and 24 touchdowns and Jeremy Shockey led the team in receptions . Defensively the team struggled all season long with pass defense ( 28th in the league ) and with gaining a consistent pass rush .
= = = 2007 : Super Bowl Champions = = =
In 2007 , the Giants started 0 – 2 before winning their next six , making them only the second team in NFL history to accomplish that feat ( the 1993 Dallas Cowboys were the other ) , and made the playoffs for the third consecutive season . In a game against the Eagles on September 30 , the Giants tied the record for most sacks as a team in an NFL game , after sacking Philadelphia Eagles quarterback Donovan McNabb 12 times , with 6 of these coming from Osi Umenyiora . The Giants became the third NFL franchise to win at least 600 games when they defeated the Atlanta Falcons in an October Monday Night Football game 31 – 10 . The Giants defeated the Miami Dolphins 13 – 10 in week eight in London 's Wembley Stadium ; the game was the first NFL regular @-@ season game to be played outside of North America . The Giants made the NFL Playoffs with a 10 – 6 record and played the Tampa Bay Buccaneers in the NFC Wild Card Playoffs . They avenged a third playoff loss from Buccaneers QB Jeff Garcia by beating them 24 – 14 . Eli Manning earned his first playoff victory and Tom Coughlin picked up his first playoff victory as coach of the Giants . The next week the Giants defeated their division rival and NFC top seed Dallas Cowboys , winning their ninth consecutive road game . In the NFC championship , kicker Lawrence Tynes made a final field goal for a 23 – 20 overtime win over the Packers in Green Bay . This made the Giants 4 – 0 in NFC championship games , and they advanced to Super Bowl XLII .
In Super Bowl XLII on February 3 , 2008 , the New York Giants defeated the New England Patriots 17 – 14 . The biggest play of the game was on third down on the Giants 44 @-@ yard line with 1 : 15 remaining . They were down 14 – 10 After the snap , Manning ran back and was surrounded by a cloud of defenders . Escaping three near sacks , he made a miraculous pass to David Tyree , who caught the ball against his own helmet , while being covered by veteran defender Rodney Harrison . This set up the Giants ' final touchdown to win . Eli Manning was named MVP , completing 19 of 34 passes for 255 yards along with two touchdowns . The Giants pulled off one of the biggest upsets in Super Bowl history by handing the New England Patriots their first loss of the season and preventing them from becoming only the second team in the Super Bowl era to finish undefeated.Plaxico Burress hauled in the game @-@ winning touchdown pass with 35 seconds left to play to give the Giants their first Super Bowl win since 1990 . This game was also a rematch of their final regular season game , in which the Patriots came back from a 12 @-@ point deficit to finish the regular season 16 – 0 .
A parade was held in the Canyon of Heroes of Lower Manhattan two days after the win , followed by a victory rally across the Hudson River inside Giants Stadium in East Rutherford , New Jersey .
= = = 2008 – 2010 : Opening of MetLife Stadium = = =
The Giants won their Division again in 2008 , with a record of 12 – 4 and earned themselves a first round bye and the No. 1 seed in the NFC . The Giants won 11 out for their first 12 games before stumbling to lose four of their final five including a 23 – 11 loss to the Eagles in the NFC Divisional Round . Manning was named to the Pro Bowl after the season , in a year where he threw for 3 @,@ 238 yards , 21 touchdowns , and 10 interceptions . Other standouts included Brandon Jacobs and Derrick Ward who both rushed for 1 @,@ 000 yards , as the Giants led the NFL in rushing yards . Justin Tuck led the team with 12 sacks , while Antonio Pierce was the team 's leading tackler . The Giants featured a balanced offense with no receiver topping 600 receiving yards ; the team also set a then @-@ NFL record for fewest turnovers committed in the regular season with 13 . The year marked a changing of the guard on the defensive line as Giants careers sack leader Michael Strahan retired before the season .
The 2009 season began with the Giants winning their first five games , but then dropped the next four . After beating the Falcons in overtime , they were routed by the Broncos on Thanksgiving . The Week 13 game with Dallas brought a 31 – 24 victory , but was followed by a 45 – 38 loss to Philadelphia . The Giants nonetheless remained in the playoff picture until being defeated by the Panthers 41 @-@ 9 in Week 16 , in the last Giants home game at Giants Stadium . They then ended the year with an 8 – 8 record after a loss in Minnesota .
In the spring of 2010 , the new Meadowlands Stadium was completed and the Giants and Jets opened it in August with their annual preseason match . During the summer , Bob Sheppard , the Giants ' public address announcer from 1956 to 2005 , died on July 11 . The 2010 season would be dedicated to Sheppard 's memory .
In the regular season , New York inaugurated their new home by beating Carolina 31 – 18 . Peyton outplayed Eli in the second " Manning Bowl " and the Colts won 38 – 14 in week two . Discipline became a growing problem during the early portion of the season . In the Colts ' game , Jacobs threw his helmet into the stands , and in the next week 's game with Tennessee ( a 29 – 10 loss at home ) New York committed five personal fouls . The Giants next hosted the Bears on Sunday Night and won 17 – 3 . After a win at Houston , the Giants then won their next three games to improve to 6 – 2 . Their Week 14 game with Minnesota was scheduled for Sunday , December 12 , but the Vikings ' stadium roof collapsed , and the game was moved to Detroit , where New York won 21 – 3 . Against the Eagles in the next week , the Giants lost a 21 @-@ point fourth quarter lead and the game when Eagles receiver DeSean Jackson returned it for a 65 @-@ yard game touchdown on the game 's final play , in a match later dubbed the " Miracle at the New Meadowlands . " The Giants finished the season 10 – 6 , but missed the playoffs , the first time since 1988 that the franchise had won ten games in a season without making the playoffs . This was the sixth consecutive season the Giants finished with at least a .500 regular season record ( 2005 – 2010 ) , the team 's longest stretch since the NFL @-@ AFL merger .
= = = 2011 : Super Bowl Champions Again = = =
As the Giants began 2011 , many NFL analysts predicted that the Philadelphia Eagles were a favorite to win the NFC East title , while the Giants were not expected to make the playoffs . The Giants opened their regular season against the Washington Redskins on September 11 , 2011 , and lost in FedEx Field 28 – 14 . The Giants then won three straight games , including breaking their six @-@ game losing streak to Philadelphia . By Week 9 , New York was 6 – 2 after beating the Patriots in Foxboro for their first encounter since Super Bowl XLII . At this point however , they entered a difficult stretch of games and lost four straight to a resurgent 49ers , followed by the Eagles , Saints , and Packers . By now , the Giants found their chances of beating Dallas to the division title fading and Tom Coughlin 's coaching abilities were increasingly called into question despite reassurances from team president John Mara that there were no plans to fire him . However , the Giants kept their playoff hopes alive in Week 14 by beating the Cowboys in Dallas on a last @-@ second scoring drive led by Eli Manning and extending their win streak in Cowboys Stadium to three straight games . Despite another loss to the Redskins afterwards , the Giants defeated the New York Jets in Week 16 by a final score of 29 @-@ 14 , also eliminating the Eagles from playoff contention , to set up a rematch with the Dallas Cowboys in which the winner would win the NFC East . The game was later flexed into Sunday Night Football . The Giants beat the Cowboys 31 – 14 to win the NFC East with a record of 9 @-@ 7 . Throughout the regular season , Eli Manning ( always viewed as a weak QB compared to his brother ) put up some of the best stats of his career .
During the wild card round of the playoffs , the Giants hosted Atlanta Falcons and won 24 – 2 , with the Falcons ' only score from a safety due to Eli Manning being flagged for grounding in the end zone . In the divisional round , the Giants were forced to play the defending champion Green Bay Packers in Lambeau Field . The Packers had finished the regular season with a league @-@ best 15 @-@ 1 record , including a 38 @-@ 35 win against the Giants in Week 13 . In addition , the Packers received a first @-@ round bye , and thus this was their first playoff match . Despite these obstacles , the Giants handily defeated the Packers 37 @-@ 20 to qualify for the NFC Championship Game against the San Francisco 49ers . With the score tied 17 @-@ 17 in regulation , the Giants moved into field goal range in overtime and Lawrence Tynes , the hero of the 2007 postseason , kicked a 20 @-@ yard field goal to send them to Super Bowl XLVI , a rematch against the New England Patriots .
= = = = Super Bowl XLVI = = = =
Once again facing the New England Patriots , the New York Giants headed to Lucas Oil Stadium , home of Eli 's brother Peyton 's team , the Indianapolis Colts . The Giants got off to an early lead by an intentional grounding call on Tom Brady in the end zone for a safety and retaining the ball for most of the 1st quarter . However , New England came back and battled to a 10 – 9 lead . Nearing the end of the 4th quarter with the Giants behind 17 – 15 , Patriots coach Bill Belichick allowed them to score a touchdown with the idea that they would have nearly a minute to drive downfield and score . However , the New York defense held and broke up several Brady pass attempts . A last @-@ second throw into the end zone by the Patriots QB was thwarted and the Giants had won their second Super Bowl 21 – 17 in four years at New England 's expense .
= = Ben McAdoo era ( 2016- = =
After several disappointing seasons , Coughlin was fired at the end of the 2015 season and replaced with previous offensive coordinator Ben McAdoo .
= Animal navigation =
Animal navigation is the ability of many animals to find their way accurately without maps or instruments . Birds such as the Arctic tern , insects such as the monarch butterfly and fish such as the salmon regularly migrate thousands of miles to and from their breeding grounds , and many other species navigate effectively over shorter distances .
Dead reckoning , navigating from a known position using only information about one 's own speed and direction , was suggested by Charles Darwin in 1873 as a possible mechanism . In the 20th century , Karl von Frisch showed that honey bees can navigate by the sun , by the polarization pattern of the blue sky , and by the earth 's magnetic field ; of these , they rely on the sun when possible . William Tinsley Keeton showed that homing pigeons could similarly make use of a range of navigational cues , including the sun , earth 's magnetic field , olfaction and vision . Ronald Lockley demonstrated that a species of small seabird , the Manx shearwater , could orient themselves and fly home at full speed , when released far from home , provided either the sun or the stars were visible .
Several species of animal can integrate cues of different types to orient themselves and navigate effectively . Insects and birds are able to combine learned landmarks with sensed direction ( from the earth 's magnetic field or from the sky ) to identify where they are and so to navigate . Internal ' maps ' are often formed using vision , but other senses including olfaction and echolocation may also be used .
The ability of wild animals to navigate may be adversely affected by products of human activity . For example , there is evidence that pesticides may interfere with bee navigation , and that lights may harm turtle navigation .
= = Early research = =
In 1873 , Charles Darwin wrote a letter to Nature magazine , arguing that animals including man have the ability to navigate by dead reckoning , even if a magnetic ' compass ' sense and the ability to navigate by the stars is present :
With regard to the question of the means by which animals find their way home from a long distance , a striking account , in relation to man , will be found in the English translation of the Expedition to North Siberia , by Von Wrangell . He there describes the wonderful manner in which the natives kept a true course towards a particular spot , whilst passing for a long distance through hummocky ice , with incessant changes of direction , and with no guide in the heavens or on the frozen sea . He states ( but I quote only from memory of many years standing ) that he , an experienced surveyor , and using a compass , failed to do that which these savages easily effected . Yet no one will suppose that they possessed any special sense which is quite absent in us . We must bear in mind that neither a compass , nor the north star , nor any other such sign , suffices to guide a man to a particular spot through an intricate country , or through hummocky ice , when many deviations from a straight course are inevitable , unless the deviations are allowed for , or a sort of " dead reckoning " is kept . All men are able to do this in a greater or less degree , and the natives of Siberia apparently to a wonderful extent , though probably in an unconscious manner . This is effected chiefly , no doubt , by eyesight , but partly , perhaps , by the sense of muscular movement , in the same manner as a man with his eyes blinded can proceed ( and some men much better than others ) for a short distance in a nearly straight line , or turn at right angles , or back again . The manner in which the sense of direction is sometimes suddenly disarranged in very old and feeble persons , and the feeling of strong distress which , as I know , has been experienced by persons when they have suddenly found out that they have been proceeding in a wholly unexpected and wrong direction , leads to the suspicion that some part of the brain is specialised for the function of direction .
Later in 1873 , Joseph John Murphy replied to Darwin , writing back to Nature with a description of how he , Murphy , believed animals carried out dead reckoning , by what is now called inertial navigation :
If a ball is freely suspended from the roof of a railway carriage it will receive a shock sufficient to move it , when the carriage is set in motion : and the magnitude and direction of the shock … will depend on the magnitude and direction of the force with which the carriage begins to move … [ and so ] … every change in … the motion of the carriage … will give a shock of corresponding magnitude and direction to the ball . Now , it is conceivably quite possible , though such delicacy of mechanism is not to be hoped for , that a machine should be constructed … for registering the magnitude and direction of all these shocks , with the time at which each occurred … from these data the position of the carriage … might be calculated at any moment .
Karl von Frisch ( 1886 – 1982 ) studied the European honey bee , demonstrating that bees can recognize a desired compass direction in three different ways : by the sun , by the polarization pattern of the blue sky , and by the earth ’ s magnetic field . He showed that the sun is the preferred or main compass ; the other mechanisms are used under cloudy skies or inside a dark beehive .
William Tinsley Keeton ( 1933 – 1980 ) studied homing pigeons , showing that they were able to navigate using the earth 's magnetic field , the sun , as well as both olfactory and visual cues .
Donald Griffin ( 1915 – 2003 ) studied echolocation in bats , demonstrating that it was possible and that bats used this mechanism to detect and track prey , and to " see " and thus navigate through the world around them .
Ronald Lockley ( 1903 – 2000 ) , among many studies of birds in over fifty books , pioneered the science of bird migration . He made a twelve @-@ year study of shearwaters such as the Manx shearwater , living on the remote island of Skokholm . These small seabirds make one of the longest migrations of any bird — 10 @,@ 000 kilometres — but return to the exact nesting burrow on Skokholm year after year . This behaviour led to the question of how they navigated .
= = Mechanisms = =
Lockley began his book Animal Navigation with the words :
How do animals find their way over apparently trackless country , through pathless forests , across empty deserts , over and under featureless seas ? ... They do so , of course , without any visible compass , sextant , chronometer or chart ...
Many mechanisms have been proposed for animal navigation : there is evidence for a number of them . Investigators have often been forced to discard the simplest hypotheses - for example , some animals can navigate on a dark and cloudy night , when neither landmarks nor celestial cues like sun , moon , or stars are visible . The major mechanisms known or hypothesized are described in turn below .
= = = Remembered landmarks = = =
Animals including mammals , birds and insects such as bees and wasps ( Ammophila and Sphex ) , are capable of learning landmarks in their environment , and of using these in navigation .
= = = Orientation by the sun = = =
Some animals can navigate using celestial cues such as the position of the sun . Since the sun moves in the sky , navigation by this means also requires an internal clock . Many animals depend on such a clock to maintain their circadian rhythm . Animals that use sun compass orientation are fish , birds , sea @-@ turtles , butterflies , bees , sandhoppers , reptiles , and ants .
When sandhoppers ( such as Talitrus saltator ) are taken up a beach , they easily find their way back down to the sea . It has been shown that this is not simply by moving downhill or towards the sight or sound of the sea . A group of sandhoppers were acclimatised to a day / night cycle under artificial lighting , whose timing was gradually changed until it was 12 hours out of phase with the natural cycle . Then , the sandhoppers were placed on the beach in natural sunlight . They moved away from the sea , up the beach . The experiment implied that the sandhoppers use the sun and their internal clock to determine their heading , and that they had learnt the actual direction down to the sea on their particular beach .
Experiments with Manx shearwaters showed that when released " under a clear sky " far from their nests , the seabirds first oriented themselves and then flew off in the correct direction . But if the sky was overcast at the time of release , the shearwaters flew around in circles .
Monarch butterflies use the sun as a compass to guide their southwesterly autumn migration from Canada to Mexico .
= = = Orientation by the night sky = = =
In a pioneering experiment , Lockley showed that warblers placed in a planetarium showing the night sky oriented themselves towards the south ; when the planetarium sky was then very slowly rotated , the birds maintained their orientation with respect to the displayed stars . Lockley observes that to navigate by the stars , birds would need both a " sextant and chronometer " : a built @-@ in ability to read patterns of stars and to navigate by them , which also requires an accurate time @-@ of @-@ day clock .
In 2003 , the African dung beetle Scarabaeus zambesianus was shown to navigate using polarization patterns in moonlight , making it the first animal known to use polarized moonlight for orientation . In 2013 , it was shown that dung beetles can navigate when only the Milky Way or clusters of bright stars are visible , making dung beetles the only insects known to orient themselves by the galaxy .
= = = Orientation by polarised light = = =
Some animals , notably insects such as the honey bee , are sensitive to the polarisation of light . Honey bees can use polarized light on overcast days to estimate the position of the sun in the sky , relative to the compass direction they intend to travel . Karl von Frisch 's work established that bees can accurately identify the direction and range from the hive to a food source ( typically a patch of nectar @-@ bearing flowers ) . A worker bee returns to the hive and signals to other workers the range and direction relative to the sun of the food source by means of a waggle dance . The observing bees are then able to locate the food by flying the implied distance in the given direction , though other biologists have questioned whether they necessarily do so , or are simply stimulated to go and search for food . However , bees are certainly able to remember the location of food , and to navigate back to it accurately , whether the weather is sunny ( in which case navigation may be by the sun or remembered visual landmarks ) or largely overcast ( when polarised light may be used ) .
= = = Magnetoreception = = =
Some animals , including mammals such as blind mole rats ( Spalax ) and birds such as pigeons , are sensitive to the earth 's magnetic field .
Homing pigeons use magnetic field information with other navigational cues . Pioneering researcher William Keeton showed that time @-@ shifted homing pigeons could not orient themselves correctly on a clear sunny day , but could do so on an overcast day , suggesting that the birds prefer to rely on the direction of the sun , but switch to using a magnetic field cue when the sun is not visible . This was confirmed by experiments with magnets : the pigeons could not orient correctly on an overcast day when the magnetic field was disrupted .
= = = Olfaction = = =
Olfactory navigation has been suggested as a possible mechanism in pigeons . Papi 's ' mosaic ' model argues that pigeons build and remember a mental map of the odours in their area , recognizing where they are by the local odour . Wallraff 's ' gradient ' model argues that there is a steady , large @-@ scale gradient of odour which remains stable for long periods . If there were two or more such gradients in different directions , pigeons could locate themselves in two dimensions by the intensities of the odours . However it is not clear that such stable gradients exist . Papi did find evidence that anosmic pigeons ( unable to detect odours ) were much less able to orient and navigate than normal pigeons , so olfaction does seem to be important in pigeon navigation . However , it is not clear how olfactory cues are used .
Olfactory cues may be important in salmon , which are known to return to the exact river where they hatched . Lockley reports experimental evidence that fish such as minnows can accurately tell the difference between the waters of different rivers . Salmon may use their magnetic sense to navigate to within reach of their river , and then use olfaction to identify the river at close range .
= = = Other senses = = =
Biologists have considered other senses that may contribute to animal navigation . Many marine animals such as seals are capable of hydrodynamic reception , enabling them to track and catch prey such as fish by sensing the disturbances their passage leaves behind in the water . Marine mammals such as dolphins , and many species of bat , are capable of echolocation , which they use both for detecting prey and for orientation by sensing their environment .
= = Path integration = =
Dead reckoning , in animals usually known as path integration , means the putting together of cues from different sensory sources within the body , without reference to visual or other external landmarks , to estimate position relative to a known starting point continuously while travelling on a path that is not necessarily straight . Seen as a problem in geometry , the task is to compute the vector to a starting point by adding the vectors for each leg of the journey from that point .
Since Darwin 's On the Origins of Certain Instincts ( quoted above ) in 1873 , path integration has been shown to be important to navigation in animals including ants , rodents and birds . When vision ( and hence the use of remembered landmarks ) is not available , such as when animals are navigating on a cloudy night , in the open ocean , or in relatively featureless areas such as sandy deserts , path integration must rely on idiothetic cues from within the body .
Studies by Wehner in the Sahara desert ant ( Cataglyphis bicolor ) demonstrate effective path integration to determine directional heading ( by polarized light or sun position ) and to compute distance ( by monitoring leg movement or optical flow ) .
Path integration in mammals makes use of the vestibular organs , which detect accelerations in the three dimensions , together with motor efference , where the motor system tells the rest of the brain which movements were commanded , and optic flow , where the visual system signals how fast the visual world moves past the eyes . Information from other senses such as echolocation and magnetoreception may also be integrated in certain animals . The hippocampus is the part of the brain that integrates linear and angular motion to encode a mammal 's relative position in space .
David Redish states that " The carefully controlled experiments of Mittelstaedt and Mittelstaedt ( 1980 ) and Etienne ( 1987 ) have demonstrated conclusively that [ path integration in mammals ] is a consequence of integrating internal cues from vestibular signals and motor efferent copy " .
= = Effects of human activity = =
Neonicotinoid pesticides may impair the ability of bees to navigate . Bees exposed to low levels of thiamethoxam were less likely to return to their colony , to an extent sufficient to compromise a colony 's survival .
Light pollution attracts and disorients photophilic animals , those that follow light . For example , hatchling sea turtles follow bright light , particularly bluish light , altering their navigation . Disrupted navigation in moths can easily be observed around bright lamps on summer nights . Insects gather around these lamps at high densities instead of navigating naturally .
= Hendrik Pieter Nicolaas Muller =
Hendrik Pieter Nicolaas " Henk " Muller , GON , RNL , FRGS ( 2 April 1859 – 11 August 1941 ) was a Dutch businessman , diplomat , explorer , publicist , and philanthropist . He was a son of Hendrik Muller Sz . , a Rotterdam @-@ based Dutch businessman and politician , and Marie Cornelie van Rijckevorsel , member of another prominent Rotterdam based business family .
Muller started his career as a businessman , trading with East and West Africa . In his mid @-@ twenties he travelled to Zanzibar , Mozambique , and South Africa for business purposes , but showed himself a keen ethnographer as well , collecting ethnographic artefacts and writing reports about the societies and people he encountered on his way . In 1890 , Muller retired from business for personal reasons , and went to Germany to study ethnography and geography . He graduated with a PhD dissertation four years later .
In 1896 he was first appointed consul and later consul general for the Orange Free State . Muller held this position all through the Second Boer War and his high @-@ profile performance as European representative for this Boer republic won him considerable fame and notoriety , which lasted all his life . After the Treaty of Vereeniging was signed in 1902 Muller retired to a life of travelling and writing for some years , making Muller a household name with his travel books . In 1919 the Dutch government appointed him envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary to Romania , and later to Czechoslovakia , where he retired in 1932 . As diplomat Muller strongly promoted Dutch business interests , especially in oil and electrotechnics .
Muller was a prolific writer . Over the course of his life he published well over two hundred articles , brochures , and books about his travels through the world , about South Africa and the Boers , and about Dutch foreign policy and diplomacy , apart from a range of other subjects . Muller gathered a large fortune with well appointed private investments . He bequeathed his considerable wealth to a private fund in support of academic research and cultural heritage .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life as businessman = = =
Hendrik Pieter Nicolaas Muller was born in Rotterdam ( Netherlands ) on 2 April 1859 , as the third child and second son of Hendrik Muller Sz. and Marie Cornelie van Rijckevorsel . His father was a successful businessman based in Rotterdam and trading with Africa and the Netherlands East Indies . H.P.N. Muller 's maternal grandfather , Abram van Rijckevorsel , was the doyen of the Rotterdam merchant community in the early part of the nineteenth century . Both his father and maternal grandfather were politicians as well , liberals who staunchly defended the principle of free trade , and both were at one time members of the Senate of the States @-@ General of the Netherlands .
Muller 's paternal grandfather was a German immigrant to the Netherlands and a Doopsgezind ( Mennonite ) minister and professor of theology in Amsterdam . The Muller family was fairly prominent in the Netherlands in the nineteenth and early twentieth century , with Christian ministers , professors of literature and history , archivists , antiquarian booksellers , statesmen and businessmen in their midst .
Muller was destined to step into his father 's footsteps and become a businessman . He first attended the private institution Delfos followed by the Hogere Burgerschool ( high school ) in Rotterdam , before continuing his education in Germany , at the Hohe Real Schule in Frankfurt @-@ am @-@ Main , to specialise in trade and business . After finishing his studies with good results , he continued his training with internships in business firms in Liverpool , Manchester , and Marseilles . His first serious job came when his father called him back to Rotterdam in 1882 , to become interim manager of the Handels Compagnie Mozambique ( Trading Company Mozambique ) , an ill @-@ performing trading firm doing business in Mozambique . In 1882 / ' 83 Muller travelled to East Africa and visited all the trading posts and establishments of the firm , changing business practices . At the end of his trip he made an extensive tour of South Africa , visiting Natal , Zululand , Transvaal , the Orange Free State , and the Cape Colony . On his return to Rotterdam he advised the directors of the company on business opportunities . Subsequently he was appointed co @-@ director of the reconstituted company , now called the Oost @-@ Afrikaansche Compagnie ( East African Company ) , as well as deputy manager in his father 's firm , Hendrik Muller & Co . , which had important trading interests in Liberia and elsewhere in West Africa .
In the 1880s Muller was active for his businesses , and travelled to the Congo Conference in Berlin in 1884 , to Portugal in 1886 and North Africa in 1889 . In the same year he succeeded his father as consul general for Liberia in the Netherlands , a position he would hold until 1913 . After a third business journey to Africa in 1890 , now to Liberia and the Gold Coast , for Hendrik Muller & Co . , he returned home seriously ill , and had to convalesce for months . In this period he fell out with his father and younger brother Abram Muller , about both personal and business matters . It was a personal break that would never be healed and with professional repercussions . In 1891 Muller left business for good and embarked on a totally new career .
= = = Ethnographer and geographer = = =
Already in the 1880s , Muller had dabbled in ethnography and writing . On the basis of materials gathered on his journey to East Africa and South Africa in 1882 / ’ 83 , he had held public lectures throughout the Netherlands and Belgium . He also published articles on his trip in Dutch magazines and newspapers , and collated these publications into a book titled Zuid @-@ Afrika . It made him somewhat of a celebrity , and an expert on South Africa and East Africa . During his journey Muller had also collected a large number of ethnographic objects and artefacts , on which he published a richly illustrated study in 1892 , together with Joh . F. Snelleman , curator of the Africa collection in the Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde ( National Museum of Ethnology ) in Leiden .
Once freed from running the better part of two businesses , and financially independent , Muller went to Germany to study geography and ethnography . He attended lectures at the universities of Heidelberg and Leipzig before completing his doctorate at the University of Giessen in 1894 , summa cum laude . His thesis Land und Leute zwischen Zambezi und Limpopo ( Land and People between Zambezi and Limpopo ) was mainly based on secondary material , rather than the materials collected and observations made by Muller himself during his time in East Africa . This limited the originality of the study , although in its time it was appreciated as an important piece of academic work , and was also published in a commercial version .
= = = Consul general for the Orange Free State = = =
After his return to the Netherlands , H.P.N. Muller settled down in The Hague , where he was originally only occupied with his consular duties for Liberia , his membership of the Commission for Consular Examinations ( since 1890 ) and his writing . Early in 1896 Muller was appointed as consul for the Orange Free State in the provinces of North and South Holland , assisting the consul general H.A.L. Hamelberg . He received the appointment on the strength of his publications about South Africa . After Hamelberg 's death later in 1896 Muller succeeded him as consul general . It was an honorary position . In the following years Muller wholeheartedly set out to work for the Orange Free State and its interests in Europe . His predecessor Hamelberg had not only been consul general , but had on occasion also acted as special envoy to be able to negotiate treaties and accords with foreign powers . Muller also acted as special envoy and in this capacity inter alia enrolled the Orange Free State in the Universal Postal Union , the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property , and the Geneva Conventions , and negotiated treaties of friendship and trade with Germany , Switzerland , and the Netherlands . He also strengthened the consular representation of the Orange Free State in Europe and inquired into all kinds of practical issues like a cure for rinderpest and improved methods of irrigation .
In 1898 Muller travelled to South Africa , where he visited Cape Town , the Orange Free State , and the Zuid @-@ Afrikaansche Republiek . In Pretoria he attended the inauguration of President Kruger and in Bloemfontein he struck up a friendship with the newly elected President M.T. Steyn and his family . He also renewed his relations with other leading statesmen , like former President F.W. Reitz , government secretary P.J. Blignaut , and chairman of the Volksraad C.H. Wessels . In Cape Town , he was granted an audience with High Commissioner Sir Alfred Milner .
Once back in the Netherlands , the political situation in South Africa became tense very rapidly , and Muller did all he could to propagate the cause of the Boer Republics in the press and via diplomatic channels . Once the South African War broke out in October 1899 , Muller set up an elaborate operation to support the cause of the war for the Orange Free State . He mobilised public support in the Netherlands , Germany and the United States of America and had public gatherings organised . Through his many contacts with the European press Muller saw to it that the Boer cause was extensively covered in the newspapers , usually in his own words , but published in the name of the respective editor . His office in The Hague was the hub of diplomatic and consular activity in this period , with several secretaries working continuously on the gathering of information and dealing with correspondence . In the war effort Muller cooperated with the Algemeen Nederlandsch Verbond in Dordrecht , the Nederlandsche Zuid @-@ Afrikaansche Vereeniging in Amsterdam , and of course the Transvaal 's diplomatic representative in Brussels , Dr. W.J. Leyds . Originally the relationship between Muller and Leyds was cordial , but with time it soured and turned into open animosity . Both men were strong personalities with strong convictions . The fact that Muller was only consul general and Leyds an accredited diplomat was not helpful either and neither was the fact that – at least in Muller 's opinion – the Zuid @-@ Afrikaansche Republiek received much more attention than the Orange Free State . The first time problems arose in the open was in 1900 , when the Boer Republics sent a joint Special Diplomatic Delegation to Europe and the United States , which was ill @-@ prepared and for which Leyds had very different ideas than Muller .
In 1901 Muller travelled to the United States himself to mobilise support from President Theodore Roosevelt , especially on behalf of the women and children in the British concentration camps . He also held public lectures all around the country . While visiting Mexico , news reached Muller about the Peace of Vereeniging , making him jobless . Muller took the opportunity to turn his American journey into an expedition . On his return to the Netherlands in 1903 he published a book about it . In the years after the end of the South African War Muller maintained his interest in South Africa and the Afrikaners , both personally and professionally . In 1904 he supported the Steyn family when they were in Europe for the President 's recovery of a debilitating illness . Until his death Muller was active for the Algemeen Nederlandsch Verbond and the Nederlandsche Zuid @-@ Afrikaansche Vereeniging .
= = = Travel through Asia = = =
Between 1907 and 1909 Muller travelled through Asia , a journey that produced several books and articles after his return , including a two @-@ part report of his travels ( Azië gespiegeld ; Asia mirrored ) . Muller also published a scientific source publication on Cambodia and the earliest Dutch presence in French Indochina . The French government rewarded him for it with a knighthood in the Légion d 'Honneur for the latter . The French colony Annam made Muller a knight in the Order of the Dragon for his contributions to the history of Vietnam .
Muller 's Asian trip was comprehensive . He visited British India and Ceylon , Burma , Malaysia and the Philippines and French Indochina , travelled extensively through the Dutch East Indies , and returned via Japan , Korea – where he had an audience with the last Korean emperor – , Manchuria , China , and Siberia . Muller 's visit to Japan triggered a lively interest in this country and its economic development potential . Back in the Netherlands he presented his views on the country in several speeches , brochures , and articles , mainly under the auspices of the Comité Nederland @-@ Japan ( Dutch @-@ Japanese Committee ) .
= = = Dutch government official and diplomat = = =
In 1914 , at the outbreak of World War I , Muller 's career took a new turn . The Dutch government appointed him government commissioner in charge of one of the main Belgian Refugee Camps in the Netherlands . Muller was charged with the transfer of the camp from a makeshift army encampment in Oldebroek to a proper refugee camp with full provisions in Nunspeet . He took to the job with great enthusiasm , but resigned a year later , declaring that he had attained the goals he had set himself on his appointment . Actually the resignation came in a cloud of controversy around his person and policies . At the end of World War I the Dutch prime minister did acknowledge the high quality of Muller 's work in setting up the camps and bringing and maintaining order and human dignity under very trying circumstances . Apart from his position as member of the Consular Examinations Commission , this position was the only Dutch government appointment Muller held inside the Netherlands .
From the 1890s onwards , Muller had published with great regularity about the importance of a proper Dutch consular service to promote the Dutch mercantile interests around the world . In his articles he forcefully advanced the idea that the consular and diplomatic services should be merged and professionalised . In his publications Muller also strongly propagated a more active role of the Netherlands in international affairs . In this vain , in 1919 , he published an article on the history and geography of Spitsbergen ( Svalbard ) and the necessity for the Dutch government to defend its historic claims on the islands . A year later , the Dutch government became a signatory to the Spits
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phobic discrimination , highlighting that the Youth Suicide Prevention Program reports that over 50 % of transgender youths attempt suicide before the age of 20 , and that the National Coalition of Anti @-@ Violence Programs recently published a report indicating that 72 % of LGBT homicide victims in 2013 were transgender women .
= = = Leelah 's Law = = =
A Facebook group called " Justice for Leelah Alcorn " was established , while a petition calling for " Leelah 's Law " , a ban on conversion therapy in the United States , was created by the Transgender Human Rights Institute to raise awareness of the psychologically harmful effects of such practices ; by January 24 it had 330 @,@ 009 signatures , and was named the fastest growing change.org petition of 2014 . A second appeal demanding the enactment of " Leelah 's Law " was posted to the We the People section of WhiteHouse.gov on January 3 , 2015 which garnered more than 100 @,@ 000 signatures as of January 30 . In response to the petition President Barack Obama called for the banning of conversion therapy for minors . Under the Twitter hashtag # RealLiveTransAdult , many transgender people posted encouraging tweets for their younger counterparts , while other hashtags , such as # ProtectTransKids , and the term " Rest in Power " , also circulated on Twitter . A change.org petition was set up calling for Leelah 's chosen name to be included on her gravestone , which gained over 80 @,@ 000 signatures . On January 6 , Adam Hoover of Marriage Equality Ohio remarked that , since the request of having Alcorn 's chosen name on her gravestone seemed " like a slim possibility " , they would be raising money for a permanent memorial arranged as a bench , tree and commemorative plaque . In April 2015 , President Obama responded to the petition seeking to ban conversion therapy inspired by Alcorn 's death with a pledge to advocate for such a ban .
In December 2015 , Cincinnati became the second U.S. city after Washington D.C. to ban the practice of conversion therapy outright ; council member Chris Seelbach cited Alcorn 's suicide as an influence in the decision , stating that " She challenged us to make her death matter , and we 're doing just that . "
= Philadelphia municipal election , 1951 =
Philadelphia 's municipal election of November 6 , 1951 was the first held under the city 's new charter , which had been approved by the voters the previous April . The positions contested included those of mayor , district attorney , all seventeen city council seats , among other offices . There was also a referendum on whether to consolidate the city and county governments . Citywide , the Democrats took majorities of over 100 @,@ 000 votes , breaking a 67 @-@ year Republican hold on city government . Joseph S. Clark , Jr. and Richardson Dilworth , two of the main movers for the charter reform , were elected mayor and district attorney , respectively . The Democrats also took fourteen of seventeen city council seats , and city @-@ county consolidation passed by a wide margin . The election marked the beginning of Democratic dominance of Philadelphia city politics , which continues today .
= = Mayor = =
The incumbent Republican mayor , Bernard Samuel , did not run for re @-@ election , leaving an open seat to be contested by the Republican nominee , Daniel A. Poling , and the Democrat , Joseph S. Clark , Jr . Clark was a lawyer and United States Army officer who had served in World War II . Raised in a Republican family , he switched his party affiliation to the Democrats in 1928 . After several unsuccessful attempts at public office in Philadelphia , he served as a Deputy Attorney General of Pennsylvania . Clark was known as a reformer , having been elected city controller two years earlier in 1949 on a platform of cleaning up corruption in the city . In those two years , Clark probed various inefficiencies , graft , and theft in the Samuel administration and reported his findings to the voters . Many of those accused of crimes were convicted , and nine committed suicide . Clark continued his push for reform by urging adoption of a new city charter , which was approved by referendum in April 1951 . He campaigned for mayor with the promise of a " clean sweep of City Hall " .
The Republican nominee , Poling was a Baptist preacher , which GOP leaders hoped would help deflect the corruption charges leveled against the machine . Poling had worked for various charitable organizations and managed the Christian Herald . His son , Clark V. Poling , was one of the Four Chaplains lost aboard the SS Dorchester in World War II , and Poling served as pastor at the chapel erected in their memory .
The election was a landslide for Clark , as he won by more than 120 @,@ 000 votes . With 58 % of the vote , the Democrats had gained nearly 215 @,@ 000 votes from the last election , in which they had been defeated . As the vote tally became apparent , he told reporters that it was a " great victory for the thinking people of Philadelphia and it ends a long hard fight . "
= = District Attorney = =
As in the mayor 's race , the contest for district attorney pitted a Democratic reformer , Richardson Dilworth , against a representative of the Republican machine , Michael A. Foley . Dilworth , like Clark , was a former Republican who had been advocating reform for several years . He had run for mayor unsuccessfully in 1947 , with Clark as his campaign manager . In 1949 , he was elected City Treasurer . Democratic party leaders had intended Dilworth to be their candidate for mayor again in 1951 , but when Clark announced his candidacy , Dilworth agreed to run for district attorney instead . Foley , a local attorney , had no success against the Democratic wave . Dilworth won by almost as large a margin as his running mate , taking just shy of 58 % of the vote . He told reporters that the victory had a " sobering effect , " and that " the bigger the victory , the bigger the responsibility . "
= = City Council = =
Under the new charter , Philadelphians elected a seventeen @-@ member city council in 1951 , with ten members representing districts of the city , and the remaining seven being elected at @-@ large . For the at @-@ large seats , each political party could nominate five candidates , and voters could only vote for five , with the result being that the majority party could only take five of the seven seats , leaving two for the minority party . The Democrats ' citywide triumph continued into the city council races , as they took nine of ten districts and five of seven at @-@ large seats .
Constance Dallas , the first woman to win election to City Council , was elected in a close vote in the 8th district ( covering Chestnut Hill , Germantown , and Roxborough ) over incumbent councilman Robert S. Hamilton . In the 1st district , which took in South Philadelphia , attorney Thomas I. Guerin defeated Dominic J. Colubiale . In the 2nd , the Republicans ' lone district victory came as electrician William M. Phillips bested Louis Vignola , a labor union official . In the 3rd district , made up of the southern half of West Philadelphia , incumbent Harry Norwitch defeated another incumbent from the old city council , George Maxman , who had held office since 1936 . In the 4th , which covered the northern half of West Philadelphia , state representative Samuel Rose defeated incumbent James G. Clark .
In the city 's 5th district in North Philadelphia , another incumbent , Eugene J. Sullivan , was defeated by Raymond Pace Alexander , a local attorney and civil rights leader . In the 6th district , covering Kensington and Frankford , plumbers ' union official Michael J. Towey won over William J. Glowacz . In the 7th , James Hugh Joseph Tate defeated Joseph A. Ferko , a local Mummers string band leader . Insurance broker Charles M. Finley defeated incumbent councilman William A. Kelley in the 9th district , which covered Oak Lane , Olney , and Logan . In Northeast Philadelphia 's 10th district , incumbent Clarence K. Crossan , who had held office since 1925 , went down to defeat against real estate broker John F. Byrne , Sr.
In the at large races , the all five Democrats were elected , including city party chairman James A. Finnegan , former registration commissioner Victor E. Moore , Charter Commission secretary Lewis M. Stevens , attorney ( and future district attorney of Philadelphia ) Victor H. Blanc , and magistrate Paul D 'Ortona . The Republican slate ran more than 100 @,@ 000 votes behind the Democrats , with incumbent councilman Louis Schwartz and state senator John W. Lord , Jr. narrowly edging out assistant district attorney John B. Backhus , labor leader Colbert C. McClain , and clergyman Irwin W. Underhill for the two minority party slots on the council .
= = Other offices , referendum , and aftermath = =
The Democrats ' success continued down the ballot . They elected a county sheriff , William M. Lennox ; clerk of courts , Joseph A. Scanlon ; and recorder of deeds , Marshall L. Shepard . In the race for county commissioners , each party nominates two candidates and the top three are elected : here , too , the Democrats triumphed , electing both Maurice C. Osser and Thomas P. McHenry . The Republican spot on the county commission went to Walter I. Davidson . The Democrats also took eight of the fourteen magisterial district judge positions ( a local court , the duties of which are now performed by the Philadelphia Municipal Court ) .
A statewide referendum on the ballot that day continued the work begun by the new city charter in asking voters to consolidate the city and county governments in Philadelphia . In 1854 , all of the municipalities in Philadelphia County had been consolidated into one city , but many county offices still existed , duplicating the efforts of city officials . Merging the city and county governments had been defeated in a 1937 referendum , but in 1951 the question was overwhelmingly approved .
The 1951 election was the final blow to Philadelphia 's once @-@ dominant Republican machine . Since that time , the Democratic party has dominated the city 's politics , with no other party electing a mayor or a majority of the city council in the intervening years .
= Flavian dynasty =
The Flavian dynasty was a Roman imperial dynasty , which ruled the Roman Empire between 69 CE and 96 CE , encompassing the reigns of Vespasian ( 69 – 79 ) , and his two sons Titus ( 79 – 81 ) and Domitian ( 81 – 96 ) . The Flavians rose to power during the civil war of 69 , known as the Year of the Four Emperors . After Galba and Otho died in quick succession , Vitellius became emperor in mid 69 . His claim to the throne was quickly challenged by legions stationed in the Eastern provinces , who declared their commander Vespasian emperor in his place . The Second Battle of Bedriacum tilted the balance decisively in favour of the Flavian forces , who entered Rome on December 20 . The following day , the Roman Senate officially declared Vespasian emperor of the Roman Empire , thus commencing the Flavian dynasty . Although the dynasty proved to be short @-@ lived , several significant historic , economic and military events took place during their reign .
The reign of Titus was struck by multiple natural disasters , the most severe of which was the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 . The surrounding cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum were completely buried under ash and lava . One year later , Rome was struck by fire and a plague . On the military front , the Flavian dynasty witnessed the siege and destruction of Jerusalem by Titus in 70 , following the failed Jewish rebellion of 66 . Substantial conquests were made in Great Britain under command of Gnaeus Julius Agricola between 77 and 83 , while Domitian was unable to procure a decisive victory against King Decebalus in the war against the Dacians . In addition , the Empire strengthened its border defenses by expanding the fortifications along the Limes Germanicus .
The Flavians initiated economic and cultural reforms . Under Vespasian , new taxes were devised to restore the Empire 's finances , while Domitian revalued the Roman coinage by increasing its silver content . A massive building programme was enacted to celebrate the ascent of the Flavian dynasty , leaving multiple enduring landmarks in the city of Rome , the most spectacular of which was the Flavian Amphitheatre , better known as the Colosseum .
Flavian rule came to an end on September 18 , 96 , when Domitian was assassinated . He was succeeded by the longtime Flavian supporter and advisor Marcus Cocceius Nerva , who founded the long @-@ lived Nerva – Antonine dynasty .
= = Establishment = =
= = = Family history = = =
Decades of civil war during the 1st century BC had contributed greatly to the demise of the old aristocracy of Rome , which was gradually replaced in prominence by a new Italian nobility during the early part of the 1st century CE . One such family were the Flavians , or gens Flavia , which rose from relative obscurity to prominence in just four generations , acquiring wealth and status under the emperors of the Julio @-@ Claudian dynasty . Vespasian 's grandfather , Titus Flavius Petro , had served as a centurion under Pompey during Caesar 's civil war . His military career ended in disgrace when he fled the battlefield at the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC . Nevertheless , Petro managed to improve his status by marrying the extremely wealthy Tertulla , whose fortune guaranteed the upwards mobility of Petro 's son Titus Flavius Sabinus I. Sabinus himself amassed further wealth and possible equestrian status through his services as tax collector in Asia and banker in Helvetia ( modern Switzerland ) ) . By marrying Vespasia Polla he allied himself to the more prestigious patrician gens Vespasia , ensuring the elevation of his sons Titus Flavius Sabinus II and Vespasian to the senatorial rank .
Around 38 CE , Vespasian married Domitilla the Elder , the daughter of an equestrian from Ferentium . They had two sons , Titus Flavius Vespasianus ( born in 39 ) and Titus Flavius Domitianus ( born in 51 ) , and a daughter , Domitilla ( born in 45 ) . Domitilla the Elder died before Vespasian became emperor . Thereafter his mistress Caenis was his wife in all but name until she died in 74 . The political career of Vespasian included the offices of quaestor , aedile and praetor , and culminated with a consulship in 51 , the year Domitian was born . As a military commander , he gained early renown by participating in the Roman invasion of Britain in 43 . Nevertheless , ancient sources allege poverty for the Flavian family at the time of Domitian 's upbringing , even claiming Vespasian had fallen into disrepute under the emperors Caligula ( 37 – 41 ) and Nero ( 54 – 68 ) . Modern history has refuted these claims , suggesting these stories were later circulated under Flavian rule as part of a propaganda campaign to diminish success under the less reputable Emperors of the Julio @-@ Claudian dynasty , and maximize achievements under Emperor Claudius ( 41 – 54 ) and his son Britannicus . By all appearances , imperial favour for the Flavians was high throughout the 40s and 60s . While Titus received a court education in the company of Britannicus , Vespasian pursued a successful political and military career . Following a prolonged period of retirement during the 50s , he returned to public office under Nero , serving as proconsul of the Africa province in 63 , and accompanying the emperor during an official tour of Greece in 66 .
From c . 57 to 59 , Titus was a military tribune in Germania , and later served in Britannia . His first wife , Arrecina Tertulla , died two years after their marriage , in 65 . Titus then took a new wife of a more distinguished family , Marcia Furnilla . However , Marcia 's family was closely linked to the opposition to Emperor Nero . Her uncle Barea Soranus and his daughter Servilia were among those who were killed after the failed Pisonian conspiracy of 65 . Some modern historians theorize that Titus divorced his wife because of her family 's connection to the conspiracy . He never remarried . Titus appears to have had multiple daughters , at least one of them by Marcia Furnilla . The only one known to have survived to adulthood was Julia Flavia , perhaps Titus 's child by Arrecina , whose mother was also named Julia . During this period Titus also practiced law and attained the rank of quaestor .
In 66 , the Jews of the Judaea Province revolted against the Roman Empire . Cestius Gallus , the legate of Syria , was forced to retreat from Jerusalem and defeated at the battle of Beth @-@ Horon . The pro @-@ Roman king Agrippa II and his sister Berenice fled the city to the Galilee where they later gave themselves up to the Romans . Nero appointed Vespasian to put down the rebellion , who was dispatched to the region at once with the fifth and tenth legions . He was later joined by Titus at Ptolemais , bringing with him the fifteenth legion . With a strength of 60 @,@ 000 professional soldiers , the Romans quickly swept across the Galilee , and by 68 marched on Jerusalem .
= = = Rise to power = = =
On 9 June 68 , amidst growing opposition of the Senate and the army , Nero committed suicide , and with him the Julio @-@ Claudian dynasty came to an end . Chaos ensued , leading to a year of brutal civil war known as the Year of the Four Emperors , during which the four most influential generals in the Roman Empire — Galba , Otho , Vitellius and Vespasian — successively vied for the imperial power . News of Nero 's death reached Vespasian as he was preparing to besiege the city of Jerusalem . Almost simultaneously the Senate had declared Galba , then governor of Hispania Tarraconensis ( modern Spain ) , as Emperor of Rome . Rather than continue his campaign , Vespasian decided to await further orders and send Titus to greet the new Emperor . Before reaching Italy however , Titus learnt that Galba had been murdered and replaced by Otho , the governor of Lusitania ( modern Portugal ) . At the same time Vitellius and his armies in Germania had risen in revolt , and prepared to march on Rome , intent on overthrowing Otho . Not wanting to risk being taken hostage by one side or the other , Titus abandoned the journey to Rome and rejoined his father in Judaea .
Otho and Vitellius realised the potential threat posed by the Flavian faction . With four legions at his disposal , Vespasian commanded a strength of nearly 80 @,@ 000 soldiers . His position in Judaea further granted him the advantage of being nearest to the vital province of Egypt , which controlled the grain supply to Rome . His brother Titus Flavius Sabinus II , as city prefect , commanded the entire city garrison of Rome . Tensions among the Flavian troops ran high , but as long as Galba and Otho remained in power , Vespasian refused to take action . When Otho was defeated by Vitellius at the First Battle of Bedriacum however , the armies in Judaea and Egypt took matters into their own hands and declared Vespasian emperor on 1 July 69 . Vespasian accepted , and entered an alliance with Gaius Licinius Mucianus , the governor of Syria , against Vitellius . A strong force drawn from the Judaean and Syrian legions marched on Rome under the command of Mucianus , while Vespasian himself travelled to Alexandria , leaving Titus in charge of ending the Jewish rebellion .
In Rome meanwhile , Domitian was placed under house arrest by Vitellius , as a safeguard against future Flavian aggression . Support for the old emperor was waning however , as more legions throughout the empire pledged their allegiance to Vespasian . On 24 October 69 the forces of Vitellius and Vespasian clashed at the Second Battle of Bedriacum , which ended in a crushing defeat for the armies of Vitellius . In despair , he attempted to negotiate a surrender . Terms of peace , including a voluntary abdication , were agreed upon with Titus Flavius Sabinus II , but the soldiers of the Praetorian Guard — the imperial bodyguard — considered such a resignation disgraceful , and prevented Vitellius from carrying out the treaty . On the morning of 18 December , the emperor appeared to deposit the imperial insignia at the Temple of Concord , but at the last minute retraced his steps to the imperial palace . In the confusion , the leading men of the state gathered at Sabinus ' house , proclaiming Vespasian Emperor , but the multitude dispersed when Vitellian cohorts clashed with the armed escort of Sabinus , who was forced to retreat to the Capitoline Hill . During the night , he was joined by his relatives , including Domitian . The armies of Mucianus were nearing Rome , but the besieged Flavian party did not hold out for longer than a day . On 19 December , Vitellianists burst onto the Capitol , and in the resulting skirmish , Sabinus was captured and executed . Domitian himself managed to escape by disguising himself as a worshipper of Isis , and spent the night in safety with one of his father 's supporters . By the afternoon of 20 December Vitellius was dead , his armies having been defeated by the Flavian legions . With nothing more to be feared from the enemy , Domitian came forward to meet the invading forces ; he was universally saluted by the title of Caesar , and the mass of troops conducted him to his father 's house . The following day , 21 December , the Senate proclaimed Vespasian emperor of the Roman Empire .
Although the war had officially ended , a state of anarchy and lawlessness pervaded in the first days following the demise of Vitellius . Order was properly restored by Mucianus in early 70 , who headed an interim government with Domitian as the representative of the Flavian family in the Senate . Upon receiving the tidings of his rival 's defeat and death at Alexandria , the new Emperor at once forwarded supplies of urgently needed grain to Rome , along with an edict or a declaration of policy , in which he gave assurance of an entire reversal of the laws of Nero , especially those relating to treason . In early 70 , Vespasian was still in Egypt however , continuing to consolidate support from the Egyptians before departing . By the end 70 , he finally returned to Rome , and was properly installed as Emperor .
= = The Flavian dynasty = =
= = = Vespasian ( 69 – 79 ) = = =
Little factual information survives about Vespasian 's government during the ten years he was Emperor . Vespasian spent his first year as a ruler in Egypt , during which the administration of the empire was given to Mucianus , aided by Vespasian 's son Domitian . Modern historians believe that Vespasian remained there in order to consolidate support from the Egyptians . In mid @-@ 70 , Vespasian first came to Rome and immediately embarked on a widespread propaganda campaign to consolidate his power and promote the new dynasty . His reign is best known for financial reforms following the demise of the Julio @-@ Claudian dynasty , such as the institution of the tax on urinals , and the numerous military campaigns fought during the 70s . The most significant of these was the First Jewish @-@ Roman War , which ended in the destruction of the city of Jerusalem by Titus . In addition , Vespasian faced several uprisings in Egypt , Gaul and Germania , and reportedly survived several conspiracies against him . Vespasian helped rebuild Rome after the civil war , adding a temple to peace and beginning construction of the Flavian Amphitheatre , better known as the Colosseum . Vespasian died of natural causes on June 23 , 79 , and was immediately succeeded by his eldest son Titus . The ancient historians that lived through the period such as Tacitus , Suetonius , Josephus and Pliny the Elder speak well of Vespasian while condemning the emperors that came before him .
= = = Titus ( 79 – 81 ) = = =
Despite initial concerns over his character , Titus ruled to great acclaim following the death of Vespasian on June 23 , 79 and was considered a good emperor by Suetonius and other contemporary historians . In this role he is best known for his public building program in Rome , and completing the construction of the Colosseum in 80 , but also for his generosity in relieving the suffering caused by two disasters , the Mount Vesuvius eruption of 79 , and the fire of Rome of 80 . Titus continued his father 's efforts to promote the Flavian dynasty . He revived practice of the imperial cult , deified his father , and laid foundations for what would later become the Temple of Vespasian and Titus , which was finished by Domitian . After barely two years in office , Titus unexpectedly died of a fever on September 13 , 81 , and was deified by the Roman Senate .
= = = Domitian ( 81 – 96 ) = = =
Domitian was declared emperor by the Praetorian Guard the day after Titus ' death , commencing a reign which lasted more than fifteen years — longer than any man who had governed Rome since Tiberius . Domitian strengthened the economy by revaluing the Roman coinage , expanded the border defenses of the Empire , and initiated a massive building programme to restore the damaged city of Rome . In Britain , Gnaeus Julius Agricola expanded the Roman Empire as far as modern day Scotland , but in Dacia , Domitian was unable to procure a decisive victory in the war against the Dacians . On September 18 , 96 , Domitian was assassinated by court officials , and with him the Flavian dynasty came to an end . The same day , he was succeeded by his friend and advisor Nerva , who founded the long @-@ lasting Nervan @-@ Antonian dynasty . Domitian 's memory was condemned to oblivion by the Roman Senate , with which he had a notoriously difficult relationship throughout his reign . Senatorial authors such as Tacitus , Pliny the Younger and Suetonius published histories after his death , propagating the view of Domitian as a cruel and paranoid tyrant . Modern history has rejected these views , instead characterising Domitian as a ruthless but efficient autocrat , whose cultural , economic and political programme provided the foundation for the Principate of the peaceful 2nd century . His successors Nerva and Trajan were less restrictive , but in reality their policies differed little from Domitian 's .
= = Administration = =
= = = Government = = =
Since the fall of the Republic , the authority of the Roman Senate had largely eroded under the quasi @-@ monarchical system of government established by Augustus , known as the Principate . The Principate allowed the existence of a de facto dictatorial regime , while maintaining the formal framework of the Roman Republic . Most Emperors upheld the public facade of democracy , and in return the Senate implicitly acknowledged the Emperor 's status as a de facto monarch . The civil war of 69 had made it abundantly clear that real power in the Empire lay with control over the army . By the time Vespasian was proclaimed emperor in Rome , any hope of restoring the Republic had long dissipated .
The Flavian approach to government was one of both implicit and explicit exclusion . When Vespasian returned to Rome in mid @-@ 70 , he immediately embarked on a series of efforts to consolidate his power and prevent future revolts . He offered gifts to the military and dismissed or punished those soldiers loyal to Vitellius . He also restructured the Senatorial and Equestrian orders , removing his enemies and adding his allies . Executive control was largely distributed among members of his family . Non @-@ Flavians were virtually excluded from important public offices , even those who had been among Vespasian 's earliest supporters during the civil war . Mucianus slowly disappears from the historical records during this time , and it is believed he died sometime between 75 and 77 . That it was Vespasian 's intention to found a long @-@ lasting dynasty to govern the Roman Empire was most evident in the powers he conferred upon his eldest son Titus . Titus shared tribunician power with his father , received seven consulships , the censorship , and perhaps most remarkably , was given command of the Praetorian Guard . Because Titus effectively acted as co @-@ emperor with his father , no abrupt change in Flavian policy occurred during his brief reign from 79 until 81 .
Domitian 's approach to government was less subtle than his father and brother . Once Emperor , he quickly dispensed with the Republican facade and transformed his government more or less formally into the divine monarchy he believed it to be . By moving the centre of power to the imperial court , Domitian openly rendered the Senate 's powers obsolete . He became personally involved in all branches of the administration : edicts were issued governing the smallest details of everyday life and law , while taxation and public morals were rigidly enforced . Nevertheless , Domitian did make concessions toward senatorial opinion . Whereas his father and brother had virtually excluded non @-@ Flavians from public office , Domitian rarely favoured his own family members in the distribution of strategic posts , admitting a surprisingly large number of provincials and potential opponents to the consulship , and assigning men of the equestrian order to run the imperial bureaucracy .
= = = Financial reforms = = =
One of Vespasian 's first acts as Emperor was to enforce a tax reform to restore the Empire 's depleted treasury . After Vespasian arrived in Rome in mid @-@ 70 , Mucianus continued to press Vespasian to collect as many taxes as possible , renewing old ones and instituted new ones . Mucianus and Vespasian increased the tribute of the provinces , and kept a watchful eye upon the treasury officials . The Latin proverb " Pecunia non olet " ( " Money does not smell " ) may have been created when he had introduced a urine tax on public toilets .
Upon his accession , Domitian revalued the Roman coinage to the standard of Augustus , increasing the silver content of the denarius by 12 % . An imminent crisis in 85 however forced a devaluation to the Neronian standard of 65 , but this was still higher than the level which Vespasian and Titus had maintained during their reign , and Domitian 's rigorous taxation policy ensured that this standard was sustained for the following eleven years . Coin types from this era display a highly consistent degree of quality , including meticulous attention to Domitian 's titulature , and exceptionally refined artwork on the reverse portraits .
Jones estimates Domitian 's annual income at more than 1 @,@ 200 million sestertii , of which over one third would presumably have been spent at maintaining the Roman army . The other major area of expenditure encompassed the vast reconstruction programme carried out on the city of Rome itself .
= = Challenges = =
= = = Military activity = = =
The most significant military campaign undertaken during the Flavian period , was the siege and destruction of Jerusalem in 70 by Titus . The destruction of the city was the culmination of the Roman campaign in Judeae following the Jewish uprising of 66 . The Second Temple was completely demolished , after which Titus 's soldiers proclaimed him imperator in honor of the victory . Jerusalem was sacked and much of the population killed or dispersed . Josephus claims that 1 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 people were killed during the siege , of which a majority were Jewish . 97 @,@ 000 were captured and enslaved , including Simon Bar Giora and John of Gischala . Many fled to areas around the Mediterranean . Titus reportedly refused to accept a wreath of victory , as there is " no merit in vanquishing people forsaken by their own God " . Upon his return to Rome in 71 , Titus was awarded a triumph . Accompanied by Vespasian and Domitian , he rode into the city , enthusiastically saluted by the Roman populace and preceded by a lavish parade containing treasures and captives from the war . Josephus describes a procession with large amounts of gold and silver carried along the route , followed by elaborate re @-@ enactments of the war , Jewish prisoners , and finally the treasures taken from the Temple of Jerusalem , including the Menorah and the Torah . Leaders of the resistance were executed in the Forum , after which the procession closed with religious sacrifices at the Temple of Jupiter . The triumphal Arch of Titus , which stands at one entrance to the Forum , memorializes the victory of Titus .
The conquest of Britain continued under command of Gnaeus Julius Agricola , who expanded the Roman Empire as far as Caledonia , or modern day Scotland , between 77 and 84 . In 82 Agricola crossed an unidentified body of water and defeated peoples unknown to the Romans until then . He fortified the coast facing Ireland , and Tacitus recalls that his father @-@ in @-@ law often claimed the island could be conquered with a single legion and a few auxiliaries . He had given refuge to an exiled Irish king whom he hoped he might use as the excuse for conquest . This conquest never happened , but some historians believe that the crossing referred to was in fact a small @-@ scale exploratory or punitive expedition to Ireland . The following year Agricola raised a fleet and pushed beyond the Forth into Caledonia . To aid the advance , an expansive legionary fortress was constructed at Inchtuthil . In the summer of 84 , Agricola faced the armies of the Caledonians , led by Calgacus , at the Battle of Mons Graupius . Although the Romans inflicted heavy losses on the Calidonians , two thirds of their army managed to escape and hide in the Scottish marshes and Highlands , ultimately preventing Agricola from bringing the entire British island under his control .
The military campaigns undertaken during Domitian 's reign were usually defensive in nature , as the Emperor rejected the idea of expansionist warfare . His most significant military contribution was the development of the Limes Germanicus , which encompassed a vast network of roads , forts and watchtowers constructed along the Rhine river to defend the Empire . Nevertheless , several important wars were fought in Gaul , against the Chatti , and across the Danube frontier against the Suebi , the Sarmatians , and the Dacians . Led by King Decebalus , the Dacians invaded the province of Moesia around 84 or 85 , wreaking considerable havoc and killing the Moesian governor Oppius Sabinus . Domitian immediately launched a counteroffensive , which resulted in the destruction of a legion during an ill @-@ fated expedition into Dacia . Their commander Cornelius Fuscus was killed , and the battle standard of the Praetorian Guard lost . In 87 , the Romans invaded Dacia once more , this time under command of Tettius Julianus , and finally managed to defeat Decebalus late in 88 , at the same site where Fuscus had previously been killed . An attack on Dacia 's capital canceled however when a crisis arose on the German frontier , forcing Domitian to sign a peace treaty with Decebalus which was severely criticized by contemporary authors . For the remainder of Domitian 's reign Dacia remained a relatively peaceful client kingdom , but Decebalus used the Roman money to fortify his defenses , and continued to defy Rome . It was not until the reign of Trajan , in 106 , that a decisive victory against Decebalus was procured . Again , the Roman army sustained heavy losses , but Trajan succeeded in capturing Sarmizegetusa and , importantly , annexed the gold and silver mines of Dacia .
= = = Natural disasters = = =
Although his administration was marked by a relative absence of major military or political conflicts , Titus faced a number of major disasters during his brief reign . On August 24 , 79 , barely two months after his accession , Mount Vesuvius erupted , resulting in the almost complete destruction of life and property in the cities and resort communities around the Bay of Naples . The cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum were buried under metres of stone and lava , killing thousands of citizens . Titus appointed two ex @-@ consuls to organise and coordinate the relief effort , while personally donating large amounts of money from the imperial treasury to aid the victims of the volcano . Additionally , he visited Pompeii once after the eruption and again the following year . The city was lost for nearly 1700 years before its accidental rediscovery in 1748 . Since then , its excavation has provided an extraordinarily detailed insight into the life of a city at the height of the Roman Empire , frozen at the moment it was buried on August 24 , 79 . The Forum , the baths , many houses , and some out @-@ of @-@ town villas like the Villa of the Mysteries remain surprisingly well preserved . Today , it is one of the most popular tourist attractions of Italy and a UNESCO World Heritage Site . On @-@ going excavations reveal new insights into the Roman history and culture .
During Titus ' second visit to the disaster area , a fire struck Rome which lasted for three days . Although the extent of the damage was not as disastrous as during the Great Fire of 64 , crucially sparing the many districts of insulae , Cassius Dio records a long list of important public buildings that were destroyed , including Agrippa 's Pantheon , the Temple of Jupiter , the Diribitorium , parts of Pompey 's Theatre and the Saepta Julia among others . Once again , Titus personally compensated for the damaged regions . According to Suetonius , a plague similarly struck during the fire . The nature of the disease , however , or the death toll are unknown .
= = = Conspiracies = = =
Suetonius claims that Vespasian was continuously met with conspiracies against him . Only one conspiracy is known specifically . In 78 or 79 , Eprius Marcellus and Aulus Caecina Alienus attempted to incite the Praetorian Guard to mutiny against Vespasian , but the conspiracy was thwarted by Titus . According to the historian John Crook however , the alleged conspiracy was in fact a calculated plot by the Flavian faction to remove members of the opposition tied to Mucianus , with the mutinous address found on Caecina 's body a forgery by Titus . When faced with real conspiracies however , Vespasian and Titus treated their enemies with lenience . " I will not kill a dog that barks at me , " were words expressing the temper of Vespasian , while Titus once demonstrated his generosity as Emperor by inviting men who were suspected of aspiring to the throne to dinner , rewarding them with gifts and allowing them to be seated next to him at the games .
Domitian appears to have met with several conspiracies during his reign , one of which led to his eventual assassination in 96 . The first significant revolt arose on 1 January 89 , when the governor of Germania Superior , Lucius Antonius Saturninus , and his two legions at Mainz , Legio XIV Gemina and Legio XXI Rapax , rebelled against the Roman Empire with the aid of the Chatti . The precise cause for the rebellion is uncertain , although it appears to have been planned well in advance . The Senatorial officers may have disapproved of Domitian 's military strategies , such as his decision to fortify the German frontier rather than attack , his recent retreat from Britain , and finally the disgraceful policy of appeasement towards Decebalus . At any rate , the uprising was strictly confined to Saturninus ' province , and quickly detected once the rumour spread across the neighbouring provinces . The governor of Germania Inferior , Lappius Maximus , moved to the region at once , assisted by the procurator of Rhaetia , Titus Flavius Norbanus . From Spain , Trajan was summoned , whilst Domitian himself came from Rome with the Praetorian Guard . By a stroke of luck , a thaw prevented the Chatti from crossing the Rhine and coming to Saturninus ' aid . Within twenty @-@ four days the rebellion was crushed , and its leaders at Mainz savagely punished . The mutinous legions were sent to the front in Illyricum , while those who had assisted in their defeat were duly rewarded .
Both Tacitus and Suetonius speak of escalating persecutions toward the end of Domitian 's reign , identifying a point of sharp increase around 93 , or sometime after the failed revolt of Saturninus in 89 . At least twenty senatorial opponents were executed , including Domitia Longina 's former husband Lucius Aelius Lamia and three of Domitian 's own family members , Titus Flavius Sabinus IV , Titus Flavius Clemens and Marcus Arrecinus Clemens . Some of these men were executed as early as 83 or 85 however , lending little credit to Tacitus ' notion of a " reign of terror " late in Domitian 's reign . According to Suetonius , some were convicted for corruption or treason , others on trivial charges , which Domitian justified through his suspicion .
= = Flavian culture = =
= = = Propaganda = = =
Since the reign of Tiberius , the rulers of the Julio @-@ Claudian dynasty had legitimized their power through adopted @-@ line descent from Augustus and Julius Caesar . Vespasian could no longer claim such a relation however . Therefore , a massive propaganda campaign was initiated to justify Flavian rule as having been predetermined through divine providence . As early as 70 , rumours circulated of Vespasian healing the sick and raising the dead in Egypt . At the same time , Flavian propaganda emphasised Vespasian 's role as a bringer of peace following the crisis of 69 . Nearly one @-@ third of all coins minted in Rome under Vespasian celebrated military victory or peace , while the word vindex was removed from coins as to not remind the public of rebellious Vindex . Construction projects bore inscriptions praising Vespasian and condemning previous emperors , and a Temple of Peace was constructed in the forum .
The Flavians also controlled public opinion through literature . Vespasian approved histories written under his reign , assuring biases against him were removed , while also giving financial rewards to contemporary writers . The ancient historians that lived through the period such as Tacitus , Suetonius , Josephus and Pliny the Elder speak suspiciously well of Vespasian while condemning the emperors that came before him . Tacitus admits that his status was elevated by Vespasian , Josephus identifies Vespasian as a patron and savior , and Pliny dedicated his Natural Histories to Vespasian , Titus . Those that spoke against Vespasian were punished . A number of stoic philosophers were accused of corrupting students with inappropriate teachings and were expelled from Rome . Helvidius Priscus , a pro @-@ republic philosopher , was executed for his teachings .
Titus and Domitian also revived the practice of the imperial cult , which had fallen somewhat out of use under Vespasian . Significantly , Domitian 's first act as an Emperor was the deification of his brother Titus . Upon their deaths , his infant son , and niece Julia Flavia , were likewise enrolled among the gods . To foster the worship of the imperial family , Domitian erected a dynastic mausoleum on the site of Vespasian 's former house on the Quirinal , and completed the Temple of Vespasian and Titus , a shrine dedicated to the worship of his deified father and brother . To memorialize the military triumphs of the Flavian family , he ordered the construction of the Templum Divorum and the Templum Fortuna Redux , and completed the Arch of Titus . In order to further justify the divine nature of the Flavian rule , Domitian also emphasized connections with the chief deity Jupiter , most significantly through the impressive restoration of the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill .
= = = Construction = = =
The Flavian dynasty is perhaps best known for its vast construction programme on the city of Rome , intended to restore the capital from the damage it had suffered during the Great Fire of 64 , and the civil war of 69 . Vespasian added the temple of Peace and the temple to the Deified Claudius . In 75 a colossal statue of Apollo , begun under Nero as a statue of himself , was finished on Vespasian 's orders , and he also dedicated a stage of the theater of Marcellus . Construction of the Flavian Amphitheatre , presently better known as the Colosseum ( probably after the nearby statue ) , was begun in 70 under Vespasian and finally completed in 80 under Titus . In addition to providing spectacular entertainments to the Roman populace , the building was also conceived as a gigantic triumphal monument to commemorate the military achievements of the Flavians during the Jewish wars . Adjacent to the amphitheatre , within the precinct of Nero 's Golden House , Titus also ordered the construction of a new public bath @-@ house , which was to bear his name . Construction of this building was hastily finished to coincide with the completion of the Flavian Amphitheatre .
The bulk of the Flavian construction projects was carried out during the reign of Domitian , who spent lavishly to restore and embellish the city of Rome . Much more than a renovation project however , Domitian 's building programme was intended to be the crowning achievement of an Empire wide cultural renaissance . Around fifty structures were erected , restored or completed , a number second only to the amount erected under Augustus . Among the most important new structures were an Odeum , a Stadium , and an expansive palace on the Palatine Hill , known as the Flavian Palace , which was designed by Domitian 's master architect Rabirius . The most important building Domitian restored was the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill , which was said to have been covered with a gilded roof . Among those he completed were the Temple of Vespasian and Titus , the Arch of Titus , and the Colosseum , to which he added a fourth level and finished the interior seating area .
= = = Entertainment = = =
Both Titus and Domitian were fond of gladiatorial games , and realised its importance to appease the citizens of Rome . In the newly constructed Colosseum , the Flavians provided for spectacular entertainments . The Inaugural games of the Flavian Amphitheatre lasted for a hundred days and were said to be extremely elaborate , including gladiatorial combat , fights between wild animals ( elephants and cranes ) , mock naval battles for which the theatre was flooded , horse races and chariot races . During the games , wooden balls were dropped into the audience , inscribed with various prizes ( clothing , gold , or even slaves ) , which could then be traded for the designated item .
An estimated 135 million sestertii was spent on donatives , or congiaria , throughout Domitian 's reign . In addition , he also revived the practice of public banquets , which had been reduced to a simple distribution of food under Nero , while he invested large sums on entertainment and games . In 86 , he founded the Capitoline Games , a quadrennial contest comprising athletic displays , chariot races , and competitions for oratory , music and acting . Domitian himself supported the travels of competitors from the whole Empire and attributed the prizes . Innovations were also introduced into the regular gladiatorial games , such as naval contests , night @-@ time battles , and female and dwarf gladiator fights . Finally , he added two new factions , Gold and Purple , to chariot races , besides the regular White , Red , Green and Blue teams .
= = Legacy = =
The Flavians , although a relatively short @-@ lived dynasty , helped restore stability to an empire on its knees . Although all three have been criticised , especially based on their more centralised style of rule , they issued reforms that created a stable enough empire to last well into the 3rd century . However , their background as a military dynasty led to further marginalisation of the senate , and a conclusive move away from princeps , or first citizen , and toward imperator , or emperor .
Little factual information survives about Vespasian 's government during the ten years he was emperor , his reign is best known for financial reforms following the demise of the Julio @-@ Claudian dynasty . Vespasian was noted for his mildness and for loyalty to the people . For example , much money was spent on public works and the restoration and beautification of Rome : a new forum , the Temple of Peace , the public baths and the Colosseum .
Titus 's record among ancient historians stands as one of the most exemplary of any emperor . All the surviving accounts from this period , many of them written by his own contemporaries such as Suetonius Tranquilius , Cassius Dio , Pliny the Elder , present a highly favourable view towards Titus . His character has especially prospered in comparison with that of his brother Domitian . In contrast to the ideal portrayal of Titus in Roman histories , in Jewish memory " Titus the Wicked " is remembered as an evil oppressor and destroyer of the Temple . For example , one legend in the Babylonian Talmud describes Titus as having had sex with a whore on a Torah scroll inside the Temple during its destruction .
Although contemporary historians vilified Domitian after his death , his administration provided the foundation for the peaceful empire of the 2nd century CE , and the culmination of the ' Pax Romana ' . His successors Nerva and Trajan were less restrictive , but in reality their policies differed little from Domitian 's . Much more than a gloomy coda to the 1st century , the Roman Empire prospered between 81 and 96 , in a reign which Theodor Mommsen described as the sombre but intelligent despotism of Domitian .
= = Dynastic Timeline = =
= = = Secondary material = = =
Donahue , John ( 2004 @-@ 09 @-@ 23 ) . " Titus Flavius Vespasianus ( A.D. 69 @-@ 79 ) " . De Imperatoribus Romanis : An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and their Families . Retrieved 2008 @-@ 06 @-@ 30 .
Donahue , John ( 2004 @-@ 10 @-@ 23 ) . " Titus Flavius Vespasianus ( A.D. 79 @-@ 81 ) " . De Imperatoribus Romanis : An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and their Families . Retrieved 2008 @-@ 06 @-@ 30 .
Donahue , John ( 1997 @-@ 10 @-@ 10 ) . " Titus Flavius Domitianus ( A.D. 81 @-@ 96 ) " . De Imperatoribus Romanis : An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and their Families . Retrieved 2007 @-@ 02 @-@ 10 .
" A Gallery of Flavian Silver Coins " .
= Theodore Synadenos =
Theodore Komnenos Doukas Palaiologos Synadenos ( Greek : Θεόδωρος Κομνηνός Δούκας Παλαιολόγος Συναδηνός , ca . 1277 – ca . 1346 ) , usually simply Theodore Synadenos , was a Byzantine magnate , senior official and military leader of the early 14th century , who played an important role in the civil wars of the period . The scion of a noble lineage , he became one of the first and most prominent supporters of Andronikos III Palaiologos in his struggle against his grandfather Andronikos II . Synadenos held various provincial governorships during Andronikos III 's reign , including Epirus and Thessalonica . After the outbreak of the civil war of 1341 – 1347 , he tried to surrender Thessalonica to his old friend John Kantakouzenos , but was driven from the city by the Zealots of Thessalonica . Forced to join Kantakouzenos 's enemies , he was initially honoured with the high rank of protovestiarios but soon placed under house arrest in Constantinople , where he died impoverished in 1345 or 1346 .
= = Biography = =
Theodore Synadenos was a son of the megas stratopedarches John Synadenos and Theodora Palaiologina , the niece of Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos ( r . 1259 – 1282 ) , and hence a member of the Byzantine Empire 's highest aristocracy . He had a probably older brother also named John , and at least one sister , Euphrosyne . Little is known about his early life : he was born circa 1277 , apparently at Bizye on the Black Sea coast of Thrace , where he had a palatial residence , extensive estates and many friends and relatives .
= = = Under Andronikos III = = =
Synadenos enters the historical record in 1321 , when he held the lowly title of domestikos tes trapezes ( steward of the imperial table ) , and is recorded as a close friend to his cousin , the junior emperor Michael IX Palaiologos . After Michael 's death , Synadenos became one of the earliest and most important adherents of Michael IX 's son , the young Andronikos III ( r . 1328 – 1341 ) . Andronikos had been disinherited by the old emperor , Andronikos II ( r . 1282 – 1328 ) , after Michael 's death . Along with the fellow aristocrats John Kantakouzenos and Syrgiannes Palaiologos , Theodore formed the leading " triumvirate " of the younger Andronikos 's supporters , to which the " new man " Alexios Apokaukos attached himself as a junior member . The old emperor , distrusting Synadenos ' loyalty , named him governor of Prilep , on the border with Serbia . Instead of departing for his assignment , on the night of Easter ( 19 – 20 April 1321 ) , Synadenos , along with the younger Andronikos and Kantakouzenos , escaped Constantinople to begin an armed uprising against Andronikos II .
In the first round of the civil war between grandfather and grandson , Andronikos III was successful in getting recognition for himself as junior emperor , with Thrace as his personal appanage . Throughout the conflict , Synadenos was among the most radical and uncompromising supporters of the younger Andronikos , favouring the eventual deposition of Andronikos II . During the course of the war , Synadenos defeated loyalist forces under Constantine Asen , and in the final round of the civil war , in 1327 – 28 , he served as governor in Thrace . As more and more localities , including the Empire 's second @-@ most important city , Thessalonica , switched over to Andronikos III 's camp , Synadenos along with Kantakouzenos urged Andronikos III to march on Constantinople and depose his grandfather outright . On the night of 13 May 1328 , the three men led their army through a gate after bribing its guard , taking possession of the imperial capital without resistance . Andronikos II was forced to resign the throne and retire to a monastery , with his grandson succeeding him as sole emperor . For his services , Synadenos was promoted to protostrator sometime during the civil war , perhaps as early as 1321 .
After the war , Theodore Synadenos was rewarded by being made governor of Constantinople , Apokaukos became head of the imperial secretariat , Kantakouzenos remained Andronikos III 's principal advisor as megas domestikos , and Syrgiannes was named governor of Thessalonica . Around 1330 , Synadenos was sent as governor to Mesembria , while in 1336 , after Andronikos III and John Kantakouzenos annexed Epirus , he became its governor . In late 1338 , however , a revolt broke out in Epirus in favour of Nikephoros II
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to be . In killing the character off , the creative team did not wish to suggest that the character had been redeemed for his earlier crimes , and made sure that this was emphasised even in his final act of self @-@ sacrifice . Pullman has expressed interest in reprising the role in a future Torchwood series .
= = Appearances = =
The first scene of Miracle Day depicts Oswald Danes surviving execution by lethal injection due to death spontaneously ceasing . His lawyers successfully advance a force majeure argument ; as a result the Governor of Kentucky is reluctantly forced to release Danes on parole . Oswald accepts an offer of representation from PR guru Jilly Kitzinger ( Lauren Ambrose ) after his fame leads to him being assaulted in public , leading to him becoming a spokesman for Phicorp , a drug company hoping to capitalise on the absence of death . During Torchwood 's investigations into PhiCorp , Jack Harkness ( John Barrowman ) confronts Danes , who admits the falsity of his expressed remorse . Tensions arise between Kitzinger and Danes when he is eclipsed in the media by Tea Party politician Ellis Hartley Monroe ( Mare Winningham ) and her " Dead is Dead " campaign . Danes launches an ad hoc publicity stunt ; a video of Danes holding and comforting a baby girl goes viral and results in Monroe 's media attention waning . At the " Miracle Rally " held by PhiCorp in Los Angeles Danes gives an impassioned speech , stating his belief that humanity had evolved into " everlasting angels " and revels in the audience chanting his name .
Danes ' brief media career comes to an end in " End of the Road " . While at a hotel in Dallas , Texas a prostitute named Claire ( Megan M. Duffy ) tells him that he is due to be classified as " Category Zero " . Jilly reveals that this is a ruling that would have convicted criminals like Danes incinerated , and that Oswald 's moment of fame is over . Following from this , Danes smuggles himself into Wales , where he arrives at the home of Torchwood agent Gwen Cooper ( Eve Myles ) . Having stolen Kitzinger 's laptop , Danes reveals that she left clues to the location of " the Blessing " in mistranslated news stories from China and Argentina . Fearful that Rhys ( Kai Owen ) , Gwen 's husband and father of their daughter , may murder Danes she and Jack take him to Shanghai . In " The Blood Line " Jack straps Oswald with explosives and uses him as insurance against his and Gwen 's lives as they face the Families , the perpetrators of the ' Miracle ' . When death is restored , Oswald detains the Mother ( Frances Fisher ) , the leader of the families , before detonating them both . With his last words he professes that he will again pursue his victim in hell .
= = Casting and characterisation = =
SFX magazine noted that when the character was first announced , some members of the public questioned the morality of featuring such a character in a science fiction action series . In August 2010 a reporter from entertainment website AfterElton also stated to the shows executive producers that some of their readers had been upset and concerned about details of the storyline . Pullman 's casting as Danes was announced on 15 December 2010 . Prior to his role as Danes , Pullman was best known to audiences for his portrayal of the President of the United States in Independence Day . When Pullman asked executive producer Julie Gardner why the production team sought to cast him in role , she replied that it was because he was perceived as " America 's sweetheart " , which he interpreted to mean they were looking to destabilise viewers . Torchwood 's creator , Russell T Davies , noted that upon expressing an interest in casting Pullman , he was told " you haven 't got a chance . " Though Pullman was aware of Torchwood , having had a friend who 'd " evangelized " the series , he had not watched the series before being cast . Upon reading the scripts , Pullman commented that he had been impressed at how well the series " knows itself " and the strength of each character 's individual voice . In an interview with Zap2it he remarked that he thought he was given the best role in the series . Pullman noted that he was prepared for the role having played other troubled characters in the past and re @-@ iterated that it was the writing that attracted him to the part adding " I don 't think I could do a child murderer just for a child murderer 's sake " .
io9 felt the character of Danes to be a cross between Freddy Krueger and Jesus . Commenting on the Christ comparison , Pullman felt that his character was sort of the " doppelganger of Jesus or something . " He stated of Danes : " It 's like he 's been out in the desert , and he comes back in , and there is a certain kind of way in which he still has pride . " SFX described Oswald 's journey as one from a Hannibal Lecter type character to a Billy Graham or messianic figure . Pullman observed that Oswald 's failure to die " becomes the pivot for a whole world that has changed " ; feeling that his character was an intelligent one who knows he can provide a message people want to hear . Discussing Oswald 's fall from grace , series writer Jane Espenson explains that " humanity doesn 't seize on heroes for the long – term " , and that Oswald 's descent from fame was a way to make his arc more realistic . Though Oswald dies helping the Torchwood team , Espenson remarked that " we didn 't want to outright redeem this horrible , horrible man " commenting that his death is intended as " redemption and comeuppance both . " The Independent 's Neela Debnath observed that whilst the character of Danes had " become likeable in an odd @-@ sort of way " his last scenes " reiterated just how despicable he was " and that it was the right time for him to depart the cast .
= = Reception = =
Charlie Jane Anders of io9 commented enthusiastically on Danes ' portrayal , stating that " perhaps the greatest miracle in Torchwood : Miracle Day is Bill Pullman 's performance . " Anders cited that the character 's journey " seems bizarre and unlikely , but Pullman makes it work . " Mikey O 'Connell from Zap2it likened Pullman 's performance to that of John Lithgow as The Trinity Killer in Dexter , both having the sense of " the familiar , comforting actor you 've watched for decades " being " hijacked by someone else . " In a review of the first episode , Dan Martin from The Guardian opined that Pullman " stole the show as manipulative psychopath Oswald Danes " predicting " his character might give us one of the most compelling narratives . " Reviewing the fifth episode of the series The Independent 's Neela Debnath said of Pullman that " thus far he has given an extraordinary turn as Danes , which at times has veered towards hammy territory but has never entered it . " However , Debnath felt that with a key sequence where Danes makes a public speech " the line was finally crossed " , believing the sequence " clichéd " and that it was " improbable that he could instantaneously win over an angry lynch mob in moments . "
The Daily Telegraph 's Gavin Fuller praised Pullman 's portrayal of Danes , singling it out as the strongest of the series next to lead female actor Eve Myles . Fuller also felt that giving such an unlikeable character a prominent focus and allowing him a shot at redemption in the final episode " was certainly a brave move from Davies . " In a post @-@ series review of what worked and what did not during Torchwood 's fourth series , Digital Spy 's Morgan Jeffrey stated that " Bill Pullman made the most of his tenure as Oswald Danes , being both extremely charismatic and utterly repellent throughout . " Jeffrey stated that " we never like Oswald , but Pullman 's layered performance ensures that we do often sympathise with him , before having the rug pulled swiftly out from under us as he commits yet another heinous crime . " For his performance as Danes , Pullman received a Saturn Award nomination for Best Supporting Actor In Television .
= Ununoctium =
Ununoctium ( symbol Uuo ) is the temporary name of a transactinide chemical element . It was first synthesized in 2002 by a joint team of Russian and American scientists at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research ( JINR ) in Dubna , Russia . With the atomic number 118 in the periodic table , the synthetic element is also known as element 118 , or eka @-@ radon . In December 2015 , it was recognized as one of four new elements by the Joint Working Party of international scientific bodies IUPAC and IUPAP . In June 2016 , the IUPAC suggested the element to be named oganesson / ɒɡəˈnɛsɒn / ( element symbol : Og ) , a name expected to be formally accepted by the end of 2016 . The proposal is in line with the tradition of honoring a scientist and recognizes nuclear physicist Yuri Oganessian , who has played a leading role in the discovery of the heaviest elements in the periodic table .
Ununoctium has the highest atomic number and highest atomic mass of all known elements . The radioactive ununoctium atom is very unstable , and since 2005 , only three or possibly four atoms of the isotope 294Uuo have been detected . Although this allowed very little experimental characterization of its properties and possible compounds , theoretical calculations have resulted in many predictions , including some surprising ones . For example , although ununoctium is a member of group 18 – the first synthetic one to be so – it may possibly not be a noble gas , unlike all the other elements of that group . It was formerly thought to be a gas under normal conditions but is now predicted to be a solid due to relativistic effects . On the periodic table of the elements it is a p @-@ block element and the last one of the 7th period .
= = History = =
The Danish physicist Niels Bohr was the first to seriously consider the possibility of an element with atomic number as high as 118 , noting in 1922 that such an element would take its place in the periodic table below radon as the heaviest of the noble gases . Following this , Aristid von Grosse wrote an article in 1965 predicting the likely properties of element 118 . These were remarkably early predictions , given that it was not yet known how to produce elements artificially in 1922 , and that the existence of the island of stability had not yet been theorized in 1965 . It took eighty years from Bohr 's initial prediction before ununoctium was first successfully synthesised , although its chemical properties have not yet been investigated to see if it really does behave as the heavier congener of radon .
= = = Unsuccessful synthesis attempts = = =
In late 1998 , Polish physicist Robert Smolańczuk published calculations on the fusion of atomic nuclei towards the synthesis of superheavy atoms , including ununoctium . His calculations suggested that it might be possible to make ununoctium by fusing lead with krypton under carefully controlled conditions .
In 1999 , researchers at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory made use of these predictions and announced the discovery of livermorium and ununoctium , in a paper published in Physical Review Letters , and very soon after the results were reported in Science . The researchers reported to have performed the reaction
86
36Kr + 208
82Pb → 293
118Uuo + n .
The following year , they published a retraction after researchers at other laboratories were unable to duplicate the results and the Berkeley lab could not duplicate them either . In June 2002 , the director of the lab announced that the original claim of the discovery of these two elements had been based on data fabricated by principal author Victor Ninov .
= = = Discovery reports = = =
The first decay of atoms of ununoctium was observed in 2002 at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research ( JINR ) in Dubna , Russia , by a joint team of Russian and American scientists . Headed by Russian nuclear physicist Yuri Oganessian , the team included American scientists of the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory , California . On 9 October 2006 , the researchers announced that they had indirectly detected a total of three ( possibly four ) nuclei of ununoctium @-@ 294 ( one or two in 2002 and two more in 2005 ) produced via collisions of californium @-@ 249 atoms and calcium @-@ 48 ions .
249
98Cf + 48
20Ca → 294
118Uuo + 3 n .
In 2011 , IUPAC evaluated the 2006 results of the Dubna @-@ Livermore collaboration and concluded : " The three events reported for the Z = 118 isotope have very good internal redundancy but with no anchor to known nuclei do not satisfy the criteria for discovery " .
Because of the very small fusion reaction probability ( the fusion cross section is ~ 0 @.@ 3 – 0 @.@ 6 pb or ( 3 – 6 ) × 10 − 41 m2 ) the experiment took four months and involved a beam dose of 4 × 1019 calcium ions that had to be shot at the californium target to produce the first recorded event believed to be the synthesis of ununoctium . Nevertheless , researchers are highly confident that the results are not a false positive , since the chance that the detections were random events was estimated to be less than one part in 100000 .
In the experiments , the alpha @-@ decay of three atoms of ununoctium was observed . A fourth decay by direct spontaneous fission was also proposed . A half @-@ life of 0 @.@ 89 ms was calculated : 294Uuo decays into 290Lv by alpha decay . Since there were only three nuclei , the half @-@ life derived from observed lifetimes has a large uncertainty : 0 @.@ 89 + 1 @.@ 07
− 0 @.@ 31 ms .
294
118Uuo → 290
116Lv + 4
2He
The identification of the 294Uuo nuclei was verified by separately creating the putative daughter nucleus 290Lv directly by means of a bombardment of 245Cm with 48Ca ions ,
245
96Cm + 48
20Ca → 290
116Lv + 3 n ,
and checking that the 290Lv decay matched the decay chain of the 294Uuo nuclei . The daughter nucleus 290Lv is very unstable , decaying with a lifetime of 14 milliseconds into 286Fl , which may experience either spontaneous fission or alpha decay into 282Cn , which will undergo spontaneous fission .
In a quantum @-@ tunneling model , the alpha decay half @-@ life of 294Uuo was predicted to be 0 @.@ 66 + 0 @.@ 23
− 0 @.@ 18 ms with the experimental Q @-@ value published in 2004 . Calculation with theoretical Q @-@ values from the macroscopic @-@ microscopic model of Muntian – Hofman – Patyk – Sobiczewski gives somewhat lower but comparable results .
= = = Confirmation = = =
In December 2015 , the Joint Working Party of international scientific bodies International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry ( IUPAC ) and International Union of Pure and Applied Physics ( IUPAP ) recognized the element 's discovery and assigned the priority of the discovery to the Dubna @-@ Livermore collaboration .
= = = Naming = = =
Using Mendeleev 's nomenclature for unnamed and undiscovered elements , ununoctium is sometimes known as eka @-@ radon ( until the 1960s as eka @-@ emanation , emanation being the old name for radon ) . In 1979 , IUPAC assigned the systematic placeholder name ununoctium to the undiscovered element , with the corresponding symbol of Uuo , and recommended it to be used until after confirmed discovery of the element . Although widely used in the chemical community on all levels , from chemistry classrooms to advanced textbooks , the recommendations are mostly ignored among scientists in the field , who call it " element 118 " , with the symbol of ( 118 ) or even simply 118 .
Before the retraction in 2002 , the researchers from Berkeley had intended to name the element ghiorsium ( Gh ) , after Albert Ghiorso ( a leading member of the research team ) .
The Russian discoverers reported their synthesis in 2006 . According to IUPAC recommendations , the discoverer ( s ) of a new element has the right to suggest a name . In 2007 , the head of the Russian institute stated the team were considering two names for the new element : flyorium , in honor of Georgy Flyorov , the founder of the research laboratory in Dubna ; and moskovium , in recognition of the Moscow Oblast where Dubna is located . He also stated that although the element was discovered as an American collaboration , who provided the californium target , the element should rightly be named in honor of Russia since the Flerov Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions at JINR was the only facility in the world which could achieve this result . These names were later proposed for element 114 ( flerovium ) and element 116 ( moscovium ) . However , the final name proposed for element 116 was instead livermorium .
Traditionally , the names of all noble gases end in " -on " , with the exception of helium , which was not known to be a noble gas when discovered . The IUPAC guidelines valid at the moment of the discovery approval however required all new elements be named with the ending " -ium " . While the provisional name ununoctium followed this convention , a new IUPAC recommendation published in 2016 recommends using the " -on " ending for new group 18 elements , no matter whether they turn out to be a noble gas or not .
In June 2016 IUPAC announced that it plans to give the element the name oganesson ( symbol : Og ) , in honour of the Russian nuclear physicist Yuri Oganessian .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Nuclear stability and isotopes = = =
The stability of nuclei decreases greatly with the increase in atomic number after plutonium , the heaviest primordial element , so that all isotopes with an atomic number above 101 decay radioactively with a half @-@ life under a day , with an exception of dubnium @-@ 268 . No elements with atomic numbers above 82 ( after lead ) have stable isotopes . Nevertheless , because of reasons not very well understood yet , there is a slightly increased nuclear stability around atomic numbers 110 – 114 , which leads to the appearance of what is known in nuclear physics as the " island of stability " . This concept , proposed by University of California professor Glenn Seaborg , hypothesizes why superheavy elements last longer than predicted . Ununoctium is radioactive and has a half @-@ life that appears to be less than a millisecond . Nonetheless , this is still longer than some predicted values , thus giving further support to the idea of this " island of stability " .
Calculations using a quantum @-@ tunneling model predict the existence of several neutron @-@ rich isotopes of ununoctium with alpha @-@ decay half @-@ lives close to 1 ms .
Theoretical calculations done on the synthetic pathways for , and the half @-@ life of , other isotopes have shown that some could be slightly more stable than the synthesized isotope 294Uuo , most likely 293Uuo , 295Uuo , 296Uuo , 297Uuo , 298Uuo , 300Uuo and 302Uuo . Of these , 297Uuo might provide the best chances for obtaining longer @-@ lived nuclei , and thus might become the focus of future work with this element . Some isotopes with many more neutrons , such as some located around 313Uuo could also provide longer @-@ lived nuclei .
= = = Calculated atomic and physical properties = = =
Ununoctium is a member of group 18 , the zero @-@ valence elements . The members of this group are usually inert to most common chemical reactions ( for example , combustion ) because the outer valence shell is completely filled with eight electrons . This produces a stable , minimum energy configuration in which the outer electrons are tightly bound . It is thought that similarly , ununoctium has a closed outer valence shell in which its valence electrons are arranged in a 7s27p6 configuration .
Consequently , some expect ununoctium to have similar physical and chemical properties to other members of its group , most closely resembling the noble gas above it in the periodic table , radon . Following the periodic trend , ununoctium would be expected to be slightly more reactive than radon . However , theoretical calculations have shown that it could be quite reactive , so that it probably cannot be considered a noble gas . In addition to being far more reactive than radon , ununoctium may be even more reactive than elements flerovium and copernicium . The reason for the apparent enhancement of the chemical activity of ununoctium relative to radon is an energetic destabilization and a radial expansion of the last occupied 7p @-@ subshell . More precisely , considerable spin – orbit interactions between the 7p electrons and the inert 7s2 electrons effectively lead to a second valence shell closing at flerovium , and a significant decrease in stabilization of the closed shell of element 118 . It has also been calculated that ununoctium , unlike other noble gases , binds an electron with release of energy — or in other words , it exhibits positive electron affinity , due to the relativistically stabilized 8s energy level .
Ununoctium is expected to have by far the broadest polarizability of all elements before it in the periodic table , almost double that of radon . By extrapolating from the other noble gases , it is expected that ununoctium has a boiling point between 320 and 380 K. This is very different from the previously estimated values of 263 K or 247 K. Even given the large uncertainties of the calculations , it seems highly unlikely that ununoctium would be a gas under standard conditions , and as the liquid range of the other gases is very narrow , between 2 and 9 kelvins , this element should be solid at standard conditions . If ununoctium forms a gas under standard conditions nevertheless , it would be one of the densest gaseous substances at standard conditions ( even if it is monatomic like the other noble gases ) .
Because of its tremendous polarizability , ununoctium is expected to have an anomalously low ionization energy ( similar to that of lead which is 70 % of that of radon and significantly smaller than that of flerovium ) and a standard state condensed phase .
= = = Predicted compounds = = =
No compounds of ununoctium have been synthesized yet , but calculations on theoretical compounds have been performed since 1964 . It is expected that if the ionization energy of the element is high enough , it will be difficult to oxidize and therefore , the most common oxidation state will be 0 ( as for other noble gases ) ; nevertheless , this appears not to be the case .
Calculations on the diatomic molecule Uuo
2 showed a bonding interaction roughly equivalent to that calculated for Hg
2 , and a dissociation energy of 6 kJ / mol , roughly 4 times of that of Rn
2 . But most strikingly , it was calculated to have a bond length shorter than in Rn
2 by 0 @.@ 16 Å , which would be indicative of a significant bonding interaction . On the other hand , the compound UuoH + exhibits a dissociation energy ( in other words proton affinity of Uuo ) that is smaller than that of RnH + .
The bonding between ununoctium and hydrogen in UuoH is predicted to be very limp and can be regarded as a pure van der Waals interaction rather than a true chemical bond . On the other hand , with highly electronegative elements , ununoctium seems to form more stable compounds than for example copernicium or flerovium . The stable oxidation states + 2 and + 4 have been predicted to exist in the fluorides UuoF
2 and UuoF
4 . The + 6 state would be less stable due to the strong binding of the 7p1 / 2 subshell . This is a result of the same spin @-@ orbit interactions that make ununoctium unusually reactive . For example , it was shown that the reaction of ununoctium with F
2 to form the compound UuoF
2 would release an energy of 106 kcal / mol of which about 46 kcal / mol come from these interactions . For comparison , the spin @-@ orbit interaction for the similar molecule RnF
2 is about 10 kcal / mol out of a formation energy of 49 kcal / mol . The same interaction stabilizes the tetrahedral Td configuration for UuoF
4 , as distinct from the square planar D4h one of XeF
4 , which RnF
4 is also expected to have . The Uuo – F bond will most probably be ionic rather than covalent , rendering the UuoFn compounds non @-@ volatile . UuoF2 is predicted to be partially ionic due to ununoctium 's high electropositivity . Unlike the other noble gases ( except possibly xenon ) , ununoctium was predicted to be sufficiently electropositive to form a Uuo – Cl bond with chlorine .
= Way of the Five Pecks of Rice =
The Way of the Five Pecks of Rice ( Chinese : 五斗米道 ; pinyin : Wǔ Dǒu Mǐ Dào ) or the Way of the Celestial Master , commonly abbreviated to simply The Celestial Masters , was a Chinese Taoist movement founded by the first Celestial Master Zhang Daoling in 142 CE . At its height , the movement controlled a theocratic state in the Hanzhong valley , north of Sichuan . In 215 CE , the state was incorporated into Cao Cao 's Kingdom of Wei , and the followers of the Celestial Master were dispersed all over China .
The Celestial Masters believed that qi pervaded everything , and in order to achieve immortality , the correct balance of qi had to be present within the body . Having a poor quantity of qi in the body , would result in illness , and eventually death . Meditation could be used to restore qi to the body , but sex was to be avoided , as it could result in the loss of qi . If there was the correct balance of qi within the body upon death , an adherent could ' feign death ' and be reborn . If not , an adherent would be transported to an earthly prison where he would face eternal torment .
The Hanzhong state was divided into 24 regions which were led by an official . Each district had a civil register which recorded people 's names and ranks . Three times a year , the registers were updated at the same time as an important feast . While a child 's rank rose automatically , adults had to raise their own rank through religious achievement or marriage . Higher ranked people had more divine generals at their command , which could be used to fight demons that caused bad luck or disease . The state had a system of law that encouraged confession and benevolence rather than strict punishment . Criminals were asked to confess their crimes and meditate , and were given public work to do as a sentence . Few texts written by the Hanzhong Celestial Masters survive , with the most important being the Xiang 'er commentary to the Dao De Jing . While the Hanzhong state lasted for only twenty @-@ five years , their beliefs influenced all subsequent Daoist movements .
= = History = =
In 142 CE Zhang Daoling announced that Laozi had appeared to him and commanded him to rid the world of decadence and establish a new state consisting only of the ‘ chosen people . ’ Zhang became the first Celestial Master , and began to spread his newly founded movement throughout the province of Sichuan . The movement was initially called the Way of the Five Pecks of Rice , because each person wishing to join was required to donate five pecks of rice . The movement spread rapidly , particularly under his son Zhang Heng ( 张衡 ) and grandson Zhang Lu . The Zhangs were able to convert many groups to their cause , such as the Bandun Man ( belonging to the Ba people ) , which strengthened their movement . In 184 , Zhang Xiu ( 張脩 , not related to Zhang Lu ) rebelled against the Han Dynasty . In 191 , Zhang Lu and Zhang Xiu were sent to conquer the Hanzhong valley , just north of Sichuan , which was under Zhang Xiu 's control . During the subsequent battle , Zhang Xiu was killed , and Zhang Lu founded the theocratic state of Zhanghan , enjoying full independence .
In 215 , Cao Cao , the ruler of the Kingdom of Wei attacked the Hanzhong state , and forced Zhang Lu to flee to Eastern Sichuan , where he later surrendered . Zhang was given a title and land , as were several other family members and generals . His followers were forced to resettle in other parts of China , with one group being sent to the Chang 'an area , and another being sent to Luoyang . Zhang and his family relocated to Cao Cao 's administrative headquarters in Ye , located in today 's Henan province . He then used his own popularity as a religious leader to lend legitimacy to the Wei , proclaiming that the Wei court had inherited divine authority from the Daoist church , as well as from Confucian laws . Shortly after the surrender , Zhang Lu died and was succeeded by his son , Fu . After this point there are few historical sources until 255 CE , when a text indicates that the Celestial Master community was fragmenting as a result of the political turmoil within the Wei Kingdom
The collapse of the Kingdom of Wei in 260 CE , along with the fall of Northern China to the Huns in 317 , further scattered adherents to the Celestial Master . The Celestial Masters later reemerged in the 4th and 5th centuries as two distinct offshoots , the Northern and Southern Celestial Masters .
= = Texts = =
The only significant Celestial Master text that survives from the Hanzhong period is the Xiang 'er commentary to the Dao De Jing . This text gives insight into the Celestial Masters ’ physiological beliefs , meditation practices and rituals . In addition , the commentary reinterprets the Dao De Jing to have all of humanity as its intended audience , instead of only a sage . The Taiping Jing , a text attributed to the Yellow Turbans , was not a Celestial Master text , but reflects at least in part some Celestial Master thought and practice . A later text written in 255 CE , known as the Commands and Admonitions for the Families of the Great Dao was composed to a divided Celestial Master community after the dispersal of the Hanzhong population . While written in the persona of Zhang Lu , it is probable that this text was not written by him , as he had probably died by 255 CE .
= = Beliefs and practices = =
The Celestial Masters believed that there was an upcoming apocalypse that would nearly destroy humanity . Only 18 @,@ 000 adherents of the Celestial Master who had the right balance of qi would survive the disaster . These were the seed people that would repopulate the earth after the destruction .
= = = Qi = = =
The foundation of Celestial Master belief is that there is an energy source known as qi , that is born from the Dao and is the source of life all things . The human body contains spirits that need to be nourished by the proper balance of qi . There are three types of qi : yin qi , yang qi and blended qi , which is mixed yin / yang qi . The goal of a Daoist is to achieve transcendence to a higher plane . In order to do this , they must preserve and harmonize their internal spirits . Only through meditation that guides qi correctly throughout the body , can the spirits be harmonized correctly . While it is known that the Celestial Masters meditated in order to obtain qi , there is no surviving evidence that describes their meditation practices .
= = = Immortality = = =
One common goal of early Daoism was to extend life by achieving immortality . The Celestial Masters believed that in order to achieve immortality , one was not supposed to extend life in the current world , but rather ' feign death ' in this world , and be reborn on the other side . In order to feign death , an adept had to have perfectly harmonized internal spirits . When someone with refined internal spirits died in this world , their spirit would venture to the Palace of Grand Darkness where their form would be refined and then reborn in a perfected state on the other side . There are no surviving texts that describe what kind of place the ' other side ' was . Those that failed to harmonize their internal spirits prior to death would be reborn in the underground earth @-@ prisons , where they would be subject to eternal torment and toil .
= = = Illness = = =
In the Hanzhong community , everyone was regarded as ill in some way . This was because sin caused qi to leave the body , and qi was necessary for life . In order to cure any illness , repentance was a crucial factor in ensuring that the loss of qi could be staunched . Repentance could be accomplished by spending time in a ' Chamber of Silence , ' and reflecting on one 's sins , or by beating one 's breasts and kowtowing to heaven . Illness could be cured in other ways as well , such as using medicinal herbs and by listening to ritual music . Eating very little was also of extreme importance , and an ideal diet would consist of no food at all , but only of noncorporeal things such as air , which the person could absorb through meditation .
= = = Sexuality = = =
Practicing correct sexual practices was one method of perfecting the body 's internal spirits . The Celestial Masters believed that semen is the embodiment of qi . If someone ejaculated too often , their life would be shortened . In fact , the Xiang 'er indicates that people should not even have sex for the purposes of reproduction . The Celestial Masters frowned upon the practice of heqi ( also known as ' The Union of the Breaths ' ) of not ejaculating during sex in order to ' nourish the brain ' , and advocated non @-@ ejaculation simply as a way to avoid losing qi . In addition , the Celestial Masters thought that the method of stealing a woman 's qi to replenish the man 's own qi was completely wrong , and should not be practiced . Despite their opposition to ' heqi ' and reproductive sex , there is the possibility that the Celestial Masters supported sex for purposes other than reproduction , and a Celestial Master text from around the 5th century describes an elaborate sexual ritual.See Kalinowski ( 1985 ) for a full description of the ritual .
= = Organization = =
The region governed by the Celestial Masters was divided into 24 regions for both administrative and religious reasons . Each of these 24 regions were connected with one of the Five Phases , one of the 24 periods of the year and with one of the 28 constellations of the zodiac . Depending on their birth signs , each adherent belonged to one of these districts . Each of the 24 regions was administered by 24 officials , who had under their command 240 armies of spirits , composed of 2400 generals , 2400 officers and 240000 soldiers . This system of administration reflected the utopian system of governance described in the Zhouli .
Administration and religion were closely linked in the system of the Celestial Masters . Adherents were grouped by families , and each was attached to a district . Families and districts , and the gods all held copies of civil registers . The registers were detailed records of the people , and recorded each person 's rank , identity and location . Any changes to those registered had to be accompanied by a monetary contribution known as a ' wage of faith . ' Requests to the gods followed a bureaucratic model , and were drawn up according to specific administrative codes . The effectiveness of these requests depended upon the accuracy of the registers kept by the gods .
New members of the sect were divided into groups led by instructors . Neophytes were instructed by a catechism similar to that found in the Xiang 'er that was likely a type of proto @-@ meditation that later became widespread in movements such as the Shangqing School of Daoism . These instructors handled religious and administrative duties , receiving taxes , and set up road @-@ side inns for travelers .
The rank of each person was determined by how many divine generals they had at their disposal , and by the number of divine scriptures they had obtained . These divine generals were used to fight wandering demons that could bring misfortune or illness on someone . A person received their first general at the age of six years , and in subsequent ceremonies would be given more and generals and achieve a higher ranking until a full complement was achieved at the age of nineteen . Marriage would unite two sets of generals , thus giving a couple use of 150 divine generals . After marriage , further increases in ranking could only be achieved by religious achievement .
On certain dates of the year , such as the equinoxes , group ceremonies took place at which masters disseminated their teachings . During these ceremonies , communal feasts often took place , where food was eaten and offered to the gods . The feasts also took place when a birth or death occurred , or in order to bring happiness and prevent evil . The participants in such a feast were organized based on their religious standing , with merit and seniority being the determining factors . During the three important dates known as Sanyuan , the most important feasts were held . During these thrice @-@ annual feasts , a census would be taken recording births , deaths and peoples ' movements . At this time , adherents were also expected to donate the five pecks of rice that gives the movement its name .
= = Law = =
In the Hanzhong state , sin and criminal behavior were not differentiated . In order to eliminate sin , an adherent first had to acknowledge his crime , and then would have to go to a ' quiet room ' to meditate . There , he would have to write three confessions which would be offered to the Lord of Heaven , the Lord of Earth and the Lord of Water . For public crimes , an accused would be pardoned three times for his actions and then be sentenced . A sentence depended on the type of crime , but always involved community service . For a minor crime , the sentence was usually to repair a road . A repeat offender might be asked to donate building materials to improve local buildings . Other laws banned alcohol and prohibited the killing of animals during the spring and summer .
= = Legacy = =
The belief and practices of the Hanzhong Celestial Masters had a profound legacy upon future Daoist belief . The movement marked a significant change from earlier , philosophical Daoist movements . No longer was Daoism a philosophical pastime for the literate and wealthy ; it was now promoted to all classes of society , including the illiterate and the non @-@ Chinese . In addition , the Celestial Masters were the first Daoist group to form an organized priesthood that helped spread their beliefs . Being the first organized religious Daoists , the first Celestial Masters are the ancestors of all subsequent Daoist movements such as the Shangqing and Lingbao movements , as well as the medieval Zhengyi Daoists , who claimed affinity to the first Celestial Masters .
= ( What 's the Story
|
Long
|
wikitext-103-excerpt
|
is freed by Zeratul . Aldaris later witnesses the rebels successfully penetrate the Zerg 's core defenses , and wishes them luck in their final battle against the Overmind . In Brood War , Aldaris reluctantly allies with the dark templar when the Protoss flee Aiur for Shakuras . However , when Sarah Kerrigan is accepted as an ally by dark templar matriarch Raszagal , Aldaris is furious . While Artanis and Zeratul are absent , he discovers Raszagal is being mentally controlled by Kerrigan and instigates a rebellion amongst the Khalai refugees . When his insurrection is thwarted , the judicator tries to explain his actions to Artanis and Zeratul , but is murdered by Kerrigan before he can reveal her involvement .
= = = = Taldarin = = = =
Ancient Protoss , a protoss dragoon , holding the rank of praetor . He was introduced in the StarCraft 64 map , Resurrection IV . Along with Jim Raynor took part in the mission on Braxis to de @-@ infest Alexei Stukov . To date , it is his only appearance .
= = = = Karax = = = =
Karax is a Khalai phasesmith . An expert in weapons , armor and ships . Karax is one of the most precise of protoss engineers . Over the course of the war against Amon , he was able to rise above his worker origins , serving as an important part of the war effort . Karax is shorter and stockier than most protoss . The armor he wears also differs in that it is more functional than ceremonial . Karax was among the Golden Armada when it assaulted Aiur . [ 1 ] [ 3 ] After Amon forced the protoss into retreat , he guided Hierarch Artanis through the Spear of Adun , explaining its systems , and how he had given orders for the Templar in stasis to have their nerve cords removed , as per Amon 's corruption of the Khala . He had already been forced to sever his own nerve cords , but had attached cybernetic tentacles to the tips , effectively giving him extra means of physical manipulation
= = = = Urun = = = =
Urun is the leader of the Auriga Tribe and a member of the Hierarchy . He wished to retake Aiur for the glory of the protoss .
Urun appears in " Wings of Liberty " leading the remnants of the Protoss air force in battle during the end of the Protoss mini @-@ campaign , fighting against the hybrids and the enslaved Zerg Swarm .
= = = = Adun = = = =
Adun was a protoss warrior and strategist who led the Templar shortly before the exile of the Nerazim . All protoss revered him as a hero . Adun 's legacy achieved exalted status was woven into protoss lore , language and culture . En Taro Adun ! ( " In honor of Adun ! " ) became both a salutation and a battle cry used by the Kahlai ; Adun Toridas ( " May Adun give you sanctuary " ) became a standard Nerazim expression . Both the Citadel of Adun and the Spear of Adun was named for him . The zerg , having gained knowledge of Aduns ' significance to the protoss , referred to their enemies as " The Children of Adun . "
= = = = Lasarra = = = =
Lasarra was a female protoss scientist stationed on Kaldir when it was attacked by zerg led by Sarah Kerrigan . The protoss were defeated ; Lasarra was captured during the attack on Kaldir at the request of Abathur , who wanted to experiment on her even though it was known that the protoss could not be infested . Kerrigan agreed to spare Lasarra 's life until she found a use for her . During her time onboard Kerrigan 's leviathan , Lasarra interacted with Kerrigan a number of times . Kerrigan tried to justify her actions on Kaldir , saying that if the protoss could contact Shakuras , Kerrigan would not have been able to survive . However , Lasarra is unconvinced , saying that self @-@ preservation is no justification for killing so many innocents . Eventually , Kerrigan admitted she could not and would not justify her actions , stating that both the zerg and protoss were killers . Eventually , as one of the protoss ships was able to break through the zerg blockade , Lasarra was implanted with a special larva and allowed to warp in to that ship . The larva devoured her and then other lifeforms being stored on the ship , evading detection . It eventually transformed into a broodmother , Niadra , which bred a new brood that infested the ship , killing every protoss on board . Kerrigan later showed some regret over Lasarra 's death , as she told Izsha that she did not enjoy having to kill her .
= = = = Kaldalis = = = =
Kaldalis is a protoss zealot and a close friend of Hierarch Artanis . Kaldalis takes pride in the history of the protoss and the Khala , though does not express prejudice towards the Nerazim , and believes that driving them away was a sin . A scar runs down his left eye . Kaldalis survived the zerg conquest of Aiur during the Great War . Afterwards , he joined the Protoss Protectorate led by Hierarch Artanis . Kaldalis was impressed by Artanis ' vision of a unified protoss society , the Daelaam : incorporating the cultures of Khalai , Nerazim , Tal 'Darim and Purifiers .
After the Second Great War , the Protectorate launched its campaign to reclaim Aiur . As a zealot , Kaldalis volunteered to be part of the Akhundelar , the " Tip of the Spear " ; the Akhundelar are the pre @-@ invasion vanguard spec @-@ ops troops expected to suffer heavy casualties . On the eve of battle , Kaldalis met privately with Artanis on Saalok . Artanis doubted that the reclamation was worth the casualties and was surprised to learn Kaldalis had volunteered to join the Akhundelar . Kaldalis declared the hierarch 's vision of protoss unity gave him hope , and that it was a future he was willing to die for . Kaldalis deployed to the surface of Aiur with two other zealots , and two high templar . Their task was to defend a probe warping in a pylon , thereby establish a foothold . The group was attacked by zerg from atop a hill , and from burrows around them . Eventually , only Kaldalis remained to face the enemy . However , enough time had been bought for the pylon to materialize , and Kaldalis was reinforced by zealots warping in .
= = = = Karass = = = =
Praetor Karass was a protoss high templar . His mastery of psionic powers was considered legendary . On the eve of the Second Great War , Karass and his troops journeyed to Ulaan in pursuit of Infested Kerrigan . There he met the Prelate Zeratul ; the dark templar was seeking information on the hybrids . The praetor put himself at Zeratul 's disposal and the pair broke through zerg patrols and found the prophecy Zeratul and Kerrigan sought . Kerrigan attacked the outnumbered protoss shortly afterward . Karass instructed Zeratul to escape with the information ; the praetor and his troops proceeded to buy Zeratul time with their lives . The dark templar reluctantly withdrew aboard Void Seeker , and swore Karass ' sacrifice would not be in vain .
= = = = Talis = = = =
Talis was a protoss Praetor . She was seen in the prologue of the Legacy of the Void , when Zeratul helped her defeat Amon 's forces . She defends the Xel 'Naga temple from both Hybrid and Tal 'Darim attacks , allowing Zeratul to escape , before dying from countless void shades and Hybrid attacking her .
= = = Nerazim = = =
The Nerazim , or " The Dark Ones " , were exiled from Aiur for refusing to submit to the communal will of the Khala . They are warriors who strike from the shadows , and remain dedicated defenders of their people despite their banishment . After the devastation of Aiur in StarCraft , the Nerazim took in their Khalai brethren on their shadowy homeworld of Shakuras , where both sides work to rebuild Protoss society .
= = = = Zeratul = = = =
Zeratul is a Nerazim prelate and one of the main Protoss protagonists . The character is voiced by Jack Ritschel in StarCraft and Brood War , and by Fred Tatasciore in all three parts of StarCraft II . A renowned psionic warrior and assassin , Zeratul is somewhat secretive and calculating , but is nevertheless honorable and loyal to his species . He teaches Tassadar how to use dark templar energies and facilitates the final attack on the Overmind by slaying several cerebrates . Following the death of the Overmind , Zeratul tries to put in motion the reunification of the Khalai survivors with the wayward dark templar and unmask the secrets of Samir Duran 's experiments . After Duran revealed he had been breeding Protoss @-@ Zerg hybrids for a greater master , Zeratul set out to find Duran 's master and his plan , which encompasses all of his activities in the three installments of StarCraft II . In Wings of Liberty , he gives Jim Raynor a crystal with his memories to emphasize the importance of the latter 's mission to de @-@ infest Kerrigan . In Heart of the Swarm , he guides Kerrigan to Zerus , the original home of the Zerg , and encourages her to re @-@ infest herself so she can stop Amon , a fallen Xel 'naga who is revealed to be the master of Duran and seeks to destroy all life in the Korpulu Sector and remold it in his image . Zeratul will also feature in the events of Legacy of the Void ( originally believed to be the central character , the actual protagonist of the story is Artanis ) . He appears early on but is killed as he severs Artanis 's nerve cords to cut him off from Amon 's control . He is described by GameSpot as a " dark warrior who champions the light " and a " willing scapegoat " for his people and ranked in their top ten heroes chart .
The character of Zeratul was created by Blizzard Entertainment 's Chris Metzen , with concept art produced by other Blizzard artists such as Samwise Didier . Chris Metzen mentioned that Ritschel died some time during the development of the game , and thus Fred Tatasciore has taken over as the new voice actor . Tatasciore described Zeratul as an incredible character , a " Darth Vader " who invests so much in the survival of things , and one of the best characters he has ever played . GameSpot described all the characters in StarCraft as " three @-@ dimensional , full of personality and complexity " , and then continued to comment : " Yet even among this star @-@ studded cast , it is Zeratul who stands out as the most noble of heroes , although he is shrouded in a cloak of mystery and aloofness " .
= = = = Vorazun = = = =
Vorazun is a Nerazim matriarch , daughter to Raszagal , second @-@ in @-@ command to Artanis , and the leader of the surviving Nerazim on Shakuras . She is a skilled warrior , and dedicated to her people . Vorazun is deeply committed to the individuality and culture of her people . While she originally feared the cultural change the Daelaam was bringing to her people , she nonetheless remained committed to its ideals in a unified protoss nation .
Vorazun had a complicated relationship with Artanis , even before her ascension to Matriarch . Artanis originally believed she was against his vision on unification . Despite Vorazun 's many objections , she nominated Artanis for the role of Hierarch of the Daelaam . By the End War , Vorazun gained a greater deal of respect for Artanis . After the destruction of Shakuras and witnessing him survive against countless foes alone , she claimed Artanis had partaken and completed the " Shadow Walk " , becoming Dark Templar . She also comforted Artanis after he killed Zeratul while under Amon 's control .
Vorazun had accused Zeratul of treasion against the Nerazim for his role in the death of her mother . Despite Artanis ' protests regarding Raszagal 's corruption by Kerrigan , she stated she would always hold Zeratul in contempt . It wasn 't until following Zeratul 's prophecy 's that lead to Ulnar , she admitted that he was closer to the truth than anyone and after finally realizing that Zeratul 's dedication to the Xel 'naga prophecy 's gave the protoss hope , she vowed to honor him with Artanis .
= = = = Raszagal = = = =
Raszagal was the matriarch of the Nerazim on Shakuras , and mother to Vorazun . The character appears in Brood War , where she is voiced by Debra DeLiso , and in the novel Shadow Hunters . Described as one of the oldest living Protoss and imbued with tremendous psychic powers , she is one of the few to clearly remember the Protoss homeworld from before the exile of the Nerazim . During her youth , Raszagal was important in ensuring the dark templar were only exiled , rather than exterminated . In Brood War , Raszagal directs Zeratul and Artanis to cleanse the Zerg from Shakuras and welcomes Sarah Kerrigan as an ally in their mission . This spurs Aldaris to rebellion ; Raszagal consequently orders his death . Kerrigan and Samir Duran later kidnap Raszagal from Shakuras , using her to blackmail Zeratul into killing the second Overmind . It quickly becomes apparent that Kerrigan has mentally subverted Raszagal and has been using her to manipulate events from the beginning . Zeratul captures Raszagal , but is unable to hold off the Zerg forces long enough to escape . Realizing that the matriarch is beyond redemption from Kerrigan 's influence , Zeratul kills Raszagal . Raszagal 's mind is freed by the lethal blow , and she dies thanking Zeratul for releasing her , naming him as her successor as leader of the dark templar .
= = = = Mohandar = = = =
Mohandar is a prelate within the Nerazim , the elderly leader of the Nerazim and member of the Hierarchy . He believes that Zeratul should return to Shakuras .
In 2503 , [ 3 ] Mohandar attended a meeting of the Hierarchy to discuss Zamara , a missing preserver . There were none on Shakuras . A terran female , Rosemary Dahl , attended the meeting , along with Vartanil ( a survivor from Aiur ) and Executor Selendis ; she was subject to protoss anti @-@ female bias ( due to their experiences with Sarah Kerrigan ) . Among the topics of conversation covered were Ulrezaj , a powerful dark archon and old enemy of the Khalai . During the meeting , Mohandar deferred to the judgment of Hierarch Artanis . Artanis decided to launch an expedition to rescue the preserver , but didn 't know where to start . Mohandar , however , believed he knew where Zamara was going — Ehlna , a Nerazim sanctuary moon . There , the Nerazim , who had no preservers , used modified khaydarin crystals to store memories .
Mohandar tried to insist on only sending Nerazim to the sanctuary , but Selendis talked him into allowing a small number of templar warriors to accompany the expedition . He agreed , but only if there was no disrespect . Vartanil went along with them , and ( much to Mohandar 's annoyance ) so did Dahl . Mohandar pointed out the protoss were still evaluating her , a terran female .
He took part in the mission to Ehlna . Once at the Alys 'aril ( the center where Nerazim memories were preserved ) he met Jake Ramsey ( the terran carrying Zamara 's essence ) and Zeratul . The latter made ready to leave . Mohandar told him his place was on Shakuras within the Hierarchy . Zeratul promised to return to Shakuras soon .
Mohandar appears once in Zeratul 's apocalyptic vision at the end of the Protoss mini @-@ campaign in Wings of Liberty . By this time , it is implied that he is the most senior member of the Dark Templar remaining aside from Zeratul .
Mohandar appears in the StarCraft II short story Children of the Void , set before Legacy of the Void . He was killed while quelling a Nerazim uprising in the capital city of Talematros with Matriarch Vorazun .
= = = = Ulrezaj = = = =
Ulrezaj is a Nerazim rebel who believes that the Khalai Protoss should either be removed from Shakuras or exterminated . He is introduced in the downloadable Brood War campaign " Enslavers : Dark Vengeance " , and later appears as the antagonist of the novels Shadow Hunters and Twilight . Brought up as a scholar on the moon of Ehlna , Ulrezaj begins to abuse his position by learning from prohibited sources of information . Resenting the exile of the dark templar from Aiur , he abandons his career and takes up arms against the Khalai Protoss as they establish themselves on Shakuras . He later uses the knowledge learned from his early days to become a dark archon ; an immensely powerful psionic being created by several Protoss merging . Allying with a Terran smuggler , Alan Schezar , Ulrezaj moves an orbital base over Shakuras ; Ulrezaj uses Schezar 's resources to mutate Zerg to attack the Khalai Protoss , while an EMP device disables Shakuras ' power grid . Though defeated by Zeratul 's forces , Ulrezaj escapes .
Ulrezaj reappears several years later , residing on Aiur where he is manipulating a faction of Protoss survivors who were not evacuated . Ulrezaj uses these Protoss to attempt to capture a Terran archaeologist , Jacob Ramsey , who has the powerful mind of a Protoss archivist , Zamara , residing in his own mind ; their failure to do so leads to Ulrezaj personally trying to take Ramsey , but the archaeologist escapes through a warp gate while both Zerg and Valerian Mengsk 's forces also attempt to capture him . Ulrezaj traces Ramsey to Ehlna , breaking through the defenses of both the Protoss and the Dominion . However , Zamara uses her last energy to lock Ulrezaj 's mind into a storage crystal , sacrificing herself to keep Ulrezaj trapped .
= = = Tal 'Darim = = =
The Tal 'Darim , or " The Forged Ones " are a fanatical sect of Protoss cut off from the Khala , who actively worship the Xel 'Naga as gods . They are one of the antagonists in every game , and serve Amon , to rebuild the universe in his name . However , they become allies with Artanis after Alarak defeats Ma 'Lash in the rite of Rak 'Shir and becomes leader , vowing to bring down Amon .
= = = = Alarak = = = =
Alarak ( voiced by John de Lancie ) is a central figure of the Tal 'Darim in the service of Amon . He was first described in the short story Ascension , one of the lead @-@ up short stories before the release of Legacy of the Void . In the story , he holds the title of Fourth Ascendant , a minor leader in the Tal 'Darim hierarchy , known as the " Chain of Ascension " ; one can only advance in rank through Rak 'Shir , a ritual trial by combat of their immediate superior . When the First Ascendant , Nuroka , challenges Highlord Ma 'lash for leadership of the Tal 'Darim , Alarak remains neutral , until Ma 'lash seemed on the brink of defeat ; he then declared for him , offering his psionic strength , allowing Ma 'lash to defeat Nuroka . With the First , Second , and Third Ascendants claimed in the battle , Alarak is named First Ascendant ; however , Ma 'lash is wary , and threatens a slow and painful death if Alarak betrays him .
Throughout the ritual , Alarak is filled with doubts as to Amon 's goals , which becomes a betrayal as Amon begins to phase out the Tal 'Darim and other " mortal " forces , relying more and more on his hybrid . Alarak thus forms an alliance with Artanis , who pledges to aid in bringing down Ma 'lash and removing the Tal 'Darim from Amon 's service . With the aid of Artanis ' forces , Alarak challenges Ma 'lash to Rak 'Shir and defeats him , becoming the new Highlord of the Tal 'Darim . Declaring that Amon had lied to them , Alarak promises revenge against Amon , and joins force with Artanis . After Amon is destroyed , Alarak decides to find a new homeworld for the Tal 'Darim rather than join the remaining protoss on Aiur , though he allows any of his people who wish it one chance to remain with Artanis .
Alarak , in Legacy of the Void , possess immense psionic powers and is always rude and arrogant , exhibiting a sadistic and totalitarian personality . He renounces the concept of freedom and holds zero respect for anything other than the ability to slaughter .
= = = = Ma 'Lash = = = =
Ma 'Lash was the Highlord of the Tal 'Darim . He is featured in Legacy of the Void and in the short story Ascension . Ma 'Lash used brute force to become the Highlord . He enjoys killing his challengers slowly , barely keeping them alive while at the verge of being extinguished . In Legacy of the Void , Alarak invokes the rite of Rak 'Shir ; Ma 'Lash loses and dies .
= = = = Nuroka = = = =
= = = = Guraj = = = =
= = = = Zenish = = = =
= = = = Ji 'nara = = = =
Ji 'nara was the First Ascendant , ater Second Ascendant of the Tal 'darim .
= = = = Nyon = = = =
Nyon is a Tal 'Darim executor who Raynor 's Raiders fight in Wings of Liberty for pieces of Xel 'Naga artifacts . He is killed later in the game , when the Raiders destroy his mothership .
= = = = Felanis = = = =
He was the leader of the Tal 'darim who knew the truth behind the organization .
= = = Purifiers = = =
The purifiers are a synthetic race conceived as an " ultimate fighting force " at a time when protoss scientists and engineers were making technological advancements in intelligent and sentient robotics .
= = = = Talandar = = = =
In Legacy of the Void , Artanis ' forces uncover a Purifier robot whose personality and memories was cloned from Fenix . This Purifier thinks he is Fenix in a dragoon shell . Artanis is overjoyed to meet this manifestation of his old comrade and is in no rush to tell him the truth , allowing him to discover it at a pace he is comfortable with , by studying the combat logs . Eventually , upon learning more about Fenix , he decides to have his name changed to ' Talandar ' . He becomes the ambassador between the Daelaam and the Purifiers , convincing them to join force . He follows Artanis in battle to reclaim their homeworld .
= = = = Clolarion = = = =
Clolarion was a legendary protoss executor , whose deeds were taught to Templar warriors long after his death . Because of his status , Clolarion was chosen to take part in the purifier program . His mind was scanned into a robotic shell , in an attempt to recreate and preserve the greatest warriors of the Templar . The Clolarion purifier was sealed in Cybros along with the rest of the purifiers after their rebellion against the Conclave .
In 2506 , during the End War , the Daelaam under the command of Hierarch Artanis came to Cybros to reactivate the purifiers . Clolarion acted as their spokesman and leader during the mission , and ordered the Purifiers to engage the zerg on the station , and then purified the surface of Endion , the forest moon Cybros orbited . With the battle over , Artanis asked the purifiers to join the Daelaam in the war against Amon . Clolarion questioned his sincerity and only accepted an alliance on the condition of Talandar being their ambassador .
= = Zerg characters = =
The Zerg Swarm is an evolving hivemind : a ruthless amalgamation of biologically advanced , parasitoid @-@ arthropodal species , directed by an instinctive " adapt or die " -mentality . The volcanic world of Char serves as The Swarm 's " primary hive cluster " in the Koprulu sector . Dedicated to the pursuit of " genetic perfection " , the zerg assimilate advanced species across the galaxy , incorporating useful genetic code . They are a virus , they rapidly consume , mutate , adapt , and propagate in minutes . They thrive in the most inhospitable environments that creates superior strains in the process . They are named " The Swarm " per their seemingly endless force deployments and relentless assaults they employ to overwhelm their foes : for The Swarm , sacrificing thousands to destroy or assimilate each one of their enemy 's soldiers is a trivial matter .
= = = Queen of Blade 's Zerg Swarm = = =
The Swarm was reunited under Kerrigan at the end of the Brood War . The cerebrates were eliminated from the Swarm but broods such as the Char Brood remained .
= = = = Broodmothers = = = =
Between the end of the Brood War and Kerrigan 's defeat on Char , Kerrigan created numerous broodmothers , powerful queens , each of which would lead a brood . The queens were ordered to evolve and only submit to the will of the strongest leader , which became a problem upon Kerrigan 's defeat . The brood mothers scattered their broods . Kerrigan was forced to follow and attempt to subdue them . Following the eradication of the last cerebrates in Brood War , Kerrigan creates powerful and intelligent broodmothers to fulfill their role in the Swarm . Kerrigan commanded the broodmothers " to fight , to conquer , to be strong and to lead by force of will " . Through decentralizing command hierarchy , Kerrigan ensured the Zerg Swarm could function without leadership . The strongest of these zerg broods , The Zagara Brood , was led by Zagara . Following Kerrigan 's defeat and de @-@ infestation on Char , the Zagara brood remained there , seeking large egg piles in an acid marsh . Despite General Horace Warfield 's extermination campaign against the zerg remaining on the planet , the brood thrived while all others perished . Its prosperity was interrupted however , when Kerrigan returned to Char and subjugated Zagara , thereby putting the brood under Kerrigan 's control .
= = = = = Zagara = = = = =
Zagara is a zerg broodmother , Kerrigan 's second @-@ in @-@ command , and the leader of the Zagara Brood . In the absence of the Queen of Blades , Zagara sought to reunite the Swarm under her own leadership . She rallied the feral zerg of Char to her side , and managed to hold out against the genocidal forces of General Horace Warfield . However , her brute tactics prevented her from achieving victory . When Kerrigan returned to Char , Zagara challenged her authority due to her regained humanity , thus deeming her unworthy to lead the Swarm . Once defeated by Kerrigan , the broodmother was forgiven and rejoined Kerrigan 's Zerg Swarm forces . Her renewed loyalty is not left unrewarded though , as once Kerrigan ascends to become a Xel 'naga , she relinquishes all command over the Zerg Swarm to Zagara , making her the new " Queen of Blades " , but after being evolved by Abathur and subjected to Kerrigan 's teaching her some lessons . She is seen in the Epilogue , establishing a foothold over dozens of systems to grant a safe haven for the Zerg Swarm as it rebuilds from the long conflict against the Terrans , the Protoss and Amon 's Hybrids forces .
= = = = = Niadra = = = = =
Niadra is a zerg broodmother and leader of the Niadra Brood . She was created by Sarah Kerrigan when she battled the protoss on Kaldir . Although she succeeded in preventing them from contacting the Golden Armada , one of the protoss ships attempted to flee from the planet and travel to Shakuras . To prevent them from surviving , Kerrigan placed a parasitic larva within the captured protoss colonist Lasarra and dropped the psionic veil that prevented her from being warped back to her people . After being teleported to the ship , the protoss attempted to warn the Templar but died as the parasitic larva spawned from her body . Shortly afterwards , it began infesting the local animals kept onboard by the protoss and hid within the ventilation shafts where it found a safe location to mature into a queen . Kerrigan gave her the name Niadra and tasked her with eliminating all the protoss on board the ship , a task she accomplished with assistance from her zerg offspring . After damaging the vessel 's warp drive , Niadra and her brood became the only occupants of the craft , but they had traveled beyond the reach of Kerrigan 's ability to communicate . With few other options , Niadra decided to continue the Queen of Blades ' last directives : to survive , grow her brood , and destroy the protoss .
= = = = = Rokarr = = = = =
Rokarr is a zerg broodmother and leader of the Rokarr Brood . Her brood attacked Terran Dominion fortification at the Sigma Centari platform , but the assault stalemated . Rokarr ordered the destruction of local feral brood lords , whose essence was then used to create more of them . The brood lords easily destroyed the Dominion fortification .
= = = = = Naktul = = = = =
Naktul is a zerg broodmother , and leader of the Naktul Brood . Naktul and her brood were based on Phaeton following the fragmentation of the Swarm during the Second Great War . The Terran Dominion deployed a Drakken pulse cannon on the surface to interdict the orbital rendezvous location for ships of Raynor 's Raiders and their allies fleeing a Dominion attack on XT39323 . When Sarah Kerrigan — deinfested sinced the Battle of Char — arrived to destroy the cannon , Naktul still regarded Kerrigan as " The Queen of Blades " and zerg leader and offered her immediate support . Kerrigan was uncomfortable with this acclamation , but nonetheless accepted the brood 's assistance to destroy the cannon . In spite of her early support , Naktul was amongst the last broodmother to rejoin the Swarm when Kerrigan 's attack on Korhal drew close . Naktul contacted the Swarm as a representative of the remaining renegade broodmothers , and conveyed their wishes to rejoin the Swarm . Kerrigan sent them to destroy enemy strongholds across the Sector to test them .
= = = = = Kilysa = = = = =
Kilysa is a zerg broodmother , and leader of the Kilysa Brood . When Kilysa asked to rejoin the Swarm , Sarah Kerrigan ordered her to destroy Mistaff IV to as a test . During the invasion of Korhal , Kilysa had her leviathans formed a blockade and suppressed Dominion fleets reinforcement into the Korhal system .
= = = = = Nafash = = = = =
Nafash was a zerg broodmother , and leader of the Nafash Brood . Hoping to make the Swarm stronger by evolving a way to deal with extreme cold , Sarah Kerrigan sent Nafash and her brood to infest Kaldir . After Kerrigan 's deinfestation , Nafash sought to create her own Swarm . Shortly after setting up a hive , Nafash moved off into the ice valleys . When the protoss struck , Nafash fell back to prepared positions . The protoss hunted her down and killed her .
= = = = = Ryloth = = = = =
Ryloth is a zerg broodmother , and leader of the Ryloth Brood . During the Second Great War she kept her large brood out of harm 's way until Sarah Kerrigan returned from Zerus . When she asked to rejoin the Swarm , Kerrigan ordered her to destroy Jontur II , a Dominion shipbuilding world . Her brood on Marek V was almost exterminated by Prometheus Company , but was saved by Kerrigan 's brood .
= = = = Izsha = = = =
Izsha is a zerg advisor in service to Sarah Kerrigan . She is a unique type of zerg ; one of a kind . Izsha exemplifies a midpoint for Kerrigan , standing between Kerrigan 's cold rationality and the feral nature of the Swarm . She harkens back to the ideology of the Overmind , but is still a rational individual . In earlier times , Kerrigan used her to store her thoughts and plans . On at least one occasion she entrusted Izsha with a plan to infest a planet using the hyper @-@ evolutionary virus through its water supply . Izsha reunited with Kerrigan following the latter 's de @-@ infestation and subsequent return to the Swarm . She served as an advisor , recalling memories from Kerrigan 's time as the Queen of Blades , and helping her to reclaim the Swarm while remaining attached to her queen 's leviathan .
While Abathur was designed to be " evil , " the concept of Izsha was to strike a balance between human and monster . Unlike Abathur , Izsha was to have a face that the player could talk and relate to , one that Kerrigan could have more of an emotional connection with .
= = = = Abathur = = = =
Abathur is a unique super intelligent zerg @-@ biologist creature , created from numerous zerg species . He is the swarm zerg 's evolutionary master craftsman and archivist of the entire Swarm 's DNA library . Arrogant and impatient , Abathur loves biodiversity , despises extinction , and instinctively wants to " eat " anything strange or different so that he can absorb , catalogue and understand it . Abathur is well mannered and is constantly connecting DNA , experimenting on strains and studying the Swarm 's enemies . He does this by " consuming " creatures and gaining access to their genetic code . Abathur perceives other beings in terms of their raw genetic material , not as sentient beings .
The quest for ' purity ' was retained in the zerg psyche , becoming a pseudo @-@ religious concept to them . Through the quest for ' perfection ' the zerg were set on a steady state of evolution and conflict . The core idea of this ' religion ' was that there was a state that the zerg could reach where they no longer needed to evolve , that their evolutionary form would never have to change again because they could already adapt to any situation . Abathur accepts that the Overmind 's instinctive desire for " true perfection " is impossible for the zerg swarm to achieve , yet reasoned that " ... chasing perfection was tactically sound regardless . " Instead , Abathur believed it is " purpose " which makes the zerg strong . Abathur states that without an overriding will , " feral zerg " are lesser than beasts , much like he was after the death of the Overmind . Abathur is personally responsible for the continuation of the zerg @-@ species . He undertakes each experiment as though the survival of the species depends on it alone , and tolerates no genetic regression or evolutionary backstep .
= = = = Infested Stukov = = = =
The infested incarnation of Alexei Stukov makes an appearance in StarCraft II : Heart of the Swarm , voiced by Victor Brandt . Following Sarah Kerrigan 's transformation on Zerus , Stukov contacted her and told her about the experiments being performed on Skygeirr Platform . After defeating the shapeshifter , " Emil Narud " , and his hybrids , Stukov joined the Swarm . Alexei Stukov was granted control of the Stukov Brood ; a brood consisting strains of infestors , infested terrans and aberrations . During the Battle of Korhal , Stukov 's brood attacked Dominion entrenchments .
According to Stukov , he escaped his Moebius captors after being re @-@ infested and learned that the foundation is secretly breeding Protoss @-@ Zerg hybrids at the request of Arcturus Mengsk . Although not a hybrid himself , Stukov oddly seems to possess an amalgamation of Protoss and Zerg abilities and characteristics , though this likely resulted from his exposure to the Protoss anti @-@ infestation cure . Once the lab breeding the hybrid is destroyed , he realizes that he has no purpose and cannot return to Earth or any Terran faction as an infested human . Kerrigan offers him a position in the Swarm as a brood leader until he makes up his mind , and Stukov ultimately decides to stay with the Swarm until the end .
Stukov returns in StarCraft II : Legacy of the Void during the invasion of the Void . During the invasion , Stukov helps kill the Shapeshifter , reversing the position of how Stukov met his demise during Brood War ( where he was killed by the Shapeshifter , disguised as a former Confederate ally . )
= = = = = Dehaka = = = = =
Dehaka is a primal zerg pack leader from Zerus who is fixated on adaptation and collecting raw genetic material , which he refers to as " essence " ; for Dekaha , " essence " is survival against extinction . Dehaka lost his large right arm prior to the Swarm 's return to Zerus ; it was later to be found in the same area where Sarah Kerrigan defeated the other primal pack leaders . When the Zerg Swarm returned to Zerus , Dehaka initially opted to simply observe the Swarm and Kerrigan . He witnessed the newcomers awaken Zurvan and the primal @-@ infestation of Kerrigan . Dehaka perceived Kerrigan as the strongest of the zerg pack leaders . He and his pack welcomed the new power by allying with the Swarm , believing Kerrigan would lead them to new " essence " . Dehaka correctly predicted that the other zerg pack leaders would refuse to submit and " adapt " ; the other pack leaders were destroyed by Kerrigan , including Zurvan . Kerrigan confronted Dehaka afterwards , confirming that Dehaka had known that Zurvan would turn on her . Dehaka did not deny this , responding with " one zerg would grow strong , the other would fall " . Dehaka remained with the Zerg Swarm .
= = = Overmind 's Zerg Swarm = = =
The first broods were formed by the Overmind , with the direction of each brood being delegated to a cerebrate . A brood was engineered for a specific function , which impacted its numerical strength and the diversity of its strains . The Terrans gave the Great War broods reporting names based on beasts found in Earth mythology . The Command Wing broods were responsible for defending the Overmind and searching for new species for assimilation . These broods did not engage in front @-@ line combat unless necessary . The Command Wing included the Tiamat Brood , Baelrog Brood , and Fenris Brood . The Attack Wing broods were the Swarm 's front @-@ line forces , meant to conquer and occupy worlds . The wing 's primary broods were amongst the largest in the Swarm . The Attack Wing included the Garm Brood , Jormungand Brood , and Surtur Brood .
= = = = The Overmind = = = =
The Overmind is the center of the Zerg Swarm
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– 1940 ) , prime minister " . Oxford Dictionary of National Biography . Retrieved 9 November 2009 . ( subscription required )
Fitzgerald , Brian ( 1 October 2004 ) . " Conversazioni to examine journalistic abuse and the need for change " . B.U. Bridge . Retrieved 12 September 2012 .
" Longest @-@ serving chancellors " . BBC News . 15 June 2004 . Retrieved 4 December 2010 .
" Purchasing Power of British Pounds 1264 – 2008 " . MeasuringWorth . Retrieved 13 October 2009 . ( RPI equivalents )
Selden , Charles ( 5 February 1932 ) . " British 10 % tariff goes to Commons " . The New York Times . Retrieved 7 November 2009 . ( subscription required )
= No. 5 Elementary Flying Training School RAAF =
No. 5 Elementary Flying Training School ( No. 5 EFTS ) was a Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) pilot training unit that operated during World War II . It was one of twelve elementary flying training schools employed by the RAAF to provide introductory flight instruction to new pilots as part of Australia 's contribution to the Empire Air Training Scheme . No. 5 EFTS was established in June 1940 at Narromine , New South Wales , and primarily operated Tiger Moths . It ceased training in June 1944 , after more than 3 @,@ 700 students had passed through .
= = History = =
Flying instruction in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) underwent major changes following the outbreak of World War II , in response to a vast increase in the number of aircrew volunteers and the commencement of Australia 's participation in the Empire Air Training Scheme ( EATS ) . The Air Force 's pre @-@ war pilot training facility , No. 1 Flying Training School at RAAF Station Point Cook , Victoria , was supplanted in 1940 – 41 by twelve elementary flying training schools ( EFTS ) and eight service flying training schools ( SFTS ) . The EFTS provided a twelve @-@ week introductory flying course to personnel who had graduated from one of the RAAF 's initial training schools . Flying training was undertaken in two stages : the first involved four weeks of instruction ( including ten hours of flying ) to determine trainees ' suitability to become pilots . Those that passed this grading process then received a further eight weeks of training ( including sixty @-@ five hours of flying ) at the EFTS . Pilots who successfully completed this course were posted to an SFTS in either Australia or Canada for the next stage of their instruction as military aviators .
No. 5 Elementary Flying Training School ( No. 5 EFTS ) was formed at Narromine , New South Wales , on 24 May 1940 , and came under the control of Central Area Command , headquartered in Sydney . Its inaugural commanding officer was Squadron Leader T.C. Curnow , who was previously in charge of No. 2 Elementary Flying Training School at Archerfield , Queensland . No. 5 EFTS 's airfield had been home to the Narromine Aero Club before being taken over by the RAAF . Twenty de Havilland Tiger Moth training aircraft were flown in from Laverton , Victoria , on 24 June , and flying training commenced three days later when the first forty @-@ six students arrived from No. 1 Initial Training School . Within a month , student numbers had grown to ninety @-@ four , and the school 's total strength was 346 .
As of 30 June 1940 , only one of the No. 5 EFTS 's four required hangars had been completed . Accommodation facilities were , according to the unit operations book , " bleak and depressing " and deficiencies in equipment were " too numerous for itemising " . The primitive conditions meant that personnel suffered adverse health effects from the cold in winter and hot , dusty conditions in the summer . Flying at Narromine was also hampered by bad weather , particularly heavy rain and wind . Accidents were frequent at all EFTSs , though fatalities were rare . An instructor and his passenger from No. 5 EFTS were killed when a Tiger Moth crashed on 3 August 1940 , possibly caused by a stall while practising forced landings . By the end of August , the school was operating one of its two required Link Trainer simulators .
As of 30 September 1940 , total strength was 467 , including 114 trainees . One student died and five others were injured off duty when the balcony of the Federal Hotel in Narromine collapsed on 11 November . An instructor was killed and his pupil injured when their Tiger Moth stalled while attempting to avoid collision with another aircraft on 3 December . Later that month , Squadron Leader Roy King , a fighter ace in the Australian Flying Corps during World War I , took over command of the school , serving until June 1941 . By that time , some 500 pupils had graduated from No. 5 EFTS ; the wastage rate was just under twenty per cent . Among the graduates was R.H. ( Ron ) Middleton , who subsequently flew with the Royal Air Force in Europe and was awarded a posthumous Victoria Cross for his actions piloting a Short Stirling bomber in November 1942 .
Night @-@ flying training commenced at No. 5 EFTS in July 1941 . As of 30 April 1942 , the school 's strength was 845 personnel , including 319 students , the increase owing to an influx of staff and students from No. 2 EFTS and No. 6 Elementary Flying Training School in Tamworth , New South Wales , both of which had been disbanded in March . By July 1943 , total strength stood at 748 , including thirty @-@ three members of the Women 's Auxiliary Australian Air Force ( WAAAF ) ; the unit was operating eighty @-@ seven Tiger Moths and one Ryan . In April 1944 , WAAAF numbers reached eighty @-@ four out of a total strength of 703 ; the aircraft complement was eighty @-@ six Tiger Moths , seventy @-@ one of which were serviceable , and two CAC Wacketts , neither serviceable . No. 48 Course passed out on 15 June 1944 , after which training at the school ceased . Three other courses then under way were completed at other EFTSs . By 25 June , all of the school 's Tiger Moths had been transferred to other locations . A total of 3 @,@ 734 students had passed through No. 5 EFTS , 2 @,@ 850 of whom graduated as pilots .
= = = Works consulted = = =
Ashworth , Norman ( 2000 ) . How Not to Run an Air Force ! The Higher Command of the Royal Australian Air Force During the Second World War : Volume 2 . Canberra : Air Power Studies Centre . ISBN 0 @-@ 642 @-@ 26551 @-@ 8 .
Garrisson , A.D. ( 1999 ) . Australian Fighter Aces 1914 – 1953 . Fairbairn , Australian Capital Territory : Air Power Studies Centre . ISBN 0 @-@ 642 @-@ 26540 @-@ 2 .
Gillison , Douglas ( 1962 ) . Australia in the War of 1939 – 1945 : Series Three ( Air ) Volume I – Royal Australian Air Force 1939 – 1942 . Canberra : Australian War Memorial . OCLC 2000369 .
RAAF Historical Section ( 1995 ) . Units of the Royal Australian Air Force : A Concise History . Volume 8 : Training Units . Canberra : Australian Government Publishing Service . ISBN 0 @-@ 644 @-@ 42800 @-@ 7 .
Royal Australian Air Force ( 1939 – 45 ) . Unit History Sheets : Nos. 1 – 7 Elementary Flying Training Schools . Canberra : National Archives of Australia .
Stephens , Alan ( 2006 ) [ 2001 ] . The Royal Australian Air Force : A History . London : Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 555541 @-@ 4 .
= Mike Matusow =
Michael Matusow ( born April 30 , 1968 in Los Angeles , California ) is an American professional poker player , residing in Henderson , Nevada . Matusow 's nickname of " The Mouth " reflects his reputation for trash @-@ talking at the poker table . He is also known for sometimes ruining hours or days of good play with a single misjudgment , ( known as a " Mike Matusow Blow @-@ up " or " Mike Matusow Meltdown " ) .
Matusow began playing poker seriously in the early 1990s , first while working as a poker dealer , then as a professional player . His successes include being a four @-@ time World Series of Poker bracelet winner , and the winner of the 2005 World Series of Poker Tournament of Champions .
= = Early years = =
Matusow 's first experience of poker was playing video poker in the Maxim Casino at the age of 18 , which he played regularly , to the extent that he suffered from repetitive strain injury in his shoulders and arms . He occasionally stole money from his mother 's purse and at one point attended Gamblers Anonymous meetings . Matusow was taught Texas hold ' em in 1989 by a rounder named Steve Samaroff .
= = World Series of Poker = =
At the 1998 World Series of Poker ( WSOP ) , Matusow paid part of Scotty Nguyen 's entrance fee into a satellite event for the $ 10 @,@ 000 no limit Texas hold ' em main event . Nguyen went on to win , and gave $ 333 @,@ 333 to Matusow in return for his partial stake . In 1999 , Matusow won his first WSOP bracelet , winning the $ 3 @,@ 500 No Limit Hold 'em event defeating Alex Brenes heads @-@ up to win the title .
In 2001 , he finished 6th place in the WSOP $ 10 @,@ 000 no limit Hold ' em main event . Matusow says that the decisive hand was when he was bluffed by eventual champion Juan Carlos Mortensen , but did not trust his instincts to call .
At the 2002 WSOP , Matusow won his second bracelet by winning the $ 5 @,@ 000 Omaha Hi @-@ Low Split 8 or Better event . He defeated his friend and fellow professional poker player Daniel Negreanu to win the tournament .
In the 2005 WSOP , Matusow finished 9th out of 5 @,@ 619 players in the main event , winning $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 . Several months later , he won the WSOP Tournament of Champions in a heads @-@ up battle against Hoyt Corkins , earning another $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in the process , making him the first player to win two million dollar prizes in the same year . He also placed third in the Tournament of Champions the following year , winning $ 250 @,@ 000 .
At the 2008 WSOP , Matusow won a third bracelet in the $ 5000 No Limit 2 – 7 Draw with rebuys event defeating Jeff Lisandro heads up for the $ 537 @,@ 862 first prize . Later in the same year he finished 30th out of 6 @,@ 844 players in the Main Event , making yet another deep run in the Main Event .
Matusow won his fourth bracelet in 2013 in the $ 5 @,@ 000 Seven Card Stud Hi @-@ Lo Split 8 or Better tournament , defeating Matthew Ashton heads @-@ up and earning $ 266 @,@ 503 .
= = = World Series of Poker bracelets = = =
= = Other poker events = =
In October 2004 , Matusow made his first World Poker Tour ( WPT ) final table at the UltimateBet Aruba Classic , earning $ 250 @,@ 000 for 3rd place . In 2006 , he finished runner @-@ up to Tony G in the WPT Bad Boys of Poker II in heads @-@ up play . Matusow also appeared in Poker Superstars III , where he made it to the Elite Eight . In the winner @-@ take @-@ all championship match , Matusow beat seven other players to win $ 500 @,@ 000 . He also appeared in the second , third , fourth and sixth season of High Stakes Poker . In September 2006 , Mike made his debut on the European Poker Tour ( EPT ) in Barcelona ; however , he was eliminated on the first day . In early 2007 , Matusow appeared on two episodes of Poker After Dark where he finished 3rd and 2nd respectively . He plays online poker under the following aliases : " dill pickle " ( UltimateBet ) ; " mrpokejoke " ( PokerStars ) ; and " Mike Matusow " ( Full Tilt Poker , where he was formerly a member of " Team Full Tilt " ) .
In July 2007 , Matusow won $ 671 @,@ 320 after coming in second place at the World Poker Tour Bellagio Cup III Championship after online pro Kevin Saul defeated him during heads @-@ up play . On November 11 , 2008 at the World Poker Tour Foxwoods World Poker Finals , Matusow made another WPT final table , He was eliminated after his A ♠ J ♥ didn 't improve against Jonathan Little 's hand of 9 ♥ 9 ♠ , he finished in 6th place , earning $ 124 @,@ 048 .
As of August 2014 , his total live tournament winnings exceed $ 9 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 . $ 3 @,@ 580 @,@ 911 of his winnings have come at the WSOP .
In 2013 , Matusow won the NBC National Heads @-@ Up Championship , defeating Phil Hellmuth 2 @-@ 1 in the final .
= = Personal life = =
Matusow has had several personal problems . He has battled drug issues , including a six @-@ month stint in jail in 2004 and 2005 after being caught providing ecstasy and prescription painkillers to an undercover police officer who pretended to befriend Matusow and gained his trust . After several months of an official Las Vegas Metro Police " Sting Operation " , Matusow was arrested and charged with six category A Felonies , all drug related . A plea deal was later reached where Matusow was incarcerated in the Clark County Detention Center for six months .
Matusow resides in Henderson . He often wears a gold chain with the Hebrew symbol ' chai ' around his neck . Additionally , Matusow hosted Card Player 's poker radio show / podcast , the Circuit , before being replaced by Gavin Smith and Joe Sebok . He was also the host of Card Player 's now defunct online video segment , " The Mouthpiece . " In one particular episode , Mike discussed the controversial Ultimatebet.com superuser cheating scandal , as well as seeking legal action as a victim of the scandal against the main perpetrator , former World Series of Poker Champion Russ Hamilton .
Matusow wrote an autobiography entitled Check Raising the Devil that was released May 12 , 2009 .
= French ironclad Trident =
The French ironclad Trident was the second and last ship of the Colbert @-@ class ironclads that were built for the French Navy in the 1870s . The ship was the flagship of the deputy commander of the Mediterranean Squadron for most of her career . She took part in the French occupation of Tunisia , notably shelling and landing troops in Sfax in 1881 . Trident was reclassified as a training ship in 1894 and condemned in 1900 , before she was finally sold for scrap in 1909 .
= = Design and description = =
The Colbert @-@ class ships were designed by Constructor Sabattier as improved versions of the ironclad Richelieu . As a central battery ironclad , Trident had her armament concentrated amidships . Like most ironclads of her era she was equipped with a plough @-@ shaped ram . Her crew numbered 774 officers and men . The metacentric height of the ship was low , a little above 0 @.@ 6 meters ( 2 ft ) .
The ship measured 102 @.@ 1 meters ( 335 ft 0 in ) overall , with a beam of 17 @.@ 7 meters ( 58 ft 1 in ) . Trident had a maximum draft of 8 @.@ 58 meters ( 28 ft 2 in ) and displaced 8 @,@ 814 metric tons ( 8 @,@ 675 long tons ) .
= = = Propulsion = = =
Trident had a single Wolf three @-@ cylinder horizontal return connecting @-@ rod compound steam engine that drove one propeller . The engine was powered by eight oval boilers and was designed for a capacity of 4 @,@ 600 indicated horsepower ( 3 @,@ 400 kW ) . On sea trials , the engine produced 4 @,@ 882 metric horsepower ( 3 @,@ 591 kW ) and Trident reached 14 @.@ 18 knots ( 26 @.@ 26 km / h ; 16 @.@ 32 mph ) . She carried a maximum of 620 metric tons ( 610 long tons ) of coal which allowed her to steam for approximately 3 @,@ 300 nautical miles ( 6 @,@ 100 km ; 3 @,@ 800 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . Trident was ship rigged with three masts and had a sail area around 2 @,@ 100 square meters ( 23 @,@ 000 sq ft ) .
= = = Armament = = =
Trident had two 274 @-@ millimeter ( 10 @.@ 8 in ) guns mounted in barbettes on the upper deck , one gun at the forward corners of the battery , with six additional guns on the battery deck below the barbettes . The side of the upper deck were cut away to improve the ability of the barbette guns to bear fore and aft . One 240 @-@ millimeter ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) was mounted in the forecastle as a chase gun . The ship 's secondary armament consisted of six 138 @-@ millimeter ( 5 @.@ 4 in ) guns , four forward of the battery and two aft . These latter two guns were replaced in 1878 by another 240 @-@ millimeter gun as a stern chaser . The ship also mounted four above @-@ water 356 @-@ millimeter ( 14 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes .
All of the ship 's guns could fire both solid shot and explosive shells . The 274 @-@ millimeter Modèle 1870 gun was credited with the ability to penetrate a maximum 14 @.@ 3 inches ( 360 mm ) of wrought iron armor while the 240 @-@ millmeter Modèle 1870 gun could penetrate 14 @.@ 4 inches ( 366 mm ) of wrought iron armor .
At some point the ship received fourteen to eighteen 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Hotchkiss 5 @-@ barrel revolving guns . They fired a shell weighing about 500 g ( 1 @.@ 1 lb ) to a range of about 3 @,@ 200 meters ( 3 @,@ 500 yd ) . They had a rate of fire of about 30 rounds per minute .
= = = Armor = = =
The Colbert @-@ class ships had a complete wrought iron waterline belt that was 220 millimeters ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) thick amidships and tapered to 180 millimeters ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) at the stern . It was backed by 89 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) of wood . The sides of the battery itself were armored with 160 millimeters ( 6 @.@ 3 in ) of wrought iron , backed by 62 millimeters ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) of wood , and the ends of the battery were closed by transverse armored bulkheads 120 millimeters ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) thick , backed by 480 millimeters ( 18 @.@ 9 in ) of wood . The barbettes were unarmored , but the deck was 15 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 59 in ) thick .
= = Service = =
Trident , named after the weapon that symbolized mastery of the seas , was laid down in April 1870 in Toulon and launched on 9 November 1876 . While the exact reason for such prolonged construction time is not known , it is believed that reduction of the French Navy 's budget after the Franco @-@ Prussian War of 1870 – 71 and out @-@ of @-@ date work practices in French dockyards were likely causes . The ship was completed on 1 November 1878 and became the flagship of the second @-@ in @-@ command of the Mediterranean Squadron the following month . Trident , together with her sister ship Colbert , bombarded the Tunisian port of Sfax on 15 – 16 July 1881 as the French occupied Tunisia . She was disarmed and placed in reserve in 1886 – 89 , but was recommissioned on 17 February 1889 and resumed her role as flagship until she was again placed in reserve in 1894 . The ship served as a gunnery training ship until she was condemned on 5 March 1900 . Trident was renamed Var in 1904 and was sold for scrap five years later .
= 1994 Pacific typhoon season =
The 1994 Pacific typhoon season was an extremely active season in the annual cycle of tropical cyclone formation in the Western North Pacific , with a total of 41 tropical cyclones during the course of the season . The season had no official bounds and it ran year @-@ round in 1994 , but most tropical cyclones tend to form in the northwestern Pacific Ocean between May and November . Tropical storms that formed west of the date line were assigned a name by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center . The World Meteorological Organization @-@ designated Regional Specialized Meteorological Centre for tropical cyclones for the region is the Japan Meteorological Agency . Tropical depressions that entered or formed in the Philippine area of responsibility were assigned a name by the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration or PAGASA . This resulted in some storms having two names .
The season started on January 4 with the formation of Tropical Depression 01W to the west of Yap , with the first tropical storm developing a few months later on April 1 , and ended near the end of the year when Tropical Storm Bobbie dissipated in the open Pacific on December 25 . During the season , 25 systems either threatened land or made landfall , killing over 2 @,@ 400 people . The strongest storm of the season was Super Typhoon Doug , which affected Taiwan , South Korea and mainland China , while the deadliest storm was Super Typhoon Fred , which killed over 1 @,@ 000 people in China . Earlier in the season , the combined effects of two tropical storms — Russ and Sharon — caused flooding in China that killed over 1 @,@ 400 . The season also saw two storms , Li and John , cross into the Western North Pacific from the east , while one storm , Tropical Storm Yuri , formed from a precursor low that had similarly crossed the International Date Line . This season , PAGASA named 25 systems and had to use an auxiliary list to name some of them after running out of names from their standard list . Of the 25 , three systems were not tracked by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center .
= = Season summary = =
There were 41 tropical cyclones during 1994 in the Western North Pacific ; 39 formed within the area while two , Tropical Storm Li and Typhoon John , formed in the Eastern North Pacific ( east of longitude 140 ° W ) and crossed the date line to enter this basin . Of the 39 , 34 became tropical storms and were named , of which 17 became typhoons . The season started on January 4 with the formation of Tropical Depression One @-@ W to the west of Yap , with the first tropical storm developing a few months later on April 1 . The season ended late in the year after Tropical Storm Bobbie dissipated in the open Pacific on December 25 .
During the season , 25 systems either threatened land or made landfall , with eight striking the Philippines , eight moving into China , six moving into Vietnam , and three striking Taiwan and China . A total of over 2 @,@ 400 people perished during the season . The strongest storm of the season was Super Typhoon Doug , which affected Taiwan , South Korea and mainland China , while the deadliest storm was Super Typhoon Fred , which killed over 1 @,@ 000 people in China . Earlier in the season , the combined effects of two tropical storms — Russ and Sharon — caused flooding in China that killed over 1 @,@ 400 . The season also saw two storms , Li and John , cross into the Western North Pacific from the east , while one storm , Tropical Storm Yuri , formed from a precursor low that had similarly crossed the International Date Line . Hong Kong received 28 percent of its annual rainfall from tropical cyclones this season , which was slightly above normal .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Depression 01W ( Akang ) = = =
The first tropical depression of the year was first observed as a poorly organised area of clouds , within a trough of low pressure near the Caroline Islands during January 1 . The system subsequently moved towards the north @-@ northwest , while atmospheric convection surrounding the system organized further . As a result of this organization and a weather station on Chuuk island reporting wind speeds of 55 km / h ( 35 mph ) , the JTWC issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert on the system during January 2 . However the system did not become a significant tropical cyclone during January 3 , as it was not able to sustain its convective organization . The system was subsequently classified as a tropical depression on January 4 while the system was about 600 km , ( 370 mi ) , west of Yap .
Tropical Depression 01W made landfall on Samar Island in the Philippines on the evening of January 5 , following which the depression started to weaken . The final warning was issued early on January 6 after the system lost all its deep convection . A total of 35 to 45 deaths were reported , with over 69 million Philippine pesos ( 1994 pesos ) or $ 2 @.@ 4 million ( 1994 USD ) in damage reported . It caused a major flood event in the Philippines . A total of at least 16 @,@ 000 people had to take refuge in government @-@ run shelters during and after the storm .
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Owen ( Bising ) = = =
Typhoon Owen formed from a tropical disturbance which was originally identified within a near @-@ equatorial trough over Micronesia . The disturbance was first mentioned by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center on March 29 . By March 31 , a distinct area within the trough showing signs of cyclonic spin appeared , and the JTWC initiated advisories on Tropical Depression 02W soon afterwards . Meanwhile , the Japan Meteorological Agency classified the system as a tropical storm , Tropical Storm 9401 . It was located about 420 kilometres ( 260 mi ) west @-@ northwest of Yap .
Owen continued to strengthen , with the JMA classifying it a severe tropical storm on April 3 . According to the JTWC , Owen reached typhoon intensity at the same time the JMA classified it a severe tropical storm . The storm tracked southwest to west @-@ southwestward , and reached its peak intensity of 75 knots ( 139 km / h ) from the JTWC ( 60 knots ( 110 km / h ) from the JMA ) on April 4 , shortly before landfall between Leyte and Mindanao . A reading taken late on April 3 at Guiuan on Samar reported sustained winds of 45 knots ( 83 km / h ) . It weakened to a tropical storm overland , before it restrengthened slightly after emerging into the South China Sea . A drilling rig reported 50 knots ( 93 km / h ) sustained winds . Soon afterwards , the cyclone dissipated over water northwest of Luzon on April 9 .
Owen 's west @-@ southwestward track shortly before landfall was rare . Owen was one of just two April typhoons in the previous 36 years — the other being Typhoon Wanda of the 1971 season - to make landfall while moving west @-@ southwestward . Owen 's later recurvature in the South China Sea was also unusual ; it recurved at a latitude of only about 13 ° N , about 3 ° south of the average latitude for recurvature in the South China Sea in April .
Owen 's impact on the Philippines was widespread , with nine provinces being declared under a " state of calamity " by President of the Philippines Fidel Ramos . At least 10 people were killed with 5 others missing , and a further 14 fishermen feared drowned . A total of 33 were reported wounded . Over 9000 families were affected by Owen . No damage was reported to the drilling rig in the South China Sea .
In Okinawa , heavy rains were reported on Yonaguni , with a total reported precipitation amount of 313 millimetres ( 12 @.@ 3 in ) . The peak winds measured at Yonaguni in association with Typhoon Owen were 32 @.@ 4 kilometres per hour ( 17 @.@ 5 kn ) .
= = = Typhoon Page ( Klaring ) = = =
On May 8 , a large increase in deep convection associated with near @-@ equatorial troughs was noted in the eastern Caroline Islands . By the next morning , visible satellite imagery showed an increase in organization of the deep convection associated with the system , and synoptic reports from buoys confirmed that a low @-@ level circulation centre was present near 5 ° N 153 ° E. Slow development ensued , and the system was upgraded to a tropical depression on May 12 . At the same time , the Japan Meteorological Agency began tracking the system , about 510 kilometres ( 320 mi ) west @-@ southwest of Guam .
Page moved on a northwestward track for the next couple days while slowly strengthening . Page was upgraded to a tropical storm by the JTWC late on May 12 , when it was located 500 kilometres ( 310 mi ) north of Yap , while the JMA first considered the system a tropical storm on May 13 . Late on May 13 , Page suddenly slowed in forward speed and began turning to the northeast . On May 14 , Page became a typhoon . However , the JMA did not follow suit until 30 hours later . Page reached its maximum intensity of 90 knots ( 170 km / h ) and minimum pressure of 965 hectopascals ( 28 @.@ 5 inHg ) thirty hours after passing the point of recurvature . Final warnings were issued by both the JTWC and the JMA early on May 18 , as it began extratropical transition around 960 kilometres ( 600 mi ) east @-@ southeast of Tokyo .
Page had the largest average track forecast errors of all the typhoons in 1994 , mainly due to failures in expecting its recurvature . Furthermore , Page 's late attainment of maximum intensity , at 30 hours after point of recurvature , is not common . Between 1978 and 1993 , only seven of 77 typhoons attained peak intensity more than 24 hours after recurving .
Large waves and high tides generated by Page affected the western Mariana Islands . A few tourists had to be rescued from high surf and strong currents on Guam . Minimal rainfall was recorded in Japan , the highest recorded total was 29 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 1 in ) in Kumagaya , Saitama . At Mount Tsukuba , a maximum sustained wind speed of 58 kilometres per hour ( 31 kn ) was recorded .
= = = Tropical Depression 04W ( Deling ) = = =
On May 14 , an area of deep convection associated with a weak cyclonic circulation near Kosrae was mentioned in the JTWC 's 0600 UTC Significant Tropical Weather Advisory . For the next five days , this weak circulation tracked west @-@ northwestward in the direction of Guam , before turning to the west @-@ southwest , but convection failed to consolidate near the centre during this time . After passing close to Palau on May 21 , it turned northwest and entered the Philippine Sea , and was named Deling by PAGASA early on May 23 local time . Shortly after , SSM / I imagery indicated the presence of a well @-@ defined low @-@ level circulation centre , and visible and infrared satellite images indicated an increase in organisation of the system and a consolidation of deep convection near the centre . Based on this , a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert was issued by the JTWC at 0600 UTC .
The first warning was issued a day later when the amount of deep convection near the centre increased as the depression neared the Philippines . While over the Philippine islands , a large Mesoscale Convective System ( MCS ) developed near the centre of the tropical depression , something that would occur again later while the system was west of Luzon . Soon after the second MCS weakened , the system made landfall in central Vietnam on May 26 , and quickly dissipated when inland . The Hong Kong Observatory tracked this system as a weak tropical depression from May 25 UTC when it was about 520 km ( 320 mi ) southeast of Xisha for about 24 hours before it dissipated .
According to press reports , over 2 @,@ 000 people were forced to evacuate from Davao City , despite no reports of significantly high winds or low pressures , as the system caused heavy rainfall that produced heavy flooding that killed five people and left at least one person missing .
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Russ ( Emang ) = = =
Tropical Storm Russ was one of just three storms to cause the Hong Kong Observatory to raise Tropical Cyclone Signal # 3 in the 1994 season . Russ was first spotted on June 2 , about 140 kilometres ( 87 mi ) east of Hainan Island as a tropical disturbance . Deep convection over the circulation center soon improved , and the Hong Kong Observatory had declared it a tropical depression on June 3 when it was located about 290 kilometres ( 180 mi ) south of Hong Kong .
The system initially moved east to northeast while slowly strengthening . Russ became a tropical storm on the evening of June 4 , passing just south of Dongsha that night . PAGASA then named the system Emang , shortly before it made a clockwise loop and started to move back towards the west @-@ southwest , intensifying . Russ made landfall on June 8 on the northeastern Luichow Peninsula , and dissipated inland .
The maximum wind gust in Hong Kong was reported at Tai Mo Shan , where a gust to 56 knots ( 104 km / h ) was recorded on June 7 . Maximum daily rainfall in the territory was recorded at Yuen Long on June 8 , when 41 @.@ 0 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 61 in ) was reported . Russ killed at least 74 people in Hainan , Guangdong and Guangxi Provinces and injured another 726 people . 16 others were reported missing . 702 @,@ 430 hectares ( 7024 square kilometres , 2711 square miles ) of farmland in the three provinces were destroyed by floods from Russ . Around 725 @,@ 000 houses were destroyed . Total damage was estimated at 6 @.@ 3 billion RMB ( 1994 RMB ) , or $ 727 @.@ 5 million ( 1994 USD ) .
= = = Tropical Storm Sharon ( Gading ) = = =
In mid @-@ June , not long after Tropical Storm Russ had made landfall , an area of convection south of Chuuk within the near @-@ equatorial trough began to consolidate . The system moved west @-@ northwest as it began to organize on June 20 . Acquiring tropical depression strength on June 21 , intensification halted due to vertical wind shear . Subsequent weakened led to its dissipation as a tropical depression by June 22 .
PAGASA named the system Gading as it neared the Philippines , and twelve hours after the final warning was issued , convection once again built up , and a new warning was issued . The Japan Meteorological Agency issued their first warning on Tropical Storm 9404 a day later . As it crossed Luzon , Sharon caused flooding and released mudflows from Mount Pinatubo , killing two people . Traffic on two main highways near Manila was disrupted by the mud .
After crossing Luzon , Sharon reached its peak , with vertical shear inhibiting further intensification . It made landfall on June 25 around 140 metres ( 0 @.@ 087 mi ) east @-@ northeast of Zhanjiang , or 110 kilometres ( 68 mi ) east of where Tropical Storm Russ had made landfall just weeks before . Winds gusted to 52 knots ( 96 km / h ) at Tai Mo Shan in Hong Kong . Sharon claimed 11 lives in the seas off Hong Kong , and the combined flooding effects of Russ and Sharon reportedly left more than 1 @,@ 400 people dead , and caused over $ 6 billion ( 1994 USD ) in damage .
= = = Tropical Depression 07W ( Heling ) = = =
Tropical Depression 07W developed in the monsoon trough on June 29 , well east of the Philippines . Warnings were initiated at 0000 UTC June 3 when the system was approximately 250 km ( 160 mi ) southeast of Dongsha . It reached its maximum intensity shortly before landfall on July 4 . Flooding associated with Tropical Depression 07W in western Guangdong Province killed four people and left two others missing , and destroyed over 6 @,@ 700 houses while leaving another 50 @,@ 000 damaged . 120 @,@ 000 hectares ( 1 @,@ 200 square kilometres , 465 square miles ) of farmland were ruined , and irrigation facilities were damaged . Total losses from the storm in Guangdong were estimated to be $ 114 million ( 1994 USD ) . In Guangxi Province , the storm killed six others , and left over 30 @,@ 000 people homeless .
= = = Typhoon Tim ( Iliang ) = = =
A tropical disturbance formed in the Caroline Islands on July 5 south of a Tropical Upper Tropospheric Trough . The system organized into a tropical depression on the morning on July 6 . Moving northwest , the depression strengthened into a tropical storm as it approached 130 ° E on the morning of July 8 . Rapid intensification ensued , with Tim reaching typhoon intensity late on July 8 , peaking at 125 knots ( 232 km / h ) on July 10 .
From July 9 to July 11 , Tim and Tropical Storm Vanessa engaged in a Fujiwara interaction , and Tim absorbed the smaller Vanessa into its southeastern quadrant . Late on July 10 , Tim struck Taiwan , bringing gusts of 98 knots ( 181 km / h ) to Chengkung as it made landfall about 200 kilometres ( 120 mi ) south of Taipei . Continuing northwest , Tim moved into mainland China as a weaker typhoon , crossing the coast about 150 kilometres ( 93 mi ) south @-@ southwest of Fuzhou . It dissipated well inland on July 11 .
Damage was widespread in Taiwan , where Tim killed at least 19 people and left another 11 missing , and where 67 people reported injuries . A freighter with 97 mainland Chinese on board ran aground near Suao . About 50 @,@ 000 hectares ( 500 square kilometres , 195 square miles ) of farmland was flooded , and more than 300 buildings collapsed during the storm . The bad weather also disrupted international flights , and knocked out electricity to over 2 million households . NT $ 2 billion ( 1994 TWD ) , or US $ 75 million ( 1994 dollars ) , was the reported cost of damage .
In Fujian Province , Typhoon Tim killed three people and flooded 140 @,@ 000 hectares ( 1 @,@ 400 km ² . , 540 sq. mi . ) of farmland , with damages estimated at 1 @.@ 5 billion renminbi ( 1994 RMB ) , or $ 173 @.@ 5 million ( 1994 USD ) . Tim was also blamed for 14 deaths and 6 injuries in the Philippines ( Pangasinan , Ilocos Sur and Ilocos Norte provinces ) as it passed near the area .
= = = Tropical Storm Vanessa ( Loleng ) = = =
As Tim developed in the Philippine Sea , a tropical disturbance in the South China Sea began to show development . Becoming a tropical depression late on July 8 , it strengthened into a tropical storm early on July 9 , with both the Joint Typhoon Warning Center and the Japan Meteorological Agency classifying it a tropical storm .
Vanessa made an anti @-@ clockwise loop and then started to move northeastward under the steering influence of a monsoon flow and Typhoon Tim 's circulation , reaching a peak intensity of 45 knots ( 83 km / h ) west of Luzon before it was absorbed by the larger typhoon . The final warning was issued on July 11 after it was determined that Vanessa 's circulation had been absorbed . Vanessa was blamed for three deaths in the Philippines , where it was known as Loleng .
= = = Super Typhoon Walt ( Miding ) = = =
Walt was part of a three tropical cyclone outbreak along a reverse @-@ oriented monsoon trough ( aligned northeast @-@ southwest rather than the usual northwest @-@ southeast orientation . ) By July 11 , a thunderstorm cluster developed near Palau . The disturbance moved slowly northwest , becoming a tropical depression late on July 14 . As it neared the 15th parallel , Walt turned to the northeast and intensified . By the afternoon of July 19 the cyclone had become a super typhoon , the first of the season , an intensity it maintained for a day . While slowly weakening , Walt turned to the west . By the morning of July 23 the cyclone had dropped down to tropical storm strength as it turned to the north for a couple days . The storm turned back to the west , making landfall on the southwest end of Shikoku as a moderate tropical storm , bringing wind gusts to tropical storm force . The cyclone dissipated south of Korea by early on July 27 . Rainfall across South Korea helped improve severe drought conditions .
= = = Tropical Storm Yunya ( Norming ) = = =
The disturbance that was to become Tropical Storm Yunya was first mentioned on July 16 by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center when it was located in the South China Sea as cloudiness in a reverse @-@ oriented monsoon trough . A weak low @-@ level circulation was identified through animated satellite imagery and synoptic data early that morning . Moving east @-@ northeast , the system strengthened into Tropical Depression 11W by July 18 . At 0600 UTC that day , the Japan Meteorological Agency declared the formation of Tropical Storm 9409 . Yunya continued to undergo gradual strengthening , reaching its peak strength near landfall in northwest Luzon on the morning of July 19 .
As it tracked over land , it became disorganized and weakened to a minimal tropical storm . In the Philippine Sea , Yunya briefly restrengthened and reached a secondary peak of 40 knots ( 74 km / h ) . The JMA discontinued warnings after it deemed Yunya to have dropped below tropical storm intensity at 1800 UTC that day , while the JTWC continued monitoring the tropical depression until convection decreased and the storm dissipated on July 21 . During its life , Yunya had an unusual eastward motion , which was due to the reverse @-@ oriented monsoon trough . Yunya was also a small system , and appeared to have been undergoing a period of rapid organisation of convection shortly before it made landfall .
Heavy rain from Yunya caused landslides of volcanic debris from Mount Pinatubo . Coincidentally , a previous Typhoon Yunya in 1991 hit the Philippines the day of Mount Pinatubo 's major eruption . Gusts were in excess of 60 knots ( 110 km / h ) across Luzon . Yunya killed at least 11 people and injured at least 7 others , and affected over 420 @,@ 000 people . A total of $ 37 @.@ 6 million ( 1994 USD ) in damage was reported in the Philippines from Yunya .
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Zeke = = =
Forming at the opposite end of the monsoon trough from Walt on July 14 , the initial tropical disturbance moved north to northeast . Slowly developing , the system became a tropical depression during the early afternoon of July 18 . Westerly upper level shear from Walt was slowing development , and Zeke finally achieved tropical storm status early on July 20 . The cyclone continued to waver around a northeast track . After turning more northward early on the afternoon of July 22 , Zeke became a typhoon for half of a day . Wavering around a more northerly track , Zeke weakened and evolved into an extratropical cyclone on by early on July 25 .
= = = Tropical Depression 13W = = =
Tropical Depression 13W was considered to be the shortest @-@ lived tropical cyclone of the season ,
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for the Russian naval base at Sevastopol in the Crimean Peninsula .
France and Germany took an intermediate position , abstaining from naming a guilty party :
European Union – On 8 August , France ( who held the rotating presidency of the European Union ) announced that the EU and the US would send a joint delegation to negotiate a ceasefire .
Germany – German chancellor Angela Merkel expressed her concern about the humanitarian situation in Georgia and called for an immediate ceasefire .
A few leaders supported Russia 's position :
Italy – Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs Franco Frattini said , " We cannot create an anti @-@ Russia coalition in Europe , and on this point we are close to Putin 's position . " He emphasised that Vladimir Putin was a near partner of Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi .
Belarus – President of Belarus Alexander Lukashenko said , " Russia acted calmly , wisely and beautifully . "
Georgia announced on 12 August 2008 that it would leave the Commonwealth of Independent States , which it blamed for failing to avert the conflict . Its departure became effective in August 2009 .
According to academic Martin Malek , western countries did not feel it was necessary to aggravate relations with Russia over " tiny and insignificant " Georgia . He wrote in the Caucasian Review of International Affairs that western policy makers did not want to isolate Russia because its support was necessary to solve " international problems " .
= = = NATO reaction in the Black Sea = = =
NATO increased its naval presence in the Black Sea significantly following the Russian invasion , with ships docking in Georgian ports , and ( according to the US Navy ) delivering humanitarian aid . NATO said that its presence in the Black Sea was not related to the Georgian crisis ; its vessels were conducting typical visits and preplanned naval exercises with Romania and Bulgaria . Russian General Anatoliy Nogovitsyn reminded NATO of the limit on the number of vessels allowed in the Black Sea under the 1936 Montreux convention . Russian President Dmitry Medvedev questioned the claim that ships going to Georgia were bringing only humanitarian assistance , alleging the delivery of military material . According to political analyst Vladimir Socor , the US maintained a continual presence in the Black Sea . The ships were rotated from time to time in the Black Sea because of the constraints on ship 's weight and length of visits set by the Montreux Convention .
= = Combatants = =
= = = Georgian order of battle = = =
According to the Moscow Defence Brief , an English @-@ language magazine published by the Russian non @-@ governmental organisation the Centre for Analysis of Strategies and Technologies , the Georgian troops included the 2nd , 3rd and 4th Infantry Brigades , the Artillery Brigade , part of the 1st Infantry Brigade and the separate Gori Tank Battalion . Additionally , special forces and Ministry of Internal Affairs troops were deployed . The total number of troops was 16 @,@ 000 according to the magazine . According to the International Institute for Strategic Studies , ten light infantry battalions of the 2nd , 3rd and 4th infantry brigades , special forces and an artillery brigade , totalling approximately 12 @,@ 000 troops , had been concentrated by the start of the conflict . The primary task of capturing Tskhinvali was accomplished by the 4th Brigade with support from the 2nd and 3rd Brigades . According to the EU fact @-@ finding mission , 10 @,@ 000 – 11 @,@ 000 soldiers took part in the war .
The 1st Infantry Brigade , the only one trained to NATO standards , was serving in Iraq at the beginning of the war ; on 11 August , the United States Air Force airlifted it to Georgia .
= = = Russo @-@ South Ossetian @-@ Abkhaz order of battle = = =
A sizeable portion of the Russian 58th Army , one of the foremost military units in Russia , was included in the Russian order of battle . It exceeds the Georgian Army in the number of troops , heavy hardware and planes . The 58th Army fought in Second Chechen War .
= = = Military analysis = = =
= = = = Georgia = = = =
United States officials said that " one of the few effective elements of the [ Georgia ] ' s military " was air defence , with the analysts crediting the SA @-@ 11 Buk @-@ 1M with shooting down a Tupolev @-@ 22M bomber and contributing to the loss of some Su @-@ 25s . This view was supported by independent Russian analysis . Colonel @-@ General Anatoliy Nogovitsyn , Russian deputy chief of general staff , said the Soviet @-@ made Tor and Buk anti @-@ aircraft missile systems , bought by Georgia from Ukraine , were responsible for downing Russian aircraft during the war . A Russian assessment , reported by Roger McDermott , said that Russian losses would have been significantly higher if the Georgians had not left behind a portion of their Buk @-@ M1 systems near Senaki ( in western Georgia ) and several Osa missile launchers in South Ossetia . According to some reports , Georgia also possessed a battery of the Israeli @-@ made SPYDER @-@ SR short @-@ range self @-@ propelled anti @-@ aircraft system . The Georgian air @-@ defence early @-@ warning and command @-@ control tactical system was connected via Turkey to a NATO Air Situation Data Exchange ( ASDE ) , which provided Georgia with intelligence during the conflict .
Georgia has said that its key vulnerabilities were ineffective communication during action and its weaker air strength . Konstantin Makienko of CAST saw substandard training of pilots as the primary reason for the poor performance of Georgian air sorties . According to Georgian first deputy defence minister Batu Kutelia , Georgia needed a complex , multi @-@ layered air @-@ defence system to protect its airspace . However , Western military officers experienced with Georgian military forces suggested that Georgia 's military shortcomings were too great to be eliminated by new equipment acquisitions . According to a 2 September 2008 New York Times article , " Georgia 's Army fled ahead of the Russian Army 's advance , turning its back and leaving Georgian civilians in an enemy 's path . Its planes did not fly after the first few hours of contact . Its navy was sunk in the harbor , and its patrol boats were hauled away by Russian trucks on trailers . "
According to a Western military officer , Georgian logistical preparations were mediocre and there was interference between units during the action . Exercises simulating combat against a probable enemy ( the 58th Army ) had never been organised by the Georgian Army . During the war , communications broke down in the mountains and troops had to resort to mobile phones . There was insufficient planning ; according to Giorgi Tavdgiridze , nobody thought of how to seal the Roki Tunnel . There was a dismal organisation of the delivery of 10 @,@ 000 Georgian reservists in Gori on 9 August ; they had no specific targets and went back to Tbilisi the following day . The conflict was called by journalists as the war " that was hidden from history " because there was very little video recording of military action . According to their American trainers , Georgian soldiers were unprepared for combat despite having " warrior spirit " . There were few well @-@ trained , educated officers in high ranking positions , and Saakashvili 's government had no military experience .
= = = = Russia = = = =
The Russian Command , Control , Communications and Intelligence ( C ³ I ) performed poorly during the conflict . The Russian communication systems were outdated , with a 58th Army commander allegedly making contact with his combat troops via a journalist @-@ owned satellite phone . Without the modern GLONASS , precision @-@ guided munitions could not be used ; the US @-@ controlled GPS was unavailable , since the war zone was blacked out . Due to the negligence of Russian defence minister , the use of unmanned aerial vehicles was not authorised ; an RIA Novosti editorial said that Russian forces lacked reliable aerial @-@ reconnaissance systems , once using a Tupolev Tu @-@ 22M3 bomber instead . However , Russian reconnaissance battalions and regiments were also deployed during the war . General Anatoly Nogovitsyn , deputy chief of the General staff , said that during the war , new weapons were not tried out .
The RIA Novosti editorial also said that Russian Su @-@ 25 ground @-@ attack jets did not have radar sights and ground @-@ target coordinate computing . They also did not have long @-@ range surface @-@ to @-@ air missiles that could be launched beyond the air @-@ defence zones of an adversary . Opposition @-@ affiliated Russian analyst Konstantin Makienko observed the poor performance of the Russian Air Force : " It is totally unbelievable that the Russian Air Force was unable to establish air superiority almost to the end of the five @-@ day war , despite the fact that the enemy had no fighter aviation . "
According to Russian expert Anton Lavrov , on 8 August , Russian and South Ossetian troops deployed in South Ossetia were unaware that Russian aviation was involved in the war . Russian troops and South Ossetians often assessed Russian aircraft as hostile and fired at them before precise identification took place . On 8 August , the air force performed 63 flights in support of Russian ground troops . A total of six Russian aircraft were lost during the war : one Su @-@ 25SM , two Su @-@ 25BMs , two Su @-@ 24Ms and one Tu @-@ 22M3 ; friendly fire was the cause of the downing of three planes . Lavrov denied that the Tu @-@ 22M was used for reconnaissance .
The relationship between the North Caucasus Military District commander and the air force and their roles in commanding were unclear . Colonel @-@ General Aleksandr Zelin , commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Air Force did not set foot in the command post , instead running Air @-@ force operations on a mobile phone from his office without any help from his air @-@ defence assistants . The air force was accused of rendering no assistance to land campaign .
Swedish analysts Carolina Vendil Pallin and Fredrik Westerlund said that although the Russian Black Sea Fleet did not meet significant resistance , it proved effective at implementing elaborate manoeuvres . Mechanised infantry opened a second front in Abkhazia , which contributed to the rapidity of the Russian military victory .
Heritage Foundation researchers said in their assessment of the preparation of Russian general @-@ staff that the operations were planned and implemented effectively , with a strategic surprise being engineered by the Russians . A Reuters analyst described Russia 's army as " strong but flawed " ; the war demonstrated that Russia 's " armed forces have emerged from years of neglect as a formidable fighting force , but revealed important deficiencies . " He stated that due to these weaknesses , Russia fell short of its image of a world @-@ class military power . Unlike the Second Chechen War , Russia 's force in Georgia was composed primarily of professional soldiers instead of conscripts . Reuters journalists in Georgia stated that they saw the Russian forces to be well @-@ equipped and disciplined forces . CAST director Ruslan Pukhov said that " the victory over the Georgian army ... should become for Russia not a cause for euphoria and excessive joy , but serve to speed up military transformations . " Roger McDermott wrote that slight differences in criticism by civilian media or official sources after the conflict was " an orchestrated effort by the government to ' sell ' reform to the military and garner support among the populace . "
However , the Russian Army 's transformation into a professional army was not deemed as successful . In September 2008 , General Vladimir Boldyrev acknowledged that many of the professional soldiers did not have better training than the conscripts . Russian Airborne Troops and special forces conducted most of the land fighting . Due to the Russian Air Force 's inability to penetrate Georgian air defence , airborne troops could not be airlifted behind Georgian lines . An ambush of a ground @-@ troop commander , in which only five of thirty vehicles in his convoy survived , indicated intelligence and surveillance negligence . Many Russian land units reportedly had an insufficient ammunition supply .
= = = Equipment losses and cost = = =
After the ceasefire was signed on 12 August , in Georgia proper , Russian troops attempted to seize and destroy Georgian armament , a process termed by the Moscow Defence Brief as the " demilitarization of the Georgian Armed Forces " . After the war Stratfor states that Russia " has largely destroyed Georgia 's war @-@ fighting capability " . According to Moscow Defence Brief , Georgia lost its air and naval forces and its air @-@ defence systems . The Georgian army lost large quantities of equipment to the Russians during the conflict . Russian Ground Forces official Igor Konashenkov said that the Russians captured 65 Georgian tanks , over 20 of which were destroyed because they were beyond repair or too old . Russia estimated that the Georgian Air Force lost three Su @-@ 25 attack aircraft and two L @-@ 29 jets . A Russian air attack on Marneuli Air Force Base destroyed three AN @-@ 2 aircraft . Russian airborne forces set fire to two Mi @-@ 24 helicopters and one Mi @-@ 14 on 11 August . Georgian Defence Minister Davit Kezerashvili said that Georgia lost materiel worth $ 250 million . According to Georgian president Mikheil Saakashvili , his country saved 95 percent of its armed forces . The 4th Brigade had more casualties than any other Georgian military unit .
In 2009 , Russian Army Chief of General Staff Nikolai Makarov stated that Georgia was rearming , although the armament was not directly provided by the United States . According to Makarov , the Georgian Armed Forces had exceeded their pre @-@ war strength by 2009 .
Russia admitted that three of its Su @-@ 25 strike aircraft and one Tu @-@ 22M3 long @-@ range bomber were lost , in addition to at least three tanks , 20 armoured and 20 non @-@ armoured vehicles . Moscow Defence Brief provided a higher estimate , saying that Russian Air Force total losses during the war were one Tu @-@ 22M3 long @-@ range bomber , one Su @-@ 24M Fencer fighter @-@ bomber , one Su @-@ 24MR Fencer E reconnaissance plane and four Su @-@ 25 attack planes . Anton Lavrov listed one Su @-@ 25SM , two Su @-@ 25BM , two Su @-@ 24M and one Tu @-@ 22M3 lost . According to Nezavisimaya Gazeta , the five @-@ day war cost Russia an estimated 12 @.@ 5 billion rubles , a daily cost of 2 @.@ 5 billion rubles .
= Business Guy =
" Business Guy " is the ninth episode of the eighth season of the animated television series Family Guy . It originally aired on Fox in the United States on December 13 , 2009 . The episode centers on Peter as he assumes temporary control of his father @-@ in @-@ law Carter Pewterschmidt 's billion @-@ dollar empire after he suffers a heart attack and is incapacitated in a coma . Peter immediately becomes power hungry , however , and develops several ridiculous items , prompting Lois and Carter , after he recovers from his coma , to try to trick him into relinquishing control of the company .
The episode was written by Andrew Goldberg and Alex Carter , and directed by Pete Michels . It received mixed reviews from critics for its storyline and many cultural references , in addition to receiving criticism from and being reported to the FCC by the Parents Television Council . According to Nielsen ratings , it was viewed in 7 @.@ 67 million homes in its original airing . The episode featured guest performances by Hugh Laurie , Bobby Lee , Nana Visitor , Johnny Galecki and Jim Parsons , along with several recurring guest voice actors for the series . " Business Guy " was released on DVD along with ten other episodes from the season on December 13 , 2011 .
= = Plot = =
The Griffins are invited onto the Pewterschmidts ' yacht , where Lois becomes seasick and vomits . Peter is reminded of his bachelor party when this happens , and is shocked to find out that Carter has never had one and does not know what it is . Upon returning to Quahog , Peter takes him to a strip club to simulate a bachelor party . In his excitement , Carter develops a heart attack and falls into a coma . Dr. House is hired to treat him , but he throws his rule book out the window and punches Carter in the face to ensure that he is comatose . Carter 's video will is discovered , in which he gives Lois control of his billion @-@ dollar manufacturing company , Pewterschmidt Industries , even though she does not know how to run a corporation . Peter , however , is inspired by House 's " live @-@ without @-@ rules " regime and decides to control the company himself .
On his first day on the job , Peter dismisses the entire board of directors for being unable to keep up with his ideas and hires his friends to manufacture ridiculous items . Soon after , Carter reawakens from his coma and finds what Peter has done with his company . Carter confronts Peter in his former office and demands for him to relinquish control of the company , but he refuses ; he instead forces him to work as a janitor , have and invite people to his mansion for a Big Bang Theory viewing party , pay a compliment to a sharply @-@ dressed Asian man , and clean out the fridge in the employee lounge . Carter is embarrassed , so he and Lois trick Peter into surrendering the company by scaring him into believing a swamp monster will eat him if he does not . A seemingly real swamp monster scares Peter out of the office , chases Lois and a disguised Carter , before being found out as House . In the end , Lois cheers Peter up by revealing that the contract he signed allows him to keep the corporate plane . Peter is delighted and jumps in a freeze frame shot , but grows alarmed when he actually remains in the air .
= = Production and development = =
The episode was co @-@ written by Andrew Goldberg and Alex Carter , both having written episodes for the show previously . The episode was directed by series regular Pete Michels , before the conclusion of the eighth production season , in his second episode of the season . Series regulars Peter Shin and James Purdum served as supervising directors , with Andrew Goldberg and Alex Carter working as staff writers for the episode . Karin Perrotta was the associate producer of this episode , in her ninth episode of the season .
" Business Guy " , along with the eleven other episodes from Family Guy 's eighth season , was released on a three @-@ disc DVD set in the United States on December 13 , 2011 . The sets include brief audio commentaries by various crew and cast members for several episodes , a collection of deleted scenes and animatics , a special mini @-@ feature which discussed the process behind animating " And Then There Were Fewer " , a mini @-@ feature entitled " The Comical Adventures of Family Guy – Brian & Stewie : The Lost Phone Call " , and footage of the Family Guy panel at the 2010 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International .
In addition to the regular cast , actor Hugh Laurie made his second appearance in the series , the first being " One If by Clam , Two If by Sea " ; Laurie lampooned his role as House protagonist Gregory House . Actors Jim Parsons , Johnny Galecki , Bobby Lee of MADtv and Nana Visitor also guest star in the episode . Recurring guest voice actors Alexandra Breckenridge , Chris Cox , Ralph Garman , Danny Smith , Alec Sulkin and John Viener also made minor appearances . Actor Patrick Warburton appears in the episode as well .
= = Cultural references = =
In the opening scene , Carter reveals that he has never had a bachelor party , leading Peter to profess that he will help solve Carter 's dilemma , just as Hamburger Helper helped him . Peter is then introduced to the Hamburger Helper mascot Helping Hand , as well as his mentally challenged brother — Cheeseburger Helper — who insists on adding cheese to the meal . After taking Carter to the Quahog strip club , Peter decides to pay a mistress to give him a lapdance , causing Carter to suffer a heart attack from sexual arousal . This then prompts Quagmire to ask what is wrong with him , to which Carter replies that he is having " a heart attack @-@ ack @-@ ack @-@ ack @-@ ack @-@ ack ! You oughta know by now ! , " which is taken from a line in the Billy Joel song " Movin ' Out ( Anthony 's Song ) " . The bedtime story that Peter refers to when talking to Lois about how she makes him sad is the " Story of Little Suck @-@ a @-@ Thumb " from the German children 's book Struwwelpeter .
Returning home from firing the board of directors , Peter calls attention to Lacey Chabert , formerly the voice of Meg Griffin before being replaced by Mila Kunis , when he notes that he can also fire Lois for " misbehaving . " In introducing new products for Pewterschmidt Industries , Peter decides to create several unorthodox items , which include a cereal line for Jeremy Irons entitled " Jeremy Irons Cereal , " a " Scream in a Box , " as well as an African American heart rate monitor , which Carter later uses at the hospital , with the system 's two settings , Barry White , and Bill Cosby 's impersonated voices .
Once Carter Pewterschmidt wakes up from his coma , Johnny Galecki and Jim Parsons appear as Leonard Hofstadter and Sheldon Cooper in the episode when Carter is forced by Peter to hold a viewing party for the CBS comedy sitcom The Big Bang Theory , which Carter is reluctant to do at first , but soon begins to enjoy the show . In an attempt to get the company back from Peter , Carter and Lois trick him into thinking a swamp monster is out to get important businessmen , and if he does not sign the company back over to Mr. Pewterschmidt , he will be eaten . Gregory House also dresses as a swamp monster , however , and causes Lois to become confused , until she unmasks the monster in the style of Scooby @-@ Doo . House then interjects by speaking in Hugh Laurie 's original English accent , as opposed to the American accent used on the television show in which he stars .
= = Reception = =
In a slight drop from the previous week , the episode was viewed in 7 @.@ 67 million homes , in its original airing in the United States . The episode also received a 3 @.@ 8 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , edging out The Simpsons , The Cleveland Show , and American Dad ! .
Receiving mixed reviews from critics , the episode was deemed " a throwback to the earlier more successful seasons . " Ahsan Haque of IGN praised the storyline as consistent " from start to finish . " Jason Hughes of TV Squad also praised the " inside jokes " in the episode , as well as the Scooby @-@ Doo sequence as " a flash of satiric brilliance . " In contrast , Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club called the storyline " an excuse [ for ] jokes , " giving the episode a B- rating . Glenn Diaz of BuddyTV praised Laurie 's performance in the episode , stating that " his scenes were among the funniest on the episode . " The TV Critic 's Robin Pierson rated the episode 55 , praising the storyline and Laurie 's cameo while criticizing a non sequitur parody of Scooby @-@ Doo .
= = Controversy = =
Although it did not name this episode its " Worst TV Show of the Week , " the Parents Television Council filed an indecency complaint about " Business Guy " two days after its airdate , citing the lapdance sequence as a possible violation of federal law regarding broadcast decency .
= Leschi ( fireboat ) =
Leschi , named for the native American leader Chief Leschi , is a fireboat operated by the Seattle Fire Department . The ship was laid down in 2006 and commissioned in 2007 ; its sponsor was Sharon Nickels , wife of the then @-@ mayor Greg Nickels .
The 108 @-@ foot ( 33 m ) Leschi has been described as the " dreadnought of Seattle 's fireboat fleet " . Carrying a normal complement of four , its mission includes firefighting , search and rescue , and response to chemical , biological , radiological , nuclear , and explosive ( CBRNE ) emergencies . It can also be used as a mobile pump and fuel station and as emergency medical treatment and command center .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
Seattle is one of the largest ports on the United States west coast and waterfront fires have been a continual concern for the city . Since 1891 the Seattle Fire Department has regularly operated at least two fireboats , which can be augmented by ships and small craft with fire suppression capabilities from the U.S. Coast Guard , Seattle Police , and neighboring municipalities . One of the worst maritime fires in the city 's history occurred in 1968 when an electrical malfunction at Todd Shipyards sparked a fire that took 14 engine companies , two fireboats , two U.S. Coast Guard cutters , and several conscripted Foss Maritime tugboats more than half @-@ a @-@ day to extinguish .
In the 1970s the United States Maritime Administration funded a special program to train a contingent of 50 Seattle firefighters to provide land @-@ based support in the control and extinguishing of dockside and shipboard conflagrations . The effort , which was studied by the Stanford Research Institute , later became a model for other waterfront cities .
= = = Procurement = = =
Prior to Leschi 's construction , Seattle 's flagship firefighting vessel was the aging Alki , which was built in 1927 and operated alongside a newer vessel , Chief Seattle . Once known as the world 's third " most powerful fireboat , " by the early 2000s the antique Alki had become increasingly difficult to operate . On one occasion , in 2003 , an engine problem left the vessel dead in the water and the ship was only able to move by firing its legendarily powerful water cannons .
Procurement of a modern fireboat to replace Alki was part of a successful public safety levy enacted by Seattle voters in 2003 approving its construction . Leschi was built at a cost of $ 12 million by Dakota Creek Industries of Anacortes , Washington , from a design by Jensen Marine Consultants . The Seattle Fire Department took delivery of the vessel in 2007 during a commissioning ceremony attended by mayor Greg Nickels . The ship sponsor was Nickels ' wife , Sharon . The name , Leschi , had been suggested by Kadi Camara , a Seattle elementary school student , as part of a naming competition held by the city . It was meant to honor a former Nisqually chief . Camara got to ride on the ship as a prize . Following the commissioning of Leschi , Alki was retired . Leschi is berthed on Elliott Bay where it is the primary response vehicle for maritime fires on the city 's outer shoreline .
= = Design and specifications = =
Described as the " dreadnought of Seattle 's fireboat fleet , " Leschi is one of three such vessels currently operated by the Seattle Fire Department ( SFD ) , the others being Chief Seattle and Marine One . The 108 @-@ foot ( 33 m ) Leschi is powered by twin diesel engines rated at 1 @,@ 550 @-@ horsepower ( 1 @,@ 160 kW ) turning 72 @-@ inch ( 1 @,@ 800 mm ) four @-@ blade propellers , which give the ship a flank speed of 14 knots . Two additional engines , rated at 1 @,@ 440 @-@ horsepower ( 1 @,@ 070 kW ) , power the ship 's four water pumps . Unlike its predecessor , Alki , Leschi has touchscreen consoles for bridge command controls instead of manual " knobs and levers " . By displacement and pump capacity , it is the largest of ten municipal @-@ owned fireboats that support the U.S. Coast Guard 's regional marine firefighting plan for Puget Sound .
= = Mission and capabilities = =
According to Professional Mariner , Leschi 's mission is " firefighting , mobile platform for emergency medical treatment and command center , mobile pump and fuel station , and response to chemical , biological , radiological , nuclear , and explosive ( CBRNE ) emergencies "
The ship 's principal fire suppression equipment comes in the form of four 5 @,@ 000 @-@ US @-@ gallon ( 19 @,@ 000 l ; 4 @,@ 200 imp gal ) per @-@ minute water pumps . In addition to pumping water , the ship 's firefighting apparatus can tap an integrated 6 @,@ 000 @-@ US @-@ gallon ( 23 @,@ 000 l ; 5 @,@ 000 imp gal ) foam tank for use against chemical @-@ fueled fires . Leschi also has a 55 @-@ foot ( 17 m ) telescoping crane with ladder and fire line for use against container ship fires and the ship is able to douse itself with a cooling fog to allow for operation directly adjacent to a major fire .
In addition to marine firefighting , Leschi can support land @-@ based firefighters in the event of a disaster that destroys Seattle 's water mains . Manifolds on Leschi 's deck provide ports through which hose lines can be run to provide fire engines with direct access to seawater .
Leschi is designed to operate with a complement of four personnel , but has a command and communications room for use by senior SFD officers in the event of a catastrophe that renders land facilities unusable . The ship is outfitted with a CBRN defense system for crew protection in the event of a nuclear or chemical weapons attack against Seattle , or similar disaster . When activated , the system automatically seals pressurized hatches to the bridge and command center ; uncontaminated air is provided by a fan and filter system .
The ship is regularly equipped with a rigid @-@ hulled inflatable boat that can be launched from the ship 's stern . A thermal imaging camera system allows the ship 's crew to locate distressed persons in the water ( such as in a man overboard emergency ) at night or during other low @-@ visibility conditions .
= 2011 IZOD IndyCar World Championship =
The 2011 IZOD IndyCar World Championship was the final race of the 2011 IZOD IndyCar series schedule . The event took place at Las Vegas Motor Speedway in Clark County , Nevada on October 16 , 2011 . The race was stopped following a major accident triggered by drivers trying to avoid light contact between Wade Cunningham and James Hinchcliffe . 15 cars were involved in the wreck , which resulted in the death of two @-@ time Indianapolis 500 winner and 2005 series champion Dan Wheldon . After a several hour delay , IndyCar decided to abandon the remaining 188 laps after word of Wheldon 's death was relayed to the drivers .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
The Las Vegas race was added to the schedule for the 2011 season and replaced the event at Homestead @-@ Miami Speedway as the final race of the IndyCar season . The races at Homestead and the International Speedway Corporation tracks were removed from the schedule following the previous year 's season . Las Vegas Motor Speedway was returning to the IndyCar schedule for the first time since 2000 – and the first open @-@ wheel race at the circuit since the Hurricane Relief 400 Champ Car event in 2005 – and none of the drivers in the race had raced at the circuit since it was reconfigured in 2006 , which saw a greater degree of banking added to the circuit to encourage side @-@ by @-@ side racing . The race was scheduled for 200 laps around the 1 @.@ 544 mi ( 2 @.@ 485 km ) oval , totaling 308 @.@ 800 mi ( 496 @.@ 965 km ) .
= = = The $ 5 Million Challenge = = =
On May 3 , 2011 , IndyCar CEO Randy Bernard announced that a $ 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ( USD ) purse would be awarded to any driver who was not a regular on the IndyCar circuit to enter the race at Las Vegas and win while starting from the tail end of the field , hoping to attract interest from Formula 1 or NASCAR . The challenge was accepted by 2011 Indianapolis 500 winner Dan Wheldon , who had run only one additional race that season ; he agreed to split the purse with a fan if he went on to win .
= = = Championship battle = = =
Entering the race there was a two @-@ way battle for the IndyCar Championship between Chip Ganassi Racing 's Dario Franchitti and Team Penske 's Will Power . Franchitti was 18 points ahead of Power , retaking the championship points lead from him with a second @-@ place finish at the 2011 Kentucky Indy 300 two weeks prior . Power was still mathematically in the points race despite an awful finish at Kentucky , but needed to finish far ahead of Franchitti in order to win the championship title .
The race 's honorary grand marshal was skateboarder Tony Hawk , who gave the command to start the engines .
= = = Qualifying = = =
A total of thirty @-@ four cars qualified for the race . Tony Kanaan , driving the No. 82 Dallara for KV Racing Technology , qualified on the pole for the race and shared the front row with Oriol Servià , driving the No. 2 Dallara for Newman / Haas Racing . Danica Patrick , driving the No. 7 Dallara for Andretti Autosport , started 9th in what was her final IndyCar start before joining NASCAR . The two remaining championship contenders qualified on row 9 , with Power 17th in the No. 12 Dallara and Franchitti 18th in the No. 10 Dallara . In addition to Wheldon 's No. 77 Dallara , which he piloted for Sam Schmidt Motorsports , Buddy Rice was forced to start from the rear of the field when he received a penalty in qualifying for driving the No. 44 Dallara below the track 's white line .
= = = Lap 11 crash = = =
The accident began on the front straightaway as the field headed into turn one . Wade Cunningham , Wheldon 's teammate in the No. 17 Dallara , clipped James Hinchcliffe , driving the No. 06 Dallara , and then made contact with J. R. Hildebrand in the No. 4 Dallara . Then Cunningham swerved and Hildebrand drove over the rear of his car , causing his to go airborne . Cunningham collected Jay Howard in the No. 15 Service Central Dallara on the inside and then Townsend Bell in the No. 22 Dallara on the outside before colliding with the retaining wall . Attempting to avoid the crash ahead , Vitor Meira lost control of his No. 14 Dallara and spun inward , collecting both Charlie Kimball 's No. 83 Dallara and E. J. Viso 's No. 59 Dallara . Tomas Scheckter , in the No. 57 Dallara , was also attempting to avoid the crash by rapidly slowing down on the outside . Following that , Paul Tracy ran into the back of his car with his No. 9 Motegi Wheels Dallara and Pippa Mann , rapidly approaching in the No. 30 Dallara , went over the top of him after jerking to the outside to avoid crashing into Alex Lloyd in the No. 19 Dallara .
As cars continued to drive through the accident scene , the No. 77 car driven by Wheldon and the No. 12 driven by Power left the racing surface . Wheldon was racing at 220 miles per hour ( 350 km / h ) when he came upon the scene , frantically trying to avoid the collision . Although he was able to considerably slow it down , Wheldon 's car went airborne about 325 feet ( 99 m ) after running into the back of Kimball 's and went barrel @-@ rolling into the catch fence cockpit @-@ first , causing his head to hit one of the poles . The No. 77 landed back on the racing surface having been sliced apart by the fence and slid to a stop next to the S.A.F.E.R. barrier . Power , meanwhile , went airborne when he ran over the back of Lloyd 's car and struck the S.A.F.E.R. barrier . The car landed sideways on the track and rolled over , which caused the front wheel assembly to break ; one of the front tires flew over Power 's head and barely missed hitting him .
A total of 15 cars were involved , with the most severe injuries suffered by Wheldon , Power , Hildebrand , and Mann . Wheldon was extricated from his car and was airlifted to the University Medical Center of Southern Nevada . He was officially pronounced dead on arrival two hours later at 1 : 54 PM Pacific Daylight Time . The official cause of Wheldon 's death was given by the Clark County Coroner as blunt force trauma to his head due to the incident . Mann and Hildebrand were later taken to the hospital for overnight observation , while Power was evaluated and released that day .
After one additional lap had been run , IndyCar officials red @-@ flagged the race as the track was not suitable for racing . In addition to the debris left by the fifteen cars involved in the wreck , the asphalt surface was damaged and the catch fencing needed repair . As the teams waited to see if they would resume racing , they also were waiting for word on Wheldon 's condition as word had not been relayed to the track .
Sometime around 3 : 00 PM local time , an emergency drivers ' meeting was called by series director Brian Barnhart . After the meeting ended , Randy Bernard met with the media . In his brief statement , Bernard told reporters about Wheldon 's death and that , out of respect , the drivers and teams agreed not to continue the race and instead decided to pay tribute to their fallen colleague with a five @-@ lap salute .
The 19 drivers who survived the crash scene returned to their cars , and every crew member stood silently in their pit boxes . The scoring pylon was blanked except for the top position , where the No. 77 was displayed . The remaining cars lined up three abreast on pit road , as in the Indy 500 starting formation , with Kanaan , Ed Carpenter in the No. 67 Dallara , and Ryan Briscoe in the Dallara leading . Only eighteen of the drivers participated . Out of respect for Wheldon 's death , the No. 98 Dallara fielded by Bryan Herta Autosport was parked . The car was driven to victory in Indianapolis by Wheldon and its driver on this day , Alex Tagliani , normally drove the No. 77 car that Wheldon had taken over
The pace car then led the cars back onto the track while every crew member and person behind the wall moved to the grass separating pit road from the track to watch . The track loudspeakers blared renditions of " Danny Boy " and " Amazing Grace " played on bagpipes while the cars went around the track at pace lap speed , and each time the cars passed the start / finish line the fans remaining in the front @-@ stretch grandstand offered applause . At the end of the five tribute laps , the starter waved two checkered flags to signify the end while the cars proceeded around the track one more time before exiting for the pits in turn four .
Wheldon 's death was the first suffered by an IndyCar driver since Paul Dana was killed in a race @-@ morning practice crash at Homestead @-@ Miami in 2006 .
= = Championship resolution = =
Since the race was abandoned after twelve total laps , it did not reach official status ; IndyCar does not consider a race official unless it reaches the halfway mark . As such , no points were awarded and the series championship went to Dario Franchitti by default . If the race had continued and reached official status , Franchitti would have been the series champion anyway ; due to his involvement in the crash that resulted in the race being stopped , Will Power 's car was destroyed and he would not have been able to continue racing .
This was Franchitti 's third consecutive and fourth overall championship . Indy Racing League , LLC delayed all official prizegiving , choosing instead to conduct it during the annual State of INDYCAR speech in February 2012 ; Franchitti also delayed his own celebration of his championship victory .
= = Reactions = =
At the time of his death , Wheldon had been working with IndyCar officials to develop the ICONIC chassis with the intention of improving safety in the sport . Planned changes to the chassis include larger cockpits for driver protection and bodywork over the rear wheels to prevent cars from launching off one another in the event of a collision , long a problem in open @-@ wheel racing , regardless of oval or road course , but troublesome on high @-@ speed ovals and tight street circuits with a long straight and a tight turn , similar to the style of many modern road courses .
Prominent figures within the IndyCar fraternity and the wider international motorsport community expressed their condolences to Wheldon and his family . Wheldon had been scheduled to take part in the Gold Coast 600 , a round of the V8 Supercars championship , on October 22 , racing alongside his friend James Courtney . Upon hearing of Wheldon 's death , Courtney described the accident as a sobering reminder of the dangers faced by racing drivers . As the first major international motorsport event after Wheldon 's death , organizers of the V8 Supercars series planned a series of tributes to him at the Gold Coast 600 . Wheldon 's place was taken by another British driver , Darren Turner , an FIA GT1 World Championship competitor . Wheldon 's name was left on the car as a mark of respect , while British drivers at the event paid tribute to him with helmet decals , and several other drivers planned individual tributes to Wheldon . Kanaan , who had also been scheduled to race in Australia , announced his withdrawal from the event out of respect for Wheldon . However , Briscoe , Tagliani , and Hélio Castroneves , all of whom raced at Las Vegas , along with other part @-@ time IndyCar drivers Sébastien Bourdais and Simon Pagenaud , who were not at Las Vegas , did race . Bourdais , the best performing " International " driver , received the Dan Wheldon Memorial Trophy . Sam Schmidt , for whom Wheldon had been racing at the time of his accident , admitted that the events at Las Vegas Motor Speedway had prompted him to re @-@ evaluate his involvement in motorsports . Similarly , veteran drivers Davey Hamilton and Paul Tracy said they were considering retiring from racing on the back of the accident .
In the NASCAR Sprint Cup Series , several drivers at the 2011 Good Sam Club 500 at Talladega on the weekend after Wheldon 's death put special tributes on their cars , like NASCAR issuing the " Lionheart Knight " decal Wheldon wore on his helmet , which were placed on the cars ' b @-@ pillars , along with T. J. Bell putting Wheldon 's name on the namerail .
Driver Marco Andretti withdrew from The Celebrity Apprentice , which started taping days after the incident , and was replaced by his father Michael , team principal of Andretti Autosport .
On December 9 , 2011 , IndyCar decided that they were not going to return to Las Vegas for the 2012 season . Randy Bernard expressed reluctance to return to the speedway following Wheldon 's death , despite the insistence of Speedway Motorsports , Inc. president Bruton Smith ( who owns the track in Las Vegas as well as three other tracks used by the IndyCar series ) for the series to honor its three @-@ year contract with the track . As of that date , the investigation into the accident was still ongoing . IndyCar was holding back on the release of its 2012 schedule until the investigation concluded . The IndyCar series also conducted an investigation into whether or not the series should continue racing on high @-@ banked ovals such as Las Vegas and Texas Motor Speedway in Denton , Texas . Texas had been one of the staples of the IndyCar series since 1997 and had yet to be confirmed for 2012 prior to the Las Vegas race in 2011 . Indycar 's future at high @-@ banked ovals was in jeopardy pending the results of the investigation . Texas was eventually placed on the 2012 schedule .
The series went to new restrictions on restarts . IndyCar announced that restarts would only be single @-@ file in 2012 , rather than double @-@ file as they had been the previous season .
= = = Criticism = = =
In the build @-@ up to the race , several drivers expressed unease at the race – with Franchitti , Oriol Servià and Alex Lloyd the most vocal opponents – particularly given the high degree of banking around the circuit , with between 18 and 20 degrees of banking in the corners . Franchitti was quoted as saying that the track was " not suitable " for IndyCar racing , while championship rival Will Power – himself a staunch critic of short @-@ track oval racing – described the race as " an accident waiting to happen " .
The field of 34 drivers was the biggest in an IndyCar series race in 14 years . A typical oval track race has six to eight fewer drivers , except for the Indianapolis 500 , which normally has a 33 @-@ car field . ESPN.com senior motorsports writer Terry Blount wrote : " Obviously more cars presents more danger . They wanted a whole lot of cars cause obviously this is their season finale and they wanted it to be a big deal . Some of the people that were driving in this event yesterday had no business being in it . Some of them had never driven on a track like this . That was a mistake " . Chris Powell , president of Las Vegas Motor Speedway , defended the race , saying that the circuit had passed all of the IndyCar Series ' accreditation procedures and was deemed suitable for racing . He also went on the record to say that despite the media reporting the concerns of several drivers over the safety of the event , none of those concerns had been raised with him .
1979 Formula One World Champion Jody Scheckter , whose son Tomas was involved in the accident , was highly critical of the series organizers , stating that a serious accident was " inevitable " as " they were basically touching wheels at 220 mph ( 350 km / h ) . They all bunch up together so there are thirty @-@ four cars in a small space of track . One person makes a mistake and this happens . You [ shouldn 't ] have to get killed if you make a mistake . It was madness . " Former Formula One and IndyCar driver Mark Blundell agreed , claiming that the Las Vegas circuit was unsuitable for IndyCar racing – this was the last race for the Dallara IR05 – while NASCAR Sprint Cup Series champion Jimmie Johnson called for the series to leave oval racing altogether , though he clarified his statement by saying that the open @-@ wheel type cars on a resurfaced 1 @.@ 5 mi ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) track built for the heavier Sprint Cup and Nationwide Series cars was a bad idea . However , former champion Mario Andretti said that the accident was a " freakish " one @-@ off incident and that facilities at the circuit were adequate for racing . While he admitted surprise that more drivers were not seriously injured , he also cautioned against what he called " knee @-@ jerk reactions " to the accident , calling for any changes to the sport to be carefully considered before being introduced , rather than being rushed into action . Former FIA President Max Mosley , a long @-@ time advocate of increased safety in motorsport , agreed with Andretti , urging a " calm and scientific " approach to any proposed changes , particularly when asked about the proposed introduction of closed canopies for open @-@ wheel racing cars .
The five million dollar prize was also the subject of criticism in that a driver inexperienced in driving IndyCars would have a higher risk of causing a crash , though Formula One driver Anthony Davidson downplayed the influence of the prize in causing the accident , stating that racing drivers by their nature try to win every race , whether they start from first or last . Many short track races in the United States offer a cash or points bonus where a driver who wins the pole and starts last can collect a cash bonus for winning ; this was used at Lucas Oil Raceway at Indianapolis in the " Night Before F1 " midget car race where the winner of the first feature race started last for the second in a reverse @-@ grid race , and a driver who starts last by winning the first feature , starting last , and winning the second feature wins a cash bonus . Some series offer a point bonus for the driver who makes up the most positions in a race .
In the days following the incident , it was learned that two additional drivers had been approached to try for the $ 5 million challenge prize . One was Scott Speed , who previously ran open @-@ wheel Formula One cars for Scuderia Toro Rosso and who had raced on the reconfigured LVMS track in the Craftsman Truck Series for Morgan @-@ Dollar Motorsports in 2008 and for Team Red Bull in the NASCAR Sprint Cup Series in 2009 and 2010 . Speed , in an interview he gave to Inside Edition on October 18 , 2011 , said that he declined to take the offer saying that the track conditions were too dangerous for Indy @-@ type cars . Finnish media reported that 2007 Formula One World Champion Kimi Räikkönen , who was splitting time between the World Rally Championship and NASCAR in 2011 , had also been approached to take part in the race , but Räikkönen rejected the offer as he was not confident of having a competitive car , rather than having concerns over safety .
= = = Investigation = = =
Three days after the accident , series organizers announced that the race would be the subject of a full investigation . The other members of the Automobile Competition Committee for the United States ( ACCUS ) , the national governing body of automobile racing in the United States , and a member of the Fédération Internationale de l 'Automobile ( FIA ) made their resources available for the investigation , which IndyCar officials expected to take several weeks . As all ACCUS / FIA members participated in the investigation , IndyCar would have full use of the NASCAR R & D Center in Concord , North Carolina . In the meantime , all testing at Las Vegas Motor Speedway was cancelled indefinitely ; Franchitti and Chip Ganassi Racing had been planning to test the 2012 @-@ spec Dallara chassis at the circuit in the week following the race .
= = = = Results = = = =
The results of the investigation into Wheldon 's death were released on December 15 , 2011 . In a report prepared by crash investigators , it was found that Wheldon 's death was caused by an impact with the catch fencing around the circuit . Brian Barnhart further rejected claims that the banking had also contributed to the accident , stating that it created two ideal racing lines , and that these lines made the location of cars more predictable for other drivers ; at the time of the accident , all 34 cars had been behaving as expected . The report also revealed that the right front pull rod of the suspension assembly penetrated Wheldon 's survival cell , though it did not cause him any injury . The report recommended further investigation of this phenomenon , as it was the first recorded incident of its kind in nine years of the use of the IR03 and later IR05 model chassis , which was being retired at the end of the race . The pull @-@ rod suspension chassis is not being utilised in the DW12 .
= = Classification = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
Notes :
^ – Rice was moved to the back of the grid after receiving a penalty for running below the white line .
^ – Wheldon agreed to start the race from thirty @-@ fourth and last place on the grid as part of the organizers ' five million dollar challenge .
= = = Scoring when abandoned = = =
= = Standings after the race = =
Note : Only the Top 5 positions are included .
= Charles Wilson Cross =
Charles Wilson Cross ( November 30 , 1872 – June 2 , 1928 ) was a Canadian politician who served in the Legislative Assembly of Alberta and the Canadian House of Commons . He was also the first Attorney @-@ General of Alberta . Born in Ontario , he studied law at Osgoode Hall Law School before coming west to practice in Edmonton . He became active with the Liberal Party of Canada , and when Alberta was created in 1905 he was chosen by Premier Alexander Cameron Rutherford to be its first Attorney @-@ General . Implicated in the Alberta and Great Waterways Railway scandal , he resigned in 1910 along with the rest of Rutherford 's government .
As a backbencher , he became the leader of Liberals opposed to the government of Rutherford 's successor , Arthur Sifton , until Sifton re @-@ appointed him Attorney @-@ General in 1912 . Cross served in this capacity under Sifton and his successor Charles Stewart until 1918 , when Stewart fired him after receiving no response to his request for Cross 's resignation . Cross remained in provincial politics until 1925 , but in a radically diminished role . After leaving provincial politics , he was elected to the Canadian House of Commons , only to be defeated in his 1926 re @-@ election bid . He died in 1928 .
= = Early life = =
Cross was born in Madoc , Ontario to merchant Thomas Cross and his wife , Marie Mouncey . He studied at Upper Canada College , the University of Toronto , and Osgoode Hall Law School . He moved west to Edmonton in 1897 , where he opened a law practice with William Short ; it exists today as Duncan Craig LLP . When the idea of creating one or more new provinces out of the Northwest Territories gained currency , Cross was one of three people selected by Edmonton City Council to travel to Ottawa and ensure that Edmonton 's interests were respected .
= = Provincial politics = =
= = = Early provincial career = = =
Cross was a Liberal , and fast established himself was one of the party 's leading Edmonton lights . By some assessments , he was the second most influential Liberal in the city after Frank Oliver , the owner of the Edmonton Bulletin and local Member of Parliament . Once the decision was made to create the province of Alberta , the question emerged of who would govern it : the Northwest Territories were governed on a non @-@ partisan basis by Premier Frederick W. A. G. Haultain , who was a Conservative in federal politics . Some Liberals , such as Peter Talbot , were amenable to Haultain 's becoming the first Premier of Alberta , either as the head of a non @-@ partisan government or one formed by a coalition of Liberals and Conservatives . Cross was not among them .
Cross 's view prevailed , and Alberta 's first Lieutenant @-@ Governor , Liberal George Bulyea , invited Alexander Cameron Rutherford to form a government . Haultain went to Saskatchewan , created from a portion of the Northwest Territories at the same time as Alberta was , to lead the Provincial Rights Party . Though Cross was only 32 , Rutherford named him Alberta 's first Attorney @-@ General . In consequence , he was required to contest the 1905 election . He did so in the district of Edmonton , against Conservative William Antrobus Griesbach . Griesbach fought his campaign on the Liberal federal government 's imposition on Alberta of a requirement to fund separate schools , an imposition to which older provinces were not subject . Cross won the election with such a margin that Griesbach lost his deposit .
One of the first questions considered by the new Legislative Assembly of Alberta was the choice of provincial capital . The terms of autonomy had made Edmonton the provisional capital , but there was a movement to make Calgary the permanent choice . This movement was led in the legislature by Minister of Public Works William Henry Cushing , Cross 's cabinet colleague , who argued that it would be cheaper to build a legislature building in Calgary than in Edmonton and that Calgary was the economic centre of the province and therefore ought to be capital . Cross countered that Edmonton 's history as capital of the Canadian fur trade and its geographic location close to the centre of the province gave it the stronger claim . Edmonton was eventually selected by a vote of 16 to 8 . It would not be the last issue on which Cross and Cushing disagreed .
As Attorney @-@ General , Cross was responsible for overseeing prosecutions . He was especially aggressive in his enforcement of the Sabbath Observance Act , which prohibited most business activities on Sundays . He also introduced new workers ' compensation legislation , the highlight of which was making compensation automatic , rather than the result of a lawsuit by the injured worker . Though the bill addressed some of the labour movement 's concerns , there remained many criticisms : it failed to fine employers responsible for workplace hazards , did not apply to injuries sustained while building or repairing buildings of less than 40 feet ( 12 m ) in height , did not protect casual labourers , and limited compensation to a maximum of C $ 1 @,@ 500 . In response to these concerns , Cross lowered the minimum building height to 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) and raised the maximum compensation to $ 1 @,@ 800 . To assuage farm leaders , he also included an exemption for farm labour .
= = = Railway scandal = = =
Cross was re @-@ elected in the 1909 election as one of two members elected in the newly expanded Edmonton district . Soon after , in February 1910 , Cushing resigned from cabinet , stating that he disagreed with Rutherford 's approach to railway policy and specifically with his actions regarding the Alberta and Great Waterways Railway ( A & GW ) . The A & GW was one of several new railways to take advantage of the government 's offer , made under considerable public pressure , of loan guarantees . Cushing and John R. Boyle attacked Rutherford 's government , with the latter charging that the Deputy Attorney @-@ General , S. B. Woods , had removed papers from the government 's files on the A & GW . Cross denied these charges on his deputy 's behalf . Boyle followed with a motion that the assets of the A & GW , which he believed was taking advantage of the government 's guarantees to build a sub @-@ standard railway at government expense , be expropriated . Cross led the government 's opposition to the motion .
On March 9 , Cross abruptly resigned as Attorney @-@ General ; Woods resigned the next day . Cross gave as his reason that Rutherford had told him that Cushing was re @-@ entering cabinet , and Cross felt that that made his position untenable . Cushing gave a different account : he said that he had been asked by Rutherford to re @-@ enter cabinet , and that the Premier had told him that if he did , Cross would resign . However , he denied ever having agreed to do so , and accused Cross of fabricating his story completely . Rutherford stayed silent until March 11 , when he announced that he had refused Cross 's resignation , and that he was still Attorney @-@ General . Soon after , Boyle made his own set of accusations , saying that agents of the liquor license department , which was under Cross , had been demanding bribes from hoteliers in exchange for licenses and that Cross was aware of this . Cross denied the charge .
The crisis divided the Liberal Party into two camps : the pro @-@ government Liberals , led by Cross and Rutherford , and the insurgent Liberals , led by Cushing and Boyle . The insurgents ' objective was to replace Rutherford with Cushing . Though most important Liberals outside the legislature , including Bulyea and Oliver , lacked confidence in Rutherford , they had little more in Cushing . Some newspapers characterized the struggle as the visible element of a battle for influence between Oliver , long Alberta 's most prominent Liberal , and Cross , seen as its rising star . Though Rutherford never actually lost a confidence motion , Bulyea pressured him to resign in favour of Arthur Sifton , the province 's chief justice . Several of Cross 's supporters attempted to extract a promise to keep Cross as Attorney @-@ General in exchange for their support of Sifton 's government , but Sifton was unwilling to agree . Rutherford eventually and reluctantly complied with Bulyea 's wishes , and the rest of his government , including Cross , followed suit . Subsequent rumours suggested that Cross and his followers had agreed to resign only because of a belief that Sifton would be appointed to the Supreme Court of Canada after approximately a year as Premier , with Cross then being asked to form a government . A subsequent commission declined to find Cross guilty of wrongdoing in relation to the A & GW incident , but criticized him and Rutherford for granting over @-@ generous terms to the railway .
= = = Backbenches and return to cabinet = = =
In keeping with Sifton 's policy of excluding all prominent players in the A & GW affair from cabinet , Cross was not re @-@ appointed ( Cushing , Rutherford , and Boyle were also left out ) . Despite this , Cross declared his support for Sifton 's government while restating his admiration for Rutherford 's . In response to the A & GW 's default of its obligations to the government , Sifton introduced a bill confiscating the money the A & GW had raised through the sale of government @-@ guaranteed bonds . Cross , still a supporter of building the A & GW and concerned that the bill did not include a commitment to use the money to do so , opposed it . The bill passed , but was disallowed by the courts . Sifton , left with little choice but to use the money for the purpose for which it had been raised , announced a new policy of railway construction . At the same time , he invited Cross to resume his post as Attorney @-@ General . Boyle was also admitted to cabinet , as Minister of Education ; Cushing and Rutherford , the other major players in the A & GW affair , had withdrawn from the limelight , and neither would return to the legislature after the 1913 election . Cross accepted Sifton 's offer , telling the public that Sifton 's new railway policy " made it proper for me to support and join his government " .
In keeping with custom at the time , once appointed to cabinet Cross resigned his seat in the legislature and contested it in a by @-@ election . His by @-@ election was held at the same time as four others , and while Liberal papers were unhesitant about endorsing the Liberal candidates in those , in Edmonton they gave Cross a somewhat bumpier ride . The Calgary Albertan , in an editorial advocating the return of Liberal candidates in all five by @-@ elections , criticized Cross as " disloyal to [ Sifton ] in the beginning , and doubtless will be to the end . " The Edmonton Bulletin , still owned by Oliver , complained that while in the other four by @-@ elections voters were being asked to judge Sifton 's government , in Edmonton it appeared that they were being asked to judge Rutherford 's . Cross defeated his main opponent , Conservative Albert Ewing , but by a much smaller margin than he had managed in 1905 and 1909 . Ewing claimed electoral fraud and appealed the outcome to the courts , but the 1913 election pre @-@ empted his appeal . In that election , perhaps recalling the narrowness of his by @-@ election win , Cross ran in two ridings , Edmonton and Edson . He won both ( Ewing was the second victor from the two @-@ member Edmonton district ) , making him the only person in Alberta history to represent two constituencies at the same time ( though not the only one to try : Sifton also did so in 1913 , and Boyle would in 1921 ) .
Prohibition was gaining currency in Alberta : the Conservatives had included it in their 1913 platform , and it was supported by the increasingly powerful United Farmers of Alberta ( UFA ) . The government generally opposed the idea , and Cross held up Manitoba as example of its failures . But the government had also ( at the UFA 's behest ) introduced direct democracy measures , one of which allowed citizens to initiate plebiscites . The well @-@ organized temperance movement did so on prohibition , which was endorsed in the ensuing plebiscite ; the legislature passed the Prohibition Act in the spring of 1916 . As Attorney @-@ General , Cross was responsible for enforcing it .
= = = Conscription and the Stewart cabinet = = =
In 1917 , the Alberta Liberal Party , held delicately together since 1910 , burst once again into conflict with the conscription crisis . The Conservative federal government of Robert Borden supported imposing conscription to help win World War I , and most of English Canada supported him . The Liberal leader , Wilfrid Laurier , opposed conscription , but many of the party 's English @-@ speaking members supported it and defected to a Borden @-@ led Union government . This dispute had repercussions in the Alberta party : Sifton supported conscription , and shortly after winning the 1917 election ( in which Cross was re @-@ elected in Edson but did not run in Edmonton ) resigned as Premier to move to federal politics and a ministry in Borden 's government . Cross opposed conscription . In this he was joined by Oliver , and the two put aside years of animosity to campaign together for Laurier in the 1917 federal election . Cross regarded Laurier as something of a hero , and proclaimed that he was " fairly convinced that the first duty of Canadians to their country is to get rid of the crowd of profiteers at Ottawa who have brought the country to its present condition . "
Sifton 's successor as Premier was Charles Stewart , the Minister of Public Works in his cabinet . Stewart , who supported conscription but did not actively campaign for it or the Unionists , kept Cross as Attorney @-@ General , despite rumours that he would not . Cross 's major challenge was enforcing prohibition , which was proving challenging . The Conservatives , and in particular George Douglas Stanley , were unreluctant to accuse Cross of mismanagement . In the meantime , a rift was opening between Cross and Stewart ( whom the Conservatives accused , somewhat ironically , of being unduly influenced by his Attorney @-@ General ) . Stewart found Cross neglectful of his duties , and after Cross refused to dismiss two detectives from his department whose work Stewart felt could be better done by the Alberta Provincial Police , Stewart requested his resignation . When twelve days passed without a reply from Cross , Stewart fired him August 26 , 1918 . His replacement as Attorney @-@ General was Boyle , his nemesis of the Alberta and Great Waterways era .
Cross remained in the legislature for several more years , but took no active role in its proceedings , and soon ceased to be regarded as a major force . He was re @-@ elected in the 1921 election , making him and Boyle the only veterans of the first legislature still in office . The UFA , fielding candidates for the first time , won a majority of seats in the election , and Stewart resigned as Premier . Cross continued his indifferent performance as MLA until May 1925 , when he resigned to enter federal politics .
= = Federal career and later life = =
Cross ran as a Liberal in the 1925 federal election in the riding of Athabaska , and defeated Donald Ferdinand Kellner , the Progressive incumbent from Edmonton East . Stewart , who had also left provincial politics , was elected in the adjacent Edmonton West . The Liberals , under incumbent Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King , won fewer seats than the Conservatives , but King decided to remain as Prime Minister anyway . As a result , Cross sat in the Canadian House of Commons throughout the King @-@ Byng Affair . In the ensuing 1926 election , Cross was soundly defeated in a rematch with Kellner . Charles Wilson Cross died of a heart attack June 2 , 1928 , in Calgary .
= = Electoral record = =
= Mets – Phillies rivalry =
The Mets – Phillies rivalry or Battle of the Broads is a Major League Baseball ( MLB ) rivalry between the New York Mets and Philadelphia Phillies . Both clubs are members of MLB 's National League ( NL ) East division . The rivalry between the two clubs is said to be among the most fiercely contested in the NL . The two NL East divisional rivals have met each other recently in playoff , division , and Wild Card races .
Aside from several brawls in the 1980s , the rivalry remained relatively low @-@ key before the 2006 season , as the teams had seldom been equally good at the same time . A notable moment in their early meetings was Jim Bunning 's perfect game on Father 's Day of 1964 , the first perfect game in Phillies history , which happened when the Mets were on a losing streak . The Phillies were near the bottom of the NL East when the Mets won the 1969 World Series and the National League pennant in 1973 , while the Mets did not enjoy success in the late 1970s when the Phillies won three straight division championships . Although both teams each won a World Series in the 1980s , the Mets were not serious contenders in the Phillies ' playoff years ( 1980 , 1981 , and 1983 ) , nor did the Phillies seriously contend in the Mets ' playoff years ( 1986 and 1988 ) . The Mets were the Majors ' worst team when the Phillies won the NL pennant in 1993 , and the Phillies could not post a winning record in either of the Mets ' wild @-@ card @-@ winning seasons of 1999 or 2000 , when the Mets faced the New York Yankees in the 2000 World Series .
As the rivalry has intensified in recent years , the teams have battled more often for playoff position . The Mets won the division in 2006 , while the Phillies won five consecutive division titles from 2007 to 2011 . The Phillies ' 2007 championship was won on the last day of the season as the Mets lost a seven @-@ game lead with 17 games remaining . The Phillies broke the Curse of Billy
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– 53 from July through September and finished fourth in the NL East , 23 games behind . The Phillies would go on to win the National League Pennant for the second year in a row , but would lose the World Series in six @-@ games to the Mets ' cross @-@ town rivals , the New York Yankees .
One notable occurrence during the 2009 season was the Phillies adding former Mets pitcher Pedro Martínez . Martinez posted a 3 @.@ 63 ERA with a 5 – 1 record . In his one start against the Mets , he threw six innings and gave up four earned runs .
In 2010 , after leading the division standing by the end of April , the Mets again began to struggle . The Mets would not hold first place at any point after May 1 , although they came close in mid @-@ June . By the end of the season the Mets had finished 18 games behind the first place Phillies . For its part , Philadelphia was mainly engaged in a fierce division race with the Atlanta Braves , trailing them as late in the season as September 6 . However , Philadelphia would surge at the end of the month and once again be crowned division champs . 2010 ultimately served as a disappointment for the Mets – Phillies rivalry .
= = = 2011 – 2014 = = =
In 2011 , the Phillies won the season series against the Mets , winning 11 of 18 games . The Phillies set a record for wins in a season with 102 , surpassing the previous record of 101 , set back @-@ to @-@ back in 1976 and 1977 , while the Mets finished 25 games out of first place at 77 – 85 , in fourth place and missed the playoffs for the fifth straight year .
The game on May 1 in Philadelphia became a moment of peace in the rivalry during the top of the ninth inning . Mets ' Daniel Murphy was batting as a pinch @-@ hitter against Phillies ' reliever Ryan Madson when the fans started chanting " U @-@ S @-@ A ! " The Phillies didn 't know the reason for the chants , but in the Mets ' dugout , bench coach Ken Oberkfell told Manager Terry Collins that al @-@ Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden , the mastermind of the September 11 attacks , had been killed by United States special operations forces in Abbottabad , Pakistan . Shane Victorino later told the Phillies the news . However , when asked how they learned about it during an on @-@ air telephone call with Mike and Mike in the Morning on ESPN Radio the next day , he said that a trainer in the dugout broke the news . Ryan Howard called the news " an uplifting moment , " while Victorino said it was " a special moment ... for families ... who ... lost their loved ones ... ( on ) 9 / 11 " and " a big day in American history . " On the Mets ' side , David Wright called it " just an incredible moment and ... you kind of come together ... for a common cause " , while Collins said that the Mets 2 – 1 , 14 @-@ inning win behind Ronny Paulino 's game @-@ winning RBI double in his Mets debut was " a good win for us , and obviously a huge win for America tonight " , but felt they " could have finished the game two hours ago and celebrated a little bit of it . " Mike Lopresti of USA Today called the game between the rivals " a perfect fit " when the news broke , while Adam Rubin of ESPNNewYork.com called the peace in the rivalry " fitting " for a Mets fan , and said that it drew parallels to their 3 – 2 win over rival Atlanta Braves on September 21 , 2001 in the first major sporting event in New York City since the attacks .
On September 26 , 2011 , the day after the teams ' final meeting of the season , the National Hockey League formally announced that the rivalry would be played out at Citizens Bank Park during the offseason at the 2012 NHL Winter Classic on January 2 , saying it would be a showdown between the teams ' hockey counterparts , the New York Rangers and the Philadelphia Flyers . Shane Victorino attended the game , which the Rangers came from behind to win , 3 – 2 , which MLB.com said that " just like the Mets – Phillies rivalry , being able to come back and steal a game on the road was quite sweet , " and said of the rivalry being played out : " What better rivalry than this ? Both these teams , they 're in first place ( in the Atlantic Division ) . I 'm excited to see it . "
During the 2012 season , the Mets beat the Phillies ten times , including a sweep of a three @-@ game series at Citizens Bank Park in early May in which they came from behind to win each game in the late innings . In 2013 , the Mets clubhouse store in New York City started selling shirts saying , " My Ex @-@ Wife is a Philles fan " , while MLB Network aired a MasterCard / StandUp2Cancer commercial featuring Phille Phanatic and Mr. Met .
In 2014 , the Mets and the Phillies met in a rare 5 game regular season series at Citizens Bank Park . The Mets took 4 out of 5 games . Three straight games were decided in extras , with the Phillies walking off 6 @-@ 5 in 14 in Game 2 and the Mets winning 5 @-@ 4 in 14 and 4 @-@ 3 in 11 in Games 3 and 4 respectively .
= = = 2015 : Phillies rebuild , Mets win Pennant = = =
In 2015 , the Phillies entered a rebuilding phase , trading away former stars Cole Hamels and Chase Utley mid @-@ season . The Phillies would go on to a last place finish in the National League East , losing 99 games on the season , while the Mets would go on and win the National League East title .
While the rivalry was somewhat subdued by the lopsidedness of the two teams records , the rivalry did provide some moments . On April 15 , Mets pitcher Matt Harvey drilled Chase Utley in the back , after a few Mets pitchers had been hit by the Phillies . On August 25 , during a game at Citizens Bank Park Phillies coach Larry Bowa started yelling out of the dugout after a quick pitch by Mets reliever Hansel Robles while Darin Ruf was in the box not looking up and not ready for the pitch . Bowa also yelled at Mets 1st baseman Daniel Murphy over a perceived slight by Murphy 's bat flip earlier in the game during a home run . Benches cleared as Bowa threatened Murphy with retaliation and was ultimately ejected from the game .
The Mets played in the 2015 National League Division Series against the Los Angeles Dodgers whose roster featured former Phillies players Jimmy Rollins and Chase Utley . The series featured a contentious slide in Game 2 by Utley at 2nd base , injuring Mets shortstop Rubén Tejada . The fallout created controversy on take out slides at 2nd and Utley was suspended for two games . Mets fans booed Utley loudly during the pregame for Game 3 at Citi Field , and chanted " We want Utley " after the mets took a 10 @-@ 3 lead during the game . However Utley did not appear again in the series until late in Game 5 and the Mets won the series , and eventually won the 2015 National League Championship Series for the pennant .
= = = Inline citations = = =
= 1957 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Championship Game =
The 1957 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Championship Game took place on March 23 , 1957 between the North Carolina Tar Heels and Kansas Jayhawks at the Municipal Auditorium in Kansas City , Missouri . The match @-@ up was the final one of the nineteenth consecutive NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Championship single @-@ elimination tournament — commonly referred to as the NCAA Tournament — organized by the National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) and is used to crown a national champion for men 's basketball at the Division I level .
After surviving numerous close games during the regular season , conference tournament , and most recently a triple overtime game against Michigan State in the national semifinal , North Carolina came into the National Championship game with an unblemished record of 31 – 0 . Led by coach Frank McGuire and Helms Foundation College Basketball Player of the Year Lennie Rosenbluth , the Tar Heels were ranked first overall in the AP Poll . Kansas came into the National Championship game with two losses , which were credited to poor ball control on the Jayhawks part . The Kansas Jayhawks , led by Sophomore phenom and First – team All @-@ American Wilt Chamberlain , came into the game favored to win against the Tar Heels of North Carolina .
The game received heavy media attention with over ten television stations and seventy news reporters being represented . The North Carolina Tar Heels jumped out to an early 19 – 7 lead in the first half , before the Jayhawks were able to close the lead before halftime . In the second half , the Jayhawks managed to fully overcome the deficit and take the lead . However , the Tar Heels were able to tie the game in the final minute , sending the game to overtime . The first overtime saw each team score a basket before time ran out , while the second overtime saw zero points scored due to poor offensive execution on both teams parts . The third overtime saw more action take place , with the Tar Heels winning the game 54 – 53 as Joe Quigg made two free throws in the closing seconds to give the Tar Heels the lead .
The Tar Heels won their first NCAA Men 's Basketball National Championship and received a large welcome at Raleigh – Durham International Airport when they arrived back in North Carolina . Due to the success of televising the National Championship game in North Carolina , the broadcasting of collegiate basketball for the Atlantic Coast Conference expanded greatly . Kansas ' Wilt Chamberlain received heavy criticism for his inability to win the National Championship and eventually left Kansas after his junior year in order to join the Harlem Globetrotters .
= = Background = =
= = = North Carolina Tar Heels = = =
The North Carolina Tar Heels were coached by Frank McGuire , who was in his fifth season as head coach of the Tar Heels . His offensive philosophy was centered around passing before shooting . McGuire 's starting line up and most of the roster consisted of players primarily from around the New York area . Tommy Kearns and Pete Brennan were two offensive specialists . Center Joe Quigg provided a solid presence in the paint and grabbed almost nine rebounds per game . Guard Bob Cunningham was one of the teams best defensive players . The team was led by Lennie Rosenbluth who averaged almost twenty – eight points a game and served as the team 's clutch performer .
North Carolina began their 1956 – 57 campaign with three straight victories by a wide margin of victory . In their fourth game , the Tar Heels traveled Columbia , South Carolina to play against South Carolina , where the Gamecocks took the Tar Heels to overtime before North Carolina was able to come away with the victory by four points . Near the end of December , the Tar Heels participated in the annual Dixie Classic The Tar Heels won the classic , and also remained undefeated , after beating Wake Forest in the championship game . North Carolina then won five more games before going into double overtime against Maryland and winning the game 65 – 61 to earn their seventeenth consecutive victory . In the following game , Duke and North Carolina were tied at 73 – 73 before Tar Heel Kearns sank two free throws to give North Carolina a two @-@ point lead before the game ended . The Tar Heels closed out the regular season with six more victories to end the season with a record of 24 – 0 . North Carolina won their quarterfinal match – up in the ACC Tournament by twenty points to advance to the semifinals against Wake Forest . The Demon Deacons were ahead 59 – 58 as the game entered the final minute . With time running out , Rosenbluth made a two @-@ point shot and was fouled in the act of shooting , which sent him to the line to shoot a free throw ; he made the free throw and the Tar Heels won 61 – 59 . The Tar Heels then beat South Carolina in the championship to earn a bid to the NCAA Tournament .
The Tar Heels defeated the Yale Bulldogs 90 – 74 in the NCAA East Regional Quarterfinal in order to advance to the semifinal against Canisius College . North Carolina won the game by twelve points , which allowed them to move on to the NCAA East Regional Final against Syracuse . The final , along with the semifinal , were held at the Palestra in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania . The Syracuse Orange fell to the Tar Heels 67 – 58 as the Tar Heels advanced to the Final Four in Kansas City , Missouri . The Tar Heels opponent for the national semifinal was Michigan State . The Tar Heels were tied with the Spartans as time was winding down in regulation . Michigan State 's Jack Quiggle made a half court shot that would have given the Spartans the lead , but the shot left his hands after time expired , nullifying the basket . In the first overtime , Michigan State had a two @-@ point lead with eleven seconds remaining , while also having a player at the foul line . The Spartan missed both shots and Tar Heel Brennan gathered the rebound , dribbled down the court , and made a shot as time expired to send the game to a second overtime . The Tar Heels pulled away in the third overtime to win the game 74 – 70 . The game saw the lead change thirty – one times before the Tar Heels were able to emerge victorious after three overtime periods .
= = = Kansas Jayhawks = = =
Dick Harp was in the midst of his first season as head coach of the Kansas Jayhawks as the team entered the National Championship game . Kansas came into the season favored to win the national title . This was due in large part to Wilt Chamberlain joining the varsity team after finishing his freshman year on the freshman team per NCAA rules . At the beginning of the season , the Jayhawks starting line up consisted of Seniors Gene Elstun , Maurice King , John Parker , Lew Johnson , and Sophomore Chamberlain . Ron Loneski replaced Johnson 's spot in the starting line up during the season . Harp began the season with a man to man defense , but later switched to a zone in order to give them an advantage in rebounding the basketball .
The Kansas Jayhawks began the regular season with twelve consecutive victories before losing to Iowa State by two points after losing the lead in the closing seconds of the game . Kansas ' following game was against Iowa State ; this time , the Jayhawks won the game by a margin of nine points . The Jayhawks won their next four games before losing to Oklahoma State in Stillwater , Oklahoma . Due to the lack of a shot @-@ clock in 1957 , the Cowboys held the ball for the final three and a half minutes in order to win the game 56 – 54 . Both of the Jayhawks regular season losses were in part due to poor ball control by the Jayhawks . The Jayhawks squad closed out the regular season with four more victories . The Jayhawks closed the regular season with a conference best 11 – 1 , earning them the Big Seven Conference regular season crown and a bid to the NCAA Tournament .
In the first round of the NCAA Tournament , Kansas faced Southern Methodist and was forced into an overtime period . Behind 36 points by Chamberlain , the Jayhawks won 73 – 65 to advance to the regional finals . There , the Jayhawks defeated Oklahoma City 81 – 61 to reach the Final Four . Chamberlain posted 30 points in the contest , adding 15 rebounds . The two – time defending NCAA Tournament champions , San Francisco , faced Kansas in the Final Four 's host site , Kansas City . With a field goal percentage of almost 60 percent , the Jayhawks posted an 80 – 56 win to advance to the championship game against undefeated North Carolina , the number one – ranked team in the country . Even though the Tar Heels were undefeated and ranked number 1 in the nation , Kansas entered the game as a 3 – point favorite , mostly because playing in Kansas City was a virtual home game .
= = = Team rosters = = =
= = Broadcasting = =
The national semifinal between Kansas and San Francisco was not televised , while the North Carolina – Michigan State match – up was televised in some areas . Plans to televise the national championship game were made in advance due to anticipation that the Kansas Jayhawks would reach the championship game . By the time that the match – up was set between the two teams , an eleven station network had been arranged . Castleman D. Chesley , a local television producer , broadcast the game in North Carolina on five stations . After the Tar Heels won the Eastern Regional , Chesley managed to get announcers , sponsors , and five stations to set up a network to broadcast North Carolina 's Final Four games from Kansas City . Locally , the game was to appear on channels 9 and 13 . The 1957 National Championship game saw the largest media crowd ever for a men 's basketball game at the time , with over eleven television stations , 73 radio stations , and 63 news writers represented .
= = Game summary = =
= = = First half = = =
The game began with a tip – off between Kansas ' seven foot tall Wilt Chamberlain and North Carolina 's Tommy Kearns , who was not even six feet tall . Coach Frank McGuire sent out Kearns after he had been talking down Chamberlain the night before . The rest of the North Carolina squad set up in their zone defense rather than around the center circle per McGuire 's request to " show them the zone we were going to use . " The Jayhawks were unable to score on their opening possession and set up in their defense as the Tar Heels came down the court with the ball . Kansas ' initial defense was a box – and – one , which consisted of four players in a box around a basket while one player , Maurice King , played defense on North Carolina 's Lennie Rosenbluth . Kearns received a pass along the baseline and was fouled in the act of shooting . Kearns missed the shot , but made both free throws to give Carolina the early 2 – 0 lead . Kansas missed a jump shot , and North Carolina 's Joe Quigg converted a 12 @-@ foot baseline shot . Kansas scored their first points off of two free throws .
The Tar Heels ' began to strain Kansas ' defense with several players making perimeter shots , and when combined with Kansas ' inability to convert from the field , this allowed the Tar Heels to jump out to a 11 – 4 lead . This led to Harp changing Kansas ' defensive formation to a 2 – 3 zone , with Chamberlain under the basket . Rosenbluth — who was now relatively unguarded when compared to Kansas ' previous formation — made a contested seventeen foot jumper . Kansas retaliated by giving the ball to Chamberlain who was subsequently fouled as he went up for a shot . He went to the free throw line and made one of two . As Kansas went up the floor coach Harp ordered his squad to revert to their original box – and – one . Carolina 's Kearns made a jumper from the floor after pump faking to lose a defender , which brought the score to 15 – 7 in favor of Carolina . Kansas came up the floor and missed their shot , but Chamberlain grabbed the rebound and was then fouled in air . He went to the line for a one – and – one and missed the first shot , while Rosenbluth caught the rebound .
During the following possession , Harp changed Jayhawks ' defense to a man – to – man . The change in defense caused the Tar Heels to become more active on offense with several screens and movement on offense . The possession resulted in an off the ball foul that sent Rosenbluth to the free throw line where he made both shots . Kansas pushed the ball up the court quickly with King , who took an eight @-@ foot shot and Carolina collected the rebound and continued to slow the tempo in the half court as Kansas shifted back into a 2 – 3 zone . The Tar Heels passed the ball back and forth until the Jayhawks broke from their zone and went into a man – to – man again . Kearns made a close quarters shot in the paint . Kansas stepped up their defense at the behest of coach Harp and held Carolina scoreless for two minutes . During the period , Kansas made four free throws to cut their deficit to two points , with the score being 19 – 17 . The Tar Heels continued to slow the pace and work the ball around to get the open shot , while the Jayhawks would rush up the court and attempt to give the ball to Chamberlain before taking a poor shot . This resulted in moderate success for both teams as North Carolina scored eight points to Kansas ' three before the final two minutes began . In the closing two minutes , the two teams would both score two free throws to bring the score to 29 – 22 in favor of North Carolina .
= = = Second half = = =
The second half began with another jump ball between the two competing teams . Chamberlain won the tip as Carolina sent out Quigg to contest the jump rather than Kearns like in the first tip – off . Both teams failed to score on their first possession , but after Carolina missed their opening shot , Kansas scored on a fast @-@ break pull @-@ up shot . Kansas scored once more – from a lob to Chamberlain – before the Tar Heels were able to score with a baseline jump shot from Quigg to bring the score 31 – 26 . Kansas closed the lead to 31 @-@ 30 with a basket and a pair of free throws from Chamberlain . Carolina 's Kearns returned with an acrobatic layup to extend the lead to three points .
After Kansas failed to convert a shot on their next possession , North Carolina proceeded to pass the ball around the perimeter of the court for close to two minutes . After finding the right setup , Lennie Rosenbluth drove to the basket and scored . Following that possession , Kansas began to make outside jump shots . When combined with Carolina 's inability to score , Kansas ' improved jump shots led to a 10 – 2 Kansas run , with Kansas taking the lead nine minutes into the second half . In addition , as North Carolina players continued to foul Chamberlain in order to make him score from the free throw line , they began to get into foul trouble . Kansas ' coach Dick Harp then began to hold the ball beginning with their next possession . Harp 's plan worked for a while as Carolina was not able to overcome Kansas ' three point lead ; Kansas did not attempt a shot for over five minutes .
With 1 : 45 remaining in the game , Kansas ' Gene Elstun was fouled by Lennie Rosenbluth on a lay – up attempt . This was Rosenbluth 's fifth foul , which disqualified him for the rest of the game . Elstun missed the two free throws from the foul and Carolina got the rebound . The Jayhawks were only able to score two points after Rosenbluth 's disqualification . North Carolina then began to rally after scoring a basket and then an accompanying free throw . Bob Young — who had replaced Rosenbluth after his fifth foul – scored a lay – up to bring Carolina within two points . Carolina tied the game at 46 – 46 after Tommy Kearns made a free throw in the closing seconds . The Tar Heels got the ball back and held it for one final possession . The ball was passed to Bob Cunningham who missed his initial shot , but was able to get the rebound . Cunningham went up for another shot , but received heavy contact from Chamberlain . No foul was called and the time ran out , sending the game to overtime .
= = = Overtime periods = = =
Overtime began with a jump ball that was won by Kansas ' Chamberlain , who quickly passed the ball to King . King took a jump shot that missed and Carolina 's Cunningham grabbed the rebound . The Tar Heels traversed the court and Bob Young managed to score a basket to give Carolina the edge . However , North Carolina was unable to stop Kansas during the ensuing drive as Chamberlain scored a basket to bring the score to 48 – 48 . After Kansas score the tying basket , North Carolina proceeded to hold the ball for one final shot before time ran out . Carolina 's Kearns drove and put up a shot that was blocked by Chamberlain as time ran out .
North Carolina 's first possession of the second overtime period ended with a turnover , while Kansas missed a long jump shot in theirs . North Carolina 's Brennan boxed out Chamberlain who went over Brennan to collect the rebound and was called for over the back . Joe Quigg turned the ball over after traveling , while Chamberlain threw the ball out of bounds on the subsequent possession . Carolina failed to capitalize on Chamberlain 's error when Kearns missed the front end of a one – and – one . Kansas came down the court and passed the ball to Chamberlain who was then fouled hard by Cunningham . This sparked an altercation between the two teams , which resulted in Chamberlain being hit in the stomach with a megaphone and his knee being scarred by a Carolina cheerleader . The referees stopped the commotion and Chamberlain was sent to the line , where he missed his shots , and Carolina got the rebound . The Tar Heels aimed to hold the ball for a final shot but they turned the ball over to Kansas with ten seconds to go and the Jayhawks called a timeout with six seconds left . The ball went to Kansas ' Loneski who missed a shot and the game remained tied at 48 .
After a one @-@ minute break between periods , the third overtime began with another jump ball that was won by Chamberlain . After King missed the opening shot of the period , Carolina 's Kearns made a right handed lay – up to bring the score to 50 @-@ 48 . Kansas failed to score again , and this time Kearns missed his shot after being fouled , but then made both free throws . Off of a pass from Loneski , Chamberlain made a shot , was fouled , and made the ensuing free throw to complete the three @-@ point play and bring the Jayhawks within one point . Cunningham was fouled after being trapped in a double team and then missed the first shot of the one @-@ and @-@ one . The Jayhawks ' Loneski missed a contested , close layup , but King got the offensive rebound and was fouled on a put back shot . King made one of the free throws and tied the score at 52 – 52 .
The next possession , Kansas ' John Parker stole the ball and crossed half court when coach Harp called a timeout . Chamberlain received the ball in the post , went up for a shot and received some contact ; however , no referee called a foul and the ball rolled out of bounds off Carolina . The next play , Elstun was run into by a Tar Heel and went to the line for two shots with 31 seconds remaining , where he missed the first and made the second shot . Out of timeouts , Kearns drove into the lane and put up a shot that was blocked out of bounds by Chamberlain . The following play , Quigg pump – faked and went up for a shot that Chamberlain blocked ; however , simultaneously King made contact with Quigg 's body while shooting and the referees called a shooting foul . Quigg went to the free throw line for two shots with six seconds to go and made both , which gave the Tar Heels the lead 54 – 53 . Kansas called a timeout and in @-@ bounded to Loneski who then passed the ball towards Chamberlain who was under the basket . The pass was under thrown and Quigg tipped the ball away from Chamberlain . Kearns grabbed the ball and got away from a defender before he threw the ball into the air to run out the clock . Time expired as the ball was in the air and the Tar Heels won the National Championship .
= = Box score = =
Source :
= = Aftermath = =
Despite losing in the championship game , Kansas ' Wilt Chamberlain was named the NCAA Tournament 's Most Outstanding Player . Chamberlain was also named to the Consensus All @-@ Americans squad for the 1956 – 57 season . North Carolina 's Lennie Rosenbluth was named the Helms Foundation College Basketball Player of the Year for his performance throughout the basketball season , as well as a Consensus All – American . The Tar Heels ' coach Frank McGuire was named UPI College Basketball Coach of the Year for leading North Carolina to a win in the National Championship game and a perfect record of 32 – 0 .
While coach McGuire and Rosenbluth boarded a plane to New York to appear on The Ed Sullivan Show , the rest of the Tar Heels returned to North Carolina two days later when they landed at Raleigh – Durham International Airport ( RDU ) . The North Carolina squad was greeted by over 10 @,@ 000 fans . Some players were carried by members of the crowd from the airport ramp to the terminal . The airport manager believed the crowd gathered to meet the Tar Heels was the biggest in RDU 's history . The crowd was so big that it prevented Chancellor Robert House from giving a planned speech for the team . The large crowd at the airport was credited to the airing of both the national semifinal and National Championship game on television around North Carolina . The 1957 North Carolina team were awarded watches for their victory in the national championship . In the 1990s , the team was given rings to commemorate their win in the national championship game after then North Carolina coach Dean Smith insisted upon giving the team rings . Coach McGuire was given a brand new Carolina blue and white Cadillac by the university , as well as being signed to a new five – year contract that gave him $ 11 @,@ 500 per year .
After seeing the success from televising the final games of the tournament , Castleman Chesley believed that " ACC basketball could be as popular as any TV show in North Carolina . " Chesley 's success in airing North Carolina 's national semifinal and National Championship games in North Carolina led to the increase in attention towards basketball around the state . In addition , it led to Chesley and the Atlantic Coast Conference agreeing to a television contract that would air twelve ACC games league – wide during the 1957 – 58 season . The games aired the following season were called the ACC Game of the Week which aired on Saturdays . The television contract allowed the league to expand and increase the conference 's visibility . It also led to an increase in ticket sales for the members of the ACC . Due to the increase in televising of ACC games , more children began to pick up the sport of basketball .
In Chapel Hill , North Carolina , the Tar Heel fans that watched the game on the television flooded Franklin Street after the victory over the Jayhawks . Over two thousand people rushed the street , which prevented cars from passing for over an hour . Police were required to help maintain the crowds . This has since turned into a tradition where people overrun Franklin Street following a win over the Duke Blue Devils or whenever the Tar Heels have won a National Championship .
Wilt Chamberlain received criticism for his inability to win lead Kansas to a win in the National Championship game ; Chamberlain later admitted that this loss was the most painful in his life . He returned to Kansas for his junior year and to play another season under coach Dick Harp . Chamberlain quickly became frustrated with the opposing teams ' way of playing him , which primarily consisted of double or triple teaming Chamberlain in order to limit his offensive production and effectiveness . In addition , many teams resorted to running out the time on the clock when in the lead against the Jayhawks to increase their odds of winning the game . After the Jayhawks failed to qualify for the NCAA Tournament that year , Chamberlain decided to forgo his senior season to play with the Harlem Globetrotters . He did not return to Kansas ' campus for over 40 years after leaving for the Globetrotters ; he finally returned in 1998 when his jersey was retired .
= Accounting research =
Accounting research is research on the effects of economic events on the process of accounting , and the effects of reported information on economic events . It encompasses a broad range of research areas including financial accounting , management accounting , auditing and taxation .
Academic accounting research " addresses all aspects of the accounting profession " using the scientific method , while research by practicing accountants focuses on solving problems for a client or group of clients . Academic accounting research can make significant contribution to accounting practice , although changes in accounting education and the accounting academia in recent decades has led to a divide between academia and practice in accounting .
= = Overview = =
Accounting research is carried out both by academic researchers and by practicing accountants . Academic accounting research addresses all areas of the accounting profession , and examines issues using the scientific method ; it uses evidence from a variety of sources including financial information , experiments , and computer simulations .
Research by practicing accountants " focuses on solving immediate problems for a single client or small group of clients " and involve , for example , decision @-@ making on the implementation of new accounting or auditing standards , the presentation of unusual transactions in the financial statements , and the impact of new tax laws on clients .
Accounting research is also carried out by accounting organizations such as standard @-@ setting bodies . For example , the International Accounting Standards Board ( IASB ) may initiate research projects for certain issues , the results of these may inform its decision whether to move the issues to its active agenda .
= = = History of accounting research = = =
Accounting research has undergone significant changes in the past decades . In the 1950s , an accounting academia was established that adopted the requirements of social science academia , such as PhD qualifications and research papers , and the mid @-@ 1970s saw a shift from the dominance of normative research to positive research " that uses methods from finance , economics , and other established academic disciplines " .
= = Academic research and accounting practice = =
= = = Contribution of academic research to practice = = =
The contribution of academic accounting research to accounting practice includes the assessment of current accounting practices , the development of new practices , and the development of university curricula :
" Academic research has an important role to play , both in assessing the extent to which existing practices are ‘ fit for purpose ’ and in developing new practices to address changing business , economic and societal needs . Research also informs the teaching curricula in universities , thus affecting the range of issues of which future generations will become aware and consider important . "
For example , academic accounting research " can improve the understanding of how stakeholders actually use the information accountants provide " , and prior academic studies have contributed to fraud risk assessment , the future direction of the profession , and the impact of changing accounting standards .
= = = Gap between academia and practice = = =
Several publications , including the recent accounting literature , have suggested a divide or gap between the academic and professional communities in accounting . Aspects of the divide have been suggested to include criticisms of academics for speaking with their own jargon and aiming to publish research rather than improve practice , and criticisms of practicing accountants for being resistant to changes to the status quo and reluctant to disclose data .
The divide between accounting academia and practice was originally centered on whether a broader education or just technical training was the best way to educate accountants . From the 1950s , accounting academia and practice grew further divided due to the accounting academic community adopting requirements from social science academia , while practicing accountants " maintained an emphasis on professional qualifications and technical skills " .
Aside from accounting academia and practice valuing different skills and requirements , a variety of factors have been proposed for the divide . One view is that a lack of training in reading academic research may lead practicing accountants " to dismiss what could be very helpful information as either too complicated or too disconnected to be useful " ; while another view points to fundamental failures in academic research in business and economics in general — for example that researchers have failed to effectively question prevailing economic and business models .
= = Types of academic accounting research = =
= = = Topical areas = = =
Academic accounting research covers a wide range of related topics that can be classified into several areas , including financial accounting , management accounting , auditing , taxation , governance , and accounting information systems ( AIS ) research :
Financial accounting research
Examines financial accounting and the financial markets , and focuses on the relationship between accounting information and the decision @-@ making of external users of the accounting information in the capital markets .
Managerial accounting research
Focuses on the relationship between accounting information and internal users of the accounting information , for example examining the allocation of resources and decision @-@ making within an enterprise .
Auditing research
Studies related to the audit function , including auditor decision @-@ making and the effects of auditing on financial reporting .
Taxation research
Examines taxation @-@ related issues such as market reactions to tax disclosures and taxpayer decision @-@ making , and the relationship between accounting information and tax authorities .
Governance research
Examines the overall corporate management of organizations .
AIS research
Examines issues related to accounting information systems , such as system security and design science .
= = = Methodologies = = =
Academic accounting research can be classified by methodology into archival , experimental , and analytical studies :
Archival research
Research that examines " objective data collected from repositories " , including data collected by the researchers ;
Experimental research
Research that examines data " the researcher gathered by administering treatments to subjects " ; and
Analytical research
Research " based on the act of formally modeling theories or substantiating ideas in mathematical terms " .
This classification is not exhaustive — other possible methodologies include the use of case studies , computer simulations and field research .
= Action of 1 November 1944 =
The Action of 1 November 1944 also known as the Ambush off Pag Island was a naval engagement in the Kvarner Gulf of the Adriatic Sea , between the islands of Pag and Lussino ( present @-@ day Lošinj ) on 1 November 1944 . It was fought between a British Royal Navy destroyer flotilla and a Kriegsmarine force of two corvettes and a destroyer . The German flotilla was deployed to escort a convoy retreating from Šibenik to Fiume ( present @-@ day Rijeka ) . The British managed to destroy all three German ships in return for no loss .
The action caused the death of more than 200 German crewmen . The attacking force rescued 90 , and an additional 20 sailors were rescued two days later by German vessels sent to search for survivors . The convoy of 19 landing craft , which was expected to be escorted by the three vessels sunk by the Royal Navy , was not intercepted and it reached its destination by 2 November .
= = Background = =
After the Italian capitulation of 8 September 1943 , following the Allied invasion of Italy , the Yugoslav Partisans captured most of the eastern Adriatic coast in the region of Dalmatia . The Germans however rushed to occupy these areas particularly the northern Adriatic ports of Trieste , Fiume ( present @-@ day Rijeka ) and Pula and established the Operational Zone of the Adriatic Littoral ( German : Operationszone Adriatisches Küstenland – OZAK ) , with its headquarters in Trieste on 10 September . Since an Allied landing in the area was anticipated , OZAK also hosted a substantial German military contingent including newly formed German naval units which consisted of many captured Italian warships . As result an engagement with the Royal Navy seemed to be inevitable .
In the second half of 1944 the Royal Navy sent a flotilla into the Adriatic , both to secure the area and to attack German coastal shipping . The coastal shipping became increasingly significant for the German forces deployed in the Independent State of Croatia , and especially Dalmatia — as road and rail routes became unsafe for use because of activity of the Yugoslav Partisans . To deny that option , the Royal Navy initiated Operation Exterminate , primarily aimed at destruction of German corvettes . On 26 October , the Yugoslav Partisans informed Lieutenant Commander Morgan Morgan @-@ Giles , commander of the coastal forces in the north Adriatic , that there were two German destroyers in a cove on the south coast of the Rab Island .
= = Prelude = =
The German withdrawal from the Dalmatian cities of Zadar and Šibenik to Fiume , codenamed Operation Viking ( Operation Wikinger ) involved transporting troops and materiel on board two ship convoys , protected by the Kriegsmarine . The withdrawal was a consequence of imminent capture of Zadar and Šibenik by Yugoslav Partisans . The Wikinger II convoy set sail from Šibenik at 17 : 00 on 1 November . The convoy consisted of Marinefährprahm landing craft MFP 522 , MFP 554 , MFP 484 and MFP 354 , representing group " A " of the convoy , and 13 Combat engineer Landing Craft ( Pionier @-@ Landungsboot ) and two large Sturmboot assault landing craft , arranged into the group " B " .
In the first part of the route , the convoy was protected by the 2nd Group of the 3rd E @-@ boat Flotilla , before the escort duty was turned over to the 2nd Escort Flotilla ( Geleitflottille ) based in Fiume . The 3rd E @-@ boat Flotilla originally consisted of S 154 , S 156 and S 158 E @-@ boats , but during the 25 October Royal Air Force attack on Šibenik , de Havilland Mosquitos sunk S 158 and damaged S 156 , leaving only one operational E @-@ boat for the convoy duty . At the time , the only operational vessels of the 2nd Escort Flotilla were Torpedoboot Ausland destroyer TA @-@ 20 ( ex @-@ Italian Urakaze @-@ class destroyer Audace ) , with a crew of 113 , and U @-@ Boot Jäger corvettes UJ 202 and UJ 208 These were ex @-@ Italian Gabbiano @-@ class corvettes Melpómene and Spingarda , with crews of about 110 each , and fast minesweeper R 187 . The TA 20 was commanded by Oberleutnant zur See der Reserve ( Sub @-@ Lieutenant ) Heinz Guhrke , the UJ 202 by Oberleutnant zur See der Reserve Heinz Trautwein and UJ 208 by Oberleutnant zur See der Reserve Klaus Wenke .
The TA 21 ( ex @-@ Italian destroyer Insidioso ) remained in port due to problems with fuel quality . The fuel problems also caused the force to depart the port at different times . The corvettes left at 16 : 00 , R 187 sailed a half an hour later , while the TA 20 left port at 19 : 00 , with the flotilla commander Korvettenkapitän der Reserve ( Lieutenant Commander ) Friedrich @-@ Wilhelm Thorwest on board .
= = Action = =
Acting upon the information provided by the Yugoslav Partisans , the Royal Navy sortied two Type II Hunt @-@ class destroyers , HMS Avon Vale and HMS Wheatland , from their base at the Ist Island at 17 : 00 on 1 November . Wheatland was under command of Lieutenant Hugh Askew Corbett , while Avon Vale was under Lieutenant Ivan Hall . The destroyers were accompanied by motor torpedo boats MTB 295 , MTB 287 and MTB 274 , motor gun boats MGB 642 , MGB 638 and MGB 633 and motor launch ML494 . The destroyers were tasked with landing a team of South African coast watchers on the north tip of Rab , the MTBs with patrolling the Kvarner Gulf between Rab and Krk islands , while the rest of the force loitered southwest , near Premuda . Morgan @-@ Giles commanded the force .
The coast watchers landed at 19 : 50 , the same time the MTBs reported sighting of two enemy " destroyers " sailing south — in fact the two corvettes . Using radar , the corvettes detected the destroyers on their port side at 20 : 15 and ordered general quarters , while UJ 202 fired two star shells . The crew of R 187 saw this as she followed the corvettes from afar . The destroyers engaged the German corvettes at 20 : 20 , at a position due west of Lun on the island of Pag , assigning a corvette each as a target . The first British salvos scored hits on the corvettes , using their 100 @-@ millimetre ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) guns , from a distance of 3 @,@ 700 metres ( 4 @,@ 000 yards ) . UJ 202 was hit directly by several shots , knocking out its 100 @-@ millimetre ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) gun , a bow @-@ mounted quadruple 20 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) gun , and a stern @-@ mounted 37 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) gun . Her bridge and radio room were also hit . She continued to return fire while attempting to sail to Rab . UJ 208 was also quickly hit , and its 100
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@-@ millimetre ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) and bow @-@ mounted 20 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) guns were knocked out of action . Her crew managed to put out fire on her stern , but another blaze amidships blocked all communications between the forward and aft sections of the vessel . By 20 : 30 , she rolled to the port and began sinking . UJ 202 sank at 21 : 00 .
The Royal Navy force took only ten minutes to disable the corvettes . They then began to pull survivors out of the sea , but the rescue was suspended at about 22 : 30 , when the TA 20 was picked up by radar and fired upon . The first salvo hit her bridge killing all officers , and knocking out her fire @-@ control system . She sank close to Pag Island . Neither TA 20 , nor the corvettes managed to radio news of the attack .
R 187 had maintained radio silence and sailed east to evade detection . It linked up with the convoy sailing from Šibenik at approximately 23 : 45 , and proceeded to escort it north . The combat engineer landing craft reached Kraljevica , except for two which made port in Senj due to poor weather conditions . The rest of the convoy reached Fiume on 2 November . The Royal Navy destroyers sailed back to Ist with empty magazines .
= = Aftermath = =
As weather conditions worsened , Royal Navy destroyers were only able to rescue 90 survivors from the three German ships . Before the rescue operation was suspended to engage TA 20 , Wheatland pulled out of the sea three officers and 68 seamen — most of them crew of UJ 202 . The Kriegsmarine sortied TA 40 and TA 45 corvettes as well as S 33 and S 154 E @-@ boats to look for survivors , finding seventeen TA 20 crew members on the islet of Trstenik on 3 November . The group included seven wounded , tended by a local lighthouse crew . Besides them , the ships rescued one UJ 202 and three UJ 208 crew members from the sea . The deteriorating weather also prevented retrieval of the coast watchers for four days . More than two hundred Germans perished in this action , including the flotilla commander and all three ship commanding officers .
Corbett was awarded the Distinguished Service Order and Hall the Distinguished Service Cross for their " bravery , resolution and skill " in the battle . All four Kriegsmarine commanders involved in the action were posthumously awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross , and Thorwest was promoted to the rank of fFregattenkapitän ( Commander ) .
Yugoslav Partisans captured Šibenik and Zadar by 3 November 1944 , but the war in the Adriatic continued until April 1945 . Allied destroyers never engaged large Kriegsmarine vessels in the Adriatic after November 1944 . Dwindling German naval assets in the area resulted in limited action , while the last recorded loss was TA 45 torpedoed by Royal Navy MTBs in April . Only four Kriegsmarine ships survived to be captured or scuttled when German forces in Italy surrendered at the end of April to advancing forces of the British 8th Army .
The shipwreck of TA 20 was found by Italian wreck divers in 1999 , she lies on a part of sea floor near a commercial trawling zone , and is regularly obscured by large quantities of silt . The two corvettes were located in 2000 . Since divers who found them could not identify them as UJ 202 or UJ 208 specifically , they became known as the " northern " and the " southern " corvette . The northern corvette rests on her keel , with her bow pointing to Rab and her stern partially destroyed , either from hostile fire or secondary explosions from her own depth charges . The divers ' description of the wreck indicates that she is UJ 202 . The southern corvette lies on her starboard side covered in silt . Several depth charges are still found on her stern in Gatteschi @-@ type racks indicating that the southern corvette is the wreck of UJ 208 . The three shipwrecks are a part of " the Ghost Fleet of Pag " ( Croatian : Sablasna paška flota ) together with the wrecks of HMS Aldenham , and Austro @-@ Hungarian steamships SS Albanien and SS Euterpe .
= Bluespotted stingray =
The bluespotted stingray ( Neotrygon kuhlii ) or Kuhl 's stingray , is a species of stingray of the Dasyatidae family . It was recently changed from Dasyatis kuhlii in 2008 after morphological and molecular analyses show that it is part of a distinct genus , Neotrygon . The body is rhomboidal and colored green with blue spots . Maximum disk width is estimated 46 @.@ 5 centimeters ( 18 @.@ 3 in ) . It is popular in aquaria but usually not distinguished from the bluespotted ribbontail ray . The ribbontail has a rounded body , is a brighter green with brighter blue and more vivid spots , but the bluespotted stingray is larger . The stingray 's lifespan is estimated thirteen years of age for females and ten years for males . The bluespotted stingray preys on many fish and small mollusks . The bluespotted stingray is also generally found from Indonesia to Japan , and most of Australia . The bluespotted stingray is also targeted by many parasites such as tapeworms , flatworms , and flukes .
= = Taxonomy = =
The bluespotted stingray was discovered by Heinrich Kuhl in Java , Indonesia . The population of this species is greatly debatable due to the five different species of rays in Indonesia . Also , there are two different subgroups : the Java and Bali form . The distinct difference between the two strains is their size , with the Bali being much larger than the Java . On the familial level , the family Dasyatidae is made up of 9 genera and 70 species . The genus of Neotrygon are called maskrays , because of the color pattern around their eyes .
= = Description and behavior = =
The bluespotted stingray has a flat disc @-@ like rhomboid body up to 47 centimeters ( 19 in ) in diameter and 70 centimeters ( 28 in ) in total length . Their coloring is a dark green with blue spots with a light white underbelly also known as countershading . Its snout is very short and broadly angular along with its angular disc . The rays ' bright coloration serves as a warning for its venomous spines . The ray has a very long tail accommodating two venomous spines on the base of the tail . The tail is about twice as long as the body of the ray , and the barbs or spines are two different sizes , one being very large and the other a medium @-@ sized barb . The bluespotted stingray has bright yellow eyes that are positioned to allow them a wide angle of view . Since the gills are located ventrally , the spiracles allow water to reach the gills while resting or feeding on the benthos . The spiracles are located directly behind the eyes . The mouth is located on the ventral side of the body , which promotes the unique foraging technique of stingrays . Rays are normally solitary individuals but can occur in groups . One unique characteristic of the bluespotted stingray is that they rarely bury themselves in the sand , only to hide from predators , unlike the majority of stingrays who bury themselves regularly to hunt .
= = = Diet = = =
The bluespotted stingray feeds on shrimp , small bony fish , mollusks , crabs and other worms . Due to the fact that this ray is a shallow bottom feeder , it has a small variety of marine life to prey on . The bluespotted stingray overpowers its prey by pinning them to the bottom of the seafloor with its fins . The bluespotted stingray has numerous tiny teeth , with the lower jaw being slightly convex . They also , like most stingrays , have plate @-@ like teeth to crush prey .
= = = Reproduction = = =
The bluespotted stingray is ovoviviparous . The embryos are retained in eggs within the mother 's body until they are ready to hatch . The embryos receive nourishment from the mothers ' uterine fluid . Mothers give birth to up to seven pups per litter ; these pups range from 6 inches ( 150 mm ) to 13 inches ( 330 mm ) long at birth . The bluespotted stingray passes its offspring 32 sets of chromosomes . The mother also has an annual reproductive cycle . Studies show that the mating season is in October and November and the ovulating season is in the Australian summer ( December 1- February 28 / 29 ) , which coincides with the embryonic development .
= = Habitat = =
The bluespotted stingray is commonly found in waters of depths about 0 – 90 meters ( 0 – 295 feet ) , being commonly found in sand and mudflats , but have also been encountered near rocky coral reefs , and sea grass beds . This stingray is found in a tropical climate at 29 ° N- 31 ° S , and 20 ° E- 171 ° W. At high tide the bluespotted stingray moves into the shallow lagoons and reef flats . It is found in northern Australia , Kenya , Madagascar , The island of Mauritius , Somalia , the east coast of South Africa , India . The bluespotted stingray is in almost the entire continental waters of Asia , including the Sea of Japan , Yellow Sea , East China Sea , Philippine Sea , Sulu Sea , Java Sea , Banda Sea , Celebes Sea , Andaman Sea , the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea .
= = Threats and protected areas = =
In Queensland , Australia there are many areas for high protection of the bluespotted stingray , three being the Shoalwater , Corio Bay 's Area Ramsar Site , and the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park . A major threat to the bluespotted stingray is the destruction of coral reefs mainly in the north Western Pacific . The rays dwell in these reefs and the destruction and pollution from fertilizers and pesticides hurt them . The ray is commonly caught in the Java Sea by fishermen trawling and by Danish seine boats in large quantities . The bluespotted stingray is the second most significant species out of the sharks , rays , and skate family to be fished , contributing to about 700 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 500 lb ) per boat in 2006 @-@ 2007 .
= = Predators = =
Larger elasmobranchs , such as hammerhead sharks , prey on the bluespotted stingray . The rays coloration is a warning for the highly venomous barbs , thus few animals attempt to overpower this ray . The hammerhead shark uses its head to pin down the bluespotted stingray , while it is in shock and much weaker .
= = Human interaction = =
Due to the unique characteristics of this ray it is very common to be found in pet trade , many people ignore the fact that in total maturity the size of the ray exceeds the capacity of many household aquariums . The bluespotted stingray is generally fished for its meat , being either smoked and salted or dried for local markets , but inexpensive due to its small size . It is caught in mass in bottom trawl , trammel , and fish traps . The bluespotted stingray is very venomous and it has a barb approximately 12 inches ( 300 mm ) long . The venom contains serotonin , 5 ' nucleotidase , and phosphodiesterase .
The skin of the bluespotted stingray is often used for drums such as on the Arab and Turkish darbuka goblet drum and riq ( def ) tambourine .
= = Parasites = =
There are many parasites that inhibit the bluespotted stingray , this is a table of the common groups of the parasite , and the specific name of the parasite .
= John Churchill , 1st Duke of Marlborough =
General John Churchill , 1st Duke of Marlborough , Prince of Mindelheim , KG , PC ( / ˈmɑːrlbərə / , often / ˈmɔːrlbrə / ; 26 May 1650 – 16 June 1722 O.S. ) , was an English soldier and statesman whose career spanned the reigns of five monarchs . Rising from a lowly page at the court of the House of Stuart , he served James , Duke of York , through the 1670s and early 1680s , earning military and political advancement through his courage and diplomatic skill .
Churchill 's role in defeating the Monmouth Rebellion in 1685 helped secure James on the throne , yet just three years later he abandoned his Catholic patron for the Protestant Dutchman , William of Orange . Honoured for his services at William 's coronation with the earldom of Marlborough , he served with further distinction in the early years of the Nine Years ' War , but persistent charges of Jacobitism brought about his fall from office and temporary imprisonment in the Tower . It was not until the accession of Queen Anne in 1702 that Marlborough reached the zenith of his powers and secured his fame and fortune .
His marriage to the hot @-@ tempered Sarah Jennings – Anne 's intimate friend – ensured Marlborough 's rise , first to the Captain @-@ Generalcy of British forces , then to a dukedom . Becoming de facto leader of Allied forces during the War of the Spanish Succession , his victories on the fields of Blenheim ( 1704 ) , Ramillies ( 1706 ) , Oudenarde ( 1708 ) , and Malplaquet ( 1709 ) , ensured his place in history as one of Europe 's great generals . But his wife 's stormy relationship with the Queen , and her subsequent dismissal from court , was central to his own fall . Incurring Anne 's disfavour , and caught between Tory and Whig factions , Marlborough , who had brought glory and success to Anne 's reign , was forced from office and went into self @-@ imposed exile . He returned to England and to influence under the House of Hanover with the accession of George I to the British throne in 1714 .
Marlborough 's insatiable ambition made him the richest of all Anne 's subjects . His family connections wove him into the fabric of European politics ( his sister Arabella became James II 's mistress , and their son , the Duke of Berwick , emerged as one of Louis XIV 's greatest Marshals ) . His leadership of the allied armies consolidated Britain 's emergence as a front @-@ rank power . He successfully maintained unity among the allies , thereby demonstrating his diplomatic skills . Throughout ten consecutive campaigns during the Spanish Succession war , Marlborough held together a discordant coalition through his sheer force of personality and raised the standing of British arms to a level not known since the Middle Ages . Although in the end he could not compel total capitulation from his enemies , his victories allowed Britain to rise from a minor to a major power , ensuring the country 's growing prosperity throughout the 18th century .
= = Early life ( 1650 – 78 ) = =
= = = Origins = = =
Churchill was the son of Sir Winston Churchill ( 1620 – 1688 ) of Glanvilles Wootton in Dorset , by his wife Elizabeth Drake , fourth daughter of Sir John Drake ( died 1636 ) of Ash in the parish of Musbury in Devon . The Churchill family are stated by the Devon historian William George Hoskins ( 1954 ) to have originated at the estate of Churchill , in the parish of Broadclyst in Devon , during the reign of King Henry II ( 1154 – 1189 ) .
= = = Ashe House = = =
At the end of the English Civil War Lady Drake was joined at her Devon home , Ash House in the parish of Musbury , by her fourth daughter Elizabeth Drake and her husband Winston Churchill ( 1620 – 1688 ) , a Royalist cavalry captain . Unlike his mother @-@ in @-@ law who had supported the Parliamentary cause , Winston had the misfortune of fighting on the losing side of the war – for which he , like so many other Cavaliers , was forced to compound ; in his case £ 446 18s . Although Winston had paid off the fine by 1651 , it had impoverished him . From this episode may derive the Churchill family motto : Fiel Pero Desdichado ( " Faithful but Unfortunate " ) .
= = = Siblings = = =
Winston Churchill and his wife Elizabeth Drake had at least nine children , only five of whom survived infancy . The eldest daughter , Arabella Churchill , was born on 28 February 1649 ; John Churchill , the eldest son , was born on 26 May 1650 ( O.S. ) . The two younger sons were George Churchill ( 1654 – 1710 ) , an admiral in the Royal Navy , and Charles Churchill ( 1656 – 1714 ) , a general who served on campaign in Europe with his eldest brother John .
= = = Childhood = = =
Little is known of John Churchill 's childhood about which he left no written description , but growing up in these impoverished conditions at Ashe , with family tensions soured by conflicting allegiances , may have made a lasting impression on the young Churchill . His descendant and biographer the Prime Minister Sir Winston Churchill , asserted that the conditions at Ashe " might well have aroused in his mind two prevailing impressions : first a hatred of poverty ... and secondly the need of hiding thoughts and feelings from those to whom their expression would be repugnant . "
= = Youth and education = =
After the Restoration of King Charles II in 1660 his father 's fortunes took a turn for the better , although he remained far from prosperous . In 1661 , Winston became Member of Parliament for Weymouth , and as a mark of royal favour he received rewards for losses incurred fighting against the Parliamentarians during the civil war , including the appointment as a Commissioner for Irish Land Claims in Dublin in 1661 . When Winston departed for Ireland the following year , John enrolled at the Dublin Free School ; but by 1664 , following his father 's recall to the position of Junior Clerk Comptroller of the King 's Household at Whitehall , John had transferred his studies to St Paul 's School in London . The King 's own penury meant the old Cavaliers received scant financial reward , but the prodigal monarch could offer something which would cost him nothing – positions at court for their progeny . Thus in 1665 Arabella became Maid of Honour to Anne Hyde , the Duchess of York . Some months later Arabella 's brother John joined her at court , serving as page to Anne 's husband , James , Duke of York , the brother of the King .
= = Career = =
= = = Early military experience = = =
The Duke of York 's passion for all things naval and military rubbed off on young Churchill . Often accompanying the Duke inspecting the troops in the royal parks , it was not long before the boy had set his heart on becoming a soldier himself . On 14 September 1667 ( O.S. ) , he obtained a commission as Ensign in the King 's Own Company in the 1st Guards , later to become the Grenadier Guards . Many of Marlborough 's hagiographers , following Lediard 's panegyric , credit him with service in the North African outpost of Tangier , recently acquired as part of the dowry of Charles II 's Portuguese wife , Catherine of Braganza . That is unlikely , and even Sir Winston S Churchill says " There is , indeed , no contemporary evidence of his ever having been there . " ( But Churchill then assumes he had been there , on the strange basis that Marlborough said he had at some time been to Spain and he supposedly would have considered the somewhat notorious and decidedly new Stuart possession of Tangier to be " Spain " ) . The known facts are that he was commissioned Ensign in September 1667 ( as above ) . On 21 February 1670 , the 1st Guards ( in which he had been commissioned ) and the Coldstream Guards were ordered each to provide fifty musketeers , a corporal , a sergeant and a commissioned officer for service with Sir Thomas Allen 's Mediterranean fleet . In March 1670 , there is an order of the King to provide money owed to Churchill 's father , Sir Winston , to cover John Churchill 's " equippage and other expenses in ye employment he is now forthwith by our command to undertake on board ye fleet in ye Mediterranean seas " . Sir Edward Spragge sailed early in 1670 to the Mediterranean , where he joined ( in fact , effectively relieved ) Sir Thomas Allen . By February 1671 , John Churchill was back in London and duelling with Sir John Fenwick .
Back in London by February 1671 , Churchill 's handsome features and manner – described by Lord Chesterfield as " irresistible to either man or woman " – had soon attracted the ravenous attentions of one of the King 's most noteworthy mistresses , Barbara Villiers , Duchess of Cleveland . But his liaisons with the insatiable temptress were indeed dangerous . One account has it that upon the King 's appearance Churchill leapt out of his lover 's bed and hid in the cupboard , but the King , himself wily in such matters , soon discovered young Churchill who promptly fell to his knees – " You are a rascal , " said Charles , " but I forgive you because you do it to get your bread . " The story may be apocryphal ( another version has Churchill jumping out of the window ) , yet it is widely accepted that he was the father of Cleveland 's daughter , Barbara , born on 16 July 1672 ( O.S. ) .
In 1672 Churchill was posted to sea again , and fought against the Dutch navy at the Battle of Solebay ( Southwold Bay , on the Suffolk coast ) on 28 May , possibly aboard the Duke of York 's flagship , the Prince which was crippled in the action . Shortly thereafter , Churchill was promoted ( above the resentful head of his lieutenant ) to a captaincy in the Duke of York 's Admiralty Regiment . The following year Churchill gained a commendation at the Siege of Maastricht when the young captain distinguished himself as part of the 30 @-@ man forlorn hope , successfully capturing and defending part of the fortress . During this incident Churchill is credited with saving the Duke of Monmouth 's life , receiving a slight wound in the process but gaining further praise from a grateful House of Stuart , as well as recognition from the House of Bourbon . King Louis XIV in person commended the deed , from which time forward bore Churchill an enviable reputation for physical courage , as well as earning the high regard of the common soldier .
Although Charles II 's anti @-@ French Parliament had forced England to withdraw from the Franco @-@ Dutch War in 1674 , some English regiments remained in French service . In April Churchill was appointed the colonelcy of one such regiment , thereafter serving with , and learning from , the great Marshal Turenne . Churchill was present at the hard @-@ fought battles of Sinsheim in June 1674 , and Enzheim in October ; he may also have been present at Sasbach in July 1675 , where Turenne was killed .
= = = Marriage and family = = =
On his return to St. James 's Palace , Churchill 's attention was drawn towards other matters , and to a fresh face at court . " I beg you will let me see you as often as you can , " pleaded Churchill in a letter to Sarah Jennings , " which I am sure you ought to do if you care for my love ... " Sarah Jennings ' social origins were in many ways similar to Churchill 's – minor gentry blighted by debt @-@ induced poverty . After her father 's death when she was eight , Sarah , together with her mother and sisters , moved to London . As Royalist supporters ( despite the fact that Sarah 's great uncle , James Temple , was convicted of regicide ) , the Jennings ' loyalty to the crown , like the Churchill 's , was repaid with court employment , and in 1673 Sarah followed her sister Frances into the household of the Duchess of York , Mary of Modena , second wife to James , Duke of York .
Sarah was about fifteen when Churchill returned from the Continent in 1675 , and he appears to have been almost immediately captivated by her charms and considerable good looks . Churchill 's amorous , almost abject , missives of devotion were , it seems , received with suspicion – his first lover , Barbara Villiers , was just moving her household to Paris , feeding doubts that he may well have been looking at Sarah as a replacement mistress rather than a fiancée . However , his persistent courtship over the coming months eventually won over the beautiful , if relatively poor , Maid of Honour . Although Winston wished his son to marry the wealthy Catherine Sedley ( if only to ease his own burden of debt ) , Colonel Churchill married Sarah sometime in the winter of 1677 – 78 , possibly in the apartments of the Duchess of York .
John and Sarah had the following children :
Lady Harriet Churchill ( Oct 1679 @-@ c.1698 )
Henrietta Churchill , 2nd Duchess of Marlborough ( 19 Jul 1681 – 24 Oct 1733 )
Lady Anne Churchill ( 27 Feb 1683 – 15 Apr 1716 )
John Churchill , Marquess of Blandford ( 13 Feb 1686 – 20 Feb 1703 )
Lady Elizabeth Churchill ( 15 Mar 1687 – 22 Mar 1751 )
Lady Mary Churchill ( 15 Jul 1689 – 14 May 1719 ) , became Duchess of Montagu by marriage to the 2nd Duke
Lord Charles Churchill ( 19 Aug 1690 – 22 May 1692 )
= = Years of crises ( 1678 – 1700 ) = =
= = = Diplomatic service = = =
Under the Earl of Danby the government now undertook a political realignment , and prepared to enter the war against France . The new alliance with the Dutch , together with the expansion of the English army , opened important prospects for Churchill in military and diplomatic spheres . In April 1678 , Churchill ( accompanied by his friend and rising politician , Sidney Godolphin ) , departed for The Hague to negotiate a convention on the deployment of the English army in Flanders . The young diplomat 's essay in international statecraft proved personally successful , bringing him into contact with William , Prince of Orange , who was highly impressed by the shrewdness and courtesy of Churchill 's negotiating skills . The assignment had helped Churchill develop a breadth of experience that other mere soldiers were never to achieve , yet because of the duplicitous dealings of Charles II 's secret negotiations with Louis XIV ( Charles had no intention of waging war against France ) , the mission ultimately proved abortive . In May , Churchill was appointed temporary rank of Brigadier @-@ General of Foot , but hopes of promised action on the Continent proved illusory as the warring factions sued for peace and signed the Treaty of Nijmegen .
When Churchill returned to England at the end of 1678 he found grievous changes in English society . The iniquities of the Popish Plot ( Titus Oates ' fabricated conspiracy aimed at excluding the Catholic Duke of York from the English accession ) , meant temporary banishment for James – an exile that would last nearly three years . James obliged Churchill to attend him , first to The Hague then to Brussels , before gaining permission to move to Edinburgh . Yet it was not until 1682 , after Charles II 's complete victory over the exclusionists , that the Duke of York was allowed to return to London . For his services during the crisis Churchill was made Lord Churchill of Eyemouth in the peerage of Scotland on 21 December 1682 ( O.S. ) , and the following year , on 19 November ( O.S. ) , appointed colonel of the King 's Own Royal Regiment of Dragoons .
The Churchills ' combined income now ensured a life of some style and comfort ; as well as maintaining their residence in London ( staffed with seven servants ) , they were also able to purchase Holywell House in St Albans ( Sarah Jennings ' family home ) where their own family could enjoy the benefits of country life . While in Edinburgh Sarah had given birth to Henrietta on 19 July 1681 ( O.S. ) . Another daughter , Anne , arrived in 1684 , followed by John in 1686 , Elizabeth in 1687 , Mary in 1689 , and Charles in 1690 who lived for only two years .
Churchill resumed court life with enthusiasm . In July 1683 he was sent to the Continent to conduct Prince George of Denmark to England for his arranged marriage to the 18 @-@ year @-@ old Princess Anne , the Duke of York 's younger daughter . Anne lost no time in appointing Sarah – of whom she had been passionately fond since childhood – one of her Ladies of the Bedchamber . Their relationship continued to blossom , so much so that years later Sarah wrote – " To see [ me ] was a constant joy ; and to part with [ me ] for never so short a time , a constant uneasiness ... This worked even to the jealousy of a lover . " For his part , Churchill treated the princess with respectful affection and grew genuinely attached to her , assuming – in his reverence to royalty – the chivalrous role of a knightly champion . From this time forward the Churchills were increasingly detached from James 's Catholic inner circle and more noticeably associated with the Princess .
= = = Rebellion = = =
With the death of Charles II in 1685 his brother , the Catholic Duke of York , became King James II . On James 's succession Churchill was appointed governor of the Hudson 's Bay Company . He had also been affirmed Gentleman of the Bedchamber in April , and admitted to the English peerage as Baron Churchill of Sandridge in the county of Hertfordshire in May , thus giving him a seat in the House of Lords . However , the new Parliament was overshadowed by rebellion , led in Scotland by the Earl of Argyll , and in England by Charles II 's illegitimate son , the Duke of Monmouth , who , encouraged by malcontents and various Whig conspirators ( exiled for their part in the failed Rye House plot ) , prepared to take what he considered rightfully his – the crown of England .
To face Monmouth 's rebels Churchill was given command of the regular foot in the King 's army , but the honour of leading the campaign passed to the limited , yet highly loyal , Earl of Feversham . Monmouth had landed at Lyme Regis on 11 June ( O.S. ) , but his ill @-@ timed , ill @-@ equipped , and ill @-@ advised peasant rebellion eventually floundered on the Somerset field of Sedgemoor on 6 July 1685 ( O.S. ) . Although Churchill was subordinate to Feversham , his administrative capacity , tactical skill , and courage in battle were pivotal in the victory . " Sedgemoor may not have been John Churchill 's most spectacular victory , " writes historian John Tincey , " but it must rightly be considered to be his first " .
Churchill had been promoted to Major General on 3 July ( O.S. ) , but it was Feversham who received the lion 's share of the reward . Churchill was not entirely forgotten , and in August he was awarded the lucrative colonelcy of the Third Troop of Life Guards . Yet according to Historian David Chandler it is possible that the Sedgemoor campaign , and its subsequent persecutions driven by the bloodthirsty zeal of Judge Jeffreys , set in train a process of disillusion that culminated in his abandonment of his king , and long @-@ time patron and friend , just three years later . His master , however , had already given him cause for anxiety . " If the King should attempt to change our religion , " he is reputed to have remarked to Lord Galway shortly after James II 's succession , " I will instantly quit his service . "
= = = Revolution = = =
Churchill emerged from the Sedgemoor campaign with great credit , but he was anxious not to be seen as sympathetic towards the King 's growing religious ardour against the Protestant establishment . James II 's promotion of Catholics in royal institutions – including the army – engendered first suspicion , and ultimately sedition in his mainly Protestant subjects ; even members of his own family expressed alarm at the King 's fanatic zeal for the Roman Catholic religion . When the queen gave birth to a son , James Francis Edward Stuart , it opened up the prospect of a line of successive Catholic monarchs . Some in the King 's service , such as the Earl of Salisbury and the Earl of Melfort , betrayed their Protestant upbringing in order to gain favour at court , but although Churchill remained true to his conscience , telling the King , " I have been bred a Protestant , and intend to live and die in that communion " , he was also motivated by self @-@ interest . Believing that the monarch 's policy would either wreck his own career or generate a wider insurrection , he did not intend , like his unfortunate father before him , to be on the losing side .
Seven men met to draft the invitation to the Protestant Dutch Stadtholder , William , Prince of Orange , to invade England and assume the throne . The signatories to the letter included Whigs , Tories , and the Bishop of London , Henry Compton , who assured the Prince that , " Nineteen parts of twenty of the people ... are desirous of change . " William needed no further encouragement . Although the invitation was not signed by Churchill ( he was not , as yet , of sufficient political rank to be a signatory ) , he declared his intention through William 's principal English contact in The Hague – " If you think there is anything else that I ought to doe , you have but to command me . " Churchill , like many others , was looking for an opportune time to desert James .
William landed at Torbay on 5 November 1688 ( O.S. ) ; from there , he moved his army to Exeter . James 's forces – once again commanded by Lord Feversham – moved to Salisbury , but few of its senior officers were eager to fight – even Princess Anne wrote to William to wish him " good success in this so just an undertaking . " Promoted to Lieutenant @-@ General on 7 November ( O.S. ) Churchill was still at the King 's side , but his displaying " the greatest transports of joy imaginable " at the desertion of Lord Cornbury led Feversham to call for his arrest . Churchill himself had openly encouraged defection to the Orangist cause , but James continued to hesitate . Soon it was too late to act . After the meeting of the council of war on the morning of 24 November ( O.S. ) , Churchill , accompanied by some 400 officers and men , slipped from the royal camp and rode towards William in Axminster , leaving behind him a letter of apology and self @-@ justification :
... I hope the great advantage I enjoy under Your Majesty , which I own I would never expect in any other change of government , may reasonably convince Your Majesty and the world that I am actuated by a higher principle ..
When the King saw he could not keep even Churchill – for so long his loyal and intimate servant – he despaired . James II , who in the words of the Archbishop of Rheims , had " given up three kingdoms for a Mass " , fled to France , taking with him his son and heir . With barely a shot fired , William had secured the throne , reigning as joint sovereign with his wife Mary , James II 's eldest daughter .
= = = William 's general = = =
As part of William and Mary 's coronation honours , Churchill was created Earl of Marlborough on 9 April 1689 ( O.S. ) ; he was also sworn as a member of the Privy Council and made a Gentleman of the King 's Bedchamber . His elevation , however , led to accusatory rumours from King James 's supporters that Marlborough had disgracefully betrayed his erstwhile king for personal gain ; William himself entertained reservations about the man who had deserted James . Marlborough 's apologists though , including his most notable descendant and biographer Winston Churchill , have been at pains to attribute patriotic , religious , and moral motives to his action ; but in the words of Chandler , it is difficult to absolve Marlborough of ruthlessness , ingratitude , intrigue and treachery against a man to whom he owed virtually everything in his life and career to date .
Marlborough 's first official act was to assist in the remodelling of the army – the power of confirming or purging officers and men gave the Earl the opportunity to build a new patronage network which would prove beneficial over the next two decades . His task was urgent , for less than six months after James II 's departure , England joined the war against France as part of a powerful coalition aimed at curtailing the ambitions of Louis XIV . With his experience it was logical that Marlborough took charge of the 8 @,@ 000 British troops sent to the Low Countries in the spring of 1689 ; yet throughout the Nine Years ' War ( 1688 – 97 ) he saw only three years service in the field , and then mostly in subordinate commands . However , at the Battle of Walcourt on 25 August 1689 Marlborough won praise from the Allied commander , Prince Waldeck – " ... despite his youth he displayed greater military capacity than do most generals after a long series of wars ... He is assuredly one of the most gallant men I know . " In recognition of his skill and valour William awarded him the lucrative colonelcy of the 7th Foot ( later the Royal Fusiliers ) .
Since Walcourt , though , Marlborough 's popularity at court had waned . William and Mary distrusted both Lord and Lady Marlborough 's influence as confidants and supporters of Princess Anne ( whose claim to the throne was stronger than William 's ) . Sarah had supported Anne in a series of court disputes with the joint monarchs , infuriating Mary who included the Earl in her disfavour of his scheming wife . Yet for the moment the clash of tempers were over @-@ shadowed by more pressing events in Ireland where James had landed in March 1689 in an attempt to regain his thrones . When William left for Ireland in June 1690 Marlborough became commander of all troops and militia in England , and was appointed a member of the Council of Nine to advise Mary on military matters in the King 's absence ; but she made scant effort to disguise her distaste at his appointment – " I can neither trust or esteem him , " she wrote to William .
William III 's victory at the Battle of the Boyne on 1 July 1690 ( O.S. ) forced James II to abandon his army and flee back to France . In August Marlborough himself left for Ireland engaged upon his first independent command – a land / sea operation upon the southern ports of Cork and Kinsale . It was a bold , imaginative project aimed at disrupting Jacobite supply routes , and one which the Earl conceived and executed with outstanding success . Cork fell on 27 September ( O.S. ) , and Kinsale followed in mid @-@ October . Although the campaign did not end the war in Ireland as Marlborough hoped , it taught him the significance of the minutiae of logistics , and the importance of cooperation and tact when working alongside other senior Allied commanders . It would , however , be more than ten years before he once again took charge in the field .
= = = Dismissal and disgrace = = =
William III recognised Marlborough 's qualities as a soldier and strategist , but the refusal of the Order of the Garter and failure to appoint him Master @-@ General of the Ordnance , rankled with the ambitious Earl ; nor did Marlborough conceal his bitter disappointment behind his usual bland discretion . Using his influence in Parliament and the army , Marlborough aroused dissatisfaction concerning William 's preferences for foreign commanders , an exercise designed to force the King 's hand . Aware of this , William in turn began to speak openly of his distrust of Marlborough ; the Elector of Brandenburg 's envoy to London overheard the King remark that he had been treated – " so infamously by Marlborough that , had he not been King , he would have felt it necessary to challenge him to a duel . "
Since January 1691 Marlborough had been in contact with the exiled James II in Saint @-@ Germain , anxious to obtain the erstwhile King 's pardon for deserting him in 1688 – a pardon essential for the success of his future career in the not altogether unlikely event of a Jacobite restoration . James himself maintained contact with his supporters in England whose principal object was to re @-@ establish him upon his throne . William was well aware of these contacts ( as well as others such as Godolphin and the Duke of Shrewsbury ) , but their double @-@ dealing was seen more in the nature of an insurance policy , rather than as an explicit commitment . Marlborough did not wish for a Jacobite restoration , but William was conscious of his military and political qualities , and the danger the Earl posed : " William was not prone to fear , " wrote Thomas Macaulay , " but if there was anyone on earth that he feared , it was Marlborough . "
By the time William and Marlborough had returned from an uneventful campaign in the Spanish Netherlands in October 1691 , their relationship had further deteriorated . In January 1692 , the Queen , angered by Marlborough 's intrigues in Parliament , the army , and even with Saint @-@ Germain , ordered Anne to dismiss Sarah from her household – Anne refused . This personal dispute precipitated Marlborough 's dismissal . On 20 January ( O.S. ) , the Earl of Nottingham , Secretary of State , ordered Marlborough to dispose of all his posts and offices , both civil and military , and consider himself dismissed from all appointments and forbidden the court . No reasons were given but Marlborough 's chief associates were outraged : Shrewsbury voiced his disapproval and Godolphin threatened to retire from government . Admiral Russell , now commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Navy , personally accused the King of ingratitude to the man who had " set the crown upon his head . "
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military rank . When William left for Holland in July Marlborough was one of the Lords Justices left running the country in his absence ; but striving to reconcile his close Tory connections with that of the dutiful royal servant was difficult , leading Marlborough to complain – " The King 's coldness to me still continues . "
= = Later life ( 1700 – 22 ) = =
= = = War of the Spanish Succession = = =
With the death of the infirm and childless King Charles II of Spain on 1 November 1700 , the succession of the Spanish throne , and subsequent control over her empire , once again embroiled Europe in war – the War of the Spanish Succession . On his deathbed Charles II had bequeathed his domains to Louis XIV 's grandson , Philip , Duc d 'Anjou . This threatened to unite the Spanish and French kingdoms under the House of Bourbon – something unacceptable to England , the Dutch Republic and the Holy Roman Emperor , Leopold I , who had himself a claim to the Spanish throne . With William 's health deteriorating ( himself estimating he had but a short time to live ) , and with the Earl 's undoubted influence over his successor Princess Anne , the King decided that Marlborough should take centre stage in European affairs . Representing William III in The Hague as Ambassador @-@ Extraordinary and as commander of English forces , Marlborough was tasked to negotiate a new coalition to oppose France and Spain .
On 7 September 1701 , the Treaty of the Second Grand Alliance was duly signed by England , the Emperor , and the Dutch Republic to thwart the ambitions of Louis XIV and stem Bourbon power . However , William was not to see England 's declaration of war . On 8 March 1702 ( O.S. ) the King , already in a poor state of health , died from injuries sustained in a riding accident , leaving his sister @-@ in @-@ law , Anne , to be immediately proclaimed as his successor . Although the King 's death occasioned instant disarray amongst the coalition , Count Wratislaw was able to report that – " The greatest consolation in this confusion is that Marlborough is fully informed of the whole position and by reason of his credit with the Queen can do everything . " This ' credit with the Queen ' also proved personally profitable to her long @-@ standing friends . Anxious to reward Marlborough for his diplomatic and martial skills in Ireland and on the Continent , Anne made him the Master @-@ General of the Ordnance – an office he had long desired – a Knight of the Garter and Captain @-@ General of her armies at home and abroad . With Lady Marlborough 's advancements as Groom of the Stole , Mistress of the Robes , and Keeper of the Privy Purse , the Marlboroughs , now at the height of their powers with the Queen , enjoyed a joint annual income of over £ 60 @,@ 000 , and unrivalled influence at court .
= = = = Early campaigns = = = =
On 4 May 1702 ( O.S. ) England formally declared war on France . Marlborough was given command of the English , Dutch , and hired German forces , but he had not as yet commanded a large army in the field , and had far less experience than a dozen Dutch and German generals who must now work under him . His command had its limitations , however . As commander of Anglo @-@ Dutch forces he had the power to give orders to Dutch generals only when their troops were in action with his own ; at all other times he had to rely on his powers of tact and persuasion , and gain the consent of accompanying Dutch field deputies or political representatives of the States General . Nevertheless , despite his Allies ' initial lassitude the campaign in the Low Countries ( the war 's principal theatre ) began well for Marlborough . After outmanoeuvring Marshal Boufflers , he captured Venlo , Roermond , Stevensweert and Liège , for which in December a grateful Queen publicly proclaimed Marlborough a duke .
On 9 February 1703 ( O.S. ) , soon after the Marlboroughs ' elevation , their daughter Elizabeth married Scroop Egerton , Earl of Bridgewater . This was followed in the summer by an engagement between Mary and John Montagu , heir to the Earl of , and later Duke of , Montagu , ( they later married on 20 March 1705 ( O.S. ) ) . Their two older daughters were already married : Henrietta to Godolphin 's son Francis in April 1698 , and Anne to the hot @-@ headed and intemperate Charles Spencer , Earl of Sunderland in 1700 . However , Marlborough 's hopes of founding a great dynasty of his own reposed in his eldest and only surviving son , John , who , since his father 's elevation , had borne the courtesy title of Marquess of Blandford . But while studying at Cambridge in early 1703 , the 17 @-@ year @-@ old was stricken with a severe strain of smallpox . His parents rushed to be by his side , but on Saturday morning , 20 February ( O.S. ) , the boy died , plunging the duke into ' the greatest sorrow in the world ' .
Bearing his grief , and leaving Sarah to hers , the Duke returned to The Hague at the beginning of March . By now Marshal Villeroi had replaced Boufflers as commander in the Spanish Netherlands , but although Marlborough was able to take Bonn , Huy , and Limbourg in 1703 , the ' Great Design ' – the Anglo @-@ Dutch plan to secure Antwerp and thereby open the river lines into Flanders and Brabant – was left in ruins by Villeroi 's initiative , poor Allied co @-@ ordination , and by General Obdam 's defeat at the Battle of Eckeren on 30 June . Domestically the Duke also encountered problems . The moderate Tory ministry of Marlborough , the Lord Treasurer Godolphin , and the Speaker of the House of Commons Robert Harley , were hampered by , and often at variance with , their High Tory colleagues whose strategic policy favoured the full employment of the Royal Navy in pursuit of trade advantages and colonial expansion overseas . To the Tories an action at sea was preferable to one ashore : rather than attack the enemy where they were strongest the Tories proposed to attack Louis XIV and Philip V where they were weakest – in their colonial empires and on the high seas . In contrast the Whigs , led by their ' Junto ' , enthusiastically supported the Ministry 's Continental strategy of thrusting the army into the heart of France . This support wilted somewhat following the Allies ' recent campaign , but the Duke , whose diplomatic tact had held together a very discordant Grand Alliance , was now a general of international repute , and the limited success of 1703 was soon eclipsed by the Blenheim campaign .
= = = = Blenheim and Ramillies = = = =
Pressed by the French and Bavarians to the west and Hungarian rebels to the east , Austria faced the real possibility of being forced out of the war . Concerns over Vienna and the situation in southern Germany convinced Marlborough of the necessity of sending aid to the Danube ; but the scheme of seizing the initiative from the enemy was extremely bold . From the start the Duke resolved to mislead the Dutch , who would never willingly permit any major weakening of Allied forces in the Spanish Netherlands . To this end , Marlborough moved his English troops to the Moselle ( a plan approved of by The Hague ) , but once there he planned to slip the Dutch leash and march south to link up with Austrian forces in southern Germany .
A combination of strategic deception and brilliant administration enabled Marlborough to achieve his purpose . After marching 250 miles ( 400 km ) from the Low Countries , the Allies fought a series of engagements against the Franco @-@ Bavarian forces ranged against them on the Danube . The first major encounter occurred on 2 July 1704 when Marlborough and Prince Louis of Baden stormed the Schellenberg heights at Donauwörth . However , the main event followed on 13 August when Marlborough – assisted by the Imperial commander , the able Prince Eugene of Savoy – delivered a crushing defeat on Marshal Tallard 's and the Elector of Bavaria 's army at the Battle of Blenheim . The whole campaign , which historian John Lynn describes as one of the greatest examples of marching and fighting before Napoleon , had been a model of planning , logistics , tactical and operational skill , the successful outcome of which had altered the course of the conflict – Bavaria was knocked out of the war , and Louis XIV 's hopes of an early victory were destroyed . With the subsequent fall of Landau on the Rhine , and Trier and Trarbach on the Moselle , Marlborough now stood as the foremost soldier of the age . Even the Tories , who had declared that should he fail they would " break him up like hounds on a hare " , could not entirely restrain their patriotic admiration .
The Queen lavished upon her favourite the royal manor of Woodstock and the promise of a fine palace commemorative of his great victory at Blenheim ; but since her accession her relationship with Sarah had become progressively distant . The Duke and Duchess had risen to greatness not least because of their intimacy with Anne , but the Duchess 's relentless campaign against the Tories ( Sarah was a firm Whig ) , isolated her from the Queen whose natural inclinations lay with the Tories , the staunch supporters of the Church of England . For her part , Anne , now Queen and no longer the timid adolescent so easily dominated by her more beautiful friend , had grown tired of Sarah 's tactless political hectoring and increasingly haughty manner which , in the coming years , were to destroy their friendship and undermine the position of her husband .
During the Duke 's march to the Danube Emperor Leopold I offered to make Marlborough a prince of the Holy Roman Empire in the small principality of Mindelheim . The Queen enthusiastically agreed to this elevation , but after the successes of 1704 , the campaign of 1705 brought little reason for satisfaction on the Continent . The planned invasion of France via the Moselle valley was frustrated by friend and foe alike , forcing the Duke to withdraw back towards the Low Countries . Although Marlborough penetrated the Lines of Brabant at Elixheim in July , Allied indecision and considerable Dutch hesitancy ( concerned as they were for the security of their homeland ) , prevented the Duke from pressing his advantage . The French and the Tories in England dismissed arguments that only Dutch obstructionism had robbed Marlborough of a great victory in 1705 , confirmed in their belief that Blenheim had been a lucky strike and that Marlborough was a general not to be feared .
The early months of 1706 also proved frustrating for the Duke as Louis XIV 's generals gained early successes in Italy and Alsace . These setbacks thwarted Marlborough 's original plans for the coming campaign , but he soon adjusted his schemes and marched into enemy territory . Louis XIV , equally determined to fight and avenge Blenheim , goaded his commander , Marshal Villeroi , to seek out Monsieur Marlbrouck . The subsequent Battle of Ramillies , fought in the Spanish Netherlands on 23 May , was perhaps Marlborough 's most successful action , and one in which he had himself characteristically drawn his sword at the pivotal moment . For the loss of fewer than 3 @,@ 000 dead and wounded ( far fewer than Blenheim ) , his victory had cost the enemy some 20 @,@ 000 casualties , inflicting in the words of Marshal Villars , " the most shameful , humiliating and disastrous of routs " . The campaign was an unsurpassed operational triumph for the English general . Town after town subsequently fell to the Allies . ' It really looks more like a dream than truth ' , wrote Marlborough to Sarah . With Prince Eugene 's rout of the French army at Turin in September , 1706 proved a miraculous year for Allied arms .
= = = = Falling out of favour = = = =
While Marlborough fought in the Low Countries a series of personal and party rivalries instigated a general reversal of fortune . The Whigs , who were the main prop of the war , had been laying siege to Godolphin . As a price for supporting the government in the next parliamentary session , the Whigs demanded a share of public office with the appointment of a leading member of their Junto , the Earl of Sunderland ( Marlborough 's son @-@ in @-@ law ) , to the post of Secretary of State . The Queen , who loathed Sunderland and the Junto , and who refused to be dominated by any single party , bitterly opposed the move ; but Godolphin , increasingly dependent on Whig support , had little room for manoeuvre . With Sarah 's tactless , unsubtle backing , Godolphin relentlessly pressed the Queen to submit to Whig demands . In despair , Anne finally relented and Sunderland received the seals of office ; but the special relationship between Godolphin , Sarah , and the Queen had taken a severe blow and she began to turn increasingly to a new favourite – Sarah 's cousin , Abigail Masham . Anne also became ever more reliant on the advice of Harley , who , convinced that the duumvirate 's policy of appeasing the Whig Junto was unnecessary , had set himself up as alternative source of advice to a sympathetic Queen .
Following his victory at Ramillies Marlborough returned to England and the acclamation of Parliament ; his titles and estates were made perpetual upon his heirs , male or female , in order that ' the memory of these deeds should never lack one of his name to bear it ' . However , the Allied successes were followed in 1707 with a resurgence in French arms in all fronts of the war , and a return to political squabbling and indecision within the Grand Alliance . The Great Northern War also threatened dire consequences . The French had hoped to entice Charles XII , King of Sweden , to attack the Empire regarding grievances over the Polish Succession , but in a pre @-@ campaign visit to the King 's headquarters at Altranstädt , Marlborough 's diplomacy helped placate Charles and prevent his interference regarding the Spanish Succession .
In Altranstädt , Marlborough reportedly approached Carl Piper , the most favored of the King 's advisers of the time . Allegedly , he offered Piper a pension in exchange for advising Charles XII to invade Russia , as this would distract Charles from interfering in the War of the Spanish Succession . Carl Piper was openly accused of having accepted Marlborough 's bribe , persuaded Charles to the Swedish invasion of Russia , which consequently lead to the disastrous Battle of Poltava . Carl Piper denied having accepted Marlborough 's offer , but he did admit that he had accepted that Marlborough provided his wife Christina Piper with a pair of valuable earrings , which she admitted , and as it was the habit of Carl Piper to personally refuse bribes but allow his wife to accept them and then follow her recommendation , the accusation of Marlborough 's bribe is not unlikely .
Nevertheless , major setbacks in Spain at Almanza and along the Rhine in Southern Germany , had caused Marlborough great anxiety . Prince Eugene 's retreat from Toulon ( Marlborough 's major goal for 1707 ) ended any lingering hopes of a war @-@ winning blow that year .
Marlborough returned from these tribulations to a political storm as the Ministry 's critics turned to attack the overall conduct of the war . The Duke and Godolphin had initially agreed to explore a ' moderate scheme ' with Harley and reconstruct the government , but they were incensed when Harley privately criticised the management of the war in Spain to the Queen , and his associate Henry St John , the Secretary at War , raised the issue in Parliament . Convinced of Harley 's caballing , the duumvirs threatened the Queen with resignation unless she dismissed him . Anne fought stubbornly to keep her favourite minister , but when the Duke of Somerset and the Earl of Pembroke refused to act without ' the General nor the Treasurer ' , Harley resigned : Henry Boyle replaced him as Secretary of State , and his fellow Whig , Robert Walpole , replaced St John as Secretary at War . The struggle had given Marlborough a final lease of power but it was a Whig victory , and he had to a large extent lost his hold on the Queen .
= = = = Oudenaarde and Malplaquet = = = =
The military setbacks of 1707 continued through the opening months of 1708 with the defection of Brugge and Gent to the French . Marlborough remained despondent about the general situation , but his optimism received a major boost with the arrival in theatre of Prince Eugene , his co @-@ commander at Blenheim . Heartened by the Prince 's robust confidence , Marlborough set about to regain the strategic initiative . After a forced march , the Allies crossed the river Schelde at Oudenaarde just as the French army , under Marshal Vendôme and the duc de Burgundy , was crossing farther north with the intent of besieging the place . Marlborough – with renewed self @-@ assurance – moved decisively to engage them . His subsequent victory at the Battle of Oudenaarde on 11 July 1708 demoralised the French army in Flanders ; his eye for ground , his sense of timing and his keen knowledge of the enemy were again amply demonstrated . The success , aided by the dissension of the two French commanders , restored the strategic initiative to the Allies , who now opted to besiege Lille , the strongest fortress in Europe . While the Duke commanded the covering force , Eugene oversaw the siege of the town , which surrendered on 22 October ; however , it was not until 10 December that the resolute Boufflers yielded the citadel . Yet for all the difficulties of the winter siege , the campaign of 1708 had been a remarkable success , requiring superior logistical skill and organisation . The Allies re @-@ took Brugge and Gent , and the French were driven out of almost all the Spanish Netherlands : " He who has not seen this , " wrote Eugene , " has seen nothing . "
While Marlborough achieved honours on the battlefield , the Whigs , now in the ascendancy , drove the remaining Tories from the Cabinet . Marlborough and Godolphin , now distanced from Anne , would henceforth have to conform to the decisions of a Whig ministry , while the Tories , sullen and vengeful , looked forward to their former leaders ' downfall . To compound his troubles , the Duchess , spurred on by her hatred of Harley and Abigail , had finally driven the Queen to distraction and wrecked what was left of their friendship . Sarah was retained in her court position out of necessity as the price to be paid to keep her victorious husband at the head of the army .
After the recent defeats and one of the worst winters in modern history , France was on the brink of collapse . However , Allied demands at the peace talks in The Hague in April 1709 ( principally concerning Article 37 that bound Louis XIV to hand over Spain within two months or face the renewal of the war ) , were rejected by the French in June . The Whigs , the Dutch , Marlborough and Eugene failed for personal and political reasons to secure a favourable peace , adhering to the uncompromising slogan ' No peace without Spain ' without any clear knowledge of how to accomplish it . All the while Harley , maintained up the backstairs by Abigail , rallied the moderates to his side , ready to play an ambitious and powerful middle part .
Marlborough returned to campaigning in the Low Countries in June 1709 . After outwitting Marshal Villars to take the town of Tournai on 3 September ( a major and bloody operation ) , the Allies turned their attention upon Mons , determined to maintain the ceaseless pressure on the French . With direct orders from the increasingly desperate Louis XIV to save the city , Villars advanced on the tiny village of Malplaquet on 9 September 1709 and entrenched his position . Two days later the opposing forces clashed in battle . On the Allied left flank the Prince of Orange led his Dutch infantry in desperate charges only to have it cut to pieces . On the other flank , Eugene attacked and suffered almost as severely . Nevertheless , sustained pressure on his extremities forced Villars to weaken his centre , enabling Marlborough to break through and claim victory . Yet the cost was high : the allied casualty figures were approximately double that of the enemy ( sources vary ) , leading Marlborough to admit – " The French have defended themselves better in this action than in any battle I 've seen . " The Duke proceeded to take Mons on 20 October , but on his return to England his enemies used the Malplaquet casualty figures to sully his reputation . Harley , now master of the Tory party , did all he could to persuade his colleagues that the pro @-@ war Whigs – and by their apparent concord with Whig policy , Marlborough and Godolphin – were bent on leading the country to ruin .
= = = = Endgame = = = =
The Allies had confidently expected that victory in a major set @-@ piece battle would compel Louis XIV to accept peace on Allied terms , but after Malplaquet ( the bloodiest battle of the war ) , that strategy had lost its validity : Villars had only to avoid defeat for a compromise peace settlement to become inevitable . In March 1710 , fresh peace talks re @-@ opened at Geertruidenberg , but again Louis XIV would not concede Whig demands to force his grandson , Philip V , from Spain . Publicly Marlborough toed the government line , but privately he had real doubts about pressing the French into accepting such a dishonourable course .
Although the Duke was only an observer at Geertruidenberg , the failed negotiations gave credence to his detractors that he was deliberately prolonging the war for his own profit . Yet it was with reluctance that he returned to campaigning in the spring , capturing Douai in June , before taking Béthune , and Saint @-@ Venant , followed in November by Aire @-@ sur @-@ la @-@ Lys . Nevertheless , support for the pro @-@ war policy of the Whigs had , by this time , ebbed away . The Cabinet had long lacked cohesion and mutual trust ( particularly following the Sacheverell affair ) when in the summer the plan to break it up , prepared by Harley , was brought into action by the Queen . Sunderland was dismissed in June , followed by Godolphin ( who had refused to sever his ties with Sarah ) in August . Others followed . The result of the general election in October was a Tory landslide and a victory for the peace policy . Marlborough remained at the head of the army , however . The defeated Junto , the Dutch , Eugene and the Emperor , implored him to stand by the common cause , while the new ministers , knowing they had to fight another campaign , required him to maintain the pressure on the enemy until they had made their own arrangements for the peace .
The Duke , ' much thinner and greatly altered ' , returned to England in November . His relationship with Anne had suffered further setbacks in recent months ( she had refused to grant him his requested appointment of Captain @-@ General for life , and had interfered in military appointments ) . The damage done to Marlborough 's general standing was substantial because it was so visible . For now , though , the central issue was the Duchess whose growing resentment of Harley and Abigail had finally persuaded the Queen to be rid of her . Marlborough visited Anne on 17 January 1711 ( O.S. ) in a last attempt to save his wife , but she was not to be swayed , and demanded Sarah give up her Gold Key ( the symbol of her office ) within two days , warning , " I will talk of no other business till I have the key . "
Notwithstanding all this turmoil – and his declining health – Marlborough returned to The Hague in late February to prepare for what was to be his last campaign , and one of his greatest . Once again Marlborough and Villars formed against each other in line of battle , this time along the Avesnes @-@ le @-@ Comte – Arras sector of the lines of Non Plus Ultra ( see map ) . By an exercise of brilliant psychological deception , and a secretive night march covering nearly 40 miles in 18 hours , the Allies penetrated the allegedly impregnable lines without losing a single man ; Marlborough was now in position to besiege the fortress of Bouchain . Villars , deceived and outmanoeuvred , was helpless to intervene , compelling the fortress 's unconditional surrender on 12 September . Chandler writes – " The pure military artistry with which he repeatedly deceived Villars during the first part of the campaign has few equals in the annals of military history ... the subsequent siege of Bouchain with all its technical complexities , was an equally fine demonstration of martial superiority . "
For Marlborough , though , time had run out . His strategic gains in 1711 made it virtually certain that the Allies would march on Paris the following year , but Harley had no intention of letting the war progress that far and risk jeopardising the favourable terms secured from the secret Anglo @-@ French talks ( based on the idea that Philip V would remain on the Spanish throne ) that had proceeded throughout the year . Marlborough had long had doubts about the Whig policy of ' No Peace without Spain ' , but he was reluctant to abandon his allies ( including the Elector of Hanover , Anne 's heir presumptive ) , and sided with the Whigs in opposing the peace preliminaries . Personal entreaties from the Queen ( who had long tired of the war ) , failed to persuade the Duke . The Elector made it clear that he too was against the proposals , and publicly sided with the Whigs . Nevertheless , Anne remained resolute , and on 7 December 1711 ( O.S. ) she was able to announce that – " notwithstanding those who delight in the arts of war " – a sneer towards Marlborough – " both time and place are appointed for opening the treaty of a general peace . "
= = = = Dismissal = = = =
To prevent the serious renewal of warfare in the spring , it was considered essential to replace Marlborough with a general more in touch with the Queen 's ministers and less in touch with their allies . To do this , Harley ( newly created Earl of Oxford ) and St John first needed to bring charges of corruption against the Duke , completing the anti @-@ Whig , anti @-@ war picture that Jonathan Swift was already presenting to a credulous public through his pamphleteering , notably in his Conduct of the Allies ( 1711 ) . The means to achieve Marlborough 's fall had already been put in train when the Ministry had set up a Parliamentary ' Commission for the taking , examining and stating the public accounts of the Kingdom ' , to report on alleged irregularities during the war .
Two main charges were brought to the House of Commons against Marlborough : first , an assertion that over nine years he had illegally received more than £ 63 @,@ 000 from the bread and transport contractors in the Netherlands ; second , that he had taken 2 @.@ 5 % from the pay of the foreign troops in English pay , amounting to £ 280 @,@ 000 . Despite Marlborough 's refutations ( claiming ancient precedent for the first allegation , and , for the second , producing a warrant signed by the Queen in 1702 authorising him to make the deductions in lieu of secret @-@ service money for the war ) , the findings were enough for Harley to persuade the Queen to release her Captain @-@ General . On 29 December 1711 ( O.S. ) , before the charges had been examined , Anne , who owed to him the success and glory of her reign , sent her letter of dismissal : " I am sorry for your own sake the reasons are become so public which makes it necessary for me to let you know you have render 'd it impracticable for you to continue yet longer in my service " . The Tory dominated Parliament concluded by a substantial majority that , ' the taking of several sums of money annually by the Duke of Marlborough from the contractor for foraging the bread and wagons ... was unwarrantable and illegal ' , and that the 2 @.@ 5 % deducted from the pay of foreign troops ' is public money and ought to be accounted for . ' When his successor , the Duke of Ormonde , left London for The Hague to take command of British forces he went , noted Bishop Burnet , with ' the same allowances that had been lately voted criminal in the Duke of Marlborough ' .
The Allies were stunned by Marlborough 's dismissal . The French , however , rejoiced at the removal of the main obstacle to the Anglo @-@ French talks . Oxford ( Harley ) and St John had no intention of letting Britain 's new Captain @-@ General undertake any action , and issued Ormonde his ' restraining orders ' in May , forbidding him to use British troops in action against the French – an infamous step that ultimately ruined Eugene 's campaign in Flanders . Marlborough continued to make his views known , but he was in trouble : attacked by his enemies and the government press ; with his fortune in peril and Blenheim Palace still unfinished and running out of money ; and with England split between Hanoverian and Jacobite factions , Marlborough thought it wise to leave the country . After attending Godolphin 's funeral on 7 October ( O.S. ) , he went into voluntary exile to the Continent on 1 December 1712 ( O.S. ) .
= = = Return to favour = = =
Marlborough was welcomed and fêted by the people and courts of Europe , where he was not only respected as a great general but also as a prince of the Holy Roman Empire . Sarah joined him in February 1713 , and was delighted when on reaching Frankfurt in the middle of May to see that the troops under Eugene 's command paid her lord ' all the respects as if he had been at his old post ' . The Duke also journeyed to his principality of Mindelheim which was destined , as he suspected , to revert to Bavaria at the conclusion of the peace negotiations .
Throughout his travels Marlborough remained in close contact with the Electoral court of Hanover , determined to ensure a bloodless Hanoverian succession on Anne 's death . He also maintained correspondence with the Jacobites . The spirit of the age saw little wrong in Marlborough 's continuing friendship with his nephew , the Duke of Berwick , James II 's illegitimate son with Arabella . But these assurances against a Jacobite restoration ( which he had been taking out since the early years of William III , no matter how insincere ) , stirred Hanoverian suspicions , and perhaps prevented him from holding the first place in the counsels of the future George I.
The representatives of France , Great Britain , and the Dutch Republic signed the Treaty of Utrecht on 11 April 1713 ( N.S. ) – the Emperor and his German allies , including the Elector of Hanover , continued with the war before finally accepting the general settlement the following year . The Treaty marked Britain 's emergence as a great power . Domestically , however , the country remained divided between Whig and Tory , Jacobite and Hanoverian factions . By now Oxford and St John ( Viscount Bolingbroke since 1712 ) – absorbed entirely by their mutual enmity and political squabbling – had effectively wrecked the Tory administration . Marlborough had been kept well informed of events while in exile and had remained a powerful figure on the political scene , not least because of the personal attachment the Queen still retained for him . After the death of his daughter Elizabeth from smallpox in March 1714 , Marlborough contacted the Queen . Although the contents of the letter are unknown it is possible that Anne may have summoned him home . Either way , it seems that an agreement was reached to reinstate the Duke in his former offices .
Oxford 's period of predominance was now at an end , and Anne turned to Bolingbroke and Marlborough to assume the reins of government and ensure a smooth succession . But beneath the weight of hostility the Queen 's health , already fragile , rapidly deteriorated , and on 1 August 1714 ( O.S. ) – the day the Marlboroughs returned to England – she died . The Privy Council immediately proclaimed the Elector of Hanover King George I of England . The Jacobites had proved incapable of action ; what Daniel Defoe called the ' solidity of the constitution ' had triumphed , and the regents chosen by George prepared for his arrival . The accession boded ill for the ' men of Utrecht ' – Bolingbroke and Oxford . Bolingbroke ( a staunch Jacobite ) fled to France , while vengeful Whigs pursued Oxford to the Tower . In contrast , Marlborough was received with the greatest cordiality . The new King had not entirely forgiven him his flirtations with Saint @-@ Germain , and he had no intention of employing him in any but military capacities . However , reappointed as Captain @-@ General , Master @-@ General of Ordnance , and Colonel of the 1st Foot Guards , Marlborough once more became a person of influence and respect at court .
The Duke 's return to favour under the House of Hanover enabled him to preside over the defeat of the 1715 Jacobite rising from London ( although it was his former assistant , Cadogan , who directed the operations ) . But his health was fading , and on 28 May 1716 ( O.S. ) , shortly after the death of his daughter Anne , Countess of Sunderland , he suffered a paralytic stroke at Holywell House . This was followed by another , more severe stroke in November , this time at a house on the Blenheim estate . The Duke recovered somewhat , but while his speech had become impaired his mind remained clear , recovering enough to ride out to watch the builders at work on Blenheim Palace and attend the Lords to vote for Oxford 's impeachment .
In 1719 the Duke and Duchess were able to move into the east wing of the unfinished palace , but Marlborough had only three years to enjoy it . While living at Windsor Lodge he suffered another stroke in June 1722 , not long after his 72nd birthday . Finally , at 4 a.m on 16 June ( O.S. ) , in the presence of his wife and two surviving daughters Henrietta Godolphin and Mary Montagu , the 1st Duke of Marlborough died . He was initially buried in the vault at the east end of Henry VII 's chapel in Westminster Abbey , but following instructions left by Sarah , who died in 1744 , Marlborough was moved to be by her side lying in the vault beneath the chapel at Blenheim .
= = Assessment = =
Marlborough was equally adept at both battle and siege :
... in the ten campaigns he made against [ the French ] ; during all which time it cannot be said that he ever slipped an opportunity of fighting , when there was any probability of coming at his enemy : and upon all occasions he concerted matters with so much judgement and forecast , that he never fought a battle which he did not gain , nor laid siege to a town which he did not take .
To military historians David Chandler and Richard Holmes , Marlborough is the greatest British commander in history , an assessment that is shared by others , including the Duke of Wellington who could " conceive nothing greater than Marlborough at the head of an English army " . However , the Whig historian , Thomas Macaulay , denigrates Marlborough throughout the pages of his History of England who , in the words of historian John Wilson Croker , pursues the Duke with " more than the ferocity , and much less than the sagacity , of a bloodhound " . According to historian George Trevelyan , Macaulay " instinctively desired to make Marlborough 's genius stand out bright against the background of his villainy " . It was in response to Macaulay 's History that a descendant — Winston Churchill — wrote his laudatory biography , Marlborough : His Life and Times ( 4 vol . 1933 – 1938 ) .
Marlborough was ruthlessly ambitious , relentless in the pursuit of wealth , power and social advancement , earning him a reputation for avarice and miserliness . These traits may have been exaggerated for the purposes of party faction but , notes Trevelyan , nearly all other statesmen of the day were engaged in founding families and amassing estates at the public expense ; Marlborough only differed in that he gave the public much more value for their money . In his quest for fame and personal interests he could be unscrupulous , as his desertion of James II testifies . To Macaulay this is regarded as a piece of selfish treachery against his patron ; an analysis shared by the historian G. K. Chesterton : " Churchill , as if to add something ideal to his imitation of Iscariot , went to James with wanton professions of love and loyalty ... and then calmly handed over the army to the invader " . To Trevelyan , Marlborough 's behaviour during the 1688 revolution was a sign of his " devotion to the liberties of England and the Protestant religion " . However , his continuing correspondence with Saint @-@ Germain was not noble . Although Marlborough did not wish for a Jacobite restoration his double @-@ dealing ensured that William III and George I would never be fully disposed to trust him .
Marlborough 's weakness during Anne 's reign lay in the English political scene . His determination to preserve the independence of the Queen 's administration from control of party faction initially enjoyed full support , but once royal favour turned elsewhere , the Duke , like his key ally Godolphin , found himself isolated ; first becoming little more than a servant of the Whigs , then a victim of the Tories .
= = = Captain @-@ General = = =
On the grand strategic level Marlborough had a rare grasp of the broad issues involved , and was able from the start of the Spanish Succession war to see the conflict in its entirety . He was one of the few influences working towards genuine unity within the Grand Alliance , but the extension of the war aims to include the replacement of Philip V as King of Spain was a fatal mistake . Marlborough stands accused – possibly for political and diplomatic reasons – of not pressing his private doubts about reinforcing failure . Spain proved a continuous drain of men and resources , and ultimately hampered his chances of complete success in Flanders , the war 's main theatre . The Allies did come close to a complete victory on
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several occasions , but the increasingly severe conditions imposed upon Louis XIV forestalled an early end to hostilities . Although the Duke lost his political influence in the latter stages of the war he still possessed vast prestige abroad , yet his failure to communicate his innermost convictions to his allies or political masters means he must bear some responsibility for the continuance of the war beyond its logical conclusion .
As a commander Marlborough preferred battle over slow moving siege warfare . Aided by an expert staff ( particularly his carefully selected aides @-@ de @-@ camp such as Cadogan ) , as well as enjoying a close personal relationship with the talented Imperial commander , Prince Eugene , Marlborough proved far @-@ sighted , often far ahead of his contemporaries in his conceptions , and was a master at assessing his enemy 's characteristics in battle . Marlborough was more likely to manoeuvre than his opponents , and was better at maintaining operational tempo at critical times , yet the Duke qualifies more as a great practitioner within the constraints of early 18th century warfare , rather than as a great innovator who radically redefined military theory . Nevertheless , his predilection for fire , movement , and co @-@ ordinated all @-@ arms attacks , lay at the root of his great battlefield successes .
As an administrator Marlborough was also without peer ; his attention to detail meant his troops rarely went short of supply – when his army arrived at its destination it was intact and in a fit state to fight . This concern for the welfare of the common soldier together with his ability to inspire trust and confidence , and his willingness to share the dangers of battle , often earned him adulation from his men – " The known world could not produce a man of more humanity " , observed Corporal Matthew Bishop . It was this range of abilities that makes Marlborough outstanding . Even his old adversaries recognised the Duke 's qualities . In his Letters on the Study of History ( 1752 ) , Bolingbroke declared – " I take with pleasure this opportunity of doing justice to that great man ... [ whose memory ] as the greatest general , and as the greatest minister that our country , or perhaps any other has produced , I honour " . His success was made possible because of his enormous reserves of stamina , willpower and self @-@ discipline ; his ability to hold together the Alliance against France , made possible by his victories , can hardly be overestimated .
= = Titles , styles , honours and arms = =
= = = Titles and styles = = =
26 May 1650 – 21 December 1682 : John Churchill , Esq .
21 December 1682 – 14 May 1685 : The Right Honourable The Lord Churchill of Eyemouth
14 May 1685 – 9 April 1689 : The Right Honourable The Lord Churchill of Sandridge and Eyemouth
9 April 1689 – December 1702 : The Right Honourable The Earl of Marlborough
December 1702 – 16 June 1722 : His Grace The Duke of Marlborough
in the Holy Roman Empire : 18 November 1705 – ? ? ? 1714 : His Serene Highness The Prince of Mindelheim
= = = Arms = = =
= Mark Kerry =
Mark Anthony Kerry ( born 4 August 1959 ) is an Australian former backstroke and freestyle swimmer of the 1970s and 1980s , who won three Olympic medals , including a gold in the 4 × 100 m medley relay at the 1980 Summer Olympics as the backstroker for the Quietly Confident Quartet . During his career , he won twelve Australian Championships .
Initially trained by his mother , Kerry enjoyed success in swimming and surf lifesaving as a teenager . His swimming career progressed to senior Australian standards after he switched to the tutelage of John Rigby and moved to Queensland . He made his debut at the 1976 Australian Championships and promptly won the 200 m freestyle and backstroke events to win selection for the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal at the age of 16 . At the Olympics , Kerry reached the final in two events , coming seventh and fifth in the 100 m and 200 m backstroke respectively . Kerry was disappointed with his performances , but they attracted the attention of American coach Doc Counsilman , who invited Kerry to swim under him at the Indiana University . Kerry set Australian records while in the United States , but his international career hit trouble when he was expelled from the 1978 Commonwealth Games team for breaking a curfew .
Kerry returned to Australia in 1980 for the national championships and gained selection for the Moscow Olympics by winning the backstroke double . Kerry declined financial inducements and resisted political pressure from the government of Australia to boycott the Olympics in protest at the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan . He went on to win bronze in the 200 m backstroke after missing the final in the 100 m . The peak of his career came in the 4 × 100 m medley relay , where he led off the winning team . The race remains the only time that the United States did not win the event at the Olympics . After the games , Kerry took an extended break from the sport , before returning for the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles . He claimed a bronze in the medley relay and came fifth in the 100 m backstroke . He then retired and took up a television and modelling career in the United States . After returning to Australia , he ran and owned Dunhill Management , one of the largest recruiting firms in the nation , with his brother . In 2001 , the Kerry brothers sold Dunhill for A $ 22 @.@ 7 million , with up to A $ 13 @.@ 8 million in additional payments depending on the success of the company . They later founded a new recruitment firm , K2 .
= = Early years = =
Born in Temora , New South Wales , near the regional centre of Wagga Wagga , Kerry was one of two sons born to a car salesman . Kerry 's mother was a swimming teacher who ran her own aquatic school . Kerry was taught to swim by his mother , whom he regarded as a perfectionist who emphasised technique and turned him to backstroke . Kerry grew up participating in a wide range of sports , representing Wollongong High School in tennis , athletics and swimming . He also competed four times in the state cross @-@ country championships . Once his family had moved to the seaside city of Wollongong , Kerry developed a love of the surf . He found the ocean water much more exciting due to its unpredictability . Kerry steadily rose through the surf lifesaving ranks , competing at the state and national championships . In 1974 , Kerry won the Cadet Malibu event in the Australian Championships , and in 1975 he came second in the surf race at the Australian Open Surfing Championships . In the pool , Kerry had his first competitive race at the age of 12 in 1971 . At the time , Brad Cooper — who went on to win the 400 m freestyle at the 1972 Summer Olympics — was living in Wollongong and he and Kerry trained together on a regular basis . In 1974 , Kerry competed in the Australian Age Championships in freestyle , before moving north to train with John Rigby in Brisbane , Queensland in the following year . At the time of his move , Kerry was ranked around 200th in the world in backstroke .
= = International debut : 1976 Olympics = =
Kerry had improved to such an extent that by November 1975 , his times in the 200 m backstroke had dropped from around 2 m 10 s to around 2 m 3 @.@ 0 s , ranking him third in the world . As a result of his strong performances in the pool , Kerry retired from surf racing . Kerry made his debut at the 1976 Australian Championships , winning the 200 m freestyle and backstroke events in 1 m 54 @.@ 33 s and 2 m 3 @.@ 58 s respectively , as well as the 4 × 200 m freestyle and the 4 × 100 m medley relays for New South Wales , leading off both relays . Aged 16 , Kerry won selection for the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal in the 100 m and 200 m backstroke , the 200 m freestyle , the 4 × 200 m freestyle relay and the 4 × 100 m medley relay .
Kerry was second in his heat of the 200 m freestyle heat in a time of 1 m 54 @.@ 86 s , but was four seconds off the pace and did not qualify for the final . His time was 2 @.@ 08 s behind the slowest qualifier , placing him 16th . Kerry did not get to swim in the 4 × 200 m freestyle relay . The fastest Australian in the corresponding individual event , he was rested in the qualifying round ; Australia came third in their heat and ninth overall to miss the final by 1 @.@ 88 s after Peter Dawson swam his split in a time four seconds slower than Kerry 's effort in the individual event . Had Kerry repeated his individual time in the relay in place of Dawson , Australia would have qualified fifth .
Kerry found more success in the 100 m backstroke , winning his heat in 57 @.@ 99 s to qualify third fastest for the semifinals . He then scraped into the final as the second slowest qualifier , after coming fourth in his semifinal in a time of 58 @.@ 04 s . His time of 57 @.@ 94 s placed him seventh in the final , ahead of fellow Australian Mark Tonelli , but more than two seconds behind the victorious John Naber of the United States . In the 200 m event , Kerry put in a personal best time of 2 m 3 @.@ 58 s in the first heat to qualify fourth fastest for the final , but swam slower in the decider to finish fifth in a time of 2 m 4 @.@ 07 s , one place behind Tonelli and 2 @.@ 72 s away from bronze . Kerry combined with Paul Jarvie , Neil Rogers and Peter Coughlan in the 4 × 100 m medley relay , placing sixth . The quartet qualified in sixth place , and Kerry had them in fourth place after posting a time of 57 @.@ 94 s in the first leg , but his teammates were unable to keep up with the leaders and finished more than four seconds out of medal contention .
Kerry was disappointed with his performances , feeling that he had failed to perform to his potential amid the pressure and excitement of an Olympics . However , he felt that his experience of racing against the likes of Naber and Roland Matthes would hold him in good stead . On a brighter note , Kerry 's performances impressed the leading American coach Doc Counsilman , who invited him to come and swim at Indiana University after Kerry finished his secondary schooling in Australia . Kerry successfully defended his 200 m backstroke national title in 1977 , but the time was more than four seconds slower than his effort in the previous year . He combined with his New South Wales teammates to win all three relays , again in times substantially slower than in the preceding Olympic year . The performances earned him selection for the Australian team for the Coca Cola Meet in London , but Kerry felt that he lacked motivation after the Olympics . Upon returning , he decided to absent himself from such events .
= = US college stint and expulsion for disciplinary issues = =
In January 1978 , Kerry arrived at Indiana University , studying theatre , drama and telecommunications . Based on the times that he recorded for Indiana , Kerry was named in the Australian squad for the 1978 Commonwealth Games in Edmonton , Canada . However , his international career appeared to be in disarray when along with two teammates , Tonelli and Joe Dixon , he was expelled from the Australian team for breaking a curfew on American Independence Day during a training camp in Honolulu , Hawaii . According to Tonelli , Kerry was late because he was courting a female he had met , while Tonelli and Dixon had been drinking . Tonelli also admitted to the officials that he had smoked marijuana — not illegal under Hawaii law — on the night . In the aftermath of the incident , Tonelli appeared on Australian television , strongly denying rumours that he had been involved in a drug @-@ fuelled orgy with teammates . He admitted to smoking marijuana , but defended his actions , saying that it was not illegal . Supporters in Australia , including future Prime Minister Bob Hawke , launched a petition for the reinstatement of the trio , which garnered thousands of signatures , but to no avail .
Kerry returned to Indiana and continued his training . He competed at the 1979 U.S. National Championships at Fort Lauderdale , setting Australian records in the 100 m and 200 m backstroke in times of 56 @.@ 50 s and 2 m 2 @.@ 61 s respectively . Over time , Kerry became increasingly discontented with Counsilman , whom he felt was losing focus and becoming preoccupied with various business commitments and an attempt to swim across the English Channel . Kerry transferred to the University of Southern California , which was coached by Naber 's mentor Peter Daland .
= = 1980 Olympics = =
Kerry returned home to compete in the 1980 Australian Championships , winning both backstroke events , albeit in a slower time than his Australian records . Kerry added two titles as a member of the 4 × 100 m medley and freestyle relay teams for New South Wales . This earned Kerry his second trip to the Olympics , this time in Moscow . However , another obstacle arose with the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan , which resulted in a boycott of the Games by a large part of the Western world , led by the United States . The Australian Prime Minister Malcolm Fraser was also the patron of the Australian Olympic Committee , and significant political pressure came to bear on the athletes to boycott the Games . Kerry 's team @-@ mate Tonelli , however , realised that only the sportspeople would suffer from a boycott and that trade relations would continue unabated . He took a leadership role among the athletes to fight for their right to compete . Kerry was equally adamant that he was going to compete , unlike some other swimmers who made personal boycotts . He received offers from Australian government officials to boycott the Games in return for financial payments . He said :
I felt the biggest statement we could make was to go to Moscow and show the world . If there was a total boycott , fine , but trade was still going on . It was disgusting . Why should the athletes be made to suffer ?
Upon leaving the US for the Olympics , Kerry was threatened with the cancellation of his US visa . Kerry arrived in Moscow facing a four event schedule : he was nominated in both backstroke events and the 4 × 200 m freestyle relay and the 4 × 100 m medley relay . With the Americans and many other western swimmers absent , Australian officials were confident that their three entrants in the 100 m backstroke , Kerry , Tonelli and Glenn Patching , would all make the final and win medals . Kerry came third in both his heat and semi @-@ final , clocking 58 @.@ 08 s and 58 @.@ 07 s respectively , missing out on the final by just 0 @.@ 02 s . He was the ninth fastest in the closely run semifinals , with the third fastest qualifier being only 0 @.@ 18 s faster . Patching missed the final after slipping on the starting wall in his race , while Tonelli went on to finish seventh . Had Kerry matched his personal best of 65 @.@ 50 s , he would have won the gold medal ahead of Sweden 's Bengt Baron .
Kerry bounced back in the 200 m backstroke and won his heat to qualify third @-@ fastest , before claiming bronze in a time of 2 m 3 @.@ 14 s behind the Hungarian duo of Sándor Wladár and Zoltán Verrasztó . He edged out the Soviet Union 's Vladimir Shemetov by 0 @.@ 34 s , becoming the first Australian to win a medal in an individual backstroke event since David Theile in 1960 . In the 4 × 200 m freestyle relay , he combined with Tonelli , Graeme Brewer and Ron McKeon as Australia came seventh after qualifying fourth . The Australians were sixth at the halfway point when Kerry jumped in for the third leg . Kerry moved Australia into fifth by the end of his leg , just 0 @.@ 78 s from the bronze medal position , after posting a split time of 1 m 52 @.@ 64 s , the 18th fastest split in the race . However , McKeon could not keep pace with the opposition anchor swimmers , and Australia finished seventh , 1 @.@ 52 s outside the medals .
= = = Relay victory = = =
The 4 × 100 m medley relay was the focal point of Kerry 's Moscow campaign . The event had always been won by the United States since its inception at Olympic level in 1960 , and their boycott had opened up the field in the event . In the five times the event had been contested , Australia 's best result was a silver in the inaugural race . A bronze in 1964 was the only other medal success and the 1976 edition of the medley relay had seen Australia eliminated in the heats . This time , Australia was regarded as a medal chance , but was not seen as the main threats — Sweden , Great Britain and the Soviet Union were seen as the most likely winners . The hosts 's team included the silver medallists in the 100 m backstroke and breaststroke , and their butterflyer had come fifth ; their freestyler would later place fourth . The British had Duncan Goodhew , the breaststroke gold medallist , while Sweden 's butterflyer and backstroker had won their respective events and their freestyle swimmer would come second in the 100 m . Australia 's team paled in comparison on paper . Neil Brooks , the freestyler , later came 14th overall after having an asthma attack , and Peter Evans was the only individual medallist in the corresponding individual event . Kerry had been eliminated in the backstroke semifinals , while Tonelli was swimming as a makeshift butterflyer , despite having performed better than Kerry in the 100 m backstroke . Adding to the pressure was the fact that Australia won no gold medals at the 1976 Olympics in any sport , and were yet to win in Moscow , so the public were still awaiting their first victory since Munich in 1972 . Coming into the Olympics , Australia were ranked seventh out of the thirteen competing countries .
Australia 's prospects improved after the morning heats in which Sweden was disqualified . Tonelli , the eldest swimmer in the quartet at the age of 23 , convened the team as its de facto leader . He asked his team @-@ mates to commit to swimming their legs in a certain time ; Kerry vowed to swim the backstroke in 57 s , Evans the breaststroke in 63 s flat , Tonelli the butterfly in 54 s and Brooks promised to anchor the team in 49 @.@ 8 s , even though he had never gone faster than 51 s . Tonelli named the foursome as the Quietly Confident Quartet , and they exhibited a quiet confidence as they lined up for the race .
As Patching had slipped earlier in the meet , Kerry decided to rub a sticky red substance onto the soles of his feet . The Soviet hosts had installed a carpet following the incidents , resulting in Kerry leaving red footprints in the stadium . Kerry led off in a time faster than his effort in the individual event , but it was still two seconds slower than his personal best time of 57 @.@ 87 s , leaving Australia in fourth place at the end of the first leg . Evans then swam a personal best of 63 @.@ 01 s , drawing Australia almost level with the host nation at the halfway mark . Tonelli swam his leg in 54 @.@ 94 s , almost two seconds faster than he had done over the distance . Tonelli did so with an uneven arm technique due to the uneven strength in his arms . He began to lose ground in the last 50 m and was a bodylength behind until a late surge brought him to within a metre by the end of his leg . Brooks then executed a powerful , well @-@ timed dive and surfaced almost even with his Soviet counterpart . He had drawn level by the halfway mark and made a superior turn to take the lead . The Soviet freestyler pulled level at the 25 m mark before Brooks again sprinted away to seal an Australian victory by 0 @.@ 22 s . Brooks had finished his leg in 49 @.@ 86 s as he had vowed to his teammates . The time of 3 m 45 @.@ 70 s sealed Australia 's first ever win in a medley relay at the Olympics , for men or women . The team then made a celebratory dive into the pool and were interviewed poolside . In 2000 , Kerry and the other members of the quartet were each awarded the Australian Sports Medal for their victory in Moscow .
= = Break and comeback = =
After the Olympics , Kerry took an extended break from competitive swimming . He was asked to return for the 1982 Commonwealth Games in Brisbane , so he made a comeback , but only did two weeks of solid training and missed selection , failing to win either of the backstroke events . In 1983 , he began preparing for the Olympics , but did not start serious work until October . Kerry was confident in his ability to perform at international standards with sporadic preparation after long sabbaticals . He attributed this to his technique and ability to keep his 190 cm , 80 kg body in shape while not training .
He returned to Australia in 1984 and after training in Brisbane , he was selected for the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles despite winning neither backstroke event at the Australian Championships . Arriving in the United States , Kerry was scheduled to compete in the 100 m backstroke and 4 × 100 m medley relay . Kerry swam quickly to win his heat in the 100 m in a time of 57 @.@ 15 s , qualifying third fastest for the final . However , he was unable to improve his pace in the final , finishing fifth in a time of 57 @.@ 18 s , 0 @.@ 69 s from the bronze medal . In the medley relay , Kerry and Evans joined Glenn Buchanan and Mark Stockwell , who swam the butterfly and freestyle respectively . They were no match for the Americans , who had three of the four gold medallists in the corresponding individual events and finished almost four seconds ahead . Kerry had Australia in third place at the first change , finishing his leg in a time of 57 @.@ 12 s , but by this point the Americans were already 1 @.@ 71 s ahead . Australia remained third at every change and were beaten by the second @-@ placed Canadians by just 0 @.@ 02 s .
= = After swimming = =
After the Games , Kerry retired from competitive swimming . He then worked in Los Angeles as a model and hosted a fashion show on cable television . According to Tonelli , Kerry 's mother told her son to " look after that face , [ because ] that 's all you 've got " . Tonelli disagreed , opining that " he was always much more than that " . Tonelli reported that Kerry was busy preening himself just before the start of their Olympic @-@ winning relay performance , claiming that although Australia was unlikely to win the race , he needed to look good because a prospective employer might be watching . Kerry went on to model on the catwalks of Milan and Paris .
Kerry married his American wife Lynda , and they split their time between Australia and the United States . They have two children , a son Tanner who is a semi @-@ professional basketball player , and a daughter Madison , who is an actress appearing on Home and Away . Along with his brother Phil , Kerry founded Dunhill Management , one of Australia 's largest recruiting firms . In 2001 , the brothers sold Dunhill to the British firm Robert Walters for A $ 22 @.@ 7 million , with up to A $ 13 @.@ 8 million in extra payments depending on the future success of the company . After this , Kerry worked as the managing director of another firm , before starting a new recruitment business with his brother , K2 Recruitment & Consulting .
= Turboliner =
The Turboliners were a family of gas turbine trainsets built for Amtrak in the 1970s . They were among the first new equipment purchased by Amtrak and represented an attempt by Amtrak to update its fleet with faster , more modern trains . The first batch , known as RTG , were built by the French firm ANF and entered service on multiple routes in the Midwestern United States in 1973 . The new trains led to ridership increases wherever they were used ; the fixed consist proved a detriment as demand outstripped supply . The high cost of operating the trains led to their withdrawal from the Midwest in 1981 .
The second batch , known as RTL , were of a similar design but manufactured by Rohr Industries , an American company . These entered service on the Empire Corridor in the state of New York in 1976 . The RTLs remained in service there through the 1990s , supplemented by several rebuilt RTGs . In the late 1990s and early 2000s New York and Amtrak partnered to rebuild the RTLs for high @-@ speed service ; this project failed and the last RTL trainsets left revenue service in 2003 . After the settlement of legal issues New York sold the remaining trainsets for scrap in 2012 .
= = RTG = =
= = = Design = = =
The RTG ( abbreviated from the French Rame à Turbine à Gaz , or gas turbine train ) model was an Americanized version of the French ANF T 2000 RTG Turbotrain ( related to the prototype precursor to the very first TGV trainset , the TGV 001 ) . The RTGs used European @-@ style couplers ( buffers and turnbuckles ) between their cars , due to having been built in France by ANF for use on French railways . Another change was the installation of top @-@ mounted Nathan P1234A5 horns , a variation of the standard Nathan P5 horns . Each trainset consisted of two power cars ( which included seating ) , two coaches and a bar / grill . The trains were powered by a pair of 1 @,@ 140 horsepower ( 850 kW ) Turbomeca turbines .
= = = Service = = =
Amtrak acquired the Turboliners with multiple goals in mind . The Turboliners were expected to cost less to operate than a comparable diesel locomotive while having a higher operating speed , though this would be constrained by track conditions . Amtrak also hoped that introducing new equipment would generate favorable publicity . Two years into its existence , Amtrak was fighting the perception that it was making " cosmetic changes to hand @-@ me @-@ down equipment . " New gas turbine trainsets could change that perception and generate favorable publicity .
The first two RTG trainsets arrived in September 1973 . These were based out of Chicago , and initially served the Chicago – St. Louis corridor . Impressed with their reliability , Amtrak ordered an additional four trainsets which entered service in 1975 . Amtrak assigned these sets to its other two Midwestern corridors : Chicago – Milwaukee and Chicago – Detroit . Between 1975 and 1976 Amtrak experimented with formally renaming these services " Turboliner " after the equipment before returning to traditional names ( e.g. Wolverine ) .
Amtrak established a separate maintenance facility for all six trainsets in the Brighton Park neighborhood of Chicago , on the site of an ex @-@ Gulf , Mobile and Ohio Railroad coach yard . This facility closed in 1981 after the withdrawal of the RTGs from service ; according to Amtrak the trainsets were too expensive to operate compared to conventional equipment . The trainsets were mothballed at Amtrak 's main maintenance facility in Beech Grove , Indiana . A contributing factor to the withdrawal of the RTGs was the spike in fuel prices after the Yom Kippur War .
In 1985 , three RTG trainsets ( numbered 64 to 69 ) were retrofitted with RTL style noses , and third rail capability to enable operation into New York . Renamed RTG @-@ IIs , they were retired from service after one caught fire in Pennsylvania Station in New York on September 11 , 1994 .
= = = = St. Louis = = = =
The St. Louis corridor was the first to receive the new Turboliner equipment , with the initial run occurring September 28 , 1973 , amid great fanfare . The two daily frequencies were branded Turboliner , replacing the individual names Abraham Lincoln and Prairie State . Amtrak would repeat this experiment with the Detroit and Milwaukee corridors . Track conditions limited the new trainsets to 79 mph ( 127 km / h ) , but they were clean , comfortable , quiet and reliable . In the first year the Chicago – St. Louis running time dropped from 5 @.@ 5 to 5 hours . The Federal Railroad Administration refused a request from Amtrak to raise the speed limit to 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) , citing inadequate signalling along the route . The new equipment had fallen out of favor by the end of 1974 : food service was inadequate , and the five @-@ car fixed consist could not handle demand . Amfleet coaches and new conventional diesels replaced both of the Turboliner trainsets in 1975 .
= = = = Detroit = = = =
Turboliners arrived on the Detroit run on April 10 , 1975 . Additional equipment allowed Amtrak to add a frequency in late April ; the arrival of a third trainset in May made Chicago – Detroit the " first all @-@ turbine @-@ powered route . " One year into operation ridership on the corridor increased by 72 percent . The fixed capacity of 292 passengers on an RTL trainset proved an impediment ; Amtrak could not add capacity when demand outstripped supply . Amtrak replaced one of the trainsets with a conventional locomotive hauling then @-@ new Amfleet coaches in 1976 ; Turboliner service ended altogether by 1981 as more Amfleet equipment became available .
= = = = Milwaukee = = = =
Turboliners debuted on the Hiawatha corridor began on June 1 , 1975 , with additional trainsets operating in 1976 . As with the St. Louis and Detroit corridors , Amtrak dropped individual names in favor of the Turboliner in branding in 1976 , but resumed these names in 1980 . Turboliner equipment was withdrawn altogether in 1981 . Their withdrawal was the end of Turboliner service in the Midwest .
= = RTL = =
Amtrak ordered an additional seven Turboliner trainsets which were delivered between 1976 and 1977 . These were manufactured by Rohr Industries and were known as RTL Turboliners . They were based on the earlier RTG series trains but had American @-@ style Janney couplers throughout and a different design power car cab . The standard configuration of each set was five cars : power cars at either end , a food service car , and two coaches . At times Amtrak operated Turboliners with an additional coach cut into the consist . The sets operated in revenue service throughout upstate New York from the 70s into the 90s . One of these original sets were rebuilt into an RTL @-@ II set .
The RTL Turboliners were capable of third rail operation , allowing them to enter Grand Central Terminal and , later Pennsylvania Station in New York City . As it had with the earlier RTGs in the Midwest , Amtrak set up a separate maintenance facility in Rensselaer , New York . This facility opened on November 30 , 1977 , and cost $ 15 million . As built the RTLs carried 2 @,@ 560 US gallons ( 9 @,@ 700 l ; 2 @,@ 130 imp gal ) of fuel , permitting a cruising range of 950 miles ( 1 @,@ 530 km ) . The seven trainsets cost $ 32 million .
The official inaugural run of the RTLs took place on September 18 – 19 , 1976 . Regular service on the Empire Corridor began on Monday , September 20 . Initially the two trainsets were mostly confined to the New York – Albany shuttle , with a single round @-@ trip each on Saturday and Sunday to Buffalo . The New York – Montreal Adirondack received Turboliners on March 1 , 1977 , replacing conventional equipment . By April 1977 Turboliners had displaced conventional equipment on most routes in upstate New York . Exceptions included some New York – Albany trains as well as the long @-@ distance Lake Shore Limited and Niagara Rainbow .
= = = RTL @-@ II = = =
In 1995 Amtrak and the state of New York collaborated to rebuild a single RTL trainset at a cost of $ 2 million . This rebuild included a pair of new Turbomeca Makila T1 turbines , each capable of developing 1 @,@ 600 horsepower ( 1 @,@ 200 kW ) . The interiors were also to be renovated and the exterior paint scheme changed . Morrison @-@ Knudsen rebuilt the power cars while Amtrak overhauled the coach interiors at Beech Grove . The rebuilt trainset was designated RTL @-@ II . In test runs on the Empire Corridor and Northeast Corridor it reached a top speed of 125 mph ( 201 km / h ) all the while consuming less fuel than previously .
= = = RTL @-@ III = = =
In 1998 Amtrak and the state of New York began the High Speed Rail Improvement Program , a $ 185 million effort to improve service over the Empire Corridor . A key component of this program would be the reconstruction of all seven RTL Turboliner trainsets to the RTL @-@ III specification . New York selected Super Steel Schenectady to perform the work , and the first two trainsets were to enter service in 1999 . Numerous delays pushed the start of service to April 2003 . Of the five additional trainsets , originally scheduled to enter service in 2002 , only one was completed and it never entered revenue service . All seven trainsets were renumbered in 2001 to prevent duplicate numbers with the new GE P42DCs and were painted in new Acela @-@ style livery . One of the rebuilt RTL @-@ IIIs was tested on the night of February 15 , 2001 , reaching 125 mph ( 201 km / h ) .
The agreement between Amtrak and New York provided that New York would take ownership of the rebuilt trainsets once Amtrak had " fully accepted " them for regular revenue service . Amtrak withdrew all the trainsets from service in June 2003 after problems developed with the air @-@ conditioning systems and refused to operate them . In 2004 New York sued Amtrak in federal court for $ 477 million , both for not operating the trainsets and for failing to complete track work in the Empire Corridor to permit regular 125 @-@ mile @-@ per @-@ hour ( 201 km / h ) operation . Amtrak mothballed the equipment at its maintenance facility in Bear , Delaware . Joseph H. Boardman , then Commissioner of the New York State Department of Transportation ( and a future president of Amtrak ) , accused Amtrak of " stealing " the trains and threatened to find a new vendor for the state 's intercity rail service . Conventional Amfleet equipment replaced the trainsets in revenue service .
In April 2005 , New York reached a settlement with Super Steel to completely close the rehabilitation project for $ 5 @.@ 5 million , to stop work on the project , cover any remaining costs , and move four unfinished trains into storage at a nearby industrial park . This settlement , when added to the $ 64 @.@ 8 million previously spent , brought the total amount spent on the project — the results of which were three rehabilitated trainsets and four others in various states of repair — to $ 70 @.@ 3 million . In 2007 Amtrak and New York settled their own lawsuit , with Amtrak paying New York $ 20 million . Amtrak and New York further agreed to commit $ 10 million each to implement track improvements in the Empire Corridor . New York auctioned off its surplus Turboliners in 2012 for $ 420 @,@ 000 , including spare parts .
= Resident Evil : Revelations =
Resident Evil : Revelations , known as Biohazard Revelations ( Japanese : バイオハザード リベレーションズ , Hepburn : Baiohazādo Riberēshonzu ) in Japan , is a survival horror video game developed by Capcom and originally released for the Nintendo 3DS handheld game console in early 2012 . It is part of the Resident Evil video game series and takes place between the events of Resident Evil 4 and Resident Evil 5 . The story of the game follows series protagonists Jill Valentine and Chris Redfield as they try to stop a bioterrorist organization from infecting the Earth 's oceans with a virus .
Resident Evil : Revelations emphasizes survival , evasion , and exploration over fast @-@ paced combat by providing the player with limited ammunition , health , and movement speed . It was designed to bring back the content and horror of the series ' roots , while at the same time trying to modernize the gameplay . Resident Evil : Revelations was also the first game to support the Nintendo 3DS Circle Pad Pro outside Japan . The game was a moderate commercial success and received generally positive reviews from video game critics , who praised its graphics , sound effects , and horror setting . A high definition version of the game was released for Microsoft Windows , PlayStation 3 , Wii U and Xbox 360 in 2013 . A follow @-@ up to the game , Resident Evil : Revelations 2 , was released in 2015 .
= = Gameplay = =
Resident Evil : Revelations is a survival horror game where the player controls the on @-@ screen character from a third @-@ person perspective to interact with the environment and enemies . In the game 's single @-@ player campaign , the player must complete a series of scenarios collected together into episodes . Most of the scenarios involve the player controlling Jill Valentine aboard a ghost ship in the Mediterranean Sea , but some require the player to play as other characters in different settings . To finish a scenario and proceed to the next one , the player must complete certain objectives such as solving puzzles , defeating a boss , collecting keys that open doors to new areas , and reaching a specific point in the game , among others .
As a survival horror game , Resident Evil : Revelations emphasizes survival , evasion , and exploration over fast @-@ paced combat by providing the player with limited ammunition , health , and movement speed . The player has the ability to run , climb ladders , swim and dive underwater for a limited period of time . Up to three firearms can be carried at one time , in addition to grenades and the standard combat knife . Firearms range from handguns to shotguns , submachine guns and rifles . When aiming a firearm to shoot enemies , the gameplay switches into a first @-@ person perspective . Playing as Jill , the player can upgrade firearms by finding special items throughout the game . The player may also perform melee attacks when an enemy has been stunned after being shot at the right time . Ammunition and health suppliers are dispersed among the game to help players increase their resources . A device called Genesis can be used to scan and find items hidden throughout the game 's environments . The game also features an automap to help players navigate the game .
In addition to the single @-@ player campaign , Resident Evil : Revelations offers a more action @-@ oriented mode , called Raid Mode , where one or two players may fight their way through a selection of altered scenarios from the single @-@ player campaign . These usually feature enemies of varying power for the player to defeat . Once a scenario has been completed , the player is rewarded with experience and battle points that can be exchanged for various weapons and items at a store . Gaining experience and acquiring new equipment allow players to progress to higher and more challenging scenarios . As the player progresses throughout the game , the player may also unlock numerous characters for use in both the single @-@ player campaign and Raid Mode , with each character having a different set of abilities and melee attack . The game supports a StreetPass functionality that allows different players to exchange items for use in the game .
= = Plot = =
Resident Evil : Revelations is set between Resident Evil 4 and Resident Evil 5 and depicts the events shortly after the establishment of the counter @-@ terrorism group Bioterrorism Security Assessment Alliance ( BSAA ) . One year prior to the game 's events , the Federal Bioterrorism Commission ( FBC ) sent agents Parker Luciani and Jessica Sherawat to keep the " floating city " of Terragrigia under control after the bioterrorist organization Il Veltro launched an attack on the city using genetically modified living creatures known as Bio Organic Weapons ( BOW ) in opposition to Terragrigia 's solar energy development . In the present , BSAA head Clive R. O 'Brian sends out BSAA agent Jill Valentine and Parker to search for BSAA agent Chris Redfield and Jessica at their last known location , the cruise ship Queen Zenobia in the Mediterranean Sea . They have reportedly gone missing during their mission to investigate Veltro 's possible reappearance . Aboard the ship , Jill and Parker encounter several BOWs infected with the T @-@ Abyss virus and enter a room where they believe Chris is being held , realizing too late that it was a trap apparently set by a Veltro operative . Meanwhile , Chris and Jessica find a base of operations for Veltro ; the Valkoinen Mökki airstrip in the mountains . Being informed by O 'Brian that Jill and Parker are missing in the Mediterranean , they are redeployed to investigate their whereabouts . O 'Brian also sends BSAA agents Quint Cetcham and Keith Lumley to Valkoinen Mökki to gather information .
Awakening in separate locked rooms , Jill and Parker manage to regroup and witness a video transmission of a Veltro member threatening to infect one fifth of the Earth 's oceans with the T @-@ Abyss , which was created in retaliation to the FBC for their involvement in the destruction of Veltro 's forces on Terragrigia . Jill and Parker reach the ship 's antenna to request evacuation , but learn that a satellite attack on the Queen Zenobia has been activated by FBC director Morgan Lansdale . Despite their attempts to confuse the satellite 's system and cause a misfire on the ship , the attack floods the ship with water . Chris and Jessica arrive to the Queen Zenobia and eventually meet with Jill and Parker . The team is then confronted by the Veltro operative , who poses various questions hinting at a larger conspiracy . However , Jessica shoots him before he can reveal anymore . Parker unmasks him to discover that he was his FBC partner Raymond Vester . He seemingly dies after whispering something to him . Afterwards , Chris and Jill make their way to the ship 's laboratory to stop the virus from contaminating the sea , while Parker and Jessica search for a way to stop the ship from sinking . During the search , Parker turns his gun on Jessica , suspecting her of being an FBC mole , as told by Vester . At the same time , Raymond reveals himself to be alive , having worn a kevlar vest , and working with O 'Brian . Jessica wounds Parker and initiates a self @-@ destruct sequence before escaping .
Having found the laboratory , Chris and Jill are confronted by Lansdale via a video uplink , revealing that he worked with Veltro in the Terragrigia Panic in an effort to increase the FBC 's funding and international influence . The pair neutralize the virus and proceed to an extraction point . Along the way , they meet with an injured Parker . Despite the pair 's attempt at saving him , Parker falls into the fire below a broken catwalk . O 'Brian informs Chris and Jill that he had orchestrated the events in an effort to gather evidence of Lansdale 's involvement in Terragrigia . He also informs them of the results from Keith and Quint 's data analysis : the existence of a sister ship below the ruins of Terragrigia , which was destroyed by Lansdale to eliminate incriminating evidence of his involvement . However , Lansdale then proceeds to arrest O 'Brian , cutting off communications . Jill and Chris search for Veltro leader Jack Norman , knowing that he holds evidence against Lansdale . However , he has gone delusional and survived a year by injecting himself with T @-@ Abyss . He then injects himself with an overdose of the virus , which transforms him into a new type of Tyrant . After a long battle , Chris and Jill defeat him and broadcast the video , exposing Lansdale . As a result , O 'Brian is released and the FBC is dissolved . In the end , it is revealed that Parker was saved by Raymond from the explosion . In a post @-@ credits scene , Raymond approaches Jessica at a cafe and gives her a sample of the T @-@ Abyss . She asks him why he saved Parker , with him replying that he " had his reasons " .
= = Development = =
Resident Evil : Revelations was developed by Capcom and directed by Koshi Nakanishi , who previously worked as a game designer for Resident Evil 5 . The development team chose to develop the game for the Nintendo 3DS as they felt that its 3D capabilities could produce a " tense , scary experience with a realistic atmosphere that could make players feel like there could be something lurking around every corner . " The developers main goal was to bring back the content and horror of the series ' roots , while at the same time trying to modernize the gameplay . A cruise ship was chosen as the main setting of the game because it could provide claustrophobic corridors and make the player helpless in the middle of the ocean . The developers also decided to give the game an episodic structure with short and varied chapters to make it suitable for playing on a portable game console . The Raid mode was designed so that players could " bring the game to their friends house and enjoy it with friends face to face , as they talk . "
The game was developed simultaneously with Resident Evil : The Mercenaries 3D and uses a ported and downsized version of the internally developed MT Framework graphics engine , which was initially designed for high definition ( HD ) games such as Devil May Cry 4 and Lost Planet 2 . Capcom 's previous experience with The Mercenaries 3D helped the development team improve the technical and graphical aspects of Resident Evil : Revelations to a greater extent . According to Nakanishi , " It was thanks to the tremendous efforts of our technical team that we were able to get console @-@ quality graphics from portable hardware . " Some techniques were used to reduce performance costs ; for example , the Genesis scanner reduces the on @-@ screen display complexity and some types of enemies were designed to have simplistic skeletal physics . To increase the horror aspect of the game , the enemies were designed to moan and emit terrifying sounds even before being spotted by the player . Nakanishi remarked that this mechanic allows players to determine which enemies are coming for them from their sound alone .
Unlike in previous Resident Evil games , the developers designed the game so that the player could move and shoot at the same time . Producer Masachika Kawata explained that the reason why the mechanic was not adopted earlier was because it would make the game too fast for a survival horror game . Despite this , the developers balanced the gameplay of Resident Evil : Revelations by slowing down the speed of the player movement and by making enemies move in a complex and spooky manner , " as if they 're trying to avoid your attack . " The developers decided to support the Circle Pad Pro accessory as soon as it was conceived since improving the game controls was a major priority . Numerous features were not included in the final product due to time and budget constraints . The developers originally planned to add a special weapon designed to be used underwater and acquired from Chris at the end of the eight episode , but the plot of the game changed during development and the team had to discard it . Additionally , the land in the distance that can be seen from the ship in the first episode was originally going to be the setting of the last episode , where Jill would have found something from her past .
= = Marketing and release = =
Resident Evil : Revelations was announced at the Electronic Entertainment Expo 2010 trade show in Los Angeles . A playable demo referred to as a " pilot version " by Capcom was released with Resident Evil : The Mercenaries 3D in 2011 . Another playable demo of the game was made available for download from the Nintendo eShop service in January 2012 in North America and Europe . IGN editors nominated the game for Best 3DS Game at their Best of E3 2011 Awards and later listed it as one of the 30 most anticipated games of 2012 . Prior to its release , Capcom sent North American copies of Resident Evil : Revelations to reviewers with the game 's title , as printed on the cover 's spine , misspelled as " Revelaitons " . To make up for the error , Capcom offered to replace the cover with a corrected version to users in North America .
Resident Evil : Revelations was released on January 26 , 2012 in Japan , January 27 , 2012 in Europe , and February 7 , 2012 in North America . It was the first game to support the Circle Pad Pro outside Japan . A bundle containing the accessory and the game was exclusively released in Europe . According to Media Create , the game sold 296 @,@ 040 copies in Japan in 2012 . In the United States , the game was among the 25 best @-@ selling video games of February 2012 and sold 122 @,@ 000 units in March 2012 . Although sales of Resident Evil : Revelations were considered successful for a Nintendo 3DS game , Capcom wanted it to sell " a little more " given the game 's large development costs .
= = Reception = =
Resident Evil : Revelations received generally positive reviews from video game critics . Jane Douglas of GameSpot felt that the game is " a thoroughly successful crossbreeding of old @-@ school chills and new @-@ school action " , highlighting its brooding atmosphere and slow @-@ paced combat . Josh Laddin of Game Revolution went so far as to say that the game is sometimes even superior to the old @-@ school Resident Evil games . Writing for IGN , Richard George described Resident Evil : Revelations as " a great handheld game , one that not only pushes the boundaries and standards of the Nintendo 3DS but one that recaptures a long @-@ forgotten spirit of a classic franchise . " However , he also criticized the scenarios not involving the cruise ship setting and remarked that the constant alterations of characters and gameplay between scenarios hold the game " back from true greatness " , stating that the game " doesn 't understand its strengths " .
Several critics declared the game 's graphics to be some of the best on the Nintendo 3DS . Eurogamer reviewer Rich Stanton praised the environments for their lighting and particle effects , while GameSpot credited the highly detailed character models , especially those of Jill and some enemies . IGN also highlighted the sound design , saying that " Capcom has mastered the ability to play up a soundtrack when appropriate , sometimes completely cutting to isolated noises in order to focus a player on something truly haunting . " Game Revolution stated similar pros , noting that the game is best experienced when played in the dark with headphones on . Tim Turi of Game Informer praised the story for its episodic structure and pacing , but also admitted that BSAA agents Quint and Keith are the worst characters in the series ' history . The fact that the game supports the Circle Pad Pro was seen as a valuable feature , as it gives players the ability to move , shoot and control the camera at the same time .
In a mixed review , Edge felt that the gameplay " takes the best and worst of Resident Evil 's past and present , and spot welds them together unevenly . If the designers had committed wholeheartedly to either polarity of action or horror , Revelations may have been a headshot , but what we 're left with is more like a glancing blow . " GameSpot praised the gameplay for its stop @-@ and @-@ shoot action and use of the Genesis scanner , saying that it " nicely complements the resource scavenging that underpins your survival . " Game Informer felt that the weapon customization allows for different playstyles , but also criticized the game 's lack of enemy variety in comparison to other games in the series . Jonathan Deesing of G4 praised the exploration of the cruise ship setting , comparing it favorably to Super Metroid . However , he criticized the controls for being frustrating and the AI @-@ controlled companions for being useless . Similarly , IGN remarked that the fact that the player is accompanied by a partner makes the game less scary . The Raid Mode was seen as a valuable addition to the game . Eurogamer stated that the mode " is a great concept for 3DS " and the game " executes it with conviction " due to its unlockable features , challenge , and replayability .
= = = Accolades = = =
= = HD version = =
An HD version of the game was released for Microsoft Windows , PlayStation 3 , Wii U , and Xbox 360 on May 21 , 2013 in North America , May 23 , 2013 in Japan , and May 24 , 2013 in Europe . The HD version features upgraded graphics , additional Raid Mode content such as new weapons and characters , and a new difficulty mode which remixes enemy and item placement in the single @-@ player campaign . The HD version does not support the 3D capabilities of the Nintendo 3DS , but the Wii U version of the game offers additional features using the Wii U GamePad , including dual screen gameplay , Off @-@ TV Play and Miiverse functionality . Critical reception towards the HD version was mixed to positive . Taylor Cocke of IGN gave the HD version a rating of 7 @.@ 5 out of 10 and criticized it for its dated graphics and uneven controls , saying that the game is " simply out of its element " . Dan Whitehead of Eurogamer , awarding the HD version a rating of 7 out of 10 , criticized the character movement for being sluggish , but also admitted that the game still stands out compared to the previous main installments in the series , which he described as a " directionless , desperate mess " . As of February 2014 , all the HD versions combined have sold 1 @.@ 1 million copies worldwide . A follow @-@ up to the game , Resident Evil : Revelations 2 , was released as an episodic video game in 2015 .
= Ezri Dax =
Ezri Dax / ˈɛzri ˈdæks / is a fictional character who appears in the seventh season of the American science fiction TV series Star Trek : Deep Space Nine . Portrayed by Nicole de Boer , she is a counselor aboard the Federation space station Deep Space Nine . The character is a member of the Trill species , and is formed of both a host and a symbiont – referred to as Dax . Ezri was introduced to the series following the death of the previous Dax host , Jadzia ( Terry Farrell ) at the end of season six . It had been the producers ' intention to introduce a new female character bearing the symbiont in order to ensure that Nana Visitor as Kira Nerys was not the only female member of the main cast . There were difficulties in casting initially , and the character changed from one who was intended to be " spooky " to one that had found itself in a position where it had to take on the Dax symbiont resulting in schizophrenic @-@ like symptoms as it comes to adjust to the new mental relationship . De Boer was not considered for the part until co @-@ producer Hans Beimler suggested that she should submit an audition tape , which resulted in her invitation to meet with the producers in Los Angeles and in her gaining the role .
The character made her first appearance in the first episode of the seventh season , " Image in the Sand " . The character continued to appear throughout the final season of the series , with her final appearance in the series finale " What You Leave Behind " . Her character stepped into the void left by Jadzia amongst the crew , but found that she had to redevelop those previous relationships and learn to get along with Jadzia 's widower , Worf ( Michael Dorn ) . During the course of the season , Ezri becomes less nervous of her role over time and learns from the Dax symbiont and becomes involved romantically with Dr. Julian Bashir ( Alexander Siddig ) . In the non @-@ canon Star Trek novels following the end of the Deep Space Nine series , Ezri changes to the command track of Starfleet and becomes executive officer of the USS Defiant , and ends her romantic involvement with Bashir . After a transfer to the USS Aventine in the Star Trek : Destiny trilogy of novels , she receives a battlefield commission and becomes the Captain of the Aventine .
The fan reaction to the character was reported as positive , but several of the Ezri @-@ centric episodes came in for criticism , with producer Ira Steven Behr apologising to de Boer for " Prodigal Daughter " – an episode described as " just a mess " by writer Ronald D. Moore . The relationship between Ezri and both Worf and Bashir was described as one of five " great geek TV love triangles " . The inclusion of the character was criticised on the internet , with Ezri being referred to as both an " ill @-@ conceived idea " and a " replacement Dax " .
= = Concept and development = =
Terry Farrell had portrayed the character of Jadzia Dax from the pilot episode " Emissary " through to " Tears of the Prophets " , the final episode of season six . The actress had decided not to renew her contract for the seventh season , and so the character was killed off in her final appearance . However , due the character 's symbiotic nature , only the host died ; the symbiont known as Dax survived – which would allow the producers to reintroduce it in a new host later .
Prior to the start of the seventh season , the producers sought to re @-@ introduce Dax but with a new host . They decided immediately that it had to be a female character , as otherwise Kira Nerys , played by Nana Visitor , would be the only female main character . There were some difficulties in finding an actress who met the requirements of the part ; Ira Steven Behr said " So we started the casting process , and all I saw was a lot of people who couldn 't play the part . There was absolutely no one in the running . " The initial casting call required an actress with a " spooky " quality , but following the failure to find someone adequate , co @-@ supervising producer René Echevarria suggested that the character instead should be someone who was unprepared to be joined with Dax and only did so because of an unexpected occurrence .
Echevarria suggested this to Behr over lunch , but he initially was not sure . By the time they had returned separately to the studio , Behr had an entire plan worked out based on the new premise for the character . Behr suggested that the character should be basically acting as if she 's schizophrenic , saying " We 'd never played up the idea in the past , but it made sense . What must it be like to hear all those voices and opinions ? " The producers also decided that they wanted a younger actress who felt vulnerable in order to offset the strength that Jadzia had grown into over the years . Casting remained difficult , until Hans Beimler suggested an actress from Canada whom he had once worked with – Nicole de Boer . She had worked with Beimler on the television series Beyond Reality and TekWar . She was asked to submit an audition tape where she played out a scene between Ezri and Quark , which she recorded herself in the hotel room she was staying at , and later admitted that she did not know what a Trill was at the time .
At the time , de Boer was busy working in Canada but was unknown as an actress in the United States . She was called down to Los Angeles to audition in person based on the strength of the tape , where she performed a four and a half minute scene written specifically for the audition . It was later converted into a scene used in the episode " Afterimage " . She thought she had ruined her audition when she nearly choked on a glass of water as executive producer Rick Berman entered the room and had to run to the bathroom , by which time she had already soaked her clothes and caused her mascara to run . But Behr praised her , saying " We got a good vibe off her , she knew her part . She got it . And that was it . "
As part of her preparation for each day 's filming , she had the Trill spots applied by makeup artist Mary Kay Morse , with Michael Westmore working on her detailing instead . This was a change from when Farrell had portrayed Jadzia , as in that case , Westmore had applied the spots himself each day . She made her first appearance in the season seven opener , " Image in the Sand " , for which she was required for only half a day , as she was in only one scene . " I came in and I had one line — that 's it , I hadn 't even moved to L.A. yet and I hadn 't found a place to live . " She began to understand what was required of her from her second episode onwards . She later explained that " I never really got too freaked in the beginning . I thought more of this as the biggest job I 've ever had , than going into the whole Star Trek phenomenon . I just wanted to do a good job . "
De Boer felt that the producers did a good job with involving Ezri over the course of the seventh season , but not to the extent that it detracted from the more established members of the main cast . However , there was one part of the season where she was concerned that the fans would suffer from " Ezri overload " . But she felt that the character had a real story arc and character evolution as the season went by . She said that she did not want Ezri to remain the same " young and confused " person that she was in her first appearances , which was something that the writers and producers agreed with . She said that " As time went on , you saw that Ezri was intelligent , that she was endearing and a good person . She became a more complicated character than you might have thought in her first few episodes . " She praised specific episodes which evolved the character , such as " The Siege of AR @-@ 558 " which required Ezri to draw upon Dax 's past experiences , as otherwise she would have been completely out of her element . De Boer also enjoyed " Prodigal Daughter " as the episode showed the change in Ezri from before she was joined with the Dax symbiont , and she thought that the events portrayed in " Field of Fire " were " fascinating " . As she approached the end of Deep Space Nine , de Boer addressed the rumors of her joining Star Trek : Voyager , saying that " My first instinct would be to say no . I would need to feel there was a reason for Ezri to be on Voyager " . She was interviewed at the series wrap party after completing filming on the final episode , " What You Leave Behind " , and said , " The last episode was very emotional , especially on the last day ... I couldn 't believe that a season had gone by already . I realized all the people I 'd grown close to must be feeling it much more because they 'd been doing it 7 years . I cried . "
= = Appearances = =
= = = Background = = =
Ezri Tigan was born in 2354 on her homeworld ; she is a member of the indigenous species of the planet Trill . She grew up in the Sappora system with her family , who were shown on the series in the episode " Prodigal Daughter " . She enrolled in Starfleet Academy in 2372 in the medical program , with a specialism in psychology . Two years later , she was assigned as assistant ship 's counsellor to the USS Destiny for field training . During this journey , the ship was assigned to transport the Dax symbiont from Deep Space Nine to Trill , after its host Jadzia ( Terry Farrell ) was killed by Dukat ( Marc Alaimo ) , but it became necessary for it to be joined to a host en route .
As Ezri Tigan was the only unjoined Trill available on board , she agreed to be joined to the symbiont even though she was unprepared and did not previously seek to be joined to one . Following the procedure , Ezri — now known as Ezri Dax — spent time at the Symbiosis Institute on Trill to learn to adapt to her new state . Because of her new state , Ezri 's romantic relationship with her former boyfriend ended , as she later explained to her family that he reminded her of a past host 's son .
= = = Star Trek : Deep Space Nine = = =
Ezri Dax made her first appearance on the Star Trek : Deep Space Nine series in the premiere episode of season seven , " Image in the Sand " . She had travelled to Earth to find Captain Benjamin Sisko ( Avery Brooks ) , an old friend of both Jadzia and Curzon Dax — two former hosts of the symbiont . She leaves with him , Jake Sisko ( Cirroc Lofton ) and Joseph Sisko ( Brock Peters ) , to travel to the planet Tyree to search for the Orb of the Emissary . They find the device ; the Captain is hesitant to open it but does , with Ezri 's encouragement — resulting in the restoration of the Bajoran wormhole . Together they return to Deep Space Nine , where Ezri meets the rest of the station 's crew for the first time .
In the following episode " Afterimage " , Ezri must cope with the reactions of Jadzia 's former friends to the return of Dax . Worf ( Michael Dorn ) , Jadzia 's widower , reacts poorly , and Garak ( Andrew Robinson ) begins to suffer from the symptoms of acute claustrophobia . Together , Ezri and Garak work through his issues , resulting in her realising that she can remain on the station and Starfleet agreeing to her skipping her final periods of training and receiving a promotion from Ensign to Lieutenant ( junior grade ) based on the past experiences of the Dax symbiont . In " The Siege of AR @-@ 558 " , Ezri is forced to rely on her symbiont 's past experiences after she and the other members of the Defiant crew end up fighting against the Jem 'Hadar on the front lines .
In " Prodigal Daughter " , Ezri returns to her family home on the planet New Sydney , in the Sappora system , after Sisko asks her to investigate the disappearance of Chief Miles O 'Brien ( Colm Meaney ) . There she finds that her family are involved with the Orion Syndicate , and discovers that her brother Norvo ( Kevin Rahm ) murdered the person that O 'Brien was searching for . The Mirror Universe episode " The Emperor 's New Cloak " showed an unjoined Ezri Tigan , who is in a relationship with both the alternative Kira Nerys ( Nana Visitor ) and Leeta ( Chase Masterson ) . During the course of the episode , Tigan kills the mirror @-@ Garak , in revenge for the death of Brunt ( Jeffrey Combs ) . The remaining episodes of the season are set in the main universe , with the following episode " Field of Fire " exploring Ezri 's use of the memories of Joran Dax ( Leigh McCloskey ) — who had previously been revealed as a murderer in the third season episode " Equilibrium " . She uses those memories to track down a Vulcan serial killer on the station .
Ezri takes a Runabout to the Badlands against Sisko 's orders in the episode " Penumbra " in order to search for Worf , who has been lost on board a Klingon vessel . She manages to find his escape pod and brings him on
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board , but the two argue as he resents her presenting herself with the same opinions as Jadzia Dax . However , the two are soon attacked by the Jem 'Hadar and are forced to transport themselves to a nearby planet . The two continue to argue , which results in them having sex . They are captured by the Breen shortly afterwards . The two are subsequently interrogated in " ' Til Death Do Us Part " , and she reveals to Worf that she is actually in love with Julian Bashir ( Alexander Siddig ) . They are subsequently handed over the Dominion as the Breen / Dominion alliance is announced .
After Worf kills Weyoun ( Jeffrey Combs ) , the pair are scheduled for execution . However , Damar ( Casey Biggs ) , the leader of the Cardassian Union is concerned at what the new alliance might bring and wants to side with the Federation ; he releases Ezri and Worf and sets them free to take a message back to Deep Space Nine to seek aid . Worf discusses the actions of the Klingon Chancellor , Gowron ( Robert O 'Reilly ) , with Ezri in " Tacking into the Wind " . This results in Worf confronting the Chancellor and slaying him , ushering in General Martok ( J. G. Hertzler ) as the new leader of the Klingons . In the series finale , " What You Leave Behind " , Ezri and Bashir reveal their feelings for one another , and later after the fall of Cardassia Prime and the surrender of the Dominion , they discuss their future together .
= = = Depiction after the series = = =
In Pocket Books ' non @-@ canon DS9 Relaunch novels , Ezri remains on Deep Space Nine but moves from counselling to command , and received a promotion to Lieutenant to become executive officer of the USS Defiant . Following a mission on the Trill homeworld , she and Bashir end their romance but decide to remain close friends . In the Star Trek : Destiny trilogy , Dax , who had transferred to second officer of the new Vesta @-@ class multimission explorer starship USS Aventine , received a battlefield promotion to Captain and commanding officer . She played a critical role in bringing about the final defeat of the Borg . During the Star Trek : Typhon Pact and Star Trek : The Fall series , Dax continues to serve as Captain of the Aventine . In the Star Trek : The Next Generation novel Takedown , the newly promoted Admiral William Riker is stationed aboard the Aventine alongside Captain Dax , and the ship is pursued by the Enterprise as he is leading a number of renegade starships in attacking Federation targets .
= = Reception and commentary = =
The general fan reaction to the character was positive , and the fans appreciated de Boer 's performances . One negative issue which was raised was the number of Ezri @-@ centric episodes reduced the number of those available to close up the story arcs involving other characters . The actress had been concerned that the fans did not like her while the production was underway as she was not receiving any fan mail , except for that which she received on her first day of filming . De Boer was not aware that the production team had been holding sacks of mail from the public for her , and she was only able to access it about three quarters of the way through the season . Ezri was referred to as " Ally McTrill " by TV Guide magazine — a reference to the title character on the television series Ally McBeal — which de Boer took as a compliment .
The differences between Ezri and Jadzia were often considered by viewers and critics . In Where No Woman Has Gone Before : Feminist Perspectives On Star Trek , an essay by Susan A. Lentz within the book Star Trek Visions of Law and Justice , Ezri was described as " less assured , insecure , and uncertain who she is . Of course , Jadzia may have herself once been such a host . The growth and evolution of Ezri unfold as she acknowledges her ' past lives ' . " Ezri 's relationship with Bashir and Worf were also regarded as an extension of Jadzia 's previous relationships , leading to it being listed as one of the 5 " great geek TV love triangles " by the website Den of Geek . However , this romantic plot featuring Ezri and Worf / Bashir was criticised by website DVD Talk in their review of the season seven DVD release saying that it was similar to a " soap opera " .
Criticism was directed at some of the character 's aspects , and toward the introduction of the character . Jim Johnson @-@ Smith , in American Science Fiction TV , uses an example of Ezri and Worf 's concentration on their romantic relationship in the episode " ' Til Death Do Us Part " instead of being more concerned with their capture by the Breen . Ezri was described as " an ill @-@ conceived idea that never really took off and has left many DS9 fans angry that a show favourite ( Jadzia Dax ) isn 't around any more " by the website Flickering Myth . The review on DVD Talk also stated " With its large ensemble cast , DS9 could have gone on perfectly well without a replacement for Jadzia . Instead , we get a " replacement Dax " who turns out to be , hands down , the least interesting and most annoying character DS9 has been stuck with . "
In addition , as de Boer feared , the Ezri @-@ centric episodes came in for criticism . DVD Talk described " Prodigal Daughter " as " clearly an attempt to cram some back @-@ story into Ezri to make up for the fact that she 's a new character " , and " Field of Fire " as " utterly generic " . The former was also considered to be the weakest of the season by the crew on the series , with Behr apologising to de Boer for it afterwards . Writer Ronald D. Moore simply stated , " It was just a mess . " The crew nicknamed it " Audra Goes Home " , a reference to the 1960s western television show The Big Valley .
= = = Mirror version = = =
The mirror version of Ezri , known as Ezri Tigan , as seen in the episode " The Emperor 's New Cloak " , was both a mercenary and a lesbian . Previously when Star Trek had dealt with issues relating to homosexuality , it had received complaints from the fanbase . This had occurred during the fifth season of Star Trek : The Next Generation in the episode " The Outcast " where Commander William Riker ( Jonathan Frakes ) has a romantic liaison with a member of an alien race that is neither male nor female .
Criticism was received once again when Jadzia Dax had a same @-@ sex kiss in the episode " Rejoined " of Deep Space Nine . Because of real world changes , such as further acceptance of same @-@ sex couples and an increased number of homosexual characters on television , the negative response to the lesbian version of Ezri was not as heavy as those earlier story @-@ lines .
= Karl @-@ Gottfried Nordmann =
Karl @-@ Gottfried " Karlfried " Nordmann ( 22 November 1915 – 22 July 1982 ) was a German Luftwaffe pilot during World War II and , after the war , a president of Mercedes @-@ Benz in North America . As a fighter ace he was credited with 78 enemy aircraft shot down in over 800 combat missions . He claimed the majority of his victories over the Eastern Front , with one during the Invasion of Poland and eight during the Battle of France and Britain .
Born in Giessen , Nordmann volunteered for military service in the Luftwaffe of the Third Reich in 1936 . Following flight training , he was posted to Jagdgeschwader 132 ( JG 132 — 132nd Fighter Wing ) in October 1938 . After a series of redesignations his unit was subordinated to Jagdgeschwader 51 ( JG 51 — 51st Fighter Wing ) . He fought in the aerial battles over Poland , France and Britain , claiming nine victories . Following the German invasion of the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa , he was appointed Gruppenkommandeur ( group commander ) of the IV . Gruppe ( 4th Group ) of JG 51 . He was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross on 1 August 1941 following his 31st aerial victory and received the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves on 16 September 1941 after 59 victories . The Oak Leaves grades to the Knight 's Cross was Germany 's highest military decoration at the time of its presentation to Nordmann .
Nordmann was appointed Geschwaderkommodore ( Wing Commander ) of JG 51 , which he led for two years , on 10 April 1942 . Injuries sustained in a midair collision on 17 January 1943 grounded him from further combat flying . He surrendered command of JG 51 on 1 April 1944 and was appointed Jagdfliegerführer Ostpreussen ( fighter leader Eastern Prussia ) . Nordmann then served further fighter command positions with Jagdabschnittsführer 6 ( leader of the 6th fighter sector ) and the 1st Fighter Division , a position he held until the end of World War II . Following World War II , Nordmann joined Mercedes @-@ Benz in sales . He worked as the president of Mercedes @-@ Benz in North America and Canada from 1971 until shortly before his death in 1982 .
= = Early life and career = =
Nordmann was born on 22 November 1915 in Giessen , at the time in the Grand Duchy of Hesse of the German Empire . He was the son of a doctor and joined the military service of the Luftwaffe on 6 April 1936 as a Fahnenjunker ( officer cadet ) . Nordmann was promoted to Leutnant ( Second Lieutenant ) on 1 January 1938 and served with 1 . Staffel of Kampfgeschwader 253 from 1 March to 30 April 1938 . He was then posted to the Jagdfliegerschule ( Fighter Pilot School ) at Werneuchen , under the command of Oberst ( Colonel ) Theodor Osterkamp . Since July 1938 , he served as a Staffeloffizier ( squadron officer ) with the Stab of I. Gruppe ( 1st group ) of Jagdgeschwader 77 ( JG 77 — 77th Fighter Wing ) , which later became IV . / Jagdgeschwader 51 ( JG 51 — 51st Fighter Wing ) .
This unit underwent as a series of redesgnations which started with VI . / Jagdgeschwader 132 ( JG 132 — 132nd Fighter Wing ) , was renamed on 2 November 1938 to I. / Jagdgeschwader 331 ( JG 331 — 331st Fighter Wing ) . While based at Breslau @-@ Schöngarten ( currently called Copernicus Airport Wrocław ) , it was redesignated again , this time to I. / JG 77 on 1 May 1939 , which was later re @-@ designated to IV . / JG 51 .
= = World War II = =
World War II in Europe began on Friday 1 September 1939 when German forces invaded Poland . Nordmann claimed his first aerial victory when he shot down a Polish PZL.43 on 3 September 1939 . Nordmann achieved his next victory during the Battle of France and seven more in the Battle of Britain . He was appointed Staffelkapitän ( squadron leader ) of the 12 . Staffel ( 12th squadron ) of Jagdgeschwader 51 ( JG 51 — 51st Fighter Wing ) on 1 March 1940 , replacing Oberleutnant ( First Lieutenant ) Erwin Neuerburg who became Staffelkapitän of 7 . Staffel of Jagdgeschwader 3 ( JG 3 — 3rd Fighter Wing ) . In this function , he was promoted to Oberleutnant on 1 April 1940 . Nordmann was victorious over two Royal Air Force ( RAF ) Supermarine Spitfires on 17 October 1940 and achieved his ninth aerial victory on 6 May 1941 .
In June 1941 , JG 51 and the majority of the Luftwaffe were transferred to the Eastern Front in preparation for Operation Barbarossa , the invasion of the Soviet Union . On 20 July 1941 Nordmann was appointed to command IV . / JG 51 , succeeding Major Friedrich Beckh who was selected to command JG 51 as Geschwaderkommodore ( Wing Commander ) . Command of the 12 . Staffel was passed on to Oberleutnant Heinrich Bär . Less than two weeks later , on 1 August 1941 Nordmann was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes ) after a total of 31 victories which was presented to him by General der Flieger Bruno Loerzer . Unteroffizier ( Sergeant ) Franz @-@ Josef Beerenbrock flew as Nordmann 's Rottenflieger ( wing man ) around this time . Nordmann achieved his 40th victory in total on 16 August and his 50th on 28 August . Only three weeks later he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub ) on 16 September 1941 after 59 victories which was presented by Adolf Hitler . Three days later , on 19 September , he was promoted to Hauptmann ( captain ) . On 10 April 1942 , Nordmann took over command of JG 51 as Geschwaderkommodore from Beckh who was transferred to the Reich Air Ministry .
Nordmann was promoted to Major ( major ) on 18 June 1942 . On 26 June 1942 Nordmann crashed his Messerschmitt Bf 109 F @-@ 2 ( Werknummer 12825 — factory number ) . The aircraft flipped during the landing and Nordmann suffered a basilar fractured skull , an injury typical of high @-@ speed crashes . Although he flew again shortly after the crash his injury required hospitalization in August . Nordmann , who had been assisted by Hauptmann Joachim Müncheberg as a Geschwaderkommodore in training , temporarily replaced him during his absence . On 17 January 1943 Nordmann 's Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 190 was involved in a midair collision with Hauptmann Rudolf Busch , Gruppenkommandeur of I. / JG 51 . Busch was killed and Nordmann , severely injured , did not fly operationally again . In total , Nordmann claimed 78 aerial victories , 69 of which on the Eastern Front , flying over 800 combat missions . Under his leadership JG 51 reported the 4,000th aerial victory on 16 December 1942 , the 5,000th victory on 2 June 1943 , the 6,000th victory on 27 July 1943 and the 7,000th victory on 15 September 1943 .
Nordmann , who had been promoted to Oberstleutnant ( lieutenant colonel ) on 1 August 1943 , was appointed Jagdfliegerführer Ostpreussen on 1 April 1944 . This command was also later referred to as Jagdabschnittsführer 6 ( leader of the 6th fighter sector ) , while subordinated to the Luftflotte 6 ( 6th Air Fleet ) . For his leadership service and the 8,000th aerial of JG 51 he was honorably mentioned in the Wehrmachtbericht , an information bulletin issued by the headquarters of the Wehrmacht , on 4 May 1944 . He was appointed Inspekteur der Tagjäger Ost ( Inspector of Fighter Operations East ) on 4 January 1945 and on 30 January 1945 promoted to Oberst ( Colonel ) . Just prior to the end of the war , on 4 April 1945 , he took over command of the 1st Fighter Division until the end of the war .
= = Later life and business career = =
After World War II , Nordmann joined Mercedes @-@ Benz in 1950 , initially working in sales . He later became head of the sales department and , in 1968 , head of worldwide services . In January 1971 he was appointed president of Mercedes @-@ Benz in North America and Canada , retiring in January 1981 . Despite his retirement , he continued to hold a position as company director . During his tenure with Mercedes , Nordmann was an early mentor of Jürgen Schrempp , who later became the chief executive officer of Daimler AG . Under Nordmann 's leadership , Mercedes sales in the United States increased from 30 @,@ 000 cars in 1970 to 43 @,@ 600 cars in 1972 , a 0 @.@ 4 % U.S. market share . To further expand the market presence in North America , Mercedes in 1976 opened a facility in Jacksonville , Florida . In 1977 Daimler bought the Euclid Company of Ohio and Freightliner Trucks in 1981 .
In 1981 Nordmann attended an aviation symposium of the International Order of Characters ( IOC ) held in Stamford , Connecticut . The symposium panel was made up of four former World War II fighter pilots . In addition to Nordmann , the panel included the former RAF pilots , Sir Douglas Bader and Robert Stanford Tuck , and the former United States Army Air Forces pilot Robert S. Johnson .
He died at his home on 22 July 1982 in Greenwich , Connecticut , USA . Nordmann 's wife was named Tina . They had a son , Peter , and a daughter , Corinne .
= = Awards = =
Iron Cross ( 1939 )
2nd Class ( 8 October 1939 )
1st Class ( 5 January 1940 )
Ehrenpokal der Luftwaffe ( 28 July 1941 )
Front Flying Clasp of the Luftwaffe for fighter pilots in gold with pennant
Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves
Knight 's Cross on 1 August 1941 as Oberleutnant and Staffelkapitän of the 12 . / Jagdgeschwader 51
35th Oak Leaves on 16 September 1941 as Oberleutnant and Staffelkapitän of the 12 . / Jagdgeschwader 51
Mentioned in the Wehrmachtbericht on 4 May 1944
= = = Dates of rank = = =
= Taksony of Hungary =
Taksony ( Hungarian pronunciation : [ ˈtɒkʃoɲ ] ; before or around 931 – early 970s ) was the Grand Prince of the Hungarians after their catastrophic defeat in the 955 Battle of Lechfeld . In his youth he had participated in plundering raids in Western Europe , but during his reign the Hungarians only targeted the Byzantine Empire . The Gesta Hungarorum recounts that significant Muslim and Pecheneg groups settled in Hungary under Taksony .
= = Early life = =
Taksony was the son of Zoltán ( the third grand prince of the Hungarians ) , according to the Gesta Hungarorum ( written around 1200 ) . The same source adds that Taksony 's mother was an unnamed daughter of Menumorut , a local ruler defeated by the conquering Hungarians shortly before 907 . Its unknown author also says that Taksony was born " in the year of Our Lord 's incarnation 931 " . The Gesta Hungarorum reports that Zoltán abdicated in favor of Taksony in 947 , three years before his own death .
However , modern historians have challenged existing information on Taksony 's early life . A nearly @-@ contemporaneous source – Liudprand of Cremona 's Retribution – narrates that Taksony led a plundering raid against Italy in 947 , which suggests that he was born considerably earlier than 931 . His father 's reign was preserved only in the Gesta Hungarorum ; its anonymous author lists Zoltán among the grand princes , and all later Hungarian monarchs were descended from him . The Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus wrote around 950 that Fajsz , Taksony 's cousin , was grand prince of the Hungarians at that time .
In that time Taxis , king of the Hungarians came to Italy with a large army . Berengar gave him ten measures of coins not from his own money , but from an exaction on the churches and paupers .
= = Reign = =
A later source , Johannes Aventinus , writes that Taksony fought in the Battle of Lechfeld on August 10 , 955 . There , future Holy Roman Emperor Otto I routed an 8 @,@ 000 @-@ strong Hungarian army . If this report is reliable , Taksony was one of the few Hungarian leaders to survive the battlefield . Modern historians , including Zoltán Kordé and Gyula Kristó , suggest that Fajsz abdicated in favor of Taksony around that time . After that battle the Hungarians ' plundering raids in Western Europe stopped , and they were forced to retreat from the lands between the Enns and Traisen rivers . However , the Hungarians continued their incursions into the Byzantine Empire until the 970s .
According to the Gesta Hungarorum , " a great host of Muslims " arrived in Hungary " from the land of Bular " under Taksony . The contemporaneous Abraham ben Jacob also recorded the presence of Muslim merchants from Hungary in Prague in 965 . Anonymous also writes of the arrival of Pechenegs during Taksony 's reign ; he granted them " a land to dwell in the region of Kemej as far as the Tisza " . The only sign of a Hungarian connection with Western Europe under Taksony is a report by Liudprand of Cremona . He writes about Zacheus , whom Pope John XII consecrated bishop and " sent to the Hungarians in order to preach that they should attack " the Germans in 963 . However , there is no evidence that Zacheus ever arrived in Hungary . Taksony arranged the marriage of his elder son Géza to Sarolt , daughter of Gyula of Transylvania , before his death during the early 970s .
= = Family = =
Taksony 's marriage to a woman " from the land of the Cumans " was arranged by his father , according to the Gesta Hungarorum . Although this reference to the Cumans is anachronistic , Gyula Kristó and other historians argue that the Gesta seems to have preserved the memory of the Turkic – Khazar , Pecheneg or Volga Bulgarian – origin of Taksony 's wife . The names of two of their sons ( Géza and Michael ) have been preserved . The following family tree presents Taksony 's ancestry and his offspring .
* Whether Menumorut is an actual or an invented person is debated by modern scholars .
* * A Khazar , Pecheneg or Volga Bulgarian woman
* * * Kristó writes that she may have been a member of the Rurik dynasty from Kievan Rus'
= Daybreaker ( Architects album ) =
Daybreaker is the fifth studio album by British metalcore band Architects . It was released on 28 May 2012 in the United Kingdom and most of Europe and on 5 June 2012 in the United States . It was the last album to feature guitarist Tim Hillier @-@ Brook , who left the band on 16 April 2012 . Daybreaker was co @-@ produced by the band and Ben Humphreys at Outhouse Studios in Reading , Berkshire , and used the same team and studio that were used for recording the band 's third studio album , Hollow Crown . Daybreaker was praised by music writers for its variety and marks Architects ' return to the technical sound of their earlier albums — especially Hollow Crown — while incorporating several melodic elements from their fourth album , The Here and Now .
The album debuted on charts in five countries but failed to appear on any mainstream top 40 . To promote it , Architects released five music videos , toured five continents ( 2012 's Almost World Tour was filmed for the documentary One Hundred Days ) and issued a re @-@ release of the album to commemorate their departure from Century Media Records . Daybreaker received a mixed to positive response from critics ; some praised its use of atmospheric elements and the return to a heavier style , while others criticised it as uninspired .
= = Background and recording = =
In the band 's fourth album , 2011 's The Here and Now , the band set out to mix their typical sounds with the music they were listening to at the time . The response was polarised : critics applauded the style while many fans criticised the album and accused the band of selling out . During the publicity for The Here and Now , the band praised it as a progression for them ; they did not want to reject an album they had just released . But their own lack of belief in the record and their growing concern that they were irrelevant started to severely affect the band 's confidence in themselves and their style .
Songs recorded during early demo sessions after The Here and Now became b @-@ sides for re @-@ releases . During this time , the band became certain they wished to make another " heavy " record . Tom Searle said , " some people might say we 've regressed , but I think we 've found our enthusiasm for playing heavy music again . I 'm excited again by what I 've come up with on guitar and lyrically it 's much more political and less personal . " The band started to write socially aware lyrics during the writing phase of Daybreaker ; vocalist Sam Carter said this was a result of the band touring the world and seeing things he felt were downplayed by the media .
The band recorded Daybreaker at Outhouse Studios in Reading , Berkshire , where they had previously recorded Ruin ( 2007 ) and Hollow Crown ( 2009 ) . Daybreaker had the same production and engineering team as did Hollow Crown ; John Mitchell acted as Daybreaker 's mixing engineer , and Mitchell described Daybreaker as " the album they should have made after Hollow Crown " . Tom Searle said that during the recording , he and Hillier @-@ Brook were constantly practising to perfect the highly technical guitar riffs .
Architects invited Jon Green from Deez Nuts , Oliver Sykes from Bring Me the Horizon , and Drew York from Stray from the Path to sing on the album . They invited Green because they believed his screaming vocals had a " Satanic " quality , while a collaboration with Sykes was something the band considered " long overdue " , since Carter had sung on Bring Me the Horizon 's 2008 album Suicide Season . On 16 April 2013 , shortly before Daybreaker 's release , Hillier @-@ Brook announced he would leave the band to pursue other projects . The band had thought Hiller @-@ Brook seemed unhappy while he was a member of Architects .
= = Release and promotion = =
Daybreaker was first announced with a tentative release date of " summer " . The album was released in the United Kingdom on 28 May 2012 . In June 2013 , Century Media Records re @-@ released it in North America exclusively for the band 's performance at Warped Tour 2013 . This version includes their single " Black Blood " and covers of Bon Iver 's " Blood Bank " and Thrice 's " Of Dust and Nations " .
= = = Singles = = =
In early November 2011 , Architects announced a plan to release " Devil 's Island " , the first song from the then @-@ unnamed follow @-@ up to their fourth studio album The Here and Now . They released it on 4 December 2011 , with a b @-@ side song called " Untitled " . Both the song and the accompanying music video reference rioting in England in 2011 , and the music video features clips of the riots . " Devil 's Island " was well received by critics for its return to the mathcore style of their third album , Hollow Crown . Thrash Hits said , " more @-@ melodic aspects of Architects are still very much on show " , that the song used " increased harsh vocals " and that the guitar tones were reminiscent of those on " Early Grave " , the opening track of Hollow Crown . J.J. Nattrass of Bring The Noise said , " the track is sweeping and melodic in parts , whilst bursting with high tempo and visceral raw energy in others . " Tim Dodderidge , writing for Mind Equals Blown , praised the song 's lyrics , saying , " Architects has taken on an important issue in Britain today and made a song that questions humanity ; it may have a lasting effect on listeners that bands like Rise Against have been able to do , though they sound nothing alike " . The band supported the single 's release with a five @-@ day UK headline tour in December 2011 ; supporting acts were Deaf Havana , Tek @-@ One and Heights .
On 26 March 2012 Architects released a typography @-@ styled music video for " These Colours Don 't Run " . The music video was designed to " capture the madness that is America , be it good or bad " . Tom Searle wanted the video " [ to get ] people thinking and talking . And in the land of the free — you know nothing comes for free ! " The band 's third single " Alpha Omega " was released on 7 May 2012 after a radio debut on Daniel P. Carter 's BBC Radio 1 Rock Show podcast on 24 April 2012 . The music video for the song was posted on 10 May 2012 . On 12 December , Architects released another typography @-@ styled video for " Even If You Win , You 're Still a Rat " .
" Black Blood " was released on 3 June 2013 to promote the re @-@ released version of Daybreaker ; the single also had a typography @-@ style video . The song was released in conjunction with Architects ' performances at Warped Tour 2013 ; it was featured on the Warped Tour sampler that was released for free download on Amazon.com. The band initially wanted to record a music video for the song but they cancelled shooting because Tom Searle was afflicted with skin cancer .
= = = Live performances = = =
Throughout March 2012 , Architects and Touché Amoré supported Rise Against on their European tour . Hillier @-@ Brook 's last tour with Architects was the April 2012 British tour with Rolo Tomassi and Stray from the Path . Between March and June that year — the last few months before the large tours in support of Daybreaker — Architects performed at several festivals ; the Swedish Konzerthaus Schüür in Lucerne , the La Boule Noire near Paris , Groezrock Festival in Belgium , British touring festival Slam Dunk Festival in Leeds and Hatfield , and German festivals Summerblast Festival , Traffic Jam Festival and Summerbreeze Festival . Because Hillier @-@ Brook had announced he would leave Architects on 16 April 2012 after his final performance with the band at Groezrock Festival , Josh Middleton of Sylosis joined the band as touring guitarist . In late April , Architects supported The Devil Wears Prada and Whitechapel on a six @-@ day tour of South America .
Architects began promoting Daybreaker by playing several large European festivals throughout June and July 2013 , before embarking on tour legs in south @-@ east Asia , Australasia , North America and Europe , which were dubbed the The Daybreaker Almost World Tour . Most of the tour dates were published in July , the first leg of the tour began in August with 16 dates in Canada with support from Struc / tures and Asightforsewneyes . In September , the band headed to Asia to play dates in Hong Kong , Malaysia , Thailand , Singapore , Indonesia and China . In late September and early October , the band played 12 gigs in New Zealand and Australia supporting The Amity Affliction — it was Architects ' first tour of Australia since December 2010 . The final leg of the tour took place in Europe , with supporting bands While She Sleeps and Heights in mainland Europe , and Deez Nuts , Bury Tomorrow and The Acacia Strain in the UK . The tour 's British leg included a gig at UK Warped Tour , a one @-@ day festival headlined by Lostprophets and Bring Me the Horizon at Alexandra Palace in London on 10 November . A documentary about Architects ' touring experiences was titled " One Hundred Days : The Story Of Architects Almost World Tour " .
In 2013 , Architects expanded their promotional reach to the United States , a country they were not confident in . They were " tired of losing money " with their tours in the US and " [ the band ] were about ready to give up on America " . Starting in March , with opening act Crossfaith they supported Enter Shikari and then joined the American Warped Tour 2013 in June . The band also made single appearances in Europe at several summer festivals , including Download Festival 2013 in the UK . The band announced they would tour the US for the third time in 2013 in November and December with co @-@ headliners Protest The Hero and support from The Kindred and Affiance . They also announced plans to tour Australia before the end of 2013 . Architects ' final performance in support of Daybreaker and their first in India occurred at the Saarang culture festival on 11 January 2014 .
= = Themes = =
= = = Music = = =
According to Andrew Kelham , Daybreaker is an " urgent and resurgent " record ; it has been identified by critics as metalcore , progressive metal , mathcore and post @-@ hardcore . Architects have been credited for fusing the intense technicality and metallic style of Hollow Crown with the " soaring vocals " and the much improved production of The Here and Now . The album is defined by a number of features , including a contrast of singing and extreme metal screaming , and melodic choruses complemented by " soaring " vocals , technical guitar work with palm muted breakdowns and the use of string instruments and piano to generate atmosphere . Daybreaker is noted for fusing influences from Architects ' previous two albums The Here And Now and Hollow Crown ; many reviewers have cited the album as a return to the band 's heavier , more technical roots . When he interviewed the band , Kelham wrote , " some will see Daybreaker as an apology , but it 's not . Others will view it as a hasty attempt to claw back the glories of third album Hollow Crown , but it 's not that either . It 's a collection of songs about moving on , growing up and making sense of what has come before " .
The record 's opening track is " The Bitter End " , an introduction built on skittish electronics , dark piano chords , xylophone notes , orchestral harmonies , haunting vocals and lyrics . The album then breaks into intense and heavy songs such as " high @-@ octane " tracks " Alpha Omega " and " These Colours Don 't Run " , which are full of " interesting rhythms and powerful melodies " .
The piano @-@ led track " Truth Be Told " gives the record a break from the chaos ; it explores post @-@ hardcore territory by following a " loop @-@ like rhythmic structure " . " Outsider Heart " has been compared to the math rock guitar playing of Meshuggah . " Devil 's Island " has been described as " a full @-@ body seizure set to electric guitar " . Architects began to experiment with elements such as the addition of string instruments and piano that would help generate atmosphere . This is evident in the melodic songs " Truth Be Told " , " Behind The Throne " and " Unbeliever " . " Behind the Throne " is an intense , atmospheric , ambient @-@ rock song with a grandiose , electro @-@ drummed backdrop .
= = = Lyrics = = =
Lyrically , the album discusses negative aspects of religion and society , and is seen as a " companion piece " to Enter Shikari ’ s A Flash Flood of Colour . Daybreaker 's lyrics were written by Carter and Tom Searle , who focused on political and " bigger picture " themes . Carter described " Devil 's Island " as " one of the hardest songs to write " because of the prominence of its theme of rioting . Searle , who focused on its lyrics , said , " With money firmly ingrained into our global society we really need to look to alternative solutions when problems like the riots occur because violence is never the solution " . Carter said " Black Blood " , which was included on the re @-@ release , is about the oil industry , society 's strong dependence on oil and the way " short term profit is the only thing these people think about , instead of the longevity of what we really could do and how we could stabilize what 's really going on in the world right now " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Commercial performance = = =
Daybreaker debuted at number one on the UK Rock & Metal Albums Chart and at number 42 on the UK Album Charts for selling 3 @,@ 208 copies . It became the highest @-@ charting release by Architects in their five @-@ album career ; The Here And Now had reached number 57 . The next week , the album fell to number 12 on the Rock & Metal , then to number 33 , and it left the chart the following week . The album debuted on the US Top Heatseekers chart at number 28 , selling 1 @,@ 200 copies in its first week . In Belgium , the album charted at number 182 , and in Germany at number 93 .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Daybreaker received mixed to positive reviews from music critics . Some reviewers praised the band for texturing and progressing their sound , and for writing socio @-@ political lyrics . The album was criticised for sounding forced or formulaic . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , Daybreaker received an average score of 73 , based on 8 reviews , which indicates generally favourable reviews .
About.com writer Ryan Cooper praised the album , awarded it four stars out of five and said it " laughs in the face of those who think passionate realism , artistic integrity and mass commercial appeal are all mutually exclusive . Daybreaker balances all three with pretty much perfect dexterity . " Raziq Rauf writing for the BBC praised the band for the album 's musical diversity with its use of electronic songs like album @-@ opener " The Bitter End " and the band 's use of technicality and melody in songs . He summarised the album by saying , " Daybreaker is a great album . It ’ ll go down as one of Architects ’ finest works — it ’ s certainly their most well @-@ rounded release to date . " Big Cheese writer Paul Hagen praised the album 's lyrical content , saying , " Socially turbulent times seems to produce the best music and if bands can keep channelling genuine anger into their art , there are going to be some more really great albums released over the next few years " .
Canadian music magazine Exclaim ! published two reviews of Daybreaker . Bradley Zorgdrager gave an unfavourable review of the album 's sound . He said although the tracks are " catchy and occasionally compelling , they 're essentially identical and formulaic , as the atmospheric build @-@ ups and soaring riffs make way for boring breakdowns . The metal @-@ influenced parts sound forced to appease fans disappointed with their last release , which results in Daybreaker sounding more like a business move than a work of art . " Scott Harms ' review was more favourable , praising the band 's return to a much more aggressive style . He credits it for incorporating influences from previous albums , saying " they have found a balance in which to return to the Searle brothers ' heavy sounds while carefully incorporating Sam Carter 's soaring clean vocals " . Harms summarised his review by saying , " as a whole , [ Daybreaker ] sounds epic " . Adam Rees of Metal Hammer rated the album 7 out of 10 , acknowledging the " abundant " inclusion of string instruments and piano and the way these instruments create atmosphere . Ress ended his review by calling Daybreaker , " A brave and brilliant British metal album " . Canoe.ca author Darryl Sterdan awarded the album 2 @.@ 5 stars out of 5 , saying it " balanc [ es ] their newfound sensitivity and maturity with plenty of good old @-@ fashioned techno @-@ metal frenzy and primal @-@ scream aggro . Pity they didn ’ t write memorable songs while they were at it . "
Alt Sounds writer Candice Haridimou gave the album a rating of 94 % out of 100 % and praised the album 's lyrical content . She said the political nature of the album also uses emotional dramatisation to capture the listener , particularly in songs like " Devil 's Island " . Haridimou states the song " drives remorse into the cold hearts of those involved . It ’ s a severe and poignant song that will stand the test of time . " Ryan Bird , in an otherwise positive review of Daybreaker , criticised it upon first hearing it ; he said it struggled to settle into any distinctive rhythm or groove . However , Bird concluded his review by saying , " but despite its relative ( and relatively few ) faults . ' Daybreaker ' represents a victory for a band who some had once been so eager to write off , suggesting that maybe — just maybe — they 've got what it takes to bring both sides [ of their fanbase ] together " .
= = = Accolades = = =
Daybreaker featured on several lists of best albums of 2012 , including Rock Sounds top 50 at number 48 , Kerrang ! ' s 101 at number 36 and Ourzone 's at number 23 out of 25 .
= = Track listing = =
All music composed by Architects .
= = Personnel = =
= = Release history = =
= = Chart performance = =
= Luis Walter Alvarez =
Luis Walter Alvarez ( June 13 , 1911 – September 1 , 1988 ) was an American experimental physicist , inventor , and professor who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1968 . The American Journal of Physics commented , " Luis Alvarez was one of the most brilliant and productive experimental physicists of the twentieth century . "
After receiving his PhD from the University of Chicago in 1936 , Alvarez went to work for Ernest Lawrence at the Radiation Laboratory at the University of California in Berkeley . Alvarez devised a set of experiments to observe K @-@ electron capture in radioactive nuclei , predicted by the beta decay theory but never observed . He produced tritium using the cyclotron and measured its lifetime . In collaboration with Felix Bloch , he measured the magnetic moment of the neutron .
In 1940 Alvarez joined the MIT Radiation Laboratory , where he contributed to a number of World War II radar projects , from early improvements to Identification Friend or Foe ( IFF ) radar beacons , now called transponders , to a system known as VIXEN for preventing enemy submarines from realizing that they had been found by the new airborne microwave radars . Enemy submarines would wait until the radar signal was getting strong and then submerge , escaping attack . But VIXEN transmitted a radar signal whose strength was the cube of the distance to the submarine so that as they approached the sub , the signal — as measured by the sub — got progressively weaker , and the sub assumed the plane was getting farther away and didn 't submerge . The radar system for which Alvarez is best known and which has played a major role in aviation , most particularly in the post war Berlin airlift , was Ground Controlled Approach ( GCA ) . Alvarez spent a few months at the University of Chicago working on nuclear reactors for Enrico Fermi before coming to Los Alamos to work for Robert Oppenheimer on the Manhattan project . Alvarez worked on the design of explosive lenses , and the development of exploding @-@ bridgewire detonators . As a member of Project Alberta , he observed the Trinity nuclear test from a B @-@ 29 Superfortress , and later the bombing of Hiroshima from the B @-@ 29 The Great Artiste .
After the war Alvarez was involved in the design of a liquid hydrogen bubble chamber that allowed his team to take millions of photographs of particle interactions , develop complex computer systems to measure and analyze these interactions , and discover entire families of new particles and resonance states . This work resulted in his being awarded the Nobel Prize in 1968 . He was involved in a project to x @-@ ray the Egyptian pyramids to search for unknown chambers . With his son , geologist Walter Alvarez , he developed the Alvarez hypothesis which proposes that the extinction event that wiped out the dinosaurs was the result of an asteroid impact .
Alvarez was a member of the JASON Defense Advisory Group , the Bohemian Club , and the Republican Party .
= = Early life = =
Luis Walter Alvarez was born in San Francisco on June 13 , 1911 , the second child and oldest son of Walter C. Alvarez , a physician , and his wife Harriet née Smyth , and a grandson of Luis F. Alvarez , a physician who lived for a time in Spain , then Cuba , and finally the United States , who found a better method for diagnosing macular leprosy . He had an older sister , Gladys , a younger brother , Bob , and a younger sister , Bernice . His aunt , Mabel Alvarez , was a California artist specializing in oil painting .
He attended Madison School in San Francisco from 1918 to 1924 , and then San Francisco Polytechnic High School . In 1926 , his father became a researcher at the Mayo Clinic , and the family moved to Rochester , Minnesota , where Alvarez attended Rochester High School . He had always expected to attend the University of California , but at the urging of his teachers at Rochester , he instead went to the University of Chicago , where he received his bachelor 's degree in 1932 , his master 's degree in 1934 , and his PhD in 1936 . As an undergraduate , he belonged to the Phi Gamma Delta fraternity . As a postgraduate he moved to Gamma Alpha .
In 1932 , as a graduate student at Chicago , he discovered physics there and had the rare opportunity to use the equipment of legendary physicist Albert A. Michelson . Alvarez also constructed an apparatus of Geiger counter tubes arranged as a cosmic ray telescope , and under the aegis of his faculty advisor Arthur Compton , conducted an experiment in Mexico City to measure the so @-@ called East – West effect of cosmic rays . Observing more incoming radiation from the west , Alvarez concluded that primary cosmic rays were positively charged . Compton submitted the resulting paper to the Physical Review , with Alvarez 's name at the top .
He was an agnostic .
= = Early work = =
Alvarez 's sister , Gladys , worked for Ernest Lawrence as a part @-@ time secretary , and mentioned Alvarez to Lawrence . Lawrence then invited Alvarez to tour the Century of Progress exhibition in Chicago with him . After he completed his oral exams in 1936 , Alvarez , now engaged to be married to Geraldine Smithwick , asked his sister to see if Lawrence had any jobs available at the Radiation Laboratory . A telegram soon arrived from Gladys with a job offer from Lawrence . This started a long association with the University of California , Berkeley . Alvarez and Smithwick were married in one of the chapels at the University of Chicago and then headed for California . They had two children , Walter and Jean . They were divorced in 1957 . On December 28 , 1958 , he married Janet L. Landis , and had two more children , Donald and Helen .
At the Radiation Laboratory he worked with Lawrence 's experimental team , which was supported by a group of theoretical physicists headed by Robert Oppenheimer . Alvarez devised a set of experiments to observe K @-@ electron capture in radioactive nuclei , predicted by the beta decay theory but never observed . Using magnets to sweep aside the positrons and electrons emanating from his radioactive sources , he designed a special purpose Geiger counter to detect only the " soft " X @-@ rays coming from K capture . He published his results in the Physical Review in 1937 .
When deuterium ( hydrogen @-@ 2 ) is bombarded with deuterium , the fusion reaction yields either tritium ( hydrogen @-@ 3 ) plus a proton or helium @-@ 3 plus a neutron ( 2H + 2H → 3H + p or 3He + n ) . This is one of the most basic fusion reactions , and the foundation of the hydrogen bomb and the current research on controlled nuclear fusion . At that time the stability of these two reaction products was unknown , but based on existing theories Hans Bethe thought that tritium would be stable and helium @-@ 3 unstable . Alvarez proved the reverse by using his knowledge of the details of the 60 @-@ inch cyclotron operation . He tuned the machine to accelerate doubly ionized helium @-@ 3 nuclei and was able to get a beam of accelerated ions , thus using the cyclotron as a kind of super mass spectrometer . As the accelerated helium came from deep gas wells where it had been for millions of years , the helium @-@ 3 component had to be stable . Afterwards Alvarez produced the radioactive tritium using the cyclotron and the 2H + 2H reaction and measured its lifetime .
In 1938 , again using his knowledge of the cyclotron and inventing what are now known as time @-@ of @-@ flight techniques , Alvarez created a mono @-@ energetic beam of thermal neutrons . With this he began a long series of experiments , collaborating with Felix Bloch , to measure the magnetic moment of the neutron . Their result of μ0 = 1 @.@ 93 ± 0 @.@ 02 μN , published in 1940 , was a major advance over earlier work .
= = World War II = =
= = = Radiation Laboratory = = =
The British Tizard Mission to the United States in 1940 demonstrated to leading American scientists the
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behind the race leader . Team manager Martinelli stated that no pressure for a particular final placing would be put on Kessiakoff . Sporting director Aydar Mahmet expressed the team 's dissatisfaction with Kashechkin publicly suggesting the expectation of a high placing when he obviously did not have the form to attain it .
Kessiakoff moved into his highest overall position after stage 12 , occupying third overall just nine seconds behind the race leader . Kessiakoff at last cracked on stage 14 , finishing 21st two minutes off the pace on La Farrapona . He had such time in hand over the bulk of the field , however , that he slipped only to sixth overall . Kessiakoff badly cracked in the next stage , losing almost 22 minutes and falling to 26th overall . Kiserlovski then became the team 's top overall rider . He took ninth on stage 18 into Noja , part of a breakaway that took over seven minutes against the race 's top riders . The result installed him into 16th place overall . He ended the Vuelta in 18th , as Astana 's best @-@ placed rider . Kessiakoff 's final position was 34th , and Kashechkin was 89th .
= = Season victories = =
= Ultima Underworld II : Labyrinth of Worlds =
Ultima Underworld II : Labyrinth of Worlds is a 1993 first @-@ person role @-@ playing video game developed by Looking Glass Technologies and published by Origin Systems . As the sequel to Ultima Underworld : The Stygian Abyss , the game is set in the Ultima fantasy universe . Players assume the role of the Avatar — the protagonist of the Ultima series — and adventure through multiple dimensions while seeking to prevent the evil Guardian from achieving world domination . Progression is largely nonlinear and the game allows for emergent gameplay .
Ultima Underworld II began production in April 1992 , shortly after the completion of Ultima Underworld ; and it was developed in nine months . The team sought to improve upon the foundation laid by the game 's predecessor , particularly by increasing the size and interactivity of the game world . The team reused and improved the first game 's engine . Development was impeded by insufficient staffing and extensive playtesting , and the rapid production cycle led to burnout on the team .
Most critics gave Ultima Underworld II positive reviews and lauded its graphics , design and nonlinearity . Complaints focused on its high system requirements and unrefined pacing . It has been placed on numerous hall of fame lists since its release . In reaction to the game 's difficult development , Looking Glass altered its design approach : they streamlined ideas from the Ultima Underworld series to create System Shock . The team pitched a sequel to Ultima Underworld II multiple times , but Origin Systems rejected the idea . Arkane Studios ' Arx Fatalis ( 2002 ) is a spiritual successor to the franchise originally pitched as a sequel . OtherSide Entertainment 's upcoming Underworld Ascendant will be the first officially licensed entry in the series in over 23 years .
= = Gameplay = =
Ultima Underworld II is a role @-@ playing video game that takes place from a character 's eye view in a three @-@ dimensional ( 3D ) graphical environment . The player 's goal is to adventure through dungeon @-@ like indoor environments across eight parallel dimensions , while completing quests to help the inhabitants of each world . The player uses a freely movable mouse cursor to interact with the game 's world and to manipulate the heads @-@ up display ( HUD ) interface . Icons on the HUD allow the player to examine objects closely , to converse with non @-@ player characters ( NPCs ) and to ready the player character 's weapon , among other things . During the game , the player collects items and stores them in an inventory on the HUD . Because it uses the same engine as its predecessor , Ultima Underworld II shares many of that game 's features . For example , it allows the player character to jump and swim , and it contains an automap .
The player begins by creating a character , for whom traits such as gender , character class and skills may be selected . Skills range from diplomacy and lockpicking to blacksmithing . The game starts in the castle of Lord British , through which the player accesses other dimensions . The player character gains experience points by fighting , completing quests and exploring . During combat , the player attacks by clicking the screen : more damage is dealt when the player presses and holds the attack button . Depending on where the player clicks , different types of attacks — such as thrusts and slashes — occur . The player may cast spells by using an appropriate combination of " runestones " , which are collected throughout the game . When enough experience points have been accumulated , the player character levels up and gains hit points . Experience points also grant " skill points " , which allow the character to increase skill proficiency . Unlike in Ultima Underworld : The Stygian Abyss , skills are not improved at shrines ; rather , they are increased by training with NPCs at the castle or in other dimensions .
As with its predecessor , Ultima Underworld II was designed to generate emergent gameplay through the interplay of simulated systems . The developers attempted to combine role @-@ playing elements with " a sophisticated three @-@ dimensional simulation of a sensible and believable world " . For example , torches burn out , items wear over time and the player character must eat . Many items in the game are useless but were included for the sake of realism . The game is nonlinear , in that players must " visit and revisit " areas as the character gains abilities and becomes stronger , instead of " clearing each square foot as they go " . Many situations and puzzles in the game have multiple solutions .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting and characters = = =
Ultima Underworld II is set in the fantasy world of the Ultima franchise . It takes place across multiple parallel dimensions , the first being Britannia , the traditional setting of Ultima games . The protagonist is the Avatar , the main character of the series . Chronologically , the events of the game occur directly after those of Ultima VII : The Black Gate , rather than those of the original Ultima Underworld . As with Ultima VII , the villain of Ultima Underworld II is the Guardian , an evil being who seeks to conquer Britannia . The game features recurring characters from previous Ultima games , such as Lord British , Nystul , Dupre , Iolo and Mayor Patterson . Also present are Lady Tory and Miranda , the latter of whom appeared in Ultima VII .
= = = Story = = =
One year after the events of Ultima VII : The Black Gate , the Avatar and many other recurring characters from the Ultima series attend a celebration at the castle of Lord British . However , they are trapped when a large dome of impenetrable " blackrock " covers the castle . The Guardian plans to attack Britannia while the characters are trapped , and he explains that those who do not surrender will be left to die in the dome . Searching the sewers beneath the castle , the Avatar locates a smaller blackrock crystal that leads to alternate dimensions . The magic used by the Guardian to seal the castle caused interdimensional portals to open between eight parallel worlds , each of which is a " center " for the Guardian 's power across dimensions . The denizens of these dimensions are ruled by the Guardian , and the player must free each world to weaken the Guardian 's power over Lord British 's castle and elsewhere . The Guardian mocks the efforts of the Avatar in their dreams throughout the game . As the Avatar explores other worlds , a contemporaneous plotline , which PC Zone 's David McCandless called a " soap opera " , unfolds at the castle . One of those trapped in the castle is a traitor , and the Avatar must discover their identity .
The first dimension visited by the Avatar is a prison tower in " Fyrna " , which has been conquered by goblins led by the Guardian . There , the player rescues a human resistance leader named Bishop , who then returns to lead a rebellion against the Guardian . Back at the castle , the player gives a small blackrock gem obtained in the prison tower to Nystul , who enchants it to disrupt the portal in the sewers . Next , the player visits Killorn Keep , a floating fortress in a different dimension . Altara , a sorceress in Killorn Keep who is allied with Bishop , warns the Avatar that the Guardian has hidden a magical spy beneath the castle in Britannia . She provides a special dagger with which to kill it . After removing the spy , the Avatar visits a dimension of ice caves : the remnants of a civilization destroyed by the Guardian , now ruled by a ghost named Beatrice . The Avatar returns to the castle and finds that Lady Tory has been murdered by the traitor . The next dimension is Talorus , a world inhabited by energy beings called " Talorids " that each serve a single purpose , such as knowing only the past or producing runestones . Talorids are created to serve the Guardian , but the Avatar destroys and replaces the sole reproductive Talorid to free the race .
The Avatar completes a series of tests at Scintillus Academy , a mage school whose staff was killed by the Guardian . Afterwards , the player travels to the Pits of Carnage , a subterranean prison on a world where the Guardian trains soldiers to attack other dimensions ; and to the Tomb of Praecor Loth , where a king killed in a war with the Guardian is buried . Finally , the Avatar visits the Ethereal Void , a strange world with floating , glowing pathways and no map . Eventually , the Avatar discovers that Mayor Patterson is the traitor and destroys the blackrock dome .
= = Development = =
Looking Glass Technologies began to develop Ultima Underworld II in April 1992 . The team 's goal was to build upon the foundation laid by the game 's predecessor , Ultima Underworld : The Stygian Abyss . They attempted to write a better , more complex plot and to include superior simulation elements and " play value " . According to project leader Doug Church , the team 's " biggest advantage " was the presence of four dedicated designers ; by contrast , each member of the original game 's team had assumed multiple roles . The Tomb of Praecor Loth was largely created by lead writer Austin Grossman , who took inspiration from the Dungeons & Dragons module Tomb of Horrors . The additional designers allowed Looking Glass to more carefully revise levels in Ultima Underworld II , so that players would have " interesting stuff " to see and do each time they explored an area . The team attempted to fine @-@ tune the role @-@ playing mechanics of Ultima Underworld , such as by making certain skills more powerful in the sequel . More puzzles and interactivity were added , and the game world was made several times larger than that of Ultima Underworld , according to Church . He later believed that the team was overambitious , and that the game was insufficiently focused and polished as a result .
Like its predecessor , Ultima Underworld II was produced by Warren Spector , who was Looking Glass ' main link to publisher Origin Systems . Church later praised Spector 's handling of the project : his weekly phone conversations and monthly meetings with Looking Glass helped Church and the team to refocus creatively during development . When the team failed to produce enough art for the game , Spector supplemented the art team with contractors from Origin , which Church believed was " critical " to the game 's being released on schedule . As a result of the art team 's distance from Looking Glass , Church had to phone " nine different area codes every couple days to check up on things " . He recalled the challenge of describing the enemy designs by phone . Dan Schmidt and the recently hired Seamus Blackley composed the game 's score in Blackley 's apartment over one week . They attempted to give each world a unique sound , while hiding variations of the main theme in each track . The music system from the original Ultima Underworld was retained with only minor alterations , but the team included digitized sound effects instead of the synthesized audio used in the first game .
Ultima Underworld II was developed in nine months . It was originally slated for a February 1993 release , but the date was later moved up to December 1992 . The game underwent two and a half months of playtesting by Origin and Looking Glass employees , and by remote testing firms . According to Church , the testing phase took more time than expected because of complaints from playtesters and the presence of numerous bugs . Church went to Origin 's headquarters in Texas during the final stages of development . The team " tried desperately to make Christmas " , and the game was completed around December 18 . Church compiled the final version on his laptop in Spector 's office . However , the game was held back for further playtesting even though it could have shipped on schedule . Church later commented , " [ T ] here was one bug we couldn 't reproduce , and everyone really wanted to go home for Christmas . We ended up taking a few days off , checking it a few more days and using that version anyway . " The delay caused the game to miss the holiday season . It was shipped in January 1993 .
= = = Technology = = =
Ultima Underworld II was built with an improved version of the game engine used for its predecessor . The team enhanced its visual capabilities : they broadened the first @-@ person view by 30 % , expanded the color palette , added more 3D objects , increased the size and animation of character sprites and wrote a new texture mapping algorithm . Director Paul Neurath commented that Ultima Underworld 's texture mapping had failed to " look quite as good as we had hoped " , and that the new system realized their vision . The game 's code is roughly 30 % larger than that of Ultima Underworld — bloat that Church attributed to " second project syndrome " .
= = Reception = =
According to Paul Neurath , Ultima Underworld II and its predecessor together sold half a million units . Paul Presley of PC Review called the game " huge " and praised its atmosphere , increased variety and higher graphical detail . However , he found that the game , unlike its predecessor , does not feature " anything that takes it to a higher plateau to wait for the others to catch up " . He summarized Ultima Underworld II as " magnificent " , and he wrote , " If someone were to hand me £ 40 and say buy either Underworld I or II , I 'd take the sequel any time . " PC Zone 's David McCandless wrote , " Nothing can completely prepare you for the freedom the game gives you ... It 's about as close to Virtual Reality as you are ever likely to get from your mouse driver . " He praised the game 's atmospheric sound and called its graphics " stunning " : on a high @-@ end computer , he found that " dungeons can move like a film " . Partly because of the game 's large size , he felt that Ultima Underworld II was looser and less involving than its predecessor , but he concluded that players would still " sit there , dribble slightly , and say ' blimey ' every eight to ten minutes . "
The Toronto Star 's William Burrill called it " the best fantasy ... role @-@ playing game in this ( or any parallel ) world . " He praised its automap and noted its increased graphical fidelity . However , he found that the control system took time to learn , and he stated , " This is not a game you can master quickly or play in a night . It has its frustrations and its flaws , despite its brilliance of design " . He summarized that " those who are patient will be richly rewarded with a game like no other . " Computer Gaming World 's Doug Sencat enjoyed the game 's graphics and praised the plot , conversations and 3D world for giving a sense of " being there " . However , he noted that the game 's movement controls were " a pain " and that navigating the environment was initially " frustrating " . Sencat was unfavorable toward the linearity of the plot and dialogue trees , and toward NPCs ' inability to take actions independent of the player . He described the game as " a long and grueling quest " that often " seems more frustrating than enjoyable " . Although he called it " a relatively high @-@ quality game " , he finished , " By the time I finally saw daylight again , emerging from the Labyrinth , I must admit that it wasn 't exultation I felt , but sheer relief . " The magazine 's Scorpia was more positive , calling the game " a good follow @-@ up to the previous entry " .
= = = Legacy = = =
In a 2004 retrospective review , PC Gamer UK 's John Walker stated that Ultima Underworld II " was new and exciting in half a dozen areas at once , not just one . Somehow , no game has quite achieved that since " . PC Gamer has included Ultima Underworld II in several lists of the 100 best computer games : the game placed 54th in 2001 , 39th in 2007 , and 98th in 2011 . One writer for the magazine wrote , " Like Ultima Underworld but again and better . No , that won 't do . Ultima Underworld [ II ] needs to be hailed from the roof @-@ tops for being one of the best dungeon @-@ based adventure RPGs of all illustrious gaming history . " Another wrote that " [ n ] o other game since has raised the bar half as high " . In 2011 , a writer for PC Gamer called Ultima Underworld II " a game from the future " that was " [ w ] onderfully , richly , impossibly interactive " .
According to Church , Looking Glass found Ultima Underworld II 's long playtesting phase extremely stressful . Neurath commented that the game 's rushed production led to burnout on the team . Near the end of development , the company decided that it " had done too many dungeon games " , and it began to consider a project with a similar design philosophy but without a fantasy setting . After brainstorming sessions by Church , Spector , Grossman and Neurath , Looking Glass began development of System Shock . Grossman later stated that his work on the Tomb of Praecor Loth was in some ways a " mini @-@ prototype " for ideas he fleshed out in System Shock . Looking Glass pitched a sequel to Ultima Underworld II several times , but Origin Systems rejected the idea . Years later , Arkane Studios pitched Ultima Underworld III to Electronic Arts and received a similar response , which inspired the studio to create the spiritual successor Arx Fatalis . In 2014 , Neurath and his company OtherSide Entertainment announced Underworld Ascendant , another spiritual successor to the Ultima Underworld series . In 2015 the game was renamed to Underworld Ascendant and a Kickstarter campaign was launched and successfully funded .
= Georgios Samaras =
Georgios Samaras ( Greek : Γεώργιος Σαμαράς , pronounced [ ˈʝorɣos samaˈras ] , born 21 February 1985 ) is a Greek professional footballer who plays as a winger or striker for Rayo OKC of the North American Soccer League and the Greece national team .
Samaras started his career at OFI Crete , before moving on to Eredivisie side Heerenveen in 2001 . He made his first team debut two years later and after a further three seasons with the club he moved to Premier League club Manchester City for a fee of £ 6 million in 2006 . After Sven @-@ Göran Eriksson took over as manager Samaras fell out of favour with the first team . In January 2008 he was loaned out to Scottish Premier League team Celtic , moving on a permanent basis in the summer .
Samaras helped Celtic win Scottish league championships in 2008 , 2012 , 2013 and 2014 , totalling 74 goals in 249 competitive games . He left the club at the end of his contract in 2014 and returned to the Premier League with West Bromwich Albion , where he featured rarely and had an unsuccessful loan to Al @-@ Hilal in Saudi Arabia . In March 2016 , he joined North American Soccer League expansion team Rayo OKC .
Although eligible to play for Australia , because his father Ioannis Samaras was born in Melbourne , Samaras chose to represent his country of birth , Greece . He made his debut in 2006 , and became a regular over the next eight years , earning 81 caps and scoring 9 goals . He represented his country at Euro 2008 , the 2010 World Cup , Euro 2012 and the 2014 World Cup .
= = Early life = =
Samaras was born on 21 February 1985 in Heraklion , the capital city of the Greek island of Crete . His favourite footballer growing up was Marco van Basten . Samaras was also a keen basketball fan and his father , Ioannis Samaras , often let him stay up until the early hours of the morning so he could watch his hero Michael Jordan .
In 1994 , when he was 10 years old , Samaras joined his boyhood heroes , OFI Crete . His father was playing for them at the time and then retired in 1996 . Six months later , he became Academy chief manager , a position he retained until 2000 , when he became manager . Samaras credits his father highly with helping start his football career . His influence meant that Samaras trained every day of his childhood and he also got to spend a lot of time behind the scenes at OFI . Samaras left for Eredivisie club Heerenveen in 2001 .
= = Club career = =
= = = Heerenveen = = =
Samaras broke into the Heerenveen team during the 2002 – 03 season , still aged only 18 . He scored three goals in his first four appearances , all of which were from the bench . This form prompted Heerenveen activate a three @-@ year extension clause in his contract .
Samaras ' first goal of the 2003 – 04 season came , on 25 October , in a shock 2 – 1 loss for Heerenveen against NEC Nijmegen . On 3 December , Samaras scored as Heerenveen beat ADO Den Haag 2 – 0 . His next goal came 10 days later as he scored an equaliser to secure a draw 1 – 1 for Heerenveen against RBC Roosendaal . He then scored on 20 December , as Heerenveen beat Roda JC 2 – 1 .
Samaras ' first goal of the 2004 – 05 season came on 11 September , in a 2 – 0 win over De Graafschap . He then scored a last @-@ minute winner on 3 October , as Heerenveen secure all three points against ADO Den Haag . On 28 November , Samaras scored one of Heerenveen 's goals as they staged a late comeback against title @-@ chasing Feyenoord , and secured a 2 – 2 draw . He then scored on 22 January , as Heerenveen , who were performing very well in the Eredivisie , beat Den Bosch 2 – 1 . On 12 March , Samaras scored an equaliser against RKC Waalwijk , but Heerenveen then conceded a late goal and fell to a 2 – 1 defeat . On 2 April , Samaras scored to help Heerenveen secure a shock 2 – 1 victory over Ajax . A fortnight later , Samaras scored the equaliser as Heerenveen came from behind to beat Vitesse Arnhem 3 – 1 . This win moved Heerenveen up to fifth in the table . In the next match Samaras , along with Klaas @-@ Jan Huntelaar , scored a hat @-@ trick as relegation candidates RBC Roosendaal were defeated 7 – 1 and Heerenveen pushed to finish the league in a European spot .
At the start of the 2005 – 06 season , Sevilla were reported to be interested in Samaras as a replacement for Júlio Baptista . While Arsenal were also looking at him after they had missed out on signing Baptista , some news organisations had reported that Arsenal had already signed Samaras and that he would join at the end of the season . However , the player 's father , Ioannis Samaras said that this was untrue and that his son wanted to stay at the club for another year . Samaras scored on the opening day of the season , on 20 August , when he helped Heerenveen to a 5 – 4 victory over Roda JC . He picked up a minor leg injury in September , which ruled him out of Heerenveen 's UEFA Cup tie against Baník Ostrava . But he returned to action on 23 September , and scored as Heerenveen beat NEC Nijmegen 2 – 1 . On 14 December , Samaras scored as Heerenveen came back from behind to beat Levski Sofia 2 – 1 in the UEFA Cup . On 30 December , Samaras scored twice as Heerenveen beat Ajax 4 – 2 . In January 2006 , Arsenal and Manchester City showed interest in signing the striker . Samaras tried to get released from his contract after Heerenveen had rejected a bid from Manchester City . However , the Dutch arbitration commission ruled that he had no grounds to end his contract . Samaras scored 25 goals in 88 appearances for Heerenveen .
= = = Manchester City = = =
Samaras moved to Manchester City on 30 January 2006 for a fee of £ 6 million , a record for a Greek player . He was given the number 20 shirt . Samaras stated that he was excited about moving to Manchester City , because he saw them as being the next stage in his development . He also said that he would relish being in a team with the likes of David James , Andy Cole , and Trevor Sinclair . He made his debut for City on 1 February , as a 65th @-@ minute replacement for Cole in a 3 – 0 home win against Newcastle United . His first goal for the club came in the following home match , against Charlton Athletic . The following month Samaras scored in a 2 – 1 home win against Aston Villa , to put City through to the quarter @-@ finals of the League Cup . This was his fourth goal in six appearances . Samaras scored one further goal that season , in a 2 – 1 defeat to Tottenham Hotspur .
= = = = 2006 – 07 = = = =
Samaras ' first goal of the 2006 – 07 season came on 20 September , despite this , City lost 2 – 1 in the League Cup to League One side Chesterfield . Four days later , Samaras scored twice , as Manchester City beat West Ham United 2 – 0 . City had won just three of their previous 16 games , and the club , as well as Samaras , had been receiving a lot of criticism from fans . In December , City manager Stuart Pearce publicly stated that Samaras would have to ' toughen up ' , if he wanted to be a success in the Premier League . He said that Samaras ' all round game wasn 't good enough , and that he would need to learn to pass the ball better and compete more effectively . Some fans had criticised Pearce for signing Samaras , along with other foreign players , who had not settled in well enough to the English game . On 2 January , Samaras came on as a half @-@ time substitute , and scored twice , as they beat Everton 2 – 1 .
In March , the Daily Mirror reported that the reason Manchester City were struggling so badly was that they didn 't have any quality strikers . They went on say that the £ 6 million spent on Samaras looked like " very bad business " especially compared to the £ 2 @.@ 5 million Blackburn Rovers had spent on Benni McCarthy . They also described Samaras as looking like a " fish out of water " as he struggled to adapt to the different style of play in England . On 10 March , defender Richard Dunne said that he felt the reason that City were performing so badly was that their foreign players , including Samaras , were letting the side down by not working hard enough . Samaras responded to his criticisms , by saying that he felt it was Pearce 's fault that he wasn 't playing well because the manager wasn 't giving him a regular run of games . He also said that he felt a lot of criticism stemmed from his high transfer fee , saying that it is normal for expensive players to be criticised more than most when they don 't play well . Samaras also said that he had come through tougher periods than this and his self @-@ belief would not be shaken , he said that his desire was to become a Champions League player . The Daily Mail pointed out that , despite the criticism , Samaras had scored more goals than any other City player and that he was also responsible for the few highlights of their season .
= = = = 2007 – 08 = = = =
Sven @-@ Göran Eriksson took over from Pearce for the 2007 – 08 season and , following a spending spree , Samaras was reportedly deemed surplus to requirements by the new manager . Samaras ' agent Paul Koutsoliakos said that , despite interest from across Europe , his client wanted to stay in the Premier League and prove his ability . Samaras was linked with a £ 2 @.@ 5 million move to Middlesbrough towards the end of the transfer window but ended up staying at City . Eriksson stated that although he was unimpressed with Samaras when he first joined , he felt the player had improved and adapted his style of play a lot during pre @-@ season and that he now felt comfortable keeping him at the club . Samaras had been widely criticised , and even booed , by City fans at times during the previous season and Eriksson said that he hoped it would not happen again and that he appreciated why Samaras could have found it hard to play under those circumstances . Samaras was behind the likes of Valeri Bojinov and Rolando Bianchi in the pecking order and was included in the squad for the first time only on 25 September , when he was selected for a League Cup match against Norwich City . He started the match and scored a last @-@ minute winner to put Manchester City into the quarter @-@ final .
By the time the January transfer window came , Eriksson had decided to sell Samaras , amongst others , to try and raise funds for the club . Birmingham City had chased him for several weeks and had a £ 2 @.@ 5 million offer accepted , meeting Manchester City 's valuation of the player , but they pulled out of the deal with a week of the transfer window remaining . Several teams including Rangers , Middlesbrough , Espanyol , Bolton Wanderers and Charlton Athletic had expressed an interest in signing him , but it was Celtic to whom he eventually moved .
Samaras failed to get a regular place in the first team over the two years he was at Manchester City . Mainly used as a substitute , he scored 12 goals in 63 appearances for the Eastlands club .
= = = Celtic = = =
On 29 January 2008 , Samaras signed for Scottish Premier League club Celtic on a six @-@ month loan deal , with the club having an option to buy him at the end of his loan spell . He said that he wanted the move because he needed to be playing first team football to get into the Greece squad for Euro 2008 . He also said that he was attracted to the fact that he would regularly be able to play in European competition with Celtic .
Samaras was given the number 9 shirt and made his debut on 4 February , in a 5 – 1 win in the Scottish Cup over Kilmarnock . He scored the final goal of the game after coming on as a substitute . On 20 February , he came on as a substitute in Celtic 's 3 – 2 defeat to Barcelona , this was his first ever Champions League match . A week later he scored the winner in a 2 – 1 win over Inverness Caledonian Thistle to help Celtic keep up the pressure on league leaders Rangers . He then scored in Celtic 's next match , a 2 – 0 win over Hibernian , after coming on as a substitute . Samaras ' next goal came on 23 March , he again came on as a substitute and rounded off the scoring in a 3 – 0 win over Gretna . On 19 April , he scored the only goal of the game as Celtic beat Aberdeen 1 – 0 , and moved to the top of the league for the first time in 2008 . The next month , on 3 May , Samaras again came on as a substitute and scored the winner . His goal gave Celtic a 2 – 1 victory over Motherwell and kept up Celtic 's late challenge for the league title . Celtic won the title on the last day of the season , 22 May , by beating Dundee United 1 – 0 . Samaras came on as a late substitute and collected his first winners ' medal after the match .
Samaras ' contribution in the second half of the season proved vital to Celtic winning the title , he scored several important goals which kept alive Celtic 's faltering title hopes . His signing was also credited with reviving the previously underperforming Jan Vennegoor of Hesselink .
= = = = 2008 – 09 = = = =
After his successful loan spell , Samaras left Manchester City on 15 July 2008 and signed a three @-@ year contract with Celtic . Although the fee was not disclosed , it was reported to be between £ 1 million and £ 3 million . Samaras ' first goals of the 2008 – 09 season came on 23 August . He scored twice as Celtic beat Falkirk 3 – 0 . On 13 September , he scored another two goals as Celtic beat Motherwell 4 – 2 . He scored twice again in Celtic 's next match as they beat Kilmarnock 3 – 1 . He then scored another two goals as Celtic beat Livingston 4 – 0 and advanced to the League Cup quarter @-@ final . He was named SPL Player of the Month for September , at this point he was also the top scorer with seven goals .
Samaras suffered a knee cartilage injury in mid @-@ October , after a successful operation he was expected to be out for a month . This meant he would be likely to miss crucial Champions League ties against Manchester United and Aalborg . He returned earlier than expected and was back in training on 9 November , having missed seven games . Samaras returned to action on 12 November , coming on as a substitute in a 3 – 0 win over Kilmarnock . On 25 November he started against Aalborg but did not play well and missed several chances as Celtic lost 2 – 1 . This loss consigned Celtic to a bottom place finish in their group .
His first goals of the new year came on , on 4 January , as he scored twice against Dundee United . However , this was not enough for a victory and the match finished 2 – 2 . Although he did not start in the League Cup Final due to poor form , he did come on as a substitute as Celtic beat Rangers 2 – 0 and won the trophy . Samaras scored twice on 4 April , as Celtic beat Hamilton Academical 4 – 0 . Celtic lost the title on the last day of the season . Samaras scored 17 goals , with 15 of them coming in the SPL . This made him the third top scorer behind Kris Boyd and team mate Scott McDonald .
= = = = 2009 – 10 = = = =
Celtic manager Gordon Strachan left at the end of the season and was replaced by Tony Mowbray . On 5 August , Samaras scored in injury time of Celtic 's Champions League third qualifying round tie against Dynamo Moscow . This goal won Celtic the tie , 2 – 1 on aggregate , and helped them to their first European away win in six years . Celtic then drew English Premier League club Arsenal , but lost 5 – 1 on aggregate and subsequently dropped into the Europa League . On 13 December , Samaras scored in Celtic 's 3 – 2 win over Motherwell , this was his fifth goal in the club 's previous four matches . He scored in Celtic 's 2 – 1 defeat against Hearts on 19 December . This left Celtic four points behind rivals Rangers going into Christmas . From February onwards , Samaras was mainly played out of position on the left of midfield .
Celtic endured a dismal season , culminating in a humiliating 2 – 0 loss to lower league Ross County in the semi @-@ final of the Scottish Cup . Samaras missed a chance to equalise in that match when the score was only 1 – 0 to County , and he was amongst several players publicly criticised by caretaker manager Neil Lennon . Samaras finished the season with 10 league goals and 12 in all competitions .
= = = = 2010 – 11 = = = =
Samaras began the 2010 – 11 season in good form , scoring his first goal in a Europa League tie against FC Utrecht with a chest down and finish to make it 2 – 0 , sending Celtic into the second leg with a lead . On 22 September 2010 , he scored a hat @-@ trick in a 6 – 0 win over Inverness Caledonian Thistle in the League Cup . However , the goals then dried up with Samaras failing to score again in 2010 .
He then produced a match @-@ winning performance against Rangers at Ibrox on 2 January 2011 . He was selected as a lone striker and scored both Celtic goals in a 2 – 0 victory . His first goal came from latching onto a Joe Ledley pass before rounding Rangers goalkeeper Allan McGregor and slotting home from a wide angle . His second came after he won a penalty which he converted to secure the victory . His efforts in this game won him Goal.com 's World Player of the Week Award . In the following game , a Scottish Cup tie against Berwick Rangers , Samaras again started but failed to last the 90 minutes after sustaining a hamstring injury . Samaras had an influential performance in a 3 – 0 home victory against Rangers in the SPL on 20 February , helping to set up the second goal for Gary Hooper and causing problems for the opposition throughout the game .
On 16 March , Samaras captained Celtic for the first time in a 2 – 1 Scottish Cup win over Inverness Caledonian Thistle at the Caledonian Stadium . Two days later , he signed a new deal to keep him at Parkhead until the summer of 2014 . Celtic drew 0 – 0 with Rangers on 24 April 2011 in the final Old Firm league fixture of the season , with Samaras missing a penalty kick late in the second half . The draw kept Rangers one point ahead of Celtic in the league , and the Ibrox club went on to win the league by one point despite Celtic 's emphatic 4 – 0 win over Motherwell in the final league game of the season ( Samaras scoring Celtic 's second goal in that game ) . Samaras did end the season with silverware though , playing a week later in Celtic 's 3 – 0 win over Motherwell in the Scottish Cup Final .
= = = = 2011 – 12 = = = =
On 3 November 2011 , Samaras started against Rennes in a Europa League match at Celtic Park . Celtic won the match 3 – 1 with Samaras getting two assists . He drew plaudits for his much noticed work @-@ rate and determination during the match . Samaras then started the next match against Motherwell in the SPL and set up another goal for Anthony Stokes , Celtic went on to win the match 2 – 1 after being 1 – 0 down . Samaras went on to score his first goal of the 2011 – 12 season in a 5 – 0 win over St Mirren . Manager Neil Lennon said that ; " He got his goal , which we 've been waiting on a long time . His play was fantastic . He is a talent and all we are asking for is consistency . He has shown everyone today what he is capable of when he is in full flow . The rest took a leaf from his book . " After an impressive performance in Celtic 's 1 – 1 draw against Italian league leaders Udinese , fellow Serie A side Palermo expressed an interest in Samaras . He had been playing as a left midfielder in the previous few weeks , and the Daily Record said that his good form since returning to the team had helped re @-@ ignite Celtic 's season . On 24 December , Samaras started as a striker and scored twice as Celtic beat Kilmarnock 2 – 1 .
= = = = 2012 – 13 = = = =
On 8 August , Samaras scored his 50th Celtic goal in the 2 – 0 away victory over HJK Helsinki in the second leg of the Champions League third qualifying round . On 21 August , Samaras assisted Kris Commons ' opening goal in the Champions League play @-@ off round first leg away at Helsingborgs and then scored himself later in the match . He scored a dramatic late winner in a 2 – 3 win against Spartak Moscow in the Champions League group stage . Samaras became the first player in Celtic history to score in five consecutive away matches in Europe , with headed goals in 2 – 1 defeats to Barcelona and Benfica adding to his goals against Spartak Moscow , Helsingborgs and HJK Helsinki . Samaras is also credited for helping Celtic qualify from the group stage , providing the assist for Hooper 's opening goal in the final game against Spartak at Parkhead and then winning the foul for the penalty that Commons converted to clinch the win required that night .
Samaras scored an overhead kick in a 2 – 0 win at Dundee on Boxing Day 2012 . In March 2013 , Samaras was substituted on as Aberdeen led Celtic 3 – 1 at Celtic Park , and his overhead kick completed the comeback as he made it 4 – 3 in the 94th minute of the match .
Over the course of the season , Samaras captained Celtic on several occasions , including the opening league match against Aberdeen and also in the away leg of Celtic 's last @-@ 16 Champions League tie against Juventus . Samaras finished the season with more silverware as Celtic clinched their second successive league title and then defeated Hibs 3 – 0 in the Scottish Cup Final , albeit Samaras was an unused substitute in that match .
= = = = 2013 – 14 = = = =
Samaras started the 2013 – 14 season with a goal against NIFL Premiership club Cliftonville in the Champions League second qualifying round , and made it two goals in two matches as he scored in the return leg with a header in a 2 – 0 victory . Celtic won the tie 5 – 0 on aggregate . Celtic knocked out Elfsborg in the next round , before playing Shakhter Karagandy in the final qualifying round . Trailing 2 – 0 from the first leg away in Kazakhstan , they rallied in the return match at Parkhead . Samaras scored early in the second half , adding to Commons ' goal just before half time , to level the tie on aggregate . A last minute goal from James Forrest clinched the aggregate win and saw the club once again progress to the group stages . Samaras played in all six group games , but only scored once , away against Barcelona in a 6 – 1 defeat . He continued to feature regularly in domestic games for Celtic , but was often used as a substitute . He scored a hat @-@ trick on 28 September away against Kilmarnock in a 5 – 2 win . Samaras only scored another three league goals after that , including a goal from a penalty kick in his final appearance for the club on 11 May 2014 , a 3 – 1 win at home against Dundee United .
The same day , Samaras confirmed that Celtic would not offer him a new deal when his current contract expired at the end of the season , leaving him as a free agent .
= = = West Bromwich Albion = = =
On 22 August 2014 , Samaras completed a free transfer move to English Premier League side West Bromwich Albion on a two @-@ year contract . He failed to secure a regular place in the team and by January 2015 had made only eight substitute appearances , all without scoring .
On 5 February 2015 , Samaras joined Saudi side Al @-@ Hilal on loan for the rest of the season , with an
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the song shows that boy bands are not dying out .
Jason Lipshutz of Billboard characterised it as " the real deal " , regarding the song as " endlessly playable " as ' N Sync 's " Bye Bye Bye " . Lipshutz noted its " cheeky electro @-@ pop twist " . Stephanie Abrahams of TIME assessed , " The group takes cues from the boy bands of yesteryear with bubblegum lyrics about young love — “ The way you flip your hair gets me overwhelmed ” they croon in their breakout single – which any parent can get behind . That ’ s a far cry from a typical Nicki Minaj verse . " The Observer editor Kitty Empire wrote in an assessment , " With the exception of their persuasive No 1 single , " What Makes You Beautiful " , their songs aren 't wildly distinctive . " " What Makes You Beautiful " won the BRIT Award for Best British Single at the 2012 Brit Awards , which was held on 21 February 2012 . The song also won the Teen Choice Award for Choice Music : Love Song at the 2012 Teen Choice Awards .
= = Chart performance = =
" What Makes You Beautiful " performed considerably well worldwide , but especially so in the British Isles , debuting at number 1 on the Irish Singles Chart on 15 September 2011 ; its B @-@ side , " Na Na Na " also entered at number 27 . The single topped the chart for four consecutive weeks . " What Makes You Beautiful " became the fourteenth best @-@ selling single of 2011 on the Irish Singles Chart . In the UK , " What Makes You Beautiful " received the highest ever number of pre @-@ orders for a Sony Music Entertainment single . It sold 82 @,@ 000 copies in its first two days , a figure which rose to 100 @,@ 000 by the third day . It entered the UK Singles Chart at number 1 on 18 September 2011 , shifting 153 @,@ 965 copies that week — the highest first @-@ week UK sales for any song in 2011 at the time . " What Makes You Beautiful " also debuted at number 1 on the Scottish Singles Chart . " What Makes You Beautiful " was the 20th best @-@ selling single of 2011 , moving 540 @,@ 000 copies . The single was the 92nd best @-@ selling single of the 21st century in the UK by May 2012 . As of August 2015 , " What Makes You Beautiful " had sold 978 @,@ 000 copies in the UK .
In Belgium , the song debuted at number 44 on both the Flemish Ultratop 50 and the Wallonian Ultratip ; it peaked at numbers 8 and 19 , respectively . Accumulating twenty @-@ two weeks on the French Singles Chart , it debuted at number 83 and peaked at number 38 . In Finland , the single debuted and peaked at number 20 . On the top sixty Swedish Sverigetopplistan , the single debuted at number 49 , peaked at number 29 , and spent twenty @-@ four weeks on that chart . It was certified quadruple platinum by the Swedish Recording Industry Association ( GLF ) , denoting sales of 80 @,@ 000 copies . " What Makes You Beautiful " debuted at number 15 and peaked at number 7 on the Australian Singles Chart . The single spent twenty @-@ five weeks in the Australian Singles Chart top twenty . " What Makes You Beautiful " has been certified six times platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , denoting sales of 420 @,@ 000 units . " Na Na Na " also appeared on the Australian Singles Chart of 28 November 2011 at number 84 . On the New Zealand Singles Chart , the single entered at number 16 , and peaked at number 2 in its fourth and fifth weeks . The song spent eleven consecutive weeks in the chart 's top ten . It was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) , denoting sales of 30 @,@ 000 units .
The single debuted on the Canadian Hot 100 at number 9 , while bowing at number 2 on the Canadian Hot Digital Songs Chart with 19 @,@ 000 downloads sold , the biggest debut for a first time charted artist since the Stereos 's " Summer Girl " entered at number two in June 2009 . The single peaked at number 7 on the Canadian Hot 100 and has been certified quadruple platinum by Music Canada , denoting sales of 320 @,@ 000 copies . In the United States , " What Makes You Beautiful " became the highest Billboard Hot 100 debut for a British act since 1998 . On 1 March 2012 , the single debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 28 , whilst bowing at number 12 on the Hot Digital Songs chart , selling 132 @,@ 000 digital downloads in its first week . On the week ending 21 April 2012 , " What Makes You Beautiful " peaked at number 4 . As of 30 June 2012 , the single had spent thirteen consecutive weeks in the Billboard Hot 100 top ten . The song also became a chart success on other Billboard charts , reaching the top five on the Pop Songs , Adult Pop Songs , and Hot 100 Airplay charts , whilst topping the Hot Dance Club Songs chart . The track sold 3 @,@ 881 @,@ 000 copies in the United States in 2012 , becoming the best @-@ selling song by a boy band in digital history . The song was certified quadruple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on 21 February 2013 , and it has sold 4 @.@ 8 million copies in the US as of June 2016 . " What Makes You Beautiful " has sold over 7 million copies worldwide .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " What Makes You Beautiful " was directed by John Urbano . Filmed for two days in July 2011 , it premiered on 19 August 2011 . On each of the five days preceding the video 's premiere , One Direction posted a teaser trailer of the video online . Each teaser showed footage from the video and behind the scenes , and one member of the band announcing how many days were left until the video premiere . The video opens with One Direction spending time on a Malibu , California beach inter cut with scenes of them driving an orange campervan . During the second verse , a group of three girls joins the band at the beach ; in Styles ' bridge solo , he intimately sings to one girl , Madison Mcmillin , individually . During the final choruses the band and girls are shown sitting around a fire , lighting sparklers and taking photographs . On video sharing website MUZU TV , the video was the fourth most @-@ watched music video of 2011 in the UK . The video won two MTV Video Music Awards for Best Pop Video and Most Share @-@ Worthy Video , and earned the group the award for Best New Artist on 6 September 2012 . As of July 2016 , the music video has received more than 780 million Vevo and YouTube views .
= = Live performances = =
One Direction performed " What Makes You Beautiful " for the first time on Red or Black ? on 10 September 2011 . The performance started with hosts Ant & Dec announcing that the band was supposedly running late for their appearance , and cut to a video of One Direction boarding a London Tube carriage full of fans , as the studio version of the song began playing . Each fan on the tube was given a numbered ticket . The band and fans disembarked the tube and made their way to the television studio , where the remainder of the song was sung live . After the song , Styles caught a numbered ticket raining onstage . The number corresponded to a ticket held by a fan from the tube ; the colour of the fan 's shirt was the correct answer for the Red or Black ? challenge . The band performed " What Makes You Beautiful " after its B @-@ side , " Na Na Na " , at the BBC Radio 1 Teen Awards on 9 October 2011 . The band also performed the song to open telethon Children in Need 2011 on 19 November 2011 . After " Gotta Be You " and " One Thing " , One Direction performed " What Makes You Beautiful " at Capital FM 's Jingle Bell Ball on 4 December 2011 , at The O2 Arena . They performed a medley of " She Makes Me Wanna " and " What Makes You Beautiful " with JLS on the The X Factor 's eighth series final on 10 December 2011 . The group performed " One Thing " and " What Makes You Beautiful " on Dancing on Ice on 5 February 2012 .
In Italy , the band performed the song at the 2012 Sanremo Music Festival on 14 February 2012 . In France , they performed " What Makes You Beautiful " and " One Thing " on Le Grand Journal on 22 February 2012 . In the United States , One Direction performed the song along with " More than This " and " One Thing " for the first time on The Today Show at the Rockefeller Center on 12 March 2012 . An estimated 15 @,@ 000 fans descended on the plaza . Melissa Lonner , senior entertainment producer for The Today Show , said : " One Direction is relatively unknown with no hits yet . They basically exploded , and all the adults are saying , ' Who are these people , and how do they know about it ? ' " . They also performed the song at the 2012 Kids ' Choice Awards on 31 March 2012 . One Direction performed " What Makes You Beautiful " and " One Thing " on the NBC comedy television show Saturday Night Live on 7 April 2012 , and also appeared in a comedy sketch with Sofía Vergara . In Australia , they performed " One Thing " and " What Makes You Beautiful " at the 54th Logie Awards , where they also presented an award for " Most Popular New Female Talent " on 15 April 2012 . On 12 August 2012 , One Direction performed " What Makes You Beautiful " at the 2012 Summer Olympics closing ceremony in London , which represented the handover to Rio de Janeiro as the host of the 2016 Summer Olympics . It was included on the set list of the group 's headlining sold @-@ out show at Madison Square Garden on 3 December 2012 . One Direction performed the song on two of their major concert tours : Up All Night Tour ( 2011 – 12 ) and Take Me Home Tour ( 2013 ) . Also this song added in Where We Are Tour ( 2014 ) & On the Road Again Tour ( 2015 ) .
= = Cover versions = =
The song was covered for American television series Glee by Kevin McHale , Chord Overstreet , Harry Shum , Jr . , Samuel Larsen , and Damian McGinty in the episode titled " Prom @-@ asaurus " . It was first aired on 8 May 2012 , and is the 19th episode of the third season . Their characters Artie Abrams ( McHale ) , Sam Evans ( Overstreet ) , Mike Chang ( Shum ) , Joe Hart ( Larsen ) , and Rory Flanagan ( McGinty ) , covered the song in the episode , performing a choreographed dance routine to it . Sarah Maloy of Billboard acknowledged , " Screaming girls and choreographed boy band moves are , of course , in no short supply . " Maloy described Glee 's version as " barely changing the sound or style of the original version . " Erica Futterman of Rolling Stone wrote , " While One Direction 's original manages to pack a pop punch , Glee 's take kind of hits the mark . ( Literally . The Glee boys prance across the stage in the same path as the U.K. heartthrobs . ) " Futterman concluded that it was the fourth best performance of that episode . Glee 's cover was released for digital download through the iTunes Store on 8 May 2012 . It charted at numbers 93 and 163 on the Canadian Hot 100 and UK Singles Chart , respectively .
In July 2012 , the Piano Guys uploaded on YouTube an instrumental piano version of the song , which went viral .
= = Track listing = =
Digital download and CD single
" What Makes You Beautiful " – 3 : 24
" Na Na Na " – 3 : 10
= = Credits and personnel = =
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= = Uses in popular culture = =
During One Direction 's appearance on Sesame Street in its 45th season , they parodied " What Makes You Beautiful " with the song " What Makes " U " Useful " .
Benjamin Stockham ( playing for the 11 @-@ year @-@ old character Marcus Bowa ) performed that tune in his school talent show on the pilot episode of NBC television series About a Boy broadcast on 22 February 2014 . On 13 May 2014 , in the first season finale of the same show , the lead character David Walton in the role of Will Freeman sang the same song with his " band " that includes Marcus ' mother Fiona Bowa played by Minnie Driver .
The song is featured on Just Dance 4 and Just Dance Wii U.
The song plays in the 2012 film Tad , The Lost Explorer .
= The Man in the Moone =
The Man in the Moone is a book by the English divine and Church of England bishop Francis Godwin ( 1562 – 1633 ) , describing a " voyage of utopian discovery " . Long considered to be one of his early works , it is now generally thought to have been written in the late 1620s . It was first published posthumously in 1638 under the pseudonym of Domingo Gonsales . The work is notable for its role in what was called the " new astronomy " , the branch of astronomy influenced especially by Nicolaus Copernicus . Although Copernicus is the only astronomer mentioned by name , the book also draws on the theories of Johannes Kepler and William Gilbert . Godwin 's astronomical theories were greatly influenced by Galileo Galilei 's Sidereus Nuncius ( 1610 ) , but unlike Galileo , Godwin proposes that the dark spots on the Moon are seas , one of many parallels with Kepler 's Somnium sive opus posthumum de astronomia lunari of 1634 .
Gonsales is a Spaniard forced to flee the country after killing a man in a duel . Having made his fortune in the East Indies , he decides to return to Spain , but falls ill on the voyage home and is set off on the island of St Helena to recover . There he discovers a species of wild swan able to carry substantial loads , the gansa , and contrives a device that allows him to harness many of them together and fly around the island . Once fully recovered , Gonsales resumes his journey home , but his ship is attacked by an English fleet off the coast of Tenerife . He uses his flying machine to escape to the shore , but once safely landed he is approached by hostile natives and is forced to take off again . This time his birds fly higher and higher , towards the Moon , which they reach after a journey of twelve days . There Gonsales encounters the Lunars , a tall Christian people inhabiting what appears to be a utopian paradise . After six months of living among them , Gonsales becomes homesick and concerned for the condition of his birds , and sets off to return to Earth . He lands in China , where he is immediately arrested as a magician , but after learning the language manages to win the trust of the local mandarin . The story ends with Gonsales meeting a group of Jesuit missionaries , who arrange to have a written account of his adventures sent back to Spain .
Some critics consider The Man in the Moone , along with Kepler 's Somnium , to be one of the first works of science fiction . Although the book was well known in the 17th century , and even inspired parodies by Cyrano de Bergerac and Aphra Behn , modern literary critics do not consider it to be very important . Recent studies have focused on Godwin 's theories of language , the mechanics of lunar travel , and his religious position and sympathies as evidenced in the book .
= = Background and contexts = =
Godwin , the son of Thomas Godwin , Bishop of Bath and Wells , was elected a student of Christ Church , Oxford , in 1578 , from where he received his Bachelor of Arts ( 1581 ) and Master of Arts degrees ( 1584 ) ; after entering the church he gained his Bachelor ( 1594 ) and Doctor of Divinity ( 1596 ) degrees . He gained prominence ( even internationally ) in 1601 by publishing his Catalogue of the Bishops of England since the first planting of the Christian Religion in this Island , which enabled his rapid rise in the church hierarchy . During his life , he was known as a historian .
= = = Scientific advances and lunar speculation = = =
Godwin 's book appeared in a time of great interest in the Moon and astronomical phenomena , and of important developments in celestial observation , mathematics and mechanics . The influence particularly of Nicolaus Copernicus led to what was called the " new astronomy " ; Copernicus is the only astronomer Godwin mentions by name , but the theories of Johannes Kepler and William Gilbert are also discernible . Galileo Galilei 's 1610 publication Sidereus Nuncius ( usually translated as " The Sidereal Messenger " ) had a great influence on Godwin 's astronomical theories , although Godwin proposes ( unlike Galileo ) that the dark spots on the Moon are seas , one of many similarities between The Man in the Moone and Kepler 's Somnium sive opus posthumum de astronomia lunaris of 1634 ( " The Dream , or Posthumous Work on Lunar Astronomy " ) .
Speculation on lunar habitation was nothing new in Western thought , but it intensified in England during the early 17th century : Philemon Holland 's 1603 translation of Plutarch 's Moralia introduced Greco @-@ Roman speculation to the English vernacular , and poets including Edmund Spenser proposed that other worlds , including the Moon , could be inhabited . Such speculation was prompted also by the expanding geographical view of the world . The 1630s saw the publication of a translation of Lucian 's True History ( 1634 ) , containing two accounts of trips to the Moon , and a new edition of Ariosto 's Orlando Furioso , likewise featuring an ascent to the Moon . In both books the Moon is inhabited , and this theme was given an explicit religious importance by writers such as John Donne , who in Ignatius His Conclave ( 1611 , with new editions in 1634 and 1635 ) satirised a " lunatic church " on the Moon founded by Lucifer and the Jesuits . Lunar speculation reached an acme at the end of the decade , with the publication of Godwin 's The Man in the Moone ( 1638 ) and John Wilkins 's The Discovery of a World in the Moone ( also 1638 , and revised in 1640 ) .
= = = Dating evidence = = =
Until Grant McColley , a historian of early Modern English literature , published his " The Date of Godwin 's Domingo Gonsales " in 1937 , it was thought that Godwin wrote The Man in the Moone relatively early in his life — perhaps during his time at Christ Church from 1578 to 1584 , or maybe even as late as 1603 . But McColley proposed a much later date of 1627 or 1628 , based on internal and biographical evidence . A number of ideas about the physical properties of the Earth and the Moon , including claims about " a secret property that operates in a manner similar to that of a loadstone attracting iron " , did not appear until after 1620 . And Godwin seems to borrow the concept of using a flock of strong , trained birds to fly Gonsales to the Moon from Francis Bacon 's Sylva sylvarum ( " Natural History " ) , published in July 1626 . All this evidence supports McColley 's dating of " 1626 – 29 , with the probable years of composition 1627 – 28 " , which is now generally accepted .
William Poole , in his 2009 edition of The Man in the Moone , provides additional evidence for a later dating . Godwin , he argues , most likely got his knowledge of the Jesuit mission in China ( founded in 1601 ) from a 1625 edition of Samuel Purchas 's Purchas his Pilgrimage . This book contains a redaction from Nicolas Trigault 's De Christiana expeditione apud Sinas suscepta ab Societate Jesu ( 1615 ) ( " Concerning the Christian expedition to China undertaken by the Society of Jesus " ) , itself the redaction of a manuscript by the Jesuit priest Matteo Ricci . Poole also sees the influence of Robert Burton , who in the second volume of The Anatomy of Melancholy had speculated on gaining astronomical knowledge through telescopic observation ( citing Galileo ) or from space travel ( Lucian ) . Appearing for the first time in the 1628 edition of the Anatomy is a section on planetary periods , which gives a period for Mars of three years – had Godwin used William Gilbert 's De Magnete ( 1600 ) for this detail he would have found a Martian period of two years . Finally , Poole points to what he calls a " genetic debt " : while details on for instance the Martian period could have come from a few other sources , Burton and Godwin are the only two writers of the time to combine an interest in alien life with the green children of Woolpit , from a 12th @-@ century account of two mysterious green children found in Suffolk .
One of Godwin 's " major intellectual debts " is to Gilbert 's De Magnete , in which Gilbert argued that the Earth was magnetic , though he may have used a derivative account by Mark Ridley or a geographical textbook by Nathanael Carpenter . It is unlikely that Godwin could have gathered first @-@ hand evidence used in narrating the events in his book ( such as the details of Gonsales 's journey back from the East , especially a description of Saint Helena and its importance as a resting place for sick mariners ) , and more likely that he relied on travel adventures and other books . He used Trigault 's De Christiana expeditione apud Sinas ( 1615 ) , based on a manuscript by Matteo Ricci , the founder of the Jesuit mission in Beijing in 1601 , for information about that mission . Details pertaining to the sea voyage and Saint Helena likely came from Thomas Cavendish 's account of his first circumnavigation of the world , available in Richard Hakluyt 's Principal Navigations ( 1599 – 1600 ) and in Purchas His Pilgrimage , first published in 1613 . Information on the Dutch Revolt , the historical setting for the early part of Gonsales ' career , likely came from the annals of Emanuel van Meteren , a Dutch historian working in London .
= = = English editions and translations = = =
McColley knew of only one surviving copy of the first edition , held at the British Museum ( now British Library C.56.c.2 ) , which was the basis for his 1937 edition of The Man in the Moone and Nuncius Inanimatus , an edition criticised by literary critic Kathleen Tillotson as lacking in textual care and consistency . H. W. Lawton 's review published six years earlier mentions a second copy in the Bibliothèque nationale de France , V.20973 ( now RES P- V- 752 ( 6 ) ) , an omission also noted by Tillotson .
For the text of his 2009 edition , William Poole collated a copy in the Bodleian Library Oxford ( Ashm . 940 ( 1 ) ) with that in the British Library . The printer of the first edition of The Man in the Moone is identified on the title page as John Norton , and the book was sold by Joshua Kirton and Thomas Warren . It also includes an epistle introducing the work and attributed to " E. M. " , perhaps the fictitious Edward Mahon identified in the Stationers ' Register as the translator from the original Spanish . Poole speculates that this Edward Mahon might be Thomas or Morgan Godwin , two of the bishop 's sons who had worked with their father on telegraphy , but adds that Godwin 's third son , Paul , might be involved as well . The partial revision of the manuscript ( the first half has dates according to the Gregorian calendar , the second half still follows the superseded Julian calendar ) indicates an unfinished manuscript , which Paul might have acquired after his father 's death and passed on to his former colleague Joshua Kirton : Paul Godwin and Kirton were apprenticed to the same printer , John Bill , and worked there together for seven years . Paul may have simply continued the " E. M. " hoax unknowingly , and / or may have been responsible for partial revision of the manuscript . To the second edition , published in 1657 , was added Godwin 's Nuncius Inanimatus ( in English and Latin ; first published in 1629 ) . The third edition was published in 1768 ; its text was abridged , and a description of St Helena ( by printer Nathaniel Crouch ) functioned as an introduction .
A French translation by Jean Baudoin , L 'Homme dans la Lune , was published in 1648 , and republished four more times . This French version excised the narrative 's sections on Lunar Christianity , as so do the many translations based on it , including the German translation incorrectly ascribed to Hans Jakob Christoffel von Grimmelshausen , Der fliegende Wandersmann nach dem Mond , 1659 . Johan van Brosterhuysen ( c . 1594 – 1650 ) translated the book into Dutch , and a Dutch translation – possibly Brosterhuysen 's , although the attribution is uncertain – went through seven printings in the Netherlands between 1645 and 1718 . The second edition of 1651 and subsequent editions include a continuation of unknown authorship relating Gonsales ' further adventures .
= = Plot summary = =
The story is written as a first @-@ person narrative from the perspective of Domingo Gonsales , the book 's fictional author . In his opening address to the reader the equally fictional translator " E. M. " promises " an essay of Fancy , where Invention is shewed with Judgment " . Gonsales is a citizen of Spain , forced to flee to the East Indies after killing a man in a duel . There he prospers by trading in jewels , and having made his fortune decides to return to Spain . On his voyage home he becomes seriously ill , and he and a negro servant Diego are put ashore on St Helena , a remote island with a reputation for " temperate and healthful " air . A scarcity of food forces Gonsales and Diego to live some miles apart , but Gonsales devises a variety of systems to allow them to communicate . Eventually he comes to rely on a species of bird he describes as some kind of wild swan , a gansa , to carry messages and provisions between himself and Diego . Gonsales gradually comes to realise that these birds are able to carry substantial burdens , and resolves to construct a device by which a number of them harnessed together might be able to support the weight of a man , allowing him to move around the island more conveniently . Following a successful test flight he determines to resume his voyage home , hoping that he might " fill the world with the Fame of [ his ] Glory and Renown " . But on his way back to Spain , accompanied by his birds and the device he calls his Engine , his ship is attacked by an English fleet off the coast of Tenerife and he is forced to escape by taking to the air .
After setting down briefly on Tenerife , Gonsales is forced to take off again by the imminent approach of hostile natives . But rather than flying to a place of safety among the Spanish inhabitants of the island the gansas fly higher and higher . On the first day of his flight Gonsales encounters " illusions of ' Devils and Wicked Spirits ' " in the shape of men and women , some of whom he is able to converse with . They provide him with food and drink for his journey and promise to set him down safely in Spain if only he will join their " Fraternity " , and " enter into such Covenants as they had made to their Captain and Master , whom they would not name " . Gonsales declines their offer , and after a journey of 12 days reaches the Moon . Suddenly feeling very hungry he opens the provisions he was given en route , only to find nothing but dry leaves , goat 's hair and animal dung , and that his wine " stunk like Horse @-@ piss " . He is soon discovered by the inhabitants of the Moon , the Lunars , whom he finds to be tall Christian people enjoying a happy and carefree life in a kind of pastoral paradise . Gonsales discovers that order is maintained in this apparently utopian state by swapping delinquent children with terrestrial children .
The Lunars speak a language consisting " not so much of words and letters as tunes and strange sounds " , which Gonsales succeeds in gaining some fluency in after a couple of months . Six months or so after his arrival Gonsales becomes concerned about the condition of his gansas , three of whom have died . Fearing that he may never be able to return to Earth and see his children again if he delays further , he decides to take leave of his hosts , carrying with him a gift of precious stones from the supreme monarch of the Moon , Irdonozur . The stones are of three different sorts : Poleastis , which can store and generate great quantities of heat ; Macbrus , which generates great quantities of light ; and Ebelus , which when one side of the stone is clasped to the skin renders a man weightless , or half as heavy again if the other side is touched .
Gonsales harnesses his gansas to his Engine and leaves the Moon on 29 March 1601 . He lands in China about nine days later , without re @-@ encountering the illusions of men and women he had seen on his outward journey and with the help of his Ebelus , which helps the birds to avoid plummeting to Earth as the weight of Gonsales and his Engine threatens to become too much for them . He is quickly arrested and taken before the local mandarin , accused of being a magician , and as a result is confined in the mandarin 's palace . He learns to speak the local dialect of Chinese , and after some months of confinement is summoned before the mandarin to give an account of himself and his arrival in China , which gains him the mandarin 's trust and favour . Gonsales hears of a group of Jesuits , and is granted permission to visit them . He writes an account of his adventures , which the Jesuits arrange to have sent back to Spain . The story ends with Gonsales 's fervent wish that he may one day be allowed to return to Spain , and " that by enriching my country with the knowledge of these hidden mysteries , I may at least reap the glory of my fortunate misfortunes " .
= = Themes = =
= = = Religion = = =
The story is set during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I , a period of religious conflict in England . Not only was there the threat of a Catholic resurgence but there were also disputes within the Protestant Church . When Gonsales first encounters the Lunars he exclaims " Jesu Maria " , at which the Lunars fall to their knees , but although they revere the name of Jesus they are unfamiliar with the name Maria , suggesting that they are Protestants rather than Catholics ; Poole is of the same opinion : " their lack of reaction to the name of Mary suggests that they have not fallen into the errors of the Catholic Church , despite some otherwise rather Catholic @-@ looking institutions on the moon " . Beginning in the 1580s , when Godwin was a student at Oxford University , many publications criticising the governance of the established Church of England circulated widely , until in 1586 censorship was introduced , resulting in the Martin Marprelate controversy . Martin Marprelate was the name used by the anonymous author or authors of the illegal tracts attacking the Church published between 1588 and 1589 . A number of commentators , including Grant McColley , have suggested that Godwin strongly objected to the imposition of censorship , expressed in Gonsales 's hope that the publication of his account may not prove " prejudicial to the Catholic faith " . John Clark has suggested that the Martin Marprelate controversy may have inspired Godwin to give the name Martin to the Lunar 's god , but as a bishop of the Church of England it is perhaps unlikely that he was generally sympathetic to the Martin Marprelate position . Critics do not agree on the precise denomination of Godwin 's Lunars . In contrast with Clark and Poole , David Cressy argues that the Lunars falling to their knees after Gonsales 's exclamation ( a similar ritual takes place at the court of Irdonozur ) is evidence of " a fairly mechanical form of religion ( as most of Godwin 's Protestant contemporaries judged Roman Catholicism ) " .
By the time The Man in the Moone was published , discussion on the plurality of worlds had begun to favour the possibility of extraterrestrial life . For Christian thinkers such a plurality is intimately connected to Christ and his redemption of man : if there are other worlds , do they share a similar history , and does Christ also redeem them in his sacrifice ? According to Philipp Melanchthon , a 16th @-@ century theologian who worked closely with Martin Luther , " It must not be imagined that there are many worlds , because it must not be imagined that Christ died or was resurrected more often , nor must it be thought that in any other world without the knowledge of the son of God , that men would be restored to eternal life " . Similar comments were made by Calvinist theologian Lambert Daneau . Midway through the 17th century the matter appears to have been settled in favour of a possible plurality , which was accepted by Henry More and Aphra Behn among others ; " by 1650 , the Elizabethan Oxford examination question an sint plures mundi ? ( ' can these be many worlds ? ' – to which the correct Aristotelian answer was ' no ' ) had been replaced by the disputation thesis quod Luna sit habitabilis ( ' that the moon could be habitable ' – which might be answered ' probably ' if not ' yes ' ) " .
= = = Lunar language = = =
Godwin had a lifelong interest in language and communication ( as is evident in Gonsales 's various means of communicating with his servant Diego on St Helena ) , and this was the topic of his Nuncius inanimatus ( 1629 ) . The language Gonsales encounters on the Moon bears no relation to any he is familiar with , and it takes him months to acquire sufficient fluency to communicate properly with the inhabitants . While its vocabulary appears limited , its possibilities for meaning are multiplied since the meaning of words and phrases also depends on tone . Invented languages were an important element of earlier fantastical accounts such as Thomas More 's Utopia , François Rabelais 's Gargantua and Pantagruel and Joseph Hall 's Mundus Alter et Idem , all books that Godwin was familiar with . P. Cornelius , in a study of invented languages in imaginary travel accounts from the 17th and 18th centuries , proposes that a perfect , rationally organised language is indicative of the Enlightenment 's rationalism . As H. Neville Davies argues , Godwin 's imaginary language is more perfect than for instance More 's in one aspect : it is spoken on the entire Moon and has not suffered from the Earthly dispersion of languages caused by the fall of the Tower of Babel .
One of Godwin 's sources for his Lunar language was Trigault 's De Christiana expeditione apud Sinas . Gonsales provides two examples of spoken phrases , written down in a cipher later explained by John Wilkins in Mercury , or The Secret and Swift Messenger ( 1641 ) . Trigault 's account of the Chinese language gave Godwin the idea of assigning tonality to the Lunar language , and of appreciating it in the language spoken by the Chinese mandarins Gonsales encounters after his return to Earth . Gonsales claims that in contrast to the multitude of languages in China ( making their speakers mutually unintelligible ) , the mandarins ' language is universal by virtue of tonality ( he suppresses it in the other varieties of Chinese ) . Thus the mandarins are able to maintain a cultural and spiritual superiority resembling that of the Lunar upper class , which is to be placed in contrast with the variety of languages spoken in a fractured and morally degenerate Europe and elsewhere . Knowlson argues that using the term " language " is overstating the case , and that cipher is the proper term : " In spite of Godwin 's claims , this musical ' language ' is not in fact a language at all , but simply a cipher in which the letters of an existing language may be transcribed " . He suggests Godwin 's source may have been a book by Joan Baptista Porta , whose De occultis literarum notis ( 1606 ) contains " an exact description of the method he was to adopt " .
= = Genre = =
The book 's genre has been variously categorised . When it was first published the literary genre of utopian fantasy was in its infancy , and critics have recognised how Godwin used a utopian setting to criticise the institutions of his time : the Moon was " the ideal perspective from which to view the earth " and its " moral attitudes and social institutions , " according to Maurice Bennett . Other critics have referred to the book as " utopia " , " Renaissance utopia " or " picaresque adventure " . While some critics claim it as one of the first works of science fiction , there is no general agreement that it is even " proto @-@ science @-@ fiction " .
Early commentators recognised that the book is a kind of picaresque novel , and comparisons with Don Quixote were being made as early as 1638 . In structure as well as content The Man in the Moone somewhat resembles the anonymous Spanish novella Lazarillo de Tormes ( 1554 ) ; both books begin with a genealogy and start out in Salamanca , featuring a man who travels from master to master seeking his fortune . But most critics agree that the picaresque mode is not sustained throughout , and that Godwin intentionally achieves a " generic transformation " .
Godwin 's book follows a venerable tradition of travel literature that blends the excitement of journeys to foreign places with utopian reflection ; More 's Utopia is cited as a forerunner , as is the account of Amerigo Vespucci . Godwin could fall back on an extensive body of work describing the voyages undertaken by his protagonist , including books by Hakluyt and Jan Huyghen van Linschoten , and the narratives deriving from the Jesuit mission in Beijing .
= = Criticism and influence = =
The Man in the Moone was published five months after The Discovery of a World in the Moone by John Wilkins , later bishop of Chester . Wilkins refers to Godwin once , in a discussion of spots in the Moon , but not to Godwin 's book . In the third edition of The Discovery ( 1640 ) , however , Wilkins provides a summary of Godwin 's book , and later in Mercury ( 1641 ) he comments on The Man in the Moone and Nuncius Inanimatus , saying that " the former text could be used to unlock the secrets of the latter " . The Man in the Moone quickly became an international " source of humour and parody " : Cyrano de Bergerac , using Baudoin 's 1648 translation , parodied it in L 'Autre Monde : où les États et Empires de la Lune ( 1657 ) ; Cyrano 's traveller actually meets Gonsales , who is still on the Moon , " degraded to the status of pet monkey " . It was one of the inspirations for what has been called the first science fiction text in the Americas , Syzygies and Lunar Quadratures Aligned to the Meridian of Mérida of the Yucatán by an Anctitone or Inhabitant of the Moon ... by Manuel Antonio de Rivas ( 1775 ) . The Laputan language of Jonathan Swift , who was a distant relation of Godwin 's , may have been influenced by The Man in the Moone , either directly or through Cyrano de Bergerac .
The Man in the Moone became a popular source for " often extravagantly staged comic drama and opera " , including Aphra Behn 's The Emperor of the Moon , a 1687 play " inspired by ... the third edition of [ The Man in the Moone ] , and the English translation of Cyrano 's work " , and Elkanah Settle 's The World in the Moon ( 1697 ) . Thomas D 'Urfey 's Wonders in the Sun , or the Kingdom of the Birds ( 1706 ) was " really a sequel , starring Domingo and Diego " . Its popularity was not limited to English ; a Dutch farce , Don Domingo Gonzales of de Man in de maan , formerly considered to have been written by Maria de Wilde , was published in 1755 .
The book 's influence continued into the 19th century . Edgar Allan Poe in an appendix to " The Unparalleled Adventure of One Hans Pfaall " called it " a singular and somewhat ingenious little book " . Poe assumed the author to be French , an assumption also made by Jules Verne in his From the Earth to the Moon ( 1865 ) , suggesting that they may have been using Baudoin 's translation . H. G. Wells 's The First Men in the Moon ( 1901 ) has several parallels with Godwin 's fantasy , including the use of a stone to induce weightlessness . But The Man in the Moone has nevertheless been given only " lukewarm consideration in different histories of English literature " , and its importance is downplayed in studies of Utopian literature . Frank E. Manuel and Fritzie P. Manuel 's Utopian Thought in the Western World ( winner of the 1979 National Book Award for Nonfiction ) mentions it only in passing , saying that Godwin " treats primarily of the mechanics of flight with the aid of a crew of birds " , and that The Man in the Moone , like Bergerac 's and Wilkins 's books , lacks " high seriousness and unified moral purpose " .
Gonsales 's load @-@ carrying birds have also left their mark . The Oxford English Dictionary 's entry for gansa reads " One of the birds ( called elsewhere ' wild swans ' ) which drew Domingo Gonsales to the Moon in the romance by Bp . F. Godwin " . For the etymology it suggests ganzæ , found in Philemon Holland 's 1601 translation of Pliny the Elder 's Natural History . Michael van Langren ( " Langrenus " ) , the 17th @-@ century Dutch astronomer and cartographer , named one of the lunar craters for them , Gansii , later renamed Halley .
= = Modern editions = =
The Man in the Moone : or a Discourse of a Voyage thither by Domingo Gonsales , 1638 . Facsimile reprint , Scolar Press , 1971 .
The Man in the Moone and Nuncius Inanimatus , ed . Grant McColley . Smith College Studies in Modern Languages 19 . 1937 . Repr . Logaston Press , 1996 .
The Man in the Moone . A Story of Space Travel in the Early 17th Century , 1959 .
The Man in the Moone , in Charles C. Mish , Short Fiction of the Seventeenth Century , 1963 . Based on the second edition , with modernised text ( an " eccentric choice " ) .
The Man in the Moone , in Faith K. Pizor and T. Allan Comp , eds . , The Man in the Moone and Other Lunar Fantasies . Praeger , 1971 .
The Man in the Moone , ed . William Poole . Broadview , 2009 . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 55111 @-@ 896 @-@ 3 .
= = = Monographs on The Man in the Moone = = =
Anke Janssen , Francis Godwins " The Man in the Moone " : Die Entdeckung des Romans als Medium der Auseinandersetzung mit Zeitproblemen . Peter Lang , 1981 .
= White Horse ( Taylor Swift song ) =
" White Horse " is a song performed by American singer @-@ songwriter Taylor Swift . The song was written by Swift and Liz Rose and produced by Nathan Chapman , with Swift 's aid . The song was released on December 7 , 2008 by Big Machine Records , as the second single from Swift 's second studio album Fearless ( 2008 ) . Swift and Rose composed the song about one of Swift 's ex @-@ boyfriends , when Swift discovered he was not what she had perceived of him . It focused on the moment where Swift accepted that the relationship was over . " White Horse " is , musically , a country song and uses sparse production to emphasize vocals . Lyrically , the track speaks of disillusionment and pain in a relationship , drawing references to fairytales .
Critically , " White Horse " garnered generally positive reception . At the 2010 Grammy Awards , " White Horse " won the Grammy Awards for Best Country Song and Best Female Country Vocal Performance . The song also performed well commercially , although it did not duplicate the success of its predecessor , " Love Story " . In the United States , it peaked at number thirteen in the Billboard Hot 100 and number two on Hot Country Songs . It was later certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . The song 's accompanying music video was directed by Trey Fanjoy , who directed the majority of Swift 's prior videos . The video features Swift as she decides to end a relationship via phone call . In the video , Swift recalls multiple memories with her love interest , both positive and negative . Swift promoted " White Horse " via live performances , including numerous during the Fearless Tour ( 2009 – 10 ) .
= = Background = =
Swift commenced composing " White Horse " almost a year before the release of Fearless , weeks after composing Fearless 's lead single " Love Story " , songs which are quite disparate lyrically . Swift first solely wrote the first verse . She then made a phone call to Liz Rose , co @-@ writer of most tracks on Swift 's eponymous debut studio album , Taylor Swift ( 2006 ) , asking for her aid in finishing the song ; the two completed writing the song in approximately forty @-@ five minutes . The song was inspired by a boyfriend of Swift 's who she perceived to be a Prince Charming and , in the downfall of the relationship , then realized he was not . She said he was the person who triggered the song , but , once in the midst of writing it , drifted in direction . It focused on the initial moment where she recognized the relationship was over . She said everything after that particular moment centered on recuperation and , because of that , considered it the most solemn aspect of a breakup : " To me , ' White Horse ' is about what , in my opinion , is the most heart @-@ breaking part of a break @-@ up – that moment when you realize that all the dreams you had , all those visions you had of being with this person , all that disappears . " About the difference in themes between " White Horse " and " Love Story " , Swift explained that in divergent scenarios , she regarded fairytales in different manners . She attributed the fact that because she did not expect to go through the event , then she became more inclined to come in terms with reality .
" When we 're little girls , our parents read us storybooks . And we think that Prince Charming 's gonna come along , is gonna have a white cape on , is going to put us on a pedestal . And the bad guy wears black and we always know who that guy is . But what we don 't realize is that , in reality , the bad guy is wearing jeans . And he 's cute . And he 's charming , makes you laugh , and you believe him . You think he 's the good guy . Then , you realize he 's not . "
The song was not originally intended to be included on Fearless , due to Swift believing solemness was already represented accurately on the album ; therefore , Swift was planning on including the track on her third studio album , what would become Speak Now in 2010 . However , when Swift 's Los Angeles managing agency set up an appointment with the executive producers of her favorite television series , Grey 's Anatomy , Betsy Beers and Shonda Rhimes , they discussed including Swift 's music on the series . Swift chose to play them " White Horse " live with an acoustic guitar . Beers and Rhimes were very impressed and told Swift they would respond her via telephone as soon as they could . Swift decided to not include the track on Fearless , until the producers responded , which they did not for some time . When Grey 's Anatomy 's representatives called , Swift and Nathan Chapman recorded the song immediately , sent a CD to them , and they decided to use it on the television series . " White Horse " debuted on the fifth season premiere of Grey 's Anatomy , " Dream a Little Dream of Me " , on September 25 , 2008 .
= = Composition = =
" White Horse " is a country song with a length of three minutes and 55 seconds . It is set in common time and has a tempo of 92 beats per minute . Therefore , it is categorized as ballad . It is written in the key of C major and Swift 's vocals span one octave , from G3 to A4 . " White Horse " follows the chord progression C5 – F ( add ) 2 – Am7 – F ( add ) 2 . The song is based upon a pop hook , and has an instrumentation mainly based on acoustic guitar and soft piano , with accents of cello . The production , however , is sparse , leaving an emphasis on Swift 's soft and breathy vocals .
The lyrics of " White Horse " are written in first person , with Swift reflecting on an occasion when a relationship , which seemed like a fairytale in the commence , fell apart : " I 'm not a princess , this ain 't a fairytale / I 'm not the one you 'll sweep off her feet / Lead her up the stairwell . " The track spoke about pain and disillusionment , in the clear perspective of a reborn realist . Due to the heartbreak , the protagonist escapes from the small town that she resided in . Several music critics , like Kate Kiefer of Paste , noted the lyrical disparity between " White Horse " and Swift 's previous single , " Love Story " , where Swift viewed fairytales in a positive light , with a happy ending . Kiefer assumed that " White Horse " withdrew everything she said in " Love Story " .
= = Critical reception = =
" White Horse " garnered generally positive reception from critics . August Brown of The Los Angeles Times compared the song with Dolly Parton 's " Jolene " ( 1973 ) , saying Parton would have recognized her own predicament in " White Horse " and may have congratulated Swift for attempting to move on . Jonathan Keefe of Slant Magazine called " White Horse " a " lovely ballad " with a prominent hook and deemed it " easily the best song " on Fearless . However , Keefer stated , " Even ' White Horse ' [ ... ] makes use of a well @-@ worn , clichéd image that Swift doesn 't use in any novel way . " Josh Love of The Village Voice thought " preternatural wisdom and inclusiveness " shined through the lyrics and theme of " White Horse " ; Love also mentioned that it was one of Fearless ' " great songs " . Lucy Davies of the BBC said it demonstrated how repetitive the lyrical themes on Fearless were . She noted Swift recycled the phrase " face of an angel " from the album 's previous track , " Hey Stephen " . An uncredited review from Billboard stated , " The second single from Taylor Swift 's top @-@ selling CD is a beautiful , understated ballad that showcases her skill with a lyric and shines a spotlight on her signature tender , heart @-@ on @-@ her @-@ sleeve vocals . " The review stated that the latter was accomplished by the song 's production , which made Swift 's vocal performance more palpable and emotive . The review also complimented the song , as something everyone could relate to . Kate Kiefer of Paste recognized it to be one of Swift 's best songs . Sean Dooley of About.com attributed the track 's effectiveness to be in how Swift captured the heartbreaking moment . While reviewing Fearless , Dooley selected " White Horse " as one of the best tracks on the album . At the 52nd Grammy Awards , " White Horse " won the Grammy Awards for Best Country Song and Best Female Country Vocal Performance .
= = Chart performance = =
On the week ending November 29 , 2008 , " White Horse " debuted and peaked at number thirteen on the Billboard Hot 100 . Its appearance , along with six other songs , on the chart tied Swift with Hannah Montana ( Miley Cyrus ) for the female act to have the most songs charting on the Billboard Hot 100 in the same week , a record later surpassed by Swift herself when she charted eleven songs at once in 2010 . The following week , the song dropped to number fifty @-@ six , and , on the week ending April 25 , 2009 , it spent its last week on the Billboard Hot 100 at number forty @-@ four , after a total of twenty @-@ two weeks on the chart . The song is one of thirteen songs from Fearless charted within the top forty of the Billboard Hot 100 , breaking the record for the most top forty entries from a single album . The single was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America for shipments exceeding one million copies . As of November 2014 , " White Horse " has sold 1 @.@ 9 million copies in the United States .
The single debuted at number thirty @-@ seven on Billboard Hot Country Songs on the week @-@ ending December 12 , 2008 . It jumped at number twenty @-@ six on the following week , the biggest jump of the week . On the week ending February 14 , 2009 , it entered the top ten at number ten , scoring Swift 's seventh consecutive top ten hit on the chart . It peaked at number two on the week @-@ ending April 4 , 2009 and held there on the following week before dropping at number seven . It charted for a total of twenty weeks on Billboard Hot Country Songs .
" White Horse " debuted at number twenty @-@ seven in Canada on the week ending November 29 , 2008 . On the week ending January 24 , 2009 , " White Horse " peaked at number forty @-@ three in Canada . It was certified gold by Music Canada for sales of 40 @,@ 000 digital downloads . In Australia , the track entered at its peak at number forty @-@ one on the week ending February 22 , 2009 . In United Kingdom , " White Horse " debuted and peaked at number sixty on the week ending March 21 , 2009 . It stayed on United Kingdom for two weeks .
= = Music video = =
The accompanying music video for " White Horse " was directed by Trey Fanjoy , who directed the majority of Swift 's prior videos . Swift commented that Fanjoy was her first choice to film the video because she understood the direction Swift wanted to take and how to make the video different than the prior ones they filmed . The video 's plot centered on infidelity . However , because the theme had appeared on the video for " Picture to Burn " , the scenario was reversed , rather than removed entirely , for Swift thought it was inevitable to include it . It was conceptualized so that Swift was not the person who someone was unfaithful to , but rather the one who someone was unfaithful with : " This girl falls in love with this guy and he 's perfect . He 's adorable . He 's charming . He 's endearing . She falls in love with him . Then , she comes to realize that he 's been leading a double life . He was already in a relationship years before he ever met her [ ... ] You find out that I 'm the one that was ruining a relationship without even knowing it . " Swift chose actor Stephen Colletti to portray the role of her love interest . She had previously seen him on the reality television series Laguna Beach : The Real Orange County , where she acknowledged him to be " cute " , and later on One Tree Hill , where she was impressed by his acting skills ; thus , Colletti was contacted to portray the character . Swift chose Colletti primarily because of his sweet and endearing demeanor . As a result , the character would seem very loyal , as though he would never betray his partner . Therefore , others did not expect for him to betray Swift either . " That 's always the hardest thing , when someone has you fooled so much that you think they 're never gonna hurt you . And then they do . That 's when you get the worst heartbreak " , Swift said .
The video was shot in one day in January 2009 in Nashville , Tennessee . Frolicking scenes between Swift and Colletti were filmed first ; the lunch , outdoor , and indoor scenes followed . Coincidentally , on the day of filming , it rained heavily , something which Swift was enlightened by , since it corresponded to the video 's gloomy and dark feel . Swift said it aided in making the video less colorful lighting @-@ wise , and more fixated on muted tones . The last scenes were more difficult for Swift because they involved crying . She attributed the difficulty to the number of people surrounding her and watching , something she was not accustomed to . However , Fanjoy , who was once an actress , guided her into thinking about what made her most solemn , and completing the scene effectively . Fanjoy said the scenes demonstrated what an exceptional actress Swift was , adding she took direction very well . The scene took approximately three hours to film .
The video premiered on February 7 , 2009 on CMT . The video commences with a close @-@ ups of Swift 's and Colletti 's mouths as they speak via telephone . He begins , " All I want is you . Do you love me ? " She affirms , and he asks for another chance . The video transitions to Swift sitting on the living room floor , next to a fireplace . She performs as she flashbacks to memories with Colletti . The two frolic on a brown couch and play with a deck of cards . The video then transitions to Swift and her friend having lunch a restaurant , where Swift 's friend informs her of Colletti 's betrayal . The two converse and , then , Swift is seen walking on the streets during nighttime . She sees Colletti arriving at a house with groceries and , after staring at each other , a redheaded woman walks out of the house . In a panic , Swift runs away and the video transcends to the phone call , which commenced in the beginning of the video , with Colletti repeating , " Will you give me another chance ? " A rapid flashback of cut @-@ scenes is played and , after its conclusion , Swift denies his request , hangs up , and cries . Cut @-@ scenes feature Swift and Colletti frolicking , Swift walking in the streets , and her sitting beside the fireplace . To date , the video has over 109 million views on YouTube .
= = Live performances = =
On her first televised performance of " White Horse " , on November 23 , 2008 , at the 2008 American Music Awards , Swift donned a white evening gown as she sat on floral @-@ patterned couch . While promoting the song , she later performed it at the Nomination Concert for the 51st Grammy Awards , where she coupled it in a medley with a cover of Brenda Lee 's " I 'm Sorry " , and the AOL Sessions . Since , Swift has performed the track at the Studio 330 Sessions , the 2009 CMA Music Festival , the 2009 V Festival , the Australian charity concert Sydney Sound Relief , and on Dancing with the Stars . Swift performed " White Horse " on all venues in 2009 and 2010 of her first headlining concert tour , the Fearless Tour . During the performances , Swift wore a pastel sundress as performed solely playing an acoustic guitar , standing at the edge of the stage 's runway . In the concert on May 22 , 2009 , at Staples Center in Los Angeles , California , Swift sang " White Horse " in duet with American singer John Mayer . Reviewing the June 2 , 2010 concert at Verizon Center in Washington , D.C. , Dave McK
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ator ) because of their similar scientific names .
= = = Evolutionary development = = =
The evolutionary development of V. salvadorii started with the genus Varanus , which originated in Asia about 40 million years ago and migrated to Australia . Around 15 million years ago , a collision between Australia and Southeast Asia allowed the varanids to move into what is now the Indonesian archipelago .
V. salvadorii has been placed cladistically as part of a species cluster with the lace monitor ( V. varius ) and the Komodo dragon ( V. komodoensis ) . This study was based upon mitochondrial DNA and microcomplement fixation analysis . A theory has been put forth that the species diverged from a common ancestor , as the Torres Strait separating New Guinea from Australia is less than 90 km ( 56 mi ) long , a distance that could have been covered fairly easily with island hopping . However , the similarities between V. salvadorii and V. varius may simply be an example of convergent evolution . Another clade postulated by Eric Pianka places V. salvadorii in a larger " Australian " clade of large monitors , along with other species as the Komodo dragon , the lace monitor , the perentie ( V. giganteus ) , the Argus monitor ( V. panoptes ) , and the sand goanna ( V. gouldii ) .
= = Distribution = =
The largest of the seven species of monitors found on the island of New Guinea , V. salvadorii occurs in both the state Papua New Guinea and the Indonesian region of West Papua . It inhabits the high and low canopies of the lowland rainforests and coastal mangrove swamps , sometimes venturing out of these areas during floods in the rainy seasons . No detailed field investigation data are available for V. salvadorii , so the full extent of its range is unknown . Its remote and generally inaccessible habitat is the main factor in preventing detailed study of this animal in its natural habitat .
= = Biology and morphology = =
The most characteristic feature of this monitor is its blunt , bulbous snout , which makes this species look different from every other monitor on New Guinea , and lends to its common name of tree crocodile . The body of the lizard is dark green with rings of yellow spots . The tail is banded yellow and black and is extremely long , being more than twice as long as the snout @-@ to @-@ vent length . It has long , straight teeth and prominent , curved claws . There is no external sexual dimorphism .
Unique among living varanid species , the animal 's tail is two @-@ thirds longer than the snout @-@ to @-@ vent length in both juveniles and adults . Herpetologist Robert Sprackland gives the proportion as the tail being 210 % of the animal 's body length . At hatching , V. salvadorii is about 45 cm ( 18 in ) long , while a sexually mature female may grow to 150 cm ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) . This is possibly the longest living species of lizards , although it is considerably less massive and heavy than the Komodo dragon . Specimens are known to reach at least 244 cm ( 8 @.@ 01 ft ) in length. but it may grow longer . A specimen reportedly measuring 323 cm ( 10 @.@ 60 ft ) was caught in Konedobu by Dr. F. Barker . Several reported specimens have been claimed to exceed 350 cm ( 11 @.@ 5 ft ) , some even to 610 cm ( 20 @.@ 0 ft ) , but most of these were second @-@ hand reports and no museum specimens in this size range are known . Weight in the species has been reported to be up to 90 kg ( 200 lb ) , but this is an unverified and possibly dubious report , this species is much more slender even in large specimens than comparable length Komodo dragons . The average size of this species is under 200 cm ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) and average body mass is reportedly about 20 kg ( 44 lb ) . However 10 adult specimens were found to weigh only 5 to 6 @.@ 38 kg ( 11 @.@ 0 to 14 @.@ 1 lb ) at a length of 1 @.@ 16 to 2 @.@ 25 m ( 3 @.@ 8 to 7 @.@ 4 ft ) so even the afforementioned weigh is fairly optimistic for this species . The average size of V. salvadorii caught in one study were 99 @.@ 2 cm ( 39 @.@ 1 in ) with a weight of 2 @.@ 02 kg ( 4 @.@ 5 lb ) but presumably consisted of largely or entirely young specimens .
Varanus salvadorii has mammal @-@ like aerobic abilities ; this is accomplished by means of a positive pressure gular pump in the animal ’ s throat to assist lung ventilation . The majority of lizards cannot run and breathe at the same time due to Carrier 's constraint , but monitor lizards are exceptions to this rule . The development of this ventilatory pump is analogous to the evolution of the diaphragm in mammals , which ventilates the lung independently of locomotion ; scientists place V. salvadorii as the species with the highest endurance in this regard . This would suggest the lizard is at an evolutionary midpoint , relying on both forms of breathing .
= = Behavior = =
As an arboreal lizard , it can hang onto branches with its rear legs and occasionally use its tail as a prehensile grip . The primary use of the tail , however , is to counterbalance its weight when leaping from one branch to another . The tail may also be used for defense , as captive specimens have attempted to whip their keepers with their tails . This species is occasionally seen in the pet trade , but has earned a reputation of being aggressive and unpredictable . Although they are known to rest and bask in trees , they sleep on the ground or submerged in water .
These monitors will rise up on their hind legs to check their surroundings , a behavior that has also been documented in Gould 's monitors ( V. gouldii ) . They are known to exhibit a warning posture , in which they carry their tails rolled up behind them . According to native belief , they will give a warning call if they see crocodiles . In general V. salvadorii avoids human contact , but its bite is capable of causing infection , like the Komodo dragon 's . One fatality was reported from a bite in 1983 when a Papuan woman was bitten and later died from an infection .
= = = Diet = = =
The teeth of V. salvadorii do not resemble those of other monitor species , which are typically blunt , peglike , and face slightly rearward . Their upper teeth are long and fang @-@ like , standing vertical from the jawbone , designed to hook into fast @-@ moving or feathered prey such as birds , bats , and rodents . Their lower teeth are housed in a fleshy sheath . In the wild , V. salvadorii is the top predator in New Guinea , feeding on birds , eggs , small mammals , and carrion . Natives have reported it may take down pigs , deer , and hunting dogs , and hauls its prey into the canopy to consume it . Its only competition is the New Guinea singing dog , a type of dingo . Captive specimens have been known to eat fish , frogs , rodents , chickens , and dog food .
This species has been observed hunting prey in a unique fashion for monitor lizards . Rather than following its prey to ambush it from behind , V. salvadorii will stalk its prey and anticipate where it will run , meeting it headlong .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Reproduction has only been observed in captivity , so nothing is known about its reproduction in the wild . The egg clutches , comprising four to 12 eggs , are deposited around October to January , with the eggs showing a remarkable difference in dimensions , a phenomenon for which no explanation is known . Dimensions may vary from 7 @.@ 5 cm × 3 @.@ 4 cm to 10 cm × 4 @.@ 5 cm ( 3 @.@ 0 in × 1 @.@ 3 in to 3 @.@ 9 in × 1 @.@ 8 in ) , while weight may vary from 43 @.@ 3 to 60 @.@ 8 g ( 1 @.@ 53 to 2 @.@ 14 oz ) . Most clutches laid in captivity have been infertile , and only four successful breedings have been documented thus far . Hatchlings are about 18 inches ( 46 cm ) long and weigh around 56 g ( 2 @.@ 0 oz ) . Like those of many other monitors , the hatchlings of V. salvadorii are more colorful than adults , and feed primarily on insects and small reptiles .
= = Conservation status = =
Varanus salvadorii is currently protected under the CITES Appendix II , which requires an exportation permit for international trade . It is not listed on the IUCN Red List or the Endangered Species Act . It faces threats from deforestation and poaching , as it is hunted and skinned alive by native peoples to make drums , who consider the monitor an evil spirit that " climbs trees , walks upright , breathes fire , and kills men " . In 2008 , a total of 52 individuals were maintained at 17 zoological parks in the United States , with an unknown number in private collections .
= Assassination of William McKinley =
The 25th President of the United States , William McKinley , was shot and fatally wounded on September 6 , 1901 , inside the Temple of Music on the grounds of the Pan @-@ American Exposition in Buffalo , New York . McKinley was shaking hands with the public when he was shot by Leon Czolgosz , an anarchist . The President died on September 14 from gangrene caused by the bullet wounds . McKinley became the third American president to be assassinated , following Abraham Lincoln in 1865 and James A. Garfield in 1881 .
McKinley had been elected for a second term in 1900 . He enjoyed meeting the public , and was reluctant to accept the security available to his office . The Secretary to the President , George B. Cortelyou , feared an assassination attempt would take place during a visit to the Temple of Music , and twice took it off the schedule . McKinley restored it each time .
Czolgosz had lost his job during the economic Panic of 1893 and turned to anarchism , a political philosophy adhered to by recent killers of foreign leaders . Regarding McKinley as a symbol of oppression , Czolgosz was convinced that it was his duty as an anarchist to kill him . Unable to get near McKinley during the earlier part of the presidential visit , Czolgosz shot McKinley twice as the President reached to shake his hand in the reception line at the temple . One bullet grazed McKinley ; the other entered his abdomen and was never found .
McKinley initially appeared to be recovering , but took a turn for the worse on September 13 as his wounds became gangrenous , and died early the next morning ; Vice President Theodore Roosevelt succeeded him . After McKinley 's murder , for which Czolgosz was put to death in the electric chair , the United States Congress passed legislation to officially charge the Secret Service with the responsibility for protecting the president .
= = Background = =
In September 1901 , William McKinley was at the height of his power as president . Elected in 1896 , during the serious economic depression resulting from the Panic of 1893 , he had defeated his Democratic rival , William Jennings Bryan . McKinley led the nation both to a return to prosperity and to victory in the Spanish – American War in 1898 , taking possession of such Spanish colonies as Puerto Rico and the Philippines . Re @-@ elected handily in a rematch against Bryan in 1900 , according to historical writer Eric Rauchway , " it looked as if the McKinley Administration would continue peaceably unbroken for another four years , a government devoted to prosperity " .
McKinley 's original vice president , Garret Hobart , had died in 1899 , and McKinley left the choice of a running mate to the 1900 Republican National Convention . In advance of the convention , New York 's Republican political boss , Senator Thomas C. Platt , saw an opportunity to politically sideline his state 's governor , former Assistant Secretary of the Navy Theodore Roosevelt , by pushing for his nomination as vice president . Roosevelt accepted the nomination and was elected on McKinley 's ticket .
Leon Czolgosz was born in Detroit , Michigan , in 1873 , the son of Polish immigrants . The Czolgosz family moved a number of times as Paul Czolgosz , Leon 's father , sought work throughout the Midwest . As an adult , Leon Czolgosz worked in a Cleveland factory until he lost his job in a labor dispute in 1893 . Thereafter , he worked irregularly and attended political and religious meetings , trying to understand the reasons for the economic turmoil of the Panic of 1893 . In so doing , he became interested in anarchism . By 1901 , this movement was feared in the United States — New York 's highest court had ruled that the act of identifying oneself as an anarchist in front of an audience was a breach of the peace . Anarchists had taken a toll in Europe by assassinating or attempting assassinations of a half @-@ dozen officials and members of royal houses , and had been blamed for the 1886 Haymarket bombing in Chicago .
Two American presidents had been assassinated in the 19th century — Abraham Lincoln in 1865 and James A. Garfield in 1881 . John Wilkes Booth , Lincoln 's assassin , had been embittered by the Confederate defeat in the American Civil War ; Charles Guiteau , the assassin of Garfield , was an eccentric ( possibly insane ) man motivated by personal political and religious views who had unsuccessfully sought office in Garfield 's administration . Although two presidents had been struck down by assassins , McKinley did not like security personnel to come between him and the people . When in his hometown , Canton , Ohio , he often walked to church or the business district without protection , and in Washington went on drives with his wife without any guard in the carriage .
= = Presidential visit = =
= = = Plans and arrivals = = =
McKinley gave a short speech at his second inauguration on March 4 , 1901 . Having long been an advocate of protective tariffs , and believing the Dingley Tariff , passed during his first year in office , had helped the nation reach prosperity , McKinley planned to negotiate reciprocal trade agreements with other countries . This would open foreign markets to US manufacturers that had dominated the domestic market thanks to the tariff , and who sought to expand . During a long trip planned for the months after his inauguration , he intended to make major speeches promoting this plan , culminating in a visit and address at the Pan @-@ American Exposition in Buffalo on June 13 .
McKinley , his wife Ida , and their official party left Washington on April 29 for a tour of the nation by train , scheduled to conclude in Buffalo for a speech on what had been designated as " President 's Day " . He met with rapturous receptions in the Far West , which had never seen a president . In California , the First Lady became seriously ill , and for a time was thought to be dying . She recovered in San Francisco , but her husband canceled the remainder of the tour and the McKinleys returned to Washington . The speech at the Exposition was postponed until September 5 , after McKinley spent some weeks in Washington and two months in Canton . He used his time in his Ohio home working on the Buffalo speech and in supervising improvements to his house . He intended to remain based in Canton until October .
Czolgosz had lived on his parents ' farm near Cleveland beginning in 1898 , working little — he may have suffered a nervous breakdown . He is known to have attended a speech by anarchist Emma Goldman in May 1901 in Cleveland : he approached her before the speech and asked her to recommend books on anarchism ; she obliged . The talk , in which Goldman did not advocate violence but expressed understanding for those driven to it , was a great influence on Czolgosz ; he later stated that her words burned in his head . He came to see her at her Chicago home in July as she was about to depart on a trip with her daughter to Buffalo to see the fair , and the two anarchists rode together to the train station . Goldman expressed concern to another radical that Czolgosz ( who was using the alias Fred Nieman ) was following her around ; soon after , he apparently departed Chicago . William Arntz , a worker at a park in Canton , stated that he had seen a man resembling Czolgosz in mid @-@ 1901 , when the President was staying at home and sometimes visiting the park . The man was wearing two guns , and when Arntz reminded him that firearms were not permitted outside the park 's shooting range , responded dismissively . Arntz sought the police , but the man was never found .
Later in the summer , Czolgosz moved to Buffalo , though his reasons for doing so are not known . Author and journalist Scott Miller speculated that he may have chosen Buffalo because of its large Polish population . He boarded in the suburb of West Seneca and spent much of his time reading . Czolgosz then left for Cleveland , though what he did there is uncertain ; he may have picked up anarchist literature or procured more money . After Cleveland , Czolgosz went to Chicago , where he saw a newspaper mention of President McKinley 's impending visit to Buffalo . He returned to Buffalo , as yet uncertain of what he would do ; he at first only sought to be near the man who to him embodied injustice . On Tuesday , September 3 , he made up his mind . Czolgosz later stated to the police :
It was in my heart , there was no escape for me . I could not have conquered it had my life been at stake . There were thousands of people in town on Tuesday . I heard it was President 's Day . All those people seemed bowing to the great ruler . I made up my mind to kill that ruler .
On September 3 , Czolgosz went to Walbridge 's Hardware Store on Buffalo 's Main Street and purchased a .32 @-@ caliber Iver Johnson revolver . He had as yet no clear plan for the assassination of the President . The following day , William and Ida McKinley arrived in Buffalo by train . The cannon that fired a salute to the President on his arrival in the city had been set too close to the track , and the explosions blew out several windows in the train , unnerving the First Lady . About a dozen people on the platform , believing the damage was caused by a bomb , shouted " Anarchists ! " As William McKinley stepped down from the train to the official welcome , Czolgosz shoved his way forward in the crowd , but found the President too well guarded to make an attempt on his life .
= = = A day at the fair ; excursion to Niagara Falls = = =
McKinley 's trip to Buffalo was part of a planned ten @-@ day absence from Canton , beginning on September 4 , 1901 , which was to include a visit in Cleveland to an encampment of the Grand Army of the Republic ; he was a member as a Union veteran . The McKinleys stayed in Buffalo at the Milburn House , the large home of the Exposition 's president , John G. Milburn . On Saturday , September 7 , they were to travel to Cleveland and stay first at the home of businessman and future Ohio governor Myron Herrick , a friend of the President , and then with McKinley 's close friend and adviser , Ohio Senator Mark Hanna . Upon arrival in Buffalo , the presidential party was driven through the fairgrounds on the way to the Milburn House , pausing for a moment at the Triumphal Bridge at the Exposition so the visitors could look upon the fair 's attractions .
While in Buffalo , McKinley had two days of events : On Thursday , September 5 , he was to deliver his address and then tour the fair . The following day , he was to visit Niagara Falls , and , on his return to Buffalo , meet the public at the Temple of Music on the Exposition grounds . Part of the reason for bringing McKinley repeatedly to the fair was to swell the gate receipts ; the popular President 's visit was heavily advertised . The public reception at the Temple of Music was disliked by his personal secretary , George B. Cortelyou , who , concerned for the President 's security , twice tried to remove it from the program . McKinley each time restored it ; he wished to support the fair ( he agreed with its theme of hemispheric cooperation ) , enjoyed meeting people , and was not afraid of potential assassins . When Cortelyou asked McKinley a final time to remove the event from the schedule , the President responded , " Why should I ? No one would wish to hurt me . " Cortelyou warned McKinley that many would be disappointed since the President would not have time to shake hands with all who would line up to meet him . McKinley responded , " Well , they 'll know I tried , anyhow . " Unable to persuade the President to alter his schedule , Cortelyou telegraphed to authorities in Buffalo , asking them to arrange extra security .
On the morning of Thursday , September 5 , the fair gates were opened at 6 : 00 a.m. to allow the crowds to enter early and seek good spots to witness the President 's speech . The Esplanade , the large space near the Triumphal Bridge where the President was to speak , was filled with fairgoers ; the crowd overflowed into the nearby Court of the Fountains . Of the 116 @,@ 000 fairgoers that day , about 50 @,@ 000 are believed to have attended McKinley 's speech . The route between the Milburn House and the site of the speech was packed with spectators ; McKinley 's progress by carriage to the fair with his wife was accompanied by loud cheering . He ascended to a stand overlooking the Esplanade , and after a brief introduction by Milburn , began to speak .
In his final speech , McKinley urged an end to American isolationism . He proposed trade arrangements which would allow US manufacturers new markets . " The period of exclusiveness is past . The expansion of our trade and commerce is the pressing problem . Commercial wars are unprofitable . " The crowd greeted his speech with loud applause ; at its conclusion , the President escorted Ida McKinley back to her carriage as she was to return to the Milburn House while he saw the sights at the fair .
McKinley toured the pavilions of other Western Hemisphere nations , attracting crowds and applause wherever he went . He presided over a luncheon at the New York State Building , and attended a by @-@ invitation @-@ only reception at the Government Building . He was heavily guarded by soldiers and police , but still tried to interact with the public , encouraging those who tried to run to him by noticing them , and bowing to a group of loud young popcorn sellers . He made an unscheduled stop for coffee at the Porto Rican Building ( a common variant spelling of Puerto Rico prior to 1932 ) before returning to the Milburn House in the late afternoon .
Despite a Cortelyou warning to the organizers that she might not attend due to her delicate health , Ida McKinley had been present at a luncheon in her honor by the Exposition 's Board of Lady Managers , and after dinner , the President and First Lady returned to the fairgrounds , pausing at the Triumphal Bridge to watch the fair illuminated by electricity as the sun set . They went by boat to the Life Saving Station to view the fireworks from there before returning to the Milburn House .
Czolgosz , gun in pocket , had arrived early at the fair , and was quite close to the podium before McKinley arrived . He considered shooting the President during his speech , but felt he could not be certain of hitting his target ; he was also being jostled by the crowd . Czolgosz had not made up his mind when McKinley concluded his speech and disappeared behind security guards . Nevertheless , he attempted to follow McKinley as the President began his tour of the fair , but was thrust back by officers . Czolgosz saw no further chance at getting close to the President that day , and he returned to his $ 2 / week rented room above a saloon .
On the morning of Friday , September 6 , 1901 , McKinley dressed formally as usual , then departed the Milburn House for a stroll through the neighborhood . The President nearly slipped away unguarded ; when the police and soldiers noticed him leaving , they hurried after him . Czolgosz also rose early with the intent of lining up for the public reception at the Temple of Music ; he reached the Exposition gates at 8 : 30 a.m. , in time to see the President pass in his carriage en route to the train station for the visit to Niagara Falls . The McKinleys traveled by train to Lewiston , where they switched to trolleys to view the Niagara Gorge . When the party reached the municipality of Niagara Falls , they transferred to carriages to see the sights . The party rode halfway across the Honeymoon Bridge overlooking the Falls , though McKinley was careful not to enter Canada for reasons of protocol . It was a hot day , and Ida McKinley felt ill due to the heat ; she was driven to the International Hotel to await her husband , who toured Goat Island before joining his wife for lunch . After smoking a cigar on the veranda , the President rode with his wife to the train which now awaited them nearby , and saw her settled there before touring the hydroelectric plant at the Falls . The train then returned to Buffalo so McKinley could attend the reception at the Temple of Music . Ida McKinley had originally intended to accompany her husband to the auditorium , but as she was not fully recovered , she decided to return to the Milburn House to rest . As the time allotted for the reception had been pared down to ten minutes , the President did not expect to be separated from his wife for long . As it was only 3 : 30 p.m. , McKinley stopped for refreshments at the Mission Building before proceeding to the Temple of Music .
= = Shooting and death of McKinley = =
= = = At the Temple of Music = = =
When given the opportunity to host a public reception for President McKinley , fair organizers chose to site it in the Temple of Music — Louis L. Babcock , grand marshal of the Exposition , regarded the building as ideal for the purpose . The large auditorium was located close to the Esplanade , in the heart of the fair , and had doorways on each of its four sides . In addition to rows of chairs on the floor of the hall , it had spacious galleries . Babcock spent the morning of September 6 making the physical arrangements for the reception . Floor seating was removed to create a broad aisle , running from the east doors through which the public would be admitted , to where McKinley would stand . Once members of the public shook hands with McKinley , they would continue on to exit the building . An American flag was draped behind McKinley , both to screen him from behind , and for decoration — several potted plants were arrayed around the President 's place to create an attractive scene . Besides its utility for other purposes , the ornate building was one of the architectural features of the fair .
Considerable arrangements had been made for the President 's security . Exposition police were stationed at the doors ; detectives from the Buffalo police guarded the aisle . In addition to McKinley 's usual Secret Service agent , George Foster , two other agents had been assigned to the Buffalo trip because of Cortelyou 's security concerns . Babcock was made nervous by a joke at lunch in an Exposition restaurant that the President might be shot during the reception . He had arranged for a dozen artillerymen to attend the reception in full @-@ dress uniform , intending to use them as decoration . Instead , he had them stand in the aisle with instructions to close on any suspicious @-@ looking person who might approach the President . These men were not trained in police work , and served to crowd the area in front of the President and obstruct the views of the detectives and Secret Service . At such events , Foster usually stood just to the left and behind McKinley . However , Milburn wished to stand to McKinley 's left to be able to introduce anyone he knew in the line to the President , and Foster and another agent instead stood across the aisle from McKinley .
Through the afternoon , crowds had filled the floor outside the blocked @-@ off aisle , and the galleries as well , wanting to see the President , even if they could not greet him . McKinley arrived on schedule , glanced at the arrangements , and walked to his place , where he stood with Milburn on his left and Cortelyou on his right . The pipe organ began to play " The Star @-@ Spangled Banner " as McKinley ordered the doors open to admit those who had waited to greet him . The police let them in , and McKinley prepared to perform his favorite part of the job . An experienced politician , McKinley could shake hands with 50 people per minute , gripping their hands first so as to both guide them past him quickly and prevent his fingers from being squeezed . Cortelyou anxiously watched the time ; about halfway through the ten minutes allotted , he sent word to Babcock to have the doors closed when the presidential secretary raised his hand . Seeing Cortelyou looking at his watch , Babcock moved towards the doors . As the reception continued , the organist played works by Johann Sebastian Bach . The procession of citizens shaking hands with their Chief Executive was interrupted when 12 @-@ year @-@ old Myrtle Ledger of Spring Brook , New York , who was accompanied by her mother , asked McKinley for the red carnation he always wore on his lapel . The President gave it to her , then resumed work without his trademark good @-@ luck piece . The Secret Service men looked suspiciously on a tall , swarthy man who appeared restless as he walked towards the President , but breathed a sigh of relief when he shook hands with McKinley without incident and began to move towards the exit . The usual rule that those who approached the President must do so with their hands open and empty was not being enforced , perhaps due to the heat of the day , as several people were using handkerchiefs to wipe their brows ; the man who followed the swarthy individual had his right hand wrapped in one , as if injured . Seeing this , McKinley reached for his left hand instead . As the two men 's hands touched at 4 : 07 pm , Czolgosz shot McKinley twice in the abdomen with a .32 Iver Johnson revolver concealed under the handkerchief .
As onlookers gazed in horror , and as McKinley lurched forward a step , Czolgosz prepared to take a third shot . He was prevented from doing so when James Parker , an American of part @-@ African part @-@ Spanish descent from Georgia who had been behind Czolgosz in line , slammed into the assassin , reaching for the gun . A split second after Parker struck Czolgosz , so did Buffalo detective John Geary and one of the artillerymen , Francis O 'Brien . Czolgosz disappeared beneath a pile of men , some of whom were punching or hitting him with rifle butts . He was heard to say , " I done my duty . " McKinley staggered backwards and to the right , but was prevented from falling by Cortelyou , Milburn , and Detective Geary ; they guided him across some fallen bunting to a chair . The President tried to convince Cortelyou he was not seriously injured , but blood was visible as he tried to expose his injury . Seeing the pummeling being taken by Czolgosz , McKinley ordered it stopped . Czolgosz was dragged away , but not before being searched by Agent Foster . When Czolgosz kept turning his head to watch the President while being searched , Foster struck him to the ground with one punch .
After stopping the beating of Czolgosz , McKinley 's next concern was for his wife , urging Cortelyou to take care how she was told of the shooting . The initial crowd reaction had been panic , and an attempt to flee the hall , which was frustrated by others surging inwards to see what had occurred . As McKinley was carried out on a stretcher to an electric @-@ powered ambulance , there was a moan from the crowd at the sight of the President 's ashen face . Foster rode with him on the way to the fair 's hospital . On the way there , McKinley felt in his clothing and came out with a metal object . " I believe that is a bullet . " McKinley had been shot twice ; one bullet had deflected off a button and only grazed him ; the other had penetrated his abdomen .
= = = Operation = = =
The ambulance carrying McKinley reached the Exposition hospital at 4 : 25 p.m. Although it usually dealt only with the minor medical issues of fairgoers , the hospital did have an operating theatre . At the time of the shooting , no fully qualified doctor was at the hospital , only nurses and interns . The best surgeon in the city ( and the Exposition 's medical director ) , Dr. Roswell Park was in Niagara Falls , performing a delicate neck operation . When interrupted during the procedure on September 6 to be told he was needed in Buffalo , he responded that he could not leave , even for the President of the United States . He was then told who had been shot . Park , two weeks later , would save the life of a woman who suffered injuries almost identical to McKinley 's . The first physician to arrive at the hospital was Dr. Herman Mynter , whom the President had met briefly the previous day ; the wounded McKinley ( who had a good memory for faces ) joked that when he had met Mynter , he had not expected to need his professional services . As McKinley lay on the operating table , he stated of Czolgosz , " He didn 't know , poor fellow , what he was doing . He couldn 't have known . " With Park unavailable and with the fading afternoon light the major source of illumination in the operating room , when another surgeon , Dr. Matthew D. Mann arrived , the decision was made to operate at once to try to remove the remaining bullet . Mynter had given McKinley an injection of morphine and strychnine to ease his pain ; Mann ( a noted gynecologist without experience in abdominal wounds ) administered ether to sedate McKinley as the wounded man murmured the Lord 's Prayer .
For hundreds of years , abdominal gunshot wounds had meant death by gangrene or other infection , with doctors able to do little more than ease pain . Only seventeen years previously , Dr. Emil Kocher , a Swiss surgeon , had been the first to successfully operate on a patient who had received such a wound . To increase the lighting , sunlight was reflected onto the wound by another physician ; towards the end of the surgery , a better light was rigged . The hospital lacked basic surgical equipment such as retractors . With McKinley in a weakened condition , Mann could do little probing of the wound to try to find the bullet ; his work was complicated by the fact that the President was obese . The surgeon made an incision in the President 's skin , and found and removed a small piece of cloth which was embedded in the flesh . He probed with his finger and hand , finding damage to the digestive system — the stomach displayed both an entry and exit wound . Mann sewed up both holes in the organ , but could not find the bullet itself ; he concluded it had lodged in the President 's back muscles . He later wrote , " A bullet once it ceases to move does little harm . " A primitive X @-@ ray machine was on display at the fair but was not used on McKinley ; Mann later stated that its use might have disturbed the patient and done little good . He used black silk thread to stitch the incision and wound , without drainage , and covered the area with a bandage . As the operation concluded , Dr. Park arrived from Niagara Falls ; he was unwilling to interfere and at 5 : 20 , McKinley was given another shot of painkiller and allowed to awaken . He was taken to the Milburn House by the electric ambulance . The First Lady had not been told of the President 's shooting ; once the surgery was complete , the presidential physician , Presley M. Rixey , gently told her what had occurred . Ida McKinley took the news calmly ; she wrote in her diary , " Went to Niagra [ sic ] Falls this morning . My Dearest was receiving in a public hall on our return , when he was shot by a ... " Leech , in her biography of President McKinley , suggests that the First Lady could not write the word , " anarchist " .
= = = Apparent recovery ; eventual death = = =
Within minutes of the shots , the news was conveyed around the world by telegraph wire , in time for the late newspaper editions in the US . In the era before radio , thousands stood in cities across the country outside newspaper offices , awaiting the latest bulletin from Buffalo . Fears that McKinley would not survive the day of his shooting were allayed by reassuring bulletins issued by Cortelyou based on information from the doctors . Large , threatening crowds assembled outside Buffalo police headquarters where Czolgosz was brought . Word that he had admitted to being an anarchist led to attacks on others of that belief : one was nearly lynched in Pittsburgh .
At the Milburn House , McKinley seemed to be recovering . On Saturday , September 7 , McKinley was relaxed and conversational . His wife was allowed to see him , as was Cortelyou ; the President asked his secretary , " How did they like my speech ? " and was pleased on hearing of positive reactions . Meanwhile , Vice President Roosevelt ( who had been on a Vermont vacation ) , much of the Cabinet , and Senator Hanna hurried to Buffalo . Cortelyou continued to issue encouraging bulletins . The President was permitted few visitors ,
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= = = Problem titles = = =
Atari 's tendency to port arcade games for its home console had led to some of its most commercially successful games , including the port of its own coin @-@ op Asteroids , and the licensed versions of Taito 's Space Invaders and Namco 's Pac @-@ Man . When the latter game received its official port to the Atari 2600 , Atari was confident that sales figures would be high , and manufactured 12 million cartridges — despite having sold only around 10 million Atari 2600 consoles . It was believed that the game would be successful enough not only to earn an estimated $ 500 million , but also to boost sales of the console itself by several million as gamers sought to play the home conversion . However , the finished product , released in March 1982 , was critically panned for its poor gameplay , and although it became the console 's best @-@ selling title after shipping 7 million units , it still left Atari with over 5 million unsold cartridges — a problem compounded by the high rate of customers returning the game for refunds .
Further to the problems caused by Pac @-@ Man 's underwhelming sales , Atari also faced great difficulty as a result of its video game adaptation of the film E.T. the Extra @-@ Terrestrial . The game , also titled E.T. the Extra @-@ Terrestrial , was a result of a deal between Warner Communications and the film 's director Steven Spielberg . The concept of a video game based on a film , instead of porting an arcade coin @-@ op or building on an established franchise , was unheard of at the time . It was later reported that Warner had paid $ 20 – 25 million for the rights , which was at the time quite a high figure for video game licensing . Atari manufactured 5 million cartridges for the game ; however , upon its release in December 1982 , only 1 @.@ 5 million copies were sold , leaving Atari still holding onto over half of the game cartridges . The game was critically panned , and is now seen as one of the worst ever made . Billboard magazine 's Earl Paige reported that the large number of unsold E.T the Extra @-@ Terrestrial games , along with an increase in competition , prompted retailers to demand official return programs from video game manufacturers .
The failures of these titles were further compounded by Atari 's business dealings from 1981 . Confident in strong sales , the company had told its distributors to place their 1982 orders all at once . However , video game sales in 1982 had slowed , and distributors who had ordered en masse in expectation of high turnover were left to simply return large quantities of unsold stock to Atari . As a result , the company soon found itself in possession of several million essentially useless video game cartridges , which it would be entirely unable to sell .
= = Burial = =
In September 1983 , the Alamogordo Daily News of Alamogordo , New Mexico reported in a series of articles , that between 10 and 20 semi @-@ trailer truckloads of Atari boxes , cartridges , and systems from an Atari storehouse in El Paso , Texas , were crushed and buried at the landfill within the city . It was Atari 's first dealings with the landfill , which was chosen because no scavenging was allowed and its garbage was crushed and buried nightly . Atari 's stated reason for the burial was that it was changing from Atari 2600 to Atari 5200 games , but this was later contradicted by a worker who claimed that this was not the case . Atari official Bruce Enten stated that Atari was mostly sending broken and returned material to the Alamogordo dump and that it was " by @-@ and @-@ large inoperable stuff . "
On September 27 , 1983 , the news service UPI reported that " people watching the operation said it included cassettes of the popular video games E.T. , Pac @-@ Man , Ms. Pac @-@ Man , the consoles used to convey the games to television screens and high @-@ priced personal computers . " The news service Knight @-@ Ridder further reported on the looting of the dump on September 28 by local kids , stating " kids in this town of 25 @,@ 000 began robbing the Atari grave , coming up with cartridges of such games as E.T. , Raiders of the Lost Ark , Defender , and Berzerk . "
On September 28 , 1983 , The New York Times reported on the story of Atari 's dumping in New Mexico . An Atari representative confirmed the story for the newspaper , stating that the discarded inventory came from Atari 's plant in El Paso , which was being closed and converted to a recycling facility . The reports noted that the site was guarded to prevent reporters and the public from affirming the contents . The Times article never suggested any of the specific game titles being destroyed , but subsequent reports have generally linked the story of the dumping to the well @-@ known failure of E.T. Additionally , the headline " City to Atari : ' E.T. ' trash go home " in one edition of the Alamogordo News seems to imply some of the cartridges were E.T. , but then follows with a humorous interpretation of E.T. meaning " Extra @-@ territorial " and never specifically mentions the game .
Starting on September 29 , 1983 , a layer of concrete was poured on top of the crushed materials , a rare occurrence in waste disposal . An anonymous workman 's stated reason for the concrete was : " There are dead animals down there . We wouldn 't want any children to get hurt digging in the dump . " Eventually , the city began to protest the large amount of dumping Atari was doing , with one commissioner stating that the area did not want to become " an industrial waste dump for El Paso . " The local manager ordered the dumping to be ended shortly afterwards . Due to Atari 's unpopular dumping , Alamogordo later passed an Emergency Management Act and created the Emergency Management Task Force to limit the future flexibility of the garbage contractor to secure outside business for the landfill for monetary purposes . Alamogordo 's then mayor , Henry Pacelli , commented that , " We do not want to see something like this happen again . "
= = Cultural symbolism and speculation = =
All of these factors have led to wide speculation that most of the 3 @.@ 5 million unsold copies of E.T. the Extra @-@ Terrestrial ultimately wound up in this landfill , crushed and encased in concrete . It has also been reported that prototypes for the proposed Atari Mindlink controller system were disposed of at the site , which only further fuels speculation , since Atari Museum owner Curt Vendel actually currently owns the Mindlink prototypes . Writing for the Pacific Historical Review , John Wills speculated that location 's place in the public psyche — its proximity to the sites of both the Trinity nuclear test and Roswell UFO incident — has aided the popularity of the story .
The conflicting information surrounding the burial has led to the claim of it being an " E.T. Dump " being referred to as an urban legend , which in turn has led to a degree of skepticism and doubt over the veracity of the dumping story itself , and the relevance of conflating the event with the later industry downturn . As recently as October 2004 , Howard Scott Warshaw , the programmer responsible for the E.T. the Extra @-@ Terrestrial game , expressed doubts that the destruction of millions of copies of the game ever took place . Warshaw also believes that Atari 's downfall was more a result of their business practices — including alleged block booking of poorly selling games with successful ones when dealing with distributors — than any specific failed games . This latter view has been echoed by Travis Fahs of IGN , who believes that Atari 's problems , including their huge surplus of unsold stock , arose from the company 's overestimation of the sustainability of Atari 2600 sales , rather than being due to the individual quality of games being released .
The incident has also become something of a cultural symbol representative of the North American video game crash of 1983 , often cited as a cautionary tale about the hubris of poor business practices , despite suggestions that the burial allowed the company to write off the disposed @-@ of material for tax relief purposes .
= = = In popular culture = = =
The legacy of the burial has led it to be referenced in popular culture .
The music video for the song " When I Wake Up " by Wintergreen depicts the band traveling to the landfill site and proceeding to dig up the abandoned cartridges ; the video 's director Keith Schofield had worked with video game @-@ based music videos before .
The novel Lucky Wander Boy by D.B. Weiss features a scene which takes place outside of Alamogordo , in which two of the characters discuss a parking lot which has been built over the site of the burial .
The 2014 film Angry Video Game Nerd : The Movie features a plot centered on the burial .
In December 2015 a fictionalized account of the burial and its legacy is a key element of the episode The Games Underfoot of the TV series Elementary .
= = Excavation = =
On May 28 , 2013 , the Alamogordo City Commission granted Fuel Industries , a Canadian entertainment company , six months of access to the landfill to film a documentary called Atari : Game Over about the burial and to excavate the dump site . Xbox Entertainment Studios planned to air this documentary series as an exclusive to the Xbox One and Xbox 360 in 2014 as part of a multi @-@ part documentary series being produced by Lightbox , a US / UK production company . Though the excavation was momentarily stalled due to a complaint by the New Mexico Environmental Protection Division Solid Waste Bureau citing potential hazards , the issues were resolved in early April 2014 to allow the excavation to proceed .
Excavation started on April 26 , 2014 as an open event to the public . E. T. the Extra @-@ Terrestrial designer Howard Scott Warshaw , Ready Player One author Ernest Cline and film director Zak Penn attended the event as part of a documentary about the burial , as did local residents such as Armando Ortega , a city official who is reportedly one of the original children to raid the dump in 1983 . Ortega stated that although he and his friends found dozens of quality games , they gave the E.T. cartridges away because the " game sucked ... you couldn 't finish it " . James Heller , the former Atari manager in charge of the original burial , was also on hand at the excavation . Heller revealed that he had originally ordered the site to be covered in concrete . Contrary to the urban legend that claims millions of cartridges were buried there , Heller stated that only 728 @,@ 000 cartridges were buried .
Remnants of E.T. and other Atari games were discovered in the early hours of the excavation , as reported by Microsoft 's Larry Hyrb . A team of archaeologists was present to examine and document the Atari material unearthed by excavation machinery : Andrew Reinhard ( American School of Classical Studies at Athens ) , Richard Rothaus ( Trefoil Cultural and Environmental ) , Bill Caraher ( University of North Dakota ) , with support from video game historian Raiford Guins ( SUNY - Stony Brook ) and historian Bret Weber ( University of North Dakota ) .
Only about 1300 cartridges of the estimated 700 @,@ 000 were removed from the burial , as the remaining materials were deeper than expected , and made them more difficult to access , according to Alamogordo mayor Susie Galea . The burial was refilled following this event . Joseph Lewandowski , who had worked to arrange the unearthing with the city , said that this was a one @-@ time shot to recover materials from the site , as they do not expect the city to agree to a similar event again .
The documentary Atari : Game Over , which features the burial site and its excavation , was released on November 20 , 2014 .
= = Curation and auction = =
Of the recovered materials , a fraction has been given to the New Mexico Museum of Space History for display , and another 100 to the documentary producers Lightbox and Fuel Entertainment . Galea believes the remaining cartridges can be sold by the city of Alamogordo through the Museum of Space History . She hopes that the sale of these games can help fund recognition of the burial site as a tourist attraction in the future . The City of Alamogordo approved the auction of the games in September 2014 , to be sold through eBay and the Alamogordo Council website . As of September 2015 , over $ 107 @,@ 000 has been raised through the sales of about 880 unearthed cartridges , with one E.T. copy selling for more than $ 1 @,@ 500 . About 300 cartridges remain to be sold at a later date given the historical value of the cartridges .
One of the E.T. cartridges that had been dug up was taken by the Smithsonian Institution for its records , calling the cartridge both representative of the burial site but also in terms of video games , how the cartridge represents " the ongoing challenge of making a good film to a video game adaptation , the decline of Atari , the end of an era for video game manufacturing , and the video game cartridge life cycle " .
= Tamerlane and Other Poems =
Tamerlane and Other Poems is the first published work by American writer Edgar Allan Poe . The short collection of poems was first published in 1827 . Today , it is believed only 12 copies of the collection still exist .
Poe abandoned his foster family , the Allans , and moved to Boston to find work in 1827 . Having only minor success , he enlisted in the United States Army . He brought with him several manuscripts , which he paid a printer named Calvin F. S. Thomas to publish . The 40 @-@ page collection was called Tamerlane and Other Poems and did not include Poe 's name . Distribution was limited to 50 copies and it received no critical attention . The poems were largely inspired by Lord Byron , including the long title poem " Tamerlane " , which depicts an historical conqueror who laments the loss of his first romance . Like much of Poe 's future work , the poems in Tamerlane and Other Poems include themes of love , death , and pride .
Poe 's first published collection is so rare that after Poe 's death , Rufus Wilmot Griswold believed it had never existed until one was found in 1859 . It has since been recognized as one of the rarest first editions in American literature .
= = Background = =
Edgar Poe was unable to complete studies at the University of Virginia due to gambling debts . He left the university in March 1827 and the already @-@ strained relationship with his foster father , John Allan , grew worse . Poe determined to go to Boston , where he was born . When Poe 's biological mother Eliza Poe died , the only object she left him was a watercolor painting of the city , on the back of which she had written , " For my little son Edgar , who should ever love Boston , the place of his birth , and where his mother found her best and most sympathetic friends . " John Allan , a merchant in Richmond , Virginia , refused to give his foster son the $ 12 for the trip , though it is likely Poe got the money from his foster mother Frances Allan . John Allan was not aware of Poe 's decision or whereabouts and , not concerned , wrote " I 'm thinking Edgar has gone to Sea to seek his own fortunes " . After arriving in Boston in April 1827 , Poe served briefly as clerk for a wholesale merchandise warehouse on the waterfront , then as an office clerk and reporter for an obscure newspaper , the Weekly Report . After several weeks , in desperation , he enlisted in the United States Army for a five @-@ year term under the pseudonym " Edgar A. Perry " ; he gave his age as 22 , though he was only 18 , likely because he would have needed parental consent if under 21 . He was assigned to the First Regiment of Artillery and stationed at Boston Harbor 's Fort Independence .
Up to this point , Poe had not written much poetry . His earliest lines of verse were a couplet labeled " Poetry " , presumably written sometime in 1824 in the ledger book of Allan & Ellis , his foster father 's mercantile company . The lines read : " Last night with many cares & toils oppress 'd / Weary , I laid me on a couch to rest — " . The earliest known full @-@ length poem by Poe , " O , Tempora ! O , Mores ! " , is a satirical poem whose authorship is the subject of some dispute . Nevertheless , calling himself " irrecoverably a poet " , he had been working on a few longer poems at the University of Virginia , whose manuscripts he brought with him to Boston .
= = Publication history = =
Sometime in the spring of 1827 , Poe turned over his manuscripts to an 18 @-@ year @-@ old printer named Calvin F. S. Thomas , whose family may have been known by Poe 's birth parents . Thomas had previously only printed labels , flyers , and other small jobs . Poe used his own money to pay for the publication of his poems as the 40 @-@ page collection Tamerlane and Other Poems , the only known book printed by Thomas . The collection was pamphlet @-@ sized , 6 @.@ 75 by 4 @.@ 5 inches . Poe was 18 years old when the collection was released in July 1827 and only 50 copies were printed . The total production number is the subject of dispute ; various scholars believe the number was slightly lower ( only 20 copies ) or substantially higher ( as many as 200 ) .
Tamerlane and Other Poems was published anonymously with the credit granted to " a Bostonian " . His name , typically listed as " Edgar A. Poe " , was not published with his work until his second collection , Al Aaraaf , Tamerlane , and Minor Poems in late 1829 . Poe may have chosen not to give his name so that his foster father , John Allan , would not know where he was ; moreover , his choice to embrace his Bostonian heritage may have been an attempt to distance himself from the Allan family in Richmond . Boston was , at the time , a center for publishing and the literary world . By the time the book was released , Poe was already in the Army .
Poe introduced the collection with an apologetic notice admitting the low quality of his poems . He said they were not intended to ever be published and " why they are now published concerns no one " but the author . He claimed , however , that the majority of the poems were written between 1820 and 1821 , " when the author had not completed his fourteenth year " though this is assumed to be an exaggeration . Poe used the low circulation of this collection to attract readers later in his career , suggesting the 1827 poetry book had been " suppressed through circumstances of a private nature " . That second collection , Al Aaraaf , Tamerlane , and Minor Poems , included revised versions of five of the nine poems from Tamerlane and Other Poems .
Distribution of Tamerlane and Other Poems was so light that Rufus Wilmot Griswold in 1850 claimed it had never existed , noting that none had been found . The first known copy turned up in 1859 with a second found in 1874 . A type facsimile of a copy held by the British Museum , edited and introduced by Richard Herne Shepherd , was published as a limited edition in 1884 . Another copy of Tamerlane and Other Poems was published in a 1941 facsimile by Thomas Ollive Mabbott , who provided the introduction ; his correction and additions to this are found in a subsequent publication .
= = Themes = =
The poems , many of which had a theme of youth , were inspired in part by the works of Percy Bysshe Shelley , and Samuel Taylor Coleridge . The largest inspiration on Poe , however , came from the work of Lord Byron ; the character of the title poem " Tamerlane " has a daughter named " Ada " , named after Byron 's own daughter Ada Lovelace . Poe admired Byron both for his poetry and for his rebellious personality . John Allan blamed Poe 's interest in Byron for his licentiousness . Some biographers suggest that Poe 's wandering to Boston and joining the Army represent a need to live like an outcast inspired by Byron .
The title poem , " Tamerlane " , depicts a dying conqueror who regrets leaving his childhood sweetheart and his home to pursue his ambitions . In its original form , " Tamerlane " , based on the historical Timur , was 406 lines . The choice of an eastern character was unusual for a westerner at the time , though Byron , François @-@ René de Chateaubriand , Thomas Moore and others had written other Orientalist works . Autobiographical overtones suggest Poe based the poem on the loss of his own early love , Sarah Elmira Royster , or of his birth mother Eliza Poe . The poem may also mirror Poe 's relationship with his foster father John Allan ; similar to Poe , Tamerlane is of uncertain parentage , with a " feigned name " .
The " other poems " , which Poe admitted " perhaps savour too much of egotism ; but they were written by one too young to have any knowledge of the world but from his own breast " . These poems present the poet as solitary figure who was faced some unnamed transforming childhood event . Poe adopted some of the common themes of the day , including imagery of heavenly bliss and angelic beauty . He steps away from the typical use of didacticism of the time and instead focuses on psychological reverie and symbolist aesthetics , beginning his lifelong poetic refusal to write for the masses . Poe would continue to revisit themes of death , beauty , love , and pride in his later works . He would later rewrite one poem , " Imitation " , as " A Dream Within a Dream " and use images from " Evening Star " in " Ulalume " .
= = Critical reception = =
Tamerlane and Other Poems was virtually ignored and received no significant critical attention upon its publication . The only public notice of it was a mention of the title in a couple lists of recent books : The United States Review and Literary Gazette listed it in August and the North American Review listed it in October 1827 . Samuel Kettell listed Tamerlane and Other Poems in his " Catalogue of American Poetry " section of his three @-@ volume anthology Specimens of American Poetry in 1829 . Literary historian Joel Porte suggests the American reading public during this period was more interested in fiction than poetry . Despite its lack of attention , the publication of Tamerlane and Other Poems gave a young Poe the confidence to continue writing .
After Poe became more popular with " The Raven " , a reviewer who saw parts of Tamerlane and Other Poems commented , " ' Poems written during youth ' no matter by whom written , are best preserved for the eye of the writer " . Modern scholar Joseph Wood Krutch said the collection " save for a few poems , [ was ] distinctly prentice work " . Poe biographer Arthur Hobson Quinn wrote : " The perfection which marked Poe 's great lyrics was , of course , not yet present . But the promise was there . " Quinn also credits Poe for publishing a collection of poetry before slightly older contemporaries who would become popular poets , including Ralph Waldo Emerson , Henry Wadsworth Longfellow , John Greenleaf Whittier , and Oliver Wendell Holmes , Sr. Scholar Harry Lee Poe , a distant relative of Poe , wrote in 2008 that the collection did not include great poetry . However , he added , " it was the trumpet blast announcing that a new poet had stepped upon the stage " .
It is believed only a dozen copies of the original printing of Tamerlane and Other Poems remain , making it one of the rarest of first editions in American literature . Ironically , the value of one copy today is more money than Poe ever made in his lifetime . Its rarity was recognized in 1925 , when the Saturday Evening Post ran an article titled " Have You A Tamerlane in Your Attic " ? After the article ran , a woman in Worcester , Massachusetts named Ada S. Dodd searched and found a copy , prompting others to search as well . Today , most of the surviving copies are owned by libraries and museums . Two copies , for example , were purchased by The Huntington Library in New York in 1915 . One copy is on display as part of the collection at the Edgar Allan Poe Museum in Richmond , Virginia . Though copies do not circulate often , they command high prices when they do . One sold at auction for $ 125 @,@ 000 and , later , another sold for $ 198 @,@ 000 . In December 2009 , a copy from the William E. Self collection sold at Christie 's , New York for $ 662 @,@ 500 , a record price paid for a work of American literature .
= = Content = =
The work was originally published without a table of contents , later editions and commentary use the titles or first lines to identify the poems . Much of the content was reworked , occasionally retitled , by Poe for later collections
The preface , pages iii @-@ iv
" Tamerlane "
Other poems , also known as " Fugitive pieces "
" To — — " ( now known as " Song " )
Dreams
" Visits of the Dead " ( now known as " Spirits of the Dead " )
" Evening Star "
" Imitation "
Untitled poem : " In youth have I known . . . " ( " Stanzas " )
Untitled poem : " A wilder 'd being from my birth . . . " ( see " A Dream " )
Untitled poem : " The happiest day — the happiest hour . . . " ( see " The Happiest Day " )
" The Lake "
The author 's endnotes
= Brachytarsomys mahajambaensis =
Brachytarsomys mahajambaensis is an extinct rodent from northwestern Madagascar . It is known from nine isolated molars found in several sites during field work that started in 2001 . First described in 2010 , it is placed in the genus Brachytarsomys together with two larger living species , which may differ in some details of molar morphology . The presence of B. mahajambaensis , a rare element in the local rodent fauna , suggests that the region was previously more humid .
= = Taxonomy = =
Remains of Brachytarsomys mahajambaensis were found during fieldwork in northwestern Madagascar that started in 2001 . The species was described in a 2010 paper by Pierre Mein and colleagues , together with another extinct rodent , Nesomys narindaensis . The specific name , mahajambaensis , refers to Mahajamba Bay , which is close to the places where the species has been found . It is placed in the genus Brachytarsomys , together with two larger living species , B. albicauda and B. villosa . Brachytarsomys is classified in the exclusively Madagascan subfamily Nesomyinae of the family Nesomyidae , which includes various African rodents .
= = Description = =
Brachytarsomys mahajambaensis is known from nine isolated molars , including two first upper molars ( M1 ) , one of which is broken , two second upper molars ( M2 ) , one M3 , two second lower molars ( m2 ) , and two m3 . It is generally similar to the other two species , but smaller . There are a few differences in molar structure , which may not hold in larger samples .
Both the M1 and M2 have flat crowns . The M1 is convex on the lingual ( inner ) side and concave on the outer side , rendering it kidney @-@ shaped . The anterocone , the cusp at the front of the tooth , appears not to be divided in two , as it is in living Brachytarsomys . It is narrowly connected to the protocone , another cusp behind it on the labial side , which is connected in the same way to the paracone . This lingually located cusp displays a broader connection to the hypocone on the labial side , which is isolated from the metacone lingually behind it . The metacone is broadly connected to another labial cusp behind it , referred to as the " post @-@ hypocone " , which it is expected to fuse to with increasing wear . Behind this pair of cusps , a small posteroloph ( a crest at the back of the tooth ) is present . In general , the back part of the tooth is more highly developed than in B. albicauda . The anterolingual cingulum on the M2 , a crest on the front lingual corner , is absent or very small ; it is well @-@ developed in B. albicauda . The cusps form three transverse crests , with the labial cusp behind the lingual one . In one specimen , the second and third lophs are weakly connected . The posteroloph is more highly developed than on the M1 . The M3 also has three such crests , which display narrow connections along the length of the tooth . In the first crest , the two cusps are about next to each other , but in the second one , the hypocone ( on the labial side ) is a bit behind the paracone . The post @-@ hypocone and the metacone , in the third crest , are joined at the back . There are three roots , two at the front and one at the back , on the M1 and M2 ; the roots are missing from the only known M3 .
The m1 is unknown . In m2 , there are two well @-@ developed transverse crests and one smaller one behind them . The first one consists of two cusps , the anteroconid ( labial ) and the metaconid ( lingual ) and the second one joins the protoconid at the labial side with the entoconid at the lingual side . The second crest is weakly joined to the third one , which joins the hypoconid at the labial side to the posteroconid at the back . In one specimen , a cingulum ( ridge ) is present at the back of the tooth and a small cusp , the ectostylid , is also present . The m3 becomes narrower towards the back , rendering its form triangular , and contains three crests . The first one again consists of the anteroconid and the metaconid and the second of the protoconid and the entoconid . The third is smaller and consists of the hypoconid with the posteroconid in one specimen , but in the other the posteroconid is reduced to a narrow crest , the posterolophid . Unlike in B. albicauda , the hypoconid remains separate from the posterolophid and is not fused to it . Both m2 and m3 have two roots .
= = Distribution and ecology = =
Teeth of Brachytarsomys mahajambaensis have been found at the sites of Antsingiavo , Belobaka , and Ambatomainty in northwestern Madagascar , which are late Pleistocene ( 126 @,@ 000 to 10 @,@ 000 years ago ) and Holocene ( less than 10 @,@ 000 years ago ) in age . Brachytarsomys is a rare element of the rodent fauna , which is dominated by multiple species of Eliurus and Macrotarsomys . Modern Brachytarsomys are large rats that live in trees and eat fruits at middle to high altitudes . The modern , dry environment in northwestern Madagascar is decidedly inhospitable to these animals , and they no longer occur there ; the former presence of B. mahajambaensis could indicate that the region was more humid in the past .
= Rush Street ( Chicago ) =
Rush Street is predominantly a northbound one @-@ way street in the Near North Side community area of Chicago in Cook County , Illinois , United States . The street , which starts at the Chicago River between Wabash and North Michigan Avenues , runs directly north until it slants on a diagonal as it crosses Chicago Avenue then it continues to Cedar and State Streets , making it slightly less than a mile long . One lane also runs southbound from Ohio Street ( 600N ) to Kinzie Street ( 400N ) as part of a two @-@ way street segment . It runs parallel to and one block west of the Magnificent Mile on the two @-@ way traffic North Michigan Avenue , which runs at 100 east up to 950 north . The street , which is also one block east of the one @-@ way southbound Wabash Avenue , formerly ran slightly further south to the Chicago River where over time various bridges connected it to the Loop , Chicago 's central business district .
Rush Street 's history traces back to the original incorporation of the city in the 1830s . It has since hosted important residences , such as the house of the first Mayor of Chicago , and significant commerce . Today , it continues to be part of one of the wealthiest neighborhoods in the country and has businesses that correspond to the demands of its residents . The neighborhood hosts highly rated restaurants , five @-@ star hotels , four @-@ star spas , an elite senior citizen residence and prominent bars . The street , which was named after Declaration of Independence signator Benjamin Rush , is currently known for its nightlife , especially at the northern end , which features entertainment that attracts locals and visitors . The southern end of the street was an integral part of the city as a main river crossing at various incarnations of the Rush Street Bridge across the main branch of the Chicago River from the mid @-@ 19th century until the 1920s . The Rush Street Bridges have a rich cultural history , which includes both a prominent role in facilitating vehicular land traffic and a prominent role as a commercial port location . However , commerce on the Chicago River has declined since the 1930s and the Michigan Avenue Bridge has taken over the role as the primary river crossing for this neighborhood .
= = Background = =
Rush Street was named after Benjamin Rush , one of the four physician signators of the United States Declaration of Independence . It is one of several places named after Rush in Chicago ; other such places are Rush Medical College and Rush @-@ Presbyterian @-@ St. Luke 's Medical Center .
As part of the original incorporated city of Chicago in 1837 , Rush Street is one of the city 's oldest thoroughfares . Like Clark Street , parts of Rush Street roughly follow the path of an Indian trail called Green Bay trail ( later Green Bay Road ) that ran to Green Bay , Wisconsin . Early Rush Street was commonly agreed to be desirable place of residence , and hosted the first house designed by an architect in Chicago ( designed for the first Mayor of Chicago William Ogden by John M. Van Osdel ) . The house , bounded by Erie , Ontario , Rush and Cass ( now Wabash Avenue ) Streets , did not survive the Great Chicago Fire of 1871 .
After the Great Chicago Fire , the Near North Side became a refuge for many due to its wide streets , high ground , good drainage , and proximity to both the Lake Michigan lakeshore and Lincoln Park . Cyrus McCormick built a mansion at 675 Rush Street between 1875 and 1879 . The mansion , located at the corner of Rush and Erie , lured so many relatives to move nearby that the neighborhood became known as " McCormickville " by the 1880s . The street subsequently hosted elite Chicago socialites . Cyrus ' brother Leander J. McCormick built the Virginia Hotel at the northwest corner of Rush and Ohio . Opening just a few years before the 1893 World 's Columbian Exposition , the 400 @-@ room hotel was advertised as " an absolutely fire @-@ proof building and a finished hotel second to no other . " The hotel featured ornate granite interiors decorated with marble statues , separate " gentlemen 's smoking room " and " ladies dining room " , and a room of boilers and dynamos to offer the latest technology : electric lights . Well into the 20th century , residential buildings faced Rush Street until the demands of the expanding commerce — especially concentrations of restaurants and night clubs — consumed its real estate .
In the 1950s , the Chicago City Council began to use the Uniform Vehicle Code of 1931 to fight traffic congestion by creating one @-@ way streets . This was most effectively used in the Loop and Near North Side community areas . Most of the Near North Side streets remain one @-@ way today as a result . Rush Street is among the area 's one @-@ way streets : except for a short segment , only northbound travel is permitted .
= = Geography = =
Rush Street runs partly north – south and partly in a north @-@ northwest direction ( see map in external links ) . It runs north – south at 65 east from 400 north at its southern terminus at Kinzie Avenue to 800 north at Chicago Avenue between Michigan Avenue to the east at 100 east and Wabash Avenue to the west at 44 east . On the north side of Chicago it runs straight on a slight diagonal to the street grid . By the time it travels three blocks north to Delaware Place at 900 north , it intersects Wabash . It then continues on a diagonal for four more blocks where it intersects the north – south running State Street ( the centerline between east and west ) at Cedar Street which runs at 1120 north . It is crossed by Ohio Street and Ontario Street which feed from and to the Kennedy Expressway to the west .
On the north side of Chicago Avenue Rush Street is part of the Gold Coast neighborhood of the Near North Side community area . The Gold Coast is the nation 's second wealthiest neighborhood , trailing only the Central Park East neighborhood of Manhattan 's Upper East Side . Between Chicago Avenue and the Chicago River , Rush Street is part of the River North Gallery District . The River North District hosts more art galleries than any neighborhood outside of Manhattan .
Both of the diagonal crossings border Chicago Park District parks that are situated on the resulting triangular land plots . At the Wabash crossing , which has an official address of 871 North Wabash , a park exists that was renamed Connors Park for former Illinois State Senate Minority Leader William Connors in 1970 . This park was acquired by the city in 1848 and has been renamed several times . At the State Street crossing , which has an official address of 1031 North State Street , Mariano Park exists and was renamed for Louis Mariano in 1970 . This park was acquired by the city in 1848 and was transferred to the Park District in 1959 . It hosts a structure designed by Birch Burdette Long , who was a Frank Lloyd Wright protege , according to a plaque in the park . In the area surrounded by the Trump International Hotel & Tower to the west , the Chicago River to the south , Rush Street and the Wrigley Building to the east and McDonald 's and River Plaza to the north the towers designers have planned a 1 @.@ 2 @-@ acre ( 4 @,@ 856 @.@ 2 m2 ) Riverfront Park & Riverwalk along a space that is 500 feet ( 152 @.@ 4 m ) .
In the Gold Coast neighborhood , honorary streets such as Frank Sinatra Way ( Bellevue Place at 1030 north ) and Mike Ditka Way ( East Chesnut Street at 860 north ) cross Rush Street . Ditka has a restaurant at 100 East Chestnut and coached the Chicago Bears to a Super Bowl XX victory . Sinatra made " My Kind of Town ( Chicago is ) " and " Chicago ( That Toddlin ' Town ) " famous .
= = Bridge = =
The main stem of the Chicago River has been crossed by four bridges at Rush Street . The first bridge was a floating bridge that was hinged to one bank . Ropes were used to open and close this bridge . A March 1849 ice storm was the first of two instances in which all bridges on the main stem of the Chicago River were destroyed overnight . An iron and timber swing bridge with center supports was built in 1857 at a cost of $ 48 @,@ 000 . The bridge stood until , on November 3 , 1863 , a passing ship 's whistle spooked a herd of cattle that was crowding the bridge and stampeded into the river . The bridge was repaired and still in use on October 8 , 1871 when it was destroyed in the Great Chicago Fire . In 1872 the Detroit Bridge and Iron Works company built a wrought @-@ iron replacement that stood until 1883 , when a barge struck and collapsed the bridge . It was replaced by another swing bridge that lasted for several decades until after the Michigan Avenue Bridge was built in 1920 . This final 1884 bridge had trusses measuring 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) in the center and 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) on the ends . Its deck used 4 @-@ inch ( 100 mm ) white pine planks .
The southeast corner of the Rush Street Bridge , which connected to Michigan Avenue , was the location of the Goodrich docks from which the SS Christopher Columbus made its daily round @-@ trip excursions to Milwaukee , Wisconsin . Although she was used for excursions elsewhere around the Great Lakes , her regular schedule was a daily trip to Milwaukee , leaving Chicago mid @-@ morning , sailing to Milwaukee for a two @-@ hour stopover , and then returning . The Goodrich Transportation Company used the Goodrich wharves from the time of the American Civil War until the 1930s to connect Chicago with other port locations throughout Lake Michigan and the Great Lakes . Today , skyskrapers have replaced the industrial structures that historically lined the riverbanks of the nations most significant inland port .
Before the Michigan Avenue bridge ( pictured right ) , vehicular traffic crossed the river at Rush and traveled up to Ontario Street before heading east to Pine Street ( now North Michigan Avenue after multiple renamings ) . The bridge carried 77 % of all the automobiles and 23 % of the commercial vehicles that commuted into the Loop each day . There were several plans starting in the 1880s for improving Michigan Avenue that involved Rush Street , but nothing came of any of them . The final Rush Street Bridge was not designed for automobile traffic , which caused congestion on the south bank of the River where both Michigan and Wabash fed onto River Street ( now Wacker Drive ) . In May 1904 , the Chicago Tribune declared that the 36 feet ( 11 m ) wide Rush Street Bridge , which handled approximately 50 % of the north – south traffic in the city , was unfit for the contemporary pedestrian and vehicular traffic . Thus Daniel Burnham 's 1909 Plan of Chicago called for the replacement of the bridge with a new bridge at Michigan Avenue and the redevelopment of Wacker Drive . The bridge was quickly removed after the completion of the new Michigan Avenue Bridge .
= = Commerce and education = =
In the 1960s , Rush Street was the center of the Chicago nightlife as home to many great cabarets , bars , clubs and restaurants . However , many of the bars migrated north to Division Street as the street gentrified . Currently , the late night establishments mostly lure suburbanites and tourists . The Chicago Sun @-@ Times describes it as the " hippest strip " in Chicago , with specific kudos to the part between Oak Street and Chicago Avenue . It continues to be the destination where visiting conventioners in pursuit of Chicago nightlife are brought by taxi as well as a preferred place for thirtysomething singles to congregate at night , especially in the summer . Although Rush Street ends two blocks south of Division Street , the nightlife ambiance now continues to Division and spreads west from there .
Rush Street is known for hosting some of the few highly rated and esteemed restaurants in the Chicago Gold Coast neighborhood . According to Frommer 's and Zagat Survey , Gibsons Steakhouse is one of the favorite restaurants in Chicago , and is located on Rush Street . Rush Street is a block east of the original location of the Chicago @-@ style deep dish pizza , Uno Chicago Grill , and it hosts Giordano 's , its answer to Uno 's . Among the most prominent businesses along this strip is the Bentley and Lamborghini Gold Coast showroom , which is located across East Pearson Street from The Clare at Water Tower along Rush Street . The Clare is one of the tallest residential buildings reserved for seniors anywhere in the world . Rush Street 's southern terminus is adjacent to a rear entrance of the Wrigley Building as well as the Trump International Hotel and Tower which has a 401 @-@ North Wabash address . The 800 block of the Gold Coast neighborhood portion of Rush Street is a block away from Michigan Avenue and four of the tallest buildings in the world : John Hancock Center ( 875 North Michigan Avenue ) , 900 North Michigan , Water Tower Place ( 845 Michigan ) , & Park Tower ( 800 Michigan ) . Four more of the fifty tallest buildings in Chicago are also a block from Rush Street : Olympia Centre ( 737 Michigan ) , One Magnificent Mile , ( 980 Michigan ) , Chicago Place ( 700 Michigan ) , and Palmolive Building , ( 919 Michigan ) . 55 East Erie Street , which was the second tallest all @-@ residential building in the world from 2004 until 2007 when 340 on the Park was completed , is among the skyscrapers on or with entrances on Rush street . There is a current proposal to redevelop 740 North Rush Street ( at the corner of East Superior Street ) with a fifty @-@ story skyscraper designed by Skidmore , Owings & Merrill and developed by Fordham Company . This address currently houses the Chicago offices of Crain Communications Inc . , and it is just north of Giordano 's , which has a 730 North Rush Street address .
Several prominent hotels are located on or bounded by Rush street . The Peninsula Chicago is one of only three five star hotels in the Midwestern United States , is located on East Superior between Rush Street and Michigan . The Four Seasons Hotel Chicago , another of the Midwest 's five star hotels , is also located on a cross street between Rush Street and Michigan Avenue . These two hotels host the highest rated spas in Illinois . Although the main entrance and official address of the Chicago Marriott Downtown Magnificent Mile is 540 North Michigan Avenue , the driveway for the hotel has a 541 North Rush Street address . Similarly , the Chicago Conrad Hotel located at 521 North Rush Street is a reconstruction of the former 520 North Michigan Chicago Landmark McGraw @-@ Hill Building .
The former Archbishop Quigley Preparatory Seminary , which has been converted for use by the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Chicago is located on Rush Street between Superior and Chestnut . The Water Tower Campus of the Loyola University Chicago is located along East Pearson St. , which crosses Rush Street between the Bentley / Lamborghini Gold Coast Showroom to the North and The Clare @ Water Tower to the South on the west side of the street . The Quigley Seminary Building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on February 16 , 1996 . Rush Street also hosts one of three regional Royal Thai Consulate @-@ General locations to support Royal Thai Embassy in Washington , D.C.
= The Dark Defender =
" The Dark Defender " is the fifth episode of the second season and seventeenth overall episode of the American television drama series Dexter , which first aired on 28 October 2007 on Showtime in the United States . The episode was written by Timothy Schlattmann and was directed by Keith Gordon .
In the episode , Dexter Morgan ( Michael C. Hall ) investigates a crime scene in a comic book store where he sees a poster of The Dark Defender , a character inspired by Dexter 's own crimes under the guise of the " Bay Harbor Butcher " , who is currently under investigation in his own police department . After he dreams that The Dark Defender saved his mother 's life when he was young , Dexter 's Narcotics Anonymous sponsor Lila Tournay ( Jaime Murray ) encourages him to seek closure by confronting one of his mother 's killers , Santos Jimenez ( Tony Amendola ) . Meanwhile , Dexter 's sister Debra ( Jennifer Carpenter ) suspects that her new boyfriend Gabriel ( Dave Baez ) is using her to write a book about her engagement to the first season 's " Ice Truck Killer " .
Schlattmann was inspired to set the homicide case in a comic book store when he realized that an Aquaman snow globe on his desk " could easily be a murder weapon " . When he visited comic book artist Tone Rodriguez to draw and render the poster of The Dark Defender , comic book writer Dan Wickline was also at Rodriguez 's studio , and so Schlattmann arranged for the two to have cameo appearances in the episode . The episode was filmed in Los Angeles , California though set in Miami , Florida . " The Dark Defender " was praised by critics and Schlattmann was nominated for Writers Guild of America Award for his script . The episode was also submitted as Dexter 's sample episode to determine the nominees for Outstanding Drama Series at the 60th Primetime Emmy Awards ; though nominated , the series didn 't win .
= = Plot = =
While drinking coffee with his sister Debra , Dexter is called to a murder scene at a comic book store . Talking to a witness about the victim , a shopkeeper who had been bludgeoned to the head with a snow globe , he sees a poster of The Dark Defender , a vigilante killer based on the Bay Harbor Butcher . Later , at a Narcotics Anonymous meeting , Dexter falls asleep and dreams about the death of his mother , Laura Moser ( Katherine Kirkpatrick ) . In the dream , he enters the cargo container where she was killed , dressed in The Dark Defender 's cloak , and beats his mother 's murderers to the ground , saving her . When he tells his sponsor Lila about his dream , she tells him that he must confront them to seek closure . He and Lila travel to Naples , Florida where one of the three men , Santos Jimenez , is alive and running a tavern . Having been warned by his girlfriend Rita Bennett 's mother Gail ( JoBeth Williams ) to leave Rita ( Julie Benz ) and her children alone , Dexter tells Rita that he is going away while Gail is visiting . Leaving Lila in their motel room , he goes to Jimenez 's bar and waits until all of the patrons have left . Dexter tries to explain to Jimenez how he feels , but Jimenez takes out a baseball bat and threatens to beat him . In response , Dexter disarms and brutally beats him , revealing his past to Jimenez as one of the boys he left in his mother 's blood . Jimenez tells Dexter that his mother was killed because she was not only a narcotics informant to Harry Morgan ( James Remar ) — Dexter 's adoptive father and a police officer — but also his lover . Dexter punches Jimenez and is close to killing him when Lila phones and he tells her that he is about to " use " . Thinking that he is about to use drugs , she urges him not to go any further , because " using " will only leave him empty and alone inside . He returns to the motel , leaving Jimenez unconscious in the bar , and falls asleep in Lila 's lap , distraught and completely drained .
When the morning comes , Lila tells Dexter of why she went into rehab . She had been dating a man who introduced her to methamphetamine , a drug that she became very addicted to . But when her boyfriend broke up with her , Lila set his former house on fire after getting high . But later on , she would find out that her boyfriend was squatting inside the house , and had been burned alive . Dexter asks her if she thinks that he was bad and deserved to die , something that Lila silently agrees to . Comforting her now , Dexter tells her " It 's okay then . "
Debra is insecure in her relationship with Gabriel because her ex @-@ fiancé Brian Moser , the " Ice Truck Killer " , kidnapped and tried to kill her . When she looks through Gabriel 's e @-@ mail , she sees that he has sent a book titled The Ice Princess to a number of publishers . She assumes that the book is about her and angrily breaks up with him . Discussing the break @-@ up with FBI Special Agent Frank Lundy ( Keith Carradine ) , he gives her the background check that he had run on Gabriel , revealing that Gabriel is a children 's writer , and Debra realizes that The Ice Princess is a children 's book .
When Dexter visits Rita the next morning , Gail — who suspects that he is hiding something — announces that she will be staying in Miami and will live with Rita . Dexter realizes that he must protect his secrets ,
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, the German Army was initially dismissive of the idea of SS combat troops . He quoted the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Army , Generaloberst Werner von Fritsch as saying , " If the Reich Transport Minister has his militarily @-@ trained Railway Police , why shouldn 't Himmler also play at soldiers ? " Berger played a key role in directing the fifth column Sudetendeutsches Freikorps during the Sudeten Crisis in Czechoslovakia in 1938 , and the organisational skills he had displayed there marked him as highly suitable for the SS recruiting role .
Berger later claimed that he had come up with the idea of SS combat troops wearing camouflage jackets from his own hunting days , and had suggested it to SS @-@ Obergruppenführer Sepp Dietrich , commander of the Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler Regiment ( LSSAH ) . From 1938 , various forms of Flecktarn camouflage were issued . The author Adrian Weale doubts Berger 's account . Berger had achieved the rank of Major der Reserve in the Wehrmacht by 1938 , but his initial rank upon joining the Allgemeine SS was SS @-@ Standartenführer , based upon his SA service .
= = Chief of the SS @-@ Hauptamt = =
= = = 1939 – 40 = = =
= = = = Initial expansion of the Waffen @-@ SS = = = =
Prior to the outbreak of World War II , the SS @-@ HA had been responsible for organising an erstwhile " civilian " political organisation , the Allgemeine SS . After the war began , it was clear that those departments of the SS @-@ HA looking after the SS @-@ Verfügungstruppe ( SS dispositional troops or SS @-@ VT ) had performed poorly . During the invasion of Poland , deficiencies in organisation , equipment and training had become obvious . The SS @-@ HA , and specifically its chief , SS @-@ Obergruppenführer August Heissmeyer , were held responsible , and Heissmeyer soon made way for Berger . As head of recruiting , Berger had already unified the recruiting system for the three main SS organisations , the Allgemeine SS , SS @-@ VT and police , and in August 1938 he negotiated a recruiting agreement between Himmler and the Reichsjugendführer ( Reich Youth Leader ) Baldur von Schirach which created a strong recruiting pathway for the young men of the Hitler Youth into the SS .
Following the Polish campaign , Hitler approved the expansion of the SS combat troops to three divisions as well as bringing the LSSAH up to the strength of a reinforced motorised regiment . To achieve this goal before the commencement of the planned invasion of France and the Low Countries , Berger needed at least partially @-@ trained personnel . To do this , he circumvented the recruiting primacy of the Wehrmacht by transferring men from forces already under Himmler 's control , the SS @-@ Totenkopfverbände ( SS @-@ TV ) that ran the concentration camps , and combat @-@ trained police reinforcements of the Ordnungspolizei ( Order Police or Orpo ) . By adding these men to the LSSAH and the existing three regiments of the SS @-@ VT , he expanded the force to the approved ceiling , including 50 @,@ 000 trained replacements . The three new divisions were the SS @-@ Verfügungs @-@ Division ( later given the name Reich and then Das Reich ) commanded by the Inspector of the SS @-@ VT , SS @-@ Gruppenführer Paul Hausser , the SS @-@ Division Totenkopf commanded by the Inspector of Concentration Camps , SS @-@ Gruppenführer Theodor Eicke , and the Polizei @-@ Division , commanded by SS @-@ Gruppenführer und Generalleutnant der Polizei Karl Pfeffer @-@ Wildenbruch .
On 1 December 1939 , Himmler promoted Berger to chief of the SS @-@ HA . To a significant extent , Berger was the " father " of the Waffen @-@ SS , a term he coined in an agreement dated 2 March 1940 . He used the new term to smooth over friction between the SS @-@ VT and SS @-@ TV , as they were combined in new formations . Berger 's new @-@ found authority for SS recruiting matters irritated the chiefs of the Allgemeine SS districts , who had previously been responsible for this function . This came to a head when the chief of SS @-@ Oberabschnitt Südwest , SS @-@ Gruppenführer Kurt Kaul refused to recognise Berger 's delegate in his district , referring to Berger as a " low @-@ ranking empire builder " .
Kaul 's series of letters to Berlin came to nothing , as the power and influence of the Allgemeine SS had waned with the outbreak of war and the conscription of many of its members into the Wehrmacht , Waffen @-@ SS and police . Ultimately , when Kaul threatened to arrest Berger 's delegate in SS @-@ Oberabschnitt Südwest , Himmler intervened personally in February 1940 , stating that " the most unpleasant consequences " would befall Kaul if he did not throw his support behind Berger and his recruiting organisation . Kaul acquiesced , and Berger 's supremacy as SS recruiting supremo was firmly established .
= = = = The first " Germanic " recruits = = = =
Despite this success , Berger still had to negotiate with the Wehrmacht , which opposed his attempts to expand the Waffen @-@ SS at almost every turn . In early 1940 , Himmler and Berger were outmaneuvered by Generaloberst Wilhelm Keitel , Chief of Oberkommando der Wehrmacht ( Wehrmacht High Command or OKW ) on a number of issues around Waffen @-@ SS recruiting , reflecting the strong influence the Wehrmacht still had with Hitler . On 20 April 1940 , Berger was promoted to SS @-@ Brigadeführer . According to Berger , Himmler never intended that the Waffen @-@ SS would supplant the Army , and after the war he intended that it would be reduced to seven active and five reserve divisions . Berger created a recruiting structure throughout the Reich , mirroring that of the Army , but while the Wehrmacht , which controlled the draft , was willing to allow Berger enough recruits to maintain the three divisions and the LSSAH , it did not want to see any further expansion . To get around this , Berger had to look outside the Reich .
By this time , the Waffen @-@ SS numbered just under 125 @,@ 000 , of whom more than 40 @,@ 000 originated from post @-@ Anschluss Austria and other areas outside the pre @-@ 1933 borders of Germany . In April 1940 , the Germans had invaded and occupied Denmark and Norway , opening up a source of " Nordic " or " Germanic " recruits , which Berger was quick to exploit . After the invasion of France and the Low Countries , the resulting regiment , SS @-@ Nordland , was joined by a Dutch @-@ Belgian @-@ Flemish regiment , SS @-@ Westland . At the same time as they were recruiting for these " Germanic " regiments , Berger 's delegates were also focusing on gaining ethnic German volunteers from outside the Reich , men not subject to the Wehrmacht @-@ controlled draft . In May , more than 1 @,@ 000 Romanian Volksdeutsche had been recruited , with the help of Andreas Schmidt , Berger 's son @-@ in @-@ law and the political leader of the Romanian Volksdeutsche . Three weeks after the invasion of Belgium , Berger was appointed as the president of the German @-@ sponsored pro @-@ Nazi Belgian political party , DeVlag . Berger also worked to bring the Yugoslav Volksdeutsche under the influence of the SS , which he was able to achieve six months prior to the invasion of that country by the Axis in April 1941 . Berger 's recruiting work with the Flemish and Croatian communities was facilitated by his chairmanship of both the Deutsche @-@ Flämischen Studiengruppe ( German @-@ Flemish Studies Group ) and the Deutsche @-@ Kroatischen Gesellschaft ( German @-@ Croatian Society ) .
= = = = Friction with the Wehrmacht = = = =
By the end of May 1940 , Berger had filled the authorised quota of new recruits , but his recruiters kept signing up young men to create a reserve that could replace the many older Allgemeine SS reservists in the three field divisions . To supplement this pool , Berger also continued recruiting for the SS @-@ TV and police regiments , which were not under Wehrmacht control , and were still below the strengths approved by Hitler . This continued to create friction between the Wehrmacht and SS , as potential Wehrmacht recruits were siphoned off to forces under Himmler 's control . By a range of methods , Berger diverted manpower from the younger age groups , and also targeted areas outside the Reich , that were not subject to Wehrmacht recruiting controls .
Berger 's evasion of Wehrmacht @-@ imposed recruiting restrictions came to a head in June , when the Chief of the OKW Operations Staff , Generalmajor Alfred Jodl initiated an investigation of SS recruiting operations within the Reich . The result was that around 15 @,@ 000 SS inductions were held up by various Wehrmacht military district headquarters . Berger became aware of Jodl 's inquiry and advised Himmler that even their inquiries had underestimated his success , giving the example that the Wehrmacht believed he had exceeded the June quota for SS @-@ Division @-@ Totenkopf by 900 men , when in fact the true figure was 1 @,@ 164 . He boasted to Himmler that during the whole recruiting campaign , he had signed up 15 @,@ 000 men for SS @-@ Division @-@ Totenkopf , when Hitler had only authorised the recruiting of 4 @,@ 000 for the division in the same period . To justify his actions , Berger pointed to the fact that , just before the French surrender , Hitler had ordered the release of over @-@ age SS reservists . In the SS @-@ Division @-@ Totenkopf , this meant 13 @,@ 246 of the 20 @,@ 000 @-@ strong formation .
Berger had been remarkably successful , despite the obstacles placed in his path by the Wehrmacht , having recruited nearly 60 @,@ 000 men for the Waffen @-@ SS between mid @-@ January and the end of June . These fresh troops were more than sufficient to replace those released when Himmler demobilised several categories of SS reservists in late July . But Himmler knew that the future of the Waffen @-@ SS was assured ; Hitler was already considering invading the Soviet Union .
= = = = Re @-@ organisation = = = =
In August 1940 , Berger reorganised the SS @-@ HA to focus better on its main role of recruiting for the Waffen @-@ SS , creating separate sections to deal with recruiting inside and outside the Reich . This latter section developed out of a briefing he received from the Chief of the SS @-@ Führungshauptamt ( SS Command Main Office , or SS @-@ FHA ) SS @-@ Brigadeführer Hans Jüttner on Hitler 's expectations of the Waffen @-@ SS for the upcoming invasion of the Soviet Union , which included the raising of a fourth division and the expansion of the LSSAH to a motorised brigade . Berger realised that the Wehrmacht quotas for the Waffen @-@ SS would fall short of its manpower needs by at least 6 @,@ 000 per year . Berger 's SS @-@ HA had a problematic relationship with the SS @-@ FHA , which was responsible for organising , training and equipping the Waffen @-@ SS . The SS @-@ FHA wanted the Waffen @-@ SS to be a small elite corps , but Berger and Himmler knew that Hitler needed as many divisions as possible , even if that meant some Waffen @-@ SS formations would be of lesser quality . Jüttner 's initial efforts at integrating the recruits from western Europe and Scandinavia were inadequate , with insufficient emphasis on training and appointing officers and non @-@ commissioned officers from the ranks of the new recruits . The SS @-@ FHA had also paid scant attention to retention of ranks for former members of national armed forces , liaison with home territories , and even mail . Berger 's well @-@ researched report to Himmler on these failures was damning , and the Reichsführer @-@ SS soon issued detailed instructions on the handling of these new recruits , from the moment they joined the Waffen @-@ SS .
One of the obvious sources for Waffen @-@ SS manpower was the nearly 40 @,@ 000 troops of the SS @-@ TV regiments , which consisted of youths below conscription age for the Wehrmacht , as well as older Allgemeine SS reservists . These regiments were under Himmler 's control , and were deployed across German @-@ occupied Europe as political police , but the security functions they carried out were clearly within the capabilities of the Orpo . In September 1940 , Dirlewanger 's unit was deployed to the area of the General Government ( occupied Poland ) , where they established defensive positions and provided guards for a Jewish labour camp .
In late 1940 , in order to ensure that Himmler 's instructions were carried out , Berger established a special camp at Sennheim in occupied Alsace , where non @-@ Reich German recruits could be brought up to physical standards and ideologically indoctrinated prior to Waffen @-@ SS training . This was an attempt to address the concerns of some commanders about the quality of these recruits , and their ability to be integrated into units composed mostly of Reich Germans . Recruits sent to this camp included Volksdeutsche ( ethnic Germans from outside the Reich ) , Danes , Norwegians , Dutch and Flemings . Berger also created a network of offices throughout German @-@ occupied Europe to ensure the welfare of the families of such recruits , influence the local communities to support Waffen @-@ SS recruiting , and prepare potential recruits for indoctrination . This network and its activities was strongly resisted by the Main Welfare Office for Ethnic Germans ( German : Hauptamt Volksdeutsche Mittelstelle or VoMi ) the Nazi Party arm responsible for guiding the ethnic German communities outside the Reich . Himmler , unhappy with the work of VoMi in supporting SS recruiting , did not abolish VoMi , he just authorised Berger to circumvent it .
By the end of 1940 , SS @-@ Nordland and SS @-@ Westland had become the basis for the formation of the fourth division , SS @-@ Division Wiking . Casting about for another source of recruits , Berger struck upon the idea of enlisting convicted criminals , who were concentrated in the Sonderkommando Dirlewanger , commanded by Berger 's friend , Dirlewanger . Dirlewanger had returned from Spain and been reinstated as a SS @-@ Standartenfuhrer der Reserve in the Allgemeine SS at Berger 's instigation .
= = = 1941 = = =
In March 1941 , Berger founded the German Guidance Office which was responsible for the recruitment of " Germanic " men for the Waffen @-@ SS . The German Guidance Office encompassed the camp at Sennheim , as well as the network of recruiting offices already established throughout occupied Europe , and became a separate department of the SS @-@ HA , with separate sections for leadership , recruiting and education , and six regional sub @-@ sections .
After the Balkan Campaign of April 1941 , the LSSAH was expanded to divisional strength , and following the commencement of the invasion of the Soviet Union commenced , a sixth Waffen @-@ SS division , SS @-@ Division Nord was formed from four of the former " SS @-@ Totenkopf " regiments , all of which had been re @-@ designated " SS Infantry " regiments . These new divisions had an initial strength only two @-@ thirds of that of the original divisions . The Polizei @-@ Division was also renamed the SS @-@ Polizei @-@ Division . The expectations on Berger 's recruiting network continued to increase , just as casualties began to mount in earnest .
= = = = The West Europeans = = = =
In early April 1941 , Hitler had agreed to the creation of the SS @-@ Freiwilligenstandarte Nordwest ( SS Volunteer Regiment Northwest ) , with an authorised strength of 2 @,@ 500 men recruited from Flanders and the Netherlands . This formation capitalised on the push for an autonomous Flemish @-@ Dutch region within the Reich . Significant proponents of such a union were Anton Mussert of the National Socialist Movement in the Netherlands and Staf De Clercq of the Flemish National League . In this , Berger was exploiting Mussert and De Clerq , because he was actually working towards Hitler 's idea of incorporating Flanders and Wallonia into the Reich as two Gaue , not a unified autonomous entity .
At the end of April , Himmler ordered Berger to obtain 20 @,@ 000 new recruits for the Waffen @-@ SS by the end of May . With Hitler 's authorisation , the recruitment quotas were lifted by the Wehrmacht , allowing Berger an essentially free hand for a limited time . He did not disappoint , misleading the new recruits as to the length of their service obligation , and signing up 22 @,@ 361 new troops by 29 May , many of whom were only 18 years old . To meet Himmler 's target , Berger had also called up eligible members of the Allgemeine SS and intensified efforts to recruit western Europeans . The latter initiative proved disappointing , with only 2 @,@ 000 of the total coming from that source . A total of 400 Finnish combat veterans also volunteered to join the Waffen @-@ SS in this period , and they were sent to join the SS @-@ Division @-@ Wiking .
= = = = The " national legions " = = = =
In June 1941 , just after the commencement of Operation Barbarossa , Hitler decreed that the Waffen @-@ SS could recruit foreigners for service on the Eastern Front . He wanted a legion to be raised from each of the occupied countries of Western Europe , but Himmler was only interested in recruiting " Germanic " people into the Waffen @-@ SS . Himmler decided that there were large numbers of potential pro @-@ German but nationalistic recruits available from the " Germanic " races in occupied countries , and directed Berger to explore this manpower source . As a result of Himmler 's decision , the Wehrmacht was permitted to recruit Frenchmen , Spaniards and Croats , while Dutch , Flemish , Swedish , Norwegian and Danish men were Berger 's domain . The " national legions " each numbered 1 @,@ 000 , except the Netherlands Legion , which had a maximum strength of 2 @,@ 000 . The idea was poorly managed , with many of the new recruits being badly treated by their German instructors , and once news of this reached their home territories , the flow of volunteers dried up .
In November 1941 , the Netherlands Legion and Flemish Legion had completed light infantry training and were sent to join the 2nd SS Infantry Brigade on the Leningrad Front . While they swore a personal oath to Hitler and were subject to SS rules and regulations , they were not members of the SS , and wore national symbols place of the sig runes . The SS @-@ FHA failed to carry through the commitments made to the men of the " national legions " when they enlisted , and combined with mistreatment and abuse from their German cadre staff and instructors , this had a negative impact on morale and the willingness of more men to volunteer . This was something from which the " national legions " never fully recovered , despite Himmler 's intervention at Berger 's behest .
= = = = A Volksdeutsche division = = = =
Encouraged by the success he had achieved in Romania in 1940 with the help of his son @-@ in @-@ law , Berger had proposed to Himmler that the next recruiting sphere be the Volksdeutsche communities of Romania , Hungary and Yugoslavia , which together contained about 1 @.@ 5 million ethnic Germans . Little could be done to further this proposal until mid @-@ 1941 , by which time Yugoslavia had been overrun by the Axis , and Romania and Hungary had joined the pact . Immediately after the lightning @-@ quick defeat of Yugoslavia in April 1941 , Hausser was being pressed to accept Yugoslav Volksdeutsche into his renamed SS @-@ Division @-@ Reich , even before it was withdrawn to prepare for Operation Barbarossa . On his way back to Germany from Yugoslavia , Hausser had transited through Romania and gathered another 600 ethnic German volunteers who he smuggled out of the country .
Not content with this fairly minor and surreptitious recruiting effort , Berger proposed to raise a seventh Waffen @-@ SS division from the ethnic Germans of Yugoslavia , something that had been a long @-@ term plan of Berger 's . By the end of 1941 , faced with the Partisan @-@ led uprising in Yugoslavia , Hitler authorised the raising of the SS @-@ Freiwilligen @-@ Division Prinz Eugen . It was to be the first of the many " foreign " divisions that would dramatically change the composition of the Waffen @-@ SS during the remainder of the war . The division was formed around an existing SS @-@ controlled Selbstschutz ( militia ) drawn from ethnic Germans in the Banat , but Berger had misread the willingness of the local ethnic German population to volunteer for service outside their homeland . His recruiters initially struggled to attract volunteers , so coercion was applied , and ultimately , Himmler approved conscription on the basis of an archaic law , the Tiroler Landsturmordnung ( Tyrolean General Levy Act ) of 1872 .
= = = 1942 = = =
On 29 January 1942 , Himmler issued an order which re @-@ titled Dirlewanger 's unit as SS @-@ Sonderkommando Dirlewanger , and formally incorporated it into the Waffen @-@ SS . Later that year , when an SS judge issued an arrest warrant for Dirlewanger , the SS @-@ HA chief intervened with Himmler saying , " Better to shoot two Poles too many than one too few . A savage country cannot be governed in a decent manner . "
= = = = Baltic Legions = = = =
Within a few weeks of the invasion of the Soviet Union , Berger 's teams had begun recruiting Baltic volunteers for SS police units , forming several security battalions of Latvian and Estonian volunteers . The Wehrmacht also recruited eight Estonian battalions . This split approach to recruiting in the Baltic region continued into 1942 , with some units being decimated in front line fighting . In May of that year , Berger decided to exploit the nationalists within the Baltic states in order to gain access to recruits for the Waffen @-@ SS . Himmler was lukewarm on his initial proposal , but as casualties started to mount in 1942 , he changed his mind , and approved the formation of a Waffen @-@ SS Estonian Legion . Despite initial misgivings , Berger also proposed the formation of a Latvian Legion , which was approved at the end of 1942 .
= = = = Further Volksdeutsche recruiting = = = =
In the meantime , the Waffen @-@ SS had suffered over 43 @,@ 000 casualties up to February 1942 , particularly in the Battle of Moscow , and Berger had to replace them . Berger next turned his attention to the Hungarian Volksdeutsche . Through an agreement with the Royal Hungarian Army , his recruiters enlisted more than 16 @,@ 500 ethnic German recruits from Hungary between March and May 1942 . While this campaign was ongoing , on 20 April 1942 Berger was promoted to SS @-@ Gruppenführer . In September 1942 , the SS @-@ FHA complained bitterly about Berger 's recruiters , stating that many of the recruits were medically unsuitable , had been coerced or duped into enlisting , or were in fact ethnic Hungarians . Late in 1942 , more Volksdeutsche from the Banat and Romania were combined with the SS Cavalry Brigade to form the SS @-@ Kavallerie @-@ Division . On 24 November 1942 , the Chief of the Gestapo , Heinrich Müller advised Himmler of a proposal he had received from Berger that a Hungarian SS division could be financed by selling emigration permits to Slovak Jews .
= = = = The " national legions " = = = =
The " national legions " were attached to the Waffen @-@ SS , and fought on the Eastern Front in 1942 and early 1943 . Unable to replace their losses , most of the survivors were incorporated into SS @-@ Panzergrenadierdivision Nordland , authorised by Hitler at the end of 1942 . The three regiments of the new division were formed using survivors of the Freikorps Danemark , Legion Niederlande and Legion Norwegen , supplemented by transfers from SS @-@ Division Wiking , new recruits from the occupied West European countries , and Reich Germans . Legion Flandern was broken up and used as replacements in a number of Waffen @-@ SS formations . While Weale states that they were mainly motivated by anti @-@ communism , the historian George C. Stein observes that few of the " national legion " recruits were motivated by " political or ideological idealism " . According to Stein , Berger had no illusions about the motives of his West European recruits , but paid mere lip service to the idea that they joined the " anti @-@ communist " cause out of idealism .
= = = 1943 = = =
In November 1942 , orders were issued for the conversion of LSSAH , Das Reich and Totenkopf into panzergrenadier divisions , and the following month , Hitler ordered the formation of two more panzergrenadier divisions , the first new Waffen @-@ SS divisions to be raised from Reich Germans since 1940 . These were named Hohenstaufen and Frundsberg .
In February 1943 , Berger told Himmler that the SS needed stronger ideological training . As a result , the SS @-@ HA issued a series of pamphlets on racial ideology , including Der Untermensch ( The Sub @-@ Human ) , which described certain peoples as spiritually and mentally lower than animals . On 13 February , following an approach from Reichsjugendführer ( German Youth Leader ) Artur Axmann for a Waffen @-@ SS division to be raised from the Hitler Youth , Berger and Axmann were told the idea had been approved by Hitler and that they could commence planning . Berger implored Himmler to appoint him as the commander of this new division , but the Reichsfuhrer demurred , telling Berger not to be impatient . In March 1943 , Wiking was also upgraded to a panzergrenadier division .
In April , losses at Stalingrad and in Tunisia allowed Berger to recruit from foreign workers in the Reich , over the objections of Reichsminister Albert Speer , the Minister for Armaments and War Production . By August , he had recruited 8 @,@ 105 of these labourers , and 3 @,@ 154 had already completed selection for the Waffen @-@ SS . In June , Berger was promoted to SS @-@ Obergruppenführer und General der Waffen @-@ SS , and later the same month the new division , 12th SS Panzergrenadier Division Hitlerjugend was officially activated .
On 5 July 1943 , Berger was awarded the German Cross in silver . By the end of 1942 , the " Germanic " SS had been integrated into the wider Allgemeine SS , and Berger drew up a badge to reward sporting prowess , skills highly prized among SS members . The result was the Germanic Proficiency Runes , which Himmler approved on 1 August 1943 , although it is believed less than 200 were actually awarded .
By the end of 1943 , the former " national legions " had been significantly expanded . The Dutch regiment of SS @-@ Panzergrenadierdivision Nordland was used to form an independent SS @-@ Panzergrenadierbrigade Nederland , and a revamped Flemish contingent was assembled into the SS @-@ Freiwilligen @-@ Sturmbrigade Langemarck . The Wehrmacht also gave up its French volunteer regiment and the Wallonian Legion , which became the SS @-@ Freiwilligen @-@ Sturmbrigade France and SS @-@ Freiwilligen @-@ Sturmbrigade Wallonien . By the end of the war , all of these formations had been given divisional status in the Waffen @-@ SS , despite the fact that they never grew to more than brigade strength .
The complaints from the SS @-@ FHA about the quality of Volksdeutsche recruits had no effect on Berger 's approach . He concluded further agreements with Hungary and Romania , and imposed on the puppet regimes of the Independent State of Croatia and the Slovak State , to effectively authorise the unrestricted conscription of ethnic Germans in those territories . In the German @-@ occupied territory of Serbia , the General Government ( annexed Poland ) and parts of the Soviet Union , ethnic Germans were conscripted into the Waffen @-@ SS in the same arbitrary manner Reich Germans were conscripted by the Wehrmacht . By the end of 1943 , a quarter of the strength of the Waffen @-@ SS was made up of Volksdeutsche .
= = = = The Baltic divisions = = = =
Before either Baltic legion could complete training , these developments were overtaken by the decimation of the West European legions on the Eastern Front , and like the West European legions , it was decided to combine the Baltic legions into larger formations . This resulted in the Estnische SS @-@ Freiwilligen Brigade , consisting of the Estonian Legion and elements of the 1st SS Infantry Brigade , and the Lettische SS @-@ Freiwilligen Brigade , formed around the Latvian Legion and parts of the 2nd SS Infantry Brigade . The origins of many of the men of the two SS infantry brigades was Reich German or Volksdeutsche , so these two formations were never purely Baltic . Not long after the two new volunteer brigades had been formed and committed to battle , they were upgraded to divisional status , and a third Baltic division was authorised , using the manpower of the Latvian security battalions . To man and maintain these three new divisions , Himmler ordered the conscription of Estonian and Latvian men , and made all former Estonian Army officers and non @-@ commissioned officers liable for service . By 1944 , the Waffen @-@ SS included the three divisions , namely ; the 15th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS ( 1st Latvian ) , the 19th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS ( 2nd Latvian ) , and the 20th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS ( 1st Estonian ) . The two Latvian divisions were later combined into the VI SS Army Corps ( Latvian ) , and all three divisions fought the Soviet Red Army in defence of their homelands during 1944 , and were encircled there or destroyed in subsequent fighting elsewhere .
= = = = The Balkan Muslim divisions = = = =
By February 1943 , Himmler 's ideals of Waffen @-@ SS racial purity had been significantly diluted . The first division to be raised by Berger 's recruiters that was clearly outside the Waffen @-@ SS racial and ethnic strictures used manpower from the Muslim community of Bosnia . The 13th Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Handschar ( 1st Croatian ) first went into action in February 1944 , and was of limited value , especially outside of its area of operations in eastern Bosnia . While it achieved successes and proved itself competent in counter @-@ insurgency operations against the Partisans in eastern Bosnia , the division earned a reputation for brutality and savagery , not only during combat operations , but also through atrocities committed against Serb and Jewish civilians in the security zone . Its reprisal attacks in northern and eastern Bosnia left many hundreds and possibly as many as several thousand Serb civilians dead by the spring and summer of 1944 .
During 1944 , two more Muslim divisions were raised , the 21st Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Skanderbeg ( 1st Albanian ) made up Kosovar Albanians , and the 23rd Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Kama ( 2nd Croatian ) , also made up of Bosnian Muslims . Neither of these divisions were of significant combat value , and all three Muslim divisions were dissolved before the end of 1944 .
= = = = A Ukrainian SS division = = = =
At the same time as the Balkan Muslim experiment , divisions were raised from Ukrainian , Russian and Hungarian men , demonstrating that racial exclusivity was no longer an entry requirement for the Waffen @-@ SS . In April 1943 , a recruiting campaign began among Ukrainians living in that part of General Government ( Polish ) territory that had been in Austrian Galicia prior to 1919 . These Ukrainian nationalists had been referred to by Himmler as " sub @-@ human " only a matter of months before . The resulting division was the 14th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS ( 1st Galician ) . After a brief period of desperate fighting in mid @-@ 1944 during the Soviet Lvov – Sandomierz Offensive , only 3 @,@ 000 members of the division escaped encirclement and destruction . Less than outstanding in combat , the division never saw action again .
= = = 1944 = = =
In early 1944 , the SS directed the governments of Hungary and the Slovak State to transfer to the Waffen @-@ SS all the Volksdeutsche serving in their armed forces . This amounted to another 50 @,@ 000 troops .
The Galician approach was repeated in mid @-@ 1944 in the face of mounting casualties from Soviet offensives . Security units manned by Russians and Ukrainians were combined to form two more divisions , the 29th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS ( 1st Russian ) and 30th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS ( 2nd Russian ) . Neither reached more than regimental size . The first division was handed over to the Russian Liberation Army of Andrey Vlasov before it saw combat , and the second saw action on the Western Front in late 1944 before being reconstituted as a " White Ruthenian " brigade in March 1945 . It too saw no further action .
In the period from late 1944 , more Eastern European formations were hurriedly raised by Berger 's recruiters or converted from existing smaller units . These included the 25th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS Hunyadi ( 1st Hungarian ) , 26th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS ( 2nd Hungarian ) , 31st SS Volunteer Grenadier Division , and a number of smaller formations of brigade and regimental size . Several Cossack units were also transferred from the Wehrmacht . Even the Sonderkommando Dirlewanger was increased in size , taking on Russian prisoners of war to boost its numbers .
= = Other wartime activities = =
= = = Eastern Territories = = =
In July 1942 , Berger was appointed as Himmler 's liaison officer with the Reichsminister for the Occupied Eastern Territories , Alfred Rosenberg . In mid @-@ 1943 , Berger convinced Rosenberg to appoint him as the Chief of Political Operations in the Occupied Eastern Territories . Himmler had long wanted such responsibilities to be placed in SS hands , and this appointment meant that Berger could sabotage any resistance to SS domination of the economy and population of the subjugated east . The appointment took effect on 10 August 1943 , and lasted until January 1945 . In this role , Berger proposed a plan to kidnap and enslave 50 @,@ 000 Eastern European children between the ages of 10 and 14 , under the codename Heuaktion . On 14 June 1944 , Rosenberg issued orders implementing Berger 's idea .
= = = Prisoners of war = = =
On 20 July 1944 , the responsibility for administration of German prisoner of war ( POW ) camps was transferred to Berger . This followed the failed attempt on Hitler 's life earlier that month , when the Führer turned to his " faithful Heinrich " to head the Replacement Army , and the SS chief quickly delegated the responsibility to Berger . By September , the responsibility had been formally transferred to Himmler , but Berger did not act to integrate his new responsibilities into the SS bureaucracy . Instead , he allowed the camps to continue as they were , with the same staff and procedures .
After the war , Berger claimed that he had been reluctant to take on this new responsibility , and had told Hitler , resulting in a dressing down . He also claimed that Hitler had told him to destroy stored Red Cross supplies , stop Red Cross inspections , and block the arrival of further Red Cross supplies to the camps . Further , he asserted that Hitler had wanted more shootings of POWs and harsher punishments . According to Berger , he had quietly avoided carrying out these orders , and even countered a plan by the Luftwaffe to establish POW centres in major cities , using the POWs as human shields against air raids . Authors John Nichol and Tony Rennell observed that none of these claims have ever been independently verified , but some testimony has refuted Berger 's claims . They concluded that most , if not all , of Berger 's claims about his actions to assist POWs are " unbelievable " , and noted that he did not raise any of these claims during his trial at Nuremberg after the war , or even in his autobiography . One of the few claims that has been verified to some extent is his work to protect the Prominente , a group of high @-@ ranking or otherwise important POWs that had been held at Colditz Castle until 13 April 1945 . A total of 21 Prominente , including Viscount Lascelles and the Master of Elphinstone , both nephews of two nephews of King George VI , and Giles Romilly , a nephew of the British Prime Minister Winston Churchill . Berger arranged for them to be evacuated from Colditz and transported south and handed over to advancing U.S. Army troops .
= = = Slovak uprising = = =
On 23 August 1944 , an uprising broke out against the German puppet government in the Slovak State . The revolt was centred on Banská Bystrica high in the Low Tatra mountains . The rebellion was led by several former members of the Government , and included elements of the Slovak Army and some British @-@ trained parachutists . The uprising was relying on a rapid advance of the Red Army into the Slovak State . Despite the fact that the Soviet armies were just over 160 kilometres ( 100 mi ) away at the time the revolt began , they did not reach the rebels in time . On 31 August , Berger was appointed Military Commander in Slovakia , and held sway for the next three weeks . On 9 September , Himmler advised him that he had been awarded the Iron Cross Second Class for his work in Slovakia . He was replaced by a HSSPF , Hermann Höfle , and relinquished the role of Military Commander in Slovakia on 19 September . He was then appointed to organise the Volkssturm ( Home Guard ) in Germany .
= = = Volkssturm chief of staff = = =
As Germany 's situation deteriorated , Hitler decided to form the Volkssturm , a Nazi Party local militia to defend communities within the Reich . On 24 September 1944 , Hitler appointed his private secretary and head of the Reich Chancellery , Reichsleiter Martin Bormann to form the Volkssturm . Himmler was given responsibility for the military organisation and equipment of the new militia , which he delegated to Berger , who became one of two chiefs of staff for the organisation . Bormann resisted Berger 's attempts to take over the Volkssturm , and it remained largely under Bormann 's control , with local recruiting conducted by the Gauleiters .
= = = Field command = = =
In the last few months of the war , the Western Allies became concerned that Hitler would concentrate his remaining forces in a redoubt in the Alps . While this idea was more along the lines of a potential refuge from the Russians rather than a fortress , fears of the existence of an " Alpine Fortress " resulted in the diversion of strong forces towards the southern parts of the Reich to forestall such a plan . In fact , at a surrender ceremony on 5 May , German General der Infanterie Hermann Foertsch astonished General Jacob L. Devers , commander of the Sixth United States Army Group , when he told him that as many as 350 @,@ 000 German troops were still cut off in the Alps . Berger commanded some of these remnants of the XIII SS Army Corps , including fragments of the 17th SS Panzergrenadier Division Götz von Berlichingen , 35th SS and Police Grenadier Division , and the 2nd Mountain Division . Berger intended to surrender separately to American forces , and after two days delay , managed to locate a regimental commander of the 101st Airborne Division near Berchtesgaden south of Salzburg . On the following day , Berger was arrested .
= = Assessments = =
Berger has been described as " blustery " , and " one of Himmler 's most competent and ruthless war @-@ time lieutenants " . An ardent anti @-@ Semite , he was also a proponent of the Final Solution . The historian Gerhard Rempel described him as a skilled bureaucratic manipulator , who was " unscrupulous , blunt , and inelegant in manner and expression , yet also full of genial loquacity and racy humour " .
Within the SS , Berger was known as one of Himmler 's " Twelve Apostles " , and was nicknamed " der Allmaechtige Gottlob " ( " the Almighty Gottlob " , a play on " The Almighty God " , as " Gott " is the German word for " God " ) . He was also referred to by the phrase " Praise God " and another nickname was " The Duke of Swabia " , reflecting his Swabian origins .
Ultimately , Berger was responsible for the large numbers of non @-@ Reich foreign recruits that joined the Waffen @-@ SS between 1940 and 1945 . Despite the fact that Berger would have preferred a field command , he was one of Himmler 's few trusted senior lieutenants , and his recruiting and organisational skills meant he was kept as chief of the SS @-@ HA throughout the war . The only exception was a short period as Higher SS and Police Leader Slowakien in the German client Slovak State in the autumn of 1944 during an attempted uprising . In September 1939 , the number of non @-@ Germans in what soon became the Waffen @-@ SS was minimal . By May 1945 , the force included 38 divisions , and the majority were non @-@ Germans . None of the 38 divisions were exclusively manned by Reich Germans , and half were made up of mostly of personnel from outside the Reich .
= = War crimes trial = =
After his arrest in May 1945 , Berger remained in Allied custody pending a trial before a US military tribunal for various war crimes . He was initially to be a defendant in the proposed " Prisoners of War " Trial , but was eventually included in what became known as the Ministries Trial of the subsequent Nuremberg trials . The final indictment against Berger and his co @-@ defendants was lodged on 18 November 1947 , the trial commenced on 6 January 1948 , before Judges Christianson ( presiding ) , Maguire and Powers , and ended on 13 April 1949 .
= = = Indictment = = =
There were eight counts that formed the indictment against Berger :
Crimes against peace
Common plan and conspiracy
War crimes , murder , and ill @-@ treatment of belligerents and prisoners of war
This count was stricken during the trial
War crimes and crimes against humanity , atrocities and offences committed against civilian populations
Plunder and spoliation
Slave labour
Membership in criminal organisations
= = = Berger 's evidence = = =
During his trial , Berger claimed that he had not been aware of the Final Solution until after the war , but the prosecution produced evidence that he had been present at the first of Himmler 's infamous 1943 Posen speeches in which the Reichsfuhrer @-@ SS had explicitly spoken of the extermination of Jews . Berger 's defence counsel claimed that his client did not believe the word " extermination " had been used by Himmler with regard to Jews during the speech . Berger 's lawyer went on in an attempt to mitigate Berger 's actions by claiming that the Cold War bore strong parallels to the Nazi fight against " Jews and Bolsheviks " , and the possibility that the US would also have to fight the Soviet Union in the near future . During the war , Berger wrote in an article , " We the National Socialists believe the Fuhrer when he says that the annihilation of Jewry in Europe stands at the end of the fight instigated by the Jewish World Parasite against us as his strongest enemy . " Berger and others also claimed that the unit commanded by Dirlewanger was not part of the SS , although when the text of Himmler 's second Posen speech was uncovered in 1953 , it " cast dubious light " on Berger 's claim . He displayed no remorse for his actions .
The majority of the tribunal declared that " it seems impossible to believe Berger 's testimony that he knew nothing of the plans to destroy the Jews or that he never heard of the " final solution " until after the war . " However , the court accepted his claim that he saved the lives of Allied POWs whose safety was gravely imperiled by Hitler 's orders that they be shot or held as hostages . The court determined that Berger had disobeyed orders and placed himself in danger in order to intervene on behalf of the POWs in question . In contrast , Berger was found guilty of transporting Hungarian Jews to concentration camps and recruiting concentration camp guards . Berger also stated in his evidence that he considered Himmler " an unassimilated half @-@ breed and unfit for the SS " .
= = = Judgement = = =
Berger was acquitted under counts one , and two , and some parts of counts three , and five , and was also acquitted under count six . He was convicted under that part of count three relating to the murder of French Général de division Gustave Mesny , a POW who was killed in reprisal for the death of Generalleutnant Fritz von Brodowski at the hands of the French resistance in October 1944 , and under those parts of count five relating to his involvement with the Sonderkommando Dirlewanger , for being a conscious participant in the concentration camp program , and the conscription of nationals of other countries . He was also convicted under that part of count seven relating to the children and youth slave labour program , including the Heuaktion , and was also convicted under count eight . Judge Powers handed down a dissenting opinion , stating that he was of the view that Berger was not responsible for the murder of Mesny .
= = = Sentence and review = = =
On the counts under which he was convicted , Berger was sentenced to 25 years imprisonment , but received credit for the nearly four years during which he been in custody awaiting trial . Peter Maguire observes that given the status of the defendants and the body of evidence against them , the sentences given to all those indicted in the Ministries Trial were light .
The sentences were reviewed by an Advisory Board for Clemency for War Criminals , which was responsible for providing advice to the U.S. High Commissioner for Germany John J. McCloy . On 31 January 1951 , McCloy determined to reduce Berger 's sentence to 10 years imprisonment , stating that he appeared to have been unjustly convicted for the murder of Mesny , and that McCloy had given greater weight to Berger 's active interventions " to save the lives of Allied officers and men who under Hitler orders were held for liquidation or as hostages " . McCloy did not explain why Berger could not be held responsible for the murder of Mesny , despite the majority finding of the tribunal that Berger bore " command responsibility " for the murder . Berger was released from Landsberg prison in December 1951 , having spent a total of six and a half years in custody .
= = After release = =
After his release from prison in 1951 , Berger worked in Stuttgart and Böblingen in his native Baden @-@ Württemberg , and managed a curtain rail factory . He also contributed articles to the monthly right @-@ wing journal Nation Europa published in Coburg , and occasionally wrote articles encouraging the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation to give greater consideration to former members of the Waffen @-@ SS . He and his wife Christine had four children : Krista , Wolf , Helgart and Folkart . He died on 5 January 1975 in Gerstetten .
= = Awards = =
Berger received the following awards and medals during his life :
= = = Books = = =
= = = Websites = = =
= Delphine LaLaurie =
Born Marie Delphine Macarty or Maccarthy , ( c . 1780 – 1849 ) , more commonly known as Madame LaLaurie , was a New Orleans Creole socialite and alleged serial killer , infamous for torturing and likely murdering her household slaves .
Born during the Spanish colonial period , Delphine Macarty married three times in Louisiana , having twice been widowed . She maintained her position in New Orleans society until April 10 , 1834 , when rescuers responded to a fire at her Royal Street mansion and discovered bound slaves in her attic who showed evidence of cruel , violent treatment over a long period . Lalaurie 's house was subsequently sacked by an outraged mob of New Orleans citizens . She escaped to France with her family .
The mansion where Lalaurie lived is a landmark in the French Quarter , in part because of its history and in part because there were relatively few homes of such massive size in the Quarter .
= = Early life and family history = =
Marie Delphine Macarty was born 1780 , one of five children . Her father was Louis Barthelemy Macarty , originally Chevalier de Maccarthy ) whose father Barthelemy ( de ) Maccarthy brought the family to New Orleans from Ireland around 1730 , during the French colonial period . ( The Irish surname Maccarthy was shortened to Macarty or de Macarty . ) Her mother was Marie Jeanne Lovable , also known as " the widow Lecomte " , whose marriage to Louis B. Macarty was her second . Both were prominent in the town 's white Creole community . Delphine 's cousin , Augustin de Macarty , was mayor of New Orleans from 1815 to 1820 .
= = First marriage and death of husband = =
On June 11 , 1800 , Mlle. Marie Delphine Macarty married Don Ramón de Lopez y Angulo , a Caballero de la Royal de Carlos , a high @-@ ranking Spanish royal officer , at the Saint Louis Cathedral in New Orleans . Luisiana , as it was spelled in Spanish , had become a Spanish colony in the 1760s . In 1804 , after the American acquisition , Don Ramón had been appointed to the position of consul general for Spain in the Territory of Orleans .
Also , in 1804 , Delphine and Ramón Lopez traveled to Spain . Accounts of the trip vary . Grace King wrote in 1921 that the trip was Lopez 's " military punishment " and that Señora Delphine Lopez met the Queen , who was impressed with Mrs. Lopez 's beauty . Stanley Arthur 's 1936 report differed ; he stated that on March 26 , 1804 , Don Ramón Lopez was recalled to Spain " to take his place at court as befitting his new position , " but that Lopez never arrived in Madrid because he died in en route , in Havana .
During the voyage , Delphine gave birth to a daughter , named Marie @-@ Borja / Borgia Delphine Lopez y Angulo de la Candelaria , nicknamed Borquita . Delphine and her daughter returned to New Orleans afterwards .
= = Second marriage and death of husband = =
In June 1808 , Delphine married Jean Blanque , a prominent banker , merchant , lawyer , and legislator . At the time of the marriage , Blanque purchased a house at 409 Royal Street in New Orleans for the family , which became known later as the Villa Blanque . Delphine had four more children by Blanque , named Marie Louise Pauline , Louise Marie Laure , Marie Louise Jeanne , and Jeanne Pierre Paulin Blanque.Blanque died in 1816 .
= = Third marriage = =
Delphine married her third husband , physician Leonard Louis Nicolas LaLaurie , who was much younger than she , on June 25 , 1825 . In 1831 , she bought property at 1140 Royal Street , which she managed in her own name with little involvement of her husband , and in 1832 had built a three @-@ story mansion there , complete with attached slave quarters . She lived there with her third husband and two of her daughters , and maintained a central position in New Orleans society .
= = Torture and murder of slaves and 1834 LaLaurie mansion fire = =
The LaLauries maintained several black slaves in slave quarters , attached to the Royal Street mansion . Accounts of Delphine Lalaurie 's treatment of her slaves between 1831 and 1834 are mixed . Harriet Martineau , writing in 1838 and recounting tales told to her by New Orleans residents during her 1836 visit , claimed Lalaurie 's slaves were observed to be " singularly haggard and wretched ; " however , in public appearances Lalaurie was seen to be generally polite to black people and solicitous of her slaves ' health , and court records of the time showed that Lalaurie manumitted two of her own slaves ( Jean Louis in 1819 and Devince in 1832 ) . Nevertheless , Martineau reported that public rumors about Lalaurie 's mistreatment of her slaves were sufficiently widespread that a local lawyer was dispatched to Royal Street to remind LaLaurie of the laws relevant to the upkeep of slaves . During this visit , the lawyer found no evidence of wrongdoing or mistreatment of slaves by Lalaurie .
Martineau also recounted other tales of Lalaurie 's cruelty that were current among New Orleans residents in about 1836 . She claimed that , subsequent to the visit of the local lawyer , one of Lalaurie 's neighbors saw one of the LaLaurie 's slaves , a twelve @-@ year @-@ old girl named Lia ( or Leah ) , fall to her death from the roof of the Royal Street mansion while trying to avoid punishment from a whip @-@ wielding Delphine LaLaurie . Lia had been brushing Delphine 's hair when she hit a snag , causing Delphine to grab a whip and chase her . The body was subsequently buried on the mansion grounds . According to Martineau , this incident led to an investigation of the Lalauries , in which they were found guilty of illegal cruelty and forced to forfeit nine slaves . These nine slaves were then bought back by the Lalauries through the intermediary of one of their relatives , and returned to the Royal Street residences . Similarly , Martineau reported stories that LaLaurie kept her cook chained to the kitchen stove , and beat her daughters when they attempted to feed the slaves .
On April 10 , 1834 , a fire broke out in the LaLaurie residence on Royal Street , starting in the kitchen . When the police and fire marshals got there , they found a seventy @-@ year @-@ old woman , the cook , chained to the stove by her ankle . She later confessed to them that she had set the fire as a suicide attempt for fear of her punishment , being taken to the uppermost room , because she said that anyone who was taken there never came back . As reported in the New Orleans Bee of April 11 , 1834 , bystanders responding to the fire attempted to enter the slave quarters to ensure that everyone had been evacuated . Upon being refused the keys by the Lalauries , the bystanders broke down the doors to the slave quarters and found " seven slaves , more or less horribly mutilated ... suspended by the neck , with their limbs apparently stretched and torn from one extremity to the other " , who claimed to have been imprisoned there for some months .
One of those who entered the premises was Judge Jean @-@ Francois Canonge , who subsequently deposed to having found in the LaLaurie mansion , among others , a " negress ... wearing an iron collar " and " an old negro woman who had received a very deep wound on her head [ who was ] too weak to be able to walk . " Canonge claimed , that when he questioned Madame LaLaurie 's husband about the slaves , he was told in an insolent manner that " some people had better stay at home rather than come to others ' houses to dictate laws and meddle with other people 's business . "
A version of this story circulating in 1836 , recounted by Martineau , added that the slaves were emaciated , showed signs of being flayed with a whip , were bound in restrictive postures , and wore spiked iron collars which kept their heads in static positions .
When the discovery of the tortured slaves became widely known , a mob of local citizens attacked the Lalaurie residence and " demolished and destroyed everything upon which they could lay their hands " . A sheriff and his officers were called upon to disperse the crowd , but by the time the mob left , the Royal Street property had sustained major damage , with " scarcely any thing [ remaining ] but the walls . " The tortured slaves were taken to a local jail , where they were available for public viewing . The New Orleans Bee reported that by April 12 up to
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11 @,@ 000 enlisted men and 750 officers trained on her in this capacity . However , the duty lowered morale among the crew and a large number of requests for transfer were put in . Following this duty , she was sent to the US Naval Academy and undertook three consecutive midshipmen cruises ferrying a total of 1 @,@ 800 cadets from Annapolis to Trinidad between June and August 1944 .
= = = = Pacific theater = = = =
Selected to return to action in the Pacific Theater in late 1944 , she transited the Panama Canal on 27 November , and arrived in Long Beach , California on 9 December , breaking down at least once along the way and losing an observation plane in bad weather . She conducted refresher training off Southern California in December 1944 and January 1945 . New York departed 12 January and rendezvoused with Idaho , Tennessee , Nevada , Texas , and Arkansas , forming a support force for the invasion of Iwo Jima . New York lost a blade off her port screw just before the invasion began and briefly put in for temporary repairs at Eniwetok from 5 to 7 February . She returned to the group , which was near Saipan , on 11 February . Together , they arrived at Iwo Jima on 16 February and began the pre @-@ invasion bombardment . During the three days of shore bombardment that followed , New York expended 6 @,@ 417 rounds , including 1 @,@ 037 14 @-@ inch rounds . One of her salvoes struck the primary ammunition dump on the island , causing " the most spectacular secondary explosion in the campaign . " She retired from the area on 19 February and arrived at Ulithi on 21 February .
After a permanent repair to her port propeller at Manus from 28 February to 19 March , she rejoined Task Force 54 at Ulithi on 22 March in preparation for the invasion of Okinawa . Joined by Maryland , Colorado , and West Virginia , the fleet of battleships began its bombardment of Okinawa on 27 March . Providing shore bombardment , and later naval artillery support for ground forces , New York was on station for 76 consecutive days , during which she expended 4 @,@ 159 rounds of 14 @-@ inch ammunition and 7 @,@ 001 rounds of 5 @-@ inch ammunition . She was subjected to a kamikaze attack on 14 April which destroyed one spotting plane on its catapult , but the Japanese aircraft crashed 50 yd ( 46 m ) from the ship and New York received only superficial damage , suffering two men injured . She was detached on 11 June , her gun barrels having been worn out by fire , and proceeded to Pearl Harbor to have her guns relined in preparation for the invasion of mainland Japan . She stopped by Leyte on 14 June and arrived at Pearl Harbor on 1 July . She was in the harbor on 15 August , the end of the war .
During World War II , New York spent 1 @,@ 088 days with the Atlantic Fleet from December 1941 to November 1944 , and 276 days with the Pacific Fleet . She expended a total of 53 @,@ 094 rounds of all types totaling 3 @,@ 548 @.@ 9 short tons ( 3 @,@ 219 @.@ 5 t ) , traveled 123 @,@ 867 mi ( 199 @,@ 345 km ) , spent 414 days underway , and consumed 22 @,@ 367 @,@ 996 US gal ( 84 @,@ 672 @,@ 080 l ; 18 @,@ 625 @,@ 253 imp gal ) of fuel oil .
= = = Post @-@ war = = =
Following the end of the war , New York entered the Operation Magic Carpet fleet , leaving Pearl Harbor on 2 September and arriving at San Pedro on 9 September with a load of veterans embarked . She then proceeded to New York City to take part in Navy Day celebrations .
Selected as a test ship for Operation Crossroads , she was used in bomb tests at Bikini Atoll in July 1946 with about 70 other ships , surviving both the Able and Baker nuclear tests . Following these tests , she was towed to Pearl Harbor to study the effects of the bomb blasts on her . On 6 July 1948 , she was towed out to sea and used as target practice , and was sunk by several naval aircraft and ships . She had received three battle stars for her wartime service .
= = = In fiction = = =
In the Isaac Bell Adventure , The Spy by Clive Cussler & Justin Scott , the year is 1908 and there is a spy sabotaging American Battleship development . New York , known as " Hull 44 , " is a secret advanced design dreadnought that is being built during the novel .
= The Boat Race 1907 =
The 64th Boat Race took place on 16 March 1907 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . Cambridge were reigning champions , having won the previous year 's race , and more than half their crew had already participated in the event . In a race umpired by Frederick I. Pitman , Cambridge won by four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths in a time of 20 minutes 26 seconds . It was their second consecutive victory and their fifth win in six races , taking the overall record in the event to 34 – 29 in Oxford 's favour .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities ; it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and , as of 2015 , broadcast worldwide . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1906 race by three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths , while Oxford led overall with 34 victories to Cambridge 's 28 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) .
Cambridge were coached by Francis Escombe ( for the fourth consecutive year ) , Stanley Muttlebury , five @-@ time Blue between 1886 and 1890 , and David Alexander Wauchope ( who had rowed in the 1895 race ) . Oxford 's coaches were Harcourt Gilbey Gold ( Dark Blue president for the 1900 race and four @-@ time Blue ) and H. W. Willis . The umpire for the fifth year was old Etonian and former Cambridge rower Frederick I. Pitman who rowed in the 1884 , 1885 and 1886 races .
= = Crews = =
The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 12 st 2 @.@ 875 lb ( 77 @.@ 3 kg ) , 1 @.@ 875 pounds ( 0 @.@ 9 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . Oxford 's crew contained three rowers with Boat Race experience , including Henry Bucknall who was rowing in his third consecutive event . Cambridge saw five participants return to their boat , including Banner Johnstone who had rowed in both 1904 and 1906 . All of those taking part in the race were registered as British .
Late in the previous summer , and following the Henley Royal Regatta , Cambridge were challenged to a race along the Championship Course by Harvard University : Cambridge won by two lengths . The Light Blues made only two changes to personnel for this year 's Boat Race , and as noted by author and former Oxford rower George Drinkwater , " had a crew almost ready @-@ made " .
= = Race = =
Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station , handing the Middlesex side of the river to Cambridge . Although the bend of the river provided the Dark Blues with an early advantage , Cambridge were ahead and clear within a minute and a half . Rating slightly slower than the Dark Blues , they passed the Mile Post two lengths up and held a three @-@ length lead as they passed below Hammersmith Bridge . Oxford 's stroke Albert Gladstone spurted in an attempt to draw his boat back into the contest , and stroke by stroke the gap was reduced , eventually to a few feet .
Encountering rough water , Oxford had to work hard to remain in contention but at Chiswick , began to fall back rapidly . Even after reducing their stroke rate , Cambridge pulled further away to lead by four lengths at Barnes Bridge . They eased up to win by four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths in a time of 20 minutes 26 seconds , their second consecutive victory and their fifth win in six races . It was the largest winning margin since the 1904 race and took the overall record in the event to 34 – 29 in Oxford 's favour .
= Justified ( album ) =
Justified is the debut studio album by American singer @-@ songwriter Justin Timberlake . It was released on November 4 , 2002 , by Jive Records . The album was written and recorded in a six @-@ week period , during the hiatus of the singer 's band NSYNC . For the album , Timberlake began to adopt a more mature image as an R & B artist opposed to the previous pop music recorded by the group . Most of the album was produced by The Neptunes ( credited as " Williams and Hugo " on the album ) , with additional collaborators including Brian McKnight , Scott Storch , Timbaland , The Underdogs , and Carvin & Ivan . The album features guest appearances by Janet Jackson and rap duo Clipse . Primarily an R & B album , Justified also contains influences of dance @-@ pop , funk and soul music .
Justified received generally positive reviews from music critics ; most of them complimented the mature progression of the singer 's material , while some criticized its lyrical content . The album earned Timberlake four Grammy Award nominations , including Album of the Year , and won the award for Best Pop Vocal Album . Justified debuted at number two on the US Billboard 200 chart and sold 439 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . It was certified three @-@ times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) denoting shipments of three million copies in the US . As of 2012 , the album has sold over ten million copies worldwide .
Four singles were released from Justified . The album 's lead single , " Like I Love You " , peaked at number 11 on the US Billboard Hot 100 , while two follow @-@ up singles " Cry Me a River " , and " Rock Your Body " peaked within the top @-@ five on the chart . " Like I Love You " , " Cry Me a River " and " Rock Your Body " peaked at number two in the United Kingdom and in the top ten in Australia ( with " Rock Your Body " topping the Australian chart ) , Ireland , Netherlands and Belgium . To further promote the album , Timberlake performed on several television shows and embarked on The Justified World Tour and the Justified and Stripped Tour ; on the latter he was accompanied by American singer Christina Aguilera .
= = Background = =
Following the release of boy band NSYNC 's album Celebrity in 2001 , lead singer Justin Timberlake started working on his debut studio album during the hiatus . With the album , he wanted to portray a more mature image as an R & B performer , rather than a boy band pop artist . He revealed minimal information regarding the producers and artists involved with Justified during its early recording stage , with his management and record label also reluctant to share any information . However , MTV News reported that production duo The Neptunes were working on multiple tracks , while rapper P. Diddy and singer Mario Winans contributed to one track . Other known producers involved included Mike City , Raphael Saadiq and Rodney Jerkins , though between June and July , none of the aforementioned producers had attended any studio sessions . Explaining his involvement with the project , Jerkins said at the 2002 BET Awards that he " just got a call about working on the project " and that whenever Timberlake wanted his assistance , it would " be done " .
Brian McKnight 's manager stated that his client had already recorded tracks with the singer , while rapper Nelly explained to the reporters that both him and Timberlake had discussed a collaboration effort . Early in 2002 , Angie Stone revealed that Timberlake " loves the Mahogany Soul album " with him further saying to her " your CD 's in my car right now , you have to work on my solo project " . These assertions were later partially denied by a Jive spokesperson who announced that the material produced from the collaboration would not appear on the finalized record .
= = Recording = =
Justified was written and recorded in a six @-@ week period . According to Timberlake , the " creative spurt " was reminiscent of " that period of time back in the 1960s and ' 70s when musicians got together and just jammed and worked out of inspiration . There was no heavy calculation or belaboring songs and mixes . Everything flowed pretty easily and naturally . " Recording sessions took place at various studios in the United States , including the Westlake Recording Studios in Los Angeles , Manhattan Center Studios in New York City and Master Sound Recording Studios and Windmark Recording in Virginia Beach .
The Neptunes told MTV News that the duo and Timberlake drove in a car listening to Earth , Wind & Fire albums for inspiration , with the background of the band 's music what the production duo wanted to implement into Justified 's musical content . The production duo commented that despite not being content with sampling music , for inspiration , they also listened to both Off the Wall ( 1979 ) and Thriller ( 1982 ) , albums by Michael Jackson . Their intentions were to create music that was similar to Jackson 's work without " recycling them " . One of the two members of The Neptunes , Chad Hugo , commented that they just wanted to re @-@ create " that sense of those timeless , classic songs , without any of the ' bling , bling , hit me on my two @-@ way ' style of the new R & B. It has elements of the old and the new . " The producer further went on to say that people wanted Timberlake to be conformed to being part of boy band NSYNC , with the former insisting that the singer is an immaculate vocalist . Hugo acknowledged Timberlake 's break @-@ up with singer Britney Spears , saying that some of the album 's music could be directed towards it .
= = Music and lyrics = =
The opening track on Justified , " Señorita " is a Spanish oriented song that features R & B influences ; in it Timberlake sings about a girl with brown eyes . " Like I Love You " is a funk influenced song consisted of live drums , tiny guitar strum accompanied with the singer 's breathy tenor . According to Ben Ratliff of Rolling Stone , " it 's minimalism influenced by Michael Jackson " . The third track on the album , " ( Oh No ) What You Got " was described by Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine as a bit racy for the audience who expected a more boy @-@ band @-@ oriented record . Regarding the fourth song , Russell Bailie of New Zealand Herald wrote that although the album " manages to skirt teen @-@ pop sugariness for the most part , though it does offer quality mush on numbers such as ' Take It From Here ' . " " Cry Me a River " is a funk and R & B song with an instrumentation that features beatboxing , synthesizers , Arabian @-@ inspired riffs and Gregorian chants . Lyrically , the song is about a brokenhearted man who moves on from his past .
The sixth track , " Rock Your Body " , incorporates tinny , " keyboard @-@ set @-@ to @-@ emulate @-@ clavichord " synthesizers of The Neptunes ' late 90s productions , overlaid with " keys and a propulsive drum vamp " . The seventh track of the album is " Nothin ' Else " ; which according to David Merryweather of Drowned in Sound is a " slinky " and " smooth " song that is similar to the works of American musician Stevie Wonder . Influenced by Jackson 's musical style and Van McCoy 's 1975 single " The Hustle " , " Last Night " is played with a xylophone . " Still On My Brain " , the ninth track on the album , is a slow jam , similar to the songs performed by Timberlake 's former band ' NSYNC . " ( And She Said ) Take Me Now " which features singer Janet Jackson , is a disco , ' 80s funk and dub song that contains racy lyrics . Similar to the previous song , the eleventh track of the album has racy lyrics ; on it Timberlake " cockily " sings the line , " I could think of a couple positions for you " . " Let 's Take a Ride " is the twelfth song on the album , on which , according to Uncut magazine , Timberlake " offers to deliver you from your humdrum existence " . The record concludes with " Never Again " , a ballad , on which Timberlake becomes " downright maudlin and snippy " .
= = Singles = =
" Like I Love You " featuring Clipse was released as the album 's lead single . It was released as a CD single on October 14 , 2002 in Germany and the US . The song was written by Justin Timberlake and The Neptunes , who also produced the track . It received positive reviews from critics , who praised its production and use of instrumentals . " Like I Love You " charted at number eleven on the US Billboard Hot 100 , and in the top five in the UK , Denmark , Netherlands and Ireland . The song was nominated for Best Rap / Sung Collaboration at the 45th Grammy Awards .
Justified 's second single is " Cry Me a River " , and was released through contemporary and rhythmic radio on November 24 , 2002 , and as a 12 " vinyl on December 23 in the US . The song was written by Timberlake , Scott Storch and Timbaland and produced by the latter . " Cry Me a River " debuted at number 44 on the Billboard Hot 100 on the issue dated December 21 , 2002 , and eventually peaked at number three . In other countries , the song achieved similar success , reaching number two in Australia and the UK , and the top five in several other territories . " Cry Me a River " has been certified gold in Australia by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , denoting shipments of 70 @,@ 000 units , and certified silver in France . It won a Grammy Award for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance at the 2004 ceremony , while the accompanying music video won two MTV Video Music Awards : Best Male Video and Best Pop Video . The song is listed on Rolling Stone 's The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time .
" Rock Your Body " was released as the album 's third single , and was released on May 6 , 2003 as a CD single in the US . It was written by Timberlake and The Neptunes , and produced by the latter . The song topped the charts in Australia for one week , became Timberlake 's third single to reach number two in the UK , and reached the top five in Denmark , Ireland , New Zealand and the US . " Rock Your Body " was certified platinum in Australia by the ARIA . It received a gold certification in the US by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , denoting shipments of 500 @,@ 000 units .
" Señorita " is Justified 's fourth single , released through rhythmic radio on July 8 , 2003 . It was written by Timberlake and The Neptunes , while being produced by the latter . The song did not perform as well as Timberlake 's previous three single did on charts , reaching number 27 on the Hot 100 , and achieving its highest peak in Australia and New Zealand , where it reached number six and four , respectively . However the song has become somewhat of a fan favorite , receiving a lot more attention on youtube and spotify than Like I love you , and Senorita still remains on his top 10 most popular songs on Spotify to this day .
= = Promotion = =
Timberlake performed " Cry Me a River " for the first time at the 13th annual Billboard Music Awards , held on December 9 , 2002 , at the MGM Grand Garden Arena in Las Vegas . He was accompanied by a string section and a 20 @-@ member choir . He performed " Cry Me a River " on a promotional concert held at House of Blues in West Hollywood , California on June 17 , 2003 . On February 1 , 2004 , the singer performed " Rock Your Body " at the Super Bowl XXXVIII halftime show with R & B singer Janet Jackson . At the moment Timberlake sang the lyric " Bet I 'll have you naked by the end of this song , " he ripped off part of Jackson 's costume , momentarily exposing her right breast on live television . Timberlake distanced himself from the controversy while Jackson faced much criticism . He later commented that " America 's harsher on women ... [ and ] unfairly harsh on ethnic people . " He performed " Señorita " live on the sketch comedy show Saturday Night Live in October 2003 , where he served as host and musical guest .
Timberlake did a joint tour in North America with Christina Aguilera entitled the Justified and Stripped Tour , to support both Justified and Aguilera 's 2002 album , Stripped . Timberlake 's and Aguilera 's managers suggested to both singers to go on a conjoint tour . Timberlake agreed with the suggestion , saying that " It would be fun to be on tour with somebody who 's that talented " . Timberlake 's further reasoning for touring with Aguilera was due to both singers wanting to " break the mold of what people look at as teen pop and move into a different direction " . For the tour , Timberlake wanted to transform arenas into clubs , stating that he wants people " to feel like they 're a part of the show and it 's a party " , remarking that anybody caught sitting down would get booted . For the tour , Timberlake performed with eight dancers , a 14 @-@ piece band which included four backup singers , three horn players and a DJ . The tour commenced on June 4 , 2003 in Phoenix , Arizona and concluded on September 2 , 2003 in Saint Paul , Minnesota . The tour grossed approximately $ 45 million .
On September 2003 , McDonald 's announced Timberlake as a new spokesmen for their " I 'm Lovin ' It " campaign . Timberlake recorded " I 'm Lovin ' It " , to be featured in adverts for the franchise , later expanded and released as a single in December 2003 . McDonald 's later announced they will sponsor a tour for Timberlake , following his successful North American tour with Christina Aguilera , entitled the Justified World Tour . Timberlake stated " I love what McDonald 's is doing with the new ' i 'm lovin ' it ' campaign and it 's cool to be part of it [ ... ] We share the same crowd -- people who like to have fun -- and that 's what this new partnership and my European concert tour is all about . " The tour began with Timberlake playing intimate gigs at clubs and theatres in the United States and Australia before expanding to arenas in Europe . The tour commenced on May 7 , 2003 in Sheffield , England and concluded on June 19 , 2004 in Brisbane , Australia .
= = Critical reception = =
Justified received generally positive reviews from music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album has received an average score of 68 , based on 14 reviews . Ben Ratliff of Rolling Stone awarded the album four out of five stars , commending The Neptunes 's production , and noted both " Like I Love You " and " Cry Me a River " as standout tracks . Ratliff also commented that Justin Timberlake has successfully " vaulted over the canyon " to adulthood . Slant Magazine 's Sal Cinquemani gave Justified three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five , writing that Timberlake meshes with The Neptunes " so well he virtually relinquishes his personality to the super @-@ duo — he could very well be the third member of N.E.R.D. " Cinquemani noted the similarities between Justified 's tracks to the work of musician Michael Jackson , saying that the album should have been Jackson 's tenth and final studio album , Invincible ( 2001 ) . In a favorable review by BBC Music 's Denise Boyd , similar to previous reviewers , Boyd praises " Like I Love You " , while also commending " Cry Me a River " for its lyrical content and " Rock Your Body " , which he notes contains Michael Jackson and Stevie Wonder influences . Entertainment Weekly writer David Browne awarded Justified with a B rating . Similar to Sal Cinquemani , Browne wrote how the album should have been the outcome of Jackson 's tenth studio album , as " the ultramodern R & B @-@ pop hybrid " . Browne described Justified as " cohesive " , favoring the album to NSYNC 's previous two efforts : Celebrity ( 2001 ) and No Strings Attached ( 2000 ) .
The Village Voice 's Christopher O 'Connor commended The Neptunes ' production , while praising " Like I Love You " and the Janet Jackson collaboration " ( And She Said ) Take Me Now " , saying how the songs show that Timberlake " has the balls to pursue the A @-@ plus list . " O 'Connor showed ambivalence towards " Right for Me " and " Cry Me a River " , noting the former as " awkward " and the latter as " a lousy Aaliyah impression . " Tyler Martin of Stylus Magazine gave the album a B + , commending the two opening tracks , " Señorita " and " Like I Love You " , noting the two as standouts . Despite this , Martin goes onto to praise " Take It from Here " and " Cry Me a River " , closing the review with saying that the album doesn 't maintain Timberlake 's masculine persona , but still " paints a picture of a complicated young man , growing into adulthood " . NME 's Alex Needham wrote that Timberlake 's lyrics are " soppy platitudes that may or may not be about Britney " . Caroline Sullivan of The Guardian gave Justified two stars out of five , saying that the only noticeable tracks are " Cry Me a River " and " Rock Your Body " , noting the latter as " predictable " , while criticising the album 's lyrics as being " suggestive mumbling " . AllMusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine commented that Timberlake " shamelessly borrows from Jacko , from the Thriller @-@ era " , going on to criticize his vocals as to lack substance , with his falsetto lacking character .
= = Accolades = =
Justified earned Justin Timberlake three American Music Award nominations , including Favorite Pop / Rock Album , Favorite Pop / Rock Male Artist and Fan Choice Award . Timberlake won the award for Favorite Pop / Rock Album . At the 45th Grammy Awards , Timberlake had one nomination for Best Rap / Sung Collaboration for " Like I Love You " . The following year , Justified earned Timberlake nominations for Album of the Year and Best Pop Vocal Album , while " Cry Me a River " was nominated for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance . Timberlake won the latter two awards . Justified won the International Album award at the 2004 Brit Awards . At the 2003 BET Awards , he received two nominations for Best R & B Male Artist and Best New Artist . Justified was listed at number 37 on The A.V. Club 's Best music of the decade list . The album was also included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die .
= = Commercial performance = =
Justified debuted at number two on the Billboard 200 , selling 439 @,@ 000 copies in its opening week . The album was expected to top the chart , replacing the 8 Mile soundtrack ( 2002 ) . Instead the soundtrack sold 507 @,@ 000 copies , due to being propelled by Eminem 's " Lose Yourself " . The following week , Justified sold 188 @,@ 770 copies and fell two positions to number four . In its third week , the album sold 110 @,@ 000 copies and remained within the top ten on the chart . The album appeared on the Billboard 200 chart for seventy @-@ two weeks , and eventually went on to sell 3 @.@ 5 million copies in the US . It has been certified four times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , for shipments of four million copies . Justified debuted and peaked at number two on the US Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums chart . The album charted on the Billboard 200 and Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums 2003 year @-@ end charts , reaching number eleven and twenty @-@ six , respectively .
Internationally , Justified received a similar response . In the United Kingdom , Justified debuted at number six , and eventually peaked at number one on the week of November 16 , 2002 , remaining atop for seven non @-@ consecutive weeks . The album has appeared on the chart for eighty @-@ four weeks ; it has been certified five times platinum by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) for shipments of 1 @.@ 5 million copies . As of March 2015 , Justified is the 41st best @-@ selling album of the millennium in the United Kingdom . In Canada , the album peaked at number three and has been certified two times platinum by Music Canada . Justified debuted and peaked at number four in Denmark and the Netherlands , remaining on the charts for forty and seventy @-@ two weeks , respectively . The album peaked at number five in New Zealand for one week , appearing on the chart for thirty @-@ six weeks , and receiving a two times platinum certification by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) for shipping 15 @,@ 000 units . Justified peaked in the top ten in Belgium , Australia and Norway . The album charted within the top thirty and forty in several other countries . As of June 2012 , the album has sold over 10 million copies worldwide .
= = Track listing = =
Notes
^ [ a ] signifies a co @-@ producer .
" Señorita " contains additional vocals performed by Pharrell Williams .
" ( Oh No ) What You Got " contains additional vocals performed by Timbaland .
" Rock Your Body " contains additional vocals performed by Vanessa Marquez .
" Right for Me " contains additional vocals performed by Bubba Sparxxx and Timbaland .
= = Personnel = =
Credits for Justified adapted from Allmusic .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Baryonyx =
Baryonyx ( / ˌbæriˈɒnᵻks / ) is a genus of theropod dinosaur which lived in the Barremian stage of the early Cretaceous Period , about 130 – 125 million years ago . The holotype specimen was discovered in 1983 in Surrey , England , and the animal was named Baryonyx walkeri in 1986 . The genus name , Baryonyx , means " heavy claw " and alludes to the animal 's very large claw on the first finger ; the specific name ( walkeri ) refers to its discoverer , amateur fossil hunter William J. Walker . Fragmentary specimens were later discovered in other parts of the United Kingdom and Iberia . The holotype specimen is one of the most complete theropod skeletons from the UK , and its discovery attracted media attention .
Baryonyx was about 7 @.@ 5 m ( 25 ft ) long and weighed 1 @.@ 2 t ( 1 @.@ 3 short tons ) , but the holotype specimen may not have been fully grown . It had a long , low snout and narrow jaws , which have been compared to those of a gharial . The tip of the snout expanded to the sides in the shape of a rosette . Behind this , the upper jaw had a notch which fit into the lower jaw ( which curved upwards in the same area ) . It had a triangular crest on the top of its nasal bones . Baryonyx had many finely serrated , conical teeth , with the largest teeth in front . The neck was less curved than that of other theropods , and the neural spines of its dorsal vertebrae increased in height from front to back . It had robust forelimbs , with the eponymous first @-@ finger claw measuring about 31 cm ( 12 in ) long .
Now recognised as a member of the family Spinosauridae , Baryonyx 's affinities were obscure when it was discovered . Apart from the type species ( B. walkeri ) , some researchers have suggested that Suchomimus tenerensis belongs in the same genus and that Suchosaurus cultridens is a senior synonym ; however , subsequent authors have kept them separate . Baryonyx was the first theropod dinosaur demonstrated to have been piscivorous ( fish @-@ eating ) , as evidenced by fish scales in the stomach region of the holotype specimen . It may also have been an active predator of larger prey and a scavenger , since it also contained bones of a juvenile Iguanodon . The creature would have caught and processed its prey primarily with its forelimbs and large claws . Baryonyx lived near water bodies , in areas where other theropod , ornithopod , and sauropod dinosaurs have also been found .
= = Description = =
In 2010 , Baryonyx was estimated to have been 7 @.@ 5 m ( 25 ft ) long and to have weighed 1 @.@ 2 t ( 1 @.@ 3 short tons ) . It was estimated at 10 m ( 33 ft ) in 1997 , and 9 @.@ 5 m ( 31 ft ) long , 2 @.@ 5 m ( 8 @.@ 2 ft ) in hip height , and 1 @.@ 7 t ( 1 @.@ 9 short tons ) in weight in 1988 . The fact that elements of the skull and vertebral column of the B. walkeri holotype specimen ( NHM R9951 ) do not appear to have co @-@ ossified ( fused ) suggests that the individual was not fully grown , and the mature animal may have been much larger ( as attested by the size of the related Spinosaurus , which reached about 14 m ( 46 ft ) and 10 t ( 11 short tons ) . However , the specimen 's fused sternum indicates that it may have been fairly mature . The second @-@ best @-@ preserved specimen ( ML1190 ) was about the same size as the holotype skeleton .
The skull of Baryonyx is incompletely known , and much of the middle and hind portions are not preserved . The full length of the skull has been estimated to be 950 mm ( 37 @.@ 4 in ) , based on comparison with that of the related genus Suchomimus ( which is 20 % larger ) . It was elongated , and the front 170 mm ( 6 @.@ 6 in ) of the premaxillae formed a long , low snout ( rostrum ) with a rounded upper surface . The nostrils , far back from the tip , passed horizontally from one side of the skull to the other . The front 130 mm ( 5 @.@ 1 in ) of the snout expanded into a spatulate ( flared outwards to the sides ) , " terminal rosette " shape similar to the modern gharial , and the front 70 mm ( 2 @.@ 7 in ) of the lower margin was downturned . The snout was very narrow just behind the rosette . The creature 's maxilla and premaxilla fit together in a complex articulation , resulting in a strongly curved tooth row . The gap in the row is comparable to that of Dilophosaurus . The front 140 mm ( 5 @.@ 5 in ) of the dentary in the mandible curved upwards towards this area , and the gap between the upper and lower jaw is known as the subrostral notch . The snout had extensive pits ( which would have been exits for blood vessels and nerves ) , and the maxilla appears to have housed sinuses .
Baryonyx had a rudimentary secondary palate , similar to crocodiles but unlike most theropod dinosaurs . A rugose surface suggests the presence of a horny pad in the roof of the mouth . The upper midline of the nasal bones had a triangular sagittal crest , which was narrow and sharp in front . The lacrimal bone appears to have formed a horn core similar to those seen , for example , on Allosaurus . The dentary was very long and shallow , with a prominent Meckelian groove . The rest of the lower jaw was fragile ; the hind third was much thinner than the front , with a blade @-@ like appearance . The front part of the dentary curved outwards to accommodate the large front teeth , and this area formed the mandibular part of the rosette . The dentary had many foramina ( openings ) , which were passages for nerves and blood vessels . It has been suggested that some of Baryonyx 's cranial bones had been misidentified ( resulting in the occiput 's too @-@ deep reconstruction ) , and the skull was probably as low , long and narrow as that of the closely related Suchomimus .
Most of the teeth found with the holotype specimen were not attached to the skull ; a few remained in the upper jaw , and only small replacement teeth were in the lower jaw . The teeth had the shape of recurved cones , flattened somewhat sideways . Although the larger teeth were less recurved than the smaller ones , they were otherwise uniform . The roots were very long , and the teeth slender . The carinae ( edges ) of the teeth were finely serrated with denticles on the front and back . There were seven narrow , uniform denticles per millimetre ( 0 @.@ 039 in ) , more than in most theropods . Some of the teeth were fluted , with six to eight ridges along the length of their inner sides and fine @-@ grained enamel . The inner side of each tooth row had a bony wall . The number of teeth was large , with seven teeth in the right premaxilla ( other theropods have three to five ) and thirty @-@ two in the dentary , where sixteen is typical . The lower jaw would have had sixty @-@ four teeth , and the difference between the number of teeth in the upper and lower jaws is more pronounced than in other theropods . The teeth in the dentary were more densely packed than those in the maxilla , and probably smaller . The terminal rosette in the upper jaw had thirteen dental alveoli ( tooth sockets ) , six on the left and seven on the right side ; the first four were large ( with the second and third the largest ) , while the fourth and fifth progressively decreased in size . The diameter of the largest was twice that of the smallest . The first four alveoli of the dentary ( corresponding to the tip of the upper jaw ) were the largest , with the rest more regular in size . Interdental plates were between the alveoli .
The neck formed a straighter S shape ( a sigmoid curve typical of theropods ) than that seen in other theropods ; in fact , the neck was initially thought to lack the S curve . The shape of the cervical vertebrae indicate that they tapered towards the head and were progressively longer front to back . The neural spines of the cervical vertebrae were low , thin , and were not always sutured to the centra ( the bodies of the vertebrae ) . The axis vertebra , small relative to the size of the skull , had a well @-@ developed hyposphene . The centra of the dorsal vertebrae were similar in size . Like other dinosaurs , Baryonyx reduced its weight ( skeletal pneumaticity ) with fenestrae ( openings ) in the neural arches and with pleurocoels ( hollow depressions ) in the centra ( primarily near the transverse processes ) . From front to back , the neural spines of the dorsal vertebrae changed from short and stout to tall and broad .
The scapulae ( shoulder blades ) were robust ; the bones of the forelimb were short in relation to the animal 's size , but broad and sturdy . The humerus was short and stout , with its ends broadly expanded and flattened — the upper side for the deltopectoral crest and muscle attachment and the lower for articulation with the radius and ulna . The radius was short , stout and straight , and the olecranon of the ulna apparently very powerful . The lower part of the ulna had a broad expansion . The first finger had a large claw ( ungual bone ) measuring about 31 cm ( 12 in ) along its curve , which would have been lengthened by a keratin sheath in life . Apart from its size , the claw 's proportions were fairly typical of a theropod ; it was bilaterally symmetric , slightly compressed , smoothly rounded , and sharply pointed . A groove for the sheath ran along the length of the claw . The pubic foot of the pelvis was not expanded .
= = History of discovery = =
On 7 January 1983 amateur fossil hunter William John Walker discovered a large claw , a phalanx bone , and part of a rib in Smokejacks Pit , a clay pit near Ockley in Surrey , England . The tip of the claw was missing , but Walker found it a week later . British palaeontologists Alan J. Charig and Angela C. Milner examined the finds at the Natural History Museum of London and found more bones at the site on 7 February , but the entire skeleton could not be collected until May and June due to conditions at the pit . A team of eight museum staff members and a number of volunteers excavated two tonnes of matrix . Walker donated the claw to the museum , and the Ockley Brick Company ( owners of the pit ) donated the rest of the skeleton and provided equipment . Although the area had been explored for 200 years , no similar remains had been found before .
Most of the bones collected were encased in siltstone nodules surrounded by fine sand and silt , with the rest lying in clay . The bones were disarticulated and scattered over a 5 x 2 m ( 17 x 8 ft ) area , but most were not far from their natural positions . The position of some bones was disturbed by a bulldozer , and some were broken by mechanical equipment before they were collected . Preparing the specimen was difficult , due to the hardness of the siltstone matrix and the presence of siderite ; although acid preparation was attempted , most of the matrix was removed mechanically . The skeleton consisted of partial skull bones ; teeth ; cervical , dorsal and caudal vertebrae ; ribs ; a sternum ; coracoids ; arm and hand bones ; claws ; hip bones , and leg bones . The original specimen number was BMNH R9951 , but it was later renumbered NHMUK VP R9951 .
In 1986 Charig and Milner made the skeleton the holotype specimen of a new genus and species : Baryonyx walkeri . The genus name derives from ancient Greek ; βαρύς ( barys ) means " heavy " or " strong " , and ὄνυξ ( onyx ) means " claw " or " talon " . The specific name honours Walker , for discovering the specimen . At that time , the authors did not know if the large claw belonged to the hand or the foot ( as in dromaeosaurs , which it was then assumed to be ) . Due to ongoing work on the bones ( 70 percent had been prepared at the time ) , they called their article preliminary ( a " Letter to Nature " ) and promised a more @-@ detailed description at a later date . Baryonyx was the first large Early Cretaceous theropod found anywhere in the world until that time . Before the discovery of Baryonyx the last significant theropod find in the United Kingdom was Eustreptospondylus in 1871 , and in a 1986 interview Charig called Baryonyx " the best find of the century " in Europe . It was widely featured in international media , and its discovery was the subject of a 1987 BBC documentary . Baryonyx was nicknamed " Claws " by journalists punning on
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98 flew to RNZAF Ohakea for a safe emergency landing on just the nose and starboard landing gear with little further damage . A UK repair team returned it to airworthiness ; on 4 January 1960 , XH498 departed , remaining in service until 19 October 1967 .
On 16 September 1960 , Vulcan B.2 XH557 damaged the " Runway Garage " at Filton . XH557 had been allocated to Bristol Siddeley Engines to test the Olympus 301 engine and was being delivered to Filton . Approaching in poor weather conditions , the aircraft touched down halfway along the runway . The braking parachute was streamed but realising the aircraft would not stop in time , the captain opened the throttles to go round . The Runway Garage took the full force of the jet blast and property damage was sustained : four petrol pumps were blown flat , a street light on the A38 was knocked down , railings were blown over , and multiple cars had their windscreens shattered . The aircraft diverted to St. Mawgan , flying into Filton days later .
On 12 December 1963 , Vulcan B.1A XH477 of No. 50 Squadron crashed during an exercise in Scotland . Flying no less than 1 @,@ 000 ft ( 300 m ) above ground , XH477 struck the ground while climbing slightly , the cause was likely poor visibility .
On 11 May 1964 , Vulcan B.2 XH535 crashed during a demonstration . The aircraft entered a spin while a very low speed and high rate of descent was being demonstrated . The landing parachute was deployed , stopping the spin briefly before it began to spin again . At around 2 @,@ 500 ft ( 760 m ) the aircraft commander instructed the crew to abandon the aircraft . The commander and co @-@ pilot ejected successfully , but none of the rear compartment crew did so , presumably due to the g forces in the spin .
On 16 July 1964 , Vulcan B.1A XA909 crashed in Anglesey after a midair explosion caused both No. 3 and No. 4 engines to be shut down . The explosion was caused by failure of a bearing in No. 4 engine . The starboard wing was extensively damaged , the pilot had insufficient aileron power , and both airspeed indications were highly inaccurate . The whole crew successfully abandoned XA909 and were found within a few minutes and rescued .
On 7 October 1964 , Vulcan B.2 XM601 crashed during overshoot from an asymmetric power practice approach at Coningsby . The copilot had executed the asymmetric power approach with two engines producing thrust and two at idle . He was being checked by the Squadron Commander , who was unfamiliar with the aircraft . When he commenced the overshoot the copilot moved all the throttles to full power . The engines that had been producing power reached full power more quickly than the engines at idle and the resultant asymmetric thrust exceeded the available rudder authority , causing the aircraft to spin and crash . All the crew perished .
On 25 May 1965 , Vulcan B.2 XM576 crash @-@ landed at Scampton , causing it be written off within a year of delivery .
On 11 February 1966 , Vulcan B.2 XH536 of the Cottesmore Wing crashed in the Brecon Beacons during a low level exercise . The aircraft struck the ground at 1 @,@ 910 ft ( 580 m ) near the summit of Fan Bwlch Chwyth 1 @,@ 978 ft ( 603 m ) , 20 mi ( 32 km ) northeast of Swansea . All crew members died . Hilltops at the time were snow @-@ covered and cloud extended down to 1 @,@ 400 ft ( 430 m ) .
On 6 April 1967 , Vulcan B.2 XL385 burnt out on the runway at RAF Scampton at the beginning of its take @-@ off run . The aircraft was carrying a Blue Steel missile training round . All the crew , including an Air Training Corps cadet , escaped unhurt . The aircraft was engulfed in flames and totally destroyed . The accident was caused by failure of an Olympus 301 HP turbine disc as the engine reached full power .
On 30 January 1968 , Vulcan B.2 XM604 crashed following a loss of control during an overshoot at RAF Cottesmore . The rear crew members were killed though both pilots ejected . The captain ejected at a very late stage and only survived because his deploying parachute was snagged by some power cables . The accident was caused by failure of an Olympus 301 LP turbine disc after the aircraft had returned to the airfield following indications of a bomb @-@ bay overheat .
On 7 January 1971 , Vulcan B.2 XM610 of No.44 Squadron crashed due to a blade fatigue failure in the No. 1 engine , damaging the fuel system and causing a fire . The crew abandoned the aircraft safely , after which it crashed harmlessly in Wingate .
On 14 October 1975 , Vulcan B.2 XM645 of No.9 Squadron lost its left undercarriage and damaged the airframe when it undershot the runway at RAF Luqa in Malta . The aircraft broke up over the village of Żabbar while turning inbound for an emergency landing . The pilot and co @-@ pilot escaped using their ejection seats , the other five crew members were killed . Large aircraft pieces fell on the village ; one woman , Vincenza Zammit , was killed by an electric cable , some 20 others were injured .
On 17 January 1977 , Vulcan B.2 XM600 of No. 101 Squadron crashed near Spilsby , Lincolnshire . During a practice emergency descent , the bomb bay fire warning light flashed on followed by No.2 engine fire warning light . The captain shut the engine down and the AEO reported flames coming from the area of No.2 engine , just behind the deployed Ram air turbine ( RAT ) . As the fire intensified , the captain ordered the aircraft to be abandoned . The three rear crew members escaped at around 6 @,@ 000 ft ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) . After ordering the co @-@ pilot to eject , the captain ejected at around 3 @,@ 000 ft ( 910 m ) , as control was lost . The cause was due to arcing on the RAT 's electrical terminals , burning a hole in an adjacent fuel pipe and setting the fuel on fire .
On 12 August 1978 , Vulcan B.2 XL390 of No. 617 Squadron crashed during an air display at Naval Air Station Glenview , Illinois in the United States . The crew had been authorised to carry out a display at Chicago Lakeside airport , the captain had elected to carry out an unauthorised display at Glenview beforehand . After a low @-@ level run , probably below 100 ft ( 30 m ) , the aircraft pulled up for an improperly @-@ executed wingover , resulting in a low @-@ level stall and crash , killing all on board .
On 3 June 1982 , Vulcan XM597 broke its probe while attempting to refuel in flight , while returning from a mission over the Falkland Islands . With insufficient fuel to reach its base on Ascension Island , the pilot discarded classified information over the Atlantic Ocean and diverted to Rio de Janeiro . Shortly after entering Brazilian airspace , the Brazilian Air Force sent two Northrop F @-@ 5s to escort the British plane until it landed on Galeão Air Force Base . This led to high @-@ level diplomatic talks between the UK and Brazil , which remained neutral during the Falklands War . After seven days of detainment , the Vulcan and its crew were allowed to return home on the condition that XM597 played no further part in the conflict .
On 28 May 2012 , Vulcan B.2 XH558 suffered failure of the two port engines while starting a take @-@ off roll from Robin Hood airport , Doncaster , UK . Bags of silica gel desiccant were inadvertently left in the air intake after maintenance . Less than a second after increasing power from 80 % to 100 % these were ingested by one of the port engines , immediately destroying it . The remaining port engine ingested debris from the first engine , destroying this one as well . The fire prevention systems proved effective , neither the airframe nor control systems suffered damage . The pilot had no difficulty bringing the aircraft to a safe stop , having remained on the ground throughout . On 3 July 2012 , XH558 returned to flight .
= = Surviving aircraft = =
Several Vulcans survive , housed in museums in both the United Kingdom and North America ( USA & Canada ) . One Vulcan , XH558 ( G @-@ VLCN ) Spirit of Great Britain , was used as a display aircraft by the RAF as part of the Vulcan Display Flight until 1993 . After being grounded it was later restored to flight by the Vulcan To The Sky Trust and displayed as a civilian aircraft from 2008 until 2015 , before being retired a second time for engineering reasons . In retirement , XH558 is to be retained at its base at Robin Hood Airport as a taxi @-@ able aircraft , a role already performed by two other survivors , XL426 ( G @-@ VJET ) based at Southend Airport , and XM655 ( G @-@ VULC ) , based at Wellesbourne Mountford Airfield .
= = Specifications = =
= = = Vulcan B.1 = = =
Data from Polmar , Laming
General characteristics
Crew : 5 ( pilot , co @-@ pilot , AEO , Navigator Radar , Navigator Plotter )
Length : 97 ft 1 in ( 29 @.@ 59 m )
Wingspan : 99 ft 5 in ( 30 @.@ 3 m )
Height : 26 ft 6 in ( 8 @.@ 0 m )
Wing area : 3 @,@ 554 ft ² ( 330 @.@ 2 m ² )
Empty weight : 83 @,@ 573 lb ( including crew ) ( 37 @,@ 144 kg )
Max. takeoff weight : 170 @,@ 000 lb ( 77 @,@ 111 kg )
Powerplant : 4 × Bristol Olympus 101 , or 102 or 104 turbojet , 11 @,@ 000 lbf ( 49 kN ) each
Performance
Maximum speed : Mach 0 @.@ 96 ( 645 mph ( 1038.03km / h ) ) at altitude - Mach 1 + in a shallow dive
Cruise speed : Mach 0 @.@ 86 ( 567 miles per hour ( 912 km / h ) ) at 45 @,@ 000 ft
Range : 2 @,@ 607 mi ( 4 @,@ 171 km )
Service ceiling : 55 @,@ 000 ft ( 17 @,@ 000 m )
Thrust / weight : 0 @.@ 31
Armament
21 × 1 @,@ 000 pounds ( 454 kg ) of conventional bombs
1 x Blue Danube nuclear gravity bomb
1 x Violet Club 400 kt nuclear gravity bomb
1 x U.S. Mark 5 nuclear gravity bomb supplied under Project E
1 x Yellow Sun Mk.1 400 kt nuclear gravity bomb
1 x Yellow Sun Mk 2 1 @.@ 1 Mt thermonuclear gravity bomb
1 x Red Beard nuclear gravity bomb
1 x WE.177B parachute @-@ retarded nuclear gravity bomb
= = = Comparison of variants = = =
Notes
= = Popular culture = =
= A Dainty Politician =
A Dainty Politician is a 1910 American silent short drama produced by the Thanhouser Company . The film focuses on corruption political activity during a political convention in which a corrupt politician is running for re @-@ election to the United States Congress . The votes are tallied and the challenger ties with the corrupt Congressman Casey , but a third candidate holds the balance of power . Casey bribes the third candidate to retire in his favor , but the plot is uncovered and the two are ejected from the convention by a reporter who falls in love with challenger 's daughter . The film was released on August 23 , 1910 , and saw a wide national release . Little is known of the actual production , but it received mixed reaction for the plausibility of its plot . The film is presumed lost .
= = Plot = =
Though the film is presumed lost , a synopsis survives in The Moving Picture World from August 27 , 1910 . It states : " Congressman Casey is a type of the ward politician who is now , fortunately , being rapidly eliminated from politics . He is planning his re @-@ election to Congress . The decent movement in the community has been aroused and a movement is on foot to nominate Professor Blake , a citizen of high standing and character . John Willette , a reporter for the Daily Globe , calls on Professor Blake to inform him that he will be requested to run for the nomination and shows an article on the subject that has appeared in the Daily Globe . Professor Blake receives him cordially and he meets Professor Blake 's daughter , Marie ; the young people proceed to fall in love . The time for the convention arrives . As the convention is assembling and before they proceed to business , a band of suffragettes headed by Miss Croup gain admission and attempt to get a plank introduced in the platform favoring ' votes for women . ' The convention turns them down and they are ejected from the floor . "
" Nominations are then made for candidates , and after a vote has been taken it is found that ballots for Casey and Professor Blake are very evenly divided in that a candidate named Jennings , who is receiving the fewest votes , holds the balance of power . The convention takes a recess and Casey endeavors to bribe Jennings to retire in his favor and throw all his votes to Casey . Willett overhears enough of the bargain to make him suspicious , and communicates his beliefs to Marie . Between them they contrive to so fix the connection of the telephone in Casey 's room that they can overhear the completion of the bribery plot . They succeed in this , and hear Jennings agree to the bargain for the consideration of a large @-@ size check which Casey hands to him . The convention reconvenes , and John Willette appears and makes the charge publicly that Casey has bribed Jennings to throw his votes . Casey and Jennings indignantly deny this , and Marie comes forward as a witness ; whereupon Jennings and Casey try to leave the convention . Delegates grab Jennings ; search him and find the check given him by Casey . The two are ejected from the convention , which at once nominates Professor Blake and acclaims the two lovers who made the nomination possible . "
= = Production = =
The writer of the scenario is unknown , but it was most likely Lloyd Lonergan . He was an experienced newspaperman employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions . One advertisement claimed , likely in error , that this film was based on the play The Man of the Hour . Written by George Broadhurst , the play focused on political corruption in the form of graft , but the play itself was apparently inspired by politicians of New York . The plot of the film includes a nod to the Women 's suffrage movement , but it would be a decade before the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution prohibited any United States citizen from being denied the right to vote on the basis of sex . The character , Congressman Casey , would later be seen again in Orator , Knight and Cow Charmer . The film director is unknown , but it may have been Barry O 'Neil . Film historian Q. David Bowers does not attribute a cameraman for this production , but at least two possible candidates exist . Blair Smith was the first cameraman of the Thanhouser company , but he was soon joined by Carl Louis Gregory who had years of experience as a still and motion picture photographer . The role of the cameraman was uncredited in 1910 productions . There are no known credits for the cast , but Anna Rosemond and Frank H. Crane are two possible actors that were prominent players in 1910 . Credits may have included Anna Rosemond , one of two leading ladies of the Thanhouser company in this era . Frank H. Crane was a leading male actor of the company and also involved since the very beginnings of the Thanhouser Company . Bowers states that most of the credits are fragmentary for 1910 Thanhouser productions . A surviving film still leaves open the possibility of identifying two characters .
= = Release and reception = =
The one reel drama , approximately 960 feet long , was released on August 23 , 1910 . The film had a wide national release , theater advertisements are known in Kansas , Missouri , Pennsylvania , Washington , Indiana , New Hampshire , Arizona , Texas , Ohio , and Illinois . One of the last known advertisements for the film was in Bryan , Texas on March 6 , 1912 .
The film was reviewed positively in The Moving Picture World which stated , " Apparently someone connected with the Thanhouser Company has learned something of ward politics , and the methods of controlling a convention are very clearly and bluntly stated . It isn 't always possible to expose plots such as this one was exposed , but it would have been a good thing if it could be done .... The situations are dramatically worked out and the interest never flags from the beginning to the end . A love story adds a certain degree of interest to the picture , and the development of the plot is strengthened by the young people 's lovemaking . " The New York Dramatic Mirror disagreed with the plausibility of the depicted political manipulation , but found the picture to be interesting and the acting to be adequate . Later publications would also reference the film for its content , like the The Columbia Companion to American History on Film which cites it as an example of a political machine based on graft and deceit . Neither graft nor deceit is actually in play with the production , for pure bribery is the method upon which the politician uses to gain political power . Kay Sloan , author of The Loud Silents : Origins of the Social Problem Film , states that the film explored the problem of political corruption and critics approved because they saw was a realistic portrayal . Another release dealing with political corruption was The Girl Reporter , released by Thanhouser on August 16 , 1910 .
= Bridget Parker =
Bridget Louise " Didge " Parker is a fictional character from the Australian soap opera Neighbours , played by Eloise Mignon . In 2007 the show was revamped to boost falling ratings in Australia . As part of this , the show 's focus returned to family dynamics and the character of Bridget and her family were created and introduced . Bridget made her first on @-@ screen appearance on 23 July 2007 . She arrived in Erinsborough from Sydney with her father and mother , Steve and Miranda . During her time in Neighbours , Bridget 's storylines included being run over by Susan Kennedy , falling in love with Declan Napier , finding her birth mother and falling pregnant at seventeen . In March 2009 , the decision was taken to write the Parker family out of the show after both Mignon and Steve Bastoni quit . Mignon wanted to return to her studies and she had had enough of Neighbours . Bridget died on @-@ screen on 21 July 2009 after suffering internal injuries , which she sustained in a car crash . The character was popular with viewers and her pregnancy storyline was voted the best of 2008 during a poll on the official website .
= = Character creation and casting = =
In 2007 , Neighbours suffered one of its worst decline in viewers and several key changes took place to boost the ratings . Network Ten drama executive , Dan Bennett revealed that the show would return to its focus on relationships and family dynamics . Writers created and introduced a new family , the Parkers , who already had a link to Ramsay Street in the form of Ned Parker ( Daniel O 'Connor ) . The family made their first on @-@ screen appearance in July 2007 , marking the start of the show 's renovation .
Former Silversun actress Eloise Mignon was cast in the role of school girl Bridget Parker , despite being five years older than the character she would portray . Steve Bastoni and Nikki Coghill were cast as Bridget 's adoptive parents Steve and Miranda Parker respectively and Sweeney Young was cast as Bridget 's biological brother Riley .
= = Character development = =
= = = Characterisation = = =
Bridget has been portrayed out of conjunction with the stereotypical ' girly image ' , she is sporty and athletic . Mignon has described her as open , honest , outdoor kind of girl . Stating that like herself Bridget had grown up with keen interests for climbing trees , cycling and swimming in rivers , non typical female interests . She also branded Bridget as a ' sporty tomboy ' . During an interview , Mignon said that Bridget 's relationship with Declan changes her and she feels more independent from her family . She also becomes more determined as a person .
= = = Disability = = =
One of Bridget 's first high @-@ profile storylines was coping with a disability , after Susan Kennedy ( Jackie Woodburne ) hit Bridget with her car . She had been paralysed on one side of her body , the storyline saw her trying to regain the complete use of her body . Mignon explained during an interview with media reporting website Last Broadcast , the research that had been carried out and the effects on the character stating : " Bridget suffers extreme physical difficulties as a result , because she 's such a sporty tomboy , to be incapacitated suddenly poses emotional problems for her . To make sure that I could understand better what Bridget 's going through , I studied medical notes on paralysis and disability on the internet . " The storyline also explored self @-@ image issues that come with disabilities , in one episode Bridget was doing physiotherapy exercises and became in danger of drowning until Declan Napier ( James Sorensen ) saved her . He tried to kiss her but she fended off his advances , of this Mignon said : " Bridget pushes him off , she fears he 'll see her differently due to her disability . "
= = = Teen pregnancy = = =
One of the most important storylines for the character of Bridget was when she discovered that she was pregnant with Declan 's child . As the storyline progressed , Bridget was seen considering abortion or adoption , before ultimately deciding to have the child with Declan 's support . This caused controversy among conservative family groups in Australia who accused the Neighbours of using their characters to normalise teenage pregnancy . Pro @-@ Family Perspectives director Angela Conway said : " [ Teenage pregnancy ] is not something that should be considered the norm , programmes like Neighbours can make the behaviours that lead to teenage pregnancy seem normal and acceptable . A lot of kids just aren 't ready to get their head around details of explicit sexuality . " Neighbours executive producer Susan Bower defended her character 's storyline stating : " I am quite sure a lot of people are not happy with this storyline . We decided we would show the ramifications on the teenagers ' lives . " Mignon said that the storyline between Declan and Bridget was not shallow , trite or vulgar , further adding she would not have liked to film the storyline if it was and branded it as showing emotional spectrum of pregnancy justice . Critics also slammed the show , noting that Neighbours has a G @-@ rating and the storyline could lead to more promiscuity and teenage pregnancies among young viewers . The storyline continued despite the controversy it caused and Declan and Bridget became parents to a daughter , India .
= = = Departure = = =
In March 2009 , it was announced that the Parker family were to be written out of the show after Mignon and Bastoni decided to leave to concentrate on other commitments . Mignon , Bastoni and Coghill filmed their final scenes in April 2009 . Mignon announced that her reason for leaving the show was so that she could return to studying an Arts degree at Melbourne university . Mignon said " I didn 't want to defer uni forever and , to be honest , I 'd had enough of the Neighbours experience " . The Neighbours writers took the decision to kill the character off . Viewers saw Bridget being injured in a car accident while travelling to Oakey . Bridget underwent surgery and she then had a premonition of her death . Her vision comes true and she dies from internal injuries . The Metro newspaper called the scenes " tear @-@ jerking " .
When Mignon heard how Bridget was going to leave the show , she said " I was quite honoured . I feel I 've been given good scope in terms of drama – Bridget had a baby , got married and died . I got the soap opera trifecta ! " On Bridget and the Parker 's exit , Bower said " It 's the story that keeps on giving for another three or four weeks . It 's very well storylined , beautifully acted and shot . It 's a tremendous amount of work for which we 're all very proud " .
= = Storylines = =
= = = Backstory = = =
Steve and Miranda Parker adopted Bridget when she was 6 years old , along with her older brother Riley . Being adopted never worried Bridget and it was irrelevant to her day @-@ to @-@ day life as Steve and Miranda were the only parents she had ever known .
= = = 2007 – 09 = = =
Upon her arrival to Ramsay Street , Bridget makes friends with Zeke Kinski ( Matthew Werkmeister ) and she joins his football team , despite opposition from bully Justin Hunter ( Chris Toohey ) . Bridget joins Declan Napier when he begins joyriding . During a race with Justin , they are pursued by the police . They return home thinking they escaped , only to find the police waiting for them . Bridget is banned from seeing Declan , but she sneaks out to meet him at the park , where they argue . On her way home , Bridget trips and falls into the road in front of a car being driven by Susan Kennedy . Susan blacks out , a result of suffering from multiple sclerosis , and hits Bridget . She drives off , unaware of what she has done . Bridget is found and rushed to the hospital , where she undergoes emergency surgery for a bleed on her brain . She remains unconscious , until Rachel Kinski ( Caitlin Stasey ) visits and pleads with her to wake up . Bridget 's hand moves and she awakes the next day . However , she cannot feel anything down the left side of her body and she is told that she could be permanently disabled . Susan realises that she caused the accident and comes forward . She is arrested and put on trial . Bridget remembers that she fell into the road and that the accident was not Susan 's fault , and she tells the court . During a rehabilitation class at the swimming pool , Bridget meets Josh Taylor ( Liam Hemsworth ) . Following a disastrous date with Declan , where Bridget is given the impression that Declan cannot handle her disability , Bridget begins dating Josh . Following a roof collapse at an illegal dance party , Bridget and Josh are both trapped in rubble . Declan carries Josh out before coming back for Bridget . Another collapse traps Declan and Bridget together and Declan tells her that he does not have a problem with her disability . Shortly after , Bridget begins to walk without her walking aid and her mobility returns .
Bridget bonds with Chris Knight ( Luke Mitchell ) and she asks him to the school formal . She joins him in a hotel room , where Chris tries to pressure her into having sex with him . He turns aggressive and Bridget pushes him away and flees the hotel , not knowing that Chris hit his head . Chris later dies in hospital and Bridget 's father confesses to the police that he attacked Chris to protect Bridget . Steve is charged with murder , but Bridget goes to his trial and tells the court that she pushed Chris in self @-@ defense . Throughout the ordeal , Declan is a big support to Bridget and they begin a relationship .
Bridget tells Declan that she wants to have a physical relationship with him . Not long after , Bridget discovers that she is pregnant . Declan runs away scared of becoming a father and Bridget plans to have an abortion . Declan returns and commits himself to Bridget and the baby . Declan proposes to Bridget and though she is hesitant , they get engaged . Bridget decides to look for her birth mother and Joanna Hale ( Laura Lattuada ) turns up in Erinsborough . After meeting Joanna , Bridget decides to give up her own baby against Declan 's wishes . However , when Libby Kennedy ( Kym Valentine ) miscarries her own baby , Bridget realises that she wants hers . Declan and Bridget marry in a church in the country witnessed by their friends . Bridget gives birth to a daughter at a music festival and the couple name her India . Bridget and Declan struggle to cope with their new lifestyle . On a road trip to Oakey to visit relatives , Steve crashes the car . Bridget rescues India and they are found by a search team and are taken to the hospital . Bridget suffers a premonition that she is going to die and makes Declan promise that he will look after India . Shortly after , Bridget dies from a blood clot . Bridget 's death leaves Steve and Miranda devastated and they move away from Ramsay Street not long after her funeral . Declan is left to raise India by himself .
= = Reception = =
The Parker family 's entrance to the show was watched by an average 1 @.@ 05 million viewers in Australia . Following their arrival , Network Ten 's head of drama Dan Bennett praised the new cast members saying " It 's probably the strongest cast we 've ever had " .
The character received negative criticism from Ruth Deller of television website Lowculture . Shortly after her arrival , Deller said " ' Didge ' either needs to get over herself , fast , or die in a freak accident " . Deller later called her " a whiny , self @-@ absorbed pain in the arse " . However , following Bridget 's death in 2009 , Deller wrote that she had grown fond of Bridget and Declan as a couple .
Bridget 's pregnancy was nominated for " Best Storyline " at the 2009 Inside Soap Awards and fans of the show also voted the storyline the most popular of 2008 in a poll conducted by the official Neighbours website . The website announced that they had received over 5 @,@ 500 votes and they added " We all love a bit of drama , and who would argue that Bridget falling pregnant at the age of 16 and Declan 's rebellion against the constraints of fatherhood wasn 't the juiciest story of 2008 ! " Sarah Megginson of website SheKnows included Bridget 's death in her " 8 Most Memorable Neighbours Moments " feature in October 2009 . She said " When our beloved teen mum Bridget ' Didge ' Napier died in a car crash – just weeks after giving birth to her baby girl ! – we couldn 't help but shed a tear or twelve for new dad Declan and baby India . "
Susan Bower revealed in a 2010 interview that she thought the storyline between Bridget and Chris Knight was " brilliant " . She also added that the storyline featuring Bridget 's pregnancy and her relationship with Declan was " extraordinary – something we were terribly proud of . "
= The Mansion Family =
" The Mansion Family " is the twelfth episode of the eleventh season of the American animated sitcom The Simpsons . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on January 23 , 2000 , and was watched in around 11 @.@ 3 million homes during the broadcast . In the episode , Mr. Burns goes to the Mayo Clinic for a check @-@ up after being declared the oldest man in Springfield at an awards ceremony . He leaves the Simpson family to house @-@ sit his mansion for him . When Homer throws a party on Burns ' private yacht in international waters , the party goers are captured by Chinese pirates .
American pop singer Britney Spears guest starred in " The Mansion Family " as herself . She appears as the host of the awards ceremony . The episode , which was written by John Swartzwelder and directed by Michael Polcino , features several cultural references . Many parts of the story were inspired by real @-@ life events experienced by some of the staff members of the series . Since airing , the episode has received generally mixed reviews from critics . It was released on the DVD collection The Simpsons Gone Wild in 2004 , and The Simpsons – The Complete Eleventh Season in 2008 .
= = Plot = =
At the annual Springfield Pride Awards hosted by Kent Brockman and Britney Spears , awards are given to prominent Springfield citizens for their achievements . They present the award for the oldest man in Springfield to Cornelius Chapman , who is 108 years old . Chapman comes up to accept his award , but when Spears gives him a congratulatory kiss on the cheek , he dies of a heart attack . The award is therefore given to the now oldest Springfieldian in the crowd , Mr. Burns . After Burns wins , he realizes he is not a young man anymore , so he and his assistant Smithers go to the Mayo Clinic in Minnesota for a check @-@ up . Burns decides to give the Simpson family an opportunity to house sit his private mansion while he is being tested for various diseases .
After enjoying life as a billionaire for a few days , Homer decides to throw a party before Burns returns . He heads to Moe 's Tavern to buy some beer and invite his friends to the party . However , Moe informs Homer that he can not sell him alcohol on account of it being Sunday before 2 : 00 PM . After Homer is told the only way he could buy alcohol would be to sail out to international waters where there are no laws , he and his friends ( including his son Bart ) set sail in Burns ' private yacht to throw the party there . Back at the Mayo Clinic , Burns discovers that he not only has all previously discovered diseases , but numerous new diseases the doctors have just discovered in him . However , the sheer number of diseases prevents any one disease from actually doing harm to him . This leads Burns to ( incorrectly ) conclude that he is indestructible , even though the doctors protest that even a slight breeze could disrupt the balance in his body .
Meanwhile , the party continues and the party goers force Burns ' monkeys into having a knife fight . The yacht is eventually boarded by Chinese pirates who take the ship hostage . The pirates rob everyone on board and tie them up in a net which they then toss overboard . But to the luck of Homer and some of the other guests who happen to be above ocean surface level , it floats and they avoid drowning . Eventually Homer and Bart make it back to the mansion where the family returns the house to Burns after Marge and Lisa have scrubbed all the rooms clean . Back at the Simpsons home , everyone is glad to live a normal life again — with the exception of Homer , who is upset that he does not live the lifestyle of rich people . The episode ends with Homer wailing about how rich all the persons in the closing credits are ( except Richard K. Chung , whom he dismisses as poor ) and threatening to report them to the Internal Revenue Service and telling the Gracie Films woman not to shush him .
= = Production = =
" The Mansion Family " was written by John Swartzwelder and directed by Michael Polcino as part of the eleventh season of The Simpsons ( 1999 – 2000 ) . It was the first of many episodes of the series that Polcino directed . Executive producer Mike Scully was the one who received the idea for the first part of the story . He explained on a DVD audio commentary for the episode that his grandmother was the oldest citizen of his hometown West Springfield , Massachusetts , and " they had a ceremony where she was awarded a cane that had a golden head on it . And the weird thing of the ceremony is her name wasn 't on the cane , and the mayor of the town stood up and he says : ' And now , of course as soon as Hazel passes away , her name will be engraved on the cane . ' So she would never live to see it happen . But nonetheless , she was given the cane . "
The subplot of " The Mansion Family " , where Mr. Burns gets a medical examination , was inspired by Swartzwelder 's own visit to a Mayo Clinic . George Meyer , an executive producer on the series , has said that " John , I don 't think is a guy who goes to the doctor very often . And every 20 or 30 years , he decides he needs to get a tune up . So he went to the Mayo Clinic , had them give him an entire battery of tests . And as John [ jokingly ] tells it , they said that his constant smoking had done no harm to him whatsoever . Might even be benefiting him . " While writing the parts of the episode that involve international waters , the writers did research and found that the actual laws of international waters are more complex and ambiguous compared to what they had already written in the story , but they decided to ignore that .
American pop singer Britney Spears guest starred in the episode as herself . According to Scully , she was seventeen to eighteen years old when she recorded her lines , and " She was a lot of fun to work with . She was a fan of the show , and she was willing to do all the lines . It was all the people around her that were crazy , the management and all that . We originally had her introduce herself [ in the episode ] as ' I 'm teenage songbird Britney Spears . ' And she recorded a few takes and they were fine . And suddenly , all these guys come rushing in [ saying ] ' She can 't say songbird . ' [ We asked ] what 's wrong with songbird ? And they were somehow convinced that it was some sort of slam or an insult . " The staff members were therefore forced to change her opening line to " I 'm teen sensation Britney Spears . "
Many scenes in " The Mansion Family " were inspired by popular culture . For example , there is a painting hanging on one of the walls in Burns ' mansion that depicts Burns playing poker with dogs , referencing the oil paintings series Dogs Playing Poker . Another painting , showing a nude Burns , is a callback to a previous episode of the series , " Brush with Greatness " ( 1991 ) , in which Marge produced the painting for Burns . Featured in the episode is also a joke that makes fun of the Grammy Awards . During the awards ceremony , Homer complains , " Why won 't anyone give me an award ? " When Lisa points out that " You won a Grammy , " Homer says " I mean an award that 's worth winning . " At this point the screen freezes and a message scrolls across the bottom of the screen reading " LEGAL DISCLAIMER : Mr. Simpson 's opinions do not reflect those of the producers , who don 't consider the Grammy an award at all . "
= = Release = =
The episode originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on January 23 , 2000 . It was viewed in approximately 11 @.@ 3 million households that night . With a Nielsen rating of 11 @.@ 2 , the episode tied Becker ( CBS ) for the 14th place ( compared the season average of 37 ) in the ratings for the week of January 17 – 23 , 2000 . The episode was the third highest @-@ rated broadcast on Fox that week , following a NFC Championship post @-@ game show and Malcolm in the Middle . On September 14 , 2004 , the episode was released in the United States on a DVD collection titled The Simpsons Gone Wild , along with the season one episode " Homer 's Night Out " , the season ten episode " Sunday , Cruddy Sunday " , and the season thirteen episode " Homer the Moe " . On October 7 , 2008 , " The Mansion Family " was released on DVD again as part of the box set The Simpsons – The Complete Eleventh Season . Staff members Mike Scully , George Meyer , Ron Hauge , Matt Selman , Tim Long , Michael Polcino , Donick Cary , and Pete Michels participated in the DVD audio commentary for the episode . Deleted scenes from the episode were also included on the box set .
" The Mansion Family " has received generally mixed reception from critics . Susan Dunne of The Hartford Courant described it as " debauched but hilarious . " While reviewing the eleventh season of The Simpsons , DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson commented on " The Mansion Family " , writing that " Although The Simpsons started out as moderately reality based , pretty much any grounding was gone by [ the point this episode aired ] . That doesn ’ t mean the show fails to depict funny bits , especially during the dark humor of Burns ’ hospital visit . Nonetheless , [ the episode ] occasionally goes too far to the side of silliness ; those gags are hit or miss . "
In a review of the episodes featured on The Simpsons Gone Wild , PopMatters critic Stephen Haag wrote that " none of these episodes will end up in the Simpsons Hall of Fame " , and that " The Mansion Family " is " hardly a classic episode , but Lord knows there are plenty worse from season 11 ( paging ' Bart to the Future ' ) . " He further commented that " if anything , this episode should be included in the ' batshit @-@ crazy endings ' DVD , " referring to the ending scenes with the Chinese pirates . David Packard of DVD Verdict was more positive in his review of The Simpsons Gone Wild , writing that " The Mansion Family " is " another all @-@ around hilarious episode , with a nice swipe at the Grammy Awards , the Simpsons family running amok in the mansion and enjoying all it has to offer , and Burns ' various tests at the Mayo Clinic ( my favorite gag is when Burns is slid into an MRI machine , only to hear the thing grind to a halt with an error message reading ' Clear body jam in Area 1 . ' ) "
= Argus ( 30 Rock ) =
" Argus " is the nineteenth episode of the fourth season of the American television comedy series 30 Rock , and the 77th overall episode of the series . It was written by 30 Rock producers Dylan Morgan , Paula Pell , and Josh Siegal . The episode was directed by co @-@ executive producer and show composer Jeff Richmond . It originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) network in the United States on April 29 , 2010 . Guest stars in this episode include Will Forte , Marceline Hugot , and Burke Moses .
In the episode , Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) receives a peculiar gift from the late Don Geiss ( Rip Torn ) . Meanwhile , Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) and Pete Hornberger ( Scott Adsit ) get suspicious of Jenna Maroney 's ( Jane Krakowski ) new boyfriend ( Forte ) . At the same time , Liz tries to sort out Grizz Griswold 's ( Grizz Chapman ) problem when both Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) and " Dot Com " Slattery ( Kevin Brown ) want to be Grizz 's best man .
" Argus " has received generally positive reception from television critics . According to the Nielsen Media Research , the episode was watched by 5 @.@ 93 million households during its original broadcast , and received a 2 @.@ 7 rating / 8 share among viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic .
= = Plot = =
Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) announces to The Girlie Show with Tracy Jordan ( TGS ) staff that Grizz Griswold ( Grizz Chapman ) will be getting married at the end of the month . A problem immediately ensues after Grizz cannot decide between Tracy and " Dot Com " Slattery ( Kevin Brown ) to be his best man . Grizz then asks Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) to help him convince Tracy that Dot Com should be his best man . The two suggest another task Tracy can do at the wedding , but Tracy insists on being the best man . Later , Liz learns that Dot Com is in love with Grizz 's fiancée , Feyoncé , Grizz is not aware of this , and that the only reason Tracy wanted to be the best man was to protect Dot Com . Finally , after changing Grizz 's mind about Dot Com as his best man , Grizz appoints Liz as his woman of honor at his wedding instead .
Meanwhile , Liz and Pete Hornberger ( Scott Adsit ) are suspicious that Jenna Maroney 's ( Jane Krakowski ) new boyfriend Paul ( Will Forte ) is using her . Pete and Liz follow Paul to a bar and find out that he is a Jenna Maroney impersonator , performing as her in a drag show . The next day , Liz asks Jenna if she knows what Paul does , but Jenna is aware of his work , having met Paul at a Jenna Maroney impersonator contest in which he won and Jenna herself placed fourth . Liz does not approve of the relationship and confronts Paul , asking what his intentions are with Jenna . Paul tells her that he is not using Jenna to further his career , but that he is with her because she accepts him for who he is . Liz is convinced by their touching ( although weird ) display of care for each other , ultimately approving of their relationship .
At the same time , Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) is informed by Don Geiss 's ( Rip Torn ) estate lawyer Thomas ( Burke Moses ) that he is in Don Geiss 's will . Jack is excited at the idea of owning a piece of Geiss 's legacy as Jack considered Geiss his mentor . At the will reading , Jack inherits Geiss 's beloved pet peacock named Argus . When Argus begins acting peculiar , Jack enlists the help of NBC page Kenneth Parcell ( Jack McBrayer ) . Kenneth — who knows all the peafowl calls — tells Jack that Argus muttered senpai and kōhai — master and pupil — nicknames that Geiss and Jack had for each other ( a ruse conceived by Liz , who knew of the nicknames ) . Immediately , Jack is convinced that Geiss 's soul has inhabited Argus , prompting Jack to release his grief to Argus and finally accepting Geiss 's death .
= = Production = =
" Argus " was written by show producers Dylan Morgan , Paula Pell , and Josh Siegal . The director of this episode was co @-@ executive producer and show composer Jeff Richmond . Richmond is married to series creator Tina Fey . This was Morgan , Pell and Siegal 's second writing credit , after Morgan and Siegal penned " Sun Tea " , and Pell who developed the " Floyd " script . Richmond made his directorial debut in the show with " Argus " . This episode of 30 Rock originally aired on NBC in the United States on April 29 , 2010 , as the nineteenth episode of the show 's fourth season and the 77th overall episode of the series . " Argus " was filmed on March 1 , 2010 .
Comedian actor Will Forte made a second appearance on the show , having guest starred as a different character in the February 1 , 2007 , episode " Black Tie " from the show 's first season . In this episode , Forte played Jenna Maroney 's boyfriend and Jenna impersonator . At the end of this episode , Paul , dressed as Jenna , and Jenna sing the song " All by Myself " . Forte has appeared in the main cast of Saturday Night Live ( SNL ) , a weekly sketch comedy series which airs on NBC in the United States . Tina Fey was the head writer on SNL from 1999 until 2006 . Forte would appear in the season finale episode " I Do Do " that aired on May 20 , 2010 . Actress Marceline Hugot guest starred as Kathy Geiss , the daughter of former General Electric CEO Don Geiss , played by Rip Torn , for the tenth time . During the reading of her father 's will here , Kathy receives a pocket watch with the instructions not to get it wet , though Kathy has already put the watch in her mouth . Actor Burke Moses guest starred as Don Geiss 's estate lawyer named Thomas .
During the episode Jack Donaghy inherits Argus , Don Geiss 's beloved pet peacock . Throughout the episode , Argus can be seen at Jack 's office in the 30 Rock building . An actual peacock was featured here . In one scene , Liz Lemon sees Argus and is frightened of him . While talking to Jack , Argus hits Liz across the face with his feathers , thus marking her as his mate . To accommodate this , puppeteers — Peter Linz , Noel MacNeal , and Carmen Osbahr — were brought in to hit Liz in the face with feathers instead of using the peacock itself .
Throughout the episode , Grizz Griswold alludes that he and Liz had a romantic relationship in the past . In order to choose between Tracy Jordan and Dot Com Slattery as his best man , Grizz turns to Liz for help . After agreeing to help him out , Grizz wonders whether or not it was awkward for Liz that Tracy brought up his wedding , but she asks " Why would it be awkward ? " , he responds " Because of our sexual past . " Afterwards , Grizz says that he and Liz were the " Sam and Diane of this place [ TGS ] " , a reference to the Sam and Diane characters from the television show Cheers . In " Greenzo " , that aired in the second season of the series , Liz sexually harasses Grizz at Kenneth Parcell 's out of control party , and Kenneth tells Liz off the next day , stating that before that party , he had " never seen Grizz or Dot Com cry . " In addition , the Dot Com storyline of him being in love with Grizz 's fiancée , Feyoncé , began in the season three episode " St. Valentine 's Day " .
= = Reception = =
According to the Nielsen Media Research , " Argus " was watched by 5 @.@ 439 million households in its original American broadcast . It earned a 2 @.@ 7 rating / 8 share in the 18 – 49 demographic , meaning that it was seen by 2 @.@ 7 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 8 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This was an increase from the previous episode , " Khonani " , which was watched by 5 @.@ 182 million American viewers . " Argus " won its timeslot in the 18 – 34 male demographic winning with a 3 @.@ 2 rating beating the competition by a 1 @.@ 3 rating .
The A.V. Club 's Nathan Rabin enjoyed " Argus " , noting that it was " entertaining , funny and had some killer one @-@ liners " and that it featured " all kinds of silly but in a very winning way . " Rabin enjoyed all the plots featured here , and praised Will Forte 's role as Jenna 's boyfriend and impersonator . Emily Exton from Entertainment Weekly wrote that the peacock storyline " felt too silly " , and that Forte " was too underused as Paul " , nonetheless said that despite not being the greatest 30 Rock episode of all time " there were still some hilarious lines . " IGN contributor Robert Canning liked Grizz 's dilemma plot , commenting that Grizz not trying to hurt Tracy 's feelings while Tracy tried to keep Dot Com away from Grizz 's bride @-@ to @-@ be " offered up some inspired lunacy . " His only complaint about " Argus " was Jack 's plot as he deemed it disappointing . A review in TV Guide by Adam Mersel said " ... Fey and the gang live up to the challenge , and produce [ ' Argus ' ] a hilarious , quite snotty episode that holds up to any comedy around . " Meredith Blake , writing for the Los Angeles Times , was positive towards the episode , reasoning that the writing " is just so deliciously absurd that I can 't help but giggle the whole way through " , and that the plots featured here were " sublimely inconsequential . Not a whole lot happened , but it was all very funny . " Nick Catucci from New York magazine , who did not enjoy the two other stories , appreciated Jenna 's , explaining that by having the character date one of her own impersonator was " outrageous and funny without relying on any cheap insults to trannies . " Sean Gandert from Paste magazine reported that " Argus " was an episode that " [ took ] us back to the show 's roots " , explaining that recapturing the " old tone " also worked to " recapture the old joke @-@ writing expertise . It wasn 't 100 % consistent , but there were so many good one @-@ liners to counterbalance the misfires that it didn 't even matter . This is 30 Rock the way it should be . " The Houston Press ' Daniel Carlson wrote that Grizz 's wedding story was " pure filler , but everything on the show 's kind of filler for the wackiness , so it mostly worked . " Carlson wrote that the best part from " Argus " came with Forte 's Paul as Jenna 's boyfriend and impersonator .
Bob Sassone of AOL 's TV Squad did not respond well to the episode , observing that " Argus " would go down 30 Rock history as " one of the worst episodes of the series . " One of the problems he had was that the Jack character bonded with the peacock for the entire episode . " As I 've said before , I hate the episodes where Jack is out of control or acting goofy or involved in some lame pursuit , and this one of the more lame pursuits . "
= K @-@ 179 ( Kansas highway ) =
K @-@ 179 is an 11 @.@ 588 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 18 @.@ 649 km ) state highway in Harper County , Kansas . It runs from Oklahoma State Highway 132 ( SH @-@ 132 ) the Oklahoma state line north to the city of Anthony , where it ends at K @-@ 44 . The route was designated around 1956 , and is not part of the National Highway System .
= = Route description = =
Just north of Manchester , Oklahoma , K @-@ 179 begins running west along the Oklahoma state line as a continuation of SH @-@ 132 . The route then turns due north and continues through flat farm fields . A series of curves take the highway slightly to the northeast before it enters the city of Anthony , where it becomes known as Jennings Avenue . Just more than 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) north of the Anthony city limits , K @-@ 179 meets its northern terminus at an intersection with K @-@ 44 , also known as Main Street .
K @-@ 179 is maintained by the Kansas Department of Transportation ( KDOT ) . Every year , KDOT measures traffic on each of its state highways in terms of average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) . In 2012 , K @-@ 179 was found to have AADT counts of 303 on the first five miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) of the route and 433 just south of Anthony , the route 's lowest and highest counts , respectively . The highway is not a part of the United States National Highway System .
= = History = =
The road that would become K @-@ 179 first appeared on the 1936 state highway map as a paved county road connection . This roadway was designated as K @-@ 179 around 1956 . The routing of the highway has not been modified since its designation .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Harper County .
= Bangerz =
Bangerz is the fourth studio album by American singer Miley Cyrus . It was released on October 4 , 2013 , by RCA Records . Opting to re @-@ establish her music career instead of focusing on her film career as originally planned , Cyrus began planning the project in 2012 . Work continued into 2013 , at which time she left her previous label Hollywood Records and subsequently joined RCA Records . Described by Cyrus as " dirty south hip @-@ hop " , Bangerz represents a musical departure from her earlier work , which she has grown to feel " disconnected " from . As executive producers , Cyrus and Mike Will Made It collaborated with hip hop producers including Cirkut , Pharrell Williams , and will.i.am to achieve Cyrus ' desired new sound . Their efforts resulted in a primarily pop record , with lyrical themes that revolve largely around romance . It features guest vocals from several new partners , including pop singer Britney Spears and rappers French Montana , Future , Ludacris , and Nelly .
Bangerz received mixed to positive reviews from contemporary music critics , who praised its overall production and originality , and complimented Cyrus ' public persona evolution . The record debuted at number one on the U.S. Billboard 200 with first @-@ week sales of 270 @,@ 000 copies . In doing so , it became Cyrus ' fifth non @-@ consecutive number @-@ one album , including earlier soundtracks in which she performed as her character Hannah Montana . It was the third @-@ highest opening week for a female artist in 2013 , and was later certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) after moving one million units . The album received a Grammy Award nomination for Best Pop Vocal Album , giving Cyrus her first Grammy nomination .
" We Can 't Stop " was released as the lead single from Bangerz on June 3 , 2013 , and peaked at number two on the US Billboard Hot 100 . The second single " Wrecking Ball " was released on August 25 , 2013 , and became Cyrus ' first single to peak in the top position in the United States . Its accompanying music video held the record for the fastest video to reach 100 million views on Vevo being beaten by Adele 's " Hello " music video in 2015 , it also earned Cyrus the award for " Video of The Year " at the 2014 MTV Video Music Awards . " Adore You " was serviced as the third single from the record on December 17 , 2013 ; it has peaked at number 21 on the Billboard Hot 100 . A remix of the track produced by Cedric Gervais was released on March 3 , 2014 . Promotional efforts for Bangerz continued to associate Cyrus with an increasingly provocative image , an effort first begun with her third record , Can 't Be Tamed ( 2010 ) . She garnered widespread media attention through a controversial performance at the 2013 MTV Video Music Awards , and was later the host and musical guest during an episode of Saturday Night Live . Furthermore , Cyrus promoted the album with her international Bangerz Tour .
= = Background and production = =
In 2012 , Cyrus announced plans to focus on her film career , effectively putting her musical endeavors on hiatus . That year , she appeared in the films LOL and So Undercover . She was also confirmed as a primary voice actress in the feature film Hotel Transylvania , but dropped out of the project to coordinate a musical comeback . In January 2013 , Cyrus signed a recording contract with RCA Records . In March , she confirmed that her fourth studio album would be released by the end of 2013 . Cyrus stated that she " started over " as an artist after terminating the services of her previous professional connections , who she felt " would have [ been ] scared " by her evolving public image . In a later interview , she elaborated that she recognizes Bangerz to be her official debut record , deprecating her earlier projects released during the production of Hannah Montana . While recording the then @-@ untitled album , Cyrus intended to produce a " very adult and sexy and believable " final product , and was " having fun making music [ for ] the first time in her career . " She said the album was influenced by Motown Sound . Musical acts which inspired the album included Miguel and Frank Ocean .
She described the music as " dirty south hip @-@ hop " and combining the genres of hip @-@ hop and country , which she felt was a " good hybrid " . To achieve this sound , Cyrus worked with various hip hop producers including Mike Will Made It , Mac Miller , Pharrell Williams , and Tyler , the Creator in cities including Atlanta , Georgia . They helped her to incorporate hip hop music elements into the project , which Cyrus acknowledged resulted in a " really different sound " . Cyrus further commented that her project would " shut everyone up " , and later compared the record to Bad ( 1987 ) by Michael Jackson , in that " people still are listening to [ it ] because it 's so fucking dope " and " [ wants ] people to listen to [ her ] album like that . " She also expressed her desire to " set a new standard for pop music " . Producer Sean Garrett called the record " fun [ and ] exciting " , and stated that a collaboration that Cyrus recorded with Britney Spears would appear on the final track listing . Mike Will Made It explained that the title for the album was decided upon after realizing that " whole album was bangers " .
= = Release and artwork = =
On August 6 , 2013 , after reaching 13 million followers on Twitter , Cyrus tweeted that the record would be titled Bangerz . Its cover sleeve and images were shot by British photographer Tyrone Lebon ; several unused pictures from the photo shoot surfaced online on June 5 , 2014 . On August 24 , 2013 , Cyrus unveiled the album artworks for the standard and deluxe versions of the album ; both depict a blonde Cyrus wearing a short black coat with the title " Bangerz " stylized in fluorescent neon lighting in front of palm trees . It was described as being reminiscent of the 1980s television series Miami Vice and an unexpected choice given her recent influence by hip hop culture . Later on August 25 , Bangerz was made available for pre @-@ order through the iTunes Store . She later confirmed that it would be released on October 8 , 2013 in the United States . After her music video for the track " Wrecking Ball " broke the Vevo record for the most views in the first twenty @-@ four hours of its release , Cyrus revealed the track listing for Bangerz through Twitter on September 10 .
On September 18 , 2013 , Cyrus unveiled four additional covers for the physical version of the deluxe record , which were sporadically distributed across international retailers and voted on by fans to determine the official cover to be printed for future pressings . Two of the covers display Cyrus dressed in alternate outfits , one with a black jacket and another with a white bra and checkered black pants . A third depicts a close @-@ up of Cyrus surrounded by roses , while a fourth highlights a topless Cyrus covering her chest . The topless cover is featured for an online @-@ exclusive edition of the record and is also the primary visual for the vinyl pressings , released on November 26 through Cyrus ' online store . It was compared to her music video for " Wrecking Ball " , which also showcased an unclothed Cyrus , while the others were deemed conservative by comparison . A page of stickers is packaged with the deluxe version of the album . On October 15 , it was announced through Cyrus ' Facebook profile that the original deluxe artwork would remain the official cover . The record is additionally marked with the Parental Advisory label , affixed by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) to identify explicit content . On September 29 , 30 @-@ second snippets of each track on Bangerz were made available through AllMusic . The following day , the full record was made available for streaming through the iTunes Store and iTunes Radio .
= = Composition = =
Bangerz is primarily a pop album , which also integrates elements of hip hop , synthpop , and country music . During an interview on The Ellen DeGeneres Show on October 10 , host Ellen DeGeneres asked Cyrus if the record was inspired by her relationship with Liam Hemsworth , to which she replied " the whole album is a story of that and I think it says that starting with " Adore You " and ending with " Someone Else " ..... I think I knew more intuitively where my life was going than I actually thought I did at the time . "
The record opens with " Adore You " , a pop and R & B , ballad , which lyrically addresses a lover through lyrics including " We were meant to be / In holy matrimony " . Nick Catucci from Entertainment Weekly opined that the track allowed Cyrus to showcase her vocal abilities . " We Can '
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) Good Works Team . His Good Works team recognition was for his weekly appearances at the C.S. Mott Children 's Hospital . He joins Zoltan Mesko as the only two Michigan players to ever receive the AFCA Good Works Team recognition . On November 13 , Omameh was named a finalist for the 2012 Pop Warner National College Football Award . Omameh was a first team All @-@ Big Ten selection by the coaches and an honorable mention selection by the media . He earned his third consecutive Academic All @-@ Big Ten recognition in 2012 .
= = Professional career = =
= = = San Francisco 49ers = = =
Omameh signed an undrafted free agent contract with the San Francisco 49ers following the 2013 NFL Draft . Omameh was cut during the final preseason roster moves on August 31 , 2013 and signed to the practice squad two days later .
= = = Tampa Bay Buccaneers = = =
On October 11 , 2013 , the Tampa Bay Buccaneers signed Omameh off of the 49ers ' practice squad . He started all 16 games for the Buccaneers at the right guard position during the 2014 season . The Buccaneers cut Omameh before the 2015 season on September 5 , 2015 .
= = = Chicago Bears = = =
On September 6 , 2015 , Omameh was signed the following day to the Chicago Bears after he cleared waivers . After playing 679 snaps for the Bears , he became an unrestricted free agent , but was expected to return to the team .
= = = Jacksonville Jaguars = = =
Omameh signed with the Jacksonville Jaguars on June 2 , 2016 .
= = Personal = =
Omameh 's parents , Phyllis and Patrick Sr. , moved to Columbus , Ohio from Nigeria in the early 1980s . His father is 5 foot 10 inches ( 1 @.@ 78 m ) and his mother is 5 foot 6 inches ( 1 @.@ 68 m ) .
= Jefferson Davis =
Jefferson Finis Davis ( June 3 , 1808 – December 6 , 1889 ) was an American politician who was a U.S. Representative and Senator from Mississippi , the 23rd U.S. Secretary of War , and the President of the Confederate States of America during the American Civil War . He took personal charge of the Confederate war plans but was unable to find a strategy to defeat the more populous and industrialized Union . His diplomatic efforts failed to gain recognition from any foreign country , and at home , the collapsing Confederate economy forced his government to print more and more paper money to cover the war 's expenses , leading to runaway inflation and devaluation of the Confederate dollar .
Davis was born in Kentucky to a moderately prosperous farmer , and grew up on his older brother Joseph 's large cotton plantations in Mississippi and Louisiana . Joseph Davis also secured his appointment to the U.S. Military Academy at West Point . After graduating , Jefferson Davis served six years as a lieutenant in the U.S. Army . He fought in the Mexican – American War ( 1846 – 1848 ) , as the colonel of a volunteer regiment . He served as the U.S. Secretary of War from 1853 to 1857 under President Franklin Pierce , and as a Democratic U.S. senator from Mississippi . Before the war , he operated a large cotton plantation in Mississippi and owned more than 100 slaves . After the war had ended , he remained a proud apologist for the cause of slavery for which he and the Confederacy had fought . Although Davis argued against secession in 1858 , he believed that each state was sovereign and had an unquestionable right to secede from the Union .
Davis 's first wife , Sarah Knox Taylor , died of malaria after three months of marriage , and he also struggled with recurring bouts of the disease . He was unhealthy for much of his life . At the age of 36 Davis married again , to 18 @-@ year @-@ old Varina Howell , a native of Natchez who had been educated in Philadelphia and had some family ties in the North . They had six children . Only two survived him , and only one married and had children .
Many historians attribute the Confederacy 's weaknesses to the poor leadership of President Davis . His preoccupation with detail , reluctance to delegate responsibility , lack of popular appeal , feuds with powerful state governors and generals , favoritism toward old friends , inability to get along with people who disagreed with him , neglect of civil matters in favor of military ones , and resistance to public opinion all worked against him . Historians agree he was a much less effective war leader than his Union counterpart Abraham Lincoln . After Davis was captured in 1865 , he was accused of treason . He was never tried and was released after two years . While not disgraced , Davis had been displaced in ex @-@ Confederate affection after the war by his leading general , Robert E. Lee . Davis wrote a memoir entitled The Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government , which he completed in 1881 . By the late 1880s , he began to encourage reconciliation , telling Southerners to be loyal to the Union . Ex @-@ Confederates came to appreciate his role in the war , seeing him as a Southern patriot , and he became a hero of the Lost Cause in the post @-@ Reconstruction South .
= = Early life and first military career = =
Davis 's paternal grandparents each immigrated separately to North America from the region of Snowdonia in North Wales in the early 18th century . The rest of his ancestry was English . After arriving in Philadelphia , Davis 's paternal grandfather Evan settled in the colony of Georgia , which was developed chiefly along the coast . He married the widow Lydia Emory Williams , who had two sons from a previous marriage .
Their son Samuel Emory Davis was born in 1756 . He served in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War , along with his two older half @-@ brothers . In 1783 , after the war , he married Jane Cook . She was born in 1759 to William Cook and his wife Sarah Simpson in what is now Christian County , Kentucky . In 1793 , the Samuel Davis family relocated to Kentucky , establishing what is now the community of Fairview on the border of Christian and Todd counties . Samuel and Jane Davis had ten children ; Joseph was the oldest son , born in 1784 ; Jefferson was the last and was born on June 3 , 1807 or 1808 , on the Davis homestead in Fairview . The year of his birth is uncertain ; Davis gave both 1807 and 1808 , at different points in his life . Samuel had been a young man when Thomas Jefferson wrote the Declaration of Independence in 1776 . Jefferson was the third President of the United States , and Samuel , admiring him greatly , named his last son after the president . Coincidentally , Abraham Lincoln was born eight months later , less than 100 miles ( 160 km ) to the northeast in Hodgenville , Kentucky . In the early 20th century , the Jefferson Davis State Historic Site was established near the site of Davis 's birth .
During Davis 's youth , his family moved twice : in 1811 to St. Mary Parish , Louisiana , and less than a year later to Wilkinson County , Mississippi . The international slave trade was prohibited in 1808 , and planters used the domestic slave trade to procure laborers for developing cotton culture in the Deep South . Three of Davis 's older brothers served in the War of 1812 . In 1813 , Davis began his education at the Wilkinson Academy in the small town of Woodville , near the family cotton plantation .
His brother Joseph , who was 24 years older , acted as a surrogate father and encouraged Jefferson in his education . Two years later , Davis entered the Catholic school of Saint Thomas at St. Rose Priory , a school operated by the Dominican Order in Washington County , Kentucky . At the time , he was the only Protestant student at the school . In 1818 Davis returned to Mississippi , studying at Jefferson College at Washington . Three years later in 1821 , he returned to Kentucky , where he studied at Transylvania University in Lexington . ( At the time , these colleges were like academies , roughly equivalent to high schools . ) His father Samuel died on July 4 , 1824 , when Jefferson was 16 years old .
Joseph arranged for Davis to get an appointment and attend the United States Military Academy ( West Point ) starting in late 1824 . While there , he was placed under house arrest for his role in the Eggnog Riot during Christmas 1826 . Cadets smuggled whiskey into the academy to make eggnog , and more than one @-@ third of the cadets were involved in the incident . In June 1828 , Davis graduated 23rd in a class of 33 .
Following graduation , Second Lieutenant Davis was assigned to the 1st Infantry Regiment and was stationed at Fort Crawford , Prairie du Chien , Michigan Territory . Zachary Taylor , a future president of the United States , had assumed command shortly before Davis arrived in early 1829 . In March 1832 , Davis returned to Mississippi on furlough , having had no leave since he first arrived at Fort Crawford . He was still in Mississippi during the Black Hawk War but returned to the fort in August . At the conclusion of the war , Colonel Taylor assigned him to escort Black Hawk to prison . Davis made an effort to shield Black Hawk from curiosity seekers , and the chief noted in his autobiography that Davis treated him " with much kindness " and showed empathy for the leader 's situation as a prisoner .
= = First marriage and early career = =
Davis fell in love with Sarah Knox Taylor , daughter of his commanding officer ; future president Zachary Taylor . Both Sarah and Davis sought Taylor 's permission to marry . Taylor refused , as he did not wish his daughter to have the difficult life of a military wife on frontier army posts . Davis 's own experience led him to appreciate Taylor 's objection . He consulted with his older brother Joseph , and they both began to question the value of an Army career . Davis hesitated to leave , but his desire for Sarah overcame this , and he resigned his commission in a letter dated April 20 , 1835 . He had arranged for the letter to be sent to the War Department for him on May 12 when he did not return from leave ; he had made no mention to Taylor of his intention to resign . Against his former commander 's wishes , on June 17 , he married Sarah in Louisville , Kentucky . His resignation became effective June 30 .
Davis 's older brother Joseph had been very successful and owned Hurricane Plantation and 1 @,@ 800 acres ( 730 ha ) of adjoining land along the Mississippi River on a peninsula 20 miles south of Vicksburg , Mississippi . The adjoining land was known as Brierfield since it was largely covered with brush and briers . Wanting to have his youngest brother and his wife nearby , Joseph gave use of Brierfield to Jefferson , who eventually developed Brierfield Plantation there . Joseph retained the title .
In August 1835 , Jefferson and Sarah traveled south to his sister Anna 's home in West Feliciana Parish , Louisiana ; the plantation was known as Locust Grove . Their goal was to spend the hot summer months in the countryside away from the river floodplain , for their health , but both of them contracted either malaria or yellow fever . Sarah died at the age of 21 on September 15 , 1835 , after just three months of marriage . Davis was also severely ill , and his family feared for his life . In the month following Sarah 's death , he slowly improved , although he remained weak .
In late 1835 , Davis sailed from New Orleans to Havana , Cuba , to help restore his health . He was accompanied by James Pemberton , his only slave at that time . Davis observed the Spanish military and sketched fortifications . Although no evidence points to his having any motive beyond general interest , the authorities knew that Davis was a former army officer and warned him to stop his observations . Bored and feeling somewhat better , Davis booked passage on a ship to New York , then continued to Washington , D.C. , where he visited his old schoolmate George Wallace Jones . He soon returned with Pemberton to Mississippi .
For several years following Sarah 's death , Davis was reclusive and honored her memory . He spent time clearing Brierfield and developing his plantation , studied government and history , and had private political discussions with his brother Joseph . By early 1836 , Davis had purchased 16 slaves ; he held 40 slaves by 1840 , and 74 by 1845 . Davis promoted Pemberton to be overseer of the field teams . In 1860 , he owned 113 slaves .
In 1840 , Davis first became involved in politics when he attended a Democratic Party meeting in Vicksburg and , to his surprise , was chosen as a delegate to the party 's state convention in Jackson . In 1842 , he attended the Democratic convention , and , in 1843 , became a Democratic candidate for the state House of Representatives from the Warren County @-@ Vicksburg district ; he lost his first election . In 1844 , Davis was sent to the party convention for a third time , and his interest in politics deepened . He was selected as one of six presidential electors for the 1844 presidential election and campaigned effectively throughout Mississippi for the Democratic candidate James K. Polk .
= = Second marriage and family = =
In 1844 , Davis met Varina Banks Howell , then 17 years old , whom his brother Joseph had invited for the Christmas season at Hurricane Plantation . She was a granddaughter of New Jersey Governor Richard Howell ; her mother 's family was from the South and included successful Scots @-@ Irish planters . Within a month of their meeting , the 35 @-@ year @-@ old widower Davis had asked Varina to marry him , and they became engaged despite her parents ' initial concerns about his age and politics . They were married on February 26 , 1845 .
During this time , Davis was persuaded to become a candidate for the United States House of Representatives and began canvassing for the election . In early October 1845 he traveled to Woodville to give a speech . He arrived a day early to visit his mother there , only to find that she had died the day before . After the funeral , he rode the 40 miles ( 64 km ) back to Natchez to deliver the news , then returned to Woodville again to deliver his speech . He won the election .
Jefferson and Varina had six children ; three died before reaching adulthood . Samuel Emory , born July 30 , 1852 , was named after his grandfather ; he died June 30 , 1854 , of an undiagnosed disease . Margaret Howell was born February 25 , 1855 , and was the only child to marry and raise a family . She married Joel Addison Hayes , Jr . ( 1848 – 1919 ) , and they had five children . They were married in St. Lazarus Church , nicknamed " The Confederate Officers ' Church " , in Memphis , Tennessee . In the late 19th century , they moved from Memphis to Colorado Springs , Colorado . She died on July 18 , 1909 , at the age of 54 .
Jefferson Davis , Jr . , was born January 16 , 1857 . He died of yellow fever at age 21 on October 16 , 1878 , during an epidemic in the Mississippi River Valley that caused 20 @,@ 000 deaths . Joseph Evan , born on April 18 , 1859 , died at the age of five due to an accidental fall on April 30 , 1864 . William Howell , born on December 6 , 1861 , was named for Varina 's father ; he died of diphtheria at age 10 on October 16 , 1872 . Varina Anne , known as " Winnie " , was born on June 27 , 1864 , several months after her brother Joseph 's death . She was known as the Daughter of the Confederacy as she was born during the war . After her parents refused to let her marry into a northern abolitionist family , she never married . She died nine years after her father , on September 18 , 1898 , at age 34 .
Davis had poor health for most of his life , including repeated bouts of malaria , battle wounds from fighting in the Mexican – American War and a chronic eye infection that made bright light painful . He also had trigeminal neuralgia , a nerve disorder that causes severe pain in the face ; it has been called one of the most painful known ailments .
= = Wartime colonel = =
In 1846 the Mexican – American War began . Davis resigned his House seat in early June and raised a volunteer regiment , the 155th Infantry Regiment , becoming its colonel under the command of his former father @-@ in @-@ law , General Zachary Taylor . On July 21 the regiment sailed from New Orleans for Texas . Colonel Davis sought to arm his regiment with the M1841 Mississippi rifle . At this time , smoothbore muskets were still the primary infantry weapon , and any unit with rifles was considered special and designated as such . President James K. Polk had promised Davis the weapons if he would remain in Congress long enough for an important vote on the Walker tariff . General Winfield Scott objected on the basis that the weapons were insufficiently tested . Davis insisted and called in his promise from Polk , and his regiment was armed with the rifles , making it particularly effective in combat . The regiment became known as the Mississippi Rifles because it was the first to be fully armed with these new weapons . The incident was the start of a lifelong feud between Davis and Scott .
In September , Davis participated in the Battle of Monterrey , during which he led a successful charge on the La Teneria fort . On February 22 , 1847 , Davis fought bravely at the Battle of Buena Vista and was shot in the foot , being carried to safety by Robert H. Chilton . In recognition of Davis 's bravery and initiative , Taylor is reputed to have said , " My daughter , sir , was a better judge of men than I was . " On May 17 , President Polk offered Davis a federal commission as a brigadier general and command of a brigade of militia . Davis declined the appointment , arguing that the Constitution gives the power of appointing militia officers to the states , not the federal government .
= = Return to politics = =
= = = Senator = = =
Honoring Davis 's war service , Governor Brown of Mississippi appointed him to the vacant position of United States Senator Jesse Speight , who had died on May 1 , 1847 . Davis took his temporary seat on December 5 , and in January 1848 he was elected by the state legislature to serve the remaining two years of the term . In December , during the 30th United States Congress , Davis was made a regent of the Smithsonian Institution and began serving on the Committee on Military Affairs and the Library Committee .
In 1848 , Senator Davis proposed and introduced an amendment ( the first of several ) to the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo that would have annexed most of northeastern Mexico , but it failed on a vote of 11 to 44 . Southerners wanted to increase territory held in Mexico as an area for the expansion of slavery . Regarding Cuba , Davis declared that it " must be ours " to " increase the number of slaveholding constituencies . " He also was concerned about the security implications of a Spanish holding lying relatively close to the coast of Florida .
A group of Cuban revolutionaries led by Venezuelan adventurer Narciso López intended to forcibly liberate Cuba from Spanish rule . Searching for a military leader for a filibuster expedition , they first offered command of the Cuban forces to General William J. Worth , but he died before making his decision . In the summer of 1849 , López visited Davis and asked him to lead the expedition . He offered an immediate payment of $ 100 @,@ 000 ( worth more than $ 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in 2013 ) , plus the same amount when Cuba was liberated . Davis turned down the offer , stating that it was inconsistent with his duty as a senator . When asked to recommend someone else , Davis suggested Robert E. Lee , then an army major in Baltimore ; López approached Lee , who also declined on the grounds of his duty .
The Senate made Davis chairman of the Committee on Military Affairs on December 3 , 1849 , during the first session of the 31st United States Congress . On December 29 he was elected to a full six @-@ year term ( by the Mississippi legislature , as the constitution mandated at the time ) . Davis had not served a year when he resigned ( in September 1851 ) to run for the governorship of Mississippi on the issue of the Compromise of 1850 , which he opposed . He was defeated by fellow Senator Henry Stuart Foote by 999 votes . Left without political office , Davis continued his political activity . He took part in a convention on states ' rights , held at Jackson , Mississippi , in January 1852 . In the weeks leading up to the presidential election of 1852 , he campaigned in numerous Southern states for Democratic candidates Franklin Pierce and William R. King .
= = = Secretary of War = = =
Franklin Pierce won the presidential election , and in 1853 made Davis his Secretary of War . In this capacity , Davis began the Pacific Railroad Surveys in order to determine various possible routes for the proposed Transcontinental Railroad . He promoted the Gadsden Purchase of today 's southern Arizona from Mexico , partly because it would provide an easier southern route for the new railroad ; the Pierce administration agreed , and the land was purchased in December 1853 . He saw the size of the regular army as insufficient to fulfill its mission , and maintained that salaries would have to be increased , something which had not occurred for 25 years . Congress agreed and increased the pay scale , and added four regiments which increased the army 's size from about 11 @,@ 000 to about 15 @,@ 000 . Davis also introduced general usage of the rifles that he had used successfully during the Mexican – American War . As a result , both the morale and capability of the army was improved . He became involved in public works when Pierce gave him responsibility for construction of the Washington Aqueduct and an expansion of the U.S. Capitol , both of which he managed closely . The Pierce administration ended in 1857 after Pierce 's loss of the Democratic nomination to James Buchanan . Davis 's term was to end with Pierce 's , so he ran for the Senate , was elected , and re @-@ entered it on March 4 , 1857 .
= = = Return to Senate = = =
In the 1840s , tensions were growing between the North and South over various issues including slavery . The Wilmot Proviso , introduced in 1846 , contributed to these tensions ; if passed , it would have banned slavery in any land acquired from Mexico . The Compromise of 1850 brought a temporary respite , but the Dred Scott case , decided by the United States Supreme Court in 1857 , spurred public debate . Justice Taney ruled that the Missouri Compromise was unconstitutional and that African Americans had no standing as citizens under the constitution . Northerners were outraged and there was increasing talk in the South of secession from the Union .
Davis 's renewed service in the Senate was interrupted in early 1858 by an illness that began as a severe cold and which threatened him with the loss of his left eye . He was forced to remain in a darkened room for four weeks . He spent the summer of 1858 in Portland , Maine . On the Fourth of July , Davis delivered an anti @-@ secessionist speech on board a ship near Boston . He again urged the preservation of the Union on October 11 in Faneuil Hall , Boston , and returned to the Senate soon after .
As he explained in his memoir The Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government , Davis believed that each state was sovereign and had an unquestionable right to secede from the Union . At the same time , he counseled delay among his fellow Southerners , because he did not think that the North would permit the peaceable exercise of the right to secession . Having served as secretary of war under President Pierce , he also knew that the South lacked the military and naval resources necessary for defense in a war . Following the election of Abraham Lincoln in 1860 , however , events accelerated . South Carolina adopted an ordinance of secession on December 20 , 1860 , and Mississippi did so on January 9 , 1861 . Davis had expected this but waited until he received official notification . On January 21 , the day Davis called " the saddest day of my life " , he delivered a farewell address to the United States Senate , resigned and returned to Mississippi .
= = President of the Confederate States of America = =
Anticipating a call for his services since Mississippi had seceded , Davis had sent a telegraph message to Governor John J. Pettus saying , " Judge what Mississippi requires of me and place me accordingly . " On January 23 , 1861 , Pettus made Davis a major general of the Army of Mississippi . On February 9 , a constitutional convention met at Montgomery , Alabama and considered Davis and Robert Toombs of Georgia as a possible president . Davis , who had widespread support from six of the seven states , easily won . He was seen as the " champion of a slave society and embodied the values of the planter class , " and was elected provisional Confederate President by acclamation . He was inaugurated on February 18 , 1861 . Alexander Stephens was chosen as Vice President , but he and Davis feuded constantly .
Davis was the first choice because of his strong political and military credentials . He wanted to serve as commander in chief of the Confederate armies but said he would serve wherever directed . His wife Varina Davis later wrote that when he received word that he had been chosen as president , " Reading that telegram he looked so grieved that I feared some evil had befallen our family . "
Several forts in Confederate territory remained in Union hands . Davis sent a commission to Washington with an offer to pay for any federal property on Southern soil , as well as the Southern portion of the national debt , but Lincoln refused to meet with the commissioners . Brief informal discussions did take place with Secretary of State William Seward through Supreme Court Justice John A. Campbell . From Alabama , he later resigned from the federal government . Seward hinted that Fort Sumter would be evacuated , but gave no assurance .
On March 1 , 1861 , Davis appointed General P. G. T. Beauregard to command all Confederate troops in the vicinity of Charleston , South Carolina , where state officials prepared to take possession of Fort Sumter . Beauregard was to prepare his forces but avoid an attack on the fort . Lincoln dispatched a small fleet of warships , troops , and transports from the navy yard in New York to resupply and re @-@ enforce Fort Pickens and Fort Sumter , although he told Davis they would not fire unless fired upon . They did arrive but were unable to help and just watched the action from 10 miles out .
Davis faced the most important decision of his career : to prevent reinforcement at Fort Sumter or to let it take place . He and his cabinet decided to demand that the Federal garrison surrender and , if this was refused , to use military force to prevent reinforcement before the fleet arrived . Major Anderson did not surrender . Beauregard bombarded the fort on April 12 . The Confederates launched an artillery attack on Fort Sumter until it surrendered . No one was killed in the artillery duel , but the attack on the U.S. fortress meant the fighting had started . President Lincoln called up state militia to march south to recapture Federal property . In the North and South , massive rallies were held to demand immediate war . The Civil War had begun .
At the start of the war , nearly 21 million people lived in the North compared to 9 million in the South . The North had vastly greater industrial capacity , built nearly all of the locomotives , steamships , and industrial machinery , and had a much larger and more integrated railroad system . Nearly all of the munitions facilities were in the North , while critical ingredients for gunpowder were in very short supply in the South . The Union had a large navy , whereas the new Confederacy had only a few captured warships — the handful it built were failures . The Union blockade made imports via blockade runners difficult and expensive .
When Virginia joined the Confederacy , Davis moved his government to Richmond in May 1861 . He and his family took up his residence there at the White House of the Confederacy later that month . Having served since February as the provisional president , Davis was elected to a full six @-@ year term on November 6 , 1861 and was inaugurated on February 22 , 1862 .
In June 1862 , in his most successful action , Davis assigned General Robert E. Lee to replace the wounded Joseph E. Johnston in command of the Army of Northern Virginia , the main Confederate army in the Eastern Theater . That December he made a tour of Confederate armies in the west of the country . Davis had a very small circle of military advisers . He largely made the main strategic decisions on his own , though he had special respect for Lee 's views . Given the Confederacy 's limited resources compared with the Union , Davis decided that the Confederacy would have to fight mostly on the strategic defensive . He maintained a mostly defensive outlook throughout the war , paying special attention to the defense of his national capital at Richmond . He attempted strategic offensives when he felt that military success would both shake Northern self @-@ confidence and strengthen the peace movements there . The campaigns met defeat at Antietam in Maryland ( 1862 ) and Gettysburg in Pennsylvania ( 1863 ) , as well as in Kentucky during the Confederate Heartland Offensive ( 1862 ) .
= = = Administration and cabinet = = =
As provisional president in 1861 , Davis formed his first cabinet . Robert Toombs of Georgia was the first Secretary of State and Christopher Memminger of South Carolina became Secretary of the Treasury . LeRoy Pope Walker of Alabama was made Secretary of War , after being recommended for this post by Clement Clay and William Yancey ( both of whom declined to accept cabinet positions themselves ) . John Reagan of Texas became Postmaster General . Judah P. Benjamin of Louisiana became Attorney General . Although Stephen Mallory was not put forward by the delegation from his state of Florida , Davis insisted that he was the best man for the job of Secretary of the Navy , and he was eventually confirmed .
Since the Confederacy was founded , among other things , on states ' rights , one important factor in Davis 's choice of cabinet members was representation from the various states . He depended partly upon recommendations from congressmen and other prominent people . This helped maintain good relations between the executive and legislative branches . This also led to complaints as more states joined the Confederacy , however , because there were more states than cabinet positions .
As the war progressed , this dissatisfaction increased and there were frequent changes to the cabinet . Toombs , who had wished to be president himself , was frustrated as an advisor and resigned within a few months of his appointment to join the army . Robert Hunter of Virginia replaced him as Secretary of State on July 25 , 1861 . On September 17 , Walker resigned as Secretary of War due to a conflict with Davis , who had questioned his management of the War Department and had suggested he consider a different position . Walker requested , and was given , command of the troops in Alabama . Benjamin left the Attorney General position to replace him , and Thomas Bragg of North Carolina ( brother of General Braxton Bragg ) took Benjamin 's place as Attorney General .
Following the November 1861 election , Davis announced the permanent cabinet in March 1862 . Benjamin moved again , to Secretary of State . George W. Randolph of Virginia had been made the Secretary of War . Mallory continued as Secretary of the Navy and Reagan as Postmaster General . Both kept their positions throughout the war . Memminger remained Secretary of the Treasury , while Thomas Hill Watts of Alabama was made Attorney General .
In 1862 Randolph resigned from the War Department , and James Seddon of Virginia was appointed to replace him . In late 1863 , Watts resigned as Attorney General to take office as the Governor of Alabama , and George Davis of North Carolina took his place . In 1864 , Memminger withdrew from the Treasury post due to congressional opposition , and was replaced by George Trenholm of South Carolina . In 1865 , congressional opposition likewise caused Seddon to withdraw , and he was replaced by John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky .
Cotton was the South 's primary export and the basis of its economy , and the system of production the South used was dependent upon slave labor . At the outset of the Civil War , Davis realized that intervention from European powers would be vital if the Confederacy was to stand against the Union . The administration sent repeated delegations to European nations , but several factors prevented Southern success in terms of foreign diplomacy . The Union blockade of the Confederacy led European powers to remain neutral , contrary to the Southern belief that a blockade would cut off the supply of cotton to Britain and other European nations and prompt them to intervene on behalf of the South . Many European countries objected to slavery . Britain had abolished it in the 1830s , and Lincoln 's Emancipation Proclamation of 1863 made support for the South even less appealing in Europe . Finally , as the war progressed and the South 's military prospects dwindled , foreign powers were not convinced that the Confederacy had the strength to become independent . In the end , not a single foreign nation recognized the Confederate States of America .
= = Strategic failures = =
Most historians sharply criticize Davis for his flawed military strategy , his selection of friends for military commands , and his neglect of homefront crises . Until late in the war , he resisted efforts to appoint a general @-@ in @-@ chief , essentially handling those duties himself . On January 31 , 1865 , Lee assumed this role , but it was far too late . Davis insisted on a strategy of trying to defend all Southern territory with ostensibly equal effort . This diluted the limited resources of the South and made it vulnerable to coordinated strategic thrusts by the Union into the vital Western Theater ( e.g. , the capture of New Orleans in early 1862 ) . He made other controversial strategic choices , such as allowing Lee to invade the North in 1862 and 1863 while the Western armies were under very heavy pressure . When Lee lost at Gettysburg , Vicksburg simultaneously fell , and the Union took control of the Mississippi River , splitting the Confederacy . At Vicksburg , the failure to coordinate multiple forces on both sides of the Mississippi River rested primarily on Davis 's inability to create a harmonious departmental arrangement or to force such generals as Edmund Kirby Smith , Earl Van Dorn , and Theophilus H. Holmes to work together .
Davis has been faulted for poor coordination and management of his generals . This includes his reluctance to resolve a dispute between Leonidas Polk , a personal friend , and Braxton Bragg , who was defeated in important battles and distrusted by his subordinates . He was similarly reluctant to relieve the capable but overcautious Joseph E. Johnston until , after numerous frustrations which he detailed in a March 1 , 1865 letter to Col. James Phelan of Mississippi , he replaced him with John Bell Hood .
Davis gave speeches to soldiers and politicians but largely ignored the common people , who came to resent the favoritism shown the rich and powerful ; Davis thus failed to harness Confederate nationalism . One historian speaks of " the heavy @-@ handed intervention of the Confederate government . " Economic intervention , regulation , and state control of manpower , production and transport were much greater in the Confederacy than in the Union . Davis did not use his presidential pulpit to rally the people with stirring rhetoric ; he called instead for people to be fatalistic and to die for their new country . Apart from two month @-@ long trips across the country where he met a few hundred people , Davis stayed in Richmond where few people saw him ; newspapers had limited circulation , and most Confederates had little favorable information about him .
To finance the war , the Confederate government initially issued bonds , but investment from the public never met the demands . Taxes were lower than in the Union and collected with less efficiency ; European investment was also insufficient . As the war proceeded , both the Confederate government and the individual states printed more and more paper money . Inflation increased from 60 % in 1861 to 300 % in 1863 and 600 % in 1864 . Davis did not seem to grasp the enormity of the problem .
In April 1863 , food shortages led to rioting in Richmond , as poor people robbed and looted numerous stores for food until Davis cracked down and restored order . Davis feuded bitterly with his vice president . Perhaps even more seriously , he clashed with powerful state governors who used states ' rights arguments to withhold their militia units from national service and otherwise blocked mobilization plans .
Davis is widely evaluated as a less effective war leader than Lincoln , even though Davis had extensive military experience and Lincoln had little . Davis would have preferred to be an army general and tended to manage military matters himself . Lincoln and Davis led in very different ways . According to one historian ,
Lincoln was flexible ; Davis was rigid . Lincoln wanted to win ; Davis wanted to be right . Lincoln had a broad strategic vision of Union goals ; Davis could never enlarge his narrow view . Lincoln searched for the right general , then let him fight the war ; Davis continuously played favorites and interfered unduly with his generals , even with Robert E. Lee . Lincoln led his nation ; Davis failed to rally the South .
There were many factors that led to Union victory over the Confederacy , and Davis recognized from the start that the South was at a distinct disadvantage ; but in the end , Lincoln helped to achieve victory , whereas Davis contributed to defeat .
= = = Final days of the Confederacy = = =
In March 1865 , General Order 14 provided for enlisting slaves into the army , with a promise of freedom for service . The idea had been suggested years earlier , but Davis did not act upon it until late in the war , and very few slaves were enlisted .
On April 3 , with Union troops under Ulysses S. Grant poised to capture Richmond , Davis escaped to Danville , Virginia , together with the Confederate Cabinet , leaving on the Richmond and Danville Railroad . Lincoln sat in Davis 's Richmond office just 40 hours later . William T. Sutherlin turned over his mansion , which served as Davis 's temporary residence from April 3 to April 10 , 1865 . On about April 12 , Davis received Robert E. Lee 's letter announcing surrender . He issued his last official proclamation as president of the Confederacy , and then went south to Greensboro , North Carolina .
After Lee 's surrender , a public meeting was held in Shreveport , Louisiana , at which many speakers supported continuation of the war . Plans were developed for the Davis government to flee to Havana , Cuba . There , the leaders would regroup and head to the Confederate @-@ controlled Trans @-@ Mississippi area by way of the Rio Grande . None of these plans was put into practice .
On April 14 , Lincoln was shot , dying the next day . Davis expressed regret at his death . He later said that he believed Lincoln would have been less harsh with the South than his successor , Andrew Johnson . In the aftermath , Johnson issued a $ 100 @,@ 000 reward for the capture of Davis and accused him of helping to plan the assassination . As the Confederate military structure fell into disarray , the search for Davis by Union forces intensified .
President Davis met with his Confederate Cabinet for the last time on May 5 , 1865 , in Washington , Georgia , and officially dissolved the Confederate government . The meeting took place at the Heard house , the Georgia Branch Bank Building , with 14 officials present . Along with their hand @-@ picked escort led by Given Campbell , Davis and his wife Varina Davis were captured by Union forces on May 10 at Irwinville in Irwin County , Georgia .
Mrs. Davis recounted the circumstances of her husband 's capture as described below : " Just before day the enemy charged our camp yelling like demons ... I pleaded with him to let me throw over him a large waterproof wrap which had often served him in sickness during the summer season for a dressing gown and which I hoped might so cover his person that in the grey of the morning he would not be recognized . As he strode off I threw over his head a little black shawl which was around my own shoulders , saying that he could not find his hat and after he started sent my colored woman after him with a bucket for water hoping that he would pass unobserved . "
It was reported in the media that Davis put his wife 's overcoat over his shoulders while fleeing . This led to the persistent rumor that he attempted to flee in women 's clothes , inspiring caricatures that portrayed him as such . Over 40 years later , an article in the Washington Herald claimed that Mrs. Davis 's heavy shawl had been placed on him to protect him from the " chilly atmosphere of the early hour of the morning " by the slave James H. Johnson , Davis 's valet who served Davis during the Civil War . Meanwhile , Davis 's belongings continued on the train bound for Cedar Key , Florida . They were first hidden at Senator David Levy Yulee 's plantation in Florida , then placed in the care of a railroad agent in Waldo . On June 15 , 1865 , Union soldiers seized Davis 's personal baggage from the agent , together with some of the Confederate government 's records . A historical marker was erected at this site . In 1939 , Jefferson Davis Memorial Historic Site was opened to mark the place where Confederate President Jefferson Davis was captured .
= = Imprisonment = =
On May 19 , 1865 , Davis was imprisoned in a casemate at Fortress Monroe on the coast of Virginia . Irons were riveted to his ankles at the order of General Nelson Miles who was in charge of the fort . Davis was allowed no visitors , and no books except the Bible . He became sicker , and the attending physician warned that his life was in danger , but this treatment continued for some months until late autumn when he was finally given better quarters . General Miles was transferred in mid @-@ 1866 , and Davis 's treatment continued to improve .
Pope Pius IX ( see Pope Pius IX and the United States ) , seeing himself a prisoner in the Vatican , after learning that Davis was a prisoner , sent him a portrait inscribed with the Latin words " Venite ad me omnes qui laboratis , et ego reficiam vos , dicit Dominus " , which correspond to Matthew 11 : 28 , " Come to me , all you that labor , and are burdened , and I will refresh you , sayeth the Lord " . A hand @-@ woven crown of thorns associated with the portrait is often said to have been made by the Pope but may have been woven by Davis 's wife Varina .
Varina and their young daughter Winnie were allowed to join Davis , and the family was eventually given an apartment in the officers ' quarters . Davis was indicted for treason while imprisoned ; one of his attorneys was ex @-@ Governor Thomas Pratt of Maryland . There was a great deal of discussion in 1865 about bringing treason trials , especially against Jefferson Davis , and there was no consensus in President Johnson 's cabinet to do so . There were no treason trials against anyone , as it was felt they would probably not succeed and would impede reconciliation . After two years of imprisonment , Davis was released on bail of $ 100 @,@ 000 , which was posted by prominent citizens including Horace Greeley , Cornelius Vanderbilt and Gerrit Smith . ( Smith was a former member of the Secret Six who had supported abolitionist John Brown . ) Davis went to Montreal , Canada to join his family which had fled there earlier , and lived in Lennoxville , Quebec until 1868 also visiting Cuba , and Europe in search of work . Davis remained under indictment until he was released from all liability by the presidential amnesty issued by Johnson on December 25 , 1868 .
= = Later years = =
In 1869 , Davis became president of the Carolina Life Insurance Company in Memphis , Tennessee , where he resided at the Peabody Hotel . Upon General Lee 's death in 1870 , Davis presided over the memorial meeting in Richmond . Elected to the U.S. Senate again , he was refused the office in 1875 , having been barred from Federal office by Section Three of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution . He turned down the opportunity to become the first president of the Agriculture and Mechanical College of Texas ( now Texas A & M University ) .
During Reconstruction , Davis publicly remained silent on his opinions ; but privately he expressed opinions that federal military rule and Republican authority over former Confederate states was unjustified . He considered " Yankee and Negroe " rule in the South oppressive . Like most of his white contemporaries , Davis held the belief that blacks were inferior to whites . The historian William J. Cooper has stated that Davis believed in a Southern social order that included " a democratic white polity based firmly on dominance of a controlled and excluded black caste . "
Ownership of the Brierfield plantation was embroiled in court cases , with the politics of the state judges playing a key role . Only after the Democrats took control of the state supreme court in 1881 did Davis , for the first time in his life , gain legal title .
In 1876 , Davis promoted a society for the stimulation of US trade with South America . He visited England the next year . In 1877 , Sarah Anne Ellis Dorsey , a wealthy widow who had heard of his difficulties , invited him to stay at her estate and plantation house of " Beauvoir " on the Gulf Coast ( facing the Gulf of Mexico ) in Biloxi , Mississippi . She provided him with a cabin for his own use and helped him with his writing through organization , dictation , editing , and encouragement . Knowing she was severely ill , in 1878 Dorsey made over her will , leaving Beauvoir and her financial assets of $ 50 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 1 @,@ 227 @,@ 000 in 2014 ) to Jefferson Davis and , in the case of his death , to his only surviving child , Winnie Davis . Dorsey died in 1879 , by which time both the Davises and Winnie were living at Beauvoir . Over the next two years , Davis completed The Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government ( 1881 ) .
Davis 's reputation among ex @-@ Confederates was restored by the book and by his warm reception on his tour of the region in 1886 and 1887 . In numerous stops , he attended Lost Cause ceremonies , where large crowds showered him with affection and local leaders presented emotional speeches honoring his sacrifices to the would @-@ be nation . Such events helped the South come to terms with their defeat and continued for decades after the war . The Meriden Daily Journal stated that Davis , at a reception held in New Orleans in May 1887 , urged southerners to be loyal to the nation . He said , " United you are now , and if the Union is ever to be broken , let the other side break it . " Davis stated that men in the Confederacy had successfully fought for their own rights with inferior numbers during the Civil War and that the northern historians ignored this view . Davis firmly believed that Confederate secession was constitutional . The former Confederate president was optimistic concerning American prosperity and the next generation .
Davis completed A Short History of the Confederate States of America in October 1889 . On November 6 , he left Beauvoir to visit his plantation at Brierfield . While in New Orleans , he was caught in a sleety rain , and on the steamboat trip upriver , he had a severe cold ; on November 13 he left Brierfield to return to New Orleans . Varina Davis , who had taken another boat to Brierfield , met him on the river , and he finally received some medical care ; two doctors came aboard further south and found he had acute bronchitis complicated by malaria . They arrived in New Orleans three days later , and he was taken to the home of Charles Erasmus Fenner , an Associate Justice of the Louisiana Supreme Court . Davis remained in bed but was stable for the next two weeks ; however , he took a turn for the worse in early December . Just when he appeared to be improving , he lost consciousness on the evening of December 5 and died at 12 : 45 a.m. on Friday , December 6 , 1889 , in the presence of several friends and with his hand in Varina 's .
His funeral was one of the largest in the South . Davis was first entombed at the Army of Northern Virginia tomb at Metairie Cemetery in New Orleans . In 1893 , Mrs. Davis decided to have his remains reinterred at Hollywood Cemetery in Richmond . After the remains were exhumed in New Orleans , they lay for a day at Memorial Hall of the newly organized Louisiana Historical Association , with many mourners passing by the casket , including Governor Murphy J. Foster , Sr. The body was placed on a Louisville and Nashville Railroad car and transported to Richmond , Virginia . A continuous cortège , day and night , accompanied his body from New Orleans to Richmond . He is interred at Hollywood Cemetery in Richmond .
= = Legacy = =
Jefferson Davis served in many roles . As a soldier , he was brave and resourceful . As a politician , he served as a United States senator and a Mississippi congressman and was active and accomplished , although he never completed a full term in any elected position . As a plantation owner , he employed slave labor as did most of his peers in the South , and supported slavery . As president of the Confederate States of America , he is widely viewed as an ineffective wartime leader ; although the task of defending the Confederacy against the much stronger Union would have been a great challenge for any leader , Davis 's performance in this role is considered poor . After the war , he contributed to reconciliation of the South with the North , but remained a symbol for Southern pride .
Some portions of his legacy were created not as memorials , but as contemporary recognition of his service at the time . Fort Davis National Historic Site began as a frontier military post in October 1854 , in the mountains of western Texas . It was named after then @-@ United States Secretary of War Jefferson Davis . That fort gave its name to the surrounding Davis Mountains range , and the town of Fort Davis . The surrounding area was designated Jeff Davis County in 1887 , with the town of Fort Davis as the county seat . Other states containing a Jeff Davis County or Parish include Louisiana , Georgia and Mississippi .
Numerous memorials to Jefferson Davis were created . The largest is the 351 @-@ foot ( 107 m ) concrete obelisk located at the Jefferson Davis State Historic Site in Fairview , marking his birthplace . Construction of the monument began in 1917 and finished in 1924 at a cost of about $ 200 @,@ 000 .
In 1913 , the United Daughters of the Confederacy conceived the Jefferson Davis Memorial Highway , a transcontinental highway to be built through the South . Portions of the highway 's route in Virginia , Alabama and other states still bear the name of Jefferson Davis .
Davis appeared on several postage stamps issued by the Confederacy , including its first postage stamp ( issued in 1861 ) . In 1995 , his portrait appeared on a United States postage stamp , part of a series of 20 stamps commemorating the 130th anniversary of end of the Civil War . Davis was also celebrated on the 6 @-@ cent Stone Mountain Memorial Carving commemorative on September 19 , 1970 , at Stone Mountain , Georgia . The stamp portrayed Jefferson Davis , Robert E. Lee and Thomas J. " Stonewall " Jackson on horseback . It depicts a replica of the actual memorial , carved into the side of Stone Mountain at 400 feet ( 120 m ) above ground level , the largest high relief sculpture in the world .
The Jefferson Davis Presidential Library was established at Beauvoir in 1998 . For some years , the white @-@ columned Biloxi mansion that was Davis 's final home had served as a Confederate Veterans Home . The house and library were damaged by Hurricane Katrina in 2005 ; the house reopened in 2008 . Bertram Hayes @-@ Davis , Davis 's great @-@ great grandson , is the executive director of Beauvoir , which is owned by the Mississippi Division of the Sons of Confederate Veterans .
Based at Rice University in Houston , Texas , The Papers of Jefferson Davis is an editing project to publish documents related to Davis . Since the early 1960s , it has published 13 volumes , the first in 1971 and the most recent in 2012 ; two more volumes are planned . The project has roughly 100 @,@ 000 documents in its archives .
The birthday of Jefferson Davis is commemorated in several states . His actual birthday , June 3 , is celebrated in Florida , Kentucky , Louisiana and Tennessee ; in Alabama , it is celebrated on the first Monday in June . In Mississippi , the last Monday of May ( Memorial Day ) is celebrated as " National Memorial Day and Jefferson Davis 's Birthday " . In Texas , " Confederate Heroes Day " is celebrated on January 19 , the birthday of Robert E. Lee ; Jefferson Davis 's birthday had been officially celebrated on June 3 but was combined with Lee 's birthday in 1973 .
Some memorials to Davis have become controversial . Washington State Route 99 bears the name of Jefferson Davis Highway . In 2002 , the state 's House of Representatives unanimously approved a bill that would have removed Davis 's name from the road . However , a committee of the state 's Senate subsequently killed the proposal .
In the former Confederate capital of Richmond , Virginia , the Museum of the Confederacy was involved in a controversy regarding a statue of Davis donated by the Sons of Confederate Veterans in 2008 . Likewise , a statue of Abraham Lincoln , donated to the Civil War Visitor Center in Richmond in 2003 , resulted in protests .
In 2011 , the County Board of Arlington County , Virginia , voted to change the name of Old Jefferson Davis Highway , the original route of Jefferson Davis Highway in the county , after the Board 's chairman made disparaging remarks about Davis . However , the name of Jefferson Davis Highway itself , a portion of U.S. 1 that only the Virginia General Assembly could rename , remained unchanged .
In its 2016 legislative package , the Arlington County Board asked the Virginia General Assembly to rename the portion of Jefferson Davis Highway ( U.S. 1 ) that was within the County . However , no member of Arlington 's legislative delegation offered any such legislation during the 2016 session of the General Assembly .
In May 2015 , the student government at the University of Texas at Austin voted almost unanimously to remove a statue of Jefferson Davis that had been erected on the campus South Mall . Beginning shortly after the Charleston church shooting of 2015 " black lives matter " had been written repeatedly in bold red letters on the base of the Davis statue . Previous messages had included " Davis must fall " and " Liberate U.T. "
The University of Texas officials convened a task force to determine whether to honor the students ' petition for removal of the statue . Acting on the strong recommendation of the task force , UT 's President Gregory Fenves announced on August 13 , 2015 that the statue would be relocated to serve as an educational exhibit in the university 's Dolph Briscoe Center for American History museum . The statue was removed on August 30 , 2015 .
Robert E. Lee 's United States citizenship was posthumously restored in 1975 . Jefferson Davis had been specifically excluded from earlier resolutions restoring rights to other Confederate officials , and a movement arose to restore Davis 's citizenship as well . This was accomplished with the passing of Senate Joint Resolution 16 on October 17 , 1978 . In signing the law , President Jimmy Carter referred to this as the last act of reconciliation in the Civil War .
= Cyathus helenae =
Cyathus helenae is a species of fungus in the genus Cyathus , family Nidulariaceae . Like other members of the Nidulariaceae , C. helenae resembles a tiny bird 's nest filled with ' eggs ' — spore @-@ containing structures known as peridioles . It was initially described by mycologist Harold Brodie in 1965 , who found it growing on mountain scree in Alberta , Canada . C. helenae 's life cycle allows it to reproduce both sexually and asexually . One of the smaller species of Cyathus , C. helenae produces a number of chemically unique diterpenoid molecules known as cyathins . The specific epithet of this species was given by Brodie in tribute to his late wife Helen .
= = Description = =
The resemblance that Cyathus helenae bears to a miniature bird 's nest with eggs is the source for its common name , bird 's nest fungi . The fruit body , or peridium , of C. helenae is obconic , that is , shaped roughly like an inverted cone . The upper third of the peridium is flared outwards sharply , and the opening is normally 5 – 6 mm wide , while the height of the fruit body is 7 mm . The outer surface of the peridium , the ectoperidium , is pale brown to grey in color , and covered with clusters of fungal hyphae that resemble hairs . These hairs appear to be aggregated into clusters ( " nodular " ) , and generally point downward . The inner surface of the peridium , the endoperidium , is smooth with a grey to silver and somewhat shiny surface . This inner surface also has faint but distinct vertical ridges , known as plications . Like many other Cyathus species , the cup is attached to its growing surface by a clump of mycelium called an emplacement ; in C. helenae the diameter of the emplacement is typically wider than that of the peridium , and it often incorporates bits of " organic trash " .
The ' eggs ' of the bird 's nest – the peridioles – are 2 mm in diameter , and covered with a silvery tunica ( the outermost covering layer of the periodiole ) . Peridioles are attached to the fruit body by a funiculus , a structure of hyphae that is differentiated into three regions : the basal piece , which attaches it to the inner wall of the peridium , the middle piece , and an upper sheath , called the purse , connected to the lower surface of the peridiole . In the purse and middle piece is a coiled thread of interwoven hyphae called the funicular cord , attached at one end to the peridiole and at the other end to an entangled mass of hyphae called the hapteron . The spores of C. helenae have a spherical or ovoid shape , with dimensions of 12 – 14 µm long by 15 – 19 µm wide . They tend to be slightly narrower at one end , and commonly have a spore wall thickness of 1 @.@ 5 µm .
Cyathus helenae is distinguished from the more common C. striatus by its faint inner @-@ surface plication ( C. striatus has a more pronounced plication ) , the nodular arrangement of the hairs on the outer surface , and microscopically by the spore shape – ellipsoid in C. striatus , ovoid or spheroidal in C. helenae .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
The species was initially described by mycologist Harold J. Brodie in 1965 , who collected it from Rocky Mountain Park in Alberta , Canada at an altitude of 7 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 100 m ) . It was found growing among the small flat stones of the scree , often attached to rotted or dried remains of alpine plants . Brodie derived the species name as a tribute to his late wife Helen . This species is known to live in alpine and boreal habitats , as well as dry areas in Idaho . In 1988 C. helenae was first reported in Mexico ; in 2005 it was reported growing in tropical forest in the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve ( Calakmul , Mexico ) , and in Costa Rica . In 2014 , it was recorded in Brazil , the first report of this species from South America .
= = Life cycle = =
The life cycle of Cyathus helenae contains both haploid and diploid stages , typical of taxa in the basidiomycetes that can reproduce both asexually ( via vegetative spores ) , or sexually ( with meiosis ) . Basidiospores produced in the peridioles each contain a single haploid nucleus . After dispersal , the spores germinate and grow into homokaryotic hyphae , with a single nucleus in each compartment . When two homokaryotic hyphae of different mating compatibility groups fuse with one another , they form a dikaryotic mycelia in a process called plasmogamy . After a period of time and under the appropriate environmental conditions , fruit bodies may be formed from the dikaryotic mycelia . These fruit bodies produce peridioles containing the basidia upon which new basidiospores are made . Young basidia contain a pair of haploid sexually compatible nuclei which fuse , and the resulting diploid fusion nucleus undergoes meiosis to produce haploid basidiospores .
= = Spore dispersal = =
When a drop of falling water hits the interior of the cup with the appropriate angle and velocity , the peridioles are ejected into the air by the force of the drop . The force of ejection tears open the purse , and results in the expansion of the funicular cord , formerly coiled under pressure in the lower part of the purse . The peridioles , followed by the highly adhesive funicular cord and basal hapteron , may hit a nearby plant stem or stick . The hapteron sticks to it , and the funicular cord wraps around the stem or stick powered by the force of the still @-@ moving peridiole . After drying out , the peridiole remains attached to the vegetation , where it may be eaten by a grazing herbivorous animal , and later deposited in that animal 's dung to continue the life cycle .
= = Bioactive compounds = =
Cyathus helenae produces a series of diterpenoid chemical compounds known as cyathins , which have antibiotic properties against the bacteria Staphylococcus aureus . The capacity to produce cyathins — similar to C. striatus and C. africanus — is limited to haploid strains . The basic chemical structure of the cyathins , known as the cyathane skeleton , is chemically unique and has been investigated using carbon @-@ 13 nuclear magnetic resonance ( 13C NMR ) ; molecules with this structure have also been created synthetically .
= 1984 Rajneeshee bioterror attack =
The 1984 Rajneeshee bioterror attack was the food poisoning of 751 individuals in The Dalles , Oregon , through the deliberate contamination of salad bars at ten local restaurants with salmonella . A leading group of followers of Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh ( later known as Osho ) had hoped to incapacitate the voting population of the city so that their own candidates would win the 1984 Wasco County elections . The incident was the first and single largest bioterrorist attack in United States history . The attack is one of only two confirmed terrorist uses of biological weapons to harm humans since 1945 , the other being the 2001 anthrax attacks across the USA .
Having previously gained political control of Antelope , Oregon , Rajneesh 's followers , who were based in nearby Rajneeshpuram , sought election to two of the three seats on the Wasco County Circuit Court that were up for election in November 1984 . Fearing they would not gain enough votes , Rajneeshpuram officials decided to incapacitate voters in The Dalles , the largest population center in Wasco County . The chosen biological agent was Salmonella enterica Typhimurium , which was first delivered through glasses of water to two County Commissioners and then , on a larger scale , at salad bars and in salad dressing .
As a result of the attack , 751 people contracted salmonellosis , 45 of whom were hospitalized . There were no fatalities . Although an initial investigation by the Oregon Public Health Division and the Centers for Disease Control did not rule out deliberate contamination , the agents and fact of contamination were only discovered a year later . On February 28 , 1985 , Congressman James H. Weaver gave a speech in the United States House of Representatives in which he " accused the Rajneeshees of sprinkling salmonella culture on salad bar ingredients in eight restaurants " .
At a press conference in September 1985 , Rajneesh accused several of his followers of participation in this and other crimes , including an aborted plan in 1985 to assassinate a United States Attorney , and he asked State and Federal authorities to investigate . Oregon Attorney General David B. Frohnmayer set up an Interagency Task Force , composed of Oregon State Police and the Federal Bureau of Investigation , and executed search warrants in Rajneeshpuram . A sample of bacteria matching the contaminant that had sickened the town residents was found in a Rajneeshpuram medical laboratory . Two leading Rajneeshpuram officials were convicted on charges of attempted murder and served 29 months of 20 @-@ year sentences in a minimum @-@ security federal prison .
= = Planning = =
Several thousand of Rajneesh 's followers had moved onto the " Big Muddy Ranch " in rural Wasco County in 1981 , where they later incorporated as a city called Rajneeshpuram . They had taken political control of the small nearby town of Antelope , Oregon ( population 75 ) , the name of which they changed to " Rajneesh " . The group had started on friendly terms with the local population , but relations soon turned negative because of land use conflicts and the commune 's dramatic expansion .
After being denied building permits for Rajneeshpuram , the commune leadership sought to gain political control over the rest of the county by influencing the November 1984 county election . Their goal was to win two of three seats on the Wasco County Circuit Court , as well as the sheriff 's office . Their attempts to influence the election included the " Share @-@ a @-@ Home " program , in which they had thousands of homeless people transported to Rajneeshpuram and attempted to register them to vote to inflate the constituency of voters for the group 's candidates . The Wasco county clerk countered this attempt by enforcing a regulation that required all new voters to submit their qualifications when registering to vote .
The commune leadership planned to sicken and incapacitate voters in The Dalles , where most of the voters resided , to sway the election . Approximately twelve people were involved in the plots to employ biological agents , and at least eleven were involved in the planning process . No more than four appear to have been involved in development at the Rajneeshpuram medical laboratory ; not all of those were necessarily aware of the objectives their work served . At least eight individuals were involved with the distribution of the bacteria .
The main planners of the attack included Sheela Silverman ( Ma Anand Sheela ) , Rajneesh 's chief lieutenant , and Diane Yvonne Onang ( Ma Anand Puja ) , a nurse practitioner and secretary @-@ treasurer of the Rajneesh Medical Corporation . They purchased salmonella bacteria from a medical supply company in Seattle , Washington , and staff cultured it in labs located inside the commune . They contaminated the produce at the salad bars as a " trial run " . The group also tried to introduce pathogens into The Dalles ' water system . If successful , they planned to use the same techniques closer to Election Day . This second part of the plan was never implemented . The commune decided to boycott the election when it became clear that those brought in through the " Share @-@ a @-@ Home " program would not be allowed to vote .
Two visiting Wasco County commissioners were poisoned with glasses of water containing salmonella bacteria during a visit to Rajneeshpuram on August 29 , 1984 . Both men fell ill and one was hospitalized . Afterward , members of Sheela 's team spread salmonella on produce in grocery stores and on doorknobs and urinal handles in the county courthouse , but this did not produce the desired effects . In September and October 1984 , they contaminated the salad bars of 10 local restaurants with salmonella , infecting 751 people . Forty @-@ five people received hospital treatment ; all survived .
The primary delivery tactic involved one member concealing a plastic bag containing a light brown liquid with the salmonella bacteria ( referred to by the perpetrators as " salsa " ) , and either spreading it over the food at a salad bar , or pouring its contents into salad dressing . By September 24 , 1984 , more than 150 people were violently ill . By the end of September , 751 cases of acute gastroenteritis were documented ; lab results showed that all of the victims were infected with Salmonella enterica Typhimurium . Symptoms included diarrhea , fever , chills , nausea , vomiting , headaches , abdominal pain , and bloody stools . Victims ranged in age from an infant , born two days after his mother 's infection and initially given a five @-@ percent chance of survival , to an 87 @-@ year @-@ old .
Local residents suspected that Rajneesh 's followers were behind the poisonings . They turned out in droves on election day to prevent the organization from winning any county positions , thus rendering the terrorist plot unsuccessful . The Rajneeshees eventually withdrew their candidate from the November 1984 ballot . Only 239 of the commune 's 7 @,@ 000 residents voted ; most were not US citizens and could not vote . The outbreak cost local restaurants hundreds of thousands of dollars and health officials shut down the salad bars of the affected establishments . Some residents feared further attacks and stayed at home . One resident said : " People were so horrified and scared . People wouldn 't go out , they wouldn 't go out alone . People were becoming prisoners . "
= = Investigation = =
Officials and investigators from a number of different state and federal agencies investigated the cause of the outbreak . Dr. Michael Skeels , Director of the Oregon State Public Health Laboratory at the time , said that the incident provoked such a large public health investigation because " it was the largest food @-
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@ related outbreak in the U.S. in 1984 " . The investigation identified the bacteria as Salmonella enterica Typhimurium and initially concluded that the outbreak had been due to food handlers ' poor personal hygiene . Workers preparing food at the affected restaurants had fallen ill before most patrons had .
Oregon Democratic Congressman James H. Weaver continued to investigate because he believed that the officials ' conclusion did not adequately explain the facts . He contacted physicians at the CDC and other agencies and urged them to investigate Rajneeshpuram . According to Lewis F. Carter 's book Charisma and Control in Rajneeshpuram , " many treated his concern " as paranoid or as an example of " Rajneeshee bashing " . On February 28 , 1985 , Weaver gave a speech at the United States House of Representatives in which he accused the Rajneeshees of contaminating salad bar ingredients in eight restaurants . As events later showed , Weaver had presented a well @-@ reasoned , if only circumstantial , case ; these circumstantial elements were confirmed by evidence found after investigators gained access to Rajneeshpuram several months later .
Months later , starting on September 16 , 1985 , Rajneesh , who had recently emerged from a four @-@ year period of public silence and self @-@ imposed isolation ( although he had continued to meet with his assistant ) at the commune , convened press conferences : he stated that Sheela and 19 other commune leaders , including Puja , had left Rajneeshpuram over the weekend and gone to Europe . He said that he had received information from commune residents that Sheela and her team had committed a number of serious crimes . Calling them a " gang of fascists " , he said they had tried to poison his doctor and Rajneesh 's female companion , as well as the Jefferson County district attorney and the water system in The Dalles . He said that he believed they had poisoned a county commissioner and Judge William Hulse , and that they may have been responsible for the salmonella outbreak in The Dalles . He invited state and federal law enforcement officials to the Ranch to investigate . His allegations were initially greeted with skepticism by outside observers .
Oregon Attorney General Dave Frohnmayer established a task force among the Wasco County Sheriff 's office , the Oregon State Police , the Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) , the Immigration and Naturalization Service ( INS ) and the National Guard that set up headquarters on the Ranch to investigate the allegations . They obtained search warrants and subpoenas ; 50 investigators entered the Ranch on October 2 , 1985 . Dr. Skeels found glass vials containing salmonella " bactrol disks " in the laboratory of a Rajneeshpuram medical clinic . Analysis by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention lab in Atlanta confirmed that the bacteria at the Rajneesh laboratory were an exact match to those that sickened individuals who had eaten at local restaurants .
The investigation also revealed prior experimentation at Rajneeshpuram with poisons , chemicals and bacteria , in 1984 and 1985 . Dr. Skeels described the scene at the Rajneesh laboratory as " a bacteriological freezer @-@ dryer for large @-@ scale production " of microbes . Investigators found a copy of The Anarchist Cookbook , and literature on the manufacture and usage of explosives and military bio @-@ warfare . Investigators believed that the commune had previously carried out similar attacks in Salem , Portland , and other cities in Oregon . According to court testimony , the plotters boasted that they had attacked a nursing home and a salad bar at the Mid @-@ Columbia Medical Center , but no such attempts were ever proven in court . As a result of the bioterrorism investigation , law enforcement officials discovered that there had been an aborted plot by Rajneeshees to murder Charles Turner , a former United States Attorney for Oregon .
= = Prosecution = =
The mayor of Rajneeshpuram , David Berry Knapp ( known as Swami Krishna Deva or KD ) , turned state 's evidence and gave an account of his knowledge of the salmonella attack to the FBI . He claimed that Sheela said " she had talked with [ Rajneesh ] about the plot to decrease voter turnout in The Dalles by making people sick . Sheela said that [ Rajneesh ] commented that it was best not to hurt people , but if a few died not to worry . " In Miller 's Germs : Biological Weapons and America 's Secret War , this statement is attributed to Sheela : According to KD 's testimony , she played doubters a tape of Rajneesh 's muffled voice saying , " if it was necessary to do things to preserve [ his ] vision , then do it , " and interpreted this to mean that murder in his name was fine , telling doubters " not to worry " if a few people had to die . The investigation uncovered a September 25 , 1984 , invoice from the American Type Culture Collection of microbes , showing an order received by the Rajneeshpuram laboratory for Salmonella typhi , the bacterium that causes the life @-@ threatening illness typhoid fever .
According to a 1994 study published in the journal Sociology of Religion , " [ m ] ost sannyasins indicated that they believed that [ Rajneesh ] knew about Ma Anand Sheela 's illegal activities . " Frances FitzGerald writes in Cities on a Hill that most of Rajneesh 's followers " believed [ him ] incapable of doing , or willing , violence against another person " , and that almost all thought the responsibility for the criminality was Sheela 's – according to FitzGerald , the followers believed the guru had not known anything about it . Carus writes in Toxic Terror that , " There is no way to know to what extent [ Rajneesh ] participated in actual decision @-@ making . His followers believed he was involved in every important decision that Sheela made , but those allegations were never proven . " Rajneesh insisted that Sheela , who he said was his only source of information during his period of isolation , used her position to impose " a fascist state " on the commune . He acknowledged that the key to her actions was his silence .
Rajneesh left Oregon by plane on October 27 , 1985 , and was arrested when he landed in Charlotte , North Carolina , and charged with 35 counts of deliberate violations of immigration laws . As part of a plea bargain arrangement , he pleaded guilty to two counts of making false statements to immigration officials . He received a ten @-@ year suspended sentence and a fine of US $ 400 @,@ 000 , and was deported and barred from reentering the United States for a period of five years . He was never prosecuted for crimes related to the salmonella poisoning .
Sheela and Puja were arrested in West Germany on October 28 , 1985 . After protracted negotiations between the two governments , they were extradited to the United States , reaching Portland on February 6 , 1986 . They were charged with attempting to murder Rajneesh 's personal physician , first @-@ degree assault for poisoning Judge William Hulse , second @-@ degree assault for poisoning The Dalles Commissioner Raymond Matthews , and product tampering for the poisonings in The Dalles , as well as wiretapping and immigration offenses . The U.S. Attorney 's office handled the prosecution of the poisoning cases related to the 10 restaurants , and the Oregon Attorney General 's office prosecuted the poisoning cases of Commissioner Matthews and Judge Hulse .
On July 22 , 1986 , both women entered Alford pleas for the salmonella poisoning and the other charges , and received sentences ranging from three to twenty years , to be served concurrently . Sheela received 20 years for the attempted murder of Rajneesh 's physician , twenty years for first @-@ degree assault in the poisoning of Judge Hulse , ten years for second @-@ degree assault in the poisoning of Commissioner Matthews , four and a half years for her role in the salmonella poisoning , four and a half years for the wiretapping conspiracy , and five years ' probation for immigration fraud ; Puja received fifteen , fifteen , seven and a half , and four and a half years , respectively , for her role in the first four of these crimes , as well as three years ' probation for the wiretapping conspiracy . Both Sheela and Puja were released on parole early for good behavior , after serving twenty @-@ nine months of their sentences in a minimum @-@ security federal prison . Sheela 's Green Card was revoked ; she moved to Switzerland . She remarried there and went on to run two nursing homes in Switzerland .
= = Aftermath = =
The Oregonian ran a 20 @-@ part series on Rajneesh 's movement , beginning in June 1985 , which included an investigation into the salmonella incident . As a result of a follow @-@ up investigation , The Oregonian learned that Leslie L. Zaitz , one of their investigative journalists , had been placed as number three on a top @-@ ten hit list by Sheela 's group . Then @-@ Oregon Attorney General Dave Frohnmayer commented on the poisoning incident and other acts perpetrated by the group , stating : " The Rajneeshees committed the most significant crimes of their kind in the history of the United States ... The largest single incident of fraudulent marriages , the most massive scheme of wiretapping and bugging , and the largest mass poisoning . " Looking back on the incident , Skeels stated , " We lost our innocence over this ... We really learned to be more suspicious ... The first significant biological attack on a U.S. community was not carried out by foreign terrorists smuggled into New York , but by legal residents of a U.S. community . The next time it happens it could be with more lethal agents ... We in public health are really not ready to deal with that . "
Milton Leitenberg noted in the 2005 work Assessing the Biological Weapons and Bioterrorism Threat , " there is apparently no other ' terrorist ' group that is known to have successfully cultured any pathogen . " Federal and state investigators requested that details of the incident not be published in the Journal of the American Medical Association ( JAMA ) for 12 years , for they feared a description of the events could spark copycat crimes , and JAMA complied . No repeat attacks or hoaxes subsequently occurred , and a detailed account of the incident and investigation was published in JAMA in 1997 . A 1999 empirical analysis in the journal Emerging Infectious Diseases published by the CDC described six motivational factors associated with bioterrorism , including : charismatic leadership , no outside constituency , apocalyptic ideology , loner or splinter group , sense of paranoia and grandiosity , and defensive aggression . According to the article , the " Rajneesh Cult " satisfied all motivational factors except for an " apocalyptic ideology " . An analysis in the book Cults , Religion and Violence disputes the link to charismatic leadership , pointing out that in this and other cases , it was organizational lieutenants who played a pivotal role in the initiation of violence . Arguing for a contextual rather than decisive view of charisma , the authors state that the attribution of outcomes to the personality of a single individual , even a charismatic leader , usually camouflages a far more complex field of social relationships .
The media revisited the incident during the 2001 anthrax attacks in the United States . The 2001 publication of Judith Miller 's Germs : Biological Weapons and America 's Secret War , which contained an analysis and detailed description of the events , also brought discussion of the incident back into the news . Residents of The Dalles commented that they have an understanding of how bioterrorism can occur in the United States . The incident had spread fear in the community , and drained the local economy . All but one of the restaurants affected went out of business . In 2005 , the Oregon State Land Board agreed to sell 480 acres ( 1 @.@ 9 km2 ) of Wasco County , including Rajneeshpuram , to the Colorado @-@ based youth ministry Young Life . On February 18 , 2005 , Court TV aired an episode of Forensic Files about the incident , entitled : " ' Bio @-@ Attack ' – Oregon Cult Poisonings " . The salmonellosis outbreak was also discussed in the media within the context of the 2006 North American E. coli outbreak .
The book Emerging Infectious Diseases : Trends and Issues cites the 1984 Rajneeshee bioterror attack , along with the Aum Shinrikyo group 's attempts to use anthrax and other agents , as exceptions to the belief " that only foreign @-@ state supported groups have the resources to execute a credible bioterrorism event " . According to Deadly Cultures : Biological Weapons Since 1945 , these are the only two confirmed uses of biological weapons for terrorist purposes to harm humans . The incident was the single largest bioterrorist attack in United States history . In the chapter titled : " Influencing An Election : America 's First Modern Bioterrorist Attack " in his 2006 book Terrorism on American Soil : A Concise History of Plots and Perpetrators from the Famous to the Forgotten , author Joseph T. McCann concludes : " In every respect , the salmonella poisoning carried out by the cult members was a major bioterrorist attack that fortunately failed to achieve its ultimate goal and resulted in no fatalities . "
= Doc Blanchard =
Felix Anthony " Doc " Blanchard ( December 11 , 1924 – April 19 , 2009 ) is best known as the college football player who became the first ever junior to win the Heisman Trophy , Maxwell Award and was the first ever football player to win the James E. Sullivan Award , all in 1945 . He played football for the United States Military Academy at West Point , where he was known as " Mr. Inside . " Because his father was a doctor , Felix Blanchard was nicknamed " Little Doc " as a boy . After football , he served in the United States Air Force from 1947 until 1971 when he retired with the rank of Colonel .
= = Early years = =
Blanchard was born on December 11 , 1924 in McColl , South Carolina His father was a doctor and had played college football at Tulane University and Wake Forest University . The Blanchards moved from McColl , South Carolina to Dexter , Iowa in 1929 . The Blanchards then moved to Bishopville , South Carolina two years later . Blanchard , nicknamed " Little Doc " due to his father 's occupation , attended high school at Saint Stanislaus College in Bay St. Louis , Mississippi . He led the school 's football team , the Rockachaws , to an undefeated season during his senior year in 1941 . Blanchard was recruited to play college football by Army , Fordham University and the University of Notre Dame , among others . Blanchard said in 1985 that he had been contacted about going to West Point when he was in high school . He said , " At that point in time , I really wasn ’ t interested . Academically , I never was too hot , so I never had any idea I would pass the entrance examination and go to West Point . "
Instead , Blanchard chose to play for the University of North Carolina Tar Heels , in part because its coach , Jim Tatum , was his mother 's cousin . Because NCAA rules at the time did not allow freshmen to play varsity , Blanchard played with the freshman team .
Blanchard decided to enlist in the United States Army in 1943 . He was stationed in New Mexico with a chemical @-@ warfare unit until enrolling at West Point in July 1944 in an appointment his father secured .
= = West Point years = =
During his three years of playing football at West Point , his team under coach Earl " Red " Blaik compiled an undefeated 27 – 0 – 1 record - the tie being a famous 0 – 0 game against Notre Dame .
Notre Dame coach Edward McKeever was amazed by Blanchard . After his 1944 team lost to Army by a score of 59 – 0 , McKeever said , " I 've just seen Superman in the flesh . He wears number 35 and goes by the name of Blanchard . "
An all @-@ around athlete , Blanchard served as the placekicker and punter in addition to his primary roles as an offensive fullback and a linebacker on defense . He soon teamed with Glenn Davis on the 1944 @-@ 45 @-@ 46 teams ( Davis won the Heisman in 1946 , the year after Blanchard won it ) . They formed one of the most lethal rushing combinations in football history . In his three seasons at West Point Blanchard scored 38 touchdowns , gained 1 @,@ 908 yards and earned the nickname " Mr. Inside . " Teammate Davis earned the nickname " Mr. Outside " and in November 1945 , they both shared the cover of Time magazine .
In 1945 , Blanchard played against Leon Bramlett of the Naval Academy . Army won the match , 32 @-@ 13 . Both Blanchard and Bramlett , later a farmer and politician from Clarksdale , were inducted into the Mississippi Sports Hall of Fame .
In 1984 , at the awards ceremony marking the 50th Heisman Trophy presentation , Blanchard took the occasion to recall , in comparison to the big glitzy shows for the ceremony today , how he learned of his Heisman selection in 1945 . He said , " I got a telegram . It said , ' You ’ ve been selected to win the Heisman Trophy . Please wire collect . ' "
In 1946 , Blanchard missed the first two games of the season due to an injury to his knee . In June 1946 his class was divided into two classes ( 1947 and 1948 ) to transition back to a peacetime four @-@ year curriculum from the wartime three @-@ year curriculum instituted in October 1942 . Both Blanchard and Davis were placed in the final three @-@ year group , the Class of 1947 ( Davis had entered West Point in July 1943 but was turned back a year in 1944 for a deficiency in mathematics ) .
In 1947 , Blanchard played himself in the movie The Spirit of West Point . His West Point team @-@ mate Glenn Davis also played himself in the film . Other cast members include Robert Shayne as Coach Colonel Earl " Red " Blaik , Anne Nagel as Mrs. Blaik , George O 'Hanlon as Joe Wilson , Michael Browne as Roger " Mileaway " McCarty , Tanis Chandler as Mildred , Mary Newton as Mrs. Mary Blanchard and William Forrest as Doc Blanchard 's father , Dr. Felix Blanchard . Also appearing as themselves are 1940 Heisman Trophy winner Tom Harmon and sportscasters Bill Stern and Harry Wismer . The screenplay was written by Tom Reed based on a story by Mary Howard . Ralph Murphy directed .
In addition to football , Blanchard was also a member of the Army track and field team , with a shot put championship and a 10 @-@ second 100 yard dash in 1945 .
In 1947 , Blanchard graduated from West Point , 296th in order of merit among 310 graduates , and was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the United States Air Force . He coached Army ’ s freshman team in the 1950s , but he never played professional football , choosing a military career instead .
= = Military career = =
Blanchard had the opportunity to play professional football after being selected third overall in the 1946 NFL Draft by the Pittsburgh Steelers . After he was turned down in 1947 for a furlough to play with the NFL , Blanchard then chose to embark upon a career in the United States Air Force and became a fighter pilot . In 1959 , while with the 77th Tactical Fighter Squadron and flying back to his base at RAF Wethersfield near London , an oil line in Major Blanchard 's F @-@ 100 Super Sabre broke and a fire broke out . He could have parachuted to safety , but the plane might have crashed into a village . He instead stayed with the plane and made a perfect landing . The event garnered him an Air Force commendation for bravery .
In the Vietnam War , Blanchard flew 113 missions from Thailand , 84 of them over North Vietnam . He piloted a fighter @-@ bomber during a one @-@ year tour of duty that ended in January 1969 . He retired from the Air Force in 1971 as a colonel . After retiring from the Air Force , he spent several more years as the commandant of cadets at the New Mexico Military Institute , a junior college that prepares students to enter the service academies .
= = Death = =
Blanchard died of pneumonia on April 19 , 2009 in Bulverde , Texas . He had been living with his daughter Mary and her husband Aaron for the last 20 years of his life . At the time of his death , he was the oldest living Heisman Trophy winner . He is interred at Fort Sam Houston National Cemetery in San Antonio , Texas .
= = Honors and memorials = =
Blanchard was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame in 1959 .
At a 1991 ceremony , he presented his Heisman Trophy , Maxwell Award and James E. Sullivan Award to his — and his father 's — former high school alma mater , Saint Stanislaus College prep school , in Bay St. Louis , Mississippi . He also presented his jersey to the school . The trophy , awards and jersey were enshrined in the Brother Alexis Memorial Resource Center on the Saint Stanislaus campus until they were briefly lost to flooding during Hurricane Katrina . The items have since been recovered .
In Blanchard 's honor , the Interstate 20 / U.S. Route 15 interchange near his hometown of Bishopville , South Carolina has been named the Felix " Doc " Blanchard Interchange .
Beginning in 2004 the Rotary presents the Doc Blanchard Award as well as the Glenn Davis Award to the two high school football players participating in the U.S. Army All American Bowl who best exemplify the U.S. Army ’ s high standard of excellence in community service , education and athletic distinction . The Doc Blanchard Award is given to a player from the Bowl ’ s East team , while the Davis Award is given to a player from the Bowl ’ s West team . The first recipient of the Doc Blanchard Award was Ryan Baker .
West Point announced in April 2009 , before Blanchard 's death , that Blanchard 's number 35 would be retired , and it was on October 10 during a home game against Vanderbilt .
= Panait Cerna =
Panait Cerna ( Bulgarian : Панайот Черна , Panayot Cherna , born Panayot Stanchov or Panait Staciov ; August 26 or September 25 , 1881 – March 26 , 1913 ) was a Romanian poet , philosopher , literary critic and translator . A native speaker of Bulgarian , Cerna nonetheless wrote in Romanian , and developed a traditionalist style which was connected with Classicism and Neoclassicism . Praised by the conservative literary society Junimea , he was promoted by its leader Titu Maiorescu , as well as by Maiorescu 's disciples Mihail Dragomirescu and Simion Mehedinţi . Cerna became the group 's main representative during its decline , contributing to both major Junimist magazines , Convorbiri Literare and Convorbiri Critice . He also contributed pieces to the traditionalist magazine Sămănătorul , and was briefly affiliated with other literary journals .
A graduate of the University of Bucharest , Cerna completed his studies in the German Empire . There , he attended the University of Berlin and the University of Leipzig , befriending the self @-@ exiled Romanian dramatist Ion Luca Caragiale and the literary critic Paul Zarifopol . Cerna died in Leipzig at the age of thirty @-@ one , after a long battle with tuberculosis .
Along with various love poems , Panait Cerna 's writings also evince his intellectual pursuits . This intellectual characteristic earned him a dedicated following , but was criticized by many of his peers , who found it artificial and outdated .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Cerna 's early name , rendered in Bulgarian as Панайот Станчов , was commonly transliterated into Romanian as Panait Stanciov , Stancov , Stanciof or Stancioff . The poet 's preferred name alluded to Cerna , his birthplace in Tulcea County , Northern Dobruja .
Panait Cerna 's father was an ethnic Bulgarian schoolteacher , also named Panayot Stachov ( Panait Stanciov ) . He settled in Cerna and married Maria Taşcu . The daughter of local peasants , she was of Aromanian or of Bulgarian origin . Shortly before Maria gave birth to their son , Romanian administration began taking over in previously Ottoman @-@ ruled Northern Dobruja . Stanchov , who was a Bulgarian nationalist , refused to accept this change and left for the Principality of Bulgaria , leaving his family behind . Consequently , Cerna never met his father . By Cerna 's own account , his childhood was marked by acute poverty and social isolation : " [ I was ] told to tutor and learn in cold , unfriendly rooms . For a long time , we lived in a house on the outskirts , which was avoided by other men , since a rumor had spread that ghosts haunted its rooms . Can you imagine living in the middle of winter , without a fire on , with doors that barely close , with windows that are glued with paper ? A person made of iron would still feel cold down to the bone . "
Although his links to Bulgarian culture were weakened by his father 's departure , Cerna , who was baptized in the Bulgarian Greek Catholic Church , became fluent in Bulgarian . According to literary critic George Călinescu , he always had some difficulties conversing in Romanian , but could write it with ease .
After completing primary school in his native village , he graduated from a high school in the Danube port of Brăila , then enrolled at the Faculty of Letters and Philosophy in Bucharest . He was also attending lectures at the Faculty of Chemistry and Physics . Cerna debuted as a poet in 1897 , at the age of sixteen , when his Trecutul ( " The Past " ) — an adaptation of a piece by Nikolaus Lenau — was published in George Coşbuc 's Foaia Interesantă magazine . His first original poem , Orientale ( " Orientals " ) , saw print two years later in the magazine Carmen .
= = = Junimea years = = =
Soon after reaching the capital , Cerna became involved in political debates and the literary environment . These early activities are recorded in a 1904 series of articles in the student paper Tipuri şi Ticuri , where a P. Stanciov is the object of satire . By that time , he was discovered by Junimea , and began collaborating with Convorbiri Literare , a magazine led by Simion Mehedinţi . After 1903 , Cerna contributed to Sămănătorul , and his poems also appeared sporadically in other publications , including Floare Albastră and Revista Modernă .
Despite ongoing financial difficulties , Cerna graduated from university in 1906 . His thesis was passed with a Magna cum laude qualifier . He was by then seriously ill with tuberculosis , and sought a change in climate . Cerna spent much of this period traveling through the Old Kingdom , and several times visited regions of the Southern Carpathians , in particular the area of Rucăr , the Bucegi Mountains , and the Jiu Valley . As Călinescu notes , he had bought himself a horse from a Rucăr local on credit , and failed to deliver the promised sum on time .
Cerna 's love of rural life , together with what Călinescu describes as a " social preoccupation " , made him an outspoken opponent of the way in which the authorities handled the peasant uprising of 1907 . That year , as Mihail Dragomirescu parted with Mehedinţi to establish Convorbiri Critice , which advertised a Junimist agenda while standing against Convorbiri Literare , Cerna became one of his main collaborators . The group of Convorbiri Critice writers also included D. Nanu , Corneliu Moldovanu , Emil Gârleanu , I. Dragoslav and Gheorghe Vâlsan . In 1908 , he decided to continue his studies in the German Empire . The decision was influenced and encouraged by Junimea and its leader Titu Maiorescu , who , as Minister of Education granted him a scholarship . Călinescu describes this as a sign of late Junimist elitism , a view which implied that all literary men should be academics . This , he argues , was one of the few areas in which Junimea still differed from Sămănătorul , which was more open to less elitist environments .
Cerna visited the University of Heidelberg , but , following the advice of Maiorescu , decided in favor of the University of Berlin , where he studied Philosophy , English and German language literature ( 1908 – 1910 ) . Around 1909 , he first came into contact with the Caragiales , and , according to the dramatist 's own testimony , tutored his son , the future poet Luca Caragiale , providing his " scientific education " . Ion Luca Caragiale described Cerna as " a distinguished scientist and a great lover of music " . The two writers met a second time in Leipzig , in 1910 , when Cerna declared himself captivated by Caragiale , whom he described as " one of the richest intelligent minds to have ever been produced by our nation . " Two years later , Cerna enthusiastically welcomed the literary debut of Caragiale 's other son , Mateiu .
= = = Studies abroad and death = = =
From late 1910 to early 1912 , Cerna was at the University of Leipzig , where he attended courses held by the philosophers and psychologists Wilhelm Wundt , Eduard Spranger and Hans Volkelt . Wundt left an enduring impression on his Romanian student . In a letter home , Cerna described his modest appearance , which he claimed recalled that of " decrepit " Orthodox members of the Romanian Jewish community , adding : " But I do love this decrepit exterior beyond measure ... " Volkelt guided Cerna 's research in the scientific field , and coordinated his PhD thesis of 1913 , Die Gedankenlyrik ( German for " Contemplative Poetry " ) . According to Călinescu , Cerna 's work stated the primacy of " natural ideas " over reasoning , and concluded that " ideas have the purpose of signaling the problematic tensions of the soul . " Zarifopol wrote that Cerna was upset over having himself parted with writing poetry , and came to be preoccupied by Maiorescu 's German @-@ language dictum : In der Poesie ist der Gedanke ein verfluchtes Ding ( " An idea is a damned thing when it comes to poetry " ) . Panait Cerna 's first volume of collected poetry was published at home in 1910 , and , two years later , resulted in the author being made a co @-@ recipient of the Romanian Academy 's Vasile Adamachi Award . Some of his new poems were still being published by Convorbiri Literare in 1911 .
Panait Cerna died in Leipzig , shortly after receiving his diploma . Zarifopol was present when Cerna succumbed , and recorded that Maiorescu 's views on poetry where preoccupied his friend even on his deathbed . The poet was buried in the German city , and later exhumed for burial in Bucharest 's Bellu Cemetery .
= = Literary contribution = =
Cerna was a traditionalist poet , listed by Călinescu among the contributors to Romanian literature whose work " steers toward Classicism " , as do those of Dragomirescu , Mehedinţi , Henri Sanielevici , D. Nanu , Ion Trivale , Cincinat Pavelescu , Corneliu Moldovanu , Mihail Codreanu , Alexandru Davila and George Murnu . In this account , Cerna is one in a group of " conceptual " poets , all of whom were connected with Dragomirescu . For part of his life , Cerna was also formally committed to Symbolism and the local Symbolist movement , whose aesthetic ideals he merged with his lyrical style , and sought to recover part of the Romantic legacy . He was thus known as the translator of works by Romantic poets , as well as for adopting a Messianic and Humanist perspective on life ( notably present in his poems Floare şi genune , " Flower and Chasm " ; Zile de durere , " Days of Sorrow " ; and Plânsetul lui Adam , " Adam 's Sobbing " ) .
Literary historian Tudor Vianu notes the influence exercised on Cerna and other traditionalists by Mihai Eminescu , Romania 's major mid @-@ 19th century Classicist and Junimist poet. modernist theorist Eugen Lovinescu also believes that the " matter in which [ Cerna ] worked " was largely " dominated by Eminescu . " He also cautions that there is a major difference between the two : Cerna is an optimist , while Eminescu most often projected a pessimistic attitude . According to Zarifopol , the poet considered himself an " improved follower " of Eminescu . Cerna was also a late admirer of Lord Byron , a main figure of English Romanticism , and translated from his Childe Harold . One of Cerna 's poems was an epic piece inspired by the Book of Genesis , where Adam confronts God . Titled Plânsetul lui Adam , it builds on themes which recalled Byron 's 1821 play Cain , and constituted an interrogation of divine laws .
In Plânsetul lui Adam and various other pieces , Panait Cerna ( called a " reflexive poet " by contemporary critic Ilarie Chendi ) sought to reconcile poetry and philosophy , thus creating a hybrid form of conceptual poetry . Eugen Lovinescu proposed that , although praised by Cerna 's contemporaries , this goal was " mediocre " , and that the literature it produced " does not express and does not suggest profound spiritual states , but , on the contrary , it expresses by means of rhetorical dialectic not only that which can be expressed , but also that which can be proven . " Paul Zarifopol , who notes that Cerna particularly treasured the Classicist poets Friedrich Schiller , Louise @-@ Victorine Ackermann and Jean @-@ Marie Guyau , as well as the Parnassian Sully Prudhomme , recounted their disagreement when it came to Caragiale , whom Cerna enjoyed only for his power of " observation " , but whom he argued lacked " concepts " . For Zarifopol , this statement , made with " a fanatical and dogmatic pathos " , evidenced a moment of " academic foolishness " in Cerna 's career .
Călinescu , who criticizes the poet for his difficulties with the language , describes him as " not accomplished " . Elaborating on this , he states : " [ Cerna is ] declamatory , banal and dry in his use of metaphors , although he displays a touch of the sublime here and there . " Lovinescu thought many of the expressions Cerna used in his poetry to be " unacceptable " , and argued that they were characterized by banality . This assessment was itself contested by Călinescu , who argued that the lyrics in questions are " actually the acceptable ones " , and that the awkward wordings " are entirely lost in lyrical fluency . " Among the writings forming the subject of this disagreement was Cerna 's Din depărtare ( " From Far Away " ) , which Lovinescu believed was marked by the use of repetitive and banal poetic images :
The subject of unrequited love was one of the major ones in Cerna 's lyric poems and , Călinescu argues , it evoked his actual experience with women , as " the regret of not having lived through the great mystery of love . " These pieces , the critic notes , point to the influence of Classicist authors such as Eminescu , Dante Aligheri , and Giacomo Leopardi ( the latter poet had also been quoted in Cerna 's Die Gedankenlyrik ) . One of the pieces , written from the perspective of a man who has once failed to gain the object of his affection , features the lyrics :
While rejecting Cerna 's conceptual approach , Lovinescu admired his style , for " the amplitude through which [ the sentiment ] is laid out in vast chimes and compact constructions of rhetorical stanzas . " Such features , he concluded , surpassed " everything ever written in our country " . For George Călinescu , Cerna 's " euphoric thirst for life " recalled the work of Parnassian and Symbolist author Alexandru Macedonski , but was tempered by " the mellow anemia of the phthisic . " One of his better @-@ known pieces from the series of love poems read :
Cerna 's protest over the violent repression of the 1907 revolt was lyricized in several contexts . In one such indignant piece , Cerna called on Peace not to arrive until the social issue would be solved . In Zile de durere , he appeals to the Sun to wash out the blood of peasant victims :
= = Legacy = =
Panait Cerna 's lifetime success and literary fame made him the target of adulation among his fellow traditionalists , a camp which united various Junimea affiliates and Sămănătorul contributors . According to Călinescu , this group saw him as Romania 's answer to Schiller and Percy Bysshe Shelley . Junimea saw in him one of its most important members of the early 20th century , while several historians note that he was so only because , at that stage , the literary society was declining . Mehedinţi 's 1914 account of the Junimist promotion of the " original manifestations of Romanian culture " listed Cerna alongside Alexandru G. Florescu and other minor writers . Literary historian Z. Ornea argues that this evidenced not just a decline in standards , but also Mehedinţi 's " tastelessness " . Also according to Ornea , the association with Dragomirescu was also characteristic for the Junimist twilight , given that this circle had failed to impose " a new literary direction " , and was tributary to the legacy of various traditionalist groups . At the same time , both Dragomirescu and his disciple Ion Trivale upheld him as a model to follow , equating him with the mid @-@ 19th century Classicist Grigore Alexandrescu . Zarifopol deplores Cerna 's submission to traditionalist and Classicist goals , arguing that it eventually ruined Cerna as a poet and made him unhappy .
The poet 's adoption of a mainstream approach to poetry also pleased his public , and , Călinescu notes , schoolbooks of the day celebrated him as a Romanian classic while completely ignoring more controversial Symbolists such as Macedonski and Dimitrie Anghel . His contributions have helped shaped the style of 20th @-@ century poets with traditionalist tendencies from different schools . Among them are the socialist Alexandru Toma , later known as an official poet of Communist Romania , and Sămănătorul ' s Ion Sân @-@ Giorgiu , whose career later took him through an Expressionist stage and eventually to fascist politics . Demostene Botez , another author to have been influenced by Cerna 's style , dedicated his mentor a poem which read :
In his essay Din registrul ideilor gingaşe ( " From the Register of Gentle Ideas " ) , where he satirizes the Romanian public 's reception of literature , Zarifopol looks into the problems faced by Cerna in satisfying his readers . Using one of Cerna 's own accounts as the basis for this analysis , he notes that a group of his young " female admirers " where unpleasantly surprised to find out that their idol was " short , pudgy , wide @-@ necked and ruddy @-@ faced . " He writes : " the girls ... were thus in full agreement with the philosophical tradition which , since the old days , has set as a supreme ideal a mosaic of perfections that is naive and unlikely . "
Like Lovinescu , other advocates of modernist literature rejected most of Cerna 's contributions . One of the first to have done so is Ovid Densusianu , who stated his belief that an artist 's work should be separated from his life . Lovinescu , who commented on Densusianu and his thoughts on Cerna , opined that Densusianu had a tendency to reject all poets who registered popular success , and that he treated Dimitrie Anghel 's work in much the same way .
The poet 's house in Cerna is presently a museum , dedicated in part to his memory , and also housing a permanent exhibit dedicated to the traditional arts and crafts of Tulcea County . It also features a bust of the poet . The county library in Tulcea city is named after him , as are a high school in Brăila and streets in Bucharest , Brăila , Bistriţa , Hunedoara , Lugoj and Petroşani . The local authorities in Tulcea County organize an annual Panait Cerna National Poetry and Essay Contest .
= USS Ericsson ( DD @-@ 56 ) =
USS Ericsson ( Destroyer No. 56 / DD @-@ 56 ) was an O 'Brien @-@ class destroyer built for the United States Navy prior to the American entry into World War I. The ship was the second U.S. Navy vessel named in honor of John Ericsson , the Swedish @-@ born builder of the ironclad warship USS Monitor during the American Civil War .
Ericsson was laid down by the New York Shipbuilding of Camden , New Jersey , in November 1913 and launched in August of the following year . The ship was a little more than 305 feet ( 93 m ) in length , just over 31 feet ( 9 @.@ 4 m ) abeam , and had a standard displacement of 1 @,@ 090 long tons ( 1 @,@ 110 t ) . She was armed with four 4 @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) guns and had eight 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedo tubes . Ericsson was powered by a pair of steam turbines that propelled her at up to 29 knots ( 54 km / h ) .
After her May 1916 commissioning , Ericsson sailed off the east coast and in the Caribbean . She was one of seventeen destroyers sent out to rescue survivors from five victims of German submarine U @-@ 53 off the Lightship Nantucket in October 1916 , and carried 81 passengers from a sunken British ocean liner to Newport , Rhode Island . After the United States entered World War I in April 1917 , Ericsson was part of the first U.S. destroyer squadron sent overseas . Patrolling the Irish Sea out of Queenstown , Ireland , Ericsson made several unsuccessful attacks on U @-@ boats , and rescued survivors of several ships sunk by the German craft .
Upon returning to the United State after the war , Ericsson conducted operations with the destroyers of the Atlantic Fleet until August 1919 , when she was placed in reserve , still in commission . After a brief stint of operations in mid 1921 , she was placed in reserve until she was decommissioned at Philadelphia in June 1922 . In June 1924 , Ericsson was transferred to the United States Coast Guard to help enforce Prohibition as a part of the " Rum Patrol " . She operated under the name USCGC Ericsson ( CG @-@ 5 ) until May 1932 , when she was returned to the Navy . She was sold for scrap in August 1934 .
= = Design and construction = =
Ericsson was authorized in March 1913 as the sixth and final ship of the O 'Brien class which was an improved version of the Cassin @-@ class destroyers authorized in 1911 . Construction of the vessel was awarded to New York Shipbuilding of Camden , New Jersey , which laid down her keel on 10 November 1913 . Just over nine months later , on 22 August 1914 , Ericsson was launched by sponsor Mrs. J. Washington Logue , wife of the Pennsylvania Congressman . The ship was named in honor of John Ericsson , the builder of the ironclad warship USS Monitor during the American Civil War , and was the second U.S. Navy ship named for the Swedish native . As built , the destroyer was 305 feet 3 inches ( 93 @.@ 04 m ) in length , 31 feet 1 inch ( 9 @.@ 47 m ) abeam , and drew 9 feet 6 inches ( 2 @.@ 90 m ) . The ship had a standard displacement of 1 @,@ 090 long tons ( 1 @,@ 110 t ) and displaced 1 @,@ 171 long tons ( 1 @,@ 190 t ) when fully loaded .
Ericsson had two Zoelly steam turbines that drove her two screw propellers , and an additional triple @-@ expansion steam engine connected to one of the propeller shafts for cruising purposes . Four oil @-@ burning White @-@ Forster boilers powered the engines , which could generate 17 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 13 @,@ 000 kW ) , moving the ship at up to 29 knots ( 54 km / h ) .
Ericsson 's main battery consisted of four 4 @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) / 50 Mark 9 guns , with each gun weighing in excess of 6 @,@ 100 pounds ( 2 @,@ 800 kg ) . The guns fired 33 @-@ pound ( 15 kg ) armor @-@ piercing projectiles at 2 @,@ 900 feet per second ( 880 m / s ) . At an elevation of 20 ° , the guns had a range of 15 @,@ 920 yards ( 14 @,@ 560 m ) .
Ericsson was also equipped with eight 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedo tubes . The General Board of the United States Navy had called for two anti @-@ aircraft guns for the O 'Brien @-@ class ships , as well as provisions for laying up to 36 floating mines . From sources , it is unclear if these recommendations were followed for Ericsson or any of the other ships of the class .
= = Early career = =
USS Ericsson was commissioned into the United States Navy on 14 August 1915 under the command of Lieutenant Commander W. L. Pryor . From October through December 1915 , Ericsson operated out of New York and Newport , Rhode Island , on drills , in training , and on the Neutrality Patrol . With the Torpedo Flotilla of the Atlantic Fleet she sailed on 7 January 1916 for maneuvers in the Caribbean , using Key West and Guantanamo Bay as bases . She returned to Newport on 23 May .
At 05 : 30 on Sunday , 8 October 1916 , wireless reports came in of a German submarine stopping ships near the Lightship Nantucket , off the eastern end of Long Island . After an SOS from the British steamer West Point was received at about 12 : 30 , Rear Admiral Albert Gleaves ordered Ericsson and other destroyers at Newport to attend to survivors ; Ericsson was the fourth of seventeen destroyers to get underway . The destroyers arrived on the scene at about 17 : 00 when the U @-@ boat , U @-@ 53 under the command of Kapitänleutnant Hans Rose , fired shots across the bow of the Holland @-@ America Line cargo ship Blommersdijk , signaling her to stop . Shortly after , U @-@ 53 stopped the British passenger ship Stephano . As Rose had done with three other ships U @-@ 53 had sunk earlier in the day , he gave passengers and crew aboard Blommersdijk and Stephano adequate time to abandon the ships . Ericsson was one of six destroyers taking on passengers from Stephano that witnessed her sinking . In total , 226 survivors from U @-@ 53 's five victims were rescued by the destroyer flotilla . Ericsson transported 81 — including 35 women and children — back to Newport , where she arrived at 01 : 30 on 9 October .
After finishing out the rest of 1916 at Newport , Ericsson again joined in exercises in the Caribbean for the first three months of 1917 , and then returned to New York City and Newport to prepare for distant service .
= = World War I = =
After the United States declared war on Germany on 6 April 1917 entering World War I , Ericsson was prepared for overseas duty . On 7 May , Ericsson sailed from Boston with Tucker , Rowan , Cassin , Winslow and Jacob Jones for Queenstown , Ireland , where they arrived on 17 May . Ericsson began patrol duty in the war zone , and almost at once came upon a surfaced U @-@ boat shelling two sailing ships . She opened fire , forcing the submarine down and preventing further attack , then picked up 37 survivors of the sailing ships . She continued on patrol and escort duty , and on 28 September , at night , sighted a surfaced submarine , at which she fired . Ericsson dropped depth charges , but before she could carry out her plan to ram the German U @-@ boat , she lost contact in the darkness .
Ericsson continued to sail out of Queenstown on patrol and escorting convoys , many times attacking submarines , standing by damaged ships , and rescuing survivors . After June 1918 , she was based at Brest , France ; and during that summer , usually sailed about 3 nautical miles ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) ahead of convoys , towing aloft a kite balloon used for observation . At the close of the war , Ericsson was overhauled at Liverpool , but returned to Brest in time to take part on 13 December in the welcoming honors rendered for President Woodrow Wilson , arriving in France on the transport George Washington . On 21 December , Ericsson departed for the United States , arriving at New York on 8 January 1919 .
= = Postwar = =
In May 1919 , Ericsson sailed to the Azores to observe and support the historic first aerial crossing of the Atlantic , made by Navy seaplanes . After exercises along the east coast and in the Caribbean , she entered New York Navy Yard for repairs , and there was placed in reserve , still in commission , on 7 August . She was laid up in reduced commission at Philadelphia and Charleston , South Carolina , in the years that followed , and put to sea only during the summer of 1921 , when drills and exercises took her to Newport . She was decommissioned at Philadelphia on 16 June 1922 .
= = United States Coast Guard career = =
On 17 January 1920 , Prohibition was instituted by law in the United States . Soon , the smuggling of alcoholic beverages along the coastlines of the United States became widespread and blatant . The Treasury Department eventually determined that the United States Coast Guard simply did not have the ships to constitute a successful patrol . To cope with the problem , President Calvin Coolidge in 1924 authorized the transfer from the Navy to the Coast Guard of twenty old destroyers that were in reserve and out of commission . Ericsson was activated and acquired by the Coast Guard on 7 June 1924 .
Designated CG @-@ 5 , Ericsson was commissioned on 28 May 1925 , and joined the " Rum Patrol " to aid in the attempt to enforce prohibition laws . On 11 April 1926 , she captured the rum @-@ runner Atalanta . During her time in the Coast Guard , Ericsson 's gunners were awarded the USCG Gunnery Trophy for Destroyers for 1925 – 26 and 1926 – 27 . Ericsson was decommissioned at the Philadelphia Navy Yard on 30 April 1930 , and returned to the U.S. Navy on 23 May 1932 . She was scrapped and her salvaged material sold on 22 August 1934 in accordance with the London Naval Treaty .
= Is This It =
Is This It is the debut studio album by the American rock band the Strokes . Recorded at Transporterraum in New York City with producer Gordon Raphael , the album was first released on July 30 , 2001 , in Australia , with RCA Records as the primary label . The record entered the UK Albums Chart at number two and peaked at number 33 on the U.S. Billboard 200 , going on to achieve platinum status in several markets . " Hard to Explain " , " Last Nite " , and " Someday " were released as singles .
For the album , the Strokes strived to capture a simple rock sound that was not significantly enhanced in the studio . Building on the work of their 2001 debut EP , The Modern Age , the band members molded compositions largely through live takes during the recording sessions , while songwriter Julian Casablancas continued to detail the lives and relationships of urban youth . Following the completion of Is This It , the Strokes embarked on a promotional world tour before its release . The album 's cover photograph courted controversy for being too sexually explicit and was replaced for the U.S. market . The American track listing was also amended in light of the September 11 terrorist attacks .
Promoted by the music press for a melodic pop @-@ influenced sound , the Strokes garnered critical acclaim and commercial attention . Is This It was praised for its charisma and rhythm , which often referenced the works of 1970s garage rock bands . The record is considered crucial in the development of other alternative bands and of the post @-@ millennial music industry . It has featured in several publications ' lists of the best albums of the 2000s and of all time .
= = Origins = =
In 1997 , the Strokes consisted of singer Julian Casablancas , guitarist Nick Valensi , bassist Nikolai Fraiture , and drummer Fabrizio Moretti . Casablancas 's stepfather and Moretti 's and Fraiture 's older brothers introduced the quartet to the music of reggae artist Bob Marley , protopunk group the Velvet Underground , and alternative rock band Jane 's Addiction . Discussing the formative stages of the group , Moretti noted , " Our music was , like , [ the Doors ' ] , but trying to be classical . We all took music classes and tried writing songs , and when we put them together they were this crazy amalgam of insane ideas that we thought was really cool . " In 1998 , Albert Hammond , Jr . , who Casablancas knew from his time at a Swiss boarding school , moved to New York City to attend film school and joined The Strokes as a second guitarist . His arrival provided the catalyst for the band 's musical and emotional evolution .
By 2000 , all band members had part @-@ time jobs and were practicing new material several nights a week in a small hired recording space . In the fall of that year , their demo caught the attention of Ryan Gentles , a talent booker at New York City 's Mercury Lounge . He scheduled the Strokes for four December gigs . With support from personal mentor JP Bowersock and producer Gordon Raphael , the band recorded three tracks which later appeared on Is This It : " The Modern Age " , " Last Nite " , and " Barely Legal " . British label Rough Trade Records was impressed by the songs and released them as a January 2001 EP titled The Modern Age . Music press reaction was very positive and the Strokes embarked on a sold @-@ out UK tour , followed by U.S. support slots for alternative rock groups Doves and Guided by Voices . Gentles quit his job to manage the band full @-@ time and , in March 2001 , the Strokes signed to
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. Supergrass took this sound , wrote new lyrics for it , and had another song for their album . Gaz Coombes says , " One of the highlights of this album was recording ' Sofa ( Of My Lethargy ) ' . ... I remember everybody got in the live room and had an instrument , including Sam [ Williams ] on bass , a friend of his on hammond organ and we played the rest , all live , one take . ... We made I Should Coco so fast because we wanted to catch the energy and excitement of the songs on tape , and do it before the money ran out ! " In a 2005 interview with BBC Radio London Quinn remembered " writing that song [ ' Time ' ] in my living room on a rainy day and Gaz sort of turned up with this chord sequence and we just went straight through it and just did it on 4 track " .
= = Cover art and title = =
The album title is Cockney rhyming slang for " I should think so " . The front cover of the album is a painting based on three separate photos of Coombes , Goffey , and Quinn . The portraits of Coombes and Goffey were taken by Quinn in the summer of 1994 when he was experimenting with a macro lens . The photo of Quinn was taken that same year by a friend , while they were on tour in Wolverhampton . The painting was then created by the Moody Painters who were based on Oxford 's Cowley Road . The white band at the top was inspired by an old Donovan record that Quinn owned and is an homage to old 1950s and 1960s records , with the stereo @-@ mono signs . The photo on the back of the album was taken at a club in London about five minutes after they came off stage . The photo consists of two separate shots grafted together because Quinn was " pulling a disgusting face in the original " . All of these elements were then put together by Nick Bax of The Designers Republic to create the finished sleeve . The Bonus 7 " featured a more kaleidoscope @-@ style front cover .
= = Music = =
The group 's primary musical influences came from bands such as Buzzcocks , The Jam , Madness and The Kinks . Supergrass took this contemporary music and mixed it with pop punk 's characteristic fast , three @-@ chord , guitar @-@ based , catchy tunes to produce a sound uniquely their own ; " we were just the three of us in my bedroom or someone 's house , just making ... we played really hard and just made loads of noise . Most of our early songs were just three chord grooves and stuff that was fun to play . So that 's why the first album sounded so ' punky ' , I think ... it 's just ' cause we were all used to playing in this small room and it being really loud , so we just made the album sound like that . " Songs for Beginners by Graham Nash was another possible influence on I Should Coco . Gaz Coombes told The Guardian in 2003 , " We used to listen to it a lot when we lived in Cowley Road in Oxford in 1994 , just when the band were getting big . "
The musical styles and their particular inspirations for the songs on this album were extremely diverse . For example , there is the cheerful , fast , keyboard @-@ augmented " I 'd Like To Know " , the guitar @-@ driven punk narrative " Caught by the Fuzz " , the mainly piano @-@ based rhythm of the teen anthem " Alright " , and the country music @-@ influenced acoustic guitar in " Time to Go " . Even in the varied genre of Britpop , I Should Coco was seen as eclectic . Overall , the album has been described as Britpop , influenced in equal parts by Buzzcocks and The Kinks , with strong hints of Supertramp in " She 's So Loose " , " Lose It " and the intro of " Strange Ones " .
In a 1995 interview with the Metro , Mick Quinn said , " We listen to a lot of different kinds of music . We 're not a ' 60s @-@ revival band ! We like things from the ' 70s and beyond as well ; everything from Sly and the Family Stone and Motown to Frank Black and Tricky . "
" Strange Ones " and " I 'd Like To Know " are both songs about the strange people on Cowley Road , Oxford . Mick Quinn tried to describe the concept : " There 's a few people who are just really out there . There 's a lot of people around Oxford who are real spliffheads and that , who go and lie down in Port Meadow , but I 'm not really sure about them . I 'm not really sure that they 're individuals : they 're part of a much larger thing . " Danny Goffey added , " They 're the sort of people who don 't fit in anywhere , who don 't link up with everyday life at all . "
" Caught by the Fuzz " was based on a real @-@ life event : lead singer Gaz Coombes ' arrest and caution for possession of cannabis at age fifteen . In a 2004 interview , Coombes said " It wasn 't trying to be a real statement , but at the time we knew that it was a big deal . Kids all around England were getting nicked for having a bit of hash on them . In Oxford that kind of thing happened quite a lot . It 's all true so it was easy to write . It was a funny experience – not too funny at the time ' cause I was only 15 and shitting myself . The song has that disturbing energy . It 's comparable to your heart racing . The adrenaline rush you get when your mum walks into the police station is similar to the energy of the song . "
" Mansize Rooster " is said to be about a young boy with a large penis , although this is not obvious from the lyrics . Gaz Coombes once stated in an interview that " the most embarrassing moment in pop is on our album where it goes : ' Oi Mum ! Got any mandies ? ' " This was one of the many exclamations made between tracks on I Should Coco in the sped @-@ up voices of the band members . It was said before the song " We 're Not Supposed To " began .
= = Release and reception = =
I Should Coco reached number one on the UK Albums Chart , stayed there for three weeks , and still remains the only number @-@ one album Supergrass has ever achieved . It sold 500 @,@ 000 copies domestically , earning Platinum status in the UK , and has sold over a million copies worldwide . NME writer Steve Sutherland gave the album a nine @-@ out @-@ of @-@ ten rating . He wrote , " They play with the skill and assurance of a band who 've been going for decades yet they still burn off the buzz of being new to the game . " He added , " There 's nothing contrived about I Should Coco , nothing added for effect . "
Culturally , the album 's glorification of teenage freedom made a very big impact on the overall Britpop music scene . The whole genre was seen as the voice of youth , but Supergrass , still teens themselves when the album was made , addressed the subject with more insight than most . The most well @-@ known song from the album , " Alright " , is still played regularly in Britain and Ireland , and held up as a musical example of teenage rebellion . Though it is one of their most popular songs , the band rarely play " Alright " in their live sets any more . In a 1999 interview , Gaz Coombes joked , " We don 't play ' Alright ' anymore . We should play it in a minor key , and in the past tense . " Around the time of its release Coombes said that " it wasn 't written as an anthem . It isn 't supposed to be a rally cry for our generation . The stuff about ' We are young / We run green ... ' isn 't about being 19 but really 13 or 14 and just discovering girls and drinking . It 's meant to be light @-@ hearted and a bit of a laugh , not at all a rebellious call to arms . " Danny Goffey noted , " It certainly wasn 't written in a very summery vibe . It was written in a cottage where the heating had packed up and we were trying to build fires to keep warm . "
All five singles released in the UK from I Should Coco were well received by the British public . The first single from the album , " Caught by the Fuzz " , peaked at number 43 on the UK Singles Chart . The second single from the album , " Mansize Rooster " , was played as Supergrass ' first live television performance on The Word in 1995 , and reached number 20 on the UK Singles Chart . " Lose It " , officially the third single taken from the album , was a vinyl @-@ only US release from Sub Pop records . " Lenny " was the fourth single from I Should Coco ; it reached number 10 on the UK Singles Chart , and remained there for three weeks . The final release from the album , " Alright / Time " , proved to be their breakthrough single , largely due to the popularity of the song " Alright " . Supergrass ' highest ranked single to date , along with " Richard III " , " Alright " reached number 2 on the UK Singles Chart , remained in the top three for a month , and still receives airplay in the UK . I Should Coco was nominated for Best Album at the 1995 Mercury Prize awards , and the single " Alright " from the album won an Ivor Novello Award for Best Contemporary Song .
In a 2005 interview with The Times , Coombes said , " It 's insane that people think we would ever sound like that again ... We ’ re proud of ' Alright ' and how well it did , but we never wanted to find a formula and stick to it . Our aim was always to progress and keep the music interesting , for us and for the fans . So the people who see us in the street and still shout ' We are young ' may not like the new album , but fans who have grown up with us and know to expect change probably will . "
I Should Coco was included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die . In a 2007 retrospective review of the album , Al Fox of BBC Music hailed it as " an iconic 90s masterpiece " .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Supergrass .
= = Personnel = =
= = Awards = =
= The Dykeenies =
The Dykeenies are a Scottish indie rock band from Cumbernauld , formed in 2005 . The group consists of brothers Brian Henderson ( vocals , synthesizers ) and Andrew Henderson ( bass guitar , backing vocals ) , along with Steven Ramsay ( lead guitar , backing vocals ) and John Kerr ( drums , backing vocals ) . Since their formation , they have released one studio album , Nothing Means Everything , accompanied by three singles . After a worldwide tour , the band began work on their second album , which was released in October 2011 . On 31 January 2012 , The Dykeenies announced that they have parted ways .
= = History = =
= = = Beginnings and King Tut 's ( 2005 – 2006 ) = = =
The band played their first headline gig at the 350 @-@ capacity ABC2 , a small venue in Glasgow in late 2005 . The gig was a sell @-@ out show . In November 2005 , they were named as the inaugural " Artist of the Month " in the Your Sound competition ; a scheme run by Glasgow music venue King Tut 's Wah Wah Hut along with DF Concerts to project local unsigned talent . They would go on to play a sold @-@ out show at King Tut 's , despite only ever having appeared at the venue once before . As well as this , a demo version of the song " New Ideas " was included in Have Yourself a Filthy Little Christmas , a compilation album released as a free download by independent record label Filthy Little Angels on 12 December 2005 . They progressed to play an even bigger venue in Glasgow when they supported Mystery Jets at Glasgow 's Queen Margaret Union ( one of two Student unions of Glasgow University ) on 3 May 2006 , despite at this point never having released a single .
After winning the Your Sound competition , the band signed to King Tut 's Recordings . Again , despite having released little or no material at the time , the band were asked to play the " T Break " stage at T in the Park in Kinross , Scotland , on 9 July 2006 . A week later , The Dykeenies released their first single , a double a @-@ side " New Ideas / Will It Happen Tonight ? " . A video was recorded for the former track , featuring the band playing inside King Tut 's Wah Wah Hut . In September 2006 , the band signed to independent record label Lavolta Records .
Two months later , the band released their first EP through Lavolta , titled Waiting for Go . The release featured the title track , as well as tracks " Things You Cannot See " , " Feels Like Sleep " and " Dark Time " . It was produced by Jim Abbiss , who had previously worked with Arctic Monkeys , Kasabian and Bombay Bicycle Club ; and mixed by previous New Order and Kaiser Chiefs collaborator Cenzo Townshend . Following the release of the EP , the band were invited by NME to play on the first ever four band O2 Rock N Roll Riot Tour , alongside The Horrors , The Fratellis and The Maccabees .
= = = Nothing Means Everything ( 2007 – 2010 ) = = =
The band were given another boost into the musical limelight with the help from Xfm Scotland ( now Galaxy Scotland ) . The radio station began by asking them to be a part of Xfm Scotland 's first ever " Winter Wonderland " gig , one of three one @-@ day winter music festivals taking place in venues across the United Kingdom . They were then called up again to support Maxïmo Park at Edinburgh 's Liquid Room as part of " Xfm Live Sessions " on 31 March 2007 .
Following numerous headline and support gigs in and around Glasgow between November 2006 and March 2007 , The Dykeenies released a new recording of " New Ideas " on 9 April 2007 , with previously unreleased tracks " Safe " , " Simplify " and " Layers " featuring alongside various remixes as b @-@ sides . The band marked the release with an extensive UK tour , including playing their first headline gig at Glasgow 's QMU , a venue they had previously only played supporting Mystery Jets . This single was the band 's first entry into the UK Singles Chart , reaching number 54 . The band would release further singles " Clean Up Your Eyes " and " Stitches " between July and September 2007 , reaching number 53 and 61 , respectively .
The band released their debut album , Nothing Means Everything , on 17 September 2007 . They would again play the QMU in support of the album , a concert which was originally booked for Glasgow 's ABC , but was moved due to scheduling problems . During the concert , the band covered " Starman " by David Bowie , an artist they have stated as a major musical influence .
On 9 December 2008 , The Daily Record announced that guitarist Alan Henderson had left the band , leaving over " musical differences " . Vocalist Brian Henderson said that Alan was not seeing eye to eye on musical terms with the rest of the band . On 11 December 2008 , the band announced a one @-@ off date at King Tut 's on 18 February 2009 , their first gig since playing London 's Underage Festival on 8 August 2008 . The event sold out . A full tour was later announced , playing sixteen dates across the UK . Brian Henderson stated in an interview with The Daily Record that the band are currently experimenting with a number of new instruments , including bongo drums , acoustic guitars , and gospel choirs . Henderson added that the band are seven songs from finishing the album .
During the band 's March tour , they included new songs " Awake " , " Square Balloons " , " Minus One " , " Traps " and " Are You With Me Now ? " . The latter has been released as a free download through the band 's website and MySpace . The band 's new single " Sounds of the City " was released on 27 April 2009 , with an instrumental version of the song as a B @-@ side . As well as this , the band played a number of summer music festivals in 2009 , including T in the Park , Summer Sundae , and the Loopallu festival in Ullapool .
= = = Canyon of Echoes and split ( 2011 @-@ 12 ) = = =
The band announced on 18 July 2011 via their Myspace and Facebook accounts that their new album Canyon of Echoes will be released on 3 October 2011 . They will undertake a short UK tour to support the release . On 29 August 2011 they premiered the video for new single ' Awake ' on their official Facebook and YouTube channel .
In January 2012 , the Dykeenies announced their split .
= = Musical style = =
The Dykeenies ' musical style has been noted primarily as indie rock , with influences including The Cribs , Bloc Party and The Futureheads . Their musical style has also been compared to art rock and , more prominently , art pop . God Is in the TV Zine described " New Ideas " as sounding " like the first few tracks of Silent Alarm " , as well as comparing " Will It Happen Tonight ? " to We Are Scientists . Dykeenies have also stated that David Bowie is a major influence of the band , releasing a cover version of Starman as part of their Live at the Apple Store , Glasgow EP . One particular live review even linked the band to the short @-@ lived " New Rave " genre , as well as comparing lead singer Brian Henderson 's vocals to that of Brian Molko . Nothing Means Everything has been noted as being a more mature pop album , with " The Panic " in particular noted as having dark lyrical content .
= = Discography = =
= = = Studio albums = = =
Nothing Means Everything ( 2007 )
Canyon of Echoes ( 2011 )
= = = Extended plays = = =
Waiting for Go ( 2006 )
Live at the Apple Store , Glasgow ( 2007 )
= = = Singles = = =
" — " denotes releases that did not chart .
= Final Fantasy ( video game ) =
Final Fantasy ( ファイナルファンタジー , Fainaru Fantajī ) is a fantasy role @-@ playing video game developed and published by Square in 1987 . It is the first game in Square 's Final Fantasy series , created by Hironobu Sakaguchi . Originally released for the NES , Final Fantasy was remade for several video game consoles and is frequently packaged with Final Fantasy II in video game collections . The story follows four youths called the Light Warriors , who each carry one of their world 's four elemental orbs which have been darkened by the four Elemental Fiends . Together , they quest to defeat these evil forces , restore light to the orbs , and save their world .
The game was originally going to be called Fighting Fantasy , but the name was changed to Final Fantasy when the development team discovered Fighting Fantasy was the title of a series of single @-@ player roleplay gamebooks .
Square believed the game would be the last title they ever released , as the company faced bankruptcy . Instead , the game was a great commercial success , received generally positive reviews , and spawned many successful sequels and supplementary titles in the form of the Final Fantasy series . The original is now regarded as one of the most influential and successful role @-@ playing games on the Nintendo Entertainment System , playing a major role in popularizing the genre . Critical praise focused on the game 's graphics , while criticism targeted the time spent wandering in search of random battle encounters to raise the player 's experience level . By March 2003 , all versions of Final Fantasy had sold a combined total of two million copies worldwide .
= = Gameplay = =
Final Fantasy has four basic game modes : an overworld map , town and dungeon maps , a battle screen , and a menu screen . The overworld map is a scaled @-@ down version of the game 's fictional world , which the player uses to direct characters to various locations . The primary means of travel across the overworld is by foot , but a canoe , a ship , and an airship become available as the player progresses . With the exception of some battles in preset locations or with bosses , enemies are randomly encountered on field maps and on the overworld map when traveling by foot , canoe , or ship , and must either be fought or fled from .
The game 's plot develops as the player progresses through towns and dungeons . Some town citizens offer helpful information , while others own shops that sell items or equipment . Dungeons appear in areas that include forests , caves , mountains , swamps , underwater caverns and buildings . Dungeons often have treasure chests containing rare items that are not available in most stores . The game 's menu screen allows the player to keep track of their experience points and levels , to choose which equipment their characters wield , and to use items and magic . A character 's most basic attribute is their level , which can range from one to fifty , and is determined by the character 's amount of experience . Gaining a level increases the character 's attributes , such as their maximum hit points ( HP ) , which represents a character 's remaining health ; a character dies when they reach zero HP . Characters gain experience points by winning battles .
Combat in Final Fantasy is menu @-@ based : the player selects an action from a list of options such as Attack , Magic , and Item . Battles are turn @-@ based and continue until either side flees or is defeated . If the player 's party wins , each character will gain experience and Gil ; if it flees , it will be returned to the map screen ; and if every character in the party dies , the game will be over and all unsaved progress will be lost . Final Fantasy was the first game to show the player 's characters on the right side of the screen and the enemies on the left side of the screen , as opposed to a first @-@ person view .
The player begins the game by choosing four characters to form a party , and is locked into that choice for the duration of the game . Each character has an " occupation " , or character class , with different attributes and abilities that are either innate or can be acquired . There are six classes : Fighter , Thief , Black Belt , Red Mage , White Mage , and Black Mage . Later in the game , the player has the option to have each character undergo a " class upgrade " ; whereby their sprite portraits mature , and some classes gain the ability to use weapons and magic that they previously could not use . The game contains a variety of weapons , armor , and items that can be bought or found to make the characters more powerful in combat . Each character has eight inventory slots , with four to hold weapons and four to hold armor . Each character class has restrictions on what weapons and armor it may use . Some weapons and armor are magical ; if used during combat , they will cast spells . Other magical artifacts provide protection , such as from certain spells . At shops , the characters can buy items to help themselves recover while they are traveling . Items available include potions , which heal the characters or remove ailments like poison or petrification ; Tents and Cabins , which can be used on the world map to heal the player and optionally save the game ; and Houses , which also recovers the party 's magic after saving . Special items may be gained by doing quests .
Magic is a common ability in the game , and several character classes use it . Spells are divided into two groups : White , which is defensive and healing , and Black , which is debilitating and destructive . Magic can be bought from White and Black magic shops and assigned to characters whose occupation allows them to use it . Spells are classified by a level between one and eight , with four White and four Black spells per level . Each character may learn only three spells per level . White and Black Mages can potentially learn any of their respective spells , while Red Mages , the Ninja and the Knight cannot use most high @-@ level magic .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
Final Fantasy takes place in a fantasy world with three large continents . The elemental powers on this world are determined by the state of four orbs , each governing one of the four classical elements : earth , fire , water , and wind . The world of Final Fantasy is inhabited by numerous races , including Humans , Elves , Dwarves , Mermaids , Dragons , and Robots . Most non @-@ Human races have only one " town " in the game , although individuals are sometimes found in Human towns or other areas as well . Four hundred years prior to the start of the game , the Lefeinish people , who used the Power of Wind to craft airships and a giant space station ( called the Floating Castle in the game ) , watched their country decline as the Wind Orb went dark . Two hundred years later , violent storms sank a massive shrine that served as the center of an ocean @-@ based civilization , and the Water Orb went dark . The Earth Orb and the Fire Orb followed , plaguing the earth with raging wildfires , and devastating the agricultural town of Melmond as the plains and vegetation decayed . Some time later , the sage Lukahn tells of a prophecy that four Light Warriors will come to save the world in a time of darkness .
= = = Story = = =
The game begins with the appearance of the four youthful Light Warriors , the heroes of the story , who each carry one of the darkened Orbs . Initially , the Light Warriors have access to the Kingdom of Coneria and the ruined Temple of Fiends . After the Warriors rescue Princess Sara from the evil knight Garland , the King of Coneria builds a bridge that enables the Light Warriors ' passage east to the town of Pravoka . There the Light Warriors liberate the town from Bikke and his band of pirates , and acquire the pirates ' ship for their own use . The Warriors now embark on a chain of delivery quests on the shores of the Aldi Sea . First they retrieve a stolen crown from the Marsh Cave for a king in a ruined castle , who turns out to be the dark elf Astos . Defeating him gains them the Crystal Eye , which they return to the blind witch Matoya in exchange for a herb needed to awaken the Elf Prince cursed by Astos . The Elf Prince gives the Light Warriors the Mystic Key , which is capable of unlocking any door . The key unlocks a storage room in Coneria Castle which holds TNT . Nerrick , one of the Dwarves of the Cave of Dwarf / Dwarf Village , destroys a small isthmus using the TNT , connecting the Aldi Sea to the outside world .
After visiting the near @-@ ruined town of Melmond , the Light Warriors go to the Earth Cave to defeat a vampire and retrieve the Star Ruby , which gains passage to Sage Sarda 's cave . With Sarda 's Rod , the Warriors venture deeper into the Earth Cave and destroy the Earth Fiend , Lich . The Light Warriors then obtain a canoe and enter Gurgu Volcano and defeat the Fire Fiend , Kary . The Levistone from the nearby Ice Cave allows them to raise an airship to reach the northern continents . After they prove their courage by retrieving the Rat 's Tail from the Castle of Ordeal , the King of the Dragons , Bahamut , promotes each Light Warrior . A kind gesture is repaid by a fairy , receiving special liquid that produces oxygen , and the Warriors use it to help defeat the Water Fiend , Kraken , in the Sunken Shrine . They also recover a Slab , which allows a linguist named Dr. Unne to teach them the Lefeinish language . The Lefeinish give the Light Warriors access to the Floating Castle that Tiamat , the Wind Fiend , has taken over . With the Four Fiends defeated and the Orbs restored , a portal opens in the Temple of Fiends which takes them 2000 years into the past . There the Warriors discover that the Four Fiends sent Garland ( now the archdemon Chaos ) back in time and he sent the Fiends to the future to do so , creating a time loop by which he could live forever . The Light Warriors defeat Chaos , thus ending the paradox , and return home . By ending the paradox , however , the Light Warriors have changed the future to one where their heroic deeds remain unknown outside of legend .
= = Development = =
Hironobu Sakaguchi had intended to make a role @-@ playing game ( RPG ) for a long time , but his employer Square refused to give him permission as it expected low sales of such a product . Moreover , only three of his colleagues volunteered to join this project headed by him because he was thought of as a " rough boss " in spite of his unsuccessful creations . However , when the RPG Dragon Quest was released and proved to be a hit in Japan , the company reconsidered its stance on the genre and approved Sakaguchi 's vision of Fighting Fantasy , an RPG inspired by Ultima and Wizardry . According to the game 's composer , the title was later changed to Final Fantasy as the game was thought to be the company 's final project under the threat of bankruptcy . Sakaguchi also explained that the new title stemmed from his personal situation : had the game not sold well , he would have quit the games industry and gone back to university . In 2015 , Sakaguchi revealed the name 's real origin : the team wanted a title that would abbreviate to " FF " , which would sound good in Japanese . The name was originally going to be Fighting Fantasy , but due to concerns over trademark conflicts with the roleplaying gamebook series of the same name , they needed to settle for something else . They eventually chose Final Fantasy . According to Sakaguchi , any title that created the " FF " abbreviation would have done . Commenting on the original story , Sakaguchi said that " Those days definitely seemed like end times , but honestly , any word that started with ' F ' would ’ ve been fine . "
Final Fantasy was developed by a team of seven core staff members within Square referred to as the " A @-@ Team " . Sakaguchi convinced fellow game designers Koichi Ishii and Akitoshi Kawazu to join the project . Kawazu was mainly responsible for the battle system and sequences , which he based heavily on the tabletop game Dungeons & Dragons and the RPG Wizardry . For example , enemies ' weaknesses to elements such as fire and ice had not been included in Japanese RPGs up until that point . Kawazu had grown fond of such aspects of Western RPGs and decided to incorporate them into Final Fantasy . He also advocated the player 's option to freely choose their own party member classes at the beginning of the game as he feels " the fun in an RPG begins when you create a character " . The scenario was written by freelance writer Kenji Terada , based on a story by Sakaguchi . Ishii heavily influenced the game 's setting with his idea of the crystals . He also suggested illustrator Yoshitaka Amano as character designer , but Sakaguchi declined at first as he had never heard the artist 's name before . When Sakaguchi showed Ishii some drawings on magazine clippings and told him that this was the art style he was looking for , Ishii revealed to him that these were actually created by Amano , hence leading to his involvement in the game . The music for Final Fantasy was composed by Nobuo Uematsu and marked his 16th video game music composition . Iranian @-@ American programmer Nasir Gebelli was hired to code the game . He initially tried to understand all aspects of the gameplay but was soon advised by Sakaguchi to just program the design concepts so he did not have to explain everything to Gebelli in detail . Among the other developers were graphic designer Kazuko Shibuya , programmers Kiyoshi Yoshii and Ken Narita , as well as debugger Hiroyuki Ito . When the project started to show promise , designer Hiromichi Tanaka and his " B @-@ Team " joined to aid development . The lack of faith in Sakaguchi 's team as well as its unpopularity within the company motivated the staff members to give their best .
Sakaguchi took an in @-@ development ROM of the game to Japanese magazine Famicom Tsushin , but it would not review it . However , Famitsu gave the game extensive coverage . Only 200 @,@ 000 copies were to be shipped , but Sakaguchi pleaded with the company to make 400 @,@ 000 to help spawn a sequel , and the management agreed . Following the successful North American localization of Dragon Quest , Nintendo of America translated Final Fantasy into English and published it in North America in 1990 . The North American version of Final Fantasy met with modest success , partly due to Nintendo 's then @-@ aggressive marketing tactics . No version of the game was marketed in the PAL region until Final Fantasy Origins in 2003 .
= = Versions and re @-@ releases = =
Final Fantasy has been remade several times for different platforms , and has frequently been packaged with Final Fantasy II in various collections . While all of these remakes retain the same basic story and battle mechanics , various tweaks have been made in different areas , including graphics , sound , and specific game elements .
Final Fantasy was first re @-@ released for the MSX2 system and was published by Microcabin in Japan in June 1989 . It had access to almost three times as much storage space as the Famicom version , but suffered from problems not present in Nintendo 's cartridge media , including noticeable loading times . There were also minor graphical upgrades , much improved music tracks and sound effects .
In 1994 , Final Fantasy I ・ II , a compilation of Final Fantasy and Final Fantasy II , was launched for the Famicom . This version was only released in Japan and had very few graphical updates .
The WonderSwan Color remake was released in Japan on December 9 , 2000 , and featured many new graphical changes . The 8 @-@ bit graphics of the original Famicom game were updated , battle scenes incorporated full background images , and character and enemy sprites were re @-@ drawn to look more like the ones from the Super Famicom Final Fantasy games .
In Japan , Final Fantasy and Final Fantasy II were re @-@ released both separately and as a combined game for the PlayStation . The collection was released in Japan in 2002 as Final Fantasy I & II Premium Package and in Europe and North America in 2003 as Final Fantasy Origins . This version was similar to the WonderSwan Color remake and featured several changes such as more detailed graphics , a remixed soundtrack , added full motion video sequences , art galleries of Yoshitaka Amano 's illustrations and a memo save function . On December 18 , 2012 the port was re @-@ released as part of the Final Fantasy 25th Anniversary Ultimate Box release .
Final Fantasy I & II : Dawn of Souls is , like Final Fantasy Origins , a port of the first two games in the series and was released for the Game Boy Advance in 2004 . The Dawn of Souls version incorporates various new elements , including four additional dungeons , an updated bestiary , and a few tweaks .
Square Enix released a version of Final Fantasy for two Japanese mobile phone networks in 2004 ; a version for NTT DoCoMo FOMA 900i series was launched in March under the title Final Fantasy i and a subsequent release for CDMA 1X WIN @-@ compatible phones was launched in August . Another titular version was released for SoftBank Yahoo ! Keitai phones on July 3 , 2006 . Graphically , the games are superior to the original 8 @-@ bit game , but not as advanced as many of the more recent console and handheld ports .
Square Enix planned to release this version for North American mobile phones in 2006 , however , it was 2010 before it was released , in collaboration with Namco . It retains the game difficulty and MP System from the original Famicom version . Other elements such as updated graphics , spell names , monster names , bosses , items and areas are borrowed from the Game Boy Advance / Wonderswan Color versions ( however this version does not feature additional areas and monsters present in the GBA version ) . Game data is saved as in the original Famicom version ( by using Tent , Sleeping Bag and Cottage or by going into an inn ) . However , there are now three save game slots and a " Temporary Save " option available in the game .
For the 20th anniversary of Final Fantasy , Square Enix remade Final Fantasy and Final Fantasy II for the PlayStation Portable . The games were released in Japan and North America in 2007 , and in European territories in 2008 . The PSP version features higher @-@ resolution 2D graphics , full motion video sequences , a remixed soundtrack , and a new dungeon as well as the bonus dungeons from Dawn of Souls . The script is the same as in the Dawn of Souls version , aside from the new dungeon .
Square Enix released the original NES version of the game on the Wii 's Virtual Console service in Japan on May 26 , 2009 , in North America on October 5 , 2009 and in the PAL region as an import on May 7 , 2010 .
On February 25 , 2010 , Square Enix released the iOS version of Final Fantasy , based on the PSP port with touch controls , worldwide . On June 13 , 2012 , Square Enix released the Windows Phone version , which is based on the iOS version . On July 27 , 2012 , Square Enix released an Android port , largely based on the iOS version though lacking the new dungeons of the 20th anniversary edition .
On November 11 , 2016 , the game ( alongside 29 other games ) will be included in the NES Classic Edition / Nintendo Classic Mini : Nintendo Entertainment System released by Nintendo .
= = Reception = =
Final Fantasy has been well received by critics and commercially successful ; the original release sold 400 @,@ 000 copies . According to Square 's publicity department , the Japanese Famicom and MSX releases sold a combined 600 @,@ 000 copies , and the North American NES release sold 700 @,@ 000 copies . As of March 31 , 2003 , the game , including all re @-@ releases at the time , had shipped 1 @.@ 99 million copies worldwide , with 1 @.@ 21 million of those copies being shipped in Japan and 780 @,@ 000 abroad . As of November 19 , 2007 , the PlayStation Portable version has shipped 140 @,@ 000 copies .
Editors at IGN ranked Final Fantasy the 11th best game on the NES , calling the game 's class system diverse , and praising its convenient use of vehicles as a means of traveling across the world map . GamesRadar ranked it the eighth best NES game ever made . The staff felt that while Dragon Warrior introduced gamers to the genre , Final Fantasy popularized it . In 2004 , readers of Retro Gamer voted Final Fantasy 93rd top retro game , with the staff noting that " despite poor visuals and a relatively simple quest , many still consider the original to be the best ( with the exception of FFVII ) . " In 2006 , Final Fantasy appeared in the Japanese magazine Famitsu 's Top 100 games list , where readers voted it the 63rd best game of all time . GameFAQs users made a similar list in 2005 , which ranked Final Fantasy at 76th . It was rated the 49th best game made on a Nintendo system in Nintendo Power 's Top 200 Games list . In 2008 , Nintendo Power ranked it the 19th best Nintendo Entertainment System video game , praising it for setting up the basics of console role @-@ playing games , along with Dragon Warrior , and citing examples such as epic stories , leveling up , random battles , and character classes .
Final Fantasy was one of the most influential early console role @-@ playing games , and played a major role in legitimizing and popularizing the genre . According to IGN 's Matt Casamassina , Final Fantasy 's storyline had a deeper and more engaging story than the original Dragon Quest ( known as Dragon Warrior in North America ) . Modern critics have pointed out that the game is poorly paced by contemporary standards , and involves much more time wandering in search of random battle encounters to raise their experience levels and money than it does exploring and solving puzzles . Other reviewers find the level @-@ building and exploration portions of the game as the most amusing ones . In 1987 , Famitsu initially described the original Final Fantasy as " one of many " that imitated the Dragon Quest formula . The game is considered by some to be the weakest and most difficult installment of the series .
The subsequent versions of Final Fantasy have garnered mostly favorable reviews from the media . Peer Schneider of IGN enjoyed the WonderSwan Color version , praising its graphical improvements , especially the environments , characters , and monsters . Famitsu scored this version a 30 out of 40 . Final Fantasy Origins was generally well @-@ received ; GamePro said the music was " fantastic " , and that the graphics had a " suitably retro cuteness to them . " Reviews for Final Fantasy I & II : Dawn of Souls were generally positive , with Jeremy Dunham of IGN giving particular praise to the improved English translation , saying it was better than any previous version of the game . The PlayStation Portable version was not as critically successful as the previous releases ; GameSpot 's Kevin VanOrd cited the visuals as its strongest enhancement , but stated that the additional random enemy encounters and updated graphics did not add much value . The Dawn of Souls package was rated 76th in Nintendo Power 's Top 200 Games list .
= = Legacy = =
A soundtrack album was released together with the score of Final Fantasy II in 1989 . Some of the game 's tracks became mainstays to the Final Fantasy series : the " Prelude " , the arpeggio played on the title screen ; the " Opening Theme " , which is played when the party crosses the bridge early in the game and later referred to as the Final Fantasy theme ; and the " Victory Fanfare " , which is played after every victorious battle . The opening motif of the battle theme has also been reused a number of times in the series . The theme song that plays when the player characters first cross the bridge from Coneria has become the recurring theme music of the series , and has been featured in most numbered Final Fantasy titles . Final Fantasy was also the basis for the series finale of a video game @-@ themed cartoon series Captain N : The Game Master entitled " The Fractured Fantasy of Captain N " . 8 @-@ Bit Theater , a sprite @-@ based webcomic created by Brian Clevinger , parodies the game , and has become very popular in the gaming community since it started in March 20
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version . His problems stemmed in part from the stresses placed upon his voice while recording the lead vocals of " Shine On You Crazy Diamond " . Gilmour was asked to sing in his place , but declined , and eventually colleague and friend Roy Harper was asked to stand in . Harper was recording his own album in another of Abbey Road 's studios , and Gilmour had already performed some guitar licks for him . Waters later regretted the decision , believing he should have performed the song . The Blackberries recorded backing vocals for " Shine On You Crazy Diamond " .
= = Packaging = =
Wish You Were Here was sold in one of the more elaborate packages to accompany a Pink Floyd album . Storm Thorgerson had accompanied the band on their 1974 tour , and had given serious thought to the meaning of the lyrics , eventually deciding that the songs were , in general , concerned with " unfulfilled presence " , rather than Barrett 's illness . This theme of absence was reflected in the ideas produced by his long hours spent brainstorming with the band . Thorgerson had noted that Roxy Music 's Country Life was sold in an opaque green cellophane sleeve – censoring the cover image – and he copied the idea , concealing the artwork for Wish You Were Here in a black @-@ coloured shrink @-@ wrap ( therefore making the album art " absent " ) . The concept behind " Welcome to the Machine " and " Have a Cigar " suggested the use of a handshake ( an often empty gesture ) , and George Hardie designed a sticker containing the album 's logo of two mechanical hands engaged in a handshake , to be placed on the opaque sleeve ( the mechanical handshake logo would also appear on the labels of the vinyl album this time in a black and blue background ) . The album 's cover images were photographed by Aubrey ' Po ' Powell , Storm 's partner at the Pink Floyd design studio Hipgnosis and was inspired by the idea that people tend to conceal their true feelings , for fear of " getting burned " , and thus two businessmen were pictured shaking hands , one man on fire . " Getting burned " was also a common phrase in the music industry , used often by artists denied royalty payments . Two stuntmen were used ( Ronnie Rondell and Danny Rogers ) , one dressed in a fire @-@ retardant suit covered by a business suit . His head was protected by a hood , underneath a wig . The photograph was taken at the Warner Bros. studios in Los Angeles . Initially the wind was blowing in the wrong direction , and the flames were forced into Rondell 's face , burning his moustache . The two stuntmen changed positions , and the image was later reversed . Releases from 1975 to 2011 had the right man leaning backward , but with the 2011 reissue it was changed to have him leaning forward . The release of the album on Spotify had the cover with the mechanical handshake logo as the cover starting in 2011 , but it was changed to the actual cover in 2016 .
The album 's back cover depicts a faceless " Floyd salesman " , in Thorgerson 's words , " selling his soul " in the desert ( shot in the Yuma Desert in California again by Aubrey ' Po ' Powell ) . The absence of wrists and ankles signifies his presence as an " empty suit " . The inner sleeve shows a veil concealing a nude woman in a windswept Norfolk grove , and a splash @-@ less diver at Mono Lake – titled Monosee ( the German translation of Mono Lake ) on the liner notes – in California ( again emphasising the theme of absence ) . The decision to shroud the cover in black plastic was not popular with the band 's US record company , Columbia Records , who insisted that it be changed ( they were overruled ) . EMI were less concerned ; the band were reportedly extremely happy with the end product , and when presented with a pre @-@ production mockup , they accepted it with a spontaneous round of applause .
= = Critical reception = =
The band played much of Wish You Were Here on 5 July 1975 at the Knebworth music festival . Roy Harper , performing at the same event , on discovering that his stage costume was missing , proceeded to destroy one of Pink Floyd 's vans , injuring himself in the process . This delayed the normal setup procedure of the band 's sound system . As a pair of World War II Spitfire aircraft had been booked to fly over the crowd during their entrance , the band were not able to delay their set . The result was that a power supply problem pushed Wright 's keyboards completely out of tune , damaging the band 's performance . At one point he left the stage , but the band were able to continue with a less sensitive keyboard , a piano and a simpler light show . Following a brief intermission , they returned to perform The Dark Side of the Moon , but critics displeased about being denied access backstage savaged the performance .
The album was released on 12 September 1975 in the UK , and on the following day in the US . In Britain , with 250 @,@ 000 advance sales , it went straight to number one , and demand was such that EMI informed retailers that only 50 per cent of their orders would be fulfilled . With 900 @,@ 000 advance orders ( the largest for any Columbia release ) it reached number one on the US Billboard chart in its second week . Wish You Were Here was Pink Floyd 's fastest @-@ selling album ever .
On release , the album received mixed reviews . Ben Edmunds wrote in Rolling Stone :
Shine on You Crazy Diamond is initially credible because it purports to confront the subject of Syd Barrett , the long and probably forever lost guiding light of the original Floyd . But the potential of the idea goes unrealised ; they give such a matter @-@ of @-@ fact reading of the goddamn thing that they might as well be singing about Roger Waters 's brother @-@ in @-@ law getting a parking ticket . This lackadaisical demeanor forces , among other things , a reevaluation of their relationship to all the space cadet orchestras they unconsciously sired . The one thing those bands have going for them , in their cacophonously inept way , is a sincere passion for their " art . " And passion is everything of which Pink Floyd is devoid .
Melody Maker 's reviewer similarly opined : " From whichever direction one approaches Wish You Were Here , it still sounds unconvincing in its ponderous sincerity and displays a critical lack of imagination in all departments . "
Robert Christgau thought highly of the album , however , writing in The Village Voice at the time : " The music is not only simple and attractive , with the synthesizer used mostly for texture and the guitar breaks for comment , but it actually achieves some of the symphonic dignity ( and cross @-@ referencing ) that The Dark Side of the Moon simulated so ponderously . " He later wrote : " My favorite Pink Floyd album has always been Wish You Were Here , and you know why ? It has soul , that 's why – it 's Roger Waters 's lament for Syd , not my idea of a tragic hero but as long as he 's Roger 's that doesn 't matter . "
According to Acclaimed Music , Wish You Were Here is the 185th most ranked record on critics ' all @-@ time lists . In 2012 , it was voted 211th on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of the " 500 Greatest Albums of All Time " . In 1998 Q readers voted Wish You Were Here the 34th greatest album of all time . In 2000 the same magazine placed it at number 43 in its list of the 100 Greatest British Albums Ever . In 2007 , one of Germany 's largest public radio stations , WDR 2 , asked its listeners to vote for the 200 best albums of all time . Wish You Were Here was voted number one . In 2004 Wish You Were Here was ranked number 36 on Pitchfork Media 's list of the Top 100 albums of the 1970s . IGN rated Wish You Were Here as the 8th greatest classic rock album .
Despite the problems during production , the album remained Wright 's favourite : " It 's an album I can listen to for pleasure , and there aren 't many Floyd albums that I can . " Gilmour shares this view : " I for one would have to say that it is my favourite album , the Wish You Were Here album . The end result of all that , whatever it was , definitely has left me an album I can live with very very happily . I like it very much . "
= = = Sales = = =
Pink Floyd and their manager Steve O 'Rourke had been dissatisfied with the efforts of EMI 's US label Capitol Records , and Wish You Were Here was Pink Floyd 's first album with Columbia Records , an affiliate of CBS . The band remained with EMI 's Harvest Records in Europe . As a result of the label switch , the band gained ownership of their recordings , so that , from Wish You Were Here onward , every one of their albums has been copyrighted to either " Pink Floyd Music Limited " or ( after Waters ' departure ) " Pink Floyd ( 1987 ) Ltd . " instead of the corresponding record label .
The album was certified Silver and Gold ( 60 @,@ 000 and 100 @,@ 000 sales respectively ) in the UK on 1 August 1975 , and Gold in the US on 17 September 1975 . It was certified six times platinum on 16 May 1997 , and by 2004 has sold an estimated 13 million copies worldwide . " Have a Cigar " was chosen by Columbia as their first single , with " Welcome to the Machine " on the B @-@ side in the US .
= = Reissues and remastering = =
Wish You Were Here has been remastered and re @-@ released on several formats . In the UK and US the album was re @-@ issued in quadraphonic using the SQ format in 1976 , and in 1980 a special Hi @-@ Fi Today audiophile print was released in the UK . In the US it was released on CD in 1983 , and in the UK 1985 , and again as a remastered CD with new artwork in 1994 . In the US , Columbia 's CBS Mastersound label released a half @-@ speed mastered audiophile LP in 1981 , and in 1994 Sony Mastersound released a 24 @-@ carat gold @-@ plated CD , remastered using Super Bit Mapping , with the original artwork from the LP in both longbox and jewel case forms , the latter with a cardboard slipcover . The album was included as part of the box set Shine On , and five years later Columbia Records released an updated remastered CD , 17 seconds longer than the EMI remasters from 1994 , giving a running time of 44 : 28 . Its label was a recreation of the original machine handshake logo , with a black and blue background . The album was subsequently re @-@ released in 2000 for its 25th anniversary , on the Capitol Records label in the US . The album was re @-@ released and remixed in 2011 in multiple editions as part of the Why Pink Floyd ... ? reissue campaign . The Wish You Were Here - Immersion Box Set includes the new stereo digital remaster ( 2011 ) by James Guthrie on CD , an unreleased 5 @.@ 1 Surround Mix ( 2009 ) by James Guthrie on DVD and Blu @-@ ray , a Quad Mix ( which had been released only on vinyl LP and 8 @-@ track tape ) on DVD , as well as the original stereo mix ( 1975 ) on DVD and Blu @-@ ray . This campaign also featured the 2011 stereo remaster on 180g heavyweight vinyl as well as the 2011 stereo remaster and the 5 @.@ 1 surround sound mix ( 2009 ) as a hybrid Super Audio CD ( SACD ) .
= = Track listing = =
All lyrics written by Roger Waters .
= = Personnel = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
= M @-@ 211 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 211 is a state trunkline highway in the Lower Peninsula ( LP ) of Michigan that connects the community of Onaway with Onaway State Park . The highway runs through farmland and forests along the 5 @.@ 174 @-@ mile ( 8 @.@ 327 km ) route to the park . The trunkline was originally designated M @-@ 95 from 1919 until 1934 . In that year , the designation was moved to a different highway in the Upper Peninsula ( UP ) , and the state park connector was given the current number . The highway was last changed by 1960 when paving was completed .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 211 is a two @-@ lane highway that starts at M @-@ 68 in downtown Onaway . The trunkline runs north out of town on Main Street past business and residences . It crosses the North Eastern State Trail and passes the Leo E. Getz County Airport north of town . M @-@ 211 enters an area of farmland north of the airport . As it continues north and approaches Onaway State Park , the terrain transitions to forest land . M @-@ 211 ends at ythe intersection with Bonz Beach Highway in front of the state park gate . All of M @-@ 211 is undivided highway .
Like other state highways in Michigan , M @-@ 211 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) . In 2010 , the department 's traffic surveys showed that on average , 1 @,@ 429 vehicles used the highway in the city of Onaway and 1 @,@ 254 vehicles did so north of the city line to the state park . No section of M @-@ 211 is listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
When the state highway system was initially signposted in 1919 , The highway that ran north from M @-@ 10 at Onaway toward Black Lake was numbered M @-@ 95 . By 1934 , the highway was redesignated M @-@ 211 to free up the M @-@ 95 number . At the time , a highway in the UP was numbered M @-@ 45 , but US Highway 45 was being extended into Michigan . The Michigan State Highway Department renumbered M @-@ 45 in the UP as M @-@ 95 , and M @-@ 95 in the LP as M @-@ 211 . By the middle of 1960 , all of the current M @-@ 211 was paved . The highway has remained unchanged since .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Presque Isle County .
= Thuppakki =
Thuppakki ( English : The Gun ) is a 2012 Indian Tamil @-@ language action film written and directed by AR Murugadoss . It features Vijay and Kajal Aggarwal in the lead roles , Vidyut Jammwal as the antagonist , as well as Jayaram and Sathyan in supporting roles . The film , produced by S. Thanu , features background score and soundtrack composed by Harris Jayaraj with cinematography handled by Santhosh Sivan , who with Thuppakki , introduced the Arri Alexa camera to Indian cinema . The story revolves around an Indian army intelligence officer from a Mumbai @-@ based Tamil family on a mission to track down and destroy a terrorist group and deactivate the sleeper cells under its command .
The film , which commenced production in December 2011 in Mumbai , was released on 13 November 2012 , coinciding with the festival of Diwali . Upon release , the film became the highest grossing Tamil film of 2012 . The film was also released in Telugu under the same title in Andhra Pradesh , where it was also very well received . Thuppakki went on to win six Vijay Awards from sixteen nominations , and was nominated for seven South Filmfare Awards , including Best Film ( Tamil ) , Best Director ( Tamil ) and Best Actor ( Tamil ) . Murugadoss remade the film in Hindi as Holiday : A Soldier Is Never Off Duty in 2014 , while Baba Yadav remade it in Bengali as Game in the same year . The film has also been dubbed into Hindi as Indian Soldier Never on Holiday by Goldmines Telefilms .
= = Plot = =
Jagadish ( Vijay ) , a captain in the Indian Army , returns to Mumbai from Kashmir . On his arrival , his parents and younger sisters force him to see Nisha ( Kajal Aggarwal ) , who they choose for him to be married to . At the bride @-@ viewing ceremony , Jagadish makes up excuses to avoid marrying her , which includes commenting about her being old @-@ fashioned . On the contrary , Nisha is a college @-@ level boxer , who is completely modern in her outlook . Jagadish realises this and proposes to her , which after initial refusal , she reciprocates .
One day , while travelling around the city with his police officer @-@ friend Balaji ( Sathyan ) , Jagadish witnesses the explosion of a bus in which they had travelled . He manages to capture the man ( Gautham Kurup ) who laid the bomb , but he escapes from the hospital where he was kept under custody . Jagadish kidnaps the bomber again , and also forces the police officer who helped the bomber 's escape , to commit suicide . Jagadish soon learns that the bomber is a mere executor , a sleeper agent , whose only role was to plant the bomb . He also discovers that the Islamic terrorist group Harkat @-@ ul @-@ Jihad al @-@ Islami , which the bomber belongs to , has planned various such attacks in the city in a couple of days . Enlisting the help of his fellow Army men and Balaji , Jagadish manages to thwart these attacks and kill the sleeper cell leader 's brother and eleven other terrorists , including the previously captured sleeper cell agent .
When the leader of the terrorist group ( Vidyut Jammwal ) learns about the role of Jagdish in the failure of the terrorist attack , he begins to target the families of the army men , except Jagadish , by kidnapping someone close to them . When Jagadish realises the plan , he substitutes one of the people to be kidnapped , with his younger sister Sanjana ( Deepthi Nambiar ) . Using his pet dog and his sister 's dupatta , he manages to reach the terrorists ' hideout , rescuing his sister , who was about to be killed after Jagadish 's bluff was exposed , and the other victims and eliminating the terrorists assembled there . Asif Ali ( MD Asif ) , the second @-@ in @-@ command of the sleeper cells is captured and killed by Jagdish .
When this attack fails , the terrorist leader decides to target Jagadish himself . He asks Jagadish to surrender to him or else there would be more terrorist attacks . Jagadish decides to sacrifice his life and devises a plan with his fellow army men . Jagadish meets the leader in a ship , which has been rigged with a bomb planted by Jagadish 's friend . When he learns about the leader 's plan of infiltrating the Indian Army with sleeper agents with the help of a traitor in the Indian Defense — Kameeruddin ( Zakir Hussain ) , Jagadish decides to abandon his suicidal plan . He mocks the leader and compels him to a fight before escaping in a boat , with the leader as hostage . After the ship explodes , he kills the bewildered leader . Jagadish confronts Kameeruddin and forces him to commit suicide , before returning to Kashmir along with his fellow army men .
= = Cast = =
Director AR Murugadoss and Santosh Sivan make cameo appearances in the song " Google Google " .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
In July 2011 , sources reported that Vijay and AR Murugadoss would collaborate to make an action film , after completing their then @-@ respective ongoing projects , Velayudham and 7aum Arivu . Vijay 's father S. A. Chandrasekhar was initially going to produce the film , but Kalaipuli S. Thanu took over the project . Although Maalai Nerathu Mazhaithuli was initially considered as the title , the film became titled Thuppakki . A. Sreekar Prasad and Thotta Tharani , who was making a comeback to Tamil films after a three @-@ years hiatus , and Santosh Sivan were hired for editing , art direction and cinematography , respectively ; all of whom worked on an AR Murugadoss film for the first time .
Though Kingfisher Calendar model Angela Jonsson took part in a brief photo shoot with Vijay by Santosh Sivan in Chennai , Kajal Aggarwal was eventually confirmed as the female lead , while Akshara Gowda was cast to play the second female lead . Gautham Kurup was chosen to play an antagonistic role , while Vidyut Jamwal , who was simultaneously shooting for Billa II , would be playing another negative role . Sathyan , following several collaborations with Vijay , confirmed that he was part of this project , too . Further , Malayalam actor Jayaram also confirmed his presence in this project . Murugadoss confirmed that he himself would appear in a cameo role . Dubai @-@ based Malayali orthodontist Prasanth Nair was also signed to play a small but important role , making it his acting debut in Tamil cinema .
= = = Filming = = =
According to early reports , filming was to commence at Thiruchendur and continue in Mumbai . Even though it was supposed to start on 26 November 2011 , filming began on 5 December in Mumbai . Vijay would appear in a completely different hairstyle as well as a facial makeover . The first schedule , that lasted for 35 days , was completed by January 2012 . At Linking Road in Bandra , Mumbai , Vijay acted and operated the camera himself for one scene with cinematographer Santosh Sivan 's assistance , which had to be filmed quickly with the unaware public . Sivan commented that it was shot perfectly and decided to retain it in the film . Sivan further told that a major part of the film was being shot in real locations with hidden cameras . He did not use the usual 35 MM camera to shoot the film , but was said to have utilised the latest Arri digital technology , that was introduced in 2011 , becoming one of the first persons in the world to make use of the technology .
In March , the unit completed a 10 @-@ day shoot in Bangkok for a song sequence , featuring Vijay and Aggarwal . The second schedule started on 12 April in Mumbai . The third schedule ended in May 2012 , following which only two songs were remaining , both of which had been scheduled to be shot in Thailand . Vijay met with a minor accident during the shoot and hurt his knee . The shooting was stalled following the incident and the actor left to London to undergo treatment . The team then moved on to Pune for canning three songs . One of the songs was shot atop of a train , along with 300 dancers constructed by art director Sunil Babu . The dance sequence , choreographed by Shobi , was shot in the Mumbai Pune Expressway . The crew then left for Switzerland to shoot a romantic number , with Vijay and Aggarwal , at various locations , for which Sivan was unable to give dates , and Nutty , a Bollywood cameraman shot it instead . The final song shoot took place at DY Patil Stadium in Mumbai , with which principal photography wrapped . The budget of the film was estimated to be ₹ 700 million ( equivalent to ₹ 920 million or US $ 14 million in 2016 ) .
= = Soundtrack = =
Harris Jayaraj composed the soundtrack of Thuppakki , teaming up with Murugadoss for the third time . The lyrics were written by Na . Muthukumar , Viveka and Madhan Karky , who had written over 35 pallavis for one of the songs . Vijay , seven years after his last attempt at playback singing , and Andrea Jeremiah lent their voices for " Google Google " , a party number in the film . Though Harris Jayaraj had announced in August that Thuppakki 's music launch would take place the following month , the audio was eventually released on 10 October 2012 .
= = Release = =
The film was initially due to release on 9 November 2012 , but was postponed by four days to 13 November , coinciding with Diwali day . The film released in more than 1500 screens , becoming the widest release for a Vijay film .
Upon release , an Islamic group violently protested against the film , claiming that it portrayed Muslims as terrorists and traitors . Murugadoss , S. Thanu and Vijay 's father S. A. Chandrasekhar later tendered an open apology to representatives of 23 different Muslim outfits , and agreed to delete the scenes to which objections were raised , after activists had gathered near Vijay 's residence at Neelankarai and raised slogans against him and the film in Arabic and Urdu .
= = = Distribution = = =
The distribution rights for Thuppakki in Tamil Nadu were bought by Gemini Film Circuit . Several distributors including Bellamkonda Suresh , Geetha Films and Suresh Films were competing for the Telugu dubbing rights , with SVR eventually purchasing the rights for ₹ 15 crore , the second highest in terms of obtaining the Telugu rights after Kamal Hasan 's Dasavathaaram . ATMUS Entertainment had reportedly paid the highest price for a Vijay film to distribute the film in North America . It was distributed in France by BR Films International in more than 10 centres .
= = = Marketing = = =
Thuppakki 's first look poster was leaked on the internet on 30 April 2012 , a day prior to its scheduled release on 1 May . The poster , that depicted Vijay holding a cigar in his mouth , led to criticism by social activists for violating the Indian Tobacco Act , which prohibits advertising tobacco products . Murugadoss however defended the poster , explaining that it was only for promotional purposes and added that the film had no such scenes , claiming that even a small sequence featuring Vijay smoking had been deleted from the film .
In October 2012 , another promotional poster , which depicted a police @-@ uniform clad Vijay carrying the Aggarwal on his hands was claimed to have been lifted from a poster of An Officer and a Gentleman ( 1982 ) which depicted its lead actor Richard Gere lifting actress Debra Winger . Murugadoss claimed that Thuppakki did not have an army backdrop like Gere 's film but was set in Mumbai instead , going on to assert that everything in his film was original . He however admitted to have used the poster of An Officer and a Gentleman , and in an interview with The Hindu said , " Sometimes , you admire something so much that sub @-@ consciously it becomes a part of your work " .
The makers confirmed that the film 's first trailer would be released on 22 June , coinciding with Vijay 's birthday . However , Murugadoss announced that the teaser was to be released on 1 July , ten days later . Upon progression , the teaser and poster launch event was delayed , following an injunction order from the court , which had directed the makers of the film not to use the Thuppakki title in any form . With the court case ending on 5 October , the first teaser was released in October 2012 .
= = = Home media = = =
The broadcasting rights were purchased by STAR Vijay for ₹ 11 crore ( US $ 1 @.@ 6 million ) . Overseas DVD were marketed by Lotus Fivestar and Seyons TSK .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
L Romal M Singh of DNA India stated that the film " is different . The difference is visible in every shot , every dialogue spoken and the amazing attention to detail . What stands out most in this incredibly entertaining film is that Tamil films have finally come of age – in so many interesting ways " . Behindwoods.com rated the film 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars , calling it " a fully loaded festival package from Vijay , Murugadoss and co " . Deccan Chronicle rated it 3 @.@ 5 / 5 and cited : " Thuppaki has come out as an action thriller that depends on mind games and smart plans rather than bloody fights . This is Murugados 's film in its true sense and Vijay adds immense value to it by his performance " . IBNLive named it a " well written Tamil film that engages the audience " and added that it had " the energy of Vijay and intellect of AR Murugadoss " .
Manoj Kumar of International Business Times wrote : " Director AR Murugadoss makes sure that he does not regress with any of his films . He frequently comes out with a different plot and narration style , and " Thuppaki is a brilliant example of this " . Sify 's critic stated that Murugadoss " has made a complete entertainer that blends with Vijay 's mass image , thanks to his racy script " , calling it a " perfect Diwali entertainer " . Sangeetha Devi Dundoo of The Hindu commented : " One of the first promos of the film , with snapshots of Mumbai , lurking terror , the antagonist threatening Vijay to which he responds ' I am waiting ' went viral on social networks . The wait , clearly , has been worth it for the audience . And the man who 's probably having the last laugh is Murugadoss " . OneIndia rated the film 3 out of 5 and said , " Vijay is stupendous in the role of an army officer . He brings a lot of energy to his character and thrills the audience in action sequences . Kajal Aggarwal looks good . Vidyut Jamwal has done decent job and Satyan is good " . Haricharan Pudipeddi of The New Indian Express said , " Most of the characters are made to look dumb as Vijay steals all the attention . Kajal 's role as a boxer , which she squanders with her cliched performance , is definitely a turn off in the film . Jayaram and Sathyan , who 're supposed to make us laugh , fail miserably in the process " and concluded , " In essence , " Thuppakki " has the energy of Vijay and intellect of A.R. Murugadoss " .
J Hurtado of Twitch Film called the film 's cinematography " astonishingly good " and added that , " Murugadoss and Vijay have never worked on a better @-@ looking movie " , but called the film " an enjoyable , though largely forgettable film " . Kanchana Devi of Truthdive rated the film 3 @.@ 75 / 5 , calling it " a perfect action entertainer and a great treat for Diwali from Vijay and A.R.Murugadoss " . N. Venkateshwaran of The Times of India said , " ' Thuppakki ' will definitely be picked up by a big Bollywood star for a remake . For , the gun was bang on target " . In contrast , Vivek Ramz from in.com rated it 3 out of 5 and said that it " doesn 't meet the huge expectations it had created for itself " , calling it " another regular commercial film which entertains in bits and pieces " . Pavithra Srinivasan of Rediff rated the film 2 @.@ 5 out of 5 , saying " Vijay fans will find plenty to rejoice in this subdued avatar of their star , but audiences who seek intelligence in their movies will find it rather dull " .
= = = Box office = = =
India
On the opening day , Thuppakki netted around ₹ 92 @.@ 5 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 4 million ) in Tamil Nadu box office alone . It collected a sum of ₹ 456 million ( US $ 6 @.@ 8 million ) in Tamil Nadu , and ₹ 653 @.@ 2 million ( US $ 9 @.@ 7 million ) worldwide by its first week . In Chennai city alone , the film netted ₹ 48 @.@ 3 million ( US $ 720 @,@ 000 ) in its first week with an average theatre occupancy of 99 % . The second week witnessed an occupancy of 90 % in the city and netted around ₹ 94 @.@ 1 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 4 million ) creating a new record for Vijay and taking a distributor share of ₹ 46 @.@ 0 million ( US $ 680 @,@ 000 ) in 13 days . It still stood in the number one position by the third week resulting in a total collection of ₹ 113 @.@ 6 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 7 million ) . After a long run for eight weeks at the Chennai box office , the film netted ₹ 134 million ( US $ 2 @.@ 0 million ) , the second highest figure among Tamil films .
Ten days after the release , Thuppakki was released in 31 screens in Mumbai . It was bought for a record price in Karnataka by a leading distributor , and opened well at the box office there . The opening 3 @-@ day collection from 8 multiplexes of Bangalore alone netted at ₹ 3 @,@ 180 @,@ 000 ( US $ 47 @,@ 000 ) Thuppakki was released in 126 screens in Kerala and collected ₹ 40 million ( US $ 590 @,@ 000 ) in two days with a distributor share of ₹ 20 million ( US $ 300 @,@ 000 ) , which is a record for any Tamil release . Many of the centres witnessed police charging before the shows and were forced to go for a fifth show on the first day which resulted in almost 600 shows in a single day : a record number of screenings for any film in the state . The film reached the ₹ 1 billion ( US $ 15 million ) mark in 11 days of its release . The film 's total domestic box office collections at the end of its run stood at ₹ 1 @.@ 8 billion according to distributors Eros International .
Overseas
In its first weekend , Thuppakki earned £ 134 @,@ 280 ( ₹ 11 @.@ 8 million ) at the UK Box office . The film has collected ₹ 50 lakh in the second weekend on 11 screens . The total collection of the film in the UK and Ireland region was ₹ 1 @.@ 85 crore after the fourth weekend . In the US , the film collected $ 320 @,@ 349 ( ₹ 17 @.@ 6 million ) on 36 screens for the first week . The per screen average stands at $ 8 @,@ 899 ( ₹ 488 @,@ 000 ) and the Telugu version earned ₹ 846 @,@ 000 from nine screens . At the end of its second week , it once again topped the collection chart by adding ₹ 7 @.@ 5 million to its 13 @-@ day total ₹ 2 @.@ 51 crore ( $ 4 @,@ 52 @,@ 734 ) . In Australia , Thuppakki grossed A $ 80 @,@ 264 ( ₹ 46 @,@ 73 @,@ 000 ) on six screens and the average per screen collection of the film stands out at A $ 1656 after two weeks . The film continued to do good business at the International box office in its second week . It performed well in Malaysia , where it grossed around ₹ 87 @.@ 7 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 3 million ) at the box office after three weeks .
= = Accolades = =
= = Remakes = =
Murugadoss remade the film in Hindi as Holiday : A Soldier Is Never Off Duty in 2014 , starring Akshay Kumar in the leading role . Baba Yadav remade it in Bengali as Game the same year starring Jeet . The film was dubbed in Hindi as Indian Soldier Never on Holiday by Goldmines Telefilms .
= Lorena Hickok =
Lorena Alice Hickok ( March 7 , 1893 – May 1 , 1968 ) was an American journalist known for her close relationship with First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt .
Born in East Troy , Wisconsin to a dressmaker and a dairy @-@ farmer , Hickok had an unhappy childhood marked by isolation and abuse . After her mother 's death when Hickok was fourteen , she left home , worked on her own , and completed high school with the help of a cousin . She went into journalism after failing out of college , and soon became a successful reporter for the Minneapolis Tribune and the Associated Press ( AP ) , achieving several firsts for American women journalists . By 1932 , she had become the nation 's best @-@ known female reporter .
After being assigned to cover Roosevelt during her husband 's first presidential campaign , Hickok struck up a close relationship with the soon @-@ to @-@ be First Lady . For several years , the two corresponded almost every day , traveled together , and professed emotional and physical affection for one another . The exact nature of this relationship has been widely discussed by historians ; some have argued that the relationship was clearly romantic or erotic , while others have argued that historians have been misled by Roosevelt 's exuberant letters . More than 3 @,@ 000 letters from the pair 's correspondence are preserved at the Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum .
Compromised as a reporter by her personal relationship with Roosevelt , Hickok left the AP and began work as the chief investigator for the Federal Emergency Relief Administration ( FERA ) , a department of Franklin Roosevelt 's New Deal . Hickok encouraged or inspired several of Eleanor Roosevelt 's initiatives , including her syndicated column , her all @-@ women press conferences , and her planned community at Arthurdale , West Virginia . As Hickok grew more demanding of the First Lady , however , the pair 's initial closeness lessened . Following complications with her diabetes , Hickok resigned from FERA in 1936 and worked for three years promoting the 1939 New York World 's Fair . From 1940 to 1945 , she served as the executive secretary of the Women 's Division of the Democratic National Committee , living at the White House for most of this time . As her diabetes steadily worsened , she lived out her final years at Hyde Park to be near Roosevelt , publishing several books .
= = Early life and reporting career = =
Lorena Hickok , popularly known as " Hick " , was born in East Troy in Walworth County , Wisconsin , the daughter of Anna Adelsa ( née Waite ) and Addison Hickok . Lorena 's mother made dresses , while her father was a buttermaker . During childhood , Hickok experienced a troubled family life , characterized by abuse , unemployment , and repeated moves . When Hickok was ten , the family moved to Bowdle , South Dakota . An introverted child , Hickok was embarrassed by her height , and later recalled that she spent most of her time in solitude , daydreaming or playing with the animals of her family 's farm . At fourteen , she left home following her mother 's death , and worked as a maid until her mother 's cousin , Ella Ellis , took her in . While living with Ellis , Hickok finished high school and enrolled at Lawrence College in Appleton , Wisconsin .
Unable to fit in at college , Hickok failed out in her first year . She was hired to cover train arrivals and departures and write personal interest stories at The Battle Creek Evening News for $ 7 a week . In an attempt to follow in the footsteps of her role model , novelist and former reporter Edna Ferber , she joined the Milwaukee Sentinel as its society editor , but moved on to the city beat where she developed a talent as an interviewer . She interviewed celebrities , including actress Lillian Russell , pianist Ignacy Paderewski , and opera singers Nellie Melba and Geraldine Farrar , gaining a wide audience . She also became close friends with diva Ernestine Schumann @-@ Heink .
Hickok moved to Minneapolis to work for the Minneapolis Tribune . She enrolled at the University of Minnesota , leaving upon being forced to live in a women 's dormitory . She stayed with the Tribune where she was given opportunities unusual for a female reporter . She had a byline and was the paper 's chief reporter , covering politics , sports , and preparing editorials . During her tenure with the paper , she also covered the football team , becoming one of the first female reporters to be assigned a sports beat . In 1923 , she won an award from the Associated Press for writing the best feature story of the month , a piece on President Warren G. Harding 's funeral train .
During her years in Minneapolis , Hickok lived with a society reporter named Ella Morse , with whom she had a six @-@ year relationship . In 1926 , Hickok was diagnosed with diabetes , and Morse persuaded her take a year 's leave from the newspaper so the pair could travel to San Francisco and Hickok could write a novel . At the beginning of the leave , however , Morse unexpectedly eloped with an ex @-@ boyfriend , leaving Hickok devastated . Unable to face a return to Minneapolis , Hickok moved to New York , landing a job with the New York Daily Mirror .
After working for The Mirror for about a year , Hickok obtained a job with the Associated Press in 1928 , where she became one of the wire service 's top correspondents . Her November 1928 story on the sinking of the SS Vestris was published in the New York Times under her own byline , the first woman 's byline to appear in the paper . She also reported on the Lindbergh kidnapping and other national events . By 1932 , she had become the nation 's best @-@ known female reporter .
= = Early relationship with Eleanor Roosevelt = =
Hickok first met Roosevelt in 1928 when assigned to interview her by the AP . In 1932 , Hickok convinced her editors to allow her to cover Eleanor Roosevelt during her husband 's presidential campaign and for the four @-@ month period between his election and inauguration . When the mother of Franklin 's secretary , Missy LeHand , died in October 1932 , Eleanor invited Hickok to accompany her to Potsdam , New York for the funeral . The women spent the long train ride talking , beginning a long friendship . By Franklin 's inauguration on March 4 , 1933 , Hickok had become Eleanor 's closest friend . The two made trips together to Albany and Washington , D.C. , and spent nearly every day in each other 's company . Hickok joined the Roosevelts every Sunday night for dinner , while on other nights Eleanor joined Hickok at the theater or opera , or at dinners alone at Hickok 's apartment . For the inauguration , Eleanor wore a sapphire ring Hickok had given her .
That same day , Hickok interviewed Roosevelt in a White House bathroom , her first official interview as First Lady . By this time , Hickok was deeply in love with Roosevelt and finding it increasingly difficult to provide objective reporting . In addition , Hickok 's job kept her largely in New York , while Eleanor was in Washington . Both women were troubled by the separation , professing their love by telephone and letter ; Roosevelt put a picture of Hickok up in her study , which she told Hickok she kissed every night and every morning . During this period , Roosevelt wrote daily ten- to fifteen @-@ page letters to " Hick " , who was planning to write a biography of the First Lady .
The nature of Hickok and Roosevelt 's relationship has been a subject of dispute among historians . Roosevelt was close friends with several lesbian couples , such as Nancy Cook and Marion Dickerman , and Esther Lape and Elizabeth Read , suggesting that she was familiar with the lifestyle ; Marie Souvestre , Roosevelt 's childhood teacher and a great influence on her later thinking , was also a lesbian . Hickok biographer Doris Faber published some of Roosevelt and Hickok 's correspondence in 1980 , but concluded that the lovestruck phrasing was simply an " unusually belated schoolgirl crush " and warned historians not to be misled . Researcher Leila J. Rupp criticized Faber 's argument , calling her book " a case study in homophobia " and arguing that Faber unwittingly presented " page after page of evidence that delineates the growth and development of a love affair between the two women " . In 1992 , Roosevelt biographer Blanche Wiesen Cook argued that the relationship was in fact romantic , generating national attention .
Biographer Doris Kearns Goodwin summarized the letters between Hickok and Roosevelt thus :
Hick longed to kiss the soft spot at the corner of Eleanor 's mouth ; Eleanor yearned to hold Hick close ; Hick despaired at being away from Eleanor ; Eleanor wished she could lie down beside Hick and take her in her arms . Day after day , month after month , the tone in the letters on both sides remains fervent and loving .
Goodwin concluded , however , that " whether Hick and Eleanor went beyond kisses and hugs " cannot be known for certain , and that the important issue is the impact the close relationship had on both women 's lives . A 2011 essay by Russell Baker reviewing two new Roosevelt biographies in the New York Times Review of Books stated , " That the Hickok relationship was indeed erotic now seems beyond dispute . "
= = In the Roosevelt administration = =
Early in the Roosevelt administration , Hickok is credited with pushing Eleanor to write her own newspaper column , " My Day " , and to hold weekly press conferences specifically for female journalists . Hickok found it difficult to objectively cover the Roosevelts herself , however , and once suppressed a story at Eleanor 's request . The declining quality of her reporting soon caused her to receive a pay cut . Despite her worries about leaving the career on which she had built her identity , Hickok quit the AP at Eleanor 's urging in mid @-@ 1933 . Eleanor then helped Hickok obtain the position as a Chief Investigator for Harry Hopkins ' Federal Emergency Relief Administration ( FERA ) , where she conducted fact @-@ finding missions . In 1933 , Hickok went on a two @-@ month tour of the American South , where she was horrified by the poverty , malnutrition , and lack of education that she encountered . She urged Eleanor to visit a tent city of homeless ex @-@ miners in Morgantown , West Virginia , an experience that led Eleanor to found the federal housing project of Arthurdale , West Virginia . In March 1934 , Hickok accompanied Eleanor on a fact @-@ finding trip to the US territory of Puerto Rico , reporting afterward to Hopkins that the island 's poverty was too severe for FERA to usefully intervene .
During her time with FERA , Hickok developed a dislike of reporters . In one report to Hopkins in 1934 , she wrote , " Believe me , the next state administrator who lets out any publicity on me is going to get his head cracked " . In February 1934 , Time called her " a rotund lady with a husky voice , a peremptory manner , baggy clothes " , a description that wounded Hickok . In a letter to Hopkins ' secretary , she asked , " Why the Hell CAN 'T they leave me alone ? " Following the incident , Hickok and Roosevelt redoubled their efforts to keep their relationship out of the spotlight ; on one occasion , Roosevelt wrote to her , " we must must be careful this summer & keep it out of the papers when we are off together .
As Roosevelt became more active as first lady , however , she had less time for Hickok . Hickok grew angry and jealous at perceived slights , and demanded more time alone , which Roosevelt was unable to give ; at other times , she attempted unsuccessfully to separate herself from Roosevelt . Though the pair remained friends throughout their lives , they continued to grow apart in the years that followed . In 1937 , Roosevelt wrote to Hickok that " I never meant to hurt you in any way , but that is no excuse having done it . . . I am pulling back from all my contacts now . . . Such cruelty & stupidity is unpardonable when you reach my age . "
After an incident with her diabetes while traveling , Hickok resigned her FERA post for health reasons in late 1936 .
= = World
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wrestler and commentator . He is also a sporadic actor in film and a former high school teacher .
After obtaining a Master 's degree in educational psychology , Kaye began working as a high @-@ school teacher . He also began a career in professional wrestling , and made his debut in 2000 after being trained by Johnny Rodz . In early 2005 , Kaye quit his full @-@ time teaching job at Benjamin N. Cardozo High School , when the school board found out that he had been using sick days as a way to pursue his wrestling career .
Kaye signed a contract with WWE in mid @-@ 2005 , calling himself Matt Striker , and quickly developed a persona of a heel ( villainous ) teacher . He started out on the Raw brand , where he hosted a segment known as Matt Striker 's Classroom , before moving to the ECW brand in 2006 . There he joined the New Breed alliance and was involved in a feud with the ECW Originals . After this , he began managing wrestler Big Daddy V until 2008 . In August 2008 , Striker began working as the color commentator on ECW and , alongside his commentary partner Todd Grisham , won the 2008 Slammy Award for Announce Team of the Year . Striker was then moved to the SmackDown brand where he commentated from October 2009 to January 2011 . He then served as color commentator on Superstars until his departure from the company in 2013 .
= = High school teaching career = =
After obtaining a bachelor 's degree in history and a master 's degree in educational psychology , Kaye began working as a high school teacher . He worked part @-@ time as a substitute , filling in when other teachers were on leave . In mid @-@ 2004 , he was hired full @-@ time as a social studies teacher at Benjamin N. Cardozo High School in Queens , New York , but wrestled part @-@ time during his vacation time and on weekends . He resigned from his position as a teacher , however , when the school found out that he was using sick days as an excuse to keep up with his wrestling commitments . According to the school system 's Special Commissioner of Investigation , Kaye falsely claimed 11 sick days in December 2004 and February 2005 , during which time he was actually wrestling in Japan for Pro Wrestling Zero1 . Kaye later said in an interview that he would have taken personal days instead of sick days , but he " didn 't know there was a difference . " The Special Commissioner of Investigation recommended Kaye 's dismissal and also recommended that he should be considered ineligible for future employment in the public schools . Kaye , who was not tenured , chose to resign in April 2005 upon advice from his lawyer .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = Early career ( 2000 – 2005 ) = = =
After being trained by Johnny Rodz at Gleason 's Gym in New York City , Kaye made his debut in 2000 . He initially worked for small independent promotions and quickly achieved success , winning 10 different championships during his first year . He also participated in the King of the Ring 2002 commercials .
He wrestled for World of Unpredictable Wrestling ( WUW ) , where he won the WUW Continental Championship , Total Professional Wrestling , where he won the Light Heavyweight Championship and held the Tag Team Championship with Red Flair , and the East Coast Wrestling Association , where he won the ECWA Tag Team Championship with Ace Darling in February 2003 . The pair held the championship for seven months , until losing it in September . He also worked for Connecticut Championship Wrestling , and won the promotion 's main championship in February 2004 , by winning a tournament . Also in early 2004 , he teamed with Josh Daniels to win the PWF Tag Team Championship , and with Simon Diamond to win the USA Pro Wrestling 's tag team championship . On June 19 , Striker and Diamond lost the USA Pro Wrestling Tag Team Championship at a USA Pro Wrestling Show . A few hours later that same night , he appeared at a Pro @-@ Pain Pro Wrestling ( 3PW ) show as " The Ultimate Striker " , an impersonation of the Ultimate Warrior and teamed with Rob Eckos in a loss to " Slyck " Wager Brown and April Hunter . He also appeared for 3PW impersonating " The Macho Man " Randy Savage , The Sandman , Sabu , Hulk Hogan , and Ric Flair . On August 21 , 2004 , he and Eckos entered a tag team battle royal as The Bushwhackers , The Road Warriors , and the team of The Iron Sheik and Nikolai Volkoff .
While working full @-@ time as a teacher in 2004 , he continued to wrestle during his vacation time and weekends , and using sick days . On December 16 , 2004 , Striker began a tour of Japan with Pro Wrestling Zero1 , and was later invited back for an extended tour in early 2005 . After resigning from his teaching position , he continued to wrestle around New York , and on April 30 , 2005 , won the New York Wrestling Connection ( NYWC ) ' s Heavyweight Championship by defeating Mike Mondo . A few weeks later , on May 21 , while still the Heavyweight Champion , he defeated Joey Braggiol to win the NYWC Interstate Championship , but only held the championship for two weeks , before losing it back to Braggiol on June 4 . He made a few appearances for Ring of Honor in mid @-@ 2005 , before returning to NYWC to lose the Heavyweight Championship to Jerry Lynn on July 30 , after holding it for four months . He continued to wrestle for independent promotions throughout mid @-@ 2005 , until he signed a contract with WWE .
= = = World Wrestling Entertainment / WWE = = =
= = = = Various feuds ( 2005 – 2006 ) = = = =
Kaye wrestled Kurt Angle , using the name Matt Martel , in an invitational match on the February 24 , 2005 episode of SmackDown ! in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania . After the revelation that Kaye was a teacher appeared in mainstream news publications , Kaye made a WWE second appearance on the July 11 , 2005 episode of Raw to face Angle for a second time , again using the name Matt Martel . His news coverage was played up by Angle , who told the audience that Martel was really Striker , and Angle defeated him again in under three minutes . The following week , he appeared on Raw again , still claiming to be called Matt Martel , and challenged Angle again . Angle exposed him as Matt Striker again , before defeating him for the third consecutive time . Striker went on to compete on Heat and appear in WWE 's developmental territory , Deep South Wrestling .
Striker developed a heel ( villainous ) teacher gimmick , calling WWE his school and hosting a segment called Matt Striker 's Classroom on Raw , which debuted on December 12 . During the segment he ridiculed the audience , and treated the crowd as intellectual inferiors . During a match against Lance Cade at an untelevised event on December 18 , Striker suffered a shoulder injury . He was out of action until January 23 , 2006 , when he continued his Classroom segments once again , and then appeared mainly on Heat for several weeks .
Striker would reappear on Raw on April 17 for another classroom segment where he claimed that " school is cool " . Carlito , another wrestler , took exception to Striker 's statement , and spat an apple in Striker 's face , in keeping with Carlito 's gimmick . Striker returned to Raw in @-@ ring action on April 24 and participated in a six @-@ man tag team match , in which he , Chris Masters and Shelton Benjamin were defeated by Carlito , Rob Van Dam , and Charlie Haas . During the Backlash pay @-@ per @-@ view , Striker hosted an edition of his classroom segment , with Eugene , who in storyline was mentally impaired , as his guest . Eugene attacked Striker during the segment , which led to Striker attacking Eugene with a dictionary the following night on Raw . The scripted feud between the two also involved Carlito , who attacked both Eugene and Striker after Eugene inadvertently caused Carlito to lose a match to Striker by Disqualification on the May 8 episode of Raw . The feud between the two ended when Eugene gained a mentor in " Hacksaw " Jim Duggan and defeated Striker , after losing to him only two weeks before . Following his loss to Eugene , Striker attacked him , but was stopped by Duggan , and ran away .
Striker appeared only rarely on Raw throughout June and July , and his final match for the brand was on July 31 , when he was quickly defeated by John Cena .
= = = = Matt Striker 's classroom and The New Breed ( 2006 – 2008 ) = = = =
At the end of August 2006 , Striker left the Raw brand to join ECW , making his debut on August 23 . He continued his Classroom segment on ECW , which provoked a feud with The Sandman as Striker insulted him . During one Classroom segment on September 5 , 2006 , however , Striker made a controversial remark that alluded to the death of Australian wildlife expert Steve Irwin , who had been killed by a stingray 36 hours earlier . Due to the outrage caused by the remark , the incident was edited out of the replayed Australian broadcast and WWE Chairman Vince McMahon released a public apology on WWE 's official website following the incident . Striker made his in @-@ ring debut for the brand on the September 19 , 2006 episode of ECW , teaming up with Mike Knox and Test to face Tommy Dreamer , Sabu , and The Sandman . Striker , Knox , and Test lost the match by disqualification due to Test pushing the referee . Striker continued his feud with The Sandman until the October 17 episode of ECW , when The Sandman defeated Striker in a Singapore Cane on a Pole match . At the December to Dismember pay @-@ per @-@ view , Striker faced Balls Mahoney in a " Striker 's Rules " match , which meant that no eye gouging , hair pulling , top rope attacks , or foul language was allowed . Despite the match being of his own creation , Striker was pinned by Mahoney . Striker and Mahoney continued their rivalry until December 19 , when Striker defeated Mahoney on ECW .
On February 6 , Striker aligned himself with Mr. McMahon 's New Breed stable ( faction ) , along with Elijah Burke , Kevin Thorn , and Marcus Cor Von . The New Breed immediately engaged themselves in a feud with the ECW Originals ( Rob Van Dam , Tommy Dreamer , Sabu and The Sandman ) . Different members of the New Breeds wrestled members of the ECW originals over several weeks , leading up to WrestleMania 23 . At WrestleMania , the New Breed was defeated by the ECW Originals in an 8 @-@ man tag team match , but won a rematch on the following episode of ECW . In the midst of the feud with the ECW Originals , tension began to appear between the leader Elijah Burke and Striker , after Striker and Cor Von were defeated by the debuting Major Brothers . As a result , Striker began trying to avenge the loss to the Major Brothers , and defeated Brett Major on the May 22 episode of ECW . The feud with the Originals lost momentum , however , as Sabu was released from his WWE contract in mid @-@ May , and at the One Night Stand pay @-@ per @-@ view , the feud ended when Striker , Cor Von , and Burke lost to Dreamer , Sandman , and CM Punk in a tables match .
On June 12 , Striker was defeated by The Boogeyman in a singles match , and two weeks later , The Boogeyman attacked him during an edition of Piper 's Pit , both times dropping worms from his mouth into Striker 's . On July 10 , Striker invited Boogeyman to the ring to educate him on worms , only to bring out the debuting Big Daddy V to attack Boogeyman . Striker then formed an alliance with Big Daddy V that lasted until March 2008 , and acted as Big Daddy V 's manager , regularly accompanying him to the ring . In November , Striker and Big Daddy V started a feud with Kane , after Kane attacked Striker . The feud saw Striker and Big Daddy V take on Kane in a handicap match , and also saw the pair align briefly with Mark Henry . Henry helped Big Daddy V win a match against Kane on the November 27 episode of ECW , and in return , Striker refereed a match between Henry and The Undertaker , and refused to count a pinfall against Henry .
During this time , Striker hosted a weekly segment on WWE 's official website called " Best WWEek Worst WWEek " .
= = = = Commentator ( 2008 – 2013 ) = = = =
As part of the 2008 WWE Supplemental Draft in June 2008 , Striker was drafted back to the Raw brand . Once the SmackDown color commentator , Mick Foley , was storyline injured by Edge , however , Tazz moved to SmackDown to fill in for Foley , who had actually left the WWE in real life , and Striker returned to ECW to take over Tazz 's duties as color commentator , thus turning Striker face and ending his in ring career at the same time . He made his commentary debut on the August 5 episode of ECW . Striker and his commentary partner , Todd Grisham , won the 2008 Slammy Award for the Announce Team of the Year . On the April 7 , 2009 episode of ECW , Grisham and Striker 's commentary partnership came to an end when Josh Mathews debuted as the new play @-@ by @-@ play commentator , to replace Grisham who was moved to the SmackDown brand . In addition to commentating on ECW on SyFy and ECW pay @-@ per @-@ view matches , Striker and Mathews represented the ECW brand on WWE Superstars every week , which started with the inaugural episode on April 16 , 2009 .
On October 27 , 2009 it was announced that Striker would move from commentary on ECW to SmackDown , reuniting with Grisham . The move was made to help accommodate Jim Ross , who had been taking time off to deal with his recent Bell 's palsy attack . In November , Striker replaced Jerry Lawler on commentary for Raw for one night , after Lawler was attacked by Sheamus , and in storyline , was unable to continue . Matt also became the commentator representing the SmackDown brand from Survivor Series . This ran until Royal Rumble ( 2011 ) when he was replaced by Booker T at the following Elimination Chamber event . On June 7 , 2010 , Striker appeared on Raw for the " viewers choice " episode , announcing the results of the votes . At the end of the show , Striker was attacked by the season one NXT rookies , along with the commentators and Justin Roberts , the ring announcer . In October , Striker and Grisham were joined by Michael Cole on SmackDown , forming a three @-@ man announce team . Striker remained a SmackDown commentator until he was replaced in early February 2011 by Booker T.
= = = = Host of NXT and departure ( 2010 – 2013 ) = = = =
On the inaugural episode of NXT on February 23 , 2010 , Striker was announced as the host of the show and he conducted an interview with wrestler Daniel Bryan . In March 2011 , Striker gained a co @-@ host for the fifth season of NXT in the form of Maryse . On the June 2 , 2011 episode of Superstars , Striker appeared as the new agent of Tyson Kidd and managed Kidd for that single episode of Superstars .
Striker wrestled his first match in three years on the August 2 , 2011 episode of NXT , teaming with Titus O 'Neil in a winning effort against Derrick Bateman and Darren Young in a tag team match , turning face for the first time since his debut . He fought Young in the next two weeks , but Young emerged victorious both times . Striker later teamed up with William Regal to face Young and JTG , but Striker and Regal were unsuccessful in winning the match . On the October 18 , 2011 episode of SmackDown Striker participated in the biggest battle royal in WWE history .
Striker was reunited with his former broadcast partner Josh Mathews on the November 10 , 2011 episode of Superstars , commentating on both the Raw and SmackDown portions of the show . The Mathews / Striker tandem are the only announce team to call Superstars for all brands Raw , Smackdown and the former ECW brand since the show 's inception in April 2009 .
Meanwhile , as NXT host , Striker was frequently bullied and even assaulted by troublemakers Curt Hawkins and Tyler Reks , eventually forcing him to hand over match booking responsibilities to William Regal on the February 29 , 2012 NXT Redemption , although Striker would remain as NXT host . On the March 21 episode of NXT Redemption , after Maxine and Johnny Curtis knocked out Striker with chloroform , Striker was kidnapped ( kayfabe ) by unknown persons , later revealed to be Hawkins and Reks , who intended to blackmail Maxine into using her charms to get Regal to leave them alone . Despite apparently being kidnapped , Striker continued to commentate on Superstars , with the explanation given being that to keep his kidnapping a secret , WWE hired a body double to assume Striker 's duties . Striker was rescued by Derrick Bateman and Kaitlyn on the April 11 episode NXT Redemption . Striker ceased his role as NXT host with the conclusion of the NXT Redemption as NXT became the show of WWE 's rebranded developmental territory .
After hosting NXT , Striker began interviewing WWE employees on Raw and SmackDown . During the summer of 2012 , Striker became the host of WWE Afterburn for international broadcasts . On the October 12 SmackDown , Striker tried to interview Team Hell No ( Kane and Daniel Bryan ) , but they both attacked him . On the October 15 episode of Raw , Striker demanded that he receive an apology and was instead forced to face Kane in his final WWE match , which Striker lost . On June 20 , 2013 , Striker departed from WWE after the company opted to not renew his contract .
= = = Independent circuit ( 2013 – present ) = = =
On June 21 , Striker made his first post @-@ WWE appearance , by appearing on Family Wrestling Entertainment iPPV , FWE Rumble in Queens , New York as a color commentator . On September 14 , Right Coast Pro announced that Striker would face Billy Bax at the promotion 's October 12 event . On October 21 , 2013 , Striker was defeated by Justin Credible in NYWC 's House of madness . After the match , Striker nailed Credible and legitimately busted him open hardway . Backstage , Striker tried to apologize but Credible cursed him out in the locker room and stormed off . On July 2013 , Championship Wrestling from Hollywood announced Striker as the new announcer of the promotion on MAVTV . On November 2 , 2013 , Striker made his in ring debut for Championship Wrestling from Hollywood , against Scorpio Sky for the CWFH Heritage Heavyweight Championship but was unsuccessful as Sky retained the title .
On March 14 , 2014 , Striker took part in German promotion Westside Xtreme Wrestling 's 16 Carat Gold weekend . During the second day on March 15 , he and Trent ? defeated Hot & Spicy ( Axel Dieter Jr. and Da Mack ) to win the wXw World Tag Team Championship . They re @-@ lost the title to Hot & Spicy the next day .
From July 18 to August 2 , 2014 , Striker took part in Pro Wrestling Noah 's 2014 NTV G + Cup Junior Heavyweight Tag League , where he and Super Crazy finished with a record of two wins and two losses , failing to advance to the finals .
= = = Commentator in various promotions = = =
In 2015 , Striker took over as a producer and director for Paragon Pro Wrestling . He has made several appearances during televised events of the program , announcing D 'Lo Brown vs. Caleb Konley , and announcing the American Championship tournament at the February 12 , 2016 PPW TV taping . Striker , along with Vampiro , served as one half of the English language commentators for Asistencia Asesoría y Administración 's Lucha Libre World Cup internet pay @-@ per @-@ view on May 24 , 2015 .
On August 9 , 2015 , Striker returned to AAA English language commentary alongside Hugo Savinovich for AAA 's Triplemanía XXIII pay @-@ per @-@ view , which was heavily criticized due to many audio issues on the English language feed throughout the show , as well as the pay @-@ per @-@ view suddenly going off air in the final ten minutes during a major storyline angle involving Konnan , Myzteziz and Los Perros del Mal .
Striker and Jim Ross served as the English language commentators for New Japan Pro Wrestling 's Wrestle Kingdom 9 in Tokyo Dome pay @-@ per @-@ view on January 4 , 2015 . On October 12 , Striker returned to NJPW to provide English commentary on King of Pro @-@ Wrestling , this time working alongside long @-@ time Ring of Honor commentator Kevin Kelly .
Striker returned to NJPW English commentary at Wrestle Kingdom 10 in Tokyo Dome on January 4 , 2016 , again working alongside Kevin Kelly as well as NJPW wrestler Yoshitatsu .
= = = Lucha Underground ( 2014 – present ) = = =
On September 5 , 2014 , it was reported that Striker had signed with Lucha Underground as the lead English language announcer , alongside Vampiro . Striker and Vampiro provided English language commentary for the entire first season of the show , with the season finale airing on August 5 , 2015 . On September 21 , 2015 , Lucha Underground confirmed via Twitter that the show would return for a second season , with Striker and Vampiro returning for English commentary .
= = Personal life = =
He played hockey and football . In college , Kaye earned a Bachelor 's degree in History and went on to obtain a Master 's degree in educational psychology . Striker is a Christian that often read the Bible before matches in the WWE .
= = Other media = =
Kaye was a child actor , and had roles in the films Wise Guys and Child Savers . In 2011 , Kaye appeared in the films Big Fat Gyspy Gangster and Tezz in uncredited roles . He started to appear on a channel called " WrestlingFiguresCom " in June 2013 . On February 25 , 2014 episode of WWE Countdown Striker appeared to talk about past and current superstars .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
Golden Rule ( Inverted overdrive ) – 2006 – 2008 , 2013 – present
Happy Monkey Submission ( Rear naked choke )
Overdrive – 2005 – 2006 , 2011 – 2012
Signature moves
Big boot
Double knee backbreaker
Fujiwara armbar
Gory bomb
Neck snap
Rope hung swinging neckbreaker
Schoolboy
Single leg Boston crab
Skayde Lock ( Standing STF )
Sunset flip
Wrestlers managed
Big Daddy V
Mark Henry
Tyson Kidd
Nicknames
" The Modern Marvel "
" Hot Stuff "
" Macho Man "
" Your Teacher "
" The King of Royals "
Entrance themes
* " Teacher " by Jim Johnston ( WWE ; May 1 , 2006 – June 20 , 2013 )
" Hail to the King " by Avenged Sevenfold ( Independent circuit ; July 4 , 2013 – present )
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
Assault Championship Wrestling
ACW Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Scotty Charisma
Connecticut Championship Wrestling
CCW Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
DDT Pro @-@ Wrestling
Ironman Heavymetalweight Championship ( 1 time )
East Coast Wrestling Association
ECWA Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Ace Darling
High Impact Wrestling Canada
HIW Wildside Provincial Championship ( 1 time )
LDN Wrestling
LDN Wrestling Capital Championship ( 1 time )
New York Wrestling Connection
NYWC Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
NYWC Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Rob Eckos
NYWC Interstate Championship ( 1 time )
Premier Wrestling Federation
PWF Tag Team Championship ( 8 time ) – with Josh Daniels
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
PWI ranked him No. 166 of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 2006
Pro Wrestling Noah
NTV G + Cup Junior Heavyweight Tag League Technique Award ( 2014 ) – with Super Crazy
Total Professional Wrestling
TPW Light Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
TPW Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Red Flair
USA Pro Wrestling
USA Pro New York State Championship ( 1 time )
USA Pro Tag Team Championship ( 2 times ) – with Simon Diamond
Westside Xtreme Wrestling
wXw World Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Trent ?
World of Unpredictable Wrestling
WUW Continental Championship ( 1 time )
World Wrestling Entertainment
Slammy Award for Announce Team of the Year ( 2008 ) – with Todd Grisham
Wrestling Observer Newsletter
Best Television Announcer ( 2008 )
= Virus =
A virus is a small infectious agent that replicates only inside the living cells of other organisms . Viruses can infect all types of life forms , from animals and plants to microorganisms , including bacteria and archaea .
Since Dmitri Ivanovsky 's 1892 article describing a non @-@ bacterial pathogen infecting tobacco plants , and the discovery of the tobacco mosaic virus by Martinus Beijerinck in 1898 , about 5 @,@ 000 virus species have been described in detail , although there are millions of types . Viruses are found in almost every ecosystem on Earth and are the most abundant type of biological entity . The study of viruses is known as virology , a sub @-@ speciality of microbiology .
While not inside an infected cell or in the process of infecting a cell , viruses exist in the form of independent particles . These viral particles , also known as virions , consist of two or three parts : ( i ) the genetic material made from either DNA or RNA , long molecules that carry genetic information ; ( ii ) a protein coat , called the capsid , which surrounds and protects the genetic material ; and in some cases ( iii ) an envelope of lipids that surrounds the protein coat when they are outside a cell . The shapes of these virus particles range from simple helical and icosahedral forms for some virus species to more complex structures for others . Most virus species have virions that are too small to be seen with an optical microscope . The average virion is about one one @-@ hundredth the size of the average bacterium .
The origins of viruses in the evolutionary history of life are unclear : some may have evolved from plasmids — pieces of DNA that can move between cells — while others may have evolved from bacteria . In evolution , viruses are an important means of horizontal gene transfer , which increases genetic diversity . Viruses are considered by some to be a life form , because they carry genetic material , reproduce , and evolve through natural selection . However they lack key characteristics ( such as cell structure ) that are generally considered necessary to count as life . Because they possess some but not all such qualities , viruses have been described as " organisms at the edge of life " , and as replicators .
Viruses spread in many ways ; viruses in plants are often transmitted from plant to plant by insects that feed on plant sap , such as aphids ; viruses in animals can be carried by blood @-@ sucking insects . These disease @-@ bearing organisms are known as vectors . Influenza viruses are spread by coughing and sneezing . Norovirus and rotavirus , common causes of viral gastroenteritis , are transmitted by the faecal – oral route and are passed from person to person by contact , entering the body in food or water . HIV is one of several viruses transmitted through sexual contact and by exposure to infected blood . The range of host cells that a virus can infect is called its " host range " . This can be narrow , meaning a virus is capable of infecting few species , or broad , meaning it is capable of infecting many .
Viral infections in animals provoke an immune response that usually eliminates the infecting virus . Immune responses can also be produced by vaccines , which confer an artificially acquired immunity to the specific viral infection . However , some viruses including those that cause AIDS and viral hepatitis evade these immune responses and result in chronic infections . Antibiotics have no effect on viruses , but several antiviral drugs have been developed .
= = Etymology = =
The word is from the Latin neuter vīrus referring to poison and other noxious liquids , from ' the same Indo @-@ European base as Sanskrit viṣa poison , Avestan vīša poison , ancient Greek ἰός poison ' , first attested in English in 1398 in John Trevisa 's translation of Bartholomeus Anglicus 's De Proprietatibus Rerum . Virulent , from Latin virulentus ( poisonous ) , dates to c . 1400 . A meaning of " agent that causes infectious disease " is first recorded in 1728 , before the discovery of viruses by Dmitri Ivanovsky in 1892 . The English plural is viruses ( sometimes also viri or vira ) , whereas the Latin word is a mass noun , which has no classically attested plural ( however in Neo @-@ Latin vīra is used ) . The adjective viral dates to 1948 . The term virion ( plural virions ) , which dates from 1959 , is also used to refer to a single , stable infective viral particle that is released from the cell and is fully capable of infecting other cells of the same type .
= = History = =
Louis Pasteur was unable to find a causative agent for rabies and speculated about a pathogen too small to be detected using a microscope . In 1884 , the French microbiologist Charles Chamberland invented a filter ( known today as the Chamberland filter or Chamberland @-@ Pasteur filter ) with pores smaller than bacteria . Thus , he could pass a solution containing bacteria through the filter and completely remove them from the solution . In 1892 , the Russian biologist Dmitri Ivanovsky used this filter to study what is now known as the tobacco mosaic virus . His experiments showed that crushed leaf extracts from infected tobacco plants remain infectious after filtration . Ivanovsky suggested the infection might be caused by a toxin produced by bacteria , but did not pursue the idea . At the time it was thought that all infectious agents could be retained by filters and grown on a nutrient medium – this was part of the germ theory of disease . In 1898 , the Dutch microbiologist Martinus Beijerinck repeated the experiments and became convinced that the filtered solution contained a new form of infectious agent . He observed that the agent multiplied only in cells that were dividing , but as his experiments did not show that it was made of particles , he called it a contagium vivum fluidum ( soluble living germ ) and re @-@ introduced the word virus . Beijerinck maintained that viruses were liquid in nature , a theory later discredited by Wendell Stanley , who proved they were particulate . In the same year Friedrich Loeffler and Paul Frosch passed the first animal virus – agent of foot @-@ and @-@ mouth disease ( aphthovirus ) – through a similar filter .
In the early 20th century , the English bacteriologist Frederick Twort discovered a group of viruses that infect bacteria , now called bacteriophages ( or commonly phages ) , and the French @-@ Canadian microbiologist Félix d 'Herelle described viruses that , when added to bacteria on agar , would produce areas of dead bacteria . He accurately diluted a suspension of these viruses and discovered that the highest dilutions ( lowest virus concentrations ) , rather than killing all the bacteria , formed discrete areas of dead organisms . Counting these areas and multiplying by the dilution factor allowed him to calculate the number of viruses in the original suspension . Phages were heralded as a potential treatment for diseases such as typhoid and cholera , but their promise was forgotten with the development of penicillin . The study of phages provided insights into the switching on and off of genes , and a useful mechanism for introducing foreign genes into bacteria .
By the end of the 19th century , viruses were defined in terms of their infectivity , their ability to be filtered , and their requirement for living hosts . Viruses had been grown only in plants and animals . In 1906 , Ross Granville Harrison invented a method for growing tissue in lymph , and , in 1913 , E. Steinhardt , C. Israeli , and R. A. Lambert used this method to grow vaccinia virus in fragments of guinea pig corneal tissue . In 1928 , H. B. Maitland and M. C. Maitland grew vaccinia virus in suspensions of minced hens ' kidneys . Their method was not widely adopted until the 1950s , when poliovirus was grown on a large scale for vaccine production .
Another breakthrough came in 1931 , when the American pathologist Ernest William Goodpasture and Alice Miles Woodruff grew influenza and several other viruses in fertilized chickens ' eggs . In 1949 , John Franklin Enders , Thomas Weller , and Frederick Robbins grew polio virus in cultured human embryo cells , the first virus to be grown without using solid animal tissue or eggs . This work enabled Jonas Salk to make an effective polio vaccine .
The first images of viruses were obtained upon the invention of electron microscopy in 1931 by the German engineers Ernst Ruska and Max Knoll . In 1935 , American biochemist and virologist Wendell Meredith Stanley examined the tobacco mosaic virus and found it was mostly made of protein . A short time later , this virus was separated into protein and RNA parts . The tobacco mosaic virus was the first to be crystallised and its structure could therefore be elucidated in detail . The first X @-@ ray diffraction pictures of the crystallised virus were obtained by Bernal and Fankuchen in 1941 . On the basis of her pictures , Rosalind Franklin discovered the full structure of the virus in 1955 . In the same year , Heinz Fraenkel @-@ Conrat and Robley Williams showed that purified tobacco mosaic virus RNA and its protein coat can assemble by themselves to form functional viruses , suggesting that this simple mechanism was probably the means through which viruses were created within their host cells .
The second half of the 20th century was the golden age of virus discovery and most of the over 2 @,@ 000 recognised species of animal , plant , and bacterial viruses were discovered during these years . In 1957 , equine arterivirus and the cause of Bovine virus diarrhea ( a pestivirus ) were discovered . In 1963 , the hepatitis B virus was discovered by Baruch Blumberg , and in 1965 , Howard Temin described the first retrovirus . Reverse transcriptase , the enzyme that retroviruses use to make DNA copies of their RNA , was first described in 1970 , independently by Howard Martin Temin and David Baltimore . In 1983 Luc Montagnier 's team at the Pasteur Institute in France , first isolated the retrovirus now called HIV .
= = Origins = =
Viruses are found wherever there is life and have probably existed since living cells first evolved . The origin of viruses is unclear because they do not form fossils , so molecular techniques have been used to compare the DNA or RNA of viruses and are a useful means of investigating how they arose . In addition , viral genetic material may occasionally integrate into the germline of the host organisms , by which they can be passed on vertically to the offspring of the host for many generations . This provides an invaluable source of information for paleovirologists to trace back ancient viruses that have existed up to millions of years ago . Currently , there are three main hypotheses that aim to explain the origins of viruses :
Regressive hypothesis
Viruses may have once been small cells that parasitised larger cells . Over time , genes not required by their parasitism were lost . The bacteria rickettsia and chlamydia are living cells that , like viruses , can reproduce only inside host cells . They lend support to this hypothesis , as their dependence on parasitism is likely to have caused the loss of genes that enabled them to survive outside a cell . This is also called the degeneracy hypothesis , or reduction hypothesis .
Cellular origin hypothesis
Some viruses may have evolved from bits of DNA or RNA that " escaped " from the genes of a larger organism . The escaped DNA could have come from plasmids ( pieces of naked DNA that can move between cells ) or transposons ( molecules of DNA that replicate and move around to different positions within the genes of the cell ) . Once called " jumping genes " , transposons are examples of mobile genetic elements and could be the origin of some viruses . They were discovered in maize by Barbara McClintock in 1950 . This is sometimes called the vagrancy hypothesis , or the escape hypothesis .
Co @-@ evolution hypothesis
This is also called the virus @-@ first hypothesis and proposes that viruses may have evolved from complex molecules of protein and nucleic acid at the same time as cells first appeared on Earth and would have been dependent on cellular life for billions of years . Viroids are molecules of RNA that are not classified as viruses because they lack a protein coat . However , they have characteristics that are common to several viruses and are often called subviral agents . Viroids are important pathogens of plants . They do not code for proteins but interact with the host cell and use the host machinery for their replication . The hepatitis delta virus of humans has an RNA genome similar to viroids but has a protein coat derived from hepatitis B virus and cannot produce one of its own . It is , therefore , a defective virus . Although hepatitis delta virus genome may replicate independently once inside a host cell , it requires the help of hepatitis B virus to provide a protein coat so that it can be transmitted to new cells . In similar manner , the sputnik virophage is dependent on mimivirus , which infects the protozoan Acanthamoeba castellanii . These viruses , which are dependent on the presence of other virus species in the host cell , are called satellites and may represent evolutionary intermediates of viroids and viruses .
In the past , there were problems with all of these hypotheses : the regressive hypothesis did not explain why even the smallest of cellular parasites do not resemble viruses in any way . The escape hypothesis did not explain the complex capsids and other structures on virus particles . The virus @-@ first hypothesis contravened the definition of viruses in that they require host cells . Viruses are now recognised as ancient and as having origins that pre @-@ date the divergence of life into the three domains . This discovery has led modern virologists to reconsider and re @-@ evaluate these three classical hypotheses .
The evidence for an ancestral world of RNA cells and computer analysis of viral and host DNA sequences are giving a better understanding of the evolutionary relationships between different viruses and may help identify the ancestors of modern viruses . To date , such analyses have not proved which of these hypotheses is correct . However , it seems unlikely that all currently known viruses have a common ancestor , and viruses have probably arisen numerous times in the past by one or more mechanisms .
Prions are infectious protein molecules that do not contain DNA or RNA . They can cause infections such as scrapie in sheep , bovine spongiform encephalopathy ( " mad cow " disease ) in cattle , and chronic wasting disease in deer ; in humans , prionic diseases include Kuru , Creutzfeldt – Jakob disease , and Gerstmann – Sträussler – Scheinker syndrome . Although prions are fundamentally different from viruses and viroids , their discovery gives credence to the theory that viruses could have evolved from self @-@ replicating molecules .
= = Microbiology = =
= = = Life properties = = =
Opinions differ on whether viruses are a form of life , or organic structures that interact with living organisms . They have been described as " organisms at the edge of life " , since they resemble organisms in that they possess genes , evolve by natural selection , and reproduce by creating multiple copies of themselves through self @-@ assembly . Although they have genes , they do not have a cellular structure , which is often seen as the basic unit of life . Viruses do not have their own metabolism , and require a host cell to make new products . They therefore cannot naturally reproduce outside a host cell – although bacterial species such as rickettsia and chlamydia are considered living organisms despite the same limitation . Accepted forms of life use cell division to reproduce , whereas viruses spontaneously assemble within cells . They differ from autonomous growth of crystals as they inherit genetic mutations while being subject to natural selection . Virus self @-
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@ strand ) or negative @-@ sense ( called the minus @-@ strand ) , depending on if they are complementary to the viral messenger RNA ( mRNA ) . Positive @-@ sense viral RNA is in the same sense as viral mRNA and thus at least a part of it can be immediately translated by the host cell . Negative @-@ sense viral RNA is complementary to mRNA and thus must be converted to positive @-@ sense RNA by an RNA @-@ dependent RNA polymerase before translation . DNA nomenclature for viruses with single @-@ sense genomic ssDNA is similar to RNA nomenclature , in that the template strand for the viral mRNA is complementary to it ( − ) , and the coding strand is a copy of it ( + ) . However , several types of ssDNA and ssRNA viruses have genomes that are ambisense in that transcription can occur off both strands in a double @-@ stranded replicative intermediate . Examples include geminiviruses , which are ssDNA plant viruses and arenaviruses , which are ssRNA viruses of animals .
Genome size varies greatly between species . The smallest viral genomes – the ssDNA circoviruses , family Circoviridae – code for only two proteins and have a genome size of only two kilobases ; the largest – the pandoraviruses – have genome sizes of around two megabases which code for about 2500 proteins .
In general , RNA viruses have smaller genome sizes than DNA viruses because of a higher error @-@ rate when replicating , and have a maximum upper size limit . Beyond this limit , errors in the genome when replicating render the virus useless or uncompetitive . To compensate for this , RNA viruses often have segmented genomes – the genome is split into smaller molecules – thus reducing the chance that an error in a single @-@ component genome will incapacitate the entire genome . In contrast , DNA viruses generally have larger genomes because of the high fidelity of their replication enzymes . Single @-@ strand DNA viruses are an exception to this rule , however , as mutation rates for these genomes can approach the extreme of the ssRNA virus case .
= = = Genetic mutation = = =
Viruses undergo genetic change by several mechanisms . These include a process called antigenic drift where individual bases in the DNA or RNA mutate to other bases . Most of these point mutations are " silent " – they do not change the protein that the gene encodes – but others can confer evolutionary advantages such as resistance to antiviral drugs . Antigenic shift occurs when there is a major change in the genome of the virus . This can be a result of recombination or reassortment . When this happens with influenza viruses , pandemics might result . RNA viruses often exist as quasispecies or swarms of viruses of the same species but with slightly different genome nucleoside sequences . Such quasispecies are a prime target for natural selection .
Segmented genomes confer evolutionary advantages ; different strains of a virus with a segmented genome can shuffle and combine genes and produce progeny viruses or ( offspring ) that have unique characteristics . This is called reassortment or viral sex .
Genetic recombination is the process by which a strand of DNA is broken and then joined to the end of a different DNA molecule . This can occur when viruses infect cells simultaneously and studies of viral evolution have shown that recombination has been rampant in the species studied . Recombination is common to both RNA and DNA viruses .
= = = Replication cycle = = =
Viral populations do not grow through cell division , because they are acellular . Instead , they use the machinery and metabolism of a host cell to produce multiple copies of themselves , and they assemble in the cell .
The life cycle of viruses differs greatly between species but there are six basic stages in the life cycle of viruses :
Attachment is a specific binding between viral capsid proteins and specific receptors on the host cellular surface . This specificity determines the host range of a virus . For example , HIV infects a limited range of human leucocytes . This is because its surface protein , gp120 , specifically interacts with the CD4 molecule – a chemokine receptor – which is most commonly found on the surface of CD4 + T @-@ Cells . This mechanism has evolved to favour those viruses that infect only cells in which they are capable of replication . Attachment to the receptor can induce the viral envelope protein to undergo changes that results in the fusion of viral and cellular membranes , or changes of non @-@ enveloped virus surface proteins that allow the virus to enter .
Penetration follows attachment : Virions enter the host cell through receptor @-@ mediated endocytosis or membrane fusion . This is often called viral entry . The infection of plant and fungal cells is different from that of animal cells . Plants have a rigid cell wall made of cellulose , and fungi one of chitin , so most viruses can get inside these cells only after trauma to the cell wall . However , nearly all plant viruses ( such as tobacco mosaic virus ) can also move directly from cell to cell , in the form of single @-@ stranded nucleoprotein complexes , through pores called plasmodesmata . Bacteria , like plants , have strong cell walls that a virus must breach to infect the cell . However , given that bacterial cell walls are much less thick than plant cell walls due to their much smaller size , some viruses have evolved mechanisms that inject their genome into the bacterial cell across the cell wall , while the viral capsid remains outside .
Uncoating is a process in which the viral capsid is removed : This may be by degradation by viral enzymes or host enzymes or by simple dissociation ; the end @-@ result is the releasing of the viral genomic nucleic acid .
Replication of viruses involves primarily multiplication of the genome . Replication involves synthesis of viral messenger RNA ( mRNA ) from " early " genes ( with exceptions for positive sense RNA viruses ) , viral protein synthesis , possible assembly of viral proteins , then viral genome replication mediated by early or regulatory protein expression . This may be followed , for complex viruses with larger genomes , by one or more further rounds of mRNA synthesis : " late " gene expression is , in general , of structural or virion proteins .
Assembly – Following the structure @-@ mediated self @-@ assembly of the virus particles , some modification of the proteins often occurs . In viruses such as HIV , this modification ( sometimes called maturation ) occurs after the virus has been released from the host cell .
Release – Viruses can be released from the host cell by lysis , a process that kills the cell by bursting its membrane and cell wall if present : This is a feature of many bacterial and some animal viruses . Some viruses undergo a lysogenic cycle where the viral genome is incorporated by genetic recombination into a specific place in the host 's chromosome . The viral genome is then known as a " provirus " or , in the case of bacteriophages a " prophage " . Whenever the host divides , the viral genome is also replicated . The viral genome is mostly silent within the host . However , at some point , the provirus or prophage may give rise to active virus , which may lyse the host cells . Enveloped viruses ( e.g. , HIV ) typically are released from the host cell by budding . During this process the virus acquires its envelope , which is a modified piece of the host 's plasma or other , internal membrane .
The genetic material within virus particles , and the method by which the material is replicated , varies considerably between different types of viruses .
DNA viruses
The genome replication of most DNA viruses takes place in the cell 's nucleus . If the cell has the appropriate receptor on its surface , these viruses enter the cell sometimes by direct fusion with the cell membrane ( e.g. , herpesviruses ) or – more usually – by receptor @-@ mediated endocytosis . Most DNA viruses are entirely dependent on the host cell 's DNA and RNA synthesising machinery , and RNA processing machinery . However , viruses with larger genomes may encode much of this machinery themselves . In eukaryotes the viral genome must cross the cell 's nuclear membrane to access this machinery , while in bacteria it need only enter the cell .
RNA viruses
Replication usually takes place in the cytoplasm . RNA viruses can be placed into four different groups depending on their modes of replication . The polarity ( whether or not it can be used directly by ribosomes to make proteins ) of single @-@ stranded RNA viruses largely determines the replicative mechanism ; the other major criterion is whether the genetic material is single @-@ stranded or double @-@ stranded . All RNA viruses use their own RNA replicase enzymes to create copies of their genomes .
Reverse transcribing viruses
These have ssRNA ( Retroviridae , Metaviridae , Pseudoviridae ) or dsDNA ( Caulimoviridae , and Hepadnaviridae ) in their particles . Reverse transcribing viruses with RNA genomes ( retroviruses ) , use a DNA intermediate to replicate , whereas those with DNA genomes ( pararetroviruses ) use an RNA intermediate during genome replication . Both types use a reverse transcriptase , or RNA @-@ dependent DNA polymerase enzyme , to carry out the nucleic acid conversion . Retroviruses integrate the DNA produced by reverse transcription into the host genome as a provirus as a part of the replication process ; pararetroviruses do not , although integrated genome copies of especially plant pararetroviruses can give rise to infectious virus . They are susceptible to antiviral drugs that inhibit the reverse transcriptase enzyme , e.g. zidovudine and lamivudine . An example of the first type is HIV , which is a retrovirus . Examples of the second type are the Hepadnaviridae , which includes Hepatitis B virus .
= = = Effects on the host cell = = =
The range of structural and biochemical effects that viruses have on the host cell is extensive . These are called cytopathic effects . Most virus infections eventually result in the death of the host cell . The causes of death include cell lysis , alterations to the cell 's surface membrane and apoptosis . Often cell death is caused by cessation of its normal activities because of suppression by virus @-@ specific proteins , not all of which are components of the virus particle .
Some viruses cause no apparent changes to the infected cell . Cells in which the virus is latent and inactive show few signs of infection and often function normally . This causes persistent infections and the virus is often dormant for many months or years . This is often the case with herpes viruses . Some viruses , such as Epstein – Barr virus , can cause cells to proliferate without causing malignancy , while others , such as papillomaviruses , are established causes of cancer .
= = = Host range = = =
Viruses are by far the most abundant biological entities on Earth and they outnumber all the others put together . They infect all types of cellular life including animals , plants , bacteria and fungi . However , different types of viruses can infect only a limited range of hosts and many are species @-@ specific . Some , such as smallpox virus for example , can infect only one species – in this case humans , and are said to have a narrow host range . Other viruses , such as rabies virus , can infect different species of mammals and are said to have a broad range . The viruses that infect plants are harmless to animals , and most viruses that infect other animals are harmless to humans . The host range of some bacteriophages is limited to a single strain of bacteria and they can be used to trace the source of outbreaks of infections by a method called phage typing .
= = Classification = =
Classification seeks to describe the diversity of viruses by naming and grouping them on the basis of similarities . In 1962 , André Lwoff , Robert Horne , and Paul Tournier were the first to develop a means of virus classification , based on the Linnaean hierarchical system . This system bases classification on phylum , class , order , family , genus , and species . Viruses were grouped according to their shared properties ( not those of their hosts ) and the type of nucleic acid forming their genomes . Later the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses was formed . However , viruses are not classified on the basis of phylum or class , as their small genome size and high rate of mutation makes it difficult to determine their ancestry beyond Order . As such , the Baltimore Classification is used to supplement the more traditional hierarchy .
= = = ICTV classification = = =
The International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses ( ICTV ) developed the current classification system and wrote guidelines that put a greater weight on certain virus properties to maintain family uniformity . A unified taxonomy ( a universal system for classifying viruses ) has been established . The 9th lCTV Report defines the concept of the virus species as the lowest taxon ( group ) in a branching hierarchy of viral taxa . However , at present only a small part of the total diversity of viruses has been studied , with analyses of samples from humans finding that about 20 % of the virus sequences recovered have not been seen before , and samples from the environment , such as from seawater and ocean sediments , finding that the large majority of sequences are completely novel .
The general taxonomic structure is as follows :
Order ( -virales )
Family ( -viridae )
Subfamily ( -virinae )
Genus ( -virus )
Species ( -virus )
In the current ( 2013 ) ICTV taxonomy , 7 orders have been established , the Caudovirales , Herpesvirales , Ligamenvirales , Mononegavirales , Nidovirales , Picornavirales , and Tymovirales . The committee does not formally distinguish between subspecies , strains , and isolates . In total there are 7 orders , 103 families , 22 subfamilies , 455 genera , about 2 @,@ 827 species and over 4 @,@ 000 types yet unclassified .
= = = Baltimore classification = = =
The Nobel Prize @-@ winning biologist David Baltimore devised the Baltimore classification system . The ICTV classification system is used in conjunction with the Baltimore classification system in modern virus classification .
The Baltimore classification of viruses is based on the mechanism of mRNA production . Viruses must generate mRNAs from their genomes to produce proteins and replicate themselves , but different mechanisms are used to achieve this in each virus family . Viral genomes may be single @-@ stranded ( ss ) or double @-@ stranded ( ds ) , RNA or DNA , and may or may not use reverse transcriptase ( RT ) . In addition , ssRNA viruses may be either sense ( + ) or antisense ( − ) . This classification places viruses into seven groups :
I : dsDNA viruses ( e.g. Adenoviruses , Herpesviruses , Poxviruses )
II : ssDNA viruses ( + strand or " sense " ) DNA ( e.g. Parvoviruses )
III : dsRNA viruses ( e.g. Reoviruses )
IV : ( + ) ssRNA viruses ( + strand or sense ) RNA ( e.g. Picornaviruses , Togaviruses )
V : ( − ) ssRNA viruses ( − strand or antisense ) RNA ( e.g. Orthomyxoviruses , Rhabdoviruses )
VI : ssRNA @-@ RT viruses ( + strand or sense ) RNA with DNA intermediate in life @-@ cycle ( e.g. Retroviruses )
VII : dsDNA @-@ RT viruses ( e.g. Hepadnaviruses )
As an example of viral classification , the chicken pox virus , varicella zoster ( VZV ) , belongs to the order Herpesvirales , family Herpesviridae , subfamily Alphaherpesvirinae , and genus Varicellovirus . VZV is in Group I of the Baltimore Classification because it is a dsDNA virus that does not use reverse transcriptase .
= = Role in human disease = =
Examples of common human diseases caused by viruses include the common cold , influenza , chickenpox , and cold sores . Many serious diseases such as Ebola virus disease , AIDS , avian influenza , and SARS are caused by viruses . The relative ability of viruses to cause disease is described in terms of virulence . Other diseases are under investigation to discover if they have a virus as the causative agent , such as the possible connection between human herpesvirus 6 ( HHV6 ) and neurological diseases such as multiple sclerosis and chronic fatigue syndrome . There is controversy over whether the bornavirus , previously thought to cause neurological diseases in horses , could be responsible for psychiatric illnesses in humans .
Viruses have different mechanisms by which they produce disease in an organism , which depends largely on the viral species . Mechanisms at the cellular level primarily include cell lysis , the breaking open and subsequent death of the cell . In multicellular organisms , if enough cells die , the whole organism will start to suffer the effects . Although viruses cause disruption of healthy homeostasis , resulting in disease , they may exist relatively harmlessly within an organism . An example would include the ability of the herpes simplex virus , which causes cold sores , to remain in a dormant state within the human body . This is called latency and is a characteristic of the herpes viruses , including Epstein – Barr virus , which causes glandular fever , and varicella zoster virus , which causes chickenpox and shingles . Most people have been infected with at least one of these types of herpes virus . However , these latent viruses might sometimes be beneficial , as the presence of the virus can increase immunity against bacterial pathogens , such as Yersinia pestis .
Some viruses can cause lifelong or chronic infections , where the viruses continue to replicate in the body despite the host 's defense mechanisms . This is common in hepatitis B virus and hepatitis C virus infections . People chronically infected are known as carriers , as they serve as reservoirs of infectious virus . In populations with a high proportion of carriers , the disease is said to be endemic .
= = = Epidemiology = = =
Viral epidemiology is the branch of medical science that deals with the transmission and control of virus infections in humans . Transmission of viruses can be vertical , which means from mother to child , or horizontal , which means from person to person . Examples of vertical transmission include hepatitis B virus and HIV , where the baby is born already infected with the virus . Another , more rare , example is the varicella zoster virus , which , although causing relatively mild infections in humans , can be fatal to the foetus and newborn baby .
Horizontal transmission is the most common mechanism of spread of viruses in populations . Transmission can occur when : body fluids are exchanged during sexual activity , e.g. , HIV ; blood is exchanged by contaminated transfusion or needle sharing , e.g. , hepatitis C ; exchange of saliva by mouth , e.g. , Epstein – Barr virus ; contaminated food or water is ingested , e.g. , norovirus ; aerosols containing virions are inhaled , e.g. , influenza virus ; and insect vectors such as mosquitoes penetrate the skin of a host , e.g. , dengue . The rate or speed of transmission of viral infections depends on factors that include population density , the number of susceptible individuals , ( i.e. , those not immune ) , the quality of healthcare and the weather .
Epidemiology is used to break the chain of infection in populations during outbreaks of viral diseases . Control measures are used that are based on knowledge of how the virus is transmitted . It is important to find the source , or sources , of the outbreak and to identify the virus . Once the virus has been identified , the chain of transmission can sometimes be broken by vaccines . When vaccines are not available , sanitation and disinfection can be effective . Often , infected people are isolated from the rest of the community , and those that have been exposed to the virus are placed in quarantine . To control the outbreak of foot @-@ and @-@ mouth disease in cattle in Britain in 2001 , thousands of cattle were slaughtered . Most viral infections of humans and other animals have incubation periods during which the infection causes no signs or symptoms . Incubation periods for viral diseases range from a few days to weeks , but are known for most infections . Somewhat overlapping , but mainly following the incubation period , there is a period of communicability — a time when an infected individual or animal is contagious and can infect another person or animal . This , too , is known for many viral infections , and knowledge of the length of both periods is important in the control of outbreaks . When outbreaks cause an unusually high proportion of cases in a population , community , or region , they are called epidemics . If outbreaks spread worldwide , they are called pandemics .
= = = Epidemics and pandemics = = =
Native American populations were devastated by contagious diseases , in particular , smallpox , brought to the Americas by European colonists . It is unclear how many Native Americans were killed by foreign diseases after the arrival of Columbus in the Americas , but the numbers have been estimated to be close to 70 % of the indigenous population . The damage done by this disease significantly aided European attempts to displace and conquer the native population .
A pandemic is a worldwide epidemic . The 1918 flu pandemic , which lasted until 1919 , was a category 5 influenza pandemic caused by an unusually severe and deadly influenza A virus . The victims were often healthy young adults , in contrast to most influenza outbreaks , which predominantly affect juvenile , elderly , or otherwise @-@ weakened patients . Older estimates say it killed 40 – 50 million people , while more recent research suggests that it may have killed as many as 100 million people , or 5 % of the world 's population in 1918 .
Most researchers believe that HIV originated in sub @-@ Saharan Africa during the 20th century ; it is now a pandemic , with an estimated 38 @.@ 6 million people now living with the disease worldwide . The Joint United Nations Programme on HIV / AIDS ( UNAIDS ) and the World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimate that AIDS has killed more than 25 million people since it was first recognised on 5 June 1981 , making it one of the most destructive epidemics in recorded history . In 2007 there were 2 @.@ 7 million new HIV infections and 2 million HIV @-@ related deaths .
Several highly lethal viral pathogens are members of the Filoviridae . Filoviruses are filament @-@ like viruses that cause viral hemorrhagic fever , and include ebolaviruses and marburgviruses . Marburg virus , first discovered in 1967 , attracted widespread press attention in April 2005 for an outbreak in Angola . Ebola Virus Disease has also caused intermittent outbreaks with high mortality rates since 1976 when it was first identified . The worst and most recent one is the West Africa epidemic .
= = = Cancer = = =
Viruses are an established cause of cancer in humans and other species . Viral cancers occur only in a minority of infected persons ( or animals ) . Cancer viruses come from a range of virus families , including both RNA and DNA viruses , and so there is no single type of " oncovirus " ( an obsolete term originally used for acutely transforming retroviruses ) . The development of cancer is determined by a variety of factors such as host immunity and mutations in the host . Viruses accepted to cause human cancers include some genotypes of human papillomavirus , hepatitis B virus , hepatitis C virus , Epstein – Barr virus , Kaposi 's sarcoma @-@ associated herpesvirus and human T @-@ lymphotropic virus . The most recently discovered human cancer virus is a polyomavirus ( Merkel cell polyomavirus ) that causes most cases of a rare form of skin cancer called Merkel cell carcinoma . Hepatitis viruses can develop into a chronic viral infection that leads to liver cancer . Infection by human T @-@ lymphotropic virus can lead to tropical spastic paraparesis and adult T @-@ cell leukemia . Human papillomaviruses are an established cause of cancers of cervix , skin , anus , and penis . Within the Herpesviridae , Kaposi 's sarcoma @-@ associated herpesvirus causes Kaposi 's sarcoma and body cavity lymphoma , and Epstein – Barr virus causes Burkitt 's lymphoma , Hodgkin 's lymphoma , B lymphoproliferative disorder , and nasopharyngeal carcinoma . Merkel cell polyomavirus closely related to SV40 and mouse polyomaviruses that have been used as animal models for cancer viruses for over 50 years .
= = = Host defence mechanisms = = =
The body 's first line of defence against viruses is the innate immune system . This comprises cells and other mechanisms that defend the host from infection in a non @-@ specific manner . This means that the cells of the innate system recognise , and respond to , pathogens in a generic way , but , unlike the adaptive immune system , it does not confer long @-@ lasting or protective immunity to the host .
RNA interference is an important innate defence against viruses . Many viruses have a replication strategy that involves double @-@ stranded RNA ( dsRNA ) . When such a virus infects a cell , it releases its RNA molecule or molecules , which immediately bind to a protein complex called a dicer that cuts the RNA into smaller pieces . A biochemical pathway – the RISC complex , is activated , which ensures cell survival by degrading the viral mRNA . Rotaviruses have evolved to avoid this defence mechanism by not uncoating fully inside the cell , and releasing newly produced mRNA through pores in the particle 's inner capsid . Their genomic dsRNA remains protected inside the core of the virion .
When the adaptive immune system of a vertebrate encounters a virus , it produces specific antibodies that bind to the virus and often render it non @-@ infectious . This is called humoral immunity . Two types of antibodies are important . The first , called IgM , is highly effective at neutralizing viruses but is produced by the cells of the immune system only for a few weeks . The second , called IgG , is produced indefinitely . The presence of IgM in the blood of the host is used to test for acute infection , whereas IgG indicates an infection sometime in the past . IgG antibody is measured when tests for immunity are carried out .
Antibodies can continue to be an effective defence mechanism even after viruses have managed to gain entry to the host cell . A protein that is in cells , called TRIM21 , can attach to the antibodies on the surface of the virus particle . This primes the subsequent destruction of the virus by the enzymes of the cell 's proteosome system .
A second defence of vertebrates against viruses is called cell @-@ mediated immunity and involves immune cells known as T cells . The body 's cells constantly display short fragments of their proteins on the cell 's surface , and , if a T cell recognises a suspicious viral fragment there , the host cell is destroyed by killer T cells and the virus @-@ specific T @-@ cells proliferate . Cells such as the macrophage are specialists at this antigen presentation . The production of interferon is an important host defence mechanism . This is a hormone produced by the body when viruses are present . Its role in immunity is complex ; it eventually stops the viruses from reproducing by killing the infected cell and its close neighbours .
Not all virus infections produce a protective immune response in this way . HIV evades the immune system by constantly changing the amino acid sequence of the proteins on the surface of the virion . This is known as " escape mutation " as the viral epitopes escape recognition by the host immune response . These persistent viruses evade immune control by sequestration , blockade of antigen presentation , cytokine resistance , evasion of natural killer cell activities , escape from apoptosis , and antigenic shift . Other viruses , called neurotropic viruses , are disseminated by neural spread where the immune system may be unable to reach them .
= = = Prevention and treatment = = =
Because viruses use vital metabolic pathways within host cells to replicate , they are difficult to eliminate without using drugs that cause toxic effects to host cells in general . The most effective medical approaches to viral diseases are vaccinations to provide immunity to infection , and antiviral drugs that selectively interfere with viral replication .
= = = = Vaccines = = = =
Vaccination is a cheap and effective way of preventing infections by viruses . Vaccines were used to prevent viral infections long before the discovery of the actual viruses . Their use has resulted in a dramatic decline in morbidity ( illness ) and mortality ( death ) associated with viral infections such as polio , measles , mumps and rubella . Smallpox infections have been eradicated . Vaccines are available to prevent over thirteen viral infections of humans , and more are used to prevent viral infections of animals . Vaccines can consist of live @-@ attenuated or killed viruses , or viral proteins ( antigens ) . Live vaccines contain weakened forms of the virus , which do not cause the disease but , nonetheless , confer immunity . Such viruses are called attenuated . Live vaccines can be dangerous when given to people with a weak immunity ( who are described as immunocompromised ) , because in these people , the weakened virus can cause the original disease . Biotechnology and genetic engineering techniques are used to produce subunit vaccines . These vaccines use only the capsid proteins of the virus . Hepatitis B vaccine is an example of this type of vaccine . Subunit vaccines are safe for immunocompromised patients because they cannot cause the disease . The yellow fever virus vaccine , a live @-@ attenuated strain called 17D , is probably the safest and most effective vaccine ever generated .
= = = = Antiviral drugs = = = =
Antiviral drugs are often nucleoside analogues ( fake DNA building @-@ blocks ) , which viruses mistakenly incorporate into their genomes during replication . The life @-@ cycle of the virus is then halted because the newly synthesised DNA is inactive . This is because these analogues lack the hydroxyl groups , which , along with phosphorus atoms , link together to form the strong " backbone " of the DNA molecule . This is called DNA chain termination . Examples of nucleoside analogues are aciclovir for Herpes simplex virus infections and lamivudine for HIV and Hepatitis B virus infections . Aciclovir is one of the oldest and most frequently prescribed antiviral drugs . Other antiviral drugs in use target different stages of the viral life cycle . HIV is dependent on a proteolytic enzyme called the HIV @-@ 1 protease for it to become fully infectious . There is a large class of drugs called protease inhibitors that inactivate this enzyme .
Hepatitis C is caused by an RNA virus . In 80 % of people infected , the disease is chronic , and without treatment , they are infected for the remainder of their lives . However , there is now an effective treatment that uses the nucleoside analogue drug ribavirin combined with interferon . The treatment of chronic carriers of the hepatitis B virus by using a similar strategy using lamivudine has been developed .
= = Infection in other species = =
Viruses infect all cellular life and , although viruses occur universally , each cellular species has its own specific range that often infect only that species . Some viruses , called satellites , can replicate only within cells that have already been infected by another virus .
= = = Animal viruses = = =
Viruses are important pathogens of livestock . Diseases such as foot @-@ and @-@ mouth disease and bluetongue are caused by viruses . Companion animals such as cats , dogs , and horses , if not vaccinated , are susceptible to serious viral infections . Canine parvovirus is caused by a small DNA virus and infections are often fatal in pups . Like all invertebrates , the honey bee is susceptible to many viral infections . However , most viruses co @-@ exist harmlessly in their host and cause no signs or symptoms of disease .
= = = Plant viruses = = =
There are many types of plant virus , but often they cause only a loss of yield , and it is not economically viable to try to control them . Plant viruses are often spread from plant to plant by organisms , known as vectors . These are normally insects , but some fungi , nematode worms , and single @-@ celled organisms have been shown to be vectors . When control of plant virus infections is considered economical , for perennial fruits , for example , efforts are concentrated on killing the vectors and removing alternate hosts such as weeds . Plant viruses cannot infect humans and other animals because they can reproduce only in living plant cells .
Plants have elaborate and effective defence mechanisms against viruses . One of the most effective is the presence of so @-@ called resistance ( R ) genes . Each R gene confers resistance to a particular virus by triggering localised areas of cell death around the infected cell , which can often be seen with the unaided eye as large spots . This stops the infection from spreading . RNA interference is also an effective defence in plants . When they are infected , plants often produce natural disinfectants that kill viruses , such as salicylic acid , nitric oxide , and reactive oxygen molecules .
Plant virus particles or virus @-@ like particles ( VLPs ) have applications in both biotechnology and nanotechnology . The capsids of most plant viruses are simple and robust structures and can be produced in large quantities either by the infection of plants or by expression in a variety of heterologous systems . Plant virus particles can be modified genetically and chemically to encapsulate foreign material and can be incorporated into supramolecular structures for use in biotechnology .
= = = Bacterial viruses = = =
Bacteriophages are a common and diverse group of viruses and are the most abundant form of biological entity in aquatic environments – there are up to ten times more of these viruses in the oceans than there are bacteria , reaching levels of 250 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 bacteriophages per millilitre of seawater . These viruses infect specific bacteria by binding to surface receptor molecules and then entering the cell . Within a short amount of time , in some cases just minutes , bacterial polymerase starts translating viral mRNA into protein . These proteins go on to become either new virions within the cell , helper proteins , which help assembly of new virions , or proteins involved in cell lysis . Viral enzymes aid in the breakdown of the cell membrane , and , in the case of the T4 phage , in just over twenty minutes after injection over three hundred phages could be released .
The major way bacteria defend themselves from bacteriophages is by producing enzymes that destroy foreign DNA . These enzymes , called restriction endonucleases , cut up the viral DNA that bacteriophages inject into bacterial cells . Bacteria also contain a system that uses CRISPR sequences to retain fragments of the genomes of viruses that the bacteria have come into contact with in the past , which allows them to block the virus 's replication through a form of RNA interference . This genetic system provides bacteria with acquired immunity to infection .
= = = Archaean viruses = = =
Some viruses replicate within archaea : these are double @-@ stranded DNA viruses with unusual and sometimes unique shapes . These viruses have been studied in most detail in the thermophilic archaea , particularly the orders Sulfolobales and Thermoproteales . Defences against these viruses involve RNA interference from repetitive DNA sequences within archaean genomes that are related to the genes of the viruses . Most archaea have CRISPR – Cas systems as an adaptive defense against viruses . These enable archaea to retain sections of viral DNA , which are then used to target and eliminate subsequent infections by the virus using a process similar to RNA interference .
= = Role in aquatic ecosystems = =
A teaspoon of seawater contains about one million viruses . Most of these are bacteriophages , which are harmless to plants and animals , and are in fact essential to the regulation of saltwater and freshwater ecosystems . They infect and destroy bacteria in aquatic microbial communities , and are the most important mechanism of recycling carbon in the marine environment . The organic molecules released from the dead bacterial cells stimulate fresh bacterial and algal growth . Viral activity may also contribute to the biological pump , the process whereby carbon is sequestered in the deep ocean .
Microorganisms constitute more than 90 % of the biomass in the sea . It is estimated that viruses kill approximately 20 % of this biomass each day and that there are 15 times as many viruses in the oceans as there are bacteria and archaea . Viruses are the main agents responsible for the rapid destruction of harmful algal blooms , which often kill other marine life . The number of viruses in the oceans decreases further offshore and deeper into the water , where there are fewer host organisms .
Like any organism , marine mammals are susceptible to viral infections . In 1988 and 2002 , thousands of harbor seals were killed in Europe by phocine distemper virus . Many other viruses , including caliciviruses , herpesviruses , adenoviruses and parvoviruses , circulate in marine mammal populations .
= = Role in evolution = =
Viruses are an important natural means of transferring genes between different species , which increases genetic diversity and drives evolution . It is thought that viruses played a central role in the early evolution , before the diversification of bacteria , archaea and eukaryotes , at the time of the last universal common ancestor of life on Earth . Viruses are still one of the largest reservoirs of unexplored genetic diversity on Earth .
= = Applications = =
= = = Life sciences and medicine = = =
Viruses are important to the study of molecular and cell biology as they provide simple systems that can be used to manipulate and investigate the functions of cells . The study and use of viruses have provided valuable information about aspects of cell biology . For example , viruses have been useful in the study of genetics and helped our understanding of the basic mechanisms of molecular genetics , such as DNA replication , transcription , RNA processing , translation , protein transport , and immunology .
Geneticists often use viruses as vectors to introduce genes into cells that they are studying . This is useful for making the cell produce a foreign substance , or to study the effect of introducing a new gene into the genome . In similar fashion , virotherapy uses viruses as vectors to treat various diseases , as they can specifically target cells and DNA . It shows promising use in the treatment of cancer and in gene therapy . Eastern European scientists have used phage therapy as an alternative to antibiotics for some time , and interest in this approach is increasing , because of the high level of antibiotic resistance now found in some pathogenic bacteria . Expression of heterologous proteins by viruses is the basis of several manufacturing processes that are currently being used for the production of various proteins such as vaccine antigens and antibodies . Industrial processes have been recently developed using viral vectors and a number of pharmaceutical proteins are currently in pre @-@ clinical and clinical trials .
= = = = Virotherapy = = = =
Virotherapy involves the use of genetically modified viruses to treat diseases . Viruses have been modified by scientists to reproduce in cancer cells and destroy them but not infect healthy cells . Talimogene laherparepvec ( T @-@ VEC ) , for example , is a modified herpes simplex virus that has had a gene , which is required for viruses to replicate in healthy cells , deleted and replaced with a human gene ( GM @-@ CSF ) that stimulates immunity . When this virus infects cancer cells , it destroys them and in doing so the presence the GM @-@ CSF gene attracts dendritic cells from the surrounding tissues of the body . The dendritic cells process the dead cancer cells and present components of them to other cells of the immune system . Having completed successful clinical trials , this virus is expected to gain approval for the treatment of a skin cancer called melanoma in late 2015 . Viruses that have been reprogrammed to kill cancer cells are called oncolytic viruses .
= = = Materials science and nanotechnology = = =
Current trends in nanotechnology promise to make much more versatile use of viruses . From the viewpoint of a materials scientist , viruses can be regarded as organic nanoparticles . Their surface carries specific tools designed to cross the barriers of their host cells . The size and shape of viruses , and the number and nature of the functional groups on their surface , is precisely defined . As such , viruses are commonly used in materials science as scaffolds for covalently linked surface modifications . A particular quality of viruses is that they can be tailored by directed evolution . The powerful techniques developed by life sciences are becoming the basis of engineering approaches towards nanomaterials , opening a wide range of applications far beyond biology and medicine .
Because of their size , shape , and well @-@ defined chemical structures , viruses have been used as templates for organizing materials on the nanoscale . Recent examples include work at the Naval Research Laboratory in Washington , D.C. , using Cowpea mosaic virus ( CPMV ) particles to amplify signals in DNA microarray based sensors . In this application , the virus particles separate the fluorescent dyes used for signalling to prevent the formation of non @-@ fluorescent dimers that act as quenchers . Another example is the use of CPMV as a nanoscale breadboard for molecular electronics .
= = = Synthetic viruses = = =
Many viruses can be synthesized de novo ( " from scratch " ) and the first synthetic virus was created in 2002 . Although somewhat of a misconception , it is not the actual virus that is synthesized , but rather its DNA genome ( in case of a DNA virus ) , or a cDNA copy of its genome ( in case of RNA viruses ) . For many virus families the naked synthetic DNA or RNA ( once enzymatically converted back from the synthetic cDNA ) is infectious when introduced into a cell . That is , they contain all the necessary information to produce new viruses . This technology is now being used to investigate novel vaccine strategies . The ability to synthesize viruses has far @-@ reaching consequences , since viruses can no longer be regarded as extinct , as long as the information of their genome sequence is known and permissive cells are available . As of March 2014 , the full @-@ length genome sequences of 3843 different viruses , including smallpox , are publicly available in an online database maintained by the National Institutes of Health .
= = = Weapons = = =
The ability of viruses to cause devastating epidemics in human societies has led to the concern that viruses could be weaponised for biological warfare . Further concern was raised by the successful recreation of the infamous 1918 influenza virus in a laboratory . The smallpox virus devastated numerous societies throughout history before its eradication . There are only two centers in the world that are authorized by the WHO to keep stocks of smallpox virus : the Vector Institute in Russia and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in the United States . Fears that it may be used as a weapon may not be totally unfounded . As the vaccine for smallpox sometimes had severe side @-@ effects , it is no longer used routinely in any country . Thus , much of the modern human population has almost no established resistance to smallpox , and would be vulnerable to the virus .
= Florida Cracker Horse =
The Florida Cracker Horse is a breed of horse from Florida in the United States . It is genetically and physically similar to many other Spanish @-@ style horses , especially those from the Spanish Colonial Horse group . The Florida Cracker is a gaited breed known for its agility and speed . The Spanish first brought horses to Florida with their expeditions in the early 16th century ; as colonial settlement progressed , they used the horses for herding cattle . These horses developed into the Florida Cracker type seen today , and continued to be used by Florida cowboys ( known as " crackers " ) until the 1930s .
At this point they were superseded by American Quarter Horses needed to work larger cattle brought to Florida during the Dust Bowl , and population numbers declined precipitously . Through the efforts of several private families and the Florida government , the breed was saved from extinction , but there is still concern about its low numbers . Both The Livestock Conservancy and the Equus Survival Trust consider breed numbers to be at a critical point .
= = Characteristics = =
The Florida Cracker Horse is also known as the Chickasaw Pony , Seminole Pony , Prairie Pony , Florida Horse , Florida Cow Pony and Grass Gut . The modern breed retains the size of its Spanish ancestors , standing 13 @.@ 2 to 15 hands ( 54 to 60 inches , 137 to 152 cm ) high and weighing 750 to 1 @,@ 000 pounds ( 340 to 450 kg ) . They are found mainly in bay , black and gray , although grullo , dun and chestnut are also seen . Roan and pinto colors are occasionally found . They have straight or slightly concave profiles , strong backs and sloping croups . They are known for their speed and agility and excel at trail and endurance riding , and are also used extensively as stock horses . They are sometimes seen in Western riding sports such as working cow horse , team roping and team penning . The Florida Cracker is a gaited horse , with the breed association recognizing two gaits , the running walk and amble , in addition to the regular walk , trot , canter and gallop . The single @-@ footed ambling gait is known as the " coon rack " by some breed enthusiasts . The foundation genetics of the breed are the same as many others developed from Spanish stock in North and South America , including the Paso Fino , Peruvian Paso and Criollo . The Cracker horse is very similar in type and genetics to the Carolina Marsh Tacky and the Banker horse , both Spanish @-@ style breeds from the eastern United States , but DNA testing has proven that these are separate breeds .
= = History = =
Horses first arrived on the southeast North American mainland in 1521 , brought by Ponce de Leon on his second trip to the region , where they were used by officers , scouts and livestock herders . Later expeditions brought more horses and cattle to Spanish Florida . By the late 16th century , horses were used extensively in the local cattle business and by the late 17th century the industry was flourishing , especially in what is now northern Florida and southern Georgia . The horses brought to North America by the Spanish and subsequently bred there included Barbs , Garranos , Spanish Jennets , Sorraias , Andalusians and other Iberian breeds . Overall , they were relatively small and had physical traits distinctive of Spanish breeds , including short backs , sloping shoulders , low set tails and wide foreheads .
The early cattle drivers , nicknamed Florida crackers and Georgia crackers , used these Spanish horses to drive cattle ( eventually known as Florida Cracker cattle ) . The cowboys received their nickname from the distinctive cracking of their whips , and the name was transferred to both the horses they rode and the cattle they herded . Through their primary use as stock horses , the type developed into the Florida Cracker horse , known for its speed , endurance and agility . From the mid @-@ 16th century to the 1930s , this type was the predominant horse in the southeastern United States . During the American Civil War ( 1861 – 1865 ) , both belligerents purchased large amounts of beef from Florida , and the Spanish horses bred there were highly desired as riding horses . During this time , there was also a continual introduction of new Spanish blood from Cuba , as horses were traded between the two areas . During the Dust Bowl ( 1930 – 1940 ) , large western cattle were moved into Florida , bringing with them the parasitic screwworm . Cattle with this parasite needed to be treated frequently . The cowboys found that the Florida Cracker horses , bred for working smaller cattle , were not able to hold the western cattle . They replaced the smaller horses with American Quarter Horses . This resulted in the Florida breed almost becoming extinct .
= = = 20th century = = =
The breed 's survival during the 20th century is owed to a few families
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the band members with little to no outside influence . It was decided that the video would be filmed in black and white while Sednaoui took the idea of painting the band members with silver acrylic from previous photo shoots he had done . Sednaoui recalls that he was " amazed by what [ the band ] gave me because they went far far far beyond what I was expecting and I think that 's one of my best experiences in that regard " . The overall mood of the video was intended to be a personification of the song , which is upbeat and lively .
Sednaoui experimented with a variety of cinematography techniques including wide @-@ angle lenses , shots from below the subjects , superimposition , vertically cut screens displaying different angles of the same shot , reverse film effects , multiple lighting situations and flashy clothing to convey his concept . Frusciante noted the feeling of the video to be extremely vibrant and over the top : " When it was us just painting ourselves silver and wearing these big silver boots and stuff , I mean it felt like glam rock or something . " The video begins with a wide @-@ angle shot of Flea in a desert setting wearing pants with several gold colored horns protruding from each leg . The bassist is standing in a meditative stance and brings his arms together above his head when the music begins to play . The video then transitions between a variety of shots edited together that consist of the four band members standing with their eyes closed ; the band dancing around in a dimly lit setting ; a ground view of Frusciante playing a reflective silver Fender Stratocaster in between his legs while wearing pants made up entire of small pieces of mirror ; the band members moving around with full makeup on ; and the band members dancing frenziedly . Kiedis adopted a deliberately outlandish wardrobe which incorporated gold lipstick , thinly braided hair , revealing meshed shorts and bright silver boots .
During the backwards guitar solo , Frusciante was filmed waving a large aluminum ribbon ; Kiedis was initially apprehensive about Sednaoui 's desire for the guitarist to do so , believing he would tell the director " ' Fuck you and take that dancing ribbon and shove it up your French ass , buddy ' but [ Frusciante ] gladly went off and made love to the air with this dancing ribbon . He would have danced around for hours with that thing . " The footage was edited in reverse to complement the solo . While some of the scenes in the video were planned with a storyboard , much of it was improvised or made up on the spot over the two @-@ day shoot . During a particular scene Kiedis began to move his tongue flamboyantly to dramatically accentuate the lyrics , which Sednaoui believed was extremely beneficial to the exuberant nature of the video . Where the video begins in what appears to be the daytime , it concludes at dusk with silhouettes of the band members running into the setting sun .
The video — which cost an estimated $ 140 @,@ 000 to produce — was completed while Kiedis and Frusciante were on a promotional trip through Europe in support of Blood Sugar Sex Magik . When the vocalist first saw it , he was " more hysterically ecstatic about that piece of visual footage than anything [ the band had ] ever done . " Warner Bros. executives , however , were worried that the content would be " too weird " or " too artsy " for the general public and favored a more traditional premise in contrast to the experimental approach Sednaoui took . The video was ultimately released without being edited by the record label ; since then it has been widely credited as being a considerable factor in the Red Hot Chili Peppers ' success and greatly increased their international popularity . Journalist Jeff Apter noted the video 's " funky brew of goofy looks , a subtle invasive hook , Flea 's spindly fingered baseline and Kiedis ' crotch @-@ hugging shorts made the clip essential viewing across MTV throughout the last few months of 1991 . " Steve Huey of Allmusic commented in his review of the song that " MTV jumped all over the visually distinctive video . " It was nominated for three awards — " Best Alternative Video " , " Breakthrough Video " , and " Best Art Direction " — at the 1992 MTV Video Music Awards , for which it won the latter two .
= = Personnel = =
Anthony Kiedis - vocals
Flea - bass , scream
John Frusciante - lead and rhythm guitar
Chad Smith - drums , percussion
Pete Weiss - Jew 's harp
= = Formats and track listing = =
= = Charts = =
= = Cover version = =
A double @-@ parody of " Give It Away " and " Under the Bridge " titled " Bedrock Anthem " was recorded by " Weird Al " Yankovic in his 1993 album Alapalooza .
Idina Menzel performed a few bars of the song as part of her exit music on her 2015 World Tour .
= Nostradamus =
Michel de Nostredame ( depending on the source , 14 or 21 December 1503 – 2 July 1566 ) , usually Latinised as Nostradamus , was a French apothecary and reputed seer who published collections of prophecies that have since become widely famous . He is best known for his book Les Propheties , the first edition of which appeared in 1555 . Since the publication of this book , which has rarely been out of print since his death , Nostradamus has attracted a following that , along with much of the popular press , credits him with predicting many major world events . Most academic sources maintain that the associations made between world events and Nostradamus 's quatrains are largely the result of misinterpretations or mistranslations ( sometimes deliberate ) or else are so tenuous as to render them useless as evidence of any genuine predictive power .
= = Biography = =
= = = Childhood = = =
Born on either 14 or 21 December 1503 in Saint @-@ Rémy @-@ de @-@ Provence , Provence ( Occitania ) , France , where his claimed birthplace still exists , Michel de Nostredame was one of at least nine children of notary Jaume ( or Jacques ) de Nostredame and Reynière , granddaughter of Pierre de Saint @-@ Rémy who worked as a physician in Saint @-@ Rémy . Jaume 's family had originally been Jewish , but his father , Cresquas , a grain and money dealer , based in Avignon , had converted to Catholicism around 1459 @-@ 60 , taking the Christian name " Pierre " and the surname " Nostredame " ( Our Lady ) , the saint on whose day his conversion was solemnised . The earliest ancestor who can be identified on the paternal side is Astruge of Carcassonne , who died about 1420 . Michel 's known siblings included Delphine , Jean ( c . 1507 – 77 ) , Pierre , Hector , Louis , Bertrand , Jean II ( born 1522 ) and Antoine ( born 1523 ) . Little else is known about his childhood , although there is a persistent tradition that he was educated by his maternal great @-@ grandfather Jean de St. Rémy — a tradition which is somewhat undermined by the fact that the latter disappears from the historical record after 1504 , when the child was only one year old .
= = = Student years = = =
At the age of 15 Nostredame entered the University of Avignon to study for his baccalaureate . After little more than a year ( when he would have studied the regular trivium of grammar , rhetoric and logic , rather than the later quadrivium of geometry , arithmetic , music and astronomy / astrology ) , he was forced to leave Avignon when the university closed its doors in the face of an outbreak of the plague . After leaving Avignon , Nostredame , by his own account , travelled the countryside for eight years from 1521 researching herbal remedies . In 1529 , after some years as an apothecary , he entered the University of Montpellier to study for a doctorate in medicine . He was expelled shortly afterwards by the student procurator , Guillaume Rondelet , when it was discovered that he had been an apothecary , a " manual trade " expressly banned by the university statutes , and had been slandering doctors . The expulsion document , BIU Montpellier , Register S 2 folio 87 , still exists in the faculty library . However , some of his publishers and correspondents would later call him " Doctor " . After his expulsion , Nostredame continued working , presumably still as an apothecary , and became famous for creating a " rose pill " that supposedly protected against the plague .
= = = Marriage and healing work = = =
In 1531 Nostredame was invited by Jules @-@ César Scaliger , a leading Renaissance scholar , to come to Agen . There he married a woman of uncertain name ( possibly Henriette d 'Encausse ) , who bore him two children . In 1534 his wife and children died , presumably from the plague . After their deaths , he continued to travel , passing through France and possibly Italy .
On his return in 1545 , he assisted the prominent physician Louis Serre in his fight against a major plague outbreak in Marseille , and then tackled further outbreaks of disease on his own in Salon @-@ de @-@ Provence and in the regional capital , Aix @-@ en @-@ Provence . Finally , in 1547 , he settled in Salon @-@ de @-@ Provence in the house which exists today , where he married a rich widow named Anne Ponsarde , with whom he had six children — three daughters and three sons . Between 1556 and 1567 he and his wife acquired a one @-@ thirteenth share in a huge canal project organised by Adam de Craponne to irrigate largely waterless Salon @-@ de @-@ Provence and the nearby Désert de la Crau from the river Durance .
= = = Seer = = =
After another visit to Italy , Nostredame began to move away from medicine and toward the occult . Following popular trends , he wrote an almanac for 1550 , for the first time Latinising his name from Nostredame to Nostradamus . He was so encouraged by the almanac 's success that he decided to write one or more annually . Taken together , they are known to have contained at least 6 @,@ 338 prophecies , as well as at least eleven annual calendars , all of them starting on 1 January and not , as is sometimes supposed , in March . It was mainly in response to the almanacs that the nobility and other prominent persons from far away soon started asking for horoscopes and " psychic " advice from him , though he generally expected his clients to supply the birth charts on which these would be based , rather than calculating them himself as a professional astrologer would have done . When obliged to attempt this himself on the basis of the published tables of the day , he frequently made errors and failed to adjust the figures for his clients ' place or time of birth .
He then began his project of writing a book of one thousand mainly French quatrains , which constitute the largely undated prophecies for which he is most famous today . Feeling vulnerable to opposition on religious grounds , however , he devised a method of obscuring his meaning by using " Virgilianised " syntax , word games and a mixture of other languages such as Greek , Italian , Latin , and Provençal . For technical reasons connected with their publication in three installments ( the publisher of the third and last installment seems to have been unwilling to start it in the middle of a " Century , " or book of 100 verses ) , the last fifty @-@ eight quatrains of the seventh " Century " have not survived in any extant edition .
The quatrains , published in a book titled Les Propheties ( The Prophecies ) , received a mixed reaction when they were published . Some people thought Nostradamus was a servant of evil , a fake , or insane , while many of the elite evidently thought otherwise . Catherine de Médicis , wife of King Henry II of France , was one of Nostradamus ' greatest admirers . After reading his almanacs for 1555 , which hinted at unnamed threats to the royal family , she summoned him to Paris to explain them and to draw up horoscopes for her children . At the time , he feared that he would be beheaded , but by the time of his death in 1566 , Queen Catherine had made him Counselor and Physician @-@ in @-@ Ordinary to her son , the young King Charles IX of France .
Some accounts of Nostradamus 's life state that he was afraid of being persecuted for heresy by the Inquisition , but neither prophecy nor astrology fell in this bracket , and he would have been in danger only if he had practiced magic to support them . In 1538 he came into conflict with the Church in Agen after an Inquisitor visited the area looking for Anti @-@ Catholic views . His brief imprisonment at Marignane in late 1561 was solely because he had violated a recent royal decree by publishing his 1562 almanac without the prior permission of a bishop .
= = = Final years and death = = =
By 1566 , Nostradamus 's gout , which had plagued him painfully for many years and made movement very difficult , turned into edema , or dropsy . In late June he summoned his lawyer to draw up an extensive will bequeathing his property plus 3 @,@ 444 crowns ( around $ 300 @,@ 000 US today ) , minus a few debts , to his wife pending her remarriage , in trust for her sons pending their twenty @-@ fifth birthdays and her daughters pending their marriages . This was followed by a much shorter codicil . On the evening of 1 July , he is alleged to have told his secretary Jean de Chavigny , " You will not find me alive at sunrise . " The next morning he was reportedly found dead , lying on the floor next to his bed and a bench ( Presage 141 [ originally 152 ] for November 1567 , as posthumously edited by Chavigny to fit what happened ) . He was buried in the local Franciscan chapel in Salon ( part of it now incorporated into the restaurant La Brocherie ) but re @-@ interred during the French Revolution in the Collégiale Saint @-@ Laurent , where his tomb remains to this day .
= = Works = =
In The Prophecies Nostradamus compiled his collection of major , long @-@ term predictions . The first installment was published in 1555 and contained 353 quatrains . The third edition , with three hundred new quatrains , was reportedly printed in 1558 , but now only survives as part of the omnibus edition that was published after his death in 1568 . This version contains one unrhymed and 941 rhymed quatrains , grouped into nine sets of 100 and one of 42 , called " Centuries " .
Given printing practices at the time ( which included type @-@ setting from dictation ) , no two editions turned out to be identical , and it is relatively rare to find even two copies that are exactly the same . Certainly there is no warrant for assuming — as would @-@ be " code @-@ breakers " are prone to do — that either the spellings or the punctuation of any edition are Nostradamus ' originals .
The Almanacs , by far the most popular of his works , were published annually from 1550 until his death . He often published two or three in a year , entitled either Almanachs ( detailed predictions ) , Prognostications or Presages ( more generalised predictions ) .
Nostradamus was not only a diviner , but a professional healer . It is known that he wrote at least two books on medical science . One was an extremely free translation ( or rather a paraphrase ) of The Protreptic of Galen ( Paraphrase de C. GALIEN , sus l 'Exhortation de Menodote aux estudes des bonnes Artz , mesmement Medicine ) , and in his so @-@ called Traité des fardemens ( basically a medical cookbook containing , once again , materials borrowed mainly from others ) he included a description of the methods he used to treat the plague , including bloodletting , none of which apparently worked . The same book also describes the preparation of cosmetics .
A manuscript normally known as the Orus Apollo also exists in the Lyon municipal library , where upwards of 2 @,@ 000 original documents relating to Nostradamus are stored under the aegis of Michel Chomarat . It is a purported translation of an ancient Greek work on Egyptian hieroglyphs based on later Latin versions , all of them unfortunately ignorant of the true meanings of the ancient Egyptian script , which was not correctly deciphered until Champollion in the 19th century .
Since his death only the Prophecies have continued to be popular , but in this case they have been quite extraordinarily so . Over two hundred editions of them have appeared in that time , together with over 2 @,@ 000 commentaries . Their persistence in popular culture seems to be partly because their vagueness and lack of dating make it easy to quote them selectively after every major dramatic event and retrospectively claim them as " hits " .
= = Origins of The Prophecies = =
Nostradamus claimed to base his published predictions on judicial astrology — the astrological ' judgment ' , or assessment , of the ' quality ' ( and thus potential ) of events such as births , weddings , coronations etc . — but was heavily criticised by professional astrologers of the day such as Laurens Videl for incompetence and for assuming that " comparative horoscopy " ( the comparison of future planetary configurations with those accompanying known past events ) could actually predict what would happen in the future .
Research suggests that much of his prophetic work paraphrases collections of ancient end @-@ of @-@ the @-@ world prophecies ( mainly Bible @-@ based ) , supplemented with references to historical events and anthologies of omen reports , and then projects those into the future in part with the aid of comparative horoscopy . Hence the many predictions involving ancient figures such as Sulla , Gaius Marius , Nero , and others , as well as his descriptions of " battles in the clouds " and " frogs falling from the sky . " Astrology itself is mentioned only twice in Nostradamus 's Preface and 41 times in the Centuries themselves , but more frequently in his dedicatory Letter to King Henry II . In the last quatrain of his sixth century he specifically attacks astrologers .
His historical sources include easily identifiable passages from Livy , Suetonius , Plutarch and other classical historians , as well as from medieval chroniclers such as Geoffrey of Villehardouin and Jean Froissart . Many of his astrological references are taken almost word for word from Richard Roussat 's Livre de l 'estat et mutations des temps of 1549 – 50 .
One of his major prophetic sources was evidently the Mirabilis Liber of 1522 , which contained a range of prophecies by Pseudo @-@ Methodius , the Tiburtine Sibyl , Joachim of Fiore , Savonarola and others ( his Preface contains 24 biblical quotations , all but two in the order used by Savonarola ) . This book had enjoyed considerable success in the 1520s , when it went through half a dozen editions , but did not sustain its influence , perhaps owing to its mostly Latin text , Gothic script and many difficult abbreviations . Nostradamus was one of the first to re @-@ paraphrase these prophecies in French , which may explain why they are credited to him . It should be noted that modern views of plagiarism did not apply in the 16th century ; authors frequently copied and paraphrased passages without acknowledgement , especially from the classics . The latest research suggests that he may in fact have used bibliomancy for this — randomly selecting a book of history or prophecy and taking his cue from whatever page it happened to fall open at .
Further material was gleaned from the De honesta disciplina of 1504 by Petrus Crinitus , which included extracts from Michael Psellos 's De daemonibus , and the De Mysteriis Aegyptiorum ( Concerning the mysteries of Egypt ... ) , a book on Chaldean and Assyrian magic by Iamblichus , a 4th @-@ century Neo @-@ Platonist . Latin versions of both had recently been published in Lyon , and extracts from both are paraphrased ( in the second case almost literally ) in his first two verses , the first of which is appended to this article . While it is true that Nostradamus claimed in 1555 to have burned all of the occult works in his library , no one can say exactly what books were destroyed in this fire .
Only in the 17th century did people start to notice his reliance on earlier , mainly classical sources . This may help explain the fact that , during the same period , The Prophecies reportedly came into use in France as a classroom reader .
Nostradamus 's reliance on historical precedent is reflected in the fact that he explicitly rejected the label " prophet " ( i.e. a person having prophetic powers of his own ) on several occasions :
Although , my son , I have used the word prophet , I would not attribute to myself a title of such lofty sublimity — Preface to César , 1555 ( see caption to illustration above )
Not that I would attribute to myself either the name or the role of a prophet — Preface to César , 1555
[ S ] ome of [ the prophets ] predicted great and marvelous things to come : [ though ] for me , I in no way attribute to myself such a title here . — Letter to King Henry II , 1558
Not that I am foolish enough to claim to be a prophet . — Open letter to Privy Councillor ( later Chancellor ) Birague , 15 June 1566
His rejection of the title prophet is consistent with the fact that he entitled his book Les Propheties de M. Michel Nostradamus ( a title that , in French , as easily means " The Prophecies , by M. Michel Nostradamus " — which is what they were — as " The Prophecies of M. Michel Nostradamus " , which , except in a few cases , they were not , other than in the manner of their editing , expression and reapplication to the future ) .
Given this reliance on literary sources , it is doubtful whether Nostradamus used any particular methods for entering a trance state , other than contemplation , meditation and incubation . His sole description of this process is contained in letter 41 ' of his collected Latin correspondence . The popular legend that he attempted the ancient methods of flame gazing , water gazing or both simultaneously is based on a naive reading of his first two verses , which merely liken his efforts to those of the Delphic and Branchidic oracles . The first of these is reproduced at the bottom of this article and the second can be seen by visiting the relevant facsimile site ( see External Links ) . In his dedication to King Henri II , Nostradamus describes " emptying my soul , mind and heart of all care , worry and unease through mental calm and tranquility " , but his frequent references to the " bronze tripod " of the Delphic rite are usually preceded by the words " as though " ( compare , once again , External References to the original texts ) .
= = Interpretations = =
Most of the quatrains deal with disasters , such as plagues , earthquakes , wars , floods , invasions , murders , droughts , and battles — all undated and based on foreshadowings by the Mirabilis Liber . Some quatrains cover these disasters in overall terms ; others concern a single person or small group of people . Some cover a single town , others several towns in several countries . A major , underlying theme is an impending invasion of Europe by Muslim forces from farther east and south headed by the expected Antichrist , directly reflecting the then @-@ current Ottoman invasions and the earlier Saracen equivalents , as well as the prior expectations of the Mirabilis Liber . All of this is presented in the context of the supposedly imminent end of the world — even though this is not in fact mentioned — a conviction that sparked numerous collections of end @-@ time prophecies at the time , including an unpublished collection by Christopher Columbus .
Nostradamus has been credited , for the most part in hindsight , with predicting numerous events in world history , from the Great Fire of London , and the rise of Napoleon and Adolf Hitler , to the September 11 attacks on the World Trade Center . In 1992 one commentator who claimed to be able to contact Nostradamus under hypnosis even had him ' interpreting ' his own verse X.6 ( a prediction specifically about floods in southern France around the city of Nîmes and people taking refuge in its collosse , or Colosseum , a Roman amphitheatre now known as the Arènes ) as a prediction of an undated attack on the Pentagon , despite the historical seer 's clear statement in his dedicatory letter to King Henri II that his prophecies were about Europe , North Africa and part of Asia Minor . Skeptics such as James Randi suggest that his reputation as a prophet is largely manufactured by modern @-@ day supporters who fit his words to events that have either already occurred or are so imminent as to be inevitable , a process sometimes known as " retroactive clairvoyance " ( postdiction ) . Thus , no Nostradamus quatrain is known to have been interpreted as predicting a specific event before it occurred , other than in vague , general terms that could equally apply to any number of other events . This even applies to quatrains that contain specific dates , such as III.77 , which predicts " in 1727 , in October , the king of Persia [ shall be ] captured by those of Egypt " — a prophecy that has , as ever , been interpreted retrospectively in the light of later events , in this case as though it presaged the known peace treaty between the Ottoman Empire and Persia of that year . Similarly , Nostradamus 's notorious ' 1999 ' prophecy at X.72 ( see Nostradamus in popular culture ) describes no event that commentators have succeeded in identifying either before or since , other than by dint of twisting the words to fit whichever of the many contradictory happenings they are keen to claim as ' hits ' . Moreover , no quatrain suggests , as is often claimed by books and films on the alleged Mayan Prophecy , that the world would end in December 2012 . In his preface to the Prophecies , Nostradamus himself stated that his prophecies extend ' from now to the year 3797 ' — an extraordinary date which , given that the preface was written in 1555 , may have more than a little to do with the fact that 2242 ( 3797 − 1555 ) had recently been proposed by his major astrological source Richard Roussat as a possible date for the end of the world .
= = Alternative views = =
Views on Nostradamus have varied widely throughout history . At one end of the spectrum , there are extreme academic views such as those of Jacques Halbronn , who has suggested at great length and with great complexity that Nostradamus 's Prophecies are antedated forgeries written by later hands with a political axe to grind . No other major source accepts this view [ see reference @-@ list ] .
At the other end of the spectrum , there are numerous fairly recent popular books , and thousands of private websites , suggesting not only that the Prophecies are genuine but that Nostradamus was a true prophet . Due to the subjective nature of these interpretations , however , no two of them agree on exactly what he predicted , whether for the past or for the future . Many of these do agree , though , that particular predictions refer , for example , to the French Revolution , Napoleon , Adolf Hitler , both world wars , and the nuclear destruction of Hiroshima and Nagasaki . There is also an evident consensus among popular authors that he predicted whatever major event had just happened at the time of each book 's publication , from the Apollo moon landings , through the death of Diana , Princess of Wales in 1997 , and the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster in 1986 , to the events of 9 / 11 : this ' movable feast ' aspect appears to be characteristic of the genre .
Possibly the first of these books to become popular in English was Henry C. Roberts ' The Complete Prophecies of Nostradamus of 1947 , reprinted at least seven times during the next forty years , which contained both transcriptions and translations , with brief commentaries . This was followed in 1961 ( reprinted in 1982 ) by Edgar Leoni 's Nostradamus and His Prophecies . After that came Erika Cheetham 's The Prophecies of Nostradamus , incorporating a reprint of the posthumous 1568 edition , which was reprinted , revised and republished several times from 1973 onwards , latterly as The Final Prophecies of Nostradamus . This served as the basis for the documentary The Man Who Saw Tomorrow and both did indeed mention possible generalised future attacks on New York ( via nuclear weapons ) , though not specifically on the World Trade Center or on any particular date . A two @-@ part translation of Jean @-@ Charles de Fontbrune 's Nostradamus : historien et prophète was published in 1980 , and John Hogue has published a number of books on Nostradamus from about 1987 including Nostradamus and the Millenium : Predictions of the Future , Nostradamus : The Complete Prophecies ( 1999 ) and Nostradamus : A Life and Myth ( 2003 ) .
With the exception of Roberts , these books and their many popular imitators were almost unanimous not merely about Nostradamus 's powers of prophecy , but also about various aspects of his biography . He had been a descendant of the Israelite tribe of Issachar ; he had been educated by his grandfathers , who had both been physicians to the court of Good King René of Provence ; he had attended Montpellier University in 1525 to gain his first degree ; after returning there in 1529 , he had successfully taken his medical doctorate ; he had gone on to lecture in the Medical Faculty there , until his views became too unpopular ; he had supported the heliocentric view of the universe ; he had travelled to the north @-@ east of France , where he had composed prophecies at the abbey of Orval ; in the course of his travels , he had performed a variety of prodigies , including identifying future Pope , Sixtus V , who was then only a seminary monk . He is credited with having successfully cured the Plague at Aix @-@ en @-@ Provence and elsewhere ; he had engaged in scrying , using either a magic mirror or a bowl of water ; he had been joined by his secretary Chavigny at Easter 1554 ; having published the first installment of his Propheties , he had been summoned by Queen Catherine de ' Medici to Paris in 1556 to discuss with her his prophecy at quatrain I.35 that her husband King Henri II would be killed in a duel ; he had examined the royal children at Blois ; he had bequeathed to his son a " lost book " of his own prophetic paintings ; he had been buried standing up ; and he had been found , when dug up at the French Revolution , to be wearing a medallion bearing the exact date of his disinterment .
Curiously , this particular story seems to have been first recorded by Samuel Pepys as early as 1667 , long before the French Revolution . Pepys records in his celebrated diary a legend that , before his death , Nostradamus made the townsfolk swear that his grave would never be disturbed ; but that 60 years later his body was exhumed , whereupon a brass plaque was found on his chest correctly stating the date and time when his grave would be opened and cursing the exhumers .
From the 1980s onwards , however , an academic reaction set in , especially in France . The publication in 1983 of Nostradamus 's private correspondence and , during succeeding years , of the original editions of 1555 and 1557 discovered by Chomarat and Benazra , together with the unearthing of much original archival material revealed that much that was claimed about Nostradamus did not fit the documented facts . The academics revealed that not one of the claims just listed was backed up by any known contemporary documentary evidence . Most of them had evidently been based on unsourced rumours relayed as fact by much later commentators , such as Jaubert ( 1656 ) , Guynaud ( 1693 ) and Bareste ( 1840 ) , on modern misunderstandings of the 16th @-@ century French texts , or on pure invention . Even the often @-@ advanced suggestion that quatrain I.35 had successfully prophesied King Henri II 's death did not actually appear in print for the first time until 1614 , 55 years after the event .
Additionally , the academics , who themselves tend to eschew any attempt at interpretation , complained that the English translations were usually of poor quality , seemed to display little or no knowledge of 16th @-@ century French , were tendentious and , at worst , were sometimes twisted to fit the events to which they were supposed to refer ( or vice versa ) . None of them were based on the original editions : Roberts had based his writings on that of 1672 , Cheetham and Hogue on the posthumous edition of 1568 . Even Leoni accepted on page 115 that he had never seen an original edition , and on earlier pages he indicated that much of his biographical material was unsourced .
However , none of this research and criticism was originally known to most of the English @-@ language commentators , by function of the dates when they were writing and , to some extent , of the language in which it was written . Hogue was in a position to take advantage of it , but it was only in 2003 that he accepted that some of his earlier biographical material had in fact been apocryphal . Meanwhile , some of the more recent sources listed ( Lemesurier , Gruber , Wilson ) have been particularly scathing about later attempts by some lesser @-@ known authors and Internet enthusiasts to extract alleged hidden meanings from the texts , whether with the aid of anagrams , numerical codes , graphs or otherwise .
= = In popular culture = =
The prophecies retold and expanded by Nostradamus figured largely in popular culture in the 20th and 21st centuries . As well as being the subject of hundreds of books ( both fiction and nonfiction ) , Nostradamus 's life has been depicted in several films and videos , and his life and writings continue to be a subject of media interest .
There have also been several well @-@ known Internet hoaxes , where quatrains in the style of Nostradamus have been circulated by e @-@ mail as the real thing . The best @-@ known examples concern the collapse of the World Trade Center in the 11 September attacks , which led both to hoaxes and to reinterpretations by enthusiasts of several quatrains as supposed prophecies .
With the arrival of the year 2012 , Nostradamus 's prophecies started to be co @-@ opted ( especially by the History Channel ) as evidence suggesting that the end of the world was imminent , notwithstanding the fact that his book never mentions the end of the world , let alone the year 2012 .
= Glitter in the Air =
" Glitter in the Air " is a song by American recording artist Pink from her fifth studio album , Funhouse . In 2010 , it was released as the sixth single in North America , the only place of its release . Written by Pink and Billy Mann and Michele Mears , the song is a pop ballad with a soft piano accompaniment . Its lyrics talk about the power of love and taking a leap in faith , while using various metaphors . " Glitter in the Air " received mixed reviews from contemporary critics : some named it the best vocal performance of Funhouse , while others criticized it for being a cliché ballad .
" Glitter in the Air " debuted at number 18 and 13 in the United States and Canada , respectively . In the United States , the song marked the first time Pink had five singles from one album chart on the Billboard Hot 100 . The song was notably performed by Pink as part of her 2009 Funhouse Tour with her wearing a bodysuit and doing acrobatics using aerial tissue . A similar version of this performance was done at the 2010 Grammy Awards , where her performance received a standing ovation and was critically praised by media outlets . A similar version of these performances was also performed on The Truth About Love Tour .
= = Background and composition = =
" Glitter in the Air " is a pop ballad , co @-@ written by Pink while produced by frequent collaborator Billy Mann . The song is musically similar to another ballad from Funhouse , " I Don 't Believe You " , as both contain a soft piano and string accompaniment . According to the sheet music published at musicnotes.com by EMI Music Publishing , " Glitter in the Air " is composed in the key of F major , with a tempo of 100 beats per minute . Pink 's vocal range spans from the high @-@ tone of B ♭ 4 to the low @-@ tone of F3 . Nekesa Mumbi Moody of the Associated Press commented that although the song did not display the power of Pink vocals , " her voice is still potent , full of hurt and confusion that anyone can feel " . The song 's lyrics talk about the power of love and taking a leap in faith . Evan Sawdey of PopMatters said the song " reflect [ s ] on life 's simple joys and simply savor [ es ] them just for what they are " .
= = Critical reception = =
Evan Sawdey of PopMatters said , " Of all the ballads , though , the quiet piano closer ' Glitter in the Air ' takes the cake , never once overplaying its hand , remaining sweet without once ever succumbing to saccharine niceties ( think of a Jason Robert Brown song without the vocal showboating ) . It 's the sweetest moment on the entire disc , but it only succeeds because it ’ s also the least complex song here " . Craig Emonds of The South End stated that while " every song has potential to do well and is quite likable , [ ... ] Pink 's vocals are strong and shine particularly in the ballad ' Glitter In The Air ' . " Nekesa Mumbi Moodoy of the Associated Press said that " What makes the song so moving is that despite all of the heartache , she doesn 't appear gun @-@ shy about taking the leap again " .
Justin Pacheco of The Good 5 Cent Cigar compared it to " I Don 't Believe You " , saying , " [ it ] exemplifies the sappy ballad [ ... ] and would not seem out of place being sung by any other big pop singer . ' Glitter in the Air ' is another big pop ballad along the same the same lines " . Patrick Ferrucci of the New Haven Register commented in the album review that " She does get a little wishy @-@ washy though , going from tunes like ' Mean ' and ' It ’ s All Your Fault ' to ' Please Don 't Leave Me ' and ' Glitter in the Air ' " . He also added that the high points of Funhouse were the four tracks produced by Max Martin . Jonathan Keefe of Slant Magazine stated that one of the biggest problems in Funhouse was its songwriting , saying , " ' Glitter in the Air , ' with its emo @-@ esque " You called me sugar " bridge , is overwrought with its clichéd imagery " .
= = Chart performance = =
" Glitter in the Air " impacted radio as a new single by her record label , minutes after her performance at the Grammy Awards . On February 11 , 2010 , the song debuted at No. 18 on the Billboard Hot 100 , with sales over 114 @,@ 000 units . It became her fifth charting single from Funhouse in the United States , the most charting singles from one of her albums . The same week , it debuted at No. 13 on the Canadian Hot 100 . The song also received significant airplay on U.S. adult radio , peaking at No. 8 on the Adult Top 40 chart , her fourth top @-@ ten hit from the album on that chart .
= = Live performances = =
" Glitter in the Air " was performed by Pink on her 2009 Funhouse Tour . After the first encore of the tour – " Get the Party Started " from Missundaztood – Pink returned to the stage wearing a black robe , as glitter fell from the ceiling . Pink would begin singing while walking to the center of the runway extension of the stage . There , she took off the robe to reveal a white leotard and joined three female acrobats covered in glitter on suspension rigging which then lifted into the air . Pink continued through the song , twirling in suspended fabric above the audience . Underneath her , the acrobats performed , according to Jon Pareles of The New York Times , " slow @-@ motion , geometric Cirque du Soleil poses " . The apparatus dropped her into a tank of water and lifted her again to the air , before descending her at the end of the performance . Michael Menachem of Billboard commented , " When Pink finally touched down , she continued singing with bombast , as though the entire spectacle had been no sweat . If the rest of the show hadn 't already made the case that Pink has one of the best pop @-@ rock voices — and the most brazen moves — of her generation of stars , this final moment certainly did " .
On January 31 , 2010 , Pink performed the song at the 52nd Grammy Awards in a similar fashion . She began the performance walking out in a white silk robe , standing in front of a backdrop of electric blue screens . She descenced into the aisle and took off the robe to reveal the bodysuit . After being lifted from the tank of water , Pink kept twirling and spreading water into all directions , before finally descending to the main stage . The audience greeted her with a standing ovation . The performance was deemed by various media outlets as the best of the ceremony . Glenn Gamboa of Newsday commented , " With her stunning Grammy performance of ' Glitter in the Air , ' Pink proved that you don ’ t have to be shocking or over @-@ the @-@ top to be the best or the most @-@ talked @-@ about . You just have to be amazing . " It was also voted on a readers ' poll in MTV.com as the best performance of the night . Staff reporter Kyle Anderson said " It 's easy to see why , as her acrobatic performance of ' Glitter in the Air ' was not only visually gorgeous , but also technically impressive — she was able to keep singing even as she was spinning around in the air " . Pink later explained she had almost fallen during the song , saying , " When I do it on tour , I don 't have lights above me . There were lights above me , so it almost went into a strobe thing , and I actually did get a little turned around . I thought ... I was going to fall on my nude butt . But I worked it out . " In 2013 , Brad Wete for Billboard ranked the performance as the best performance at the Grammy Awards from 2000 to 2012 , commenting it " graceful , show @-@ stopping performance of aerial , acrobatic and vocal brilliance . "
= = Appearances in other media = =
Pretty Little Liars - Episode : " A Person of Interest "
The Game - Episode : " Trashbox "
Chase ( Used in a promotional trailer )
Glee - Episode : " The Untitled Rachel Berry Project " as sung by Rachel Berry ( Lea Michele )
= = Track listing = =
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= Military history of Australia during World War II =
Australia entered World War II shortly after the invasion of Poland , declaring war on Germany on 3 September 1939 . This was because Australia at this time was a dominion of the British Empire . By the end of the war , almost a million Australians had served in the armed forces , whose military units fought primarily in the European theatre , North African campaign , and the South West Pacific theatre . In addition , Australia came under direct attack for the first time in its post @-@ colonial history . Its casualties from enemy action during the war were 27 @,@ 073 killed and 23 @,@ 477 wounded .
In effect , Australia fought two wars between 1939 and 1945 – one against Germany and Italy as part of the British Commonwealth 's war effort and the other against Japan in alliance with the United States and Britain . While most Australian forces were withdrawn from the Mediterranean following the outbreak of war in the Pacific , they continued to take part in large numbers in the air offensive against Germany . From 1942 until early 1944 , Australian forces played a key role in the Pacific War , making up the
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center for the first time in its duration . However , Florence failed to intensify further , as its wind field had increased to more than 1 @,@ 035 miles ( 1 @,@ 670 km ) in diameter . This led to difficulties in forecasting , as its environment favored further strengthening ; the storm tracked through an area of 84 ° F ( 29 ° C ) water temperatures and light shear , and the system maintained a large low @-@ level cyclonic envelop with abundant convection . By early on September 8 , the storm consisted of an elongated , shapeless cloud pattern atypical of a tropical cyclone . Later that day , as an anticyclone developed over Florence , the storm began to consolidate around a vorticity center on the western side of the large cyclonic envelope . It began to strengthen more steadily as it turned to the northwest . Early on September 10 , an eye began developing within a round central dense overcast over the center , and shortly thereafter Florence attained hurricane status while located about 390 miles ( 630 km ) south of Bermuda .
Hurricane Florence turned to the north and north @-@ northeast through a break in the subtropical ridge . Though its eyewall was open on the north side , favorable conditions led forecasters to predict Florence passing near Bermuda as a strong Category 2 hurricane . The inner core of convection became ragged @-@ looking on satellite imagery , and based on reports from Hurricane Hunters it is estimated the hurricane attained peak winds of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) late on September 10 . Subsequent to further erosion of the eyewall , the hurricane weakened , and on September 11 passed about 60 miles ( 95 km ) west of Bermuda with winds of 85 mph ( 135 km / h ) . The overall cloud pattern became slightly better organized , and Florence briefly re @-@ strengthened before encountering increased upper @-@ level winds and cooler waters . Dry air wrapping around the southern periphery of the cyclone eroded most of the deep convection by early on September 12 . The cloud shield became asymmetrically displaced to the north of the center , and frontal @-@ like features began to form . It continued to lose tropical characteristics , and on September 13 Florence transitioned into an extratropical cyclone about 485 miles ( 780 km ) south @-@ southwest of Cape Race , Newfoundland . Initially maintaining hurricane @-@ force winds , the extratropical remnant passed near Cape Race before turning to the east @-@ northeast , and on September 14 the winds weakened to gale force . The storm executed a broad cyclonic half @-@ loop to the southwest of Iceland over the subsequent days , and after turning to the west the extratropical remnants of Florence were absorbed to the east of Greenland by a developing extratropical cyclone to its south .
= = Preparations = =
The government of Bermuda issued a hurricane watch for the island on September 8 , which was followed by a tropical storm warning on September 9 . These were replaced by a hurricane warning on September 10 , coinciding with the storm 's strengthening to hurricane intensity . The government urged the potentially impacted citizens to take preparations for the storm , many of whom bought supplies at local hardware stores . Residents installed storm shutters , while boat owners moved their yachts to safer locations . An emergency shelter was prepared on the island . Prior to the arrival of the storm , officials canceled bus and ferry service , and also closed all schools and government offices on the day of impact . The Bermuda International Airport was also closed .
= = Impact = =
Hurricane Florence produced strong swells and dangerous surf conditions along the northern Lesser Antilles , Virgin Islands , Puerto Rico , Hispaniola , and Bermuda . Later in its duration , the tight pressure gradient between Florence and a high @-@ pressure system over southeastern Canada produced strong winds and rough waves along the East Coast of the United States . The hurricane also caused strong swells and rough ocean conditions , including rip currents , in the Bahamas and Atlantic Canada . In South Carolina , high waves produced severe beach erosion on several beaches .
Passing a short distance west of Bermuda , Hurricane Florence produced strong winds on the island ; sustained winds peaked at 82 mph ( 132 km / h ) on St. David 's Island at an elevation of 157 feet ( 48 m ) , while gusts reached 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) at the Maritime Operations Centre in St. George 's Parish at an elevation of 256 feet ( 78 m ) . The winds knocked down trees and power lines , leaving over 25 @,@ 000 homes and businesses without electricity during the peak of the storm . The powerful winds damaged ten houses , including destroying the roofs of three , and blew out windows across the island . A few people were injured by flying glass , though none required hospital care . Rainfall on the island reached 1 @.@ 32 inches ( 34 mm ) at the Bermuda International Airport . A possible tornado in Southampton Parish downed trees and caused light property damage . At the Bermuda Zoo and Aquarium , two flamingos died due to falling branches . During the peak of the storm , police officials advised citizens to remain indoors away from harm , though there were several reports of looting throughout the territory . On the island , the storm 's damage totaled over $ 200 @,@ 000 ( 2006 USD ) . Shortly after the storm passed through , BELCO began restoring power , and by six hours after the peak of the storm power had been restored to 7 @,@ 000 homes and businesses . By the day after the storm , about 3 @,@ 000 remained without electricity on the island . The storm damaged the causeway between St. David 's Island and Hamilton Parish , temporarily limiting traffic to one lane in each direction .
As an extratropical storm over Newfoundland , Florence produced powerful winds peaking at 101 mph ( 163 km / h ) and moderate amounts of rainfall of up to 2 @.@ 6 inches ( 67 mm ) . Flooding and power outages were reported , although they were isolated . The hurricane caused flight interruptions at St. John 's International Airport and also to the Trans Canada ferry between Newfoundland and Cape Breton Island in eastern Nova Scotia . Strong winds destroyed a house in the small Newfoundland village of Francois . Residents in Francois agreed to rebuild the wrecked home while the family temporarily resided in a summer home of another family . The winds also caused damage to shingles and sides of homes , while the strong waves damaged roads and boats along the Burin Peninsula .
= Transformers : Revenge of the Fallen ( video game ) =
Transformers : Revenge of the Fallen is a 2009 third @-@ person shooter video game based on the 2009 live action film Transformers : Revenge of the Fallen . The PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 versions were developed by Luxoflux , and ported to the Microsoft Windows by Beenox . The PlayStation 2 and Wii versions were developed by Krome Studios , and the PlayStation Portable version was developed by Savage Entertainment . The game was released on June 23 , 2009 , one day before the film 's release in the United States . Australia received the game one day later , and Europe on June 26 , 2009 .
The series of games loosely follow the plot of their movie counterpart . The PC , PS3 and Xbox 360 versions feature a split @-@ campaign format , with both an Autobot and Decepticon campaign . The PS2 and Wii versions combine the Autobot and Decepticon stories into one campaign that alternates between factions . Transformers Revenge of the Fallen : Autobots and Transformers Revenge of the Fallen : Decepticons are the Nintendo DS versions of Revenge of the Fallen , developed by Vicarious Visions . Similar to Transformers Autobots and Transformers Decepticons , the DS version is split into two separate games . Autobots follows the heroes ' perspective while Decepticons follows the perspective of the villains .
Revenge of the Fallen received mixed reviews on the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 systems , holding scores of 63 @.@ 55 % and 63 @.@ 46 % at GameRankings and 63 and 61 out of 100 at Metacritic . The PlayStation 2 and Wii scored lower , with 46 % and 53 % at GameRankings , respectively . The DS iterations fared slightly better , with a critic average of 66 @.@ 82 % for Autobots and 69 % for Decepticons at GameRankings .
= = Gameplay = =
As with Transformers : The Game , Revenge of the Fallen features two separate campaigns ; one depicting the actions of the Autobots , and the other the actions of the Decepticons . The game expands on the movie plot with additional missions and characters . Unlike its predecessor , Revenge of the Fallen features a hub @-@ like , non @-@ linear mission progression . This allows the player to choose what missions they would like to accomplish and where in order to further drive the story . Multiplayer features five different modes . " Deathmatch " allows players to choose any character in a free @-@ for @-@ all battle . " Team Deathmatch " features Autobots vs Decepticons . " Control Points " features gameplay similar to the Star Wars Battlefront series , with teams battling for control of specific areas to gain points . " One Shall Stand " is similar to Team Deathmatch ; the difference is that the objective is for a player to take out the enemy leader ( Optimus Prime or Megatron ) while protecting their own . The final mode , " Battle for the Shards " , features Capture the Flag @-@ style gameplay ; teams search for shards of the AllSpark and return them to their base to earn points .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = PC , PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 = = =
= = = = Autobot campaign = = = =
At the start of the Autobot campaign , NEST Pilot Sgt. Epps is reporting Decepticons in Shanghai , China . Upon the arrival of the Autobots , Major William Lennox informs them there are Decepticons in the perimeter that must not escape , and Ironhide is sent to fight them . Ironhide then battles and defeats Sideways . When Optimus Prime gets word that Ironhide is missing , Ratchet heads out to find him and get him to safety . After locating Ironhide , his power is recharged and another Decepticon battle ensues . After annihilating Decepticon troops , Optimus battles Demolishor . Upon his defeat , Demolishor states that " The Fallen shall rise again . "
The Autobots then head to Burbank , California where a previously unknown fragment of the AllSpark has surfaced in possession of Mikaela Banes . When the Decepticons detect the fragment , Bumblebee is sent to protect Mikaela . Meanwhile , the Autobots learn that a second Allspark fragment held by the Americans has been stolen . Soundwave learns of Megatron 's location in the Laurentian Abyss and transmits it to the Decepticons . Breakaway is sent to defend the carrier fleet Deep @-@ 6 which guards Megatron 's corpse from the Decepticons . Despite his efforts , Megatron is reactivated .
On the East Coast , Sam Witwicky is kidnapped by the Decepticon troops and is taken to an industrial park near his college . Ratchet manages to locate Sam in an abandoned foundry and sends Bumblebee the coordinates . Bumblebee rescues Sam and takes him to the extraction point , upon which Grindor attacks Bumblebee . Following Bumblebee 's victory , Optimus decides to give the humans a Cybertronian weapon called the Axiom Gun to help combat the growing Decepticon threat . He personally escorts the Axiom Gun to NEST headquarters . After getting the convoy to their destination , the Autobots escort Sam to meet with former Agent Simmons . With intel from Simmons , Sam has Bumblebee take him to the museum to seek out a robot named Jetfire . While Sam looks for Jetfire , Bumblebee defends the museum from the Decepticon troops . Jetfire emerges from the museum and takes Sam through the trans @-@ dimensional Space Bridge to Cairo , Egypt ; the Autobots then follow .
Jetfire reveals that the Dynasty of Primes have constructed a machine called the Sun Harvester hidden in an Egyptian pyramid . He says the device destroys stars to harvest their power , converting it into energon . Upon arrival in the outskirts of Cairo , the Autobots search for Sam while evading Decepticon troops . After locating Sam , Optimus Prime takes him to the Tomb of the Ancients . While Sam is in the tomb , Optimus and Jetfire defend it from Megatron and Starscream . Optimus defeats them , but they escape after Megatron impales Jetfire . The Fallen reveals himself and the Sun Harvester , powering its systems up and begging the harvesting of the Earth 's sun . A dying Jetfire lends his wings and parts to Optimus in order to help Optimus defeat The Fallen . Elsewhere , Bumblebee ends up fighting and defeating Devastator . Optimus battles The Fallen , defeating him by impaling his face with his blade . The Fallen falls into the Sun Harvester and destroys it . With the Ancient Transformers avenged , Ratchet informs Optimus that Megatron escaped on a ship to a distant galaxy . Optimus then salutes his troops for their good work in stopping the Decepticons .
= = = = Decepticon campaign = = = =
The Decepticon campaign begins in Shanghai with Sideways searching the area for fuel and power , and also for Megatron 's lost body . He learns of Autobots in the area and hunts and eliminates them . He then learns that Grindor has gone missing and that Sideways must find , repair , and transport Grindor to the extraction site . Once Grindor is safe , he attacks Autobots protecting NEST arrays and infects the arrays with a virus , giving the Decepticons access to NEST communications . Elsewhere , Long Haul destroys NEST bases located around Shanghai . Ironhide emerges to fight Long Haul but is defeated , and Starscream proclaims the victory as a warning to Optimus Prime .
The Decepticons then head to Burbank . There Soundwave has learned that Sam has given a shard of the Allspark to Mikaela . They formulate a plan to recover the shard and use it to revive Megatron . Long Haul captures men who may know Mikaela 's location , who are then interrogated by Starscream . Starscream is able to discover Mikaela 's location , and he sends Long Haul to retrieve her . Starscream receives word that the Decepticon troops transporting Mikaela have been intercepted by the Autobots . In the wake of defeat , the Decepticons learn of another shard held by American armed forces which is retrieved .
The Decepticons learn from NSA Chief Galloway that Megatron is buried deep in the Laurentian Abyss . Starscream disables the Deep @-@ 6 aircraft carriers that guard Megatron 's remains in the Laurentian Abyss , allowing the Decepticons to gain access to Megatron 's remains . Megatron is revived , and the Decepticons return to the east coast . Megatron disables Optimus Prime and has Starscream destroy a museum that Sam entered , but he is not among the ruins . They learn he was transported to Cairo , Egypt via a space bridge created by Jetfire . Megatron arrives on the outskirts of Cairo and engages Autobots in combat . Jetfire and Bumblebee challenge him , but are defeated . Elsewhere , Long Haul destroys the Axion Gun that the Autobots gave to the NEST Troops . Megatron learns that The Fallen has betrayed him by promising to make him a Prime , learning that Primes are born , not made . Megatron then destroys him before he can fully activate the Sun Harvester . Victorious , he begins plans to form an army of new Decepticons .
= = = PlayStation 2 and Wii = = =
At the beginning of the game the Decepticon Soundwave hacks onto a satellite and finding a piece of Cybertronian technology on a NEST truck in Shanghai . Sideways and Demolishor are contacted to steal the technology . Optimus Prime is transported to near where the technology was stolen , where he confronts Devastator . Nearby Ironhide engages in battle with Demolishor . Elsewhere in the city , Bumblebee chases Sideways through the streets , who narrowly escapes with assistance from Starscream . Starscream and Sideways travel to the Laurentian Abyss , where the dead body of Megatron is being guarded by military forces . Starscream attacks the navy ships , giving Sideways an opportunity to retrieve the body . Megatron is then resurrected by The Fallen , becoming his servant .
Back in Shanghai , Optimus takes down the colossal Decepticon known as Devastator , and retrieves a piece of Cybertronian technology unearthed by Devastator . Optimus and Ironhide find that Bumblebee is missing , and they learn that he has been taken by Starscream . Megatron reveals himself to the Autobots , and challenges Optimus to one final fight . Meanwhile , Bumblebee is released by Jetfire , who has been taken captive by the Decepticons . Optimus and Megatron battle , ending with Optimus close to death . Jetfire places Optimus 's body in an escape pod , where Optimus 's eyes light up , revealing that he is still clinging to life . Starscream and Megatron take the last piece of Cybertronian technology .
Jetfire then goes to the desert and finds a weakened Optimus , who flew his escape pod to Egypt . Shortly after arriving Jetfire becomes mortally wounded by Starscream and sacrifices himself to give Optimus power to defeat The Fallen . Ironhide destroys the security around the Sun Harvester , and Optimus defeats Megatron . With the security down , Optimus battles The Fallen , destroying both him and the Sun Harvester . Megatron and Starscream get sucked into a space bridge , which transports them to The Fallen 's throne room . At the end of the game , the Autobots rebuild the destroyed pyramid , and Megatron and Starscream observe the creation of a massive Decepticon army now under their control .
= = = Characters = = =
^ a Character is available in their G1 design as downloadable content in campaign and multiplayer . ^ b Character has an unlockable alternate livery . ^ c Character is available in multiplayer only via downloadable content . ^ d Character has alternate livery via downloadable content . ^ e Character is available in campaign and multiplayer via downloadable content .
= = Development = =
PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 developer Luxoflux updated the transformation system of the game to allow for more fluid transforming of the robots . Players can now transform in mid @-@ air , carry over momentum gained prior to transforming , and transform directly into attacks . It features online play and downloadable content , announced on July 15 , 2009 . New features include the following : new multiplayer characters , including G1 versions of characters and new liveries ; new multiplayer maps ; the ability to use new characters in the campaign ; an expert difficulty mode ; and new achievements ( Xbox 360 ) and trophies ( PS3 ) . It was released August 27 , 2009 for the PS3 and Xbox 360 .
The PS2 and Wii versions of the game were developed by Krome Studios . These versions feature a special cooperative mode , where the second player enters the battle as a floating shield and weapon system . Players work together to survive against waves of enemies . Unlike the PS3 and Xbox 360 versions of the game , the PS2 and Wii versions feature only one campaign . Players alternate between controlling various Autobots and Decepticons over the game 's fifteen missions . The Wii version of the game contains motion controls for combat and quick @-@ time events . Each Transformer has a special move where the character transforms temporarily .
The PSP version of Transformers was developed by Savage Entertainment . In this version , the game is played from a top @-@ down perspective while in robot mode , with driving and escort levels also added . Ad @-@ Hoc cooperative play is supported . Gameplay in robot form is reminiscent of the arcade shooter Smash TV and the Dreamcast title Cannon Spike .
= = = Audio = = =
Revenge of the Fallen retains most of the cast from its film counterpart with a few exceptions . Hugo Weaving , who voices Megatron in the live action films , does not voice Megatron in the game . Instead Frank Welker , who voiced Megatron in The Transformers animated series returns to voice the character . Devastator , who was voiced by Welker in the film , is voiced by Fred Tatasciore in the game . The game features Neil Kaplan , the voice of Optimus Prime in the series Transformers : Robots in Disguise . Kaplan does not voice Prime , but instead voices the character Long Haul as well as additional minor characters . Electronic rock band Julien @-@ K , who contributed one track to the first movie 's soundtrack , provided the score with Steve Jablonsky . John DiMaggio , who later go on to voice Leadfoot in Dark of the Moon , voices Sideways and Maj. Lennox .
= = Reception = =
Transformers : Revenge of the Fallen received mixed reviews from critics , with the Xbox 360 version of the game holding a 63 @.@ 46 % at GameRankings and 61 out of 100 at Metacritic . The PlayStation 3 version scored similarly , with a 63 @.@ 55 % at GameRankings and 63 out of 100 at Metacritic . The PC version scored slightly lower at 56 % and 58 out of 100 , respectively . IGN 's Chris Roper gave the game 6 out of 10 , saying that it had a " complete and utter lack [ of presentation ] " . 1UP.com 's Thierry Nguyen gave the PS3 and X360 versions a C + , saying " Transformers 2 is a significant improvement upon its terrible predecessor " . GamePro was more forgiving , giving the game four stars out of five and stating " If you like Transformers , buy this game . Even if you don 't ( or you just hate Michael Bay ) , you should still give Optimus Prime a try . " Eurogamer gave the Xbox 360 version 4 out of 10 , stating " It 's never much fun , but nor is it wonky enough to be terrible . It 's simply there , a forgettable distraction . " The PC port was cited as having a number of technical issues , causing lower scores than its console counterparts . GameSpot scored the PC version 6 out of 10 , whereas the 360 and PS3 versions received 7 @.@ 5 out of 10 . GameSpy gave the X360 version three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five , praising the professional voice work and " strong multiplayer gameplay " . They further said that " the multiplayer mode [ will ] keep Revenge of the Fallen relevant long after the movie has gone to DVD " .
The PS2 and Wii versions received mixed to negative reviews from critics , with the PS2 version of the game holding a 46 % at GameRankings and a 51 out of 100 at Metacritic . The Wii version scored a bit higher , with a 53 % at GameRankings and 53 out of 100 at Metacritic . The PS2 and Wii versions of Revenge of the Fallen were panned for having awful controls . Specifically , IGN stated that " the game will often ignore what you want to do , and instead does something different " , giving the game 4 @.@ 2 out of 10 . GameZone panned the controls of the Wii version , saying that " control problems – among other missteps – ruined this game " .
The PSP version received even worse reviews , earning a 36 @.@ 50 % at GameRankings and a 37 out of 100 at Metacritic . GameSpot 's Chris Watters gave Revenge of the Fallen four out of 10 , saying that " this dull and unpleasant action game is in desperate need of a tune @-@ up " . IGN rated the game 2 @.@ 8 , calling it " one of the worst games on the PSP " . GameZone called the game " a considerably flawed game from start to finish " .
At the 2009 Spike Video Game Awards , Megan Fox won the Best Performance By A Human Female award for her portrayal as Mikaela Banes in the game .
= Hypsibema missouriensis =
Hypsibema missouriensis ( pronounced / ˌhɪpsᵻˈbiːmə mᵻˌzʊəriˈɛnsɪs / ; originally Neosaurus missouriensis , first renamed to Parrosaurus missouriensis , also spelled Hypsibema missouriense ) is a species of plant @-@ eating dinosaur in the genus Hypsibema , and the state dinosaur of the U.S. state Missouri . One of the few official state dinosaurs , bones of the species were discovered in 1942 , at what later became known as the Chronister Dinosaur Site near Glen Allen , Missouri . The remains of Hypsibema missouriensis at the site , which marked the first known discovery of dinosaur remains in Missouri , are the only ones to have ever been found . Although first thought to be a sauropod , later study determined that it was a hadrosaur , or " duck @-@ billed " dinosaur , whose snouts bear likeness to ducks ' bills . Some of the species ' bones found at the Chronister Dinosaur Site are housed in Washington , D.C. ' s Smithsonian Institution .
= = Characteristics = =
The species is estimated to have had around 1 @,@ 000 small teeth , weighed 3 – 4 short tons ( 2 @.@ 7 – 3 @.@ 6 t ) ( or around as much as an elephant today ) , stood 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) tall at its back , and stretched about 30 – 35 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 – 10 @.@ 7 m ) from head to tail . H. missouriensis lived in what is now southeast Missouri during the Campanian age of the Late Cretaceous period . It was not a carnivorous species , its teeth were more serrated than other hadrosaurs , an indicator that the vegetation of Missouri at the time was very coarse or tough .
Paleontologist Charles Whitney Gilmore and geologist Dan R. Stewart described the caudal vertebrae retrieved from Missouri in a 1945 Journal of Paleontology report , writing , " Caudal vertebrae amphicoelus ; centra longer than wide ; ends having concave central areas decorated with radiating ridges and depressions surrounded by a flattened peripheral border ; chevron facets only on posterior ends . " Of the thirteen adult tail bones , twelve appeared to be consecutive , and the smallest centrum was 69 millimetres ( 2 @.@ 7 in ) long .
= = Discovery = =
Remains of Hypsibema missouriensis were first discovered in Bollinger County , Missouri by members of the Chronister family while they were digging a cistern , and were subsequently collected by Stewart , later nicknamed " Dinosaur Dan . " In 1942 , Stewart , of the Missouri Geological Survey , had been examining clay near Glen Allen when he came upon a boy who led him to the family at work digging . According to Stewart , property owner Lulu Chronister had found several " unusual " bones while digging and had saved them . They had been found about 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) deep in the Chronisters ' well , which had an overall depth of 24 feet ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) , " imbedded in a black plastic clay . " Stewart reported his discovery to the Smithsonian Institution , which bought the remains — thirteen vertebrae of a dinosaur 's tail — from Chronister for US $ 50 , which was later used to purchase a cow . Two other bones , of unknown type , were also recovered from the site , while one additional vertebrae had been given by Lulu Chronister to a friend . At the Smithsonian , the bones were analyzed but the species from which they originated was incorrectly identified .
The site where the bones were found was largely untouched by paleontologists until around 1990 , when excavations restarted . Remains of other dinosaurs , fish , turtles , and plants have also been found , including teeth belonging to a member of the Tyrannosauroidea . Other parts of H. missouriensis , including dental remains and part of a jaw , have also been found . The variety of faunal remnants found at the Chronister site suggest that a large body of water once existed close to the area .
= = = Geology of dig site = = =
Guy Darrough , a paleontologist from St. Louis , Missouri currently working at the dig site , said it was " pretty much a miracle " that dinosaur bones were found in Missouri , because the state 's soft soil has resulted in the deterioration of most prehistoric remains . However , some of the remains found have been damaged by erosion and other processes . While much of Missouri lies upon rocks from the Paleozoic or Precambrian eras , the Chronister site is situated over Mesozoic rock . Stewart , who found the bones after being assigned to study the origins of clay in the southeastern portion of the Ozarks , was able to conclude that part of the region lies upon deposits from the Upper Cretaceous period , although much of the sediment from that time period has eroded away .
The Chronister family dug the well ( which they ultimately abandoned after it was unable to provide enough water ) just southwest of their farmhouse , atop a body of limestone . The farmhouse was located near the bottom of a steep valley , sitting atop the remains of a terrace . The layer of clay in which the bones were found was described by Stewart as being 9 feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) thick , situated below 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) of yellow @-@ brown clay and gravel at the surface , and above a dense mass of limestone .
The Chronister dig site is located atop the Ripley Formation . The land around the Chronister home and dig site sits atop sandstone from the Lower Ordovician Period or Canadian Epoch . It is located in a section of the Ozarks affected by erosion and filled with chert and sandstone debris . In addition , the region has been impacted by frequent faulting , leading to the combination of rocks from different geologic periods . As a result , it is difficult to create an accurate geologic map of the area .
= = = Identification = = =
Gilmore , at the Smithsonian , along with Stewart , first described the species as a sauropod in the January 1945 issue of the Journal of Paleontology , a classification made in error and without positive evidence . Gilmore only deemed the species a sauropod by process of elimination ; when he was left with the possibilities of Hadrosauridae and Sauropoda , he dismissed the former , saying , " The more elongate centra of the Chronister specimen , with the possible exception of Hypsibema crassicauda Cope , and the presence of chevron facets only on the posterior end appear sufficient to show that these vertebral centra do not pertain to a member of the Hadrosauridae . "
The species , first called Neosaurus missouriensis , was renamed to Parrosaurus missouriensis later that year by Gilmore and Stewart because the name " Neosaurus " was preoccupied . However , Gilmore died soon after , and the bones were left untouched for several decades .
Parrosaurus missouriensis was once again moved in 1979 , to the genus Hypsibema , this time by Donald Baird and John R. Horner . In the late 1970s , Bruce L. Stinchcomb , a geologist , traveled to the Chronister site after reading about Gilmore 's report in the 1950s . He was able to purchase the property from a member of the Chronister family , and in the 1980s , test excavations were performed by Stinchcomb , David Parris , and Barbara Grandstaff , leading them to conclude that H. missouriensis was actually a hadrosaur rather than a sauropod . Thomas Holtz has suggested reverting to Parrosaurus for this species .
= = State dinosaur designation = =
On January 21 , 2004 , a bill was introduced in the Missouri House of Representatives by State Representatives Rod Jetton and Jason Crowell . Jetton had originally proposed the hadrosaur as the state dinosaur , but was not specific enough , so the House Conservation and Natural Resources Committee settled on Hypsibema missouriensis . The bill was then sent to the 92nd Missouri General Assembly . It passed the Missouri House of Representatives on March 8 , 2004 with a vote of 147 – 4 , the Missouri Senate on May 14 , 2004 with a vote of 34 – 0 , and was approved by then @-@ governor Bob Holden on July 9 , 2004 . The bill , House Bill 1209 , went into effect August 28 , 2004 . Missouri became the sixth U.S. state to have designated an official state dinosaur , following Colorado , Maryland , New Jersey , Texas , and Wyoming , as well as the District of Columbia .
= = Local impact = =
In 2005 , representatives from Bollinger County businesses and local government officials met in an effort to generate more revenue , and came up with a dinosaur @-@ centered tourism campaign . Some businesses contributed to the creation of a billboard along Interstate 55 that would advertise , " Bollinger County , Home of the Missouri Dinosaur . " The Bollinger County Museum of Natural History , which displays some of the bones found , has said their exhibit on the species has attracted tourists from other parts of the United States , and the museum says the designation of H. missouriensis as the state dinosaur resulted in a tripling of visitors .
In March 2008 , construction on a full @-@ size model of a H. missouriensis was completed and placed on display at the museum . Jetton , then Speaker of the Missouri House of Representatives , sponsored a dinner event for state legislators to celebrate the completion of the exhibit on March 7 , 2008 . The two @-@ year project was directed by Darrough , who was also in charge of excavations at the Chronister excavation site , and is the only permanent museum exhibit to feature the species . At the opening of the exhibit , Jetton mentioned that he hoped the dig site would become part of a state park one day . Currently , excavation is being conducted by the Missouri Ozark Dinosaur Project . The site has been covered to prevent water from flowing over dig material . The Chronister dig site near Glen Allen , currently under private ownership by Stinchcomb , is the only location in Missouri where dinosaur bones have been found .
= Leuschner Observatory =
Leuschner Observatory , originally called the Students ' Observatory , is an observatory jointly operated by the University of California , Berkeley and San Francisco State University . The observatory was built in 1886 on the Berkeley campus . For many years , it was directed by Armin Otto Leuschner , for whom the observatory was renamed in 1951 . In 1965 , it was relocated to its present home in Lafayette , California , approximately 10 miles ( 16 km ) east of the Berkeley campus . In 2012 , the physics and astronomy department of San Francisco State University became a partner .
Presently , Leuschner Observatory has two operating telescopes . One is a 30 @-@ inch ( 760 mm ) optical telescope , equipped with a CCD for observations in visible light and an infrared detector used for infrared astronomy . The other is a 12 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) radio dish used for an undergraduate radio astronomy course . The observatory has been used to perform professional astronomy research , such as orbit determination of small solar system bodies in the early 1900s and supernova surveys in the 1980s and 1990s . It has also served as a primary tool in the education of graduate and undergraduate students at UC Berkeley .
= = History = =
The Students ' Observatory was constructed in 1886 on the Berkeley campus , with the original funds provided by the California legislature in order for the observatory to provide practical training to civil engineers . Very quickly , the Students ' Observatory became seen as a training ground for students studying astronomy , so that they would be better prepared to go on to use the facilities at Lick Observatory . This contributed to the separation of the departments of civil engineering and astronomy in the mid @-@ 1890s , with the Students ' Observatory becoming the home of the Berkeley Astronomy Department .
In 1898 , Armin Otto Leuschner was appointed the director of the Students ' Observatory , a post that he held until his retirement in 1938 . During this time , " the observatory became a center for the computation of the orbits of comets , minor planets , and satellites . " Astronomer Simon Newcomb said that Leuschner organized the department and observatory into " a thorough school of astronomy , than which [ ... ] there is none better . " After he stepped down , the observatory was directed by a series of well regarded astronomers , including Otto Struve from 1950 – 59 and Louis G. Henyey from 1959 – 64 . The Students ' Observatory was renamed Leuschner Observatory by the Regents of the University of California in 1951 in honor of A. O. Leuschner . The Space Sciences Lab , which operates SETI , began operations in 1960 at Leuschner Observatory until a permanent home in the Berkeley hills was completed in 1966 .
In 1965 , the observatory was relocated a short distance east of the Berkeley campus in the hills of Lafayette , California , on the 283 @-@ acre ( 1 @.@ 15 km2 ) Russell Reservation . In 1968 , the observatory was equipped with a new 30 @-@ inch ( 76 cm ) Ritchey @-@ Chretien telescope built by Tinsley Laboratories . Since , the observatory has been used as a testing ground for a variety of experiments and instruments . The predecessor to the Katzman Automatic Imaging Telescope was tested at Leuschner Observatory in the early 1990s , and in the early 2000s , the first prototype of the telescopes used at the Allen Telescope Array was unveiled at Leuschner . Leuschner Observatory 's 30 @-@ inch ( 76 cm ) telescope continues to be regularly used in undergraduate astronomical instruction , while the 20 @-@ inch ( 51 cm ) telescope was decommissioned and is in disrepair . In 2012 , the physics and astronomy department of San Francisco State University bought into the 30 @-@ inch ( 76 cm ) telescope . SF State and UC Berkeley staff jointly refurbished and upgraded the motors and control system of the larger telescope ; SF State also installed a remote observing station based in its frequently fog @-@ laden San Francisco campus .
= = Instruments = =
= = = Optical / infrared = = =
Leuschner Observatory houses two optical telescopes , one with a 30 @-@ inch ( 76 cm ) diameter and the other with a 20 @-@ inch ( 51 cm ) diameter . As of 2010 , the 20 @-@ inch ( 51 cm ) telescope is not usable , and the 30 @-@ inch ( 76 cm ) telescope is undergoing upgrades . The 30 @-@ inch ( 76 cm ) telescope is of Ritchey @-@ Chretien design , and is equipped with both a charge coupled device ( CCD ) for observations in visible light and an infrared detector that was fabricated in 2000 in order to create an infrared laboratory course for undergraduate students at UC Berkeley . Both optical telescopes are also outfitted with control systems which allow them be automated , meaning observations are made with minimal human intervention .
= = = Radio = = =
Leuschner Observatory is home to a single 3 @.@ 6 @-@ metre ( 12 ft ) radio telescope . The telescope was one of the prototypes for the Allen Telescope Array that were tested at Leuschner , and has since been used in the undergraduate radio astronomy lab . The telescope operates between 1320 – 1740 MHz and uses an 8192 element spectrometer with spectral resolution of about 1 @.@ 5 kHz and a 12 MHz bandwidth . The operating range allows for it to be used to observe the 21 @-@ cm hydrogen line as well as hydroxyl lines from astrophysical masers .
= = Research and discoveries = =
= = = Orbit determination = = =
Research at the Students ' Observatory under A. O. Leuschner was primarily focused on performing astrometry in order to determine orbits for newly discovered comets . When Clyde Tombaugh reported the discovery of Pluto in 1930 , Leuschner began observing it using the instruments at Students ' Observatory to determine its orbit . Within months of its discovery , Leuschner cast the first doubt on Pluto 's status as a planet , suggesting instead that it was unclear whether Pluto was a large asteroid , a planet , or a comet . Using a few weeks of observation at the Students ' Observatory , he and his students Fred Whipple and E. C. Bower determined the orbital elements for Pluto and an upper limit of one half the mass of Earth . This mass meant Pluto was insufficiently massive to be the Planet X thought to cause discrepancies between the predicted and observed orbit of Neptune .
= = = Supernova = = =
The observatory was for a time home to two automated supernova surveys . The Berkeley Automated Supernova Search , led by Saul Perlmutter , who went on to head the Supernova Cosmology Project , used the 30 @-@ inch ( 76 cm ) telescope at Leuschner to scan the skies nightly for supernova . The Leuschner Observatory Supernova Search ( LOSS ) began in 1992 , as the Berkeley Automated Imaging Telescope ( BAIT ) also searched for supernova , in this case under Alex Filippenko . Both were used as testing grounds for automated searches at other sites , with BAIT eventually being succeeded by the Katzman Automatic Imaging Telescope located at Lick Observatory . While LOSS operated at Leuschner , it discovered SN 1992bt , SN 1993G , SN 1993R , SN 1993X , SN 1993Z , SN 1994D , and SN 1994ae .
The 30 @-@ inch ( 76 cm ) telescope was also used as part of a program called Hands @-@ On Universe that allows elementary and high school students to request observations on the telescope . In late March 1994 , two high school students in Oil City , Pennsylvania , requested observations of the Whirlpool Galaxy . When astronomers discovered SN 1994I in the Whirlpool Galaxy a few days later , they realized that the observations made with the 30 @-@ inch ( 76 cm ) telescope at Leuschner had captured the earliest images of the supernova . Even more , the images provided astronomers some of " earliest supernovae light curve data on record . "
= = = SETI = = =
Leuschner Observatory is also home to an optical SETI experiment , carried out under the direction of UC Berkeley astronomer Dan Werthimer . The program consists of a targeted search for bright pulses of short duration around 2500 nearby stars using the automated 30 @-@ inch ( 76 cm ) telescope . Similar efforts are carried out at Lick Observatory using the Nickel telescope .
= = = Maffei 1 and 2 = = =
In 1968 , Italian astronomer Paolo Maffei reported observing two strange objects . A graduate student at Berkeley used the 30 @-@ inch ( 76 cm ) telescope at Leuschner Observatory to make the first identification of the two objects as being elliptical galaxies . Once it was known what they were , the two objects were named Maffei 1 and Maffei 2 after their discover . In identifying the nature of the objects , astronomers realized they were very nearby objects , perhaps even belonging to the Local Group . While eventually membership in the Local Group was ruled out , Maffei 1 is now recognized as being the nearest major elliptical galaxy .
= = = Nemesis = = =
In 1984 , paleontologists David M. Raup and Jack Sepkoski suggested that extinction events on Earth followed a periodic trend . Richard Muller , a professor of physics at Berkeley , was part of a team that suggested that the Sun had an unseen stellar companion which caused this periodicity , with this hypothetical companion being dubbed Nemesis . Muller was already involved in the automated supernova searches underway at Leuschner , and began the search for Nemesis using the optical telescopes at Leuschner Observatory .
= Scaly @-@ foot gastropod =
Chrysomallon squamiferum , common name the scaly @-@ foot gastropod , is a species of deep @-@ sea hydrothermal @-@ vent snail , a marine gastropod mollusc in the family Peltospiridae . This vent @-@ endemic gastropod is known only from deep @-@ sea hydrothermal vents in the Indian Ocean , where it has been found at depths of about 2 @,@ 400 – 2 @,@ 800 m ( 1 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 7 mi ) . Chrysomallon squamiferum differs greatly from other deep @-@ sea gastropods , even the closely related neomphalines . The shell is of a unique construction , with three layers ; the outer layer consists of iron sulfides , the middle layer is equivalent to the organic periostracum found in other gastropods , and the innermost layer is made of aragonite . The foot is also unusual , being armored with iron @-@ mineralised sclerites .
The snail 's oesophageal gland houses symbiotic gammaproteobacteria from which the snail appears to obtain its nourishment . This species is considered to be one of the most peculiar deep @-@ sea hydrothermal @-@ vent gastropods , and it is the only known extant animal that incorporates iron sulfide into its skeleton ( into both its sclerites and into its shell as an exoskeleton ) . Its heart is , proportionately speaking , unusually large for any animal : the heart comprises approximately 4 % of its body volume .
= = Taxonomy = =
This species was first discovered in April 2001 , and has been referred to as the " scaly @-@ foot " gastropod since 2001 . In terms of its scientific name , it has been referred as Chrysomallon squamiferum since 2003 , but it was not formally described in the sense of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature until Chen et al. named it in 2015 . Type specimens are stored in the Natural History Museum , London . During the time when the name was not yet formalized , an incorrect spelling variant was " Crysomallon squamiferum " .
Chrysomallon squamiferum is the type species and the sole species within the genus Chrysomallon . The generic name Chrysomallon is from the Ancient Greek language , and means " golden haired " , because pyrite ( a compound occurring in its shell ) is golden in color . The specific name squamiferum is from the Latin language and means " scale @-@ bearing " , because of its sclerites . At first it was not known to which family this species belonged . Warén et al. classified this species in the family Peltospiridae , within the Neomphalina in 2003 . Molecular analyses based on sequences of cytochrome @-@ c oxidase I ( COI ) genes confirmed the placement of this species within the Peltospiridae . Morphotypes from two localities are dark ; a morphotype from a third locality is white ( see next section for explanation of localities ) . These different colored snails appear to be simply " varieties " of the same species , according to the results of genetic analysis .
= = Distribution = =
The scaly @-@ foot gastropod is a vent @-@ endemic gastropod known only from the deep @-@ sea hydrothermal vents of the Indian Ocean , which are around 2 @,@ 780 metres ( 1 @.@ 73 mi ) in depth . The species was discovered in 2001 , living on the bases of black smokers in the Kairei hydrothermal vent field , 25 ° 19 @.@ 239 ′ S 70 ° 02 @.@ 429 ′ E , on the Central Indian Ridge , just north of the Rodrigues Triple Point . The species has subsequently also been found in the Solitaire field , 19 ° 33 @.@ 413 ′ S 65 ° 50 @.@ 888 ′ E , Central Indian Ridge , within the Exclusive Economic Zone of Mauritius and Longqi ( aka . Dragon ) field , 37 ° 47 @.@ 027 ′ S 49 ° 38 @.@ 963 ′ E , Southwest Indian Ridge . Longqi field was designated as the type locality ; all type material originated from this vent field . The distance between Kairei and Solitaire is about 700 km ( 430 mi ) . The distance between Solitaire and Longqi is about 2 @,@ 500 km ( 1 @,@ 600 mi ) .
Peltospiridae snails are mainly know to live in Eastern Pacific vent fields . Nakamura et al. hypothetized that the occurrence of scaly @-@ foot gastropods in the Indian Ocean suggests a relationship of the hydrothermal vent faunas between these two areas .
Research expeditions have included :
2000 – an expedition of the Japan Agency for Marine @-@ Earth Science and Technology using the ship RV Kairei and ROV Kaikō discovered the Kairei vent field , but scaly @-@ foot gastropods were not found at that time . This was the first vent field discovered in the Indian Ocean .
2001 – an expedition of the U.S. research vessel RV Knorr with ROV Jason discovered scaly @-@ foot gastropods in the Kairei vent field .
2007 – an expedition of RV Da Yang Yi Hao discovered the Longqi vent field .
2009 – an expedition of RV Yokosuka with DSV Shinkai 6500 discovered the Solitaire field and sampled scaly @-@ foot gastropods there .
2009 – an expedition of RV Da Yang Yi Hao visually observed scaly @-@ foot gastropods at Longqi vent field .
2011 – an expedition of the British Royal Research Ship RRS James Cook with ROV Kiel 6000 sampled the Longqi vent field .
= = Description = =
= = = Sclerites = = =
In this species , the sides of the snail 's foot are extremely unusual , in that they are armoured with hundreds of iron @-@ mineralised sclerites ; these are composed of iron sulfides greigite and pyrite . Each sclerite has a soft epithelial tissue core , a conchiolin cover , and an uppermost layer containing pyrite and greigite . Prior to the discovery of the scaly @-@ foot gastropod , it was thought that the only extant molluscs possessing scale @-@ like structures were in the classes Caudofoveata , Solenogastres and Polyplacophora . However , sclerites are not homologous to a gastropod operculum . The sclerites of scaly @-@ foot gastropods are also not homologous to the sclerites found in chitons ( Polyplacophora ) . It has been hypothesized that the sclerites of Cambrian halwaxiids such as Halkieria may potentially be more analogous to the sclerites of this snail than are the sclerites of chitons or aplacophorans . However , as recently as 2015 , detailed morphological analysis for testing this hypothesis had not been carried out .
The sclerites of Chrysomallon squamiferum are mainly proteinaceous ( conchiolin is a complex protein ) ; in contrast , the sclerites of chitons are mainly calcareous . There are no visible growth lines of conchiolin in cross @-@ sections of sclerites . No other extant or extinct gastropods possess dermal sclerites , and no other extant animal is known to use iron sulfides in this way , either in its skeleton , or exoskeleton .
The size of each sclerite is about 1 × 5 mm in adults . The Solitaire population of snails has white sclerites instead of black ; this is due to a lack of iron in the sclerites . The sclerites are imbricated ( overlapped in a manner reminiscent of roof tiles ) . The purpose of sclerites has been speculated to be protection or detoxification . The sclerites may help protect the gastropod from the vent fluid , so that its bacteria can live close to the source of electron donors for chemosynthesis . Or alternatively , the sclerites may result from deposition of toxic sulfide waste from the endosymbionts , and therefore represent a novel solution for detoxification . But the true function of sclerites is , as yet , unknown . The sclerites of the Kairei population , which have a layer of iron sulphide , are ferrimagnetic . Surprisingly , the non @-@ iron @-@ sulfide @-@ mineralized sclerite from the Solitaire morphotype showed greater mechanical strength of the whole structure in the three @-@ point bending stress test ( 12 @.@ 06
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gut . These pellets are probably granules of sulfur produced by the endosymbiont as a way to detoxify hydrogen sulfide . The intestine is reduced , and only has a single loop . The extensive and unconsolidated digestive gland extends to the posterior , filling the shell apex of the shell . The rectum does not penetrate the heart , but passes ventral to it . The anus is located on the right side of the snail , above the genital opening .
In the excretory system , the nephridium is central , tending to the right side of the body , as a thin dark layer of glandular tissue . The nephridium is anterior and ventral of the digestive gland , and is in contact with the dorsal side of the foregut .
The respiratory system and circulatory system consist of a single left bipectinate ctenidium ( gill ) , which is very large ( 15 @.@ 5 % of the body volume ) , and is supported by extensive blood sinuses filled with haemocoel . On dissection , the blood sinuses and lumps of haemocoel material are a prominent feature throughout the body cavity . There are thin gill filaments on either side of the ctenidium . The bipectinate ctenidium extends far behind the heart into the upper shell whorls ; it is much larger than in Peltospira . Although this species has a similar shell shape and general form to other peltospirids , the ctenidium is proportional size to that of Hirtopelta , which has the largest gill among peltospirid genera that have been investigated anatomically so far .
The ctenidium provides oxygen for the snail , but the circulatory system is enlarged beyond the scope of other similar vent gastropods . There are no endosymbionts in or on the gill of Chrysomallon squamiferum . The enlargement of the gill is probably to facilitate extracting oxygen in the low @-@ oxygen conditions that are typical of hydrothermal @-@ vent ecosystems .
At the posterior of the ctenidium is a remarkably large and well @-@ developed heart . The heart is unusually large for any animal proportionally . Based on the volume of the single auricle and ventricle , the heart complex represents approximately 4 % of the body volume ( for example , the heart of humans is 1 @.@ 3 % of the body volume ) . This proportionally giant heart primarily sucks blood through the ctenidium and supplies the highly vascularised oesophageal gland . In Chrysomallon squamiferum the endosymbionts are housed in an esophageal gland , where they are isolated from the vent fluid . The host is thus likely to play a major role in supplying the endosymbionts with necessary chemicals , leading to increased respiratory needs . Detailed investigation of the haemocoel of Chrysomallon squamiferum will reveal further information about its respiratory pigments .
The Scaly @-@ foot gastropod is a chemosymbiotic holobiont . It hosts thioautotrophic ( sulfur @-@ oxidising ) gammaproteobacterial endosymbionts in a much enlarged oesophageal gland , and appears to rely on these symbionts for nutrition . In this species , the size of the oesophageal gland is about two orders of magnitude larger than the usual size . There is a significant embranchment within the oesophageal gland , where the blood pressure likely decreases to almost zero . The elaborate cardiovascular system most likely evolved to oxygenate the endosymbionts in an oxygen @-@ poor environment , and / or to supply hydrogen sulfide to the endosymbionts . Thioautotrophic gammaproteobacteria have a full set of genes required for aerobic respiration , and are probably capable of switching between the more efficient aerobic respiration , and the less efficient anaerobic respiration , depending on oxygen availability . In 2014 , the endosymbiont of the scaly @-@ foot gastropod become the first endosymbiont of any gastropod for which the complete genome was known . Chrysomallon squamiferum was previously thought to be the only species of Peltospiridae that has an enlarged oesophageal gland , but later it was discovered that both species of Gigantopelta also have an enlarged oesophageal gland .
The nervous system is large , and the brain is a solid neural mass without ganglia . The nervous system is reduced in complexity and enlarged in size compared to other neomphaline taxa . As is typical of gastropods , the nervous system is composed of an anterior oesophageal nerve ring and two pairs of longitudinal nerve cords , the ventral pair innervating the foot and the dorsal pair forming a twist via streptoneury . The frontal part of the oesophageal nerve ring is large , connecting two lateral swellings . The huge fused neural mass is directly adjacent to , and passes through , the oeosophageal gland , where the bacteria are housed . There are large tentacular nerves projecting into the cephalic tentacles . The sensory organs of the scaly @-@ foot gastropod include statocysts surrounded by the oesophageal gland , each statocyst with a single statolith . There are also sensory ctenidial bursicles on the tip of the gill filaments ; these are known to be present in most vetigastropods , and are present some neomphalines .
The reproductive system has some unusual features . The gonads of adult snails are not inside the shell ; they are in the head @-@ foot region on the right side of the body . Adults possess both testis and ovary in different levels of development . The testis is placed ventrally ; the ovary is placed dorsally , and the nephridium lies between them . There is a " spermatophore packaging organ " next to the testis . Gonoducts from the testis and ovary are initially separate , but apparently fuse to a single duct , and emerge as a single genital opening on the right of the mantle cavity . The animal has no copulatory organ .
It is hypothetized that the derived strategy of housing endosymbiotic microbes in an oesophageal gland , has been the catalyst for anatomical innovations that serve primarily to improve the fitness of the bacteria , over and above the needs of the snail . The great enlargement of the oesophageal gland , the snail 's protective dermal sclerites , its highly enlarged respiratory and circulatory systems and its high fecundity are all considered to be adaptations which are beneficial to its endosymbiont microbes . These adaptations appear to be a result of specialisation to resolve energetic needs in an extreme chemosynthetic environment .
= = Ecology = =
= = = Habitat = = =
This species inhabits the hydrothermal vent fields of the Indian Ocean . It lives adjacent to both acidic and reducing vent fluid , on the walls of black @-@ smoker chimneys , or directly on diffuse flow sites .
The depth of the Kairei field varies from 2 @,@ 415 to 2 @,@ 460 m ( 7 @,@ 923 to 8 @,@ 071 ft ) , and its dimensions are approximately 50 by 50 m ( 160 by 160 ft ) . The slope of the field is 10 ° to 30 ° . The substrate rock is troctolite and depleted mid @-@ ocean ridge basalt . The Kairei @-@ field scaly @-@ foot gastropods live in the low @-@ temperature diffuse fluids of a single chimney . The transitional zone , where these gastropods were found , is about 1 – 2 m ( 3 – 7 ft ) in width , with temperature of 2 – 10 ° C. The preferred water temperature for this species is about 5 ° C. These snails live in an environment which has high concentrations of hydrogen sulfide , and low concentrations of oxygen .
The abundance of scaly @-@ foot gastropods was lower in the Kairei field than in the Longqi field . The Kairei hydrothermal @-@ vent community consists of 35 taxa , including sea anemones Marianactis sp . , crustaceans Austinograea rodriguezensis , Rimicaris kairei , Mirocaris indica , Munidopsis sp . , Neolepadidae genus and sp . , Eochionelasmus sp . , bivalves Bathymodiolus marisindicus , gastropods Lepetodrilus sp . , Pseudorimula sp . , Eulepetopsis sp . , Shinkailepas sp . , and Alviniconcha marisindica , Desbruyeresia marisindica , Bruceiella wareni , Phymorhynchus sp . , Sutilizona sp . , Slit limpet sp . 1 , Slit limpet sp . 2 , Iphinopsis boucheti , solenogastres Helicoradomenia ? sp . , annelids Amphisamytha sp . , Archinome jasoni , Capitellidae sp . 1 , Ophyotrocha sp . , Hesionoidae sp . 1 , Hesionoidae sp . 2 , Branchinotogluma sp . , Branchipolynoe sp . , Harmothoe ? sp . , Levensteiniella ? sp . , Prionospio sp . , unidentified Nemertea and unidentified Platyhelminthes . Scaly @-@ foot gastropods live in colonies with Alviniconcha marisindica snails , and there are colonies of Rimicaris kairei above them .
The Solitaire field is at a depth of 2 @,@ 606 m ( 8 @,@ 550 ft ) , and its dimensions are approximately 50 by 50 m ( 160 by 160 ft ) . The substrate rock is enriched mid @-@ ocean ridge basalt . Scaly @-@ foot gastropods live near the high @-@ temperature diffuse fluids of chimneys in the vent field . The abundance of scaly @-@ foot gastropods was lower than it was in the Longqi field . The Solitaire hydrothermal @-@ vent community comprises 22 taxa , including : sea anemones Marianactis sp . , crustaceans Austinograea rodriguezensis , Rimicaris kairei , Mirocaris indica , Munidopsis sp . , Neolepadidae gen et sp . , Eochionelasmus sp . , bivalves Bathymodiolus marisindicus , gastropods Lepetodrilus sp . , Eulepetopsis sp . , Shinkailepas sp . , Alviniconcha sp. type 3 , Desbruyeresia sp . , Phymorhynchus sp . , annelids Alvinellidae genus and sp . , Archinome jasoni , Branchinotogluma sp . , echinoderm holothurians Apodacea gen et sp . , fish Macrouridae genus and sp . , unidentified Nemertea , and unidentified Platyhelminthes .
The Longqi vent field is in a depth of 2 @,@ 780 m ( 9 @,@ 120 ft ) . Chrysomallon squamiferum was densely populated in the areas immediately surrounding the diffuse @-@ flow venting . The Longqi hydrothermal @-@ vent community include sea anemones , the gastropod Gigantopelta aegis , mussels , and stalked barnacles . Shrimps ( usually dominant in vent fields ) were not recorded in Longqi vent field .
= = = Feeding habits = = =
The scaly @-@ foot gastropod is probably not a filter @-@ feeder . The nutrition of the scaly @-@ foot gastropod throughout its entire post @-@ larval life probably depends on the chemoautotrophy of its endosymbiotic bacteria , which provide most of its nutrition . It is currently unclear whether or not this species uses other mechanisms for feeding ( for example it is not known if it uses its radula for eating any normal food ) .
For identification of trophic interactions in a habitat , where direct observation of feeding habits is complicated , there were measured carbon and nitrogen stable @-@ isotope compositions . There are depleted values of δ13C in the oesophageal gland ( relatively to photosynthetically derived organic carbon ) . Chemoautotrophic symbionts were presumed as a source of such carbon . Chemoautotrophic origin of the stable carbon isotope 13C was confirmed experimentally .
= = = Life cycle = = =
This gastropod is a simultaneous hermaphrodite . It is the only species in the family Pelospiridae that is so far known to be a simultaneous hermaphrodite . It has a high fecundity . It lays eggs that are probably of lecithotrophic type . Eggs of the scaly @-@ foot gastropods show negative buoyancy under atmospheric pressure . Neither the larvae nor the protoconch are known as of 2016 , but it is thought that the species has a planktonic dispersal stage . One of the smallest Chrysomallon squamiferum juvenile specimens ever collected had a shell length ca . 3 mm . The results of statistical analyses revealed no genetic differentiation between the two populations in the Kairei and Solitaire fields , suggesting potential connectivity between the two vent fields . The Kairei population represents a potential source population for the two populations in the Central Indian Ridge . These snails are difficult to keep alive in an artificial environment , however , they survived in aquaria at atmospheric pressure for more than three weeks .
= Parson Russell Terrier =
The Parson Russell Terrier is a breed of small white terrier that was the original Fox Terrier of the 18th century . The breed is named after the person credited with the creation of this type of dog , the Reverend John " Jack " Russell . It is the recognised conformation show variety of the Jack Russell Terrier and was first recognised in 1990 in the United Kingdom as the Parson Russell Terrier . In America , it was first recognised as the Jack Russell Terrier in 1997 . The name was changed to its current form in 1999 in the UK and by 2008 all international kennel clubs recognised it under the new name .
A mostly white breed with either a smooth , rough or broken coat , it conforms to a narrower range of sizes than the Jack Russell . It is a feisty , energetic terrier , suited to sports and able to get along with children and other animals . It has a range of breed @-@ related health issues , mainly relating to eye disorders .
= = History = =
This breed shares a common history with the Jack Russell Terrier until the early 1980s .
This type of small white terrier dates back to the work of the Reverend John Russell , born in 1795 . In 1819 he purchased a small white and tan female terrier named Trump from a milkman in the hamlet of Elmsford . She formed the basis for his breeding program , and by the 1850s the dogs were recognised as a distinct type of Fox Terrier .
In 1894 , the Devon and Somerset Badger Club was founded by Arthur Blake Heinemann who created the first breed standard for this type of terrier . The club was formed with the aim of promoting badger digging , rather than fox hunting . By the turn of the 20th century , the name of John Russell had become associated with this type of terrier . The Devon and Somerset Badger Club would go on to be renamed the Parson Jack Russell Terrier Club and continued until just before World War II when the club folded .
The Jack Russell Terrier Club of Great Britain was established in 1974 as the parent club for the Jack Russell Terrier in the UK . The club has actively opposed recognition of the Jack Russell Terrier by Kennel Club ( UK ) . In 1983 , the Parson Jack Russell Terrier Club ( PJRTC ) was reformed with the aim of seeking Kennel Club recognition for the breed . The initial application was turned down , but after several further rejections , the Parson Jack Russell Terrier was recognised on 9 January 1990 as a variant of the Fox Terrier , with the United Kennel Club following suit in 1991 . The American Kennel Club recognised the breed as the Jack Russell Terrier effective 1 November 1997 .
On 1 August 1999 , the PJRTC successfully petitioned the Kennel Club ( UK ) to change the name of the breed to the Parson Russell Terrier , with the name of the breed club following suit . The international kennel association , the Fédération Cynologique Internationale , recognised the Parson Russell Terrier on 4 June 2001 . The American Kennel Club updated the name of the recognised breed from Jack Russell Terrier on 1 April 2003 . The United Kennel Club adopted the new name on 23 April 2008 .
The Australian National Kennel Council ( ANKC ) , New Zealand Kennel Club and United Kennel Club ( UKC ) are the only three major kennel clubs to recognise both the Jack Russell Terrier and the Parson Russell Terrier separately . In 2009 , there were 18 Parsons registered with the ANKC compared to 1073 Jack Russells .
= = Description = =
The Parson Russell Terrier is bred to conform to a conformation show standard . Unlike its close relative , the Jack Russell Terrier , Parson Russell Terriers have noticeably longer legs that are about as tall as the length of the Terrier 's body . It is a predominantly white breed with black , tan or tricolour markings and an easy to groom coat which is either smooth or broken ( similar to a smooth coat , but with some longer hair on the head , face , legs or body ) . The breed standard does not recognise a Parson Russell with a curly or rough coat . There is a clear outline with only a hint of eyebrows and beard should the dog be broken coated . They possess moderately thick small " V " shaped drop ears with the tip pointed towards the eyes . The nose of the dog should be black . The normal range of sizes is between 13 – 14 inches ( 33 – 36 cm ) tall at the withers , with a weight around 13 – 17 pounds ( 5 @.@ 9 – 7 @.@ 7 kg ) .
The Parson Russell has a relatively square outline , with a body about as long as the dog is tall . Compared to the Jack Russell Terrier , the Parson Russell has a longer head and a larger chest along with overall a slightly larger body size . The Parson retains the flat skull but not the elongated shape of the Fox Terrier , and with lower set ears . In addition , the Jack Russell Terrier has a greater variation in size , ranging between 10 – 15 inches ( 25 – 38 cm ) in height at the withers .
Two hands should be able to span the chest of the dog behind its elbows , with the thumbs at the withers . This is required in show judging , with the judge lifting the dog 's front legs gently off the ground in this motion in order to measure the size of the chest . The judges fingers should meet under the chest and the thumbs on top of the spine . The American Kennel Club describes this as a " significant factor and a critical part of the judging process . " It is not done to measure the size of the chest , but rather to feel for the correct shape .
Under the show standard , there are several physical points which would be treated as faults in the show ring . These are for the height of the dog at the withers to be outside of the standard range , or for the dog to possess either pricked up ears , a liver or brown coloured nose , an overshot or undershot jawline or to have brindle markings .
= = Temperament = =
The Parson is a feisty and energetic type of Terrier . They can excel in dog sports such as flyball or agility and require vigorous exercise in order to prevent them from becoming bored and potentially destructive in the home . They can be suited to live with children but as they have a typical Terrier temperament , they will not tolerate rough handling . The AKC describes them as being single minded , tenacious and courageous when at work , while at home they can be exuberant , playful and affectionate . However , it is unusual for dogs of this breed to be involved in work , such as fox hunting , typical of a small white terrier , as they are more adapted to the show bench .
They can be playful with other dogs , and get along with horses . The breed standard requires that shyness be treated as a fault , although it states that this should not be confused with submissiveness which is not treated as such . Overt aggression towards another dog is not accepted and is a criterion for disqualification in the show ring .
= = Health = =
Eye conditions which affect the Parson Russell Terrier include primary lens luxation , a heritable condition . This disease causes the zonular fibres to be abnormal and begin to disintegrate in affected dogs . The fibres support the lens of the eye , and their destruction can cause the lens to fall into the wrong location within the eye . If the lens falls into the anterior chamber of eyeball then a secondary glaucoma can occur , causing loss of vision . National kennel associations such as the Kennel Club ( UK ) publish DNA screening results on Parson Russell Terriers , broken down into three groups ; clears , carriers , and affecteds .
Other eye conditions which appear in the breed include cataracts in juveniles , corneal dystrophy , progressive retinal atrophy and posterior vitreous detachment . Non @-@ eye breed related conditions which may affect a Parson are deafness and patella luxation . The average lifespan of a Parson Russell Terrier is between 14 and 15 years .
= New York State Route 598 =
New York State Route 598 ( NY 598 ) is a north – south state highway located within Onondaga County , New York , in the United States . It extends for 2 @.@ 31 miles ( 3 @.@ 72 km ) from an intersection with NY 5 in the city of Syracuse to a junction with NY 298 in the adjacent town of Salina . The route intersects Interstate 690 ( I @-@ 690 ) near its southern terminus and passes through Syracuse 's Eastwood neighborhood near its midpoint , where it meets NY 290 .
NY 598 was assigned c . 2004 . The northernmost portion of the route replaced NY 930M , a short unsigned reference route that extended from NY 298 in Salina southeast to the Syracuse city line at North Midler Avenue . NY 930M itself was a remnant of New York State Route 433 , a highway assigned in the early 1950s and removed in the mid @-@ 1960s that , upon removal , followed the same alignment as modern NY 598 .
= = Route description = =
NY 598 begins at an intersection with NY 5 ( Erie Boulevard ) east of downtown Syracuse . The route heads north as the four @-@ lane South Midler Avenue , crossing a CSX Transportation @-@ owned railroad spur known as the Peat Street Runner at @-@ grade ahead of an interchange with I @-@ 690 ( exit 15 ) at the southern edge of the Eastwood neighborhood . North of I @-@ 690 , the route narrows to two lanes as it travels through the densely populated residential neighborhood .
The homes cease temporarily around NY 598 's intersection with NY 290 ( James Street ) , a prominent retail corridor in eastern Syracuse . Upon crossing NY 290 , NY 598 becomes North Midler Avenue as it becomes surrounded by houses once more . At the Syracuse city line three blocks to the north , North Midler Avenue splits off to the northeast while NY 598 becomes New Court Avenue . The switch in both the town of DeWitt and name also brings about a switch in surroundings as the route heads northwest into a heavily industrial area built up along CSX 's Mohawk Subdivision rail line . NY 598 ends shortly afterward at an intersection with NY 298 just inside the Salina town line . The portion of NY 598 in DeWitt and Salina is maintained by the New York State Department of Transportation ( NYSDOT ) ; the remainder of the route is maintained by the city of Syracuse .
= = History = =
All of Midler Avenue , including the portion of the street not currently part of NY 598 in DeWitt , was originally designated as NY 433 in the early 1950s . At the time , NY 433 ended at the junction of Midler Avenue and Court Street Road ( then NY 298 ) . By 1954 , New Court Avenue , an east – west connector between NY 298 and NY 433 in DeWitt , was designated as NY 436 . In the late 1950s , construction began on a bypass of Court Street that extended from the western terminus of NY 436 in Salina to the junction of NY 298 and Thompson Road ( modern NY 635 ) in DeWitt . The bypass was opened to traffic as a realignment of NY 298 by 1961 . NY 433 was then extended northeastward along NY 298 's former routing on Court Street to Carrier Circle , where it met the realigned NY 298 .
The alignments of NY 433 and NY 436 north of the Syracuse city line were flipped c . 1962 , placing NY 433 on Midler Avenue and New Court Avenue and NY 436 on Midler Avenue and Court Street Road . Both designations were removed at some point in the latter half of the 1960s . The portion of NY 433 's former routing outside of Syracuse became NY 930M , an unsigned reference route . NY 930M went unchanged until c . 2004 when it was incorporated into NY 598 , a new route extending from NY 5 to NY 298 by way of NY 433 's final alignment .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Onondaga County .
= 2015 Abu Dhabi Grand Prix =
The 2015 Abu Dhabi Grand Prix ( formally known as the 2015 Formula 1 Etihad Airways Abu Dhabi Grand Prix ) was a Formula One motor race held at the Yas Marina Circuit on 29 November 2015 . The race was the nineteenth and final round of the 2015 season , and marked the seventh running of the Abu Dhabi Grand Prix as a round of the World Championship since its inception in 1950 .
Lewis Hamilton was the defending race winner and had already secured his third Drivers ' Championship earlier in the season at the United States Grand Prix . His team , Mercedes , had decided the Constructors ' Championship in their favour at the Russian Grand Prix .
In Saturday 's qualifying , Nico Rosberg ( Mercedes ) secured his sixth consecutive pole position and went on to win the race ahead of teammate Hamilton . Kimi Räikkönen finished third for Ferrari . It was the twelfth one @-@ two finish for Mercedes , cementing a record @-@ breaking season that saw them finish with the highest ever number of points scored by a constructor , most front row lookouts and one @-@ two finishes over the course of any Formula One season .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
Going into the race weekend , both Championships were already decided . Lewis Hamilton had already secured the drivers ' title three races earlier at the 2015 United States Grand Prix and was leading the Drivers ' Championship with 363 points , 66 points ahead of his teammate Nico Rosberg . In the Constructors ' Championship , their team Mercedes had also secured the constructors ' title four races earlier at the 2015 Russian Grand Prix and was leading Ferrari on 660 to 401 points . However , several positions in the standings were still undecided . In the battle for fourth place in the Drivers ' Championship , Valtteri Bottas was just one point ahead of compatriot Kimi Räikkönen , with Felipe Massa in sixth also still able to get the position , being 19 points behind his Williams teammate Bottas . Red Bull teammates Daniil Kvyat and Daniel Ricciardo were just ten points apart in the battle for seventh in the championship . In the Constructors ' standings , sixth placed Lotus was just nine points ahead of Toro Rosso , while McLaren needed at least nine points as well to overcome Sauber for eighth , a points tally they had only managed once during the rest of the season .
Pirelli supplied the teams with the yellow banded soft and the red banded super @-@ soft tyres as the two dry weather options for the race . It was the 150th race for Force India under their current moniker .
= = = Free practice = = =
Per the regulations for the 2015 season , three practice sessions were scheduled , two 1 @.@ 5 @-@ hour sessions on Friday and another one @-@ hour session before qualifying on Saturday . Lewis Hamilton was fastest in the first free practice session , run in clear and sunny conditions , lapping in a time of 1m43.754s , over one @-@ tenth of a second faster than teammate Rosberg in second . Rosberg had set new fastest sector times on his last fast run , but a mistake in the last part of the track lost him a chance at the best time . Kimi Räikkönen was third fastest for Ferrari , ahead of Daniil Kvyat . Kvyat 's Red Bull teammate Ricciardo changed back to his older specification Renault power unit , after being unsatisfied with the performance of his updated unit at the previous race in Brazil . He finished the session seventh fastest . At Lotus , Jolyon Palmer replaced Romain Grosjean , but had to sit out most of the session due to a water leak , managing just nine laps .
In the second session of Friday afternoon , Nico Rosberg topped the timesheets , setting a time of 1m41.983s , finishing more than a tenth of a second ahead of Hamilton . Third fastest was Sergio Pérez for Force India , although he was unable to run in the last twenty minutes of the session due to brake issues . The Red Bull drivers Kvyat and Ricciardo were fourth and sixth respectively , while Fernando Alonso came within one second of Rosberg 's time in ninth .
Rosberg was again fastest in the third session on Saturday with a time of 1m41.856s. Hamilton was second quickest , almost three @-@ tenths of a second slower , unable to get a clean lap to match his teammate . On the slower soft tyres , one lap was impeded by traffic , another was disturbed by Hamilton spinning after hitting the kerb at turn five . He again failed in his attempt on a very fast lap on the super @-@ soft tyres later in the session , being forced wide after repeating his mistake at turn five . Hamilton was just marginally ahead of Sebastian Vettel , who finished third ahead of Pérez . Daniil Kvyat was unable to set a timed lap as his team worked to solve an electrical problem .
= = = Qualifying = = =
Qualifying consisted of three parts , 18 , 15 and 12 minutes in length respectively , with five drivers eliminated from competing after each of the first two sessions . At the beginning of the first part of qualifying ( Q1 ) , Mercedes sent both their drivers out on the faster super @-@ soft compound , while Ferrari stayed on the slower soft tyres . Even though Ferrari eventually decided to give both their drivers out on the faster tyres towards the end of the session , Sebastian Vettel aborted his last flying lap , believing his time to be sufficient for proceeding into the next round , only for Jenson Button to set a time to relegate Vettel into 16th place on the grid , eliminating him from qualifying . Vettel would later describe his and the team 's judgement as " a small mistake with a big consequence " . Fernando Alonso in the other McLaren did not make the cut , after a puncture on his last lap left him without a chance at a faster time , while Marcus Ericsson was held up by a technical issue , qualifying 18th . Both Manor Marussia drivers were eliminated at the bottom of the standings , with Will Stevens 1 @.@ 137 seconds ahead of his teammate Roberto Merhi .
Lewis Hamilton was fastest in Q2 , two tenths of a second ahead of his teammate Rosberg . In his last qualifying session with Lotus , Romain Grosjean experienced technical difficulties that forced him to come back into the pits . Even though he was sent out again , he was unable to set a time , stopping his car at turn seven . His teammate Pastor Maldonado also did not proceed into Q3 , as did Jenson Button who missed out by two tenths of a second . The two other drivers eliminated were Felipe Nasr for Sauber and Max Verstappen , who was unable to match the time of his teammate Carlos Sainz , Jr .
The top ten drivers competed for pole position in Q3 and it was a battle between the two Mercedes . Lewis Hamilton set his fastest time first with Rosberg right behind him . A much better time in the third sector of the track allowed Rosberg to take his sixth consecutive pole position almost four tenths ahead of his teammate . Sergio Pérez held third spot for much of the session but was beaten to it by Kimi Räikkönen during the second turn of runs . The two were followed by Daniel Ricciardo and Valtteri Bottas on the third row of the grid . Following a gearbox change after qualifying , Romain Grosjean was demoted five places on the grid . Roberto Merhi and Will Stevens also received five place penalties : Stevens for a change of the Control Electronics unit , Merhi for changes made to his suspension . Both would start the race from the back row of the grid .
= = = Race = = =
At the start of the race on Sunday , Hamilton got away slowly but was able to keep both Pérez and Räikkönen behind him while Rosberg retained the lead . Further back , Fernando Alonso made contact with Felipe Nasr and then crashed into Pastor Maldonado , who was forced to retire . Alonso needed to pit for a new front wing and was later given a drive @-@ through penalty , dropping him to the end of the field . Meanwhile , Nico Hülkenberg and Sebastian Vettel made up places , sitting in fifth and twelfth respectively after the first lap . Valtteri Bottas on the other hand lost positions , finding himself in tenth . Rosberg soon built a lead of over one second , giving Hamilton no chance to deploy DRS for an overtake manoeuvre . By lap 5 , both Kvyat and Nasr had come into the pits for the harder compound tyre , followed by Ricciardo , Massa and Pérez one lap later . On lap seven , both Hülkenberg and Sainz Jr. pitted . While Hülkenberg was able to stay ahead of Massa , Sainz 's stop was unfortunate and he lost time due to a problem with the tyre change . Another two laps later , Valtteri Bottas pitted and was sent out into the path of Button , damaging his front wing , which he needed to replace the following lap . He also received a five @-@ second penalty to be served at his next scheduled stop . The leaders pitted for new tyres around laps ten and eleven , with the order now being Rosberg ahead of Vettel , who was yet to stop , Hamilton , and Räikkönen . Romain Grosjean , who started on the harder tyres just as Vettel , was up to sixth .
On lap 13 , Felipe Massa passed Marcus Ericsson for ninth place and one lap later , Hamilton capitalised on a mistake by Vettel and overtook him to retake second position . Vettel lost another position when he let Räikkönen pass him on lap 16 , the two being on different strategies . Meanwhile , Rosberg had built up a lead of around six seconds to Hamilton . On lap 19 , Carlos Sainz , Jr. allowed teammate Max Verstappen to pass him , while Alonso came in for what was his third pit stop of the race , leaving him in last position . Two laps later , Verstappen created flatspots on his tyres when he locked up his brakes , forcing him to pit . He emerged in 15th position . Vettel came in for his first pit stop on lap 24 , coming out in sixth place ahead of compatriot Nico Hülkenberg . At the same time , Hamilton started to reduce the gap to Rosberg in front , cutting it down to less than two seconds by lap 29 . With his teammate closing in , Rosberg pitted on lap 32 , with Räikkönen following suit , whose pit stop was delayed , losing him around four seconds . Sergio Pérez was starting to close the gap to both Ferraris in front of him after pitting early . Vettel reacted on lap 41 and changed to the super @-@ soft tyres , coming out behind both Pérez and Ricciardo in sixth . One lap later , Hamilton came in for his second and final stop , having asked his team before if it would be possible to finish the race without stopping again . He emerged twelve seconds behind Rosberg and started to cut into his advantage immediately .
Further back in the field , Max Verstappen overtook Nasr and Button to move into twelfth place on laps 44 and 46 respectively . However , he was deemed to have forced Button wide and was handed a five @-@ second penalty to be added to his finishing time . Lap 53 saw Romain Grosjean move into the final point scoring position of tenth by passing Carlos Sainz , Jr. into turn eight . Just one lap later , he took ninth place from Daniil Kvyat . At the front , Hamilton proved unable to reach his teammate , who took the checkered flag for his sixth win of the season . Kimi Räikkönen completed the podium , followed by Vettel , Pérez and Ricciardo .
= = = Post @-@ race = = =
In the podium interviews , conducted by former Formula One driver David Coulthard , Nico Rosberg expressed excitement over how the end of the season had worked out for him , describing the race in the United States as his " low point " . Speaking about racing his teammate Hamilton , he called him " one of the best out there " and said that it was " an even better feeling to win , definitely against such opposition " . Hamilton in turn praised his team for their performance over the whole season , saying that they had " surpassed their own expectations " , albeit confessing that he was happy that the season was over . During the press conference , third @-@ placed Kimi Räikkönen said : " It ’ s never nice to finish third but I ’ ll take it after previous races " , pointing to a season that had been marred with small mistakes and misfortunes for him . He also stated that securing fourth place in the World Championship did not mean much to him , dismissing the idea of a " Finnish championship " between himself and Valtteri Bottas .
Fourth @-@ placed Sebastian Vettel said after the race : " The best result one way or another would be P3 and P4 so we can be very happy with today " , adding that he and Räikkönen had " a clean race for P3 " . He also described his 2015 campaign as " a miracle " , after Ferrari had endured a winless 2014 . Speaking about the incident between Bottas and Button at the first round of pit stops , Williams ' head of performance engineering Rob Smedley said that the team had released their driver at the right moment , declaring the accident happened because Bottas saw Button too late . Following two incidents during the race , Max Verstappen was given time penalties and three penalty points on his FIA Super Licence – one for overtaking Jenson Button outside track limits and two for ignoring blue flags while Lewis Hamilton tried to lap him . The penalties meant that he was just four points away from a one @-@ race ban .
Räikkönen taking fourth position from Bottas in the Drivers ' Championship was the only change in both championship standings as a result of the Grand Prix . Following the Grand Prix , Renault confirmed their takeover of Lotus , meaning that it was the last Grand Prix for the team in their incarnation under the Lotus moniker that had started in 2012 .
= = Classification = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
Notes :
^ 1 — Romain Grosjean received a five @-@ place grid penalty for an unscheduled gearbox change .
^ 2 — Will Stevens received a five @-@ place grid penalty for a change of his Control Electronics unit .
^ 3 — Roberto Merhi started the race from pit lane after the team took his car out of parc fermé to alter his suspension set @-@ up .
= = = Race = = =
Notes :
^ 1 — Max Verstappen originally finished twelfth , but received a five @-@ second time penalty for overtaking Jenson Button outside track limits and another twenty @-@ second penalty for ignoring blue flags while being lapped .
= = = Championship standings after the race = = =
Note : Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings .
Bold text indicates 2015 World Champions .
= 56th Independent Mixed Brigade =
The 56th Independent Mixed Brigade was an Imperial Japanese Army unit of World War II . It was raised in June 1944 to reinforce the defences of Japanese @-@ occupied Borneo , and was initially stationed in the north @-@ east of the island . In early 1945 most of the brigade 's units were ordered to move to the Brunei Bay area of west Borneo , with the brigade 's personnel subsequently making a difficult march across the centre of the island .
During June and July 1945 the 56th Independent Mixed Brigade saw combat against Australian forces in the Borneo Campaign . Its units were greatly under @-@ strength at this time due to the casualties suffered while moving across Borneo , and the elements which engaged Australian forces were rapidly defeated . The remainder of the brigade withdrew into central Borneo , and surrendered to the Australians following the end of the war .
= = History = =
= = = Formation = = =
During mid @-@ 1944 the Imperial Japanese Army 's General Staff decided to reinforce the garrisons of the southern Philippines and Borneo ahead of an expected Allied offensive to liberate these areas . As part of this effort , the 54th , 55th , 56th , 57th and 58th Independent Mixed Brigades were ordered to be formed for service with the Southern Expeditionary Army Group during June . Aside from the 58th Independent Mixed Brigade , which was formed by converting an existing unit , these new brigades were to be organised in forward areas from personnel shipped from Japan . Upon formation , the 56th Independent Mixed Brigade was assigned to the Borneo Defence Force ( BDF ) .
The process of establishing the 56th Independent Mixed Brigade took longer than expected , which delayed its deployment to Borneo . While three battalions worth of personnel departed Japan in mid @-@ July 1944 , the first did not arrive at Borneo until September . The final elements of the 56th Independent Mixed Brigade reached Borneo in mid @-@ November . The 8 @,@ 000 personnel allocated to the brigade had not trained together while in Japan , and were organised into fighting units after their arrival in Borneo . They were also shipped to Borneo separately from their weapons and other equipment . Once its organisation was complete , the 56th Independent Mixed Brigade comprised six infantry battalions ( the 366th to 371st Independent Infantry Battalions ) , each with an authorised strength of 997 men , and small artillery , engineer and signal units . Like the other independent mixed brigades raised in mid @-@ 1944 , the 56th had only 18 trucks and a small number of horses to transport its equipment and supplies . The brigade was commanded by Major General Taijiro Akashi .
The BDF and its superior headquarters , the Seventh Area Army , initially disagreed over where the 56th Independent Mixed Brigade should be deployed . In July 1944 the BDF believed that the Allies were likely to invade northern Borneo in January 1945 or later , and wanted to station the brigade in this area . However , the Seventh Area Army judged that Allied forces were more likely to attack the Brunei Bay region in western Borneo to support a drive on Singapore . Moreover , the area army believed that it would be difficult to transfer units from northern to western Borneo due to the island 's rugged terrain . The BDF eventually won the debate , and the 56th Independent Mixed Brigade 's units were landed in the Sandakan area of north @-@ east Borneo as they arrived from Japan .
Once the 56th Independent Mixed Brigade arrived in Borneo , the brigade headquarters and all the combat battalions other than the 371st Independent Infantry Battalion were concentrated at Tawau . The 371st Independent Infantry Battalion was stationed in Sandakan and placed under the command of the 41st Independent Garrison Battalion . As of 20 December 1944 , the brigade had responsibility for defending the area around Tawau and Tarakan Island .
= = = Redeployment = = =
In late 1944 the 37th Army ( the former BDF ) changed its views on likely Allied intentions , and concluded that the expected invasion would probably be focused on the Brunei Bay region . The Southern Expeditionary Army Group agreed with this assessment , and ordered in January 1945 that the 37th Army 's forces be concentrated around Brunei Bay . As the Allies had air superiority over Borneo and nearby waters , it was not possible to move the units in north @-@ east Borneo by sea . Instead , they would need to march across the island .
The 56th Independent Mixed Brigade , less its 369th and 370th Independent Infantry Battalions , began to march across Borneo in late January 1945 . This proved difficult , with the movement through the mountainous jungle in the centre of the island being hampered by the poor state of the road network , bad weather and food shortages . Many of the brigade 's soldiers fell sick during the march , and all four infantry battalions were considerably below their authorised strength by the time they arrived at Brunei Bay between April and June . The 370th Independent Infantry Battalion was transferred to the direct control of the 37th Army and remained at Tawau , and the 369th Independent Infantry Battalion was shipped to Banjarmasin in southern Borneo during March and assigned to the 22nd Special Naval Base Force .
The brigade was widely dispersed following its arrival in the Brunei Bay area . In June 1945 , the brigade headquarters and the 366th and 367th Independent Infantry Battalions were stationed in Brunei . The 368th Independent Infantry Battalion was located at the inland town of Beaufort , and the 371st Independent Infantry Battalion formed the main body of the island of Labuan 's garrison . Of the support units , the 56th Independent Mixed Brigade Artillery Unit was at Brunei and the 56th Independent Mixed Brigade Engineer and Signal Units were at Beaufort . All of the brigade 's heavy weapons had been left behind at Tawau , and due to the casualties incurred during the march across Borneo its combat units were not fit for battle .
= = = Battle of North Borneo = = =
Two brigades of the Australian 9th Division with large numbers of support units invaded the Brunei Bay area on 10 June 1945 . At this time the 56th Independent Mixed Brigade was the main Japanese combat force in the region , but was in the process of withdrawing inland to defensive positions located around rice @-@ growing areas .
The 371st Independent Infantry Battalion was destroyed on Labuan by the 24th Brigade during 11 days of at times fierce fighting . The 367th Independent Infantry Battalion retreated from Brunei to the Trusan River as a formed unit , and the 366th Independent Infantry Battalion broke up into small groups as it fought a rearguard action against the Australian 20th Brigade . While Beaufort was attacked by the 24th Brigade , the 368th Independent Infantry Battalion was not involved in its defence .
During the last weeks of the war the remnants of the 366th Independent Infantry Battalion were pursued by Australian Army patrols , air attacks and groups of local Dayaks organised by the Australian Services Reconnaissance Department . These attacks led to the disintegration of the unit . Major General Akashi led the remnants of the forces stationed at Br
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The Erzherzog Karl class displaced 10 @,@ 472 long tons ( 10 @,@ 640 t ) . They were 414 feet 2 inches ( 126 @.@ 2 m ) long , had a beam of 71 feet 5 inches ( 21 @.@ 8 m ) and a draft of 24 feet 7 inches ( 7 @.@ 5 m ) . They were manned by 700 men .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The ships were propelled by two two @-@ shaft , four cylinder vertical triple expansion steam engines . On trials , they developed 18 @,@ 000 ihp ( 13 @,@ 423 kW ) , which could move the ship along at a speed of 20 @.@ 5 knots ( 38 @.@ 0 km / h ; 23 @.@ 6 mph ) . On trials , Erzherzog Karl 's engines managed to produce a knot more speed than was originally planned .
= = = Armament = = =
As with the Ersatz Monarch @-@ class battleship that was planned to be built 13 years later , the Erzherzog Karl class carried a primary armament made by Škoda Works . On each ship , there were four 24 @-@ centimeter ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) / 40 caliber guns in two twin turrets on the centerline . These guns were an Austro @-@ Hungarian replica of the 24 cm / 40 ( 9 @.@ 4 " ) Krupp C / 94 , which was used on the Habsburgs . The guns could be depressed to − 5 ° and elevated to 30 ° . The arc of fire of the guns was 300 ° , or 150 ° in each direction . Each gun required a crew of twenty men . At maximum elevation , the gun could fire a 140 @-@ kilogram ( 310 lb ) shell 16 @,@ 900 metres ( 18 @,@ 500 yd ) . They could fire three to four armor @-@ piercing shells per minute at a muzzle velocity of 690 metres per second ( 2 @,@ 300 ft / s ) . Each of the guns weighed at least 24 @,@ 040 kilograms ( 53 @,@ 000 lb ) .
Their secondary armament consisted of twelve 19 @-@ centimeter ( 7 @.@ 5 in ) / 42 caliber guns , also made by Škoda , mounted in eight single casemates on either wing of the ship and two single midships turrets on the either wing of the ship . They could be depressed to − 3 ° and elevated to 20 ° . They could fire a 97 kilograms ( 214 lb ) armor @-@ piercing shell 20 @,@ 000 metres ( 22 @,@ 000 yd ) at maximum elevation with a muzzle velocity of 800 metres per second ( 2 @,@ 600 ft / s ) . The gun weighed 12 @.@ 1 tons and could fire three rounds per minute .
The ships had a tertiary armament for protection against torpedo boats in the form of the 6 @.@ 6 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) / 45 caliber gun , too manufactured by Škoda . They could be depressed to − 10 ° and elevated to 20 , and had an arc of fire of 360 ° , meaning that they could fire at any target within their range of fire . The guns could fire about ten to fifteen rounds per minute . At their maximum elevation , the guns could fire a 4 @.@ 5 kilograms ( 9 @.@ 9 lb ) high @-@ explosive charge 9 @,@ 140 metres ( 10 @,@ 000 yd ) at a muzzle velocity of 880 metres per second ( 2 @,@ 900 ft / s ) .
Anti @-@ aircraft and airship protection was covered by the four 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Vickers anti @-@ aircraft guns on the ship . They could be depressed to − 5 ° and elevated to 80 ° . They had an arc of fire of 360 ° , which meant that they also could engage any target within their range . Manually operated by only one crewman , they could fire a 0 @.@ 7 kilograms ( 1 @.@ 5 lb ) shell 1 @,@ 830 metres ( 2 @,@ 000 yd ) at maximum elevation with a muzzle velocity of 640 metres per second ( 2 @,@ 100 ft / s ) . Designed in 1910 , each of the guns weighed 57 kilograms ( 126 lb ) . The Erzherzog Karl class was also fitted with two above water 45 @-@ centimeter ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes , although they were rarely used .
= = = Armor = = =
The armor plating of the battleships around the waterline belt , one of the more vulnerable areas of a ship , was 210 mm ( 8 @.@ 3 in ) , while their deck armor was 55 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) . The turrets and casemates had 240 mm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) and 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) armor respectively . This was done in order to protect the battleships against a possible shell landing on the turrets and the imminent explosion resulting from such a hit . The conning tower of the ships had 220 mm ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) of armor plating , while the bulkheads inside the battleship that separated different compartments were 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) thick .
= = Construction = =
The Erzherzog Karl class , like the Habsburg class before them and the Radetzky class after them were named after archdukes of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Royal Family , specifically Archduke Charles , Duke of Teschen , Maximilian I of Mexico and Archduke Friedrich , Duke of Teschen . The ships were all laid down at the Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino in Trieste . The first ship of the class , SMS Erzherzog Karl was laid down on 24 July 1902 . Following 15 months of construction she was launched on 4 October 1903 and finally commissioned into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy on 17 June 1906 . The next ship of the class was SMS Erzherzog Friedrich . She was laid down on 4 October 1902 and launched on 30 April 1904 . Erzherzog Friedrich was finally commissioned into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy on 31 January 1907 . The third and final ship of the Erzherzog Karl class was SMS Erzherzog Ferdinand Max . She was laid down on 9 March 1904 and later launched on 21 May 1905 . She was commissioned into the navy on 21 December 1907 .
= = Service history = =
At the outbreak of World War I the three ships formed the III division of the Austrian @-@ Hungarian battle @-@ fleet and spent most of the war based at Pola . The members of the Erzherzog Karl class were mobilized on the eve of the war to support the flight of SMS Goeben and SMS Breslau . The two German ships were attempting to break out of Messina , which was surrounded by British troops , and make their way to Turkey . The breakout succeeded . When the flotilla had advanced as far south as Brindisi in south eastern Italy , the Austro @-@ Hungarian ships were recalled . In company with other units of the Austro Hungarian Navy the class took part in the bombardment of Ancona on May 24 , 1915 . There they expended 24 rounds of 240 mm armor @-@ piercing shells at signal and semaphore stations as well as 74 rounds of 190 mm shells aimed at Italian gun @-@ batteries and other port installations .
A major mutiny among crews of the armored cruisers stationed in Cattaro , including SMS Sankt Georg and SMS Kaiser Karl VI , began on 1 February 1918 . Two days later , the three Erzherzog Karl @-@ class ships arrived in the port and assisted with the suppression of the mutiny . Following the restoration of order in the naval base , the armored cruisers Sankt Georg and Kaiser Karl VI were decommissioned and the three Erzherzog Karl @-@ class battleships were stationed in Cattaro in their place . For the morning of 11 June , Admiral Miklos Horthy planned a major assault on the Otranto Barrage ; the three Erzherzog Karls and the four Tegetthoff @-@ class battleships were to provide support for the Novara @-@ class cruisers . The plan was intended to replicate the success of the raid conducted one year earlier . Horthy 's plan was to destroy the blockading fleet by luring Allied ships to the cruisers and lighter ships , which were protected from the heavier guns of the battleships , including the Erzherzog Karl class . However , on the morning of 10 June , the dreadnought Szent István was torpedoed and sunk by an Italian torpedo boat . Horthy felt surprise had been lost and therefore called off the operation . This was to be the last military action the Erzherzog Karl @-@ class ships were to take part in and they spent the rest of their career at port in Pola .
Following the end of World War I in November 1918 , the members of the Erzherzog Karl class were first taken over by Yugoslavia in 1919 , but Erzherzog Karl and Erzherzog Friedrich were then ceded as war reparations to France . The remaining battleship , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max , was ceded to the United Kingdom . However , Erzherzog Karl ran aground at Bizerte on her voyage to Toulon and was eventually broken up in situ . The remaining two battleships were scrapped in 1921 .
= Battle of Pusan Perimeter logistics =
Logistics in the Battle of Pusan Perimeter ( August 4 – September 15 , 1950 ) during the Korean War played a decisive role in the battle . Efficient logistics , the management of personnel and materiel , supported United Nations ( UN ) supply lines while the North Koreans ' routes of supply were steadily reduced and cut off . UN logistics improved throughout the Battle of Inchon and the defeat of the North Korean army at Pusan .
UN forces , consisting primarily of troops from the Republic of Korea ( ROK ) , the United States ( US ) , and United Kingdom ( UK ) , enjoyed overwhelming air and sea superiority during the battle . The UN efficiently procured and transported supplies from a large stockpile of materiel in nearby Japan .
In contrast , North Korean logistics were hampered by UN interdiction campaigns which slowed the flow of supplies from North Korea to the battle . Though supported logistically by the Soviet Union and China during the battle , North Koreans often had difficulties getting their supplies from depots to the front lines , leaving North Korean troops unsupported during several crucial engagements .
= = Background = =
= = = Outbreak of war = = =
Main Article : Korean War
On the night of June 25 , 1950 , ten divisions of North Koreas Korean People 's Army ( KPA ) launched a full @-@ scale invasion on the nation 's neighbor to the south , the Republic of Korea . The force of 89 @,@ 000 men moved in six columns , catching the Republic of Korea Army by surprise , resulting in a complete rout . The smaller South Korean army suffered from widespread lack of organization and equipment , and it was unprepared for war . Numerically superior , North Korean forces destroyed isolated resistance from the 38 @,@ 000 South Korean soldiers on the front before it began moving steadily south . Most of South Korea 's forces retreated in the face of the invasion . By June 28 , the North Koreans had captured South Korea 's capital of Seoul , forcing the government and its shattered army to retreat further south .
To prevent South Korea 's complete collapse , the United Nations Security Council voted to send military forces . The United States ' Seventh Fleet dispatched Task Force 77 , led by the fleet carrier USS Valley Forge ; the British Far East Fleet also dispatched several ships , including HMS Triumph , to provide air and naval support . Although the navies blockaded North Korea and launched aircraft to delay the North Korean forces , these efforts alone did not stop the North Korean Army juggernaut on its southern advance . To supplement the air support , US President Harry S. Truman ordered ground troops into the country . Although the Eighth United States Army 's US 24th Infantry Division was in Japan and was available to respond to the situation , cuts in military spending after the end of World War II meant that the overall strength of the US military in the Far East was limited and the division itself was understrength and operating outmoded equipment . Nevertheless , the division was ordered into Korea .
The 24th Infantry Division was the first US unit sent into Korea with the mission to take the initial " shock " of North Korean advances alongside the South Korean army , delaying much larger North Korean units to buy time to allow UN reinforcements to arrive . The division was consequently alone for several weeks as it attempted to delay the North Koreans while the 7th Infantry Division , 25th Infantry Division , 1st Cavalry Division , and other Eighth Army supporting units moved into position . On July 5 , during the first battle between American and North Korean forces , advance elements of the 24th Infantry Division were badly defeated at Osan . Over the course of the following month , the 24th Infantry Division was repeatedly defeated and forced south by the stronger and more heavily equipped North Koreans . During this time heavy fighting occurred around Chochiwon , Chonan , and Pyongtaek before the 24th Infantry Division made a final stand at Taejon . Although they were almost completely destroyed in the fighting , the US troops were able to delay North Korean advance until July 20 , by which time the Pusan Perimeter had been established . With UN units arriving every day , the Eighth Army was able to build up a force of combat troops that were roughly equal to North Korean forces attacking the region .
= = = North Korean advance = = =
With Taejon captured , North Korean forces began the effort of surrounding the Pusan Perimeter from all sides in an attempt to envelop it . The North Korean 4th Infantry Division and the North Korean 6th Infantry Division advanced south in a wide coordinated maneuver that was aimed at the UN 's left flank . Advancing on UN positions , they repeatedly forced US and South Korean forces to withdraw . Although they were steadily pushed back , South Korean forces increased their resistance further south in an effort to delay North Korean units as much as possible . North and South Korean units sparred for control of several cities , inflicting heavy casualties on one another . The Republic of Korea Army forces defended Yongdok fiercely before being forced back . They also performed well in the Battle of Andong , where they were successful in repelling North Korean advances .
In the west , US forces were pushed back repeatedly before finally halting the North Korean advance . Forces from the 3rd Battalion , 29th Infantry Regiment , newly arrived in the country , were wiped out at Hadong in a coordinated ambush by North Korean forces on July 27 , leaving open a pass to the Pusan area . Soon after , Chinju to the west was taken , pushing the 19th Infantry Regiment back and leaving routes to the Pusan open for North Korean forces . US units were subsequently able to defeat and push back the North Koreans on the flank in the Battle of the Notch on August 2 . Suffering mounting losses , the North Korean force on the west flank withdrew for several days to re @-@ equip and receive reinforcements . This granted both sides several days of reprieve to prepare for the attack on the Pusan Perimeter .
= = United Nations logistics = =
On July 1 , the US Far East Command directed the Eighth United States Army to assume responsibility for all logistical support of the United Nations Command ( UNC ) in Korea . This included the ROK Army , US Army and British Army forces operating in Korea . It also included support for the ships of Australia , Canada , New Zealand and the Netherlands which were also contributing to the effort . When the Eighth Army became operational in Korea , this logistical function was assumed by Eighth Army Rear which remained behind in Yokohama , Japan . This dual role of the Eighth Army — that of combat in Korea and of logistical support for all troops fighting there — led to the designation of that part of the army in Korea as Eighth United States Army in Korea . This situation existed until August 25 . On that date the Far East Command activated the Japan Logistical Command with Major General Walter L. Weible in command . It took over the logistical duties previously held by Eighth Army Rear . It also assumed responsibility of the movement of refugees and prisoners of war .
The supplies needed to support the American and South Korean armies came through the United States and Japan . Whatever could be obtained from stocks in Japan or procured from Japanese manufacturers was obtained there . In early July 1950 , Japanese manufacturers began making antitank mines and on July 18 a shipment of 3 @,@ 000 of them arrived by boat at Pusan . The equipment and ordnance supplies that was available to the United States forces in Korea in the first months of the war was largely due to the " roll @-@ up " plan of the Far East Command which had been in effect for some time before the outbreak of hostilities . It called for the reclamation of ordnance items from World War II in the US Pacific island outposts and their repair or reconstruction in Japan . This plan had been conceived and started in 1948 by Brigadier General Urban Niblo , the senior Ordnance Officer of the Far East Command . During July and August 1950 an average of 4 @,@ 000 automotive vehicles cleared through the ordnance repair shops each month ; in the year after the outbreak of the Korean War more than 46 @,@ 000 automotive vehicles were repaired or rebuilt in Japan .
= = = Challenges = = =
The re @-@ equipping of the ROK Army presented the UN forces with a large logistical problem in July . To meet part of the requirements , the US command contracted Japanese manufacturers in August to produce 68 @,@ 000 vehicles for the ROK Army , mostly cargo and dump trucks , with first deliveries to be made in September . However , the largest challenge faced by UN forces was a shortage of ammunition . At the outbreak of the war and up until the Pusan Perimeter engagements , the UNC 's forces had to rely mainly upon stock of World War II surplus ammunition . Much of this malfunctioned or no longer worked , indeed in some cases up to 60 percent did not work , and as a result ammunition , particularly for crew @-@ served weapons , was frequently in short supply . From the outset , High Explosive Anti Tank ammunition was particularly scarce , but this changed as US and Japanese manufacturers increased production to meet wartime needs , as a part of the Far East Command 's " Operation Rebuild " . By August 1950 this operation had assumed gigantic proportions and before the end of 1950 it had expanded to employ 19 @,@ 908 people in eight Japanese shops . Through these efforts , UNC logistics situations improved over time , but nevertheless ammunition remained in short supply for much of the war .
Another issue that strained the UN logistics system was the lack of a previously drafted resupply plan . Consumption rates differed among the various units and as a result of a lack of coordination , some UN units faced supply shortages when other units would request more material than they actually needed . In order to rectify this situation UN logisticians were forced to hastily create a plan as the need arose .
The lack of armor available was also a serious issue of the UNC . In order to meet the demand , a variety of armored old platforms were hastily rebuilt and modified for movement into the Pusan Perimeter . M4A3 Sherman medium tanks ( preferably the most advanced model , the M4A3E8 ( 76 ) W HVSS Sherman ) from World War II were pulled from stocks and rebuilt for use in Korea . M15A1 Half @-@ tracks were also rebuilt and modified for use in Korea . During early engagements , the M24 Chaffee light tank was the primary armored vehicle used by the Americans because it was most readily available and most combat @-@ ready ; nevertheless , it performed poorly against heavier North Korean armor . All of these weapons had been used in World War II and were considered in poor condition . The appearance of the North Korean T @-@ 34 tanks forced the US to move large numbers of heavier , more powerful tanks into the battle . During August , six tank battalions , with around 69 tanks each , arrived at Pusan . By the end of the month there were more than 500 UN tanks assembled there . Most were M4A3E8 Shermans , and the bigger M26 Pershing heavy tanks , although a limited number of the new M46 Patton tanks were also moved into the perimeter .
On July 9 , the US 2nd Infantry Division , with several armor and antiaircraft artillery units , was ordered to proceed to the Far East . The next day , MacArthur requested that the 2nd Division be brought to full war strength , if possible , without delaying its departure . He also reiterated his need of the units required to bring the four infantry divisions already in the Far East to full war strength . He detailed these as four heavy tank battalions , 12 heavy tank companies , 11 infantry battalions , 11 field artillery battalions , and four antiaircraft automatic weapons battalions per division . By August 7 , the US 9th Infantry Regiment was operational in Korea , and had been sent to the Naktong Bulge area . However it would be the end of the month before the rest of the 2nd Infantry Division arrived in Korea .
After World War II , the Army developed the Mobile Army Surgical Hospital ( MASH ) concept from experiences in the European Theater . The US Army sought a highly mobile hospital unit which could be as close to the fighting as possible to increase the survival rate of casualties . These 60 @-@ bed , 124 @-@ man units would act as mobile hospitals for the treatment of wounded . By the beginning of the hostilities in Korea , all MASH units were undermanned and the difficult terrain in Korea prevented easy transport , making it very difficult for the MASH units to operate in the Pusan Perimeter battle . The 8055th MASH was the first such unit to arrive in Korea , being assigned to the 24th Infantry Division on July 9 . Two more hospitals , the 8063rd and 8067th , would join the UN forces in the Pusan Perimeter fighting . The MASH units were routinely overwhelmed with patients due to shortages of transport , often receiving between 150 and 200 per day , although sometimes the number was high as 400 . The units operated on men that were too critical to be transported . Those who could be moved or could not be treated in the MASH were taken by air or sea to US Army hospitals in Japan depending on the severity of their injuries .
Sustenance for the UN troops in Korea was among the other logistical challenges confronting the UN in the early days of the war . There were no C rations in Korea and only a small reserve in Japan at the outbreak of the war . The Quartermaster General of the United States Army immediately began moving all available C rations and 5 @-@ in @-@ 1 B rations from the United States to the Far East . Field rations at first were largely World War II K rations . The UN had to rely on much of the US stock of World War II @-@ era material for much of this phase of the war . Provisioning of the ROK troops was an equally important and difficult problem . The regular issue ration to ROK troops was rice or barley and fish . It consisted of about 29 ounces ( 820 g ) of rice or barley , one half pound of biscuit , and one half pound of canned fish with spices . Often the cooked rice , made into balls and wrapped in cabbage leaves , was sour when it reached the combat troops on the line , and frequently it did not arrive at all . Occasionally , local purchase of foods on a basis of 200 Won ( $ 0 @.@ 05 USD ) per day per man supplemented the issued ration . An improved ROK ration consisting of three menus , one for each daily meal , was ready in September 1950 . It provided 3 @,@ 210 calories , weighed 2 @.@ 3 pounds ( 1 @.@ 0 kg ) , and consisted of rice starch , biscuits , rice cake , peas , kelp , fish , chewing gum , and condiments , and was packed in a waterproofed bag . With slight changes , this ration was found acceptable to the ROK troops and quickly put into production . It became the standard ration for them during the first year of the war .
= = = Air resupply = = =
An emergency airlift of critically needed items began almost immediately from the United States to the Far East . The Military Air Transport Service ( MATS ) , Pacific Division , expanded rapidly after the outbreak of the war . The Pacific airlift was further expanded by the charter of civil airlines planes . The Canadian Government lent the United Nations a Royal Canadian Air Force squadron of six transports , while the Belgian Government added several DC @-@ 4s to the effort . Altogether , the fleet of about 60 four @-@ engine transport planes operating across the Pacific before June 25 , 1950 , was quickly expanded to approximately 250 . In addition to these , there were MATS C @-@ 74 Globemaster and C @-@ 97 Stratofreighter planes operating between the United States and Hawaii .
The Pacific airlift to Korea operated from the United States over three routes . These were commonly known as the " Great Circle " by pilots . One route left from McChord Air Force Base in Tacoma , Washington , and transited through Anchorage , Alaska , and Shemya in the Aleutians before finishing at Tokyo . This represented a distance of 5 @,@ 688 miles ( 9 @,@ 154 km ) and a flying time of between 30 and 33 hours . A second route was the Mid @-@ Pacific . This departed from Travis Air Force Base near San Francisco , California , and passed through Honolulu and Wake Island before arriving in Tokyo ; the trip was 6 @,@ 718 miles ( 10 @,@ 812 km ) and took 34 hours to complete . A third route was from California through Honolulu , and Johnston , Kwajalein , and Guam Islands to Tokyo : a distance of about 8 @,@ 000 miles ( 13 @,@ 000 km ) and a flying time of 40 hours . The airlift moved about 106 tonnes ( 104 long tons ; 117 short tons ) a day in July 1950 . From Japan most of the air shipments to Korea were staged at Ashiya or at the nearby secondary airfields of Itazuke Air Base and Brady Air Base .
The consumption of aviation gasoline during combat and resupply operations was so great in the early phase of the war , taxing the very limited supply available in the Far East , that it became one of the more serious logistical problems facing UN planners . Ocean tankers could rarely keep pace with the rate of consumption . Although the situation never forced the UN to halt its air operations , on several occasion the situation became quite dire , and was only rectified by the rapid procurement of supplies from Japan . On a number of occasions throughout the war , the demand of military consumption had the effect of leaving Japanese gas stations with no fuel to sell to the public .
The airlift of critically needed items from the United States tapered off at the end of July as surface transportation began to meet requirements . Some items such as the new 3 @.@ 5 @-@ inch rocket were still being carried largely by airlift , 900 of them being scheduled daily for air delivery to Korea during August . The new 5 @-@ inch " shaped charge " rockets for Navy fighter planes , developed at the Navy 's Inyokern , California , Ordnance Test Station , were at first delivered to Korea entirely by air . On July 29 , a special Air Force plane picked up the first 200 warheads from Inyokern for delivery to the Far East .
After the first weeks of the war , steps were taken to reduce the necessity for the large number of airlifts to Korea from Japan . By July 15 , Eighth Army was provided a daily ferry service from the Hakata @-@ Moji area to Pusan , along with fast express trains from the Tokyo – Yokohama area . Accordingly , a Red Ball Express @-@ type system was organized . It had a daily capacity of 300 tonnes ( 300 long tons ; 330 short tons ) of items and supplies that were critically needed in Korea . The Red Ball made the run from Yokohama to Sasebo in a little more than 30 hours , and to Pusan in a total of about 53 hours . The first Red Ball Express train with high priority cargo left Yokohama at 1330 on July 23 . Regular daily runs became effective two days later . The schedule called for the Red Ball to depart Yokohama at 2330 nightly and arrive at Sasebo at 0542 the next morning . From there , the cargo would be transferred directly from train to ship . Ship departure was scheduled for 1330 daily and arrival at Pusan at 0400 the next morning .
The daily rail and water Red Ball Express from Yokohama to Sasebo to Pusan began on July 23 . By August it was operating with increased efficiency , demonstrating that it could promptly deliver any supplies available in Japan to Korea . On August 5 , for example , it delivered 308 tonnes ( 303 long tons ; 340 short tons ) ; on August 9 , 403 tonnes ( 397 long tons ; 444 short tons ) ; on August 22 , 574 tonnes ( 565 long tons ; 633 short tons ) ; and on August 25 , 949 tonnes ( 934 long tons ; 1 @,@ 046 short tons ) . The success of the Red Ball Express cut down the amount of airlift tonnage . This fell from 85 tonnes ( 84 long tons ; 94 short tons ) on July 31 to 49 tonnes ( 48 long tons ; 54 short tons ) on August 6 . The express eliminated the need for nearly all airlift of supplies to Korea from Japan . It delivered supplies to Korea in an average time of 60 – 70 hours , while the airlift delivery varied from 12 hours to 5 days . The Red Ball delivery was not only more cost effective , it was more consistent and reliable .
The drop in air delivery to Korea caused Major General Earle E. Partridge , commanding the Far East Air Forces , to complain on August 10 that the Army was not fully using the airlift 's 200 tonnes ( 200 long tons ; 220 short tons ) daily capacity . That day , Eighth Army ordered curtailment of delivery by the Red Ball Express and increased use of the airlift to its maximum capacity . The reason given for this action was a sudden apprehension that the port of Pusan could not process the flow of water @-@ borne supplies in a timely manner . The next day , upon Partridge 's suggestion , two 2 @.@ 5 tonnes ( 2 @.@ 5 long tons ; 2 @.@ 8 short tons ) trucks were airlifted in a C @-@ 119 from Tachikawa Air Base in Japan to Taegu . The Air Force planned to airlift two trucks daily in this manner . As a result , on August 12 , Eighth Army ordered the Red Ball Express be discontinued August 15 except on Tuesday and Friday of each week when it would carry cargo that was considered too difficult for the planes to handle . Under this arrangement airlift tonnage greatly increased . On August 16 , transport planes carried 324 tonnes ( 319 long tons ; 357 short tons ) of cargo and 595 passengers ; on August 19 , 160 tonnes ( 160 long tons ; 180 short tons ) of cargo and 381 passengers ; on 28 August , 398 tonnes ( 392 long tons ; 439 short tons ) of cargo and 343 passengers ; and , on August 29 , 326 tonnes ( 321 long tons ; 359 short tons ) of cargo and 347 passengers .
= = = Sea resupply = = =
The majority of resupply by sea was conducted by cargo ships of the US Army and US Navy . The massive demand for ships forced the UN Command to charter private ships and bring ships out of the reserve fleet to augment the military vessels in service . The UN had a major advantage in its sealift operations in that the most developed port in Korea was Pusan which was at the southeastern tip of the peninsula . Pusan was the only port in South Korea that had dock facilities large enough to handle a sizable amount of cargo . Its four piers and intervening quays could berth 24 or more deepwater ships , and its beaches provided space for the unloading of 14 Landing Ship Tank ( LST ) vessels , giving the port a potential capacity of 45 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 44 @,@ 000 long tons ; 50 @,@ 000 short tons ) daily . Seldom , however , did the daily discharge of cargo exceed 14 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 14 @,@ 000 long tons ; 15 @,@ 000 short tons ) because of a lack of skilled labor , large cranes , rail cars , and trucks .
The distance in nautical miles from the principal Japanese ports to Pusan varied depending on which Japanese port ships embarked from . It was 110 nautical miles ( 200 km ; 130 mi ) from Fukuoka , 123 nautical miles ( 228 km ; 142 mi ) from Moji , 130 nautical miles ( 240 km ; 150 mi ) from Sasebo , 361 nautical miles ( 669 km ; 415 mi ) from Kobe , and 900 nautical miles ( 1 @,@ 700 km ; 1 @,@ 000 mi ) from Yokohama via the Bungo @-@ Suido strait . The sea trip from the west coast of the United States to Pusan for personnel movement required about 16 days ; the trip for heavy equipment and supplies on slower shipping schedules took longer .
During the month of July 1950 , a total of 309 @,@ 314 tonnes ( 304 @,@ 429 long tons ; 340 @,@ 960 short tons ) of supplies and equipment were off @-@ loaded at Pusan , at a rate of about 10 @,@ 666 tonnes ( 10 @,@ 498 long tons ; 11 @,@ 757 short tons ) per day . The first heavy lift cranes arrived on July 23 . A 60 tonnes ( 59 long tons ; 66 short tons ) crane and two crawler cranes , towed 900 miles ( 1 @,@ 400 km ) from Yokohama . Not until the first week of August did a 100 tonnes ( 98 long tons ; 110 short tons ) crane reach Pusan . In the last half of July , 230 ships arrived and 214 departed Pusan harbor . During this period , 42 @,@ 581 troops , 9 @,@ 454 vehicles , and 88 @,@ 888 long tons ( 90 @,@ 314 t ) of supplies came ashore there . Subordinate ports of Ulsan and Suyong unloaded ammunition and petroleum products over the beaches from barges , tankers , and LCMs .
= = = Movement to the front lines = = =
From Pusan a good railroad system built by the Japanese and well ballasted with crushed rock and river gravel extended northward . Subordinate rail lines ran westward along the south coast through Masan and Chinju and northeast near the east coast to P 'ohang @-@ dong . There the eastern line turned inland through the east @-@ central Taebaek Mountains area . The railroads were the backbone of the UN transportation system in Korea .
The 20 @,@ 000 miles ( 32 @,@ 000 km ) of Korean vehicular roads were all of a secondary nature as measured by American or European standards . Even the best of them were narrow , poorly drained , and surfaced only with gravel or rocks broken laboriously by hand , and worked into the dirt roadbed by the traffic passing over . The highest classification placed on any appreciable length of road in Korea by Eighth Army engineers was for a gravel or crushed rock road with gentle grades and curves and one and a half to two lanes wide . According to engineer specifications there were no two @-@ lane roads , 22 feet ( 6 @.@ 7 m ) wide , in Korea . The average width of the best roads was 18 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) with numerous bottlenecks at narrow bridges and bypasses where the width narrowed to 11 – 13 feet ( 3 @.@ 4 – 4 @.@ 0 m ) . Often even on these roads there were short stretches having sharp curves and grades up to 15 percent . The Korean road traffic was predominately by oxcart . The road net , like the rail net , was principally north – south , with a few lateral east – west connecting roads .
US Army logistics units worked continuously during July to organize the train movements from Pusan toward the rail @-@ heads at the front . By July 18 they had established a regular daily schedule of supply trains over two routes , the main Pusan – Taegu – Kumch 'on line with a branch line from Kumch 'on to Hamch 'ang ; and the Pusan – Kyongju – Andong single track line up the east coast with a branch line from Kyongju to P 'ohang @-@ dong . As the battle front moved swiftly southward , trains after the end of July did not run beyond Taegu and P 'ohang @-@ dong . After the North Korean threat developed in the Masan region , a supply train ran daily from Pusan to that city . On July 1 the UN Command controlled 1 @,@ 404 miles ( 2 @,@ 260 km ) of rail track in South Korea . By August this had shrunk to 431 miles ( 694 km ) of track .
In July , 350 mixed trains moved from Pusan toward the front . These included 2 @,@ 313 freight cars loaded with 69 @,@ 390 short tons ( 62 @,@ 950 t ) of supplies . Also leaving Pusan for the front were 71 personnel trains carrying military units and replacements . Among the trains returning to Pusan from the forward area were 38 hospital trains carrying 2 @,@ 581 patients , and 158 freight cars loaded largely with personal belongings taken by unit commanders from their men in trying to strip them down to only combat needs . Since the Korean railroads had been built by Japan , repair and replacement items could be borrowed from the Japanese National Railways and airlifted to Korea within a very short time after the need for them became known . One of the largest and most important of rail purchases in Japan for use in Korea was 25 standard @-@ gauge locomotives . By August 1 the ROK National Police was responsible for protecting all rail bridges and tunnels . Armed guards , their number varying with the importance of the structures , were stationed at each of them .
Occasionally , guerrillas would attack trains in rear areas of the Pusan Perimeter , usually in the Yongch 'on – Kyongju area in the east or along the lower Naktong in the Samnangjin area . These attacks generally resulted in small numbers of UN casualties and minor damage to rail equipment . The most successful guerrilla attack behind the lines of the Pusan Perimeter occurred on August 11 against a VHF radio relay station on Hill 915 , 8 miles ( 13 km ) south of Taegu . A guerrilla force , estimated at 100 men attacked at 05 : 15 , drove off the ROK police and set fire to the buildings . American casualties were two killed , two wounded , and three missing . When a ROK police force reoccupied the area later in the day the guerrillas had pulled back .
In August the UN also began using Korean civilians with A @-@ frames as cargo carriers to move supplies up through the mountains to the front lines . This method of transport proved both cheaper and more efficient than using pack animals . American units obtained the civilian carriers through arrangements with the ROK Army . Soon the American divisions were using Korean labor for nearly all unskilled work , at an average of about 500 laborers and carriers to a division .
= = North Korean logistics = =
The responsibility of the North Korean logistics was divided between the Ministry of National Defense ( MND ) , led by Marshal Choe Yong Gun , and the NKPA Rear Service Department , commanded by General Choe Hong Kup . The MND was mainly responsible for railroad transportation and supply procurement , while the Rear Service Department was responsible for road transportation . The North Koreans relied on a logistical system which was very lean and substantially smaller than the United Nations ' system . This logistics network was therefore capable of moving far fewer supplies , and this caused considerable difficulty for front line troops . Based on the efficient Soviet model , this ground @-@ based network relied primarily on railroads to transport supplies to the front lines while troops transported those items onto the individual units on foot , trucks , or carts . This second effort , though more versatile , was also a substantial disadvantage because it was less efficient and often too slow to follow the moving front @-@ line units .
= = = Challenges = = =
In mid @-@ July , the UN Far East Air Force ( FEAF ) Bomber Command began a steady and increasing attack on strategic North Korean logistics targets behind the front lines . The first of these targets was Wonsan on the east coast . Wonsan was important as a communications center that linked Vladivostok , Siberia with North Korea by rail and sea . From it , rail lines ran to all the North Korean build @-@ up centers . The great bulk of Soviet supplies for North Korea in the early part of the war came in at Wonsan , and from the beginning it was considered a major military target . In the first heavy strategic bombing of the war , the FEAF hit the port city on July 13 with 400 tonnes ( 390 long tons ; 440 short tons ) of demolition bombs . Three days later , 30 B @-@ 29 bombers struck the railroad marshaling yards at Seoul , another major staging area for North Korean supplies .
UN bombers immediately targeted the pontoon bridge across the Han River at Seoul which was a main line of supply to the Pusan battlefield , and to destroy the repaired railroad bridge there . Several attempts in July by B @-@ 29s to destroy the rail bridge failed , but on July 29 , 12 bombers succeeded in hitting the pontoon bridge and reported it as having been destroyed . The next day , 47 B @-@ 29s bombed the Chosen Nitrogen Plant at Hungnam on the northeast coast . In the meantime , carrier @-@ based planes from the USS Valley Forge , which was operating in the Yellow Sea , destroyed six locomotives , exploded 18 cars of a 33 @-@ car train , and damaged a combination highway and rail bridge at Haeju on July 22 .
By July 27 , the FEAF Bomber Command had a comprehensive rail interdiction plan ready . This plan sought to cut the flow of North Korean troops and materiel from North Korea to the combat area . Two cut points , the P 'yong @-@ yang railroad bridge and marshaling yards and the Hamhung bridge and Hamhung and Wonsan marshaling yards would almost completely sever North Korea 's rail logistics network . Destruction of the rail bridges over the Han near Seoul would cut rail communication to the Pusan Perimeter area . On July 28 the Far East Air Forces gave a list of targets in the rail interdiction program to the Bomber Command , and two days later a similar plan was ready for interdiction of highways . On August 3 , the FEAF issued lists of targets for coordinated interdiction attacks south of the 38th Parallel to the Fifth Air Force and to the Navy . In general , the Han River divided the Fifth Air Force and FEAF Bomber Command zones .
On August 4 , the FEAF began B @-@ 29 interdiction attacks against all key bridges north of the 37th Parallel in Korea , and on August 15 some light bombers and fighter @-@ bombers joined in the interdiction campaign . This campaign sought the destruction of 32 rail and highway bridges on the three main transportation routes across Korea : the line from Sinanju south to P 'yongyang and northeast to Wonsan on the east coast ; the line just below the 38th Parallel from Munsan @-@ ni through Seoul to Ch 'unch 'on to Chumunjin @-@ up on the east coast ; and the line from Seoul south to Choch 'iwon and east to Wonju to Samch 'ok on the east coast . The interdiction campaign marked nine rail yards , including those at Seoul , P 'yongyang , and Wonsan , for attack , and the ports of Inch 'on and Wonsan to be mined . This interdiction program , if effectively executed , would slow and perhaps critically disrupt the movement of North Korean supplies along the main routes south to the battlefront .
The US Air Force B @-@ 29s bombed and largely destroyed the P 'yongyang Army Arsenal and the P 'yongyang railroad yards on August 7 . They bombed and completely destroyed the large Chosen petroleum refinery at Wonsan on August 7 , 9 , and 10 . This plant , with its estimated capacity of 250 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 250 @,@ 000 long tons ; 280 @,@ 000 short tons ) , annually produced approximately 93 percent of the North Korean petroleum products . Throughout the month the US Air Force bombed the chemical complex in the Hungnam area , the largest in Asia , dropping 1 @,@ 761 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 733 long tons ; 1 @,@ 941 short tons ) of bombs there in the period between July 30 and September 19 . It bombed the Najin docks only 17 miles ( 27 km ) south of the Siberian border and 10 miles ( 16 km ) from Vladivostok . Najin was an important port of entry for vessels carrying supplies from Vladivostok and it was also a rail center . The bombers struck the metal @-@ working industry at Songjin with 326 tonnes ( 321 long tons ; 359 short tons ) of bombs on August 28 , and three days later they heavily damaged the aluminum and magnesium plants at Chinnamp 'o with 284 tonnes ( 280 long tons ; 313 short tons ) of bombs .
= = = Land resupply = = =
North Korea 's lack of large airstrips and aircraft meant it conducted only minimal air resupply , mostly critical items being imported from China . Other than this , however , aircraft played almost no role in North Korean logistics . The North Koreans were also not able to effectively use sea transport to their advantage . Ports in Wonsan and Hungnam could be used for the transport of some troops and supplies , but they remained far too underdeveloped to support any large @-@ scale logistical movements , and the port of Inchon in the south was difficult to navigate with large numbers of ships . The interior of Korea also lacked navigable waterways , as the shallow streams and rivers did not provide for the movement of large ships . These rivers would only be of local importance to battles . The North Koreans tried on several occasions to resupply their units by sea or conduct amphibious operations at the outbreak of the war but each time were decisively defeated . At engagements such as the Battle of Pusan and the Battle of Chumonchin Chan the UN naval blockade was effective in halting almost all North Korean naval activity .
This meant the railroads and highways in Korea took central prominence to North Korean resupply . The North Koreans were given supplies by both China and the Soviet Union , neither of whom were committed to the war at this point , and did not commit combat troops directly . They fed supplies into North Korea through six rail lines , five from Manchuria and one from Siberia . China in particular had an extensive rail network and thousands of locomotives . The railroads had the capacity to send up to 17 @,@ 500 tonnes ( 17 @,@ 200 long tons ; 19 @,@ 300 short tons ) of supplies into North Korea per day . The full amount of supplies that were actually sent to North Korea at this phase of the war is unclear , but historians suggest that even at the height of the war and Chinese involvement the supplies did not increase beyond 13 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 13 @,@ 000 long tons ; 14 @,@ 000 short tons ) per day . However the railroads were primarily oriented on north – south routes , making resupply from east to west difficult .
North Korean logistics held much more substantial facilities for their railroad system , which were based in Seoul . However , they also did not have the benefit of buying replacement and repair parts from Japan , and consequently their railroads were in much worse condition than those held by the UN . They controlled the bulk of Korea 's 3 @,@ 000 miles ( 4 @,@ 800 km ) of railroad . They also controlled most of the 1 @,@ 500 locomotives and 9 @,@ 000 rail cars on the peninsula , though the majority of these were not serviceable during the fight .
Seoul was also the focal point of Korea 's highway network . It also had several crucial connection points to the Soviet Union and China , but it was not designed for military traffic and the weather conditions made travel on the roads difficult . Overall the roads into Korea provided only 48 percent of the capacity of the railroads .
= = = Movement to the front lines = = =
The supremacy of the Fifth Air Force in the skies over Korea forced the North Koreans in the first month of the war to resort to night movement of supplies to the battle area . They relied primarily on railroads to move supplies to the front , however a shortage of trucks posed the most serious problem of getting supplies from the trains to individual units , forcing them to rely on carts and pack animals .
Since capturing Seoul , the North Koreans had built two pontoon bridges over the Han , one north and one south of the main rail and highway bridges . They had also started a new railroad bridge north of the old triple bridge group . The steel cantilever railroad bridge on the west still stood despite Far East Air Forces attempts to destroy it . For almost four weeks the Air Force bombed this bridge daily using bombs with fuze settings that were intended to damage both the superstructure and the abutments . On August 19 , nine B @-@ 29s of the 19th Bombardment Group dropped 54 tonnes ( 53 long tons ; 60 short tons ) of bombs on the bridge , but it still stood . The same day , Navy carrier @-@ based planes attacked the bridge , scoring eight direct hits , and brought it down .
Attacks against the Han River pontoon bridges at Seoul do not seem to have been successful until FEAF ordered the Bomber Command to lay delayed action bombs alongside the bridges on August 27 , set to detonate at night . This method of attack seems to have caused such heavy casualties among the North Korean labor force trying to keep the pontoons in repair that they finally abandoned the effort . These bridges remained unfinished when the UN forces recaptured Seoul later in the year .
The North Korean People 's Army was able to maintain transport to its front lines over long lines of communications despite heavy and constant air attacks . The United Nations air effort failed to halt military rail transport . Ammunition and motor fuel , which took precedence over all other types of supply , continued to arrive at the front , though in smaller amounts than before . There was still a considerable resupply of heavy weapons , such as tanks , artillery , and mortars , at the front in early September , although a steady decline in artillery can be traced from the middle of August . There was a sufficient supply of small arms ammunition , but a shortage of small arms themselves became apparent by mid @-@ August and continued to worsen with each passing week . Rear areas were able to fill only about one third of the requisitions from the front for small arms in mid @-@ August and resupply ceased entirely about the middle of September . New trucks were almost impossible to obtain . There was no resupply of clothing . At best there were rations for only one or two meals a day . Most units had to live at least partially off the South Korean populace , scavenging for food and supplies at night . By September 1 the food situation was so bad in the North Korean Army at the front that most of the soldiers showed a loss of stamina with resulting impaired combat effectiveness . At the same time , seriously wounded North Korean soldiers were often not transported to the rear for medical services , and many died while stranded on the front line .
The inefficiency of North Korean logistics remained a fatal weakness of the North Korean Army , costing it crucial defeats after an initial success with combat forces . The North Koreans ' communications and supply were not capable of exploiting a breakthrough and of supporting a continuing attack in the face of massive air , armor , and artillery fire that could be concentrated against its troops at critical points .
Several units lost crucially needed supply lines in the middle of their offensives , particularly when crossing the Naktong River which had few stable bridges remaining . The NK 3rd Division stopped receiving food and ammunition supply as it pushed on Taegu in mid @-@ August , forcing one of its regiments to withdraw from the captured Triangulation Hill . At Naktong Bulge , the NK 4th Division was able to establish a raft system for moving supplies across the river , but it still suffered serious food , ammunition , weapon , and equipment shortages after its August 5 crossing . It was also eventually turned back due to supply problems . The situation was most dire for units in the east , where rugged and mountainous terrain already posed a logistical challenge . The NK 5th Division and NK 12th Division attacking P 'ohang @-@ dong stopped receiving all food and ammunition supply between August 12 and August 20 , a key factor in their defeat there . In some instances , desperate North Korean units forced South Korean populations to carry their supplies for them . North Korean units had advanced too far too quickly , and their logistical system , stretched beyond its limit , collapsed at a key point in the war . Morale remained high for many units despite the lack of supplies . North Korean units instead turned to foraging for what they could find in the countryside or raiding UN supplies . Small guerrilla units , such as the NK 766th Infantry Regiment , could do this effectively .
= = Conclusions = =
Historians contend that for the UN and North Korea , locked in a bitter battle where neither could gain the upper hand , logistics was among the most important determining factors in how the war would progress . As the disparity in logistics capability widened between the UN and North Korean forces , the well @-@ supported UN troops were able to hold their positions along the Pusan Perimeter , while the morale and the fighting quality of NKPA deteriorated as resupplies became increasingly unreliable . This trend ultimately culminated in the UN recapturing Seoul , the key logistics center of the battle , and the collapse of the North Korean logistics system with the entire NKPA .
As the battle for Pusan Perimeter wore on , logistics took an increasingly important toll on the outcome of individual engagements . UN units faced the challenge of re @-@ equipping the ROK Army and supporting a massive force of troops in a large @-@ scale war that it had not anticipated or planned for . Still , historians have praised US Army logistics planners for the way that they were able to organize a working logistics system for the UN forces in the battle . Upon the outbreak of the war , the United States had an overwhelming advantage in materiel which had been left behind from World War II , and it relied on this to supply units in the first crucial days while new materiel was produced and shipped into the theater . Air superiority was another critical advantage in the favor of the UN . A number of UN contributing nations provided large air forces so that materiel could be transported quickly . At the same time , US Army planners established Pusan port as the main port for supply delivery . The UN also had a great advantage in the port of Pusan itself as it was the most developed port in Korea and as a consequence had the capacity for large numbers of ships to offload supplies . With a large transcontinental navy and strong economic base in Japan , the UN forces were able to utilize the port effectively . These advantages ensured that UN forces had mostly stable lines of supply for the entirety of the battle .
North Korean troops had the advantage of planning the invasion in advance and organizing a pre @-@ set logistics network , but they were not able to keep this logistics network running efficiently . Their largest disadvantage was the successful large @-@ scale UN interdiction effort , as North Korean supplies and supply lines were subjected to UN bombing raids . This effort was not successful in stopping the North Korean supplies , and the North Koreans have also been praised by historians for the way in which they were able to maintain a supply network in the face of a massive bombing campaign . However , the North Koreans did suffer reduced supply because of this , and inefficiencies in transporting supplies from railroads to individual units negated the railroads ' advantage . North Korean forces , though initially successful , were unable to counter UN forces with effective air defense , and were also unable to conduct successful interdiction of their own . This meant their supply network limited the combat actions that they could undertake ; logistics could not keep up with units on the offensive , and North Korean units went almost completely unsupported during key engagements , reducing their ability to fight effectively . North Korean logistical inefficiency prevented them from overwhelming UN units in the Pusan Perimeter and enabled the defending UN troops to hold on long enough for a counterattack to be launched at Inchon . This landing , coming behind North Korean lines , had the effect of collapsing the North Korean front and ultimately ended the battle around Pusan in September .
= Pawn Hearts =
Pawn Hearts is the fourth album by English progressive rock band Van der Graaf Generator , released in October 1971 on Charisma Records . The original album features just three tracks , including the side @-@ long suite " A Plague of Lighthouse Keepers " . The album was not commercially successful in the UK , but reached number one in Italy . It has since seen retrospective critical praise and was reissued on CD in 2005 with extra material .
The songs for the album were worked out while on tour in 1971 , with further development and arranging at manager Tony Stratton @-@ Smith 's house in Crowborough , Sussex over a two @-@ month period . The original plan had been to release more material , making up a double album , but Charisma vetoed the idea . A non @-@ album single , " Theme One " was included on some releases in the US and Canada . The album 's strong commercial showing in Italy resulted in a number of lucrative promotional tours there , but the resulting pressure led to the band 's split in August 1972 .
= = Background = =
By 1971 , Van der Graaf Generator 's line @-@ up had stabilised as frontman and songwriter Peter Hammill , saxophonist David Jackson , organist and bassist Hugh Banton and drummer Guy Evans . The group had been gigging extensively and became close friends after a particularly gruelling tour of Germany . Hammill wrote " A Plague of Lighthouse Keepers " during the tour , and the group began performing " Man @-@ Erg " towards its end . To alleviate the tedium of touring , the group invented games including " Crowborough Tennis " which involved bouncing a ball off a table , a photograph of which was eventually used as the inner sleeve for the album .
Following the tour and in preparation for the album , Hammill invited producer John Anthony to his home , where Hammill played songs intended for the album unaccompanied on acoustic guitar and piano , allowing Anthony to take recording notes . " Man Erg " was written about the conflict between good and evil , represented as " angels " and " killers " in the song . " A Plague of Lighthouse Keepers " was inspired by Hammill 's fascination with the sea , and the narrative is about a lighthouse keeper who keeps seeing people die offshore . He feels guilty about not being able to help , and the song 's ending is left open , leaving the listener to decide if the keeper has committed suicide or rationalised events to live in peace . Banton was against putting " A Plague of Lighthouse Keepers " on the album , wanting more commercial material such as the previous album H to He , Who Am the Only One 's " Killer " , but after a band meeting he agreed to rehearse the song and worked out an arrangement . The group moved to manager Tony Stratton @-@ Smith 's house , Luxford House , Crowborough , Sussex for two months in summer 1971 to rehearse material .
= = Recording = =
Recording ran from July to September 1971 in Trident Studios . In addition to the band and Anthony , Robin Cable , David Hentschel and Ken Scott helped with engineering . The first tracks to be recorded were " Theme One " , a cover of the George Martin composition used as the original closing theme to BBC Radio 1 , and " W " , which was ultimately left off the album . The music , particularly " A Plague of Lighthouse Keepers " was recorded in short sections between two and five minutes , which were later edited together . In addition to Hammill 's original suite , Banton contributed the " Pictures / Lighthouse " section , an Olivier Messiaen @-@ influenced organ piece , Evans wrote " Kosmos Tours " around a short piano riff , and Jackson wrote the music to the closing theme , " We Go Now " . The piece was edited together by Banton and Anthony towards the end of the session . Banton used an effect called a " psychedelic razor " , a customised tape recorder that could rewind and record simultaneously . The device appealed to the band 's sense of humour . At one stage , every tape machine in the studio had to be used for mixing .
The album was originally conceived as a double album similar to Pink Floyd 's Ummagumma . The first half was made up of the album as released , while the second was to be divided between personal projects and live @-@ in @-@ studio versions of older Van der Graaf Generator songs such as " Killer " and " Octopus " . Evans contributed an avant @-@ garde piece , " Angle of Incidents " which featured drums being recorded backwards and the sound of a fluorescent lighting tube being dropped down the studio 's stairs . Jackson recorded " Ponker 's Theme ' " , a short jazz piece , and a longer piece , " Archimedes Agnostic " , with Latin lyrics written by Hammill . Charisma ultimately felt that the group should simply release a single album , and vetoed the live and solo recordings .
The album 's title came from a spoonerism by Jackson , who once said , " I 'll go down to the studio and dub on some more porn harts " , meaning " horn parts " . The cover was designed by regular Charisma album artist Paul Whitehead , who was told by Hammill , " no matter if you 're a king , a pauper or whatever – you 're a pawn " which led to a design containing the earth and a curtain . The inner gatefold picture was taken by Keith Morris and featured the band playing Crowborough Tennis while appearing to give Nazi salutes to each other , though Banton later said this was simply the band attempting to look ridiculous in the vein of Monty Python .
= = Release = =
The album was originally released in October 1971 on Charisma Records . In the US and Canada , the album was distributed via Buddah Records and contained " Theme One " as an extra track between " Lemmings " and " Man @-@ Erg " , which was done without the band 's approval . In Europe , where Pawn Hearts only contained the three tracks , " Theme One " was released as a single in February 1972 , with " W " as its B @-@ side .
When the Van der Graaf Generator catalogue was remastered for reissue in 2005 , several of the tracks from the missing half of the album were found and added as bonus tracks . A live , in @-@ studio version of " Squid / Octopus " was added to the H to He , Who Am the Only One reissue , while the Pawn Hearts reissue added " Angle of Incidents " , " Ponker 's Theme " , and " Diminutions " . The CD also contained the original mix of " Theme One " , which is different to the one released as a single , and an earlier take of " W " . " Theme One " was also released on the 2003 compilation CD The Best Prog Rock Album in the World ... Ever .
= = Reception = =
The album was not commercially successful in the UK . A Record Mirror review said " I have to confess complete ignorance of precisely what Van der Graaf Generator are trying to achieve " , though Melody Maker were more enthusiastic , saying " A Plague of Lighthouse Keepers " is one of the most fascinating and dramatic items I 've ever heard " . However , the album reached number one on the Italian album charts . The group toured Italy to promote the album , where they were treated like superstars and surrounded by army vehicles and riot police . They followed this with a short European tour , during which they filmed a live version of " A Plague of Lighthouse Keepers " for Belgian television . The production took two hours to film as the band had not intended to perform the song live and had forgotten it . The resulting film shows Hammill singing the song while reading a lyric sheet . Regular tours of Europe followed over the next four months , but the strain of the workload became too much for the band , and they split up in August 1972 .
Retrospective reviews have been favourable . Q magazine called the album a " misunderstood masterpiece " while Mojo said it was " one of the most extraordinary albums of its era " . Singer @-@ songwriter Fish is a fan of the album , particularly of " A Plague of Lighthouse Keepers " . Julian Cope has called the album " a masterpiece " . Hammill has said , " although a fairly extreme musical statement , [ the album ] contains some of our most cohesive work " .
Though " Theme One " did not chart as a single in the UK , John Peel replaced Martin 's original orchestral version with the group 's before closing down Radio 1 each night . The BBC subsequently carried on using Van der Graaf Generator 's version . Martin enjoyed the group 's cover , calling it " a powerful recording that respected the original " .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Peter Hammill , except where indicated .
Tracks on 2005 reissue
= = Personnel = =
Hugh Banton – Hammond E & C , Farfisa Professional organs , piano , mellotron , ARP synthesizer , bass pedals , bass guitar , psychedelic razor , vocals
Guy Evans – drums , tympani , percussion , piano
Peter Hammill – lead vocals , acoustic and slide guitar , electric piano , piano
David Jackson – tenor , alto , and soprano saxophones , flute , vocals
Additional personnel
Robert Fripp – electric guitar
John Anthony – production
Robin Cable , David Hentschel , Ken Scott – engineering
Mike and Dave C – tape op
Howard – brighest hope
Paul Whitehead – sleeve design
Keith Morris – inner sleeve photography
= Fundraiser ( The Office ) =
" Fundraiser " is the twenty @-@ second episode of the eighth season of the American comedy television series The Office and the show 's 174th episode overall . The episode originally aired on NBC in the United States on April 26 , 2012 . " Fundraiser " was written by Owen Ellickson and directed by David Rogers . The episode guest stars Andy Buckley and Jack Coleman .
The series — presented as if it were a real documentary — depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania , branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In this episode , Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) crashes a fundraiser and ends up adopting twelve dogs . Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) learns that an auction winner loses money . Nellie ( Catherine Tate ) learns how to eat a taco .
" Fundraiser " received mixed reviews from critics . According to Nielsen Media Research , " Fundraiser " was viewed by an estimated 4 @.@ 17 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 1 rating / 6 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 , making it the lowest @-@ rated season eight episode of The Office to air . The episode ranked third in its timeslot and was also the highest @-@ rated NBC series of the night .
= = Plot = =
Angela 's ( Angela Kinsey ) husband , state Senator Robert Lipton ( Jack Coleman ) , throws a silent auction fundraiser for local animal rights activists and Robert ( James Spader ) buys two tables to seat everyone in the office . Newly fired Andy ( Ed Helms ) arrives and tries to get into an argument with Robert , telling him about a rock opera he has written with the villain being a character named Thomas Oregon . Andy runs into David Wallace , former CFO of Dunder Mifflin , and begins plotting his return to Dunder Mifflin , which later revealed in " Free Family Portrait Studio " , was to convince David to buy Dunder Mifflin back from Sabre , and get the manager position back . Andy interrupts Robert 's speech introducing the senator by volunteering to adopt the twelve dogs brought by the local animal society . Afterwards , members of the office ask if he is having a breakdown , and Andy sadly agrees that he is .
Dwight ( Rainn Wilson ) attends without understanding the concept of a silent auction , believing the purpose of the function is to guess correctly the market price of the objects . By the end of the night , Dwight has put exorbitant amounts on the items and ends up accidentally donating over $ 34 @,@ 000 . He flees when he discovers his mistake . Meanwhile , Nellie ( Catherine Tate ) tries to talk with Darryl ( Craig Robinson ) by complaining about the food . She suggests they get a taco at her expense , offering thirty dollars to Darryl to go out and buy some . Darryl realizes she has no idea what a taco is , but appreciates that " she 's trying " to socialize with her employees .
Oscar ( Oscar Nunez ) talks briefly to Sen. Lipton about animal rights , and Lipton ( who Oscar suspects is gay ) gives Oscar his private cell phone number , asking Oscar to call him in the evening to discuss issues further . Oscar tells Pam ( Jenna Fischer ) and Jim ( John Krasinski ) that the Senator was hitting on him . Jim says Lipton was likely just schmoozing a voter , talks to Lipton himself , and also gets his number . Meredith ( Kate Flannery ) later gets Lipton 's number as well , resulting in Oscar thinking that the senator may not have been hitting on him . When Oscar is leaving , Lipton shakes his hand and caresses Oscar 's arm for long enough that Oscar once again believes Lipton was pursuing him .
= = Production = =
" Fundraiser " was written by Owen Ellickson and directed by David Rogers . The episode marks the ninth appearance of Catherine Tate as Nellie Bertram and her eighth consecutive appearance . She first appeared in the seventh season finale , " Search Committee " as a guest star , but starting with " Tallahassee " she was added to the cast as a recurring character . The episode also features the return of the character David Wallace
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yāna works , as well as Jain texts ;
Yoga , as the raising and expansion of consciousness from oneself to being coextensive with everyone and everything ; these are discussed in sources such as in Hinduism Vedic literature and its Epic Mahābhārata , Jainism Praśamaratiprakarana , and Buddhist Nikaya texts ;
Yoga , as a path to omniscience and enlightened consciousness enabling one to comprehend the impermanent ( illusive , delusive ) and permanent ( true , transcendent ) reality ; examples are found in Hinduism Nyaya and Vaisesika school texts as well as Buddhism Mādhyamaka texts , but in different ways ;
Yoga , as a technique for entering into other bodies , generating multiple bodies , and the attainment of other supernatural accomplishments ; these are , states White , described in Tantric literature of Hinduism and Buddhism , as well as the Buddhist Sāmaññaphalasutta ; James Mallinson , however , disagrees and suggests that such fringe practices are far removed from the mainstream Yoga 's goal as meditation @-@ driven means to liberation in Indian religions .
White clarifies that the last principle relates to legendary goals of " yogi practice " , different from practical goals of " yoga practice , " as they are viewed in South Asian thought and practice since the beginning of the Common Era , in the various Hindu , Buddhist , and Jain philosophical schools .
= = Schools of Yoga = =
The term " yoga " has been applied to a variety of practices and methods , including Jain and Buddhist practices . In Hinduism these include Jnana Yoga , Bhakti Yoga , Karma Yoga , Laya Yoga and Hatha Yoga .
The so @-@ called Raja Yoga refers to Ashtanga Yoga , the eight limbs to be practiced to attain samadhi , as described in the Yoga Sutras of Pantajali . The term raja yoga originally referred to the ultimate goal of yoga , which is usually samadhi , but was popularised by Vivekananda as the common name for Ashtanga Yoga .
= = = Hinduism = = =
= = = = Classical Yoga = = = =
Yoga is considered as a philosophical school in Hinduism . Yoga , in this context , is one of the six āstika schools of Hinduism ( those which accept the Vedas as source of knowledge ) .
Due to the influence of Vivekananda , the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali are nowadays considered as the foundational scripture of classical yoga , a status which it only acquired in the 20th century . Before the twentieth century , other works were considered as the most central works , such as the Bhagavad Gita and the Yoga Vasistha , while Tantric Yoga and Hatha Yoga prevailed over Ashtanga Yoga .
= = = = Ashtanga Yoga = = = =
Yoga as described in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali refers to Ashtanga Yoga . The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali is considered as a central text of the Yoga school of Hindu philosophy , It is often called " Rāja yoga " , " yoga of the kings , " a term which originally referred to the ultimate , royal goal of yoga , which is usually samadhi , but was popularised by Vivekananda as the common name for Ashtanga Yoga .
Ashtanga Yoga incorporates epistemology , metaphysics , ethical practices , systematic exercises and self @-@ development techniques for body , mind and spirit . Its epistemology ( pramanas ) is same as the Samkhya school . Both accept three reliable means to knowledge – perception ( pratyākṣa , direct sensory observations ) , inference ( anumāna ) and testimony of trustworthy experts ( sabda , agama ) . Both these orthodox schools are also strongly dualistic . Unlike Sāṃkhya school of Hinduism which pursues non @-@ theistic / atheistic rationalist approach , Yoga school of Hinduism accepts the concept of a " personal , yet essentially inactive , deity " or " personal god " . Along with its epistemology and metaphysical foundations , Yoga school of Hindu philosophy incorporates ethical precepts ( yamas and niyamas ) and an introspective way of life focused on perfecting one 's self physically , mentally and spiritually , with the ultimate goal being kaivalya ( liberated , unified , content state of existence ) .
= = = = Hatha yoga = = = =
Hatha yoga , also called hatha vidyā , is a kind of yoga focusing on physical and mental strength building exercises and postures described primarily in three texts of Hinduism :
Hatha Yoga Pradipika , Svātmārāma ( 15th century )
Shiva Samhita , author unknown ( 1500 or late 17th century )
Gheranda Samhita by Gheranda ( late 17th century )
Many scholars also include the preceding Goraksha Samhita authored by Gorakshanath of the 11th century in the above list . Gorakshanath is widely considered to have been responsible for popularizing hatha yoga as we know it today .
Vajrayana Buddhism , founded by the Indian Mahasiddhas , has a series of asanas and pranayamas , such as tummo ( Sanskrit caṇḍālī ) and trul khor which parallel hatha yoga .
= = = = Shaivism = = = =
In Shaivism , yoga is used to unite kundalini with Shiva . See also ' tantra ' below .
= = = Buddhism = = =
Buddhist meditation encompasses a variety of meditation techniques that aim to develop mindfulness , concentration , supramundane powers , tranquility , and insight .
Core techniques have been preserved in ancient Buddhist texts and have proliferated and diversified through teacher @-@ student transmissions . Buddhists pursue meditation as part of the path toward Enlightenment and Nirvana . The closest words for meditation in the classical languages of Buddhism are bhāvanā and jhāna / dhyāna .
= = = Jainism = = =
Jain meditation has been the central practice of spirituality in Jainism along with the Three Jewels . Meditation in Jainism aims at realizing the self , attain salvation , take the soul to complete freedom . It aims to reach and to remain in the pure state of soul which is believed to be pure conscious , beyond any attachment or aversion . The practitioner strives to be just a knower @-@ seer ( Gyata @-@ Drashta ) . Jain meditation can be broadly categorized to the auspicious Dharmya Dhyana and Shukla Dhyana and inauspicious Artta and Raudra Dhyana .
= = = Tantra = = =
Samuel states that Tantrism is a contested concept . Tantra yoga may be described , according to Samuel , as practices in 9th to 10th century Buddhist and Hindu ( Saiva , Shakti ) texts , which included yogic practices with elaborate deity visualizations using geometrical arrays and drawings ( mandala ) , fierce male and particularly female deities , transgressive life stage related rituals , extensive use of chakras and mantras , and sexual techniques , all aimed to help one 's health , long life and liberation .
= = = Modern health application = = =
Apart from the spiritual goals , the physical postures of yoga are used to alleviate health problems , reduce stress and make the spine supple in contemporary times . Yoga is also used as a complete exercise program and physical therapy routine .
While the practice of yoga continues to rise in contemporary American culture , sufficient and adequate knowledge of the practice 's origins does not . According to Andrea R. Jain , Yoga is undoubtedly a Hindu movement for spiritual meditation , yet is now being marketed as a supplement to a cardio routine . This scope " dilutes its Hindu identity . " Contemporaries of the Hindu faith argue that the more popular yoga gets , the less concerned people become about its origins in history . These same contemporaries do state that while anyone can practice yoga , only those who give Hinduism due credit for the practice will achieve the full benefit of the custom .
In 2015 the Australian Government 's Department of Health published the results of a review of alternative therapies that sought to determine if any were suitable for being covered by health insurance ; Yoga was one of 17 practices evaluated for which no clear evidence of effectiveness was found , with the caveat that " Reviewers were limited in drawing definite conclusions , not only due to a lack of studies for some clinical conditions , but also due to the lack of information reported in the reviews and potentially in the primary studies . "
= = History = =
The origins of yoga are a matter of debate . There is no consensus on its chronology or specific origin other than that yoga developed in ancient India . Suggested origins are the Indus Valley Civilization ( 3300 – 1900 BCE ) and pre @-@ Vedic Eastern India , the Vedic period ( 1500 – 500 BCE ) , and the śramaṇa movement . According to Gavin Flood , continuities may exist between those various traditions :
[ T ] his dichotomization is too simplistic , for continuities can undoubtedly be found between renunciation and vedic Brahmanism , while elements from non @-@ Brahmanical , Sramana traditions also played an important part in the formation of the renunciate ideal .
Pre @-@ philosophical speculations of yoga begin to emerge in the texts of c . 500 – 200 BCE . Between 200 BCE – 500 CE philosophical schools of Hinduism , Buddhism and Jainism were taking form and a coherent philosophical system of yoga began to emerge . The Middle Ages saw the development of many satellite traditions of yoga . Yoga came to the attention of an educated western public in the mid 19th century along with other topics of Indian philosophy .
= = = Pre @-@ Vedic India = = =
Yoga may have pre @-@ Vedic elements . Some state yoga originated in the Indus Valley Civilization . Marshall , Eliade and other scholars suggest that the Pashupati seal discovered in Indus Valley Civilization sites depict figures in positions resembling a common yoga or meditation pose . This interpretation is considered speculative and uncertain by more recent analysis of Srinivasan and may be a case of projecting " later practices into archeological findings " .
= = = Vedic period ( 1700 – 500 BCE ) = = =
According to Crangle , Indian researchers have generally favoured a linear theory , which attempts " to interpret the origin and early development of Indian contemplative practices as a sequential growth from an Aryan genesis " , just like traditional Hinduism regards the Vedas to be the source of all spiritual knowledge .
Ascetic practices , concentration and bodily postures described in the Vedas may have been precursors to yoga . According to Geoffrey Samuel , " Our best evidence to date suggests that [ yogic ] practices developed in the same ascetic circles as the early sramana movements ( Buddhists , Jainas and Ajivikas ) , probably in around the sixth and fifth centuries BCE . "
According to Zimmer , Yoga philosophy is reckoned to be part of the non @-@ Vedic system , which also includes the Samkhya school of Hindu philosophy , Jainism and Buddhism : " [ Jainism ] does not derive from Brahman @-@ Aryan sources , but reflects the cosmology and anthropology of a much older pre @-@ Aryan upper class of northeastern India [ Bihar ] – being rooted in the same subsoil of archaic metaphysical speculation as Yoga , Sankhya , and Buddhism , the other non @-@ Vedic Indian systems . "
= = = = Textual references = = = =
The first use of the root of word " yoga " is in hymn 5 @.@ 81 @.@ 1 of the Rig Veda , a dedication to rising Sun @-@ god in the morning ( Savitri ) , where it has been interpreted as " yoke " or " yogically control " .
The earliest evidence of Yogis and Yoga tradition is found in the Keśin hymn 10 @.@ 136 of the Rigveda , states Karel Werner .
The Yogis of Vedic times left little evidence of their existence , practices and achievements . And such evidence as has survived in the Vedas is scanty and indirect . Nevertheless , the existence of accomplished Yogis in Vedic times cannot be doubted .
Rigveda , however , does not describe yoga and there is little evidence as to what the practices were . Early references to practices that later became part of yoga , are made in Brihadaranyaka Upanishad , the earliest Hindu Upanishad . For example , the practice of pranayama ( consciously regulating breath ) is mentioned in hymn 1 @.@ 5 @.@ 23 of Brihadaranyaka Upanishad ( c . ~ 900 BCE ) , and the practice of pratyahara ( concentrating all of one 's senses on self ) is mentioned in hymn 8 @.@ 15 of Chandogya Upanishad ( c . ~ 800 – 700 BCE ) .
= = = = Vedic ascetic practices = = = =
Ascetic practices ( tapas ) , concentration and bodily postures used by Vedic priests to conduct yajna ( sacrifice ) , might have been precursors to yoga . Vratya , a group of ascetics mentioned in the Atharvaveda , emphasized on bodily postures which may have evolved into yogic asanas . Early Samhitas also contain references to other group ascetics such as munis , the keśin , and vratyas . Techniques for controlling breath and vital energies are mentioned in the Brahmanas ( texts of the Vedic corpus , c . 1000 – 800 BCE ) and the Atharvaveda . Nasadiya Sukta of the Rig Veda suggests the presence of an early contemplative tradition .
= = = Preclassical era ( 500 – 200 BCE ) = = =
Yoga concepts begin to emerge in the texts of c . 500 – 200 BCE such as the Pali Canon , the middle Upanishads , the Bhagavad Gita and Shanti Parva of the Mahabharata .
= = = = Upanishads = = = =
The first known appearance of the word " yoga " , with the same meaning as the modern term , is in the Katha Upanishad , composed about fourth to third century BCE , where it is defined as the steady control of the senses , which along with cessation of mental activity , leading to a supreme state . Katha Upanishad integrates the monism of early Upanishads with concepts of samkhya and yoga . It defines various levels of existence according to their proximity to the innermost being Ātman . Yoga is therefore seen as a process of interiorization or ascent of consciousness . It is the earliest literary work that highlights the fundamentals of yoga . White states :
The earliest extant systematic account of yoga and a bridge from the earlier Vedic uses of the term is found in the Hindu Katha Upanisad ( Ku ) , a scripture dating from about the third century BCE [ … ] [ I ] t describes the hierarchy of mind @-@ body constituents — the senses , mind , intellect , etc . — that comprise the foundational categories of Sāmkhya philosophy , whose metaphysical system grounds the yoga of the Yogasutras , Bhagavad Gita , and other texts and schools ( Ku3.10 – 11 ; 6 @.@ 7 – 8 ) .
The hymns in Book 2 of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad , another late first millennium BCE text , states a procedure in which the body is held in upright posture , the breath is restrained and mind is meditatively focussed , preferably inside a cave or a place that is simple , plain , of silence or gently flowing water , with no noises nor harsh winds .
The Maitrayaniya Upanishad , likely composed in a later century than Katha and Shvetashvatara Upanishads but before Patanjali 's Yoga Sutra , mentions sixfold yoga method – breath control ( pranayama ) , introspective withdrawal of senses ( pratyahara ) , meditation ( dhyana ) , mind concentration ( dharana ) , philosophical inquiry / creative reasoning ( tarka ) , and absorption / intense spiritual union ( samadhi ) .
In addition to the Yoga discussion in above Principal Upanishads , twenty Yoga Upanishads as well as related texts such as Yoga Vasistha , composed in 1st and 2nd millennium CE , discuss Yoga methods .
= = = = Macedonian historical texts = = = =
Alexander the Great reached India in the 4th century BCE . Along with his army , he took Greek academics with him who later wrote memoirs about geography , people and customs they saw . One of Alexander 's companion was Onesicritus , quoted in Book 15 , Sections 63 – 65 by Strabo , who describes yogins of India . Onesicritus claims those Indian yogins ( Mandanis ) practiced aloofness and " different postures – standing or sitting or lying naked – and motionless " .
Onesicritus also mentions his colleague Calanus trying to meet them , who is initially denied audience , but later invited because he was sent by a " king curious of wisdom and philosophy " . Onesicritus and Calanus learn that the yogins consider the best doctrine of life as " rid the spirit of not only pain , but also pleasure " , that " man trains the body for toil in order that his opinions may be strengthened " , that " there is no shame in life on frugal fare " , and that " the best place to inhabit is one with scantiest equipment or outfit " . These principles are significant to the history of spiritual side of yoga . These may reflect the ancient roots of " undisturbed calmness " and " mindfulness through balance " in later works of Hindu Patanjali and Buddhist Buddhaghosa respectively , states Charles Rockwell Lanman ; as well as the principle of Aparigraha ( non @-@ possessiveness , non @-@ craving , simple living ) and asceticism discussed in later Hinduism and Jainism .
= = = = Early Buddhist texts = = = =
Werner states , " The Buddha was the founder of his [ Yoga ] system , even though , admittedly , he made use of some of the experiences he had previously gained under various Yoga teachers of his time . " He notes :
" But it is only with Buddhism itself as expounded in the Pali Canon that we can speak about a systematic and comprehensive or even integral school of Yoga practice , which is thus the first and oldest to have been preserved for us in its entirety . "
The chronology of completion of these yoga @-@ related Pali Canons , however , is unclear , just like ancient Hindu texts . Early known Buddhist sources like the Majjhima Nikāya mention meditation , while the Anguttara Nikāya describes Jhāyins ( meditators ) that resemble early Hindu descriptions of Muni , Kesins and meditating ascetics , but these meditation @-@ practices are not called yoga in these texts . The earliest known specific discussion of yoga in the Buddhist literature , as understood in modern context , is from the third- to fourth @-@ century CE scriptures of the Buddhist Yogācāra school and fourth- to fifth @-@ century Visuddhimagga of Buddhaghosa .
A yoga system that predated the Buddhist school is Jain yoga . But since Jain sources postdate Buddhist ones , it is difficult to distinguish between the nature of the early Jain school and elements derived from other schools . Most of the other contemporary yoga systems alluded in the Upanishads and some Pali canons are lost to time .
The early Buddhist texts describe meditative practices and states , some of which the Buddha borrowed from the śramaṇa tradition . The Pali canon contains three passages in which the Buddha describes pressing the tongue against the palate for the purposes of controlling hunger or the mind , depending on the passage . However , there is no mention of the tongue being inserted into the nasopharynx as in true khecarī mudrā . The Buddha used a posture where pressure is put on the perineum with the heel , similar to even modern postures used to stimulate Kundalini .
= = = = Uncertainty with chronology = = = =
Alexander Wynne , author of The Origin of Buddhist Meditation , observes that formless meditation and elemental meditation might have originated in the Upanishadic tradition . The earliest reference to meditation is in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad , one of the oldest Upanishads . Chandogya Upanishad describes the five kinds of vital energies ( prana ) . Concepts used later in many yoga traditions such as internal sound and veins ( nadis ) are also described in the Upanishad . Taittiriya Upanishad defines yoga as the mastery of body and senses .
= = = = Bhagavad Gita = = = =
The Bhagavad Gita ( ' Song of the Lord ' ) , uses the term " yoga " extensively in a variety of ways . In addition to an entire chapter ( ch . 6 ) dedicated to traditional yoga practice , including meditation , it introduces three prominent types of yoga :
Karma yoga : The yoga of action .
Bhakti yoga : The yoga of devotion .
Jnana yoga : The yoga of knowledge .
The Gita consists of 18 chapters and 700 shlokas ( verses ) , with each chapter named as a different yoga , thus delineating eighteen different yogas . Some scholars divide the Gita into three sections , with the first six chapters with 280 shlokas dealing with Karma yoga , the middle six containing 209 shlokas with Bhakti yoga , and the last six chapters with 211 shlokas as Jnana yoga ; however , this is rough because elements of karma , bhakti and jnana are found in all chapters .
= = = = Mahabharata = = = =
Description of an early form of yoga called nirodhayoga ( yoga of cessation ) is contained in the Mokshadharma section of the 12th chapter ( Shanti Parva ) of the Mahabharata . The verses of the section are dated to c . 300 – 200 BCE . Nirodhayoga emphasizes progressive withdrawal from the contents of empirical consciousness such as thoughts , sensations etc. until purusha ( Self ) is realized . Terms like vichara ( subtle reflection ) , viveka ( discrimination ) and others which are similar to Patanjali 's terminology are mentioned , but not described . There is no uniform goal of yoga mentioned in the Mahabharata . Separation of self from matter , perceiving Brahman everywhere , entering into Brahman etc. are all described as goals of yoga . Samkhya and yoga are conflated together and some verses describe them as being identical . Mokshadharma also describes an early practice of elemental meditation .
Mahabharata defines the purpose of yoga as the experience of uniting the individual ātman with the universal Brahman that pervades all things .
= = = Classical era ( 200 BCE – 500 CE ) = = =
This period witnessed many texts of Buddhism , Hinduism and Jainism discussing and systematically compiling yoga methods and practices . Of these , Patanjali 's Yoga Sutras are considered as a key work .
= = = = Classical yoga = = = =
During the period between the Mauryan and the Gupta era ( c . 200 BCE – 500 CE ) philosophical schools of Hinduism , Buddhism and Jainism were taking form and a coherent philosophical system of yoga began to emerge .
Yoga as a philosophy is mentioned in Sanskrit texts dated to be completed between 200 BCE – 200 CE . Kauṭilya 's Arthasastra in verse 1 @.@ 2 @.@ 10 , for example , states that there are three categories of anviksikis ( philosophies ) – Samkhya ( nontheistic ) , Yoga ( theistic ) and Cārvāka ( atheistic materialism ) .
= = = = = Samkhya = = = = =
Many traditions in India began to adopt systematic methodology by about first century CE . Of these , Samkhya was probably one of the oldest philosophies to begin taking a systematic form . Patanjali systematized Yoga , building them on the foundational metaphysics of Samkhya . In the early works , the Yoga principles appear together with the Samkhya ideas . Vyasa 's commentary on the Yoga Sutras , also called the Samkhyapravacanabhasya ( Commentary on the Exposition of the Sankhya Philosophy ) , describes the relation between the two systems . The two schools have some differences as well . Yoga accepted the conception of " personal god " , while Samkhya developed as a rationalist , non @-@ theistic / atheistic system of Hindu philosophy . Sometimes Patanjali 's system is referred to as Seshvara Samkhya in contradistinction to Kapila 's Nirivara Samkhya .
The parallels between Yoga and Samkhya were so close that Max Müller says that " the two philosophies were in popular parlance distinguished from each other as Samkhya with and Samkhya without a Lord . "
= = = = = Yoga Sutras of Patanjali = = = = =
In Hindu philosophy , yoga is the name of one of the six orthodox ( which accept the testimony of Vedas ) philosophical schools . Karel Werner , author of Yoga And Indian Philosophy , believes that the process of systematization of yoga which began in the middle and Yoga Upanishads culminated with the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali .
There are numerous parallels in the concepts in ancient Samkhya , Yoga and Abhidharma Buddhist schools of thought , particularly from 2nd century BCE to 1st century AD , notes Larson . Patanjali 's Yoga Sutras is a synthesis of these three traditions . From Samkhya , Yoga Sutras adopt the " reflective discernment " ( adhyavasaya ) of prakrti and purusa ( dualism ) , its metaphysical rationalism , as well its three epistemic methods to gaining reliable knowledge . From Abhidharma Buddhism 's idea of nirodhasamadhi , suggests Larson , Yoga Sutras adopt the pursuit of altered state of awareness , but unlike Buddhist 's concept of no self nor soul , Yoga is physicalist and realist like Samkhya in believing that each individual has a self and soul . The third concept Yoga Sutras synthesize into its philosophy is the ancient ascetic traditions of meditation and introspection , as well as the yoga ideas from middle Upanishads such as Katha , Shvetashvatara and Maitri .
Patanjali 's Yoga Sutras are widely regarded as the first compilation of the formal yoga philosophy . The verses of Yoga Sutras are terse . Many later Indian scholars studied them and published their commentaries , such as the Vyasa Bhashya ( c . 350 – 450 CE ) . Patanjali 's yoga is also referred to as Raja yoga . Patanjali defines the word " yoga " in his second sutra :
योग : चित ् त @-@ वृत ् ति निरोध : ( yogaḥ citta @-@ vṛtti @-@ nirodhaḥ )
- Yoga Sutras 1 @.@ 2
This terse definition hinges on the meaning of three Sanskrit terms . I. K. Taimni translates it as " Yoga is the inhibition ( nirodhaḥ ) of the modifications ( vṛtti ) of the mind ( citta ) " . Swami Vivekananda translates the sutra as " Yoga is restraining the mind @-@ stuff ( Citta ) from taking various forms ( Vrittis ) . " Edwin Bryant explains that , to Patanjali , " Yoga essentially consists of meditative practices culminating in attaining a state of consciousness free from all modes of active or discursive thought , and of eventually attaining a state where consciousness is unaware of any object external to itself , that is , is only aware of its own nature as consciousness unmixed with any other object . "
If the meaning of yoga is understood as the practice of nirodha ( mental control ) , then it 's goal is " the unqualified state of niruddha ( the perfection of that process ) " , according to Baba Hari Dass . In that context , " yoga ( union ) implies duality ( as in joining of two things or principles ) ; the result of yoga is the nondual state " , and " as the union of the lower self and higher Self . The nondual state is characterized by the absence of individuality ; it can be described as eternal peace , pure love , Self @-@ realization , or liberation . "
Patanjali 's writing also became the basis for a system referred to as " Ashtanga Yoga " ( " Eight @-@ Limbed Yoga " ) . This eight @-@ limbed concept is derived from the 29th Sutra of the Book 2 of Yoga Sutras . They are :
Yama ( The five " abstentions " ) : Ahimsa ( Non @-@ violence , non @-@ harming other living beings ) , Satya ( truthfulness , non @-@ falsehood ) , Asteya ( non @-@ stealing ) , Brahmacharya ( celibacy , fidelity to one 's partner ) , and Aparigraha ( non @-@ avarice , non @-@ possessiveness ) .
Niyama ( The five " observances " ) : Śauca ( purity , clearness of mind , speech and body ) , Santosha ( contentment , acceptance of others and of one 's circumstances ) , Tapas ( persistent meditation , perseverance , austerity ) , Svādhyāya ( study of self , self @-@ reflection , study of Vedas ) , and Ishvara @-@ Pranidhana ( contemplation of God / Supreme Being / True Self ) .
Asana : Literally means " seat " , and in Patanjali 's Sutras refers to the seated position used for meditation .
Pranayama ( " Suspending Breath " ) : Prāna , breath , " āyāma " , to restrain or stop . Also interpreted as control of the life force .
Pratyahara ( " Abstraction " ) : Withdrawal of the sense organs from external objects .
Dharana ( " Concentration " ) : Fixing the attention on a single object .
Dhyana ( " Meditation " ) : Intense contemplation of the nature of the object of meditation .
Samadhi ( " Liberation " ) : merging consciousness with the object of meditation .
= = = = = Yoga and Vedanta = = = = =
Yoga and Vedanta are the two largest surviving schools of Hindu traditions . They share many thematic principles , concepts and belief in self / soul , but diverge in degree , style and some of their methods . Epistemologically , Yoga school accepts three means to reliable knowledge , while Advaita Vedanta accepts six ways . Yoga disputes the monism of Advaita Vedanta . Yoga school believes that in the state of moksha , each individual discovers the blissful , liberating sense of himself or herself as an independent identity ; Advaita Vedanta , in contrast , believes that in the state of moksha , each individual discovers the blissful , liberating sense of himself or herself as part of Oneness with everything , everyone and the Universal Self . They both hold that the free conscience is aloof yet transcendent , liberated and self @-@ aware . Further , Advaita Vedanta school enjoins the use of Patanjali 's yoga practices and the reading of Upanishads for those seeking the supreme good , ultimate freedom and jivanmukti .
= = = = Yoga Yajnavalkya = = = =
The Yoga Yajnavalkya is a classical treatise on yoga attributed to the Vedic sage Yajnavalkya . It takes the form of a dialogue between Yajnavalkya and Gargi , a renowned philosopher . The text contains 12 chapters and its origin has been traced to the period between the second century BCE and fourth century CE . Many yoga texts like the Hatha Yoga Pradipika , the Yoga Kundalini and the Yoga Tattva Upanishads have borrowed verses from or make frequent references to the Yoga Yajnavalkya . The Yoga Yajnavalkya discusses eight yoga Asanas – Swastika , Gomukha , Padma , Vira , Simha , Bhadra , Mukta and Mayura , numerous breathing exercises for body cleansing , and meditation .
= = = = Jainism = = = =
According to Tattvarthasutra , 2nd century CE Jain text , yoga is the sum of all the activities of mind , speech and body . Umasvati calls yoga the cause of " asrava " or karmic influx as well as one of the essentials — samyak caritra — in the path to liberation . In his Niyamasara , Acarya Kundakunda , describes yoga bhakti — devotion to the path to liberation — as the highest form of devotion . Acarya Haribhadra and Acarya Hemacandra mention the five major vows of ascetics and 12 minor vows of laity under yoga . This has led certain Indologists like Prof. Robert J. Zydenbos to call Jainism , essentially , a system of yogic thinking that grew into a full @-@ fledged religion . The five yamas or the constraints of the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali bear a resemblance to the five major vows of Jainism , indicating a history of strong cross @-@ fertilization between these traditions .
Mainstream Hinduism 's influence on Jain yoga is noticed as Haribhadra founded his eightfold yoga and aligned it with Patanjali 's eightfold yoga .
= = = = Yogacara school = = = =
In the late phase of Indian antiquity , on the eve of the development of Classical Hinduism , the Yogacara movement arises during the Gupta period ( 4th to 5th centuries ) . Yogacara received the name as it provided a " yoga , " a framework for engaging in the practices that lead to the path of the bodhisattva . The yogacara sect teaches " yoga " as a way to reach enlightenment .
= = = Middle Ages ( 500 – 1500 CE ) = = =
Middle Ages saw the development of many satellite traditions of yoga . Hatha yoga emerged in this period .
= = = = Bhakti movement = = = =
The Bhakti movement was a development in medieval Hinduism which advocated the concept of a personal God ( or " Supreme Personality of Godhead " ) . The movement was initiated by the Alvars of South India in the 6th to 9th centuries , and it started gaining influence throughout India by the 12th to 15th centuries . Shaiva and Vaishnava bhakti traditions integrated aspects of Yoga Sutras , such as the practical meditative exercises , with devotion . Bhagavata Purana elucidates the practice of a form of yoga called viraha ( separation ) bhakti . Viraha bhakti emphasizes one pointed concentration on Krishna .
= = = = Tantra = = = =
Tantra is a genre of yoga that arose in India no later than the 5th century CE . George Samuel states , " Tantra " is a contested term , but may be considered as a school whose practices appeared in mostly complete form in Buddhist and Hindu texts by about 10th century CE . Over its history , some ideas of Tantra school influenced the Hindu , Bon , Buddhist , and Jain traditions . Elements of Tantric yoga rituals were adopted by and influenced state functions in medieval Buddhist and Hindu kingdoms in East and Southeast Asia .
By the turn of the first millennium , hatha yoga emerged from tantra .
= = = = = Vajrayana Buddhism = = = = =
Vajrayana is also known as Tantric Buddhism and Tantrayāna . Its texts were compiled starting with 7th century and Tibetan translations were completed in 8th century CE . These tantra yoga texts were the main source of Buddhist knowledge that was imported into Tibet . They were later translated into Chinese and other Asian languages , helping spread ideas of Tantric Buddhism . The Buddhist text Hevajra Tantra and Caryāgiti introduced hierarchies of chakras . Yoga is a significant practice in Tantric Buddhism .
= = = = Hatha Yoga = = = =
The earliest references to hatha yoga are in Buddhist works dating from the eighth century . The earliest definition of hatha yoga is found in the 11th century Buddhist text Vimalaprabha , which defines it in relation to the center channel , bindu etc . The basic tenets of Hatha yoga were formulated by Shaiva ascetics Matsyendranath and Gorakshanath c . 900 CE . Hatha yoga synthesizes elements of Patanjali 's Yoga Sutras with posture and breathing exercises . Hatha yoga , sometimes referred to as the " psychophysical yoga " , was further elaborated by Yogi Swatmarama , compiler of the Hatha Yoga Pradipika in 15th century CE . This yoga differs substantially from the Raja yoga of Patanjali in that it focuses on shatkarma , the purification of the physical body as leading to the purification of the mind ( ha ) , and prana , or vital energy ( tha ) . Compared to the seated asana , or sitting meditation posture , of Patanjali 's Raja yoga , it marks the development of asanas ( plural ) into the full body ' postures ' now in popular usage and , along with its many modern variations , is the style that many people associate with the word yoga today .
It is similar to a diving board – preparing the body for purification , so that it may be ready to receive higher techniques of meditation . The word " Hatha " comes from " Ha " which means Sun , and " Tha " which means Moon .
= = = = Sikhism = = = =
Various yogic groups had become prominent in Punjab in the 15th and 16th century , when Sikhism was in its nascent stage . Compositions of Guru Nanak , the founder of Sikhism , describe many dialogues he had with Jogis , a Hindu community which practiced yoga . Guru Nanak rejected the austerities , rites and rituals connected with Hatha Yoga . He propounded the path of Sahaja yoga or Nama yoga ( meditation on the name ) instead . The Guru Granth Sahib states :
Listen " O Yogi , Nanak tells nothing but the truth . You must discipline your mind . The devotee must meditate on the Word Divine . It is His grace which brings about the union . He understands , he also sees . Good deeds help one merge into Divination . "
= = = Modern history = = =
= = = = Reception in the West = = = =
Yoga came to the attention of an educated western public in the mid @-@ 19th century along with other topics of Indian philosophy . In the context of this budding interest , N. C. Paul published his Treatise on Yoga Philosophy in 1851 .
The first Hindu teacher to actively advocate and disseminate aspects of yoga to a western audience , Swami Vivekananda , toured Europe and the United States in the 1890s . The reception which Swami Vivekananda received built on the active interest of intellectuals , in particular the New England Transcendentalists , among them R. W. Emerson ( 1803 – 1882 ) , who drew on German Romanticism and the interest of philosophers and scholars like G.W.F. Hegel ( 1770 – 1831 ) , the brothers August Wilhelm Schlegel ( 1767 – 1845 ) and Karl Wilhelm Friedrich Schlegel ( 1772 – 1829 ) , Max Mueller ( 1823 – 1900 ) , Arthur Schopenhauer ( 1788 – 1860 ) and others who had ( to varying degrees ) interests in things Indian .
Theosophists also had a large influence on the American public 's view of Yoga . Esoteric views current at the end of the 19th century provided a further basis for the reception of Vedanta and of Yoga with its theory and practice of correspondence between the spiritual and the physical . The reception of Yoga and of Vedanta thus entwined with each other and with the ( mostly Neoplatonism @-@ based ) currents of religious and philosophical reform and transformation throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries . M. Eliade , himself rooted in the Romanian currents of these traditions , brought a new element into the reception of Yoga with the strong emphasis on Tantric Yoga in his seminal book : Yoga : Immortality and Freedom . With the introduction of the Tantra traditions and philosophy of Yoga , the conception of the " transcendent " to be attained by Yogic practice shifted from experiencing the " transcendent " ( " Atman @-@ Brahman " in Advaitic theory ) in the mind to the body itself .
The American born yogi by the name of Pierre Arnold Bernard , after his travels through the lands of Kashmir and Bengal , founded the Tantrik Order of America in 1905 . His teachings gave many westerners their first glimpse into the practices of yoga and tantra .
The modern scientific study of yoga began with the works of N. C. Paul and Major D. Basu in the late 19th century , and then continued in the 20th century with Sri Yogendra ( 1897 – 1989 ) and Swami Kuvalayananda . Western medical researchers came to Swami Kuvalayananda 's Kaivalyadhama Health and Yoga Research Center , starting in 1928 , to study Yoga as a science .
The West , in the early 21st century typically associates the term " yoga " with Hatha yoga and its asanas ( postures ) or as a form of exercise . During the 1910s and 1920s in the USA , yoga suffered a period of bad publicity due largely to the backlash against immigration , a rise in puritanical values , and a number of scandals . In the 1930s and 1940s yoga began to gain more public acceptance as a result of celebrity endorsement . In the 1950s the United States saw another period of paranoia against yoga , but by the 1960s , western interest in Hindu spirituality reached its peak , giving rise to a great number of Neo @-@ Hindu schools specifically advocated to a western public . During this period , most of the influential Indian teachers of yoga came from two lineages , those of Sivananda Saraswati ( 1887 – 1963 ) and of Tirumalai Krishnamacharya ( 1888 – 1989 ) . Teachers of Hatha yoga who were active in the west in this period included B.K.S. Iyengar ( 1918 – 2014 ) , K. Pattabhi Jois ( 1915 – 2009 ) , Swami Vishnu @-@ devananda ( 1927 – 1993 ) , and Swami Satchidananda ( 1914 – 2002 ) . Yogi Bhajan brought Kundalini Yoga to the United States in 1969 . Comprehensive , classical teachings of Ashtanga Yoga , Samkhya , the subtle body theory , Fitness Asanas , and tantric elements were included in the yoga teachers training by Baba Hari Dass ( 1923 – ) , in the United States and Canada .
A second " yoga boom " followed in the 1980s , as Dean Ornish , a follower of Swami Satchidananda , connected yoga to heart health , legitimizing yoga as a purely physical system of health exercises outside of counter @-@ culture or esotericism circles , and unconnected to any religious denomination . Numerous asanas seemed modern in origin , and strongly overlapped with 19th and early @-@ 20th century Western exercise traditions .
Since 2001 , the popularity of yoga in the USA has risen constantly . The number of people who practiced some form of yoga has grown from 4 million ( in 2001 ) to 20 million ( in 2011 ) . It has drawn support from world leaders such as Barack Obama who stated , " Yoga has become a universal language of spiritual exercise in the United States , crossing many lines of religion and cultures , ... Every day , millions of people practice yoga to improve their health and overall well @-@ being . That 's why we 're encouraging everyone to take part in PALA ( Presidential Active Lifestyle Award ) , so show your support for yoga and answer the challenge " .
The American College of Sports Medicine supports the integration of yoga into the exercise regimens of healthy individuals as long as properly @-@ trained professionals deliver instruction . The College cites yoga 's promotion of " profound mental , physical and spiritual awareness " and its benefits as a form of stretching , and as an enhancer of breath control and of core strength .
= = = = Medicine = = = =
= = = = = Potential benefits for adults = = = = =
While much of the medical community regards the results of yoga research as significant , others point to many flaws which undermine results . Much of the research on yoga has taken the form of preliminary studies or clinical trials of low methodological quality , including small sample sizes , inadequate blinding , lack of randomization , and high risk of bias . Long @-@ term yoga users in the United States have reported musculoskeletal and mental health improvements , as well as reduced symptoms of asthma in asthmatics . There is evidence to suggest that regular yoga practice increases brain GABA levels , and yoga has been shown to improve mood and anxiety more than some other metabolically @-@ matched exercises , such as walking . The three main focuses of Hatha yoga ( exercise , breathing , and meditation ) make it beneficial to those suffering from heart disease . Overall , studies of the effects of yoga on heart disease suggest that yoga may reduce high blood @-@ pressure , improve symptoms of heart failure , enhance cardiac rehabilitation , and lower cardiovascular risk factors . For chronic low back pain , specialist Yoga for Healthy Lower Backs has been found 30 % more beneficial than usual care alone in a UK clinical trial . Other smaller studies support this finding . The Yoga for Healthy Lower Backs programme is the dominant treatment for society ( both cheaper and more effective than usual care alone ) due to 8 @.@ 5 fewer days off work each year . A research group from Boston University School of Medicine also tested yoga 's effects on lower @-@ back pain . Over twelve weeks , one group of volunteers practiced yoga while the control group continued with standard treatment for back pain . The reported pain for yoga participants decreased by one third , while the standard treatment group had only a five percent drop . Yoga participants also had a drop of 80 % in the use of pain medication .
There has been an emergence of studies investigating yoga as a complementary intervention for cancer patients . Yoga is used for treatment of cancer patients to decrease depression , insomnia , pain , and fatigue and to increase anxiety control . Mindfulness Based Stress Reduction ( MBSR ) programs include yoga as a mind @-@ body technique to reduce stress . A study found that after seven weeks the group treated with yoga reported significantly less mood disturbance and reduced stress compared to the control group . Another study found that MBSR had showed positive effects on sleep anxiety , quality of life , and spiritual growth in cancer patients .
Yoga has also been studied as a treatment for schizophrenia . Some encouraging , but inconclusive , evidence suggests that yoga as a complementary treatment may help alleviate symptoms of schizophrenia and improve health @-@ related quality of life .
Implementation of the Kundalini Yoga Lifestyle has shown to help substance abuse addicts increase their quality of life according to psychological questionnaires like the Behavior and Symptom Identification Scale and the Quality of Recovery Index .
Yoga has been shown in a study to have some cognitive functioning ( executive functioning , including inhibitory control ) acute benefit .
= = = = = Physical injuries = = = = =
A small percentage of yoga practitioners each year suffer physical injuries analogous to sports injuries ; therefore , caution and common sense are recommended . Yoga has been criticized for being potentially dangerous and being a cause for a range of serious medical conditions including thoracic outlet syndrome , degenerative arthritis of the cervical spine , spinal stenosis , retinal tears , damage to the common fibular nerve , " Yoga foot drop , " etc . An exposé of these problems by William Broad published in January , 2012 in The New York Times Magazine resulted in controversy within the international yoga community . Broad , a science writer , yoga practitioner , and author of The Science of Yoga : The Risks and the Rewards , had suffered a back injury while performing a yoga posture . Torn muscles , knee injuries , and headaches are common ailments which may result from yoga practice .
An extensive survey of yoga practitioners in Australia showed that about 20 % had suffered some physical injury while practicing yoga . In the previous 12 months 4 @.@ 6 % of the respondents had suffered an injury producing prolonged pain or requiring medical treatment . Headstands , shoulder stands , lotus and half lotus ( seated cross @-@ legged position ) , forward bends , backward bends , and handstands produced the greatest number of injuries .
Some yoga practitioners do not recommend certain yoga exercises for women during menstruation , for pregnant women , or for nursing mothers . However , meditation , breathing exercises , and certain postures which are safe and beneficial for women in these categories are encouraged .
Among the main reasons that experts cite for causing negative effects from yoga are beginners ' competitiveness and instructors ' lack of qualification . As the demand for yoga classes grows , many people get certified to become yoga instructors , often with relatively little training . Not every newly certified instructor can evaluate the condition of every new trainee in their class and recommend refraining from doing certain poses or using appropriate props to avoid injuries . In turn , a beginning yoga student can overestimate the abilities of their body and strive to do advanced poses before their body is flexible or strong enough to perform them .
Vertebral artery dissection , a tear in the arteries in the neck which provide blood to the brain can result from rotation of the neck while the neck is extended . This can occur in a variety of contexts , but is an event which could occur in some yoga practices . This is a very serious condition which can result in a stroke .
Acetabular labral tears , damage to the structure joining the femur and the hip , have been reported to have resulted from yoga practice .
= = = = = Pediatrics = = = = =
It is claimed that yoga can be an excellent training for children and adolescents , both as a form of physical exercise and for breathing , focus , mindfulness , and stress relief : many school districts have considered incorporating yoga into their P.E. programs . The Encinitas , California school district gained a San Diego Superior Court Judge 's approval to use yoga in P.E. , holding against the parents who claimed the practice was intrinsically religious and hence should not be part of a state funded program .
= = Physiology = =
Over time , an extended yoga physiology developed , especially within the tantric tradition and hatha yoga . It pictures humans as composed of three bodies or five sheaths which cover the atman . The three bodies are described within the Mandukya Upanishad , which adds a fourth state , turiya , while the five sheaths ( pancha @-@ kosas ) are described in the Taittiriya Upanishad . They are often integrated :
Sthula sarira , the Gross body , comprising the Annamaya Kosha
Suksma sarira , the Subtle body , composed of ;
the Pranamaya Kosha ( Vital breath or Energy ) ,
Manomaya Kosha ( Mind )
the Vijnanamaya Kosha ( Intellect )
Karana sarira , the Causal body , comprising the Anandamaya Kosha ( Bliss )
Within the subtle body energy flows through the nadis or channels , and is concentrated within the chakras .
= = Yoga and specialized meditation = =
= = = Zen Buddhism = = =
Zen , the name of which derives from the Sanskrit " dhyāna " via the Chinese " ch 'an " is a form of Mahayana Buddhism . The Mahayana school of Buddhism is noted for its proximity with yoga . In the west , Zen is often set alongside yoga ; the two schools of meditation display obvious family resemblances . This segregation deserves attention because yogic practices integrally exist within the Zen Buddhist school . Certain essential elements of yoga are important both for Buddhism in general and for Zen in particular .
= = = Vajrayana or Tibetan Buddhism = = =
In the Nyingma tradition , the path of meditation practice is divided into nine yanas , or vehicles , which are said to be increasingly profound . The last six are described as " yoga yanas " : " Kriya yoga " , " Upa yoga , " " Yoga yana , " " Mahā yoga , " " Anu yoga " and the ultimate practice , " Ati yoga . " The Sarma traditions also include Kriya , Upa ( called " Charya " ) , and Yoga , with the Anuttara
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Army lacked legal authority to arrest the herders , but instead escorted them several days ' hike from their flock , which left the sheep vulnerable . By the late 1890s sheep grazing was no longer a problem , but at least one herder continued to graze his sheep in the park into the 1920s .
The Army also tried to control poaching . In 1896 , acting Superintendent Colonel S. B. M. Young stopped issuing firearm permits after discovering that large numbers of game and fish were being killed . Poaching continues to be an issue in the 21st century . The Army 's administration of the park ended in 1914 .
Galen Clark retired as the state grant 's guardian in 1896 , leaving Yosemite Valley and the Mariposa Grove of Big Trees under ineffective stewardship . Pre @-@ existing problems in the state grant worsened and new problems arose , but the cavalry could only monitor the situation . Muir and the Sierra Club continued to lobby the government and influential people for the creation of a unified Yosemite National Park . The Sierra Club began to organize annual trips to Yosemite in 1901 in an effort to make the remote area more accessible .
= = = Unified national park = = =
U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt camped with John Muir near Glacier Point for three days in May 1903 . During that trip , Muir convinced Roosevelt to take control of the valley and the grove away from California and give it to the federal government . On June 11 , 1906 , Roosevelt signed a bill that did precisely that , and the superintendent 's headquarters was moved from Wawona to Yosemite Valley .
To secure congressional and State of California approval for the plan , the size of the park was reduced by more than 500 square miles ( 1 @,@ 300 km2 ) , which excluded natural wonders such as the Devils Postpile and prime wildlife habitat . The park was again reduced in size in 1906 , when logging began in an area around Wawona . Acting superintendent Major H. C. Benson said in 1908 that " game is on the decrease . Each reduction of the park has cut another portion of the winter resort of game . " The various changes meant that the park was reduced to two @-@ thirds of its original size .
About 12 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 @,@ 900 ha ) between the Tuolumne and the Merced big tree groves were added to the park in 1930 through land purchases by the federal government and matching funds provided by industrialist John D. Rockefeller . Another 8 @,@ 765 acres ( 3 @,@ 547 ha ) near Wawona were added in 1932 . The Carl Inn Tract , close to the Rockefeller purchase , was secured in 1937 and 1939 .
= = = Fight over Hetch Hetchy Valley = = =
San Francisco Mayor James D. Phelan hired USGS engineer Joseph B. Lippincott in 1900 to perform a discreet survey of Hetch Hetchy Valley , located north of Yosemite Valley in the national park . His report stated that a dam of the Tuolumne River in the Hetch Hetchy Valley was the best choice to create a drinking water reservoir for the city . Lippincot sought water rights to the Tuolumne River and rights to build reservoirs at Hetch Hetchy and Lake Eleanor on behalf of Phelan in 1901 . These requests were rejected in 1903 by Secretary of the Interior Ethan Allen Hitchcock , who felt the application was " not in keeping with the public interest . "
The 1906 San Francisco earthquake tipped the balance in favor of granting the city the right to build the dam . Rights to Hetch Hetchy were granted to the City of San Francisco in 1908 by Secretary of the Interior James Rudolph Garfield , who wrote : " Domestic use is the highest use to which water and available storage basins ... can be put . "
A nationally publicized fight over the dam project ensued ; preservationists like Muir wanted to leave wild areas wild , and conservationists like Gifford Pinchot wanted to manage wild areas for the betterment of mankind . Robert Underwood Johnson and the Sierra Club joined the fight to save the valley from flooding . Muir wrote , " Dam Hetch Hetchy ! As well dam for watertanks the people 's cathedrals and churches , for no holier temple has ever been consecrated by the heart of man . " Pinchot , who was director of the U.S. Forest Service , wrote to his close friend Roosevelt that " the highest possible use which could be made of it would be to supply pure water to a great center of population . "
Roosevelt 's successor , Woodrow Wilson , signed the Raker Act into law on December 13 , 1913 , which authorized construction of the dam . Hetch Hetchy Reservoir grew as the valley was flooded behind the O 'Shaughnessy Dam in 1923 . The Raker Act also gave the city the right to store water in Lake Eleanor and Cherry Lake , both located northwest of Hetch Hetchy in the park .
Shortly before Muir died he expressed the hope that " some compensating good must follow " from the Raker Act . The fight over the dam strengthened the conservation movement by popularizing it nationally .
= = = National Park Service = = =
The administration of Yosemite National Park was transferred to the newly formed National Park Service in 1916 , when W. B. Lewis was appointed as the park 's superintendent . Parsons Memorial Lodge and Tioga Pass Road , along with campgrounds at Tenaya and Merced lakes , were completed the same year ; six hundred automobiles entered the east side of the park using Tioga Road that summer . The " All @-@ Weather Highway " ( now State Route 140 ) opened in 1926 , ensuring year @-@ long visitation and delivery of supplies under normal conditions . Completion of the 0 @.@ 8 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 3 km ) -long Wawona Tunnel in 1933 significantly reduced travel time to Yosemite Valley from Wawona . The famous Tunnel View is on the valley side of the tunnel and Old Inspiration Point is above it . A flood , reduced lumber and mining extraction , and greatly increased automobile and bus use forced the Yosemite Valley Railway out of business in 1945 . The present day Tioga Road , now part of California State Route 120 , was dedicated in 1961 .
Interpretive programs and services for national parks were pioneered in Yosemite by Harold C. Bryant and Loye Holmes Miller in 1920 . Ansel F. Hall became the first park naturalist in 1921 and served in that role for two years . Hall 's idea to have park museums act as public contact centers for interpretive programs became a model followed by other national parks in the United States and internationally . Yosemite Museum , the first permanent museum in the National Park System , was completed in 1926 .
The Ahwahnee Hotel , in Yosemite Valley , is a National Historic Landmark . Built in 1927 , it is a luxury hotel designed by the architect Gilbert Stanley Underwood , decorated in Native American motifs . For many years it hosted an annual pageant produced by Ansel Adams . During World War II it was used as a rehabilitation hospital for soldiers .
= = = Restoration and preservation = = =
Large floods covered Yosemite Valley in 1937 , 1950 , 1955 , and 1997 . These floods had a flow rate of 22 @,@ 000 to 25 @,@ 000 cubic feet ( 620 to 700 m3 ) per second , as measured at the Pohono Bridge gauging station in Yosemite Valley .
All the structures in Old Yosemite Village , except for the chapel , were either moved to the Pioneer Yosemite History center in Wawona or demolished during the 1950s and 1960s . Other structures in the park were also moved to the history center . Cedar Cottage , the oldest building in Yosemite Valley , was demolished in 1941 along with others , even though they had not been flooded . Little regard was given to historic preservation , as the priority was thought to be the preservation and restoration of natural scenery .
Congress set aside about 89 percent of the park in a highly protected wilderness area through passage of the Wilderness Act of 1964 . No roads , motorized vehicles ( except rescue helicopters and other emergency vehicles ) , or any development beyond trail maintenance are allowed in this area . The adjacent Ansel Adams Wilderness and John Muir Wilderness were also protected under the act and include regions removed from the park immediately before it was unified with the state grant in 1906 .
The Yosemite Firefall , in which the embers from a bonfire were pushed off a cliff near Glacier Point to create a spectacular effect , was ended in 1968 because it was deemed to be inconsistent with park values . The firefall was occasionally performed in the 1870s and became a nightly tradition with the founding of Camp Curry .
= = = Since the late 1960s = = =
Broader tensions in American society surfaced in Yosemite when a large number of youths gathered in the park over the summer of 1970 , triggering a riot on July 4 after rangers tried to evict visitors from camping illegally in Stoneman Meadow . Rioters attacked the rangers with rocks , and pulled mounted rangers from their horses . The National Guard was brought in to restore order .
The Yosemite Park and Curry Company was bought by Music Corporation of America ( MCA ) in 1973 . In 1988 , concessionaires brought in $ 500 million ( $ 1 billion as of 2016 ) , and paid the federal government $ 12 @.@ 5 million ( $ 25 million as of 2016 ) for the franchise . Delaware North Companies became the primary concessionaire for Yosemite in 1992 . The agreement it signed with the National Park Service increased yearly park revenue from concessionaires to $ 20 million ( $ 33 @.@ 7 million as of 2016 ) .
In 1999 , four women were killed by Cary Stayner just outside the park . That same year a large rockslide originating at the east side of Glacier Point ended near the Happy Isles of the Merced River , creating a debris field larger than several football fields . Tourism dropped a little after those incidents , but soon returned to its previous level .
= = Human impact = =
Plans for reducing human impact on the park were released by the Park Service in 1980 . The General Management Plan specified a reduction of 17 percent in overnight accommodations , a 68 percent reduction in staff housing and removal of golf courses and tennis courts by 1990 , yet there were still 1 @,@ 300 buildings in Yosemite Valley and 17 acres ( 6 @.@ 9 ha ) of the valley floor were covered by parking lots in the late 1990s . The goals were not met , but flooding in January 1997 destroyed park infrastructure in Yosemite Valley . The Yosemite Valley Plan was later established to implement the General Management Plan and over 250 other actions .
= = = Forests and meadows = = =
The Awahnechee and other aboriginal groups changed the environment of the Yosemite area . Parts of valley floors were intentionally burned each year to encourage the growth of acorn @-@ bearing black oaks . Fire kept forests open , reducing the risk of ambush , and the open areas helped to expand and maintain meadows .
Early park guardians drained swamps , which reduced the number and extent of meadows . In the 1860s there were over 750 acres ( 300 ha ) of meadows in the valley compared to 340 acres ( 140 ha ) by the end of the 20th century . The remaining meadows are maintained by manually clearing trees and shrubs . The Park Service has prohibited driving and camping in meadows , a common practice in the 1910s to 1930s and cattle and horses are no longer allowed to roam freely in the park .
Fire suppression encouraged the growth of young coniferous trees , such as ponderosa pine and incense cedar ; adult conifers create enough shade to inhibit the growth of young black oak trees . By the 20th century , fire suppression and the lowering of water tables by draining swamps led to the establishment of dense conifer forests where mixed and open conifer @-@ oak woodlands had previously grown . Fire suppression polices have been replaced by a fire management program which includes the annual use of prescribed fires . Fire is especially important to the giant sequoia groves , whose seeds cannot germinate without fire @-@ touched soil .
Logging used to be carried out in the area . Over one @-@ half @-@ billion board feet of timber were felled between World War I and 1930 , when John D. Rockefeller , Jr. and the federal government bought out the Yosemite Lumber Company .
= = = Increases in visitation = = =
Muir and the Sierra Club initially encouraged efforts to increase visitation to the park . Muir wrote that even the " frivolous and inappreciative " visitors were on the whole " a most hopeful sign of the times , indicating at least the beginning of our return to nature – for going to the mountains is going home . "
The first automobile entered Yosemite Valley in 1900 , but growth in car traffic did not increase significantly until 1913 , when they were first officially allowed to enter ; the next year , 127 cars entered the park .
Park visitation increased from 15 @,@ 154 in 1914 , to 35 @,@ 527 in 1918 , and to 461 @,@ 000 in 1929 . Two @-@ thirds of a million visited in 1946 , 1 million in 1954 , 2 million by 1966 , 3 million in the 1980s , and 4 million in the 1990s .
= = = Recreational activities = = =
Half Dome is a prominent and iconic granite dome that rises 4 @,@ 737 feet ( 1 @,@ 444 m ) above the floor of Yosemite Valley . It was first climbed on October 12 , 1875 , by the Scottish blacksmith of Yosemite Valley , George C. Anderson . A rope that Anderson laid was used by six men , including 61 @-@ year @-@ old Galen Clark , and one woman , to scale the last 975 feet ( 297 m ) of Half Dome . Anderson 's rope was repaired several times and was replaced in 1919 by a stairway built by the Sierra Club .
Sunnyside walk @-@ in campground , better known as Camp 4 , was built in 1929 . Rock climbers , who started to scale the cliffs of Yosemite in the 1950s , camped there . In 1997 , a flood in Yosemite Valley destroyed employee housing in the valley . The Park Service wanted to build dormitories next to Camp 4 , but Tom Frost , the American Alpine Club and others succeeded in killing the plan . Camp 4 was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on February 21 , 2003 , because of its role in the development of rock climbing as a sport .
Badger Pass Ski Area was established in 1935 . The 9 @-@ hole Wawona Golf Course opened in June 1918 in a meadow adjacent to the Wawona Hotel . A golf course was later built near the Ahwahnee Hotel in Yosemite Valley , but was removed and converted into a meadow in 1981 .
= = = Introduced and invasive species = = =
Introduced animals and diseases had impacted the park area by the late 19th century . Galen Clark noted in the mid @-@ 1890s that native grasses and flowering plants in Yosemite Valley had been reduced in number by three @-@ quarters .
White pine blister rust , a fungal disease that infects conifer trees , was accidentally introduced in British Columbia in 1910 and had reached California by the 1920s . It has since infected many sugar pine trees in the Yosemite area . The rust is managed by removing plants belonging to the ribes genus , which act as carriers of the fungus .
Trout were introduced in Yosemite streams and lakes to promote fishing . Tadpole predation by the introduced fish reduced frog populations . Lakes and streams are no longer stocked in the park .
Current park managers focus on controlling nine high @-@ priority invasive plant species of noxious weeds : yellow star @-@ thistle ( Centaurea solstitialis ) ; spotted knapweed ( Centaurea maculosa ) ; Himalayan blackberry ( Rubus armeniacus ) ; bull thistle ( Cirsium vulgare ) ; velvet grass ( Holcus lanatus ) ; cheat grass ( Bromus tectorum ) ; French broom ( Genista monspessulana ) ; Italian thistle ( Carduus pycnocephalus ) ; and perennial pepperweed ( Lepidium latifolium ) . In 2008 , the park began to use the herbicides glyphosate and aminopyralid to augment manual methods to manage the most threatening plants .
= = = Wildlife = = =
Brown bears , also called grizzlies , featured prominently in Miwok mythology and were the top predators in the region until the 1920s , when they became locally extinct . A sketch of a Yosemite grizzly by Charles Nahl adorns the flag of California .
American black bears were a common attraction by the 1930s , but in 1929 alone 81 people required treatment for bear @-@ related injuries . Troublesome bears were marked with white paint before being relocated to other parts of the park , and repeat offenders were killed . Bear feeding shows were stopped in 1940 , but the Park Service continued to kill bears that habitually raided camps ; 200 were put down between 1960 and 1972 . Park visitors are now educated about proper food storage .
To supplement their incomes , the rangers trapped predators such as coyote , fox , lynx , mountain lion , and wolverine for their furs , a practice that survived until 1925 . Predator control continued however ; 43 mountain lions were killed in Yosemite by the state lion hunter in 1927 . Cooper 's hawk and sharp @-@ shinned hawk were hunted to local extinction .
Bighorn sheep , which were driven locally extinct through hunting and disease , have been reintroduced in the east of the park . The Park Service and the Yosemite Fund have also helped peregrine falcons and great gray owls to re @-@ establish themselves . Tule elk , which had been hunted almost to extinction , were housed in a pen in Yosemite before being moved to the Owens Valley in eastern California .
= Wilt Chamberlain 's 100 @-@ point game =
Wilt Chamberlain set the single @-@ game scoring record in the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) by scoring 100 points for the Philadelphia Warriors in a 169 – 147 win over the New York Knicks on March 2 , 1962 , at Hershey Sports Arena in Hershey , Pennsylvania . It is widely considered one of the greatest records in basketball . Chamberlain set five other league records that game including most free throws made , a notable achievement , as he was regarded as a poor free throw shooter . The teams broke the record for most combined points in a game ( 316 ) . That season , Chamberlain averaged a record 50 @.@ 4 points per game , and he had broken the NBA single @-@ game scoring record ( 71 ) earlier in the season in December with 78 points . The third @-@ year center had already set season scoring records in his first two seasons . In the fourth quarter , the Knicks began fouling other players to keep the ball away from Chamberlain , and they also became deliberate on offense to reduce the number of possessions for Philadelphia . The Warriors countered by committing fouls of their own to get the ball back .
The game was not televised , and no video footage of the game has been recovered ; there are only audio recordings of the game 's fourth quarter . The NBA was not yet a major sports league and struggled to compete against college basketball . The attendance at this game was around half of capacity , and there were no members of the New York press at the game .
= = Prologue = =
Chamberlain was in his third season in the NBA , having set season scoring records in each of his first two seasons with 37 @.@ 6 and then 38 @.@ 4 points per game . Frank McGuire , the Warriors ' new coach , started the season vowing to get the ball to Chamberlain " two @-@ thirds of the time . " Sports Illustrated wrote that McGuire 's " eventual effect may be to measurably change the character of professional basketball from the brawling , hustling , cigar @-@ in @-@ the @-@ face and eye @-@ on @-@ the @-@ till game it has been for decades to the major league sport which it longs and deserves to be . " He was determined to play Chamberlain every minute of every game ; the 7 @-@ foot @-@ 1 @-@ inch ( 2 @.@ 16 m ) and 260 @-@ pound ( 120 kg ) center had missed only eight minutes and 33 seconds that season due to disqualification in a game from technical fouls . In three earlier games that week , Chamberlain had scored 67 , 65 , and 61 points respectively , giving him an already @-@ record 15 times scoring 60 or more points in his career . He was closing in on 4 @,@ 000 points for the season , needing 237 more ; no other player had ever scored 3 @,@ 000 points at that point . On December 8 , 1961 , in a triple overtime game versus the Los Angeles Lakers , he set a new NBA record by scoring 78 points , breaking the record of 71 previously set by Elgin Baylor . Legendary Laker broadcaster Chick Hearn often told the story that after the game , he asked Baylor if it bothered him that Chamberlain had an extra 15 minutes to break the record . According to Hearn , Baylor said he wasn 't concerned because " someday that guy is going to score 100 " . Rival center Bill Russell predicted , " [ Chamberlain ] has the size , strength , and stamina to score one hundred some night . " In a high school game in 1955 , Chamberlain had scored 90 points in a 123 – 21 victory . The Philadelphia Inquirer wrote , " Chamberlain might have hit 100 if he had played the entire 32 minutes . "
Before Chamberlain , the most dominant big man in the NBA was 6 @-@ foot @-@ 10 @-@ inch ( 2 @.@ 08 m ) George Mikan . In November 1950 , the Fort Wayne Pistons held the ball for minutes at a time without shooting to limit the impact of the Minneapolis Lakers ' Mikan . The Pistons attempted 13 shots in the game , and won 19 – 18 . NBA President Maurice Podoloff said , " In our game , with the number of stars we have , we of necessity run up big scores . " In the 1950 – 51 season , teams averaged just above 80 points per game . The NBA introduced the 24 @-@ second shot clock in 1954 , and league scoring and attendance increased . By the 1961 – 62 season , teams were averaging 119 points each game . Chamberlain that season was one of 37 black players in the league , the NBA having started integration of blacks in 1950 . With their emergence , the NBA game was stylistically being played faster and above the rim . Many of the league 's great players were black , and blacks believed they were limited by a league quota of four black players per team . Critics suggested that basketball was becoming uninteresting with taller players dominating . Warriors teammate Joe Ruklick thought that " the attitude [ among white players in the NBA ] was , in my opinion , ' [ Chamberlain ] is a freak who will come and go . There will never be a black guy doing this again . ' " Chamberlain , nicknamed Dipper , was revolutionizing the sport with his slam dunks , nicknamed the Dipper Dunk . Traditionalists considered dunking poor sportsmanship , and their occurrence was rare . As the league 's second tallest player , Chamberlain began dunking more regularly . He was still more of a finesse player , preferring fadeaway shots and finger rolls . He rarely dunked forcefully . Teammate Paul Arizin believed Chamberlain did not want to be perceived as great merely from being tall .
There was little advance excitement about the pending Warriors @-@ Knicks game that Friday . Only five games remained in the regular season , with the Warriors ( 46 – 29 ) in second place — eleven games behind the Boston Celtics — and the Knicks in last place . Chamberlain had spent the night before the game in New York , partying all night with a female companion before dropping her off at her home at 6 : 00 A.M. With no sleep and suffering from a hangover , he boarded the train to Philadelphia at 8 AM , met several friends at the Philadelphia train station , and had a long lunch with them , thus almost missing the team bus to Hershey . The other players were similarly bored . Warriors player York Larese said : " The biggest thrill in my life was to see that . There was nothing exciting about the Knicks playing the Warriors in Hershey . Chocolate was more exciting . " The game was played at Hershey Sports Arena , an old drafty gym originally built for ice hockey . The league occasionally played games in remote towns to attract new fans . This was the Warriors ' third " home " game of the season in Hershey , which was 85 miles ( 137 km ) from Philadelphia . The Warriors ' Tom Meschery called the arena " god @-@ forsaken place ... The town of Hershey was built around a huge chocolate factory ; everything there became permeated with the smell of chocolate . It was practically impossible to stay indoors ; people felt sick . I was just dreaming to leave the place as fast as I could . "
On a cold , rainy Friday night , only 4 @,@ 124 spectators paid to see the game , more to see players from the Philadelphia Eagles , the local American football team , play an exhibition basketball game against their colleagues from the Baltimore Colts before the NBA game started . The arena 's capacity was over 8 @,@ 000 , and Warriors owner Eddie Gottlieb was infamous for exaggerating attendance numbers . Warriors home attendance had dropped from 7 @,@ 000 in Chamberlain 's rookie season to less than 5 @,@ 000 in this , his third , season . College basketball had started offering doubleheaders during the Great Depression to provide customers value for their money . Fans had grown accustomed to watching two games , so doubleheaders in the NBA became common .
The National Basketball Association was still struggling in its 16th season , not yet a major sports league and less established than college basketball . The league was hardly national with only one team west of St Louis . The NBA received low television ratings , and this game was not televised . The National Broadcast Company ( NBC ) considered not renewing the league 's television contract . No members from the New York press were present as reporters were in Florida covering spring training for the New York Yankees and the expansion New York Mets . With few in the media present , the Warriors ' publicist was tasked this night with being the stringer for the Associated Press ( AP ) , United Press International ( UPI ) , and The Philadelphia Inquirer . Only two photographers were at the game .
The Knicks were shorthanded with their starting center , Phil Jordon , out sick . Jordon 's illness was officially reported as influenza but it was widely suspected he was simply hung over . Jordon in an early @-@ season game had played Chamberlain even , scoring 33 points to the Warriors center 's 34 . The Knicks instead started 6 @-@ foot @-@ 10 @-@ inch ( 2 @.@ 08 m ) , 220 @-@ pound ( 100 kg ) , second @-@ year player Darrall Imhoff , a strong defensive player in college who led the California Golden Bears to the NCAA championship in 1959 and won a gold medal in the 1960 Summer Olympics . New York also had 6 @-@ foot @-@ 9 @-@ inch ( 2 @.@ 06 m ) , 210 @-@ pound ( 95 kg ) , backup center Cleveland Buckner , a better shooter than a defender who Chamberlain overpowered for an NBA record 28 points in one quarter two days earlier .
= = Game report = =
= = = First three quarters = = =
According to McGuire , the game did not start with any game plan to get Chamberlain 100 points . After a few minutes , the Warriors led 19 – 3 , and their star center had already scored 13 points and made his first five shots . At the end of the first quarter , the Knicks trailed 42 – 26 , and in his typical style , Chamberlain had already scored 23 points , making all nine of his free throws . Free throws were the weakest part of his game , making barely more than half in his first seasons . He had started shooting free throws underhanded that season per McGuire 's suggestion . Chamberlain at that point was thinking more about a free throw shooting record than scoring a lot of points ; the NBA record was 24 free throws made in a game . Imhoff was soon benched because of foul trouble . After one foul , he snapped at the referee , " Well , why don 't you just give the guy a hundred now and we 'll all go home ! " Neither referee had ever been a lead official , and Imhoff privately wished a stronger lead was working the game . By halftime , the Warriors had lost some of their edge , but still led 79 – 68 . Chamberlain 's point total stood at 41 . The Warriors felt little excitement , as he had scored 60 or more points on 15 previous occasions . " I often came into the locker room with 30 or 35 points , therefore , 41 points was not a big deal , " Chamberlain later explained . Warriors ' Guy Rodgers at halftime said , " Let 's get the ball to Dip . Let 's see how many he can get . " McGuire agreed .
This simple tactic proved unstoppable . Soon , he had surpassed the 50 @-@ point barrier , causing arena speaker Dave Zinkoff to fire up the previously sleepy crowd . Chamberlain also kept his cool despite getting perpetually triple and quadruple @-@ teamed by the Knicks , who did not shy away from hard fouls to distract the center . McGuire was irate and demanded that the referees call more fouls , but Chamberlain could not be stopped . He scored another 28 points to lift his Warriors to a commanding 125 – 106 lead when the third quarter ended . His own total stood at 69 , nine shy of his previous scoring record . The Knicks ' third center , Dave Budd , who alternated with the foul @-@ troubled Imhoff at pivot , later stated that resistance was futile : " You couldn 't play [ Chamberlain ] conventionally because he was so big . The only thing you could attempt to do was either front him , and in that case they 'd try to lob it in to him , or beat him down the floor and set up where he wanted to get and force him out a couple of extra steps . The guy weighed 300 or 270 [ pounds ] , so that wasn 't easy , either . " Chamberlain now realized he could break his own 73 @-@ point scoring record ( for a 48 @-@ minute game ) or his record 78 points , set in triple overtime .
= = = Breaking records = = =
Dave Zinkoff , the public address announcer , began announcing Chamberlain 's point total after each of his baskets . With ten minutes to play in the game , Warriors forward Tom Meschery sensed the team concept breaking down . The team 's offense had shifted to getting Chamberlain the ball and then stopping and watching instead of cutting and moving without the ball . Chamberlain needed 25 points with eight minutes remaining to reach 100 , a rate equivalent to 150 points in a full game . He scored his 79th point with 7 : 51 left , breaking his own record and sending the crowd into a frenzy . The 4 @,@ 124 spectators screamed , " Give it to Wilt ! Give it to Wilt ! " After he reached 80 , the crowd yelled for 100 . Chamberlain thought , " Man , these people are tough . I 'm tired . I 've got 80 points and no one has ever scored 80 . " The Warriors continued giving Chamberlain the ball . Warrior Al Attles later explained , " We wanted that Wilt got the record , because we all liked him . " Attles himself led by example , passing up on an easy layup so that Chamberlain could score points 88 and 89 , five minutes before the end .
With six minutes remaining , the Knicks began intentionally fouling any Warrior except Chamberlain , keeping the ball out of the center 's hands . New York also began moving the ball slowly and using as much of the shot clock as possible to leave fewer opportunities for Chamberlain to score . Effectively , they played the opposite of what a normal club would do if they faced a deficit , willingly giving up many easy points instead of making attempts to rally back . Meschery said the Warriors lobbed the ball in from the sideline across the floor directly to Chamberlain , who would use his size and strength to get the ball . Chamberlain was the only Warrior to make a field goal in almost four minutes before Meschery made a jump shot at 4 : 15 . Philadelphia began quickly fouling New York with around four minutes left , reciprocating the intentional foul strategy . Warriors coach Frank McGuire at one point pulled out his entire starting five , save Chamberlain , and replaced them with bench players . The intention was to foul the Knicks , get the ball back after free throws and give Chamberlain the ball . Thus each team spent the last minutes fouling each other . The Warriors ended with 25 personal fouls , and the Knicks with 32 , and lost Imhoff and Willie Naulls with six fouls .
With 2 : 12 left , Chamberlain had 94 points , and he scored on a fadeaway for his 96th point . His next basket at 1 : 19 came off a lob pass from York Larese for a powerful dunk that was rare for Chamberlain . Gary M. Pomerantz in his book Wilt , 1962 : The Night of 100 Points and the Dawn of a New Era wrote that Chamberlain 's usual " Dipper Dunk " was " a considerably less emphatic basket stuff , like a rock that barely ripples the pond . " With less than a minute left in the game , Chamberlain set up in the post . Ruklick passed to Rodgers , who passed to Chamberlain close to the basket , but he missed the shot . Ted Luckenbill rebounded and passed it back to Chamberlain , who missed again . Luckenbill again rebounded and this time passed to Ruklick , who eschewed an easy layup and instead lobbed a high pass to Chamberlain . With 46 seconds left , Chamberlain got free from the five Knicks , jumped high and put the ball into the basket to hit the century mark . Eyewitness accounts of the historic basket differ as to whether Chamberlain merely laid the ball in or actually stuffed the ball through the hoop for an alley @-@ oop slam dunk . In any event , the arena exploded in a frenzy and over 200 spectators stormed the floor , wanting to touch the hero of the night . Ruklick immediately ran to the scorer 's table to ensure that he was officially credited with the assist .
= = = Finale = = =
For years , the belief was that the final 46 seconds of the game were not played after Chamberlain scored his 100th point due to the celebration on the court ; Chamberlain himself was quoted as having made that claim . However , recordings from the WCAU radio broadcast include announcer Bill Campbell resuming his play @-@ by @-@ play call after Chamberlain 's 100th point and calling the game to its conclusion . A copy of the radio broadcast of the game was only uncovered in 1988 . WCAU 's original game tape had been recorded over by one of its engineers , a standard practice in those days . However , a Philadelphian had recorded with a Dictaphone part of Campbell 's coverage in the fourth quarter , but only the Warriors possessions . Two years later , a reel @-@ to @-@ reel tape of Campbell 's entire fourth quarter call surfaced ; Jim Trelease , then a college student at the University of Massachusetts , had recorded a 3 a.m. re @-@ broadcast of the fourth quarter of the game . The NBA merged the reel @-@ to @-@ reel with the Dictaphone tape , which also included a short postgame show . German sports journalist Gunter Bork specified that the interruption resulting from Chamberlain 's 100th point lasted for nine minutes , after which play continued .
Over the years , Harvey Pollack , who at the time was in charge of publicity and statistics for the Warriors , has given conflicting statements on the question . In a 1992 book , he was twice quoted as saying that the game ended with 46 seconds remaining . But in a 2002 interview quoted by Chamberlain biographer Robert Cherry , Pollack said that the last 46 seconds were played , and that Chamberlain just stood in the middle circle , waiting for the game to end and not wanting to touch the ball , as " 100 sounded better than 102 " . The game 's official box score notes that Warrior Joe Ruklick missed two free throws after the break . Ruklick said he planned to miss the second free throw in hopes that Chamberlain might rebound it and get 102 points .
The radio postgame show reported the Warriors defeating the Knicks 169 – 150 . However , the official scorer 's report recorded the game as 169 – 147 , a discrepancy that has never been explained . Chamberlain made 36 of 63 field @-@ goals and 28 of 32 free throws , the latter a far better rate than his roughly 50 % career average . In two earlier games at Hershey that season , Chamberlain had made a combined 27 of 38 free throws , 71 percent . The basket rims at the arena were aged , flimsy , and forgiving . Balls would bounce off of typical firm rims , whereas balls near the rim in Hershey were apt to get a good roll and fall in . Playing all 48 minutes of the game , Chamberlain set NBA records for field goals attempted ( 63 ) and made ( 36 ) , free throws made ( 28 ) , most points in a quarter ( 31 ) , and half ( 59 ) . He averaged 73 points in four games that week , exceeding 60 in all of them .
Rodgers finished with a game @-@ high 20 assists and later said : " It was the easiest game ever for me to get assists , all I had to do was pass it to Wilt . " Attles was a defensive specialist who rarely scored , yet went 8 – 8 from the field and hit his single free throw . He later lamented , " In the game where I literally couldn 't miss , Wilt had to go out and score 100 . "
The Warriors and Knicks combined for a record 316 points . Philadelphia fell short of the Boston Celtics ' then @-@ record of 173 points in a game . It was not uncommon for late @-@ season NBA games to feature little defense . Celtics guard Bob Cousy said that the level of play in the NBA decreased as the season progressed , and " defenses are out of gas " by the end of the season .
The following night , Chamberlain got permission to travel back to New York with three Knicks players . According to Cherry , Chamberlain drifted in and out of sleep and got a kick overhearing the New York players talk about the " S.O.B. who scored 100 points on us " . On March 4 , the Warriors played the Knicks again in Madison Square Garden , and Imhoff got a standing ovation for " holding " Chamberlain to 58 points .
= = Aftermath = =
The record was not highly anticipated like the four @-@ minute mile had been . In Philadelphia , there was little fanfare in The Philadelphia Inquirer or The Philadelphia Bulletin , which both had a box on the front page announcing the achievement with a story in the sports section . Philadelphia Daily News had no mention on its cover . The Bulletin wrote , " Thus was fulfilled a prophecy made the first time the magnificent 7 ' 1 " scoring star of the Warriors played a game in the National Basketball Association three years ago . " New York City papers ran stories from the news agencies . The New York Times and The New York Herald Tribune ran the AP story on pages 14 and 11 , respectively . The New York Daily News ran the UPI story on page 26 . The New York Post gave prominent back @-@ page coverage to Chamberlain 's feat on Sunday . The New York Daily News on Sunday wrote , " Basketball is not prospering because most normal sized American youngsters or adults cannot identify themselves with the freakish stars ... You just can 't sell a seven @-@ foot basket stuffing monster to even the most gullible adolescent . " In his prime , Chamberlain was such a dominant scorer that his feat was mostly taken for granted . Warriors player Al Attles said that after Chamberlain 's previous record 78 @-@ point game , " It was only a matter of time until he reached 100 , you could wait for it . " Warriors coach Frank McGuire initially thought the same thing , then said , " I always thought it was inevitable that he would do it . But when he did , I stopped and thought about it . I couldn 't believe it . "
Chamberlain thanked his teammates . " It wouldn 't even have been close to possible without them . They wanted me to get it as much I did . " He added , " They had to do more than just give up open shots . They had to avoid fouls and pass me the ball in traffic . " Knicks ' player Richie Guerin felt the Warriors broke a code of honor in sports by embarrassing an opponent and setting a record outside the normal flow of the game . Although effusive in his praise of Chamberlain , Guerin nonetheless estimated that if the game had played out normally , Chamberlain would have finished 15 to 20 points shy of 100 . Chamberlain countered he could have scored 140 if the Knicks " had played straight @-@ up basketball . " New York coach Eddie Donovan suggested , " The game was a farce . They would foul us and we would foul them . " The Knicks ' Naulls stated , " The game was not a fluke ... I thought it was absolutely authentic . " Imhoff said Zinkoff 's announcements did not help the Knicks ' cause .
Johnny Kerr of the Syracuse Nationals marveled , " How about this : He 's the world 's worst free @-@ throw shooter and he 's 28 out of 32 ! " Cousy figured the game must have gone out of control , just as when Cousy had 29 assists when the Celtics scored 173 points against Minneapolis . Boston coach Red Auerbach laughed , " He 's playing against nobody . " Bill Russell smiled and said , " The Big Fella finally did it . " In a conversation with Naulls after the game , Chamberlain predicted he would win his NBA championships but still be known for his individualism , versus Russell who was credited for making his team — the Boston Celtics — great . Two days after the historic feat , Chamberlain made a guest appearance on The Ed Sullivan Show .
Chamberlain finished the season with a record of 50 @.@ 4 points per game . He scored a record 4 @,@ 029 points , more than the division @-@ winning Warriors in 1947 – 48 scored as a team . He played in a record 3 @,@ 882 minutes — including every minute of 79 ( a record ) of 80 games . He averaged 48 @.@ 5 minutes per game . An NBA game is 48 minutes , but Chamberlain played in 10 overtime periods in seven games . He was second in the league in field goal percentage at .506 and made 61 percent of his free throws , a career high . The Warriors finished the season with a 49 – 31 record . They lost in the conference finals of the playoffs to the Celtics , losing the seventh game 109 – 107 . The closest Chamberlain came again to 100 was 73 and 72 points the next season , when he also averaged 44 @.@ 8 points . The NBA in 1964 widened the lane from 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) to 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) to limit Chamberlain , and he averaged 36 @.@ 9 that season .
= = Legacy = =
The anniversary of the game was not widely commemorated until its silver anniversary in 1987 . By that time , the NBA had grown to be a popular sports league with average attendance of 13 @,@ 000 fans per game and star players like Magic Johnson , Larry Bird , and Michael Jordan . The Warriors ' PR director Harvey Pollack said an impossible 40 @,@ 000 people claimed to have seen the game , and some even testified it took place in Madison Square Garden . Chamberlain later stated it was one of his favorite games , but not the favorite : that title belonged to the match in which he grabbed an NBA record 55 rebounds against perennial rival Bill Russell . He did not want to feed the criticism that he was more interested in personal stardom than winning . Although Chamberlain won two NBA championships and was the NBA 's all @-@ time leading scorer and rebounder when he retired , he was mostly remembered as the man who had single @-@ handedly scored 100 points in a game . Chamberlain publicly embraced the 100 @-@ point game in his final years . On a radio show commemorating the game 's 31st anniversary in 1993 , he said , " As time goes by , I feel more a part of that 100 @-@ point game . " He explained that growing up on the streets , he would have been derisively labelled a gunner , a glory @-@ hound , for attempting 63 shots . " You take that many shots on the playground , and no one ever wants you on their team again . " He said he took shots he normally would not , noting that in contests which he considered to be better he scored 50 to 60 points on around 75 percent shooting , as opposed to his 57 percent shooting in the 100 @-@ point game . He was proud that people who knew nothing about basketball would point out the game to their kids when they saw him . " I know that it has been my tag . I am definitely proud of it . But it was definitely a team effort . You had to see some of the things my teammates did to get me the ball ... It was almost like a circus out there for a while . "
Two other participants were profoundly affected . Firstly , Knicks center Darrall Imhoff was branded as the player who let Chamberlain score 100 on him , although he only played 20 of 48 minutes and was not on the court when it happened . On the other hand , the game immortalized little @-@ used Warriors reserve player Joe Ruklick as the man who gave Chamberlain the 100 @-@ point assist . Decades later , The New York Times interviewed Ruklick and found out that he refers to himself as " a walking footnote " of one of basketball 's greatest moments . The game also produced the famous picture of Chamberlain sitting on a bench , holding up a paper with a scribbled " 100 " . The photograph was actually a matter of improvisation : when Warriors PR manager Harvey Pollack entered the Warriors locker room , he took a paper and scribbled the number on it , and Associated Press photographer Paul Vathis who was there at the game ( not for professional reasons , but rather because he wanted to give his son a treat ) took the now @-@ famous photo . Cherry calls it the " ultimate picture " of Wilt Chamberlain .
Chamberlain 's 100 points is widely considered one of basketball 's greatest records . Decades after his record , many NBA teams did not even average 100 points as fewer field goals per game were being attempted . The closest any player has gotten to 100 points was the Los Angeles Lakers ' Kobe Bryant , who scored 81 in a 122 – 104 win over the Toronto Raptors on January 22 , 2006 . Whereas Chamberlain was fed repeatedly by teammates for inside shots in a blowout win , Bryant created his own shot — mostly from the outside — in a game which the Lakers trailed at halftime by 14 and did not pull away until the fourth quarter . Chamberlain , playing in an era when the games were paced faster and scoring opportunities were more plentiful , accounted for 59 percent of his team 's points , compared to Bryant scoring 66 percent of the Lakers ' 122 points . Bryant afterwards said Chamberlain 's record was " unthinkable ... It 's pretty exhausting to think about it . " David Thompson broke Chamberlain 's record for points in a quarter by scoring 32 in the first quarter of his 73 @-@ point game . Adrian Dantley tied the record of 28 free throws made in a regular season game on January 4 , 1984 , but through 2010 – 11 season , all of Chamberlain 's other records set that day still stand . Twenty years after the Warriors and Knicks combined for 316 points , the San Antonio Spurs defeated the Milwaukee Bucks 171 – 166 in triple overtime on March 6 , 1982 , for a total of 337 points . That record was broken quicker as the Detroit Pistons defeated the Denver Nuggets 186 – 184 ( also in triple overtime ) on December 13 , 1983 , for 370 points .
Pomerantz wrote in his 2005 book that the lack of videotape of the 100 @-@ point game " only added to its mystique . " For a while , NBA Commissioner David Stern 's office phone would play Campbell 's call of the 100 @-@ point basket to callers on hold : " He made it ! He made it ! He made it ! A Dipper Dunk ! " Kerry Ryman , who was 14 years old when he attended the game , claimed to have left the arena with the basketball that Chamberlain used to score his famous basket . The ball was auctioned by Leland 's Auction in 2000 for $ 551 @,@ 844 , which was the then @-@ third highest sports memorabilia auction price . After controversy over the ball 's authenticity , the sale was suspended . The ball was relisted months later and sold for only $ 67 @,@ 791 . Attles contends that Chamberlain gave him the actual 100 @-@ point ball . In 2014 , Memphis Tigers coach Josh Pastner stated that his father , who was a ballboy for the Warriors , had taped the game starting in the second quarter . Pastner 's father had been attempting to locate the footage among his many boxes , but he also conceded that the footage might be lost .
In 1961 – 62 , the NBA 's three highest scoring averages were by black players ( Chamberlain , Baylor , Walt Bellamy ) . Oscar Robertson , a Hall of Famer , believes the NBA would have lost its small television contract and not survived without the emergence of black superstars . " People heard about Wilt scoring a 100 , averaging 50 a night , and they wanted to see the guy do it ... I believe Wilt Chamberlain single @-@ handedly saved the league . " Naulls wrote , " Wilt had rung the bell of freedom loud and clear , shouting , ' Let my people be free to express themselves . ' For we were and will be for all time those who withstood the humiliation of racial quotas even to the point of the NBA 's facing extinction because of retarded expression and stagnating growth . "
= = Box score = =
Source
Wilt Chamberlain 's statistics by quarter
= Bothia =
Bothia is a fungal genus in the family Boletaceae . A monotypic genus , it contains the single species Bothia castanella , a bolete mushroom first described scientifically in 1900 from collections made in New Jersey . Found in the eastern United States , Costa Rica , China , and Taiwan , it grows in a mycorrhizal association with oak trees . Its fruit body is chestnut brown , the cap is smooth and dry , and the underside of the cap has radially elongated tubes . The spore deposit is yellow @-@ brown . The edibility of the mushroom is unknown . Historically , its unique combination of morphological features resulted in the transfer of B. castanella to six different Boletaceae genera . Molecular phylogenetic analysis , published in 2007 , demonstrated that the species was genetically unique enough to warrant placement in its own genus .
= = Taxonomy = =
The bolete was first named Boletinus castanellus by American mycologist Charles Horton Peck in 1900 . The type was collected in New Jersey by botanist Edward Sterling . William Alphonso Murrill transferred it to Boletinellus in 1909 ; his generic concept of Boletinus included a ring on the stipe . Rolf Singer placed it in Gyrodon in 1938 , while Wally Snell and Esther Dick thought the species to be more appropriately placed in Xerocomus , and transferred it to that genus in 1958 . Alexander H. Smith and Harry D. Thiers moved it to Suillus in their 1964 treatment of North American species . In more recent history ( 1996 ) , it has been moved to Chalciporus . Snell and Dick 's Boletinus squarrosoides ( later moved by different authors to Phylloporus , Xerocomus , and Chalciporus ) is a facultative synonym ( based on a different type ) of B. castanella . In their original 1936 publication , they compared the two species , and noted that Boletinus squarrosoides differed from B. castanellus by " reddish brown color , terete scaliness , and yellow colors of the flesh , tubes and stipe . " By 1958 , after having examined additional collections , they realized that the two species were conspecific and represented morphological variations of each other .
In 2007 , Roy Halling and colleagues published molecular analysis showing that the species was genetically and morphologically distinct enough to deserve placement in a new Boletaceae genus , which they named Bothia . Since the original type has been lost , they designated a neotype from a collection made in Reading , Pennsylvania . Bothia is named in honor of mycologist Ernst E. Both , formerly curator emeritus of the Buffalo Museum of Science , and " promoter , facilitator and consummate student of boletology " . The specific epithet castanella , which means " small chestnut " , refers to the color of the cap .
= = Description = =
The cap of Bothia castanella is convex at first before flattening out in age , reaching a diameter of 3 – 8 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 3 @.@ 1 in ) . The center of the cap sometimes acquires a shallow depression , while the margin ranges from even to wavy and irregular . The cap surface is dry and initially hairy , but becomes smooth in maturity . Its color ranges from reddish @-@ brown to burgundy @-@ brown to dark yellowish @-@ brown . The flesh is white , and , unlike several other bolete species , does not change color when bruised or injured . It is about 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 3 in ) thick .
On the cap undersurface are the pores , which are angular to elongated and measure about 2 mm wide . The color of the pore surface is pinkish brown to tan or buff , but it becomes yellowish brown in maturity ; bruised areas turn ochre @-@ tawny . The tubes are somewhat decurrent attached to the stipe ( i.e. , running slightly down its length ) , and extend about 6 mm ( 0 @.@ 24 in ) deep . The mushroom lacks any appreciable odor or taste . The dry , solid stipe measures 2 – 7 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 2 @.@ 8 in ) long by 0 @.@ 6 – 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 8 in ) thick , and is nearly equal in thickness throughout , or slightly tapered on either end . Its surface is more or less smooth except for a reticulate ( meshed ) area at the apex . The edibility of the mushroom is unknown .
Fruit bodies produce a yellow @-@ brown spore print . Spores are egg @-@ shaped to ellipsoid , smooth , thin @-@ walled , and measure 8 @.@ 4 – 10 @.@ 5 by 4 @.@ 2 – 4 @.@ 9 µm . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are club @-@ shaped , four @-@ spored , and measure 25 – 35 by 7 – 9 µm . Cystidia are present on both the tube walls ( as pleurocystidia ) and abundantly on the edges ( as cheilocystidia ) . They are somewhat spindle @-@ shaped , sometimes with a central swelling , and measure 45 – 70 by 7 – 12 μm . Clamp connections are absent from the hyphae , and all of the hyphae are inamyloid .
Several chemical tests can used to help confirm identification of the mushroom . The cap cuticle turns grayish with the application of a drop of ferrous sulfate ( FeSO4 ) , and dark brown to amber with a dilute solution of potassium hydroxide ( KOH ) . The flesh turns pale brown with KOH , and pale yellow with ammonia ( NH4OH ) .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
The fruit bodies of Bothia castanella grow singly , scattered , or in groups under oak , although other trees such as birch , beech , hickory , eastern white pine , and hemlock are sometimes present in the area . Typical habitats include woods and parklands . In Asia it has been recorded growing in bamboo forests .
In the United States , where the fruiting season occurs from July to October , its range extends from the Carolinas north to New York and New England , and west to Minnesota . It has also been collected from Costa Rica , China , and Taiwan .
= 1946 Australian National Airways DC @-@ 3 crash =
On Sunday 10 March 1946 a Douglas DC @-@ 3 aircraft departed from Hobart , Tasmania for a flight to Melbourne . The aircraft crashed into the sea with both engines operating less than 2 minutes after takeoff . All twenty @-@ five people on board the aircraft died . It was Australia 's worst civil aviation accident .
An investigation panel was promptly established to investigate the accident . The panel was unable to conclusively establish the cause but it decided the most likely cause was that the automatic pilot was inadvertently engaged shortly after takeoff while the gyroscope was caged . The Department of Civil Aviation took action to ensure that operation of the automatic pilot on @-@ off control on Douglas DC @-@ 3 aircraft was made distinctive from operation of any other control in the cockpit , and that instructions were issued impressing on pilots that gyroscopes should be un @-@ caged prior to takeoff .
An inquiry chaired by a Supreme Court judge closely examined three different theories but found there was insufficient evidence to determine any one of them as the cause . This inquiry discovered that the captain of the aircraft was diabetic and had kept it secret from both his employer and the Department of Civil Aviation . The judge considered the captain 's diabetes and self @-@ administration of insulin probably contributed significantly to the accident but he stopped short of making this his official conclusion .
In his report , the judge recommended modification of the lever actuating the automatic pilot . The inquiry uncovered four irregularities in the regulation of civil aviation in Australia and the judge made four recommendations to deal with these irregularities .
= = The flight = =
The Australian National Airways aircraft registered VH @-@ AET arrived at Cambridge aerodrome at 8 : 15 pm local time , about four hours late . The return flight to Essendon Airport was scheduled to depart at 4 : 50 pm , but did not do so until 8 : 50 pm .
On board were 21 passengers , 3 pilots and an air hostess . Douglas DC @-@ 3 ( and C @-@ 47 ) aircraft were normally crewed by two pilots but on 10 March the cockpit of VH @-@ AET was occupied by a third person , a supernumerary pilot who was making his first flights with the airline . The weight of the aircraft was about 900 pounds ( 408 kg ) below the maximum authorised weight . The takeoff was into a light southerly wind towards Frederick Henry Bay and the sea . Observers at the aerodrome reported that the takeoff was normal , and both engines were operating perfectly .
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culture and experiences of the same time period . Half of the album is made up of parodies , featuring jabs at Toni Basil , Joan Jett , Stevie Nicks , The Knack , and Queen . Yankovic 's trademark instrument , the accordion , is used on all songs featured on the album .
Fueled by the underground success of the singles " My Bologna " and " Another One Rides the Bus " , the album charted at 139 on the Billboard 200 . Critically , however , the album received a lukewarm reception , with many reviewers feeling that Yankovic was a throw @-@ away act , and someone who could not overcome the stigma of a novelty record .
= = Production = =
After hearing Yankovic 's parody of his song " I Love Rock ' n ' Roll " , " I Love Rocky Road " , songwriter Jake Hooker suggested to guitarist Rick Derringer that he would be the perfect producer for the burgeoning parodist . Agreeing , Derringer used his music industry prestige and convinced Cherokee Studios to record an album 's worth of Yankovic 's songs gratis , to be paid from sales revenue . Then , in March 1982 , " Weird Al " Yankovic stepped into a professional recording studio for the first time and recorded nine of the songs for " Weird Al " Yankovic .
The huge irony of my life ; [ ... ] it was difficult for me to get signed to a record deal back in early 80s because all the executives were saying " Oh , you do that ... novelty music . You 're gonna have maybe one hit if you 're lucky and then [ ... ] you 'll go right to oblivion . You know , nobody 'll ever hear from you again . "
After encountering difficulty picking up a record label for the first @-@ time album , Jay Levey ( a Los Angeles artists ' manager ) provided KIQQ @-@ FM with a copy of " I Love Rocky Road " . Impressing the program director of the Top 40 station , he played it immediately ; " I Love Rocky Road " was one of the most @-@ requested songs by the next day . At the same time , Tad Dowd — head of the new record label , Rock ' n Roll Records — had been trying to convince parent company Scotti Brothers Records to sign the 22 @-@ year @-@ old Yankovic . The positive furor over the KIQQ playtest provided Dowd with the leverage needed to convince Scotti Bros. to offer a contract for Yankovic 's first album .
Scotti Brothers Records ' contract planned an April 1983 release date for a twelve @-@ track album : " I Love Rocky Road " and eight other tracks were already recorded , " Another One Rides the Bus " would be the original 1980 live recording from The Dr. Demento Show , and the last two songs ( " Ricky " and " Buckingham Blues " ) would be recorded at Scotti Brothers ' own studios in Santa Monica , California .
To promote the album , Levey coordinated a three @-@ week tour in late Summer 1983 across the United States ' East Coast and Midwest for both Yankovic and Dr. Demento . Promoted as " An Evening of Dementia with Dr. Demento in Person Plus ' Weird Al ' Yankovic " , Demento opened with recorded hits and short comedy films from his show before introducing Yankovic and the band . During their three weeks , the tour played in several famous clubs , including The Bottom Line in New York City .
The album cover for " Weird Al " Yankovic was designed by Brazilian artist Rogerio . The band chose Rogerio because of his " MAD Magazine @-@ like drawing style . " The cover art specifically features individual elements that correspond with each of the album 's twelve songs .
= = Critical reception = =
Eugene Chadbourne , reviewer for Allmusic , felt that while " Weird Al " Yankovic was a detailed harbinger of parody to come , the album does not hold up well on its own . Chadbourne extolled most of the parodies ( " Another One Rides the Bus " , " My Bologna " , " I Love Rocky Road " ) for their comedic value in contrast with their originals — songs he supposed to be " pretentious [ & ] overblown " . However , also according to Chadbourne , " Ricky " lacks the comedic connection Yankovic cultivates in later albums , and the original songs " may not seem like they were written in ten minutes , but the ideas behind them don 't seem to involve that much contemplation . [ They 're ] like little bits of puff [ whose ... ] impact on the flow of an album side is more like ballast . "
Introducing Yankovic as the guest DJ for All Songs Considered on National Public Radio in 2006 , host Bob Boilen opined that upon his debut , Yankovic " seemed the epitome of throw @-@ away novelty act " . Reviewing Yankovic in 2008 , Brian Raftery of Wired magazine wrote that " Ricky " introduced the world to " an accordion @-@ playing spaz with a coif like Rick James and a voice like an urgent goose . " In 1983 , Yankovic was considered a fad of the time — comparing him to parachute pants and Contras — and " thoroughly disposable . " Musical databasing and review websites Allmusic and Artistdirect rated " Weird Al " Yankovic three and a half out of five stars .
= = Composition = =
" Weird Al " Yankovic is the only album in Yankovic 's discography in which the accordion is prevalent in every song ; in subsequent albums it 's only used where deemed appropriate or wholly inappropriate for comedic effect . " Ricky " is a parody of " Mickey " by Toni Basil ; an ode to I Love Lucy with Yankovic performing as Ricky and Tress MacNeille as Lucy . " Gotta Boogie " is a play on words discussing a man with a " boogie " on his finger and his quandary therein . " I Love Rocky Road " is a parody of Arrows ' " I Love Rock ' n ' Roll " made famous by Joan Jett ; in the song the narrator expresses feelings about the titular ice cream flavor . " Buckingham Blues " is a blues song satirizing the socialite lifestyle of the Prince and Princess of Wales ( Prince Charles and Diana ) . Originally , the song was going to be a parody of " Jack & Diane " by John Mellencamp ; worried about spoiling a Jack and Diane movie deal , Mellencamp shot down the parody . Yankovic considered tweaking the " Jack & Diane " melody to avoid the song being a true parody , but decided against it and later rewrote it as an original song . Answering a fan in 1998 , Yankovic replied that he would not rewrite and rerecord the song in light of the death of Diana .
" Happy Birthday " is a style parody of Tonio K , one of Yankovic 's favorite artists . The song is a morbidly depressing birthday song detailing ails of the world , including poverty , nuclear holocaust , and eventual solar cataclysm . Only seeing two popular birthday songs at the time — " Happy Birthday to You " by Patty and Mildred J. Hill , and " Birthday " by The Beatles — Yankovic decided to write his own " severely twisted version of one . " " Stop Draggin ' My Car Around " is a parody of " Stop Draggin ' My Heart Around " by Stevie Nicks ; the lament of an otherwise " cool guy " forced to repeatedly save his 1964 Plymouth car from impoundment due to illegal parking , shame , and non @-@ payment . " My Bologna " is a parody of " My Sharona " by The Knack ; the narrator talks about his obsession with bologna sausage . This is a re @-@ recording of the song ; the original Capitol Records single version would not appear on a " Weird Al " album until the 1994 box set Permanent Record : Al in the Box . " The Check 's in the Mail " parodies business @-@ related prevarications , exampling avoidance , litigation , and the titular payment delay . " Another One Rides the Bus " is a parody of " Another One Bites the Dust " by Queen ; the narrator laments about a crowded public bus . This is the original 1980 recording from The Dr. Demento Show . " I 'll Be Mellow When I 'm Dead " is a rejection of the stereotypical attitudes and accoutrements of the hippie / yuppie lifestyles .
" Such a Groovy Guy " parodies narcissism specifically noting fashion , demeanor , dominance and submission , and relationship breakup . Yankovic wrote the song for a woman he was dating in homage of her previous boyfriend who , upon the breakup asked her , " I ’ m such a groovy guy ! Why would you break up with me ? " Out of concern the individual may not be aware of his status , Yankovic does not identify him . " Mr. Frump in the Iron Lung " is an audience favorite from Yankovic 's days playing in coffeehouses at Cal Poly ; the song describes the rather lopsided relationship between the narrator and the eponymous " Mr. Frump " in his iron lung , until the latter 's death . The sound of the iron lung is an accordion 's air release valve . " It 's Still Billy Joel to Me " , Yankovic 's 1980 parody of Billy Joel 's " It 's Still Rock and Roll to Me " , was originally planned for this album . Wary of the song being considered " dated " three years later , and doubtful that Joel would give his blessing , the band never bothered to ask . Yankovic 's parody of The Kinks ' song " Lola " — " Yoda " — was written in 1980 ( during the initial theatre run of The Empire Strikes Back ) , and a " huge hit " on The Dr. Demento Show . However , the complexities of receiving permission from filmmaker George Lucas and the Kinks ' publishers delayed its release until 1985 .
= = Track listing = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Singles = = =
= = Personnel = =
= Shays ' Rebellion =
Shays ' Rebellion was an armed uprising in Massachusetts ( mostly in and around Springfield ) during 1786 and 1787 . Revolutionary War veteran Daniel Shays led four thousand rebels ( called Shaysites ) in rising up against perceived economic injustices and suspension of civil rights ( including multiple eviction and foreclosure notices ) by Massachusetts , and in a later attempt to capture the United States ' national weapons arsenal at the U.S. Armory at Springfield . Although Shays ' Rebellion met with defeat militarily against a privately raised militia , it prompted numerous national leaders ( including George Washington , who came out of retirement to deal with issues raised by Shays ' Rebellion ) to call for a stronger national government to suppress future rebellions , resulting in the U.S. Constitutional Convention and according to historian Leonard L. Richards , " fundamentally altering the course of U.S. history . "
The rebellion took place in a political climate where reform of the country 's governing document , the Articles of Confederation , was widely seen as necessary . The events of the rebellion , some of which occurred after the Philadelphia Convention had been called but before it began in May 1787 , are widely seen to have affected the debates on the shape of the new government . The shock of Shays ' Rebellion drew retired General George Washington back into public life , leading to his terms as the United States ' first President . The exact nature and consequence of the rebellion 's influence on the content of the Constitution and the ratification debates continues to be a subject of historical discussion and debate .
= = Background = =
In the rural parts of New England , particularly in the hill @-@ towns of central and western Massachusetts , the economy during the American Revolutionary War had been one of little more than subsistence agriculture . Some residents in these areas had little in the way of assets beyond their land , and bartered with one another for goods or services . In lean times , farmers might obtain goods on credit from suppliers in local market towns who would be paid when times were better .
In the more economically developed coastal areas of Massachusetts Bay and in the fertile Connecticut River Valley , the economy was basically a market economy , driven by the activities of wholesale merchants dealing with Europe , the West Indies and elsewhere on the North American coast . Not surprisingly , the state government was dominated by this merchant class .
When the Revolutionary War ended in 1783 , the European business partners of Massachusetts merchants refused to extend lines of credit to them and insisted that they pay for goods with hard currency . Despite the continent @-@ wide shortage of such currency , merchants began to demand the same from their local business partners , including those merchants operating in the market towns in the state 's interior . Many of these merchants passed on this demand to their customers , although the popular governor , John Hancock , did not impose hard currency demands on poorer borrowers and refused to actively prosecute the collection of delinquent taxes .
The rural farming population was generally unable to meet the demands being made of them by merchants or the civil authorities , and individuals began to lose their land and other possessions when they were unable to fulfill their debt and tax obligations . This led to strong resentments against tax collectors and the courts , where creditors obtained and enforced judgments against debtors , and where tax collectors obtained judgments authorizing property seizures .
At a meeting convened by aggrieved commoners , a farmer identified as " Plough Jogger " , encapsulated the situation :
" I have been greatly abused , have been obliged to do more than my part in the war , been loaded with class rates , town rates , province rates , Continental rates and all rates ... been pulled and hauled by sheriffs , constables and collectors , and had my cattle sold for less than they were worth ... The great men are going to get all we have and I think it is time for us to rise and put a stop to it , and have no more courts , nor sheriffs , nor collectors nor lawyers . "
Overlaid upon these financial issues was the fact that veterans of the war had received little pay during the war and faced difficulty collecting pay owed them from the State or the Congress of the Confederation . Some of the soldiers , Daniel Shays among them , began to organize protests against these oppressive economic conditions . Shays was a farmhand from Massachusetts when the Revolution broke out ; he joined the Continental Army , saw action at the Battles of Lexington and Concord , Bunker Hill and Saratoga , and was eventually wounded in action . In 1780 , he resigned from the army unpaid and went home to find himself in court for nonpayment of debts . He soon realized that he was not alone in his inability to pay his debts and began organizing for debt relief .
= = Early rumblings = =
One early protest against the government was led by Job Shattuck of Groton , who in 1782 organized residents there to physically prevent tax collectors from doing their work . A second , larger @-@ scale protest took place in the central Massachusetts town of Uxbridge , in Worcester County , on Feb. 3 , 1783 , when a mob seized property that had been confiscated by a local constable and returned it to its owners . Governor Hancock ordered the sheriff to suppress these actions .
Most rural communities , however , attempted to use the legislative process to gain relief . Petitions and proposals were repeatedly submitted to the state legislature to issue paper currency . Such inflationary issues would depreciate the currency , making it possible to meet obligations made at high values with lower @-@ valued paper . The merchants , among them James Bowdoin , were opposed to the idea , since they were generally lenders who stood to lose from such proposals . As a result , these proposals were repeatedly rejected . Governor Hancock , accused by some of anticipating trouble , resigned citing health reasons in early 1785 . When Bowdoin ( a perennial loser to Hancock in earlier elections ) was elected governor that year , matters became more severe . Bowdoin stepped up civil actions to collect back taxes , and the legislature exacerbated the situation by levying an additional property tax to raise funds for the state 's portion of foreign debt payments . Even comparatively conservative commentators such as John Adams observed that these levies were " heavier than the People could bear . "
= = Shutting down the courts = =
Protests in the rural Massachusetts turned into direct action in August 1786 , after the state legislature adjourned without considering the many petitions that had been sent to Boston . On August 29 a well @-@ organized force of protestors formed in Northampton and successfully prevented the county court from sitting . The leaders of this and later forces proclaimed that they were seeking relief from the burdensome judicial processes that were depriving the people of their land and possessions . They called themselves Regulators , a reference to the Regulator movement of North Carolina that sought to reform corrupt practices in the late 1760s .
On September 2 Governor Bowdoin issued a proclamation denouncing such mob action , but took no military measures beyond planning militia response to future actions . When the court in Worcester was shut down by similar action on September 5 , the county militia ( composed mainly of men sympathetic to the protestors ) refused to turn out , much to Bowdoin 's amazement . Governors of the neighboring states where similar protests took place acted decisively , calling out the militia to hunt down the ringleaders after the first such protests . In Rhode Island , matters were resolved without violence because the " country party " gained control of the legislature in 1786 and enacted measures forcing its merchant elites to trade debt instruments for devalued currency . The impact of this was not lost on Boston 's merchants , especially Bowdoin , who held more than £ 3 @,@ 000 in Massachusetts notes .
Daniel Shays , who had participated in the Northampton action , began to take a more active role in the uprising in November , though he firmly denied that he was one of its leaders . On September 19 , the Supreme Judicial Court of Massachusetts indicted eleven leaders of the rebellion as " disorderly , riotous , and seditious persons . " When the supreme judicial court was next scheduled to meet in Springfield on September 26 , Shays in Hampshire County and Luke Day in what is now Hampden County ( but was then part of Hampshire County ) organized an attempt to shut it down . They were anticipated by William Shepard , the local militia commander , who began gathering government @-@ supporting militia the Saturday before the court was to sit . By the time the court was ready to open , Shepard had 300 men protecting the Springfield courthouse . Shays and Day were able to recruit a similar number , but chose only to demonstrate , exercising their troops outside Shepard 's lines , rather than attempt to seize the building . The judges first postponed the hearings , and then adjourned on the 28th without hearing any cases . Shepard withdrew his force , which had grown to some 800 men ( to the Regulators ' 1 @,@ 200 ) , to the federal armory , which was then only rumored to be the target of seizure by the activists .
Protests in Great Barrington , Concord , and Taunton were also successful in shutting courts down in those communities in September and October . James Warren wrote to John Adams on October 22 , " We are now in a state of Anarchy and Confusion bordering on Civil War . " Courts in the larger towns and cities were able to meet , but required protection of the militia , which Bowdoin called out for the purpose .
The Boston elites were mortified at this resistance . Governor Bowdoin commanded the legislature to " vindicate the insulted dignity of government . " Samuel Adams claimed that foreigners ( " British emissaries " ) were instigating treason among the commoners , and he helped draw up a Riot Act , and a resolution suspending habeas corpus in order to permit the authorities to keep people in jail without trial . Adams even proposed a new legal distinction : that rebellion in a republic , unlike in a monarchy , should be punished by execution . The legislature also moved to make some concessions to the upset farmers , saying certain old taxes could now be paid in goods instead of hard currency . These measures were followed up by one prohibiting speech critical of the government , and offering pardons to protestors willing to take an oath of allegiance . These legislative actions were unsuccessful in quelling the protests , and the suspension of habeas corpus alarmed many .
In late November warrants were issued for the arrest of several of the protest ringleaders . On November 28 a posse of some 300 men rode to Groton to arrest Job Shattuck and other rebel leaders in the area . Shattuck was chased down and arrested on the 30th , and was wounded by a sword slash in the process . This action and the arrest of other protest leaders in the eastern parts of the state radicalized those in the west , and they began to organize an overthrow of the state government . " The seeds of war are now sown " , wrote one correspondent in Shrewsbury , and by mid @-@ January rebel leaders spoke of smashing the " tyrannical government of Massachusetts . "
= = Rebellion = =
Since the federal government had been unable to recruit soldiers for the army ( primarily because of a lack of funding ) , the Massachusetts elites determined to act independently . On January 4 , 1787 , Governor Bowdoin proposed creation of a privately funded militia army . Former Continental Army General Benjamin Lincoln solicited funds , and had by the end of January raised more than £ 6 @,@ 000 from more than 125 merchants . The 3 @,@ 000 militia that were recruited into this army were almost entirely from the eastern counties of Massachusetts , and marched to Worcester on January 19 .
While the government forces organized , Shays , Day , and other rebel leaders in the west organized their forces , establishing regional regimental organizations that were run by democratically elected committees . Their first major target was the federal armory in Springfield . General Shepard had however , pursuant to orders from Governor Bowdoin , taken possession of the armory and used its arsenal to arm a force of some 1 @,@ 200 militia . He had done this despite the fact that the armory was federal , not state , property , and that he did not have permission from Secretary at War Henry Knox to do so .
The insurgents were organized into three major groups , and intended to surround and simultaneously attack the armory . Shays had one group east of Springfield near Palmer , Luke Day had a second force across the Connecticut River in West Springfield , and the third force , under Eli Parsons , was to the north at Chicopee . The rebels had planned their assault for January 25 , but Luke Day changed this at the last minute , sending Shays a message indicating he would not be ready to attack until the 26th . Day 's message was intercepted by Shepard 's men , so the militia of Shays and Parsons , some 1 @,@ 500 men , approached the armory on the 25th not knowing they would have no support from the west .
When Shays and his forces neared the armory , they found Shepard 's militia waiting for them . Shepard first ordered warning shots fired over the approaching Shaysites ' heads , and then ordered two cannons to fire grape shot at Shays ' men . Four Shaysites were killed and twenty wounded . There was no musket fire from either side , and the rebel advance collapsed . Most of the rebel force fled north , eventually regrouping at Amherst . On the opposite side of the river , Day 's forces also fled north , also eventually reaching Amherst .
General Lincoln , when he heard of the Springfield incident , immediately began marching west from Worcester with the 3 @,@ 000 men that had mustered . The rebels moved generally north and east to avoid Lincoln , eventually establishing a camp at Petersham ; along the way they raided the shops of local merchants for supplies , taking some of them hostage . Lincoln pursued them , reaching Pelham , some 30 miles ( 48 km ) from Petersham , on February 2 . On the night of February 3 – 4 , he led his militia on a forced march to Petersham through a bitter snowstorm . Arriving early in the morning , they surprised the rebel camp so thoroughly that they scattered " without time to call in their out parties or even their guards . " Although Lincoln claimed to capture 150 men , none of them were officers , leading historian Leonard Richards to suspect the veracity of the report . Most of the leadership escaped north into New Hampshire and Vermont , where they were sheltered despite repeated demands that they be returned to Massachusetts for trial .
= = Mopping up = =
Lincoln 's march marked the end of large @-@ scale organized resistance . Ringleaders who eluded capture fled to neighboring states , and pockets of local resistance continued . Some rebel leaders approached Lord Dorchester , the British governor of Quebec for assistance , who was reported to promise assistance in the form of Mohawk warriors led by Joseph Brant . ( Dorchester 's proposal was vetoed in London , and no assistance came to the rebels . )
The same day that Lincoln arrived at Petersham , the state legislature passed bills authorizing a state of martial law , giving the governor broad powers to act against the rebels . The bills also authorized state payments to reimburse Lincoln and the merchants who had funded the army , and authorized the recruitment of additional militia . On February 12 the legislature passed the Disqualification Act , seeking to prevent a legislative response by rebel sympathizers . This bill expressly forbade any acknowledged rebels from holding a variety of elected and appointed offices .
Most of Lincoln 's army melted away in late February as enlistments expired ; by the end of the month he commanded but thirty men at a base in Pittsfield . In the meantime some 120 rebels had regrouped in New Lebanon , New York , and on February 27 they crossed the border . Marching first on Stockbridge , a major market town in the southwestern corner of the state , they raided the shops of merchants and the homes of merchants and local professionals . This came to the attention of Brigadier John Ashley , who mustered a force of some 80 men , and caught up with the rebels in nearby Sheffield late in the day . In the bloodiest encounter of the rebellion , 30 rebels were wounded ( one mortally ) , at least one government soldier was killed , and many were wounded . Ashley , who was further reinforced after the encounter , reported taking 150 prisoners .
= = Consequences = =
Four thousand people signed confessions acknowledging participation in the events of the rebellion ( in exchange for amnesty ) ; several hundred participants were eventually indicted on charges relating to the rebellion . Most of these were pardoned under a general amnesty that only excluded a few ringleaders . Eighteen men were convicted and sentenced to death , but most of these were either overturned on appeal , pardoned , or had their sentences commuted . Two of the condemned men , John Bly and Charles Rose , were hanged on December 6 , 1787 . Shays himself was pardoned in 1788 and he returned to Massachusetts from hiding in the Vermont woods . He was , however , vilified by the Boston press , who painted him as an archetypal anarchist opposed to the government . He later moved to the Conesus , New York , area , where he lived until he died poor and obscure in 1825 .
The crushing of the rebellion and the harsh terms of reconciliation imposed by the Disqualification Act all worked against Governor Bowdoin politically . In the gubernatorial election held in April 1787 , Bowdoin received few votes from the rural parts of the state , and was trounced by John Hancock . The military victory was tempered by tax changes in subsequent years . The legislature elected in 1787 cut taxes and placed a moratorium on debts . It also refocused state spending away from interest payments , resulting in a 30 % decline in the value of Massachusetts securities as those payments fell in arrears .
Vermont , then an unrecognized independent republic that had been seeking statehood independent from New York 's claims to the territory , became an unexpected beneficiary of the rebellion due to its sheltering of the rebel ringleaders . Alexander Hamilton broke from other New Yorkers , including major landowners with claims on Vermont territory , calling for the state to recognize and support Vermont 's bid for admission to the union . He cited Vermont 's de facto independence and its ability to cause trouble by providing support to the discontented from neighboring states as reasons , and introduced legislation that broke the impasse between New York and Vermont . Vermonters responded favorably to the overture , publicly pushing Eli Parsons and Luke Day out of the state ( but quietly continuing to support others ) . After negotiations with New York and the passage of the new constitution , Vermont became the fourteenth state .
= = Impact on Constitution = =
Thomas Jefferson , who was serving as ambassador to France at the time , refused to be alarmed by Shays ' Rebellion . In a letter to James Madison on January 30 , 1787 , he argued that a little rebellion now and then is a good thing . " The tree of liberty must be refreshed from time to time with the blood of patriots and tyrants . It is its natural manure . " In contrast to Jefferson 's sentiments George Washington , who had been calling for constitutional reform for many years , wrote in a letter to Henry Lee , " You talk , my good sir , of employing influence to appease the present tumults in Massachusetts . I know not where that influence is to be found , or , if attainable , that it would be a proper remedy for the disorders . Influence is not government . Let us have a government by which our lives , liberties , and properties will be secured , or let us know the worst at once . "
= = = Influence on Constitutional Convention = = =
At the time of the rebellion , the weaknesses of the federal government as constituted under the Articles of Confederation were apparent to many . A vigorous debate was going on throughout the states on the need for a stronger central government , with Federalists arguing for the idea , and Anti @-@ Federalists opposing them . Historical opinion is divided on what sort of role the rebellion played in the formation and later ratification of the United States Constitution , although most scholars agree it played some role , at least temporarily drawing some anti @-@ Federalists to the strong government side . By early 1785 many influential merchants and political leaders were already agreed that a stronger central government was needed . A convention at Annapolis , Maryland , in September 1786 of delegates from five states concluded that vigorous steps needed to be taken to reform the federal government , but it disbanded because of a lack of full representation , calling for a convention of all the states to be held in Philadelphia in May 1787 . Historian Robert Feer notes that several prominent figures had hoped that convention would fail , requiring a larger @-@ scale convention , and French diplomat Louis @-@ Guillaume Otto thought the convention was intentionally broken off early to achieve this end .
In early 1787 John Jay wrote that the rural disturbances and the inability of the central government to fund troops in response made " the inefficiency of the Federal government [ become ] more and more manifest . " Henry Knox observed that the uprising in Massachusetts clearly influenced local leaders who had previously opposed a strong federal government . Historian David Szatmary writes that the timing of the rebellion " convinced the elites of sovereign states that the proposed gathering at Philadelphia must take place . " Some states , Massachusetts among them , delayed choosing delegates to the proposed convention , in part because in some ways it resembled the " extra @-@ legal " conventions organized by the protestors before the rebellion became violent .
= = = Influence on Constitution = = =
The convention that met in Philadelphia was dominated by strong @-@ government advocates . Delegate Oliver Ellsworth of Connecticut argued that because the people could not be trusted ( as exemplified by Shays ' Rebellion ) , the members of the federal House of Representatives should be chosen by state legislatures , not by popular vote . The example of Shays ' Rebellion may also have been influential in the addition of language to the constitution concerning the ability of states to manage domestic violence , and their ability to demand the return of individuals from other states for trial . The rebellion also played a role in the discussion of a number of the executives . While mindful of tyranny , delegates of the Constitutional Convention thought that the single executive would be more effective in responding to national disturbances . Federalists cited the rebellion as an example of the confederation government 's weaknesses , while opponents such as Elbridge Gerry thought that a federal response to the rebellion would have been even worse than that of the state . ( Gerry , a merchant speculator and Massachusetts delegate from Essex County , was one of the few convention delegates who refused to sign the new constitution , although his reasons for doing so did not stem from the rebellion . )
= = = Influence on ratification = = =
When the constitution had been drafted , Massachusetts was viewed by Federalists as a state that might not ratify it , because of widespread anti @-@ Federalist sentiment in the rural parts of the state . Massachusetts Federalists , including Henry Knox , were active in courting swing votes in the debates leading up to the state 's ratifying convention in 1788 . When the vote was taken on February 6 , 1788 , representatives of rural communities involved in the rebellion voted against ratification by a wide margin , but the day was carried by a coalition of merchants , urban elites , and market town leaders . The state ratified the constitution by a vote of 187 to 168 .
Historians are divided on the impact the rebellion had on the ratification debates . Robert Feer notes that major Federalist pamphleteers rarely mentioned it , and that some anti @-@ Federalists used the fact that Massachusetts survived the rebellion as evidence that a new constitution was unnecessary . However , Leonard Richards counters that publications like the Pennsylvania Gazette explicitly tied anti @-@ Federalist opinion to the rebel cause , calling opponents of the new constitution " Shaysites " and the Federalists " Washingtonians " . David Szatmary argues that debate in some states was affected , particularly in Massachusetts , where the rebellion had a polarizing effect . Richards records Henry Jackson 's observation that opposition to ratification in Massachusetts was motivated by " that cursed spirit of insurgency " , but that broader opposition in other states originated in other constitutional concerns expressed by Elbridge Gerry , who published a widely distributed pamphlet outlining his concerns about the vagueness of some of the powers granted in the constitution and its lack of a Bill of Rights .
The military powers enshrined in the constitution were soon put to use by President George Washington . After the passage by the United States Congress of the Whiskey Act , protest against the taxes it imposed began in western Pennsylvania . The protests escalated and Washington led federal and state militia to put down what is now known as the Whiskey Rebellion .
= = Memorials = =
The events and people of the uprising are commemorated in the towns where they lived and those where events took place . Sheffield erected a memorial ( pictured above ) marking the site of the " last battle " , and Pelham memorialized Daniel Shays . US Route 202 , which runs through Pelham , is called the Daniel Shays Highway . A statue of General Shepard was erected in his hometown of Westfield .
In the town of Petersham , Massachusetts , a memorial was erected in 1927 by the New England Society of Brooklyn , New York . The memorial commemorates General Benjamin Lincoln , who raised 3 @,@ 000 troops and routed the rebellion on February 4 , 1787 . It ends with the line , " Obedience to the law is true liberty . "
= Throb ( song ) =
" Throb " is a song by American singer Janet Jackson from her fifth studio album , janet . ( 1993 ) . It was written and produced by Jackson , James Harris III and Terry Lewis and is a house song which lyrically is about sex with a partner . It was released commercially in the Netherlands as the album 's sixth single on June 18 , 1994 , while in the United States it was a radio @-@ only release .
" Throb " was well received by critics who appreciated its production . While it did not chart in the Netherlands , in the United States the song peaked at number 66 on the airplay chart and number two on the Hot Dance Club Play chart . The song was performed on three of Jackson 's tours .
= = Composition = =
" Throb " begins with Jackson saying " come for me " , before promising to " boom , boom , boom until noon , noon , noon " with her sexual partner . " I can feel your body / pressed against my body / Wrap yourself around me / Love to feel you throbbing " , the singer sang amid moans , elements of house music , C & C Music Factory @-@ esque beats and a saxophone loop . Chuck Arnold from Philadelphia Daily News noted the song 's " surprisingly frank dirty talk " with the lyric " I can feel your body / Pressed against my body / When you start to poundin ' / Love to feel you throbbin ' " . MuuMuse described the song writing that the track " swells and deflates in an aching , circular motion – not unlike a musical orgasm " .
An exclusive remix of " Throb " , the Morales Badyard Mix , was included on Jackson 's remix compilation album Janet Remixed in 1995 . Peter Rauhofer remixed " Throb " in 2013 and released the remix on Valentine 's Day .
= = Critical reception = =
" Throb " received positive reviews from music critics . Billboard , while reviewing the album on its twentieth anniversary , said , " If the production sounds a little dated now , the overtly sexual vibes on this track are pretty timeless – and still risqué for the early 90s . " Robert Christgau called the song " orgiastic " . MuuMuse gave a positive review for " Throb " , defining it as " a ' 90 's purist 's house track , featuring classic dance rhythms and beat breaks " . The reviewer continued saying the song is " a much grittier experience than the slinky seduction " of Madonna 's " Erotica " single released the year before , and finished saying " Surprisingly however , the track has aged brilliantly , and listening to it now is still an overly enjoyable experience " .
Sputnikmusic considered that " Throb " has a " sexy workout feel " . Philadelphia Daily News 's Chuck Arnold called the song a " deep house jam with a pumpin ' bass line " . A reviewer for Soulbounce commented that for the " pulsing " song , Jackson became a house music diva . Complex noted that " Throb " is " the hip @-@ house tantric jam that 's Janet at her most explicit : moans , groans , ' damn , baby ' , you get the picture , yes " . Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine commented : " Even the nearly structure @-@ less ' Throb ' , [ ... ] feels like a ( perhaps unintentional ) parody of Madonna 's ' Erotica ' , right down to the hard , house @-@ orgy beats .
= = Chart performance = =
" Throb " was released as a commercial single in the Netherlands but failed to chart there . In the United States , the song was not released commercially . However , it was sent to mainstream radios and charted on the Billboard Hot 100 Airplay , peaking at number 66 . The song 's B @-@ side , " And On and On " , went on to chart as well at number 28 . " And On and On " also peaked at number twelve on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Airplay chart . However , according to Billboard 's regulations , both songs were ineligible to chart on the Billboard Hot 100 , due to their lack of a physical release in the US . However , " Throb " enjoyed success on the Hot Dance Club Songs chart , eventually reaching number two . Additionally , " Throb " topped Hot Dance Singles Sales as a B @-@ side to " Any Time , Any Place " .
= = Live performances = =
Jackson performed " Throb " on Saturday Night Live along with " Any Time , Any Place " . It was added to the Janet World Tour in 1993 . During the performance , the screens swirled with techno @-@ style patterns of fractal curves . According to Robert Hilburn from Los Angeles Times , it was performed with equal energy and style of the album 's quality . The song was performed after a " frenzied " medley of " What Have You Done for Me Lately " , " The Pleasure Principle " and " Nasty " on The Velvet Rope Tour in 1998 . After the performance , a red crushed @-@ velvet curtain closed the stage , and a hidden light @-@ and @-@ sound came . The medley at the October 11 , 1998 show in New York City , at the Madison Square Garden , was broadcast during a special titled The Velvet Rope : Live in Madison Square Garden by HBO . It was also added to the setlist at its DVD release , The Velvet Rope Tour – Live in Concert in 1999 . The song was also used as an interlude on the Number Ones : Up Close and Personal tour in 2011 . It was also included on the 2015 @-@ 2016 Unbreakable World Tour .
= = Track listings = =
Dutch CD single
" Any Time , Any Place " ( R. Kelly Mix ) – 5 : 11
" Throb " – 4 : 34
Dutch CD maxi single
" Throb " – 4 : 34
" Throb " ( David Morales Legendary Dub Mix ) – 7 : 27
" And on and On " – 4 : 49
" Any Time , Any Place " ( R. Kelly Mix ) – 5 : 11
UK 12 " promo single
A1 . " Throb " ( David Morales Legendary Club Mix ) – 9 : 05
B1 . " Throb " ( David Morales Legendary Dub Mix ) – 7 : 27
B2 . " Throb " – 4 : 34
= = Credits and personnel = =
Janet Jackson - all vocals , songwriter , producer
Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis - songwriters , producers , all instruments
Tina Landon - additional vocals
Josie Harris - additional vocals
Mixed by Dave Rideau at Steve Hodge at Flyte Tyme Studios , Edina , Minnesota .
= = Charts = =
= Phallus calongei =
Phallus calongei is a species of stinkhorn mushroom . Found in Pakistan , it was described as new to science in 2009 . Starting out as an " egg " , the fully expanded fruit body consists of a single , thick , stipe with a cap attached to the apex and covered with olive @-@ green , slimy spore @-@ containing gleba . It is distinguished from other similar Phallus species by a combination of features , including a pinkish , reticulated ( network @-@ like ) cap , and a stipe that is tapered at both ends . The edibility of the mushroom is unknown .
= = Discovery , taxonomy and classification = =
Phallus calongei was discovered on June 16 , 2008 , near the Khanspur stream in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa ( formerly known as the North Western Frontier Province ) in Pakistan . It was described as new to science in a 2009 Mycotaxon publication . The specific epithet calongei honors Spanish mycologist Francisco D. Calonge who has written extensively on the Gasteromycetes , and who has himself published or co @-@ published three Phallus species : P. atrovolvatus ( Kreisel & Calonge ) , P. maderensis ( Calonge ) and P. minusculus ( Kreisel & Calonge ) . P. calongei is one of four Phallus species known to exist in Pakistan , the others being P. celebicus , P. impudicus , and P. rubicundus .
According to the infrageneric classification scheme proposed by German mycologist Hanns Kreisel in 1996 , Phallus calongei belongs in the subgenus Phallus , section Flavophallus of the genus Phallus . Other species in this section include P. flavocostatus , P. tenuis , P. formanosus , P. calichrous , P. multicolor , and P. cinnabarinus . A number of features distinguish P. calongei from these , including : an undeveloped white volva , a stipe tapered at both ends , a deeply pitted and reticulate cap surface with pinkish ridges , and no indusium ( a lacy " skirt " hanging from the cap , present in some Phallus species ) .
= = Description = =
As a member of the genus Phallus , the shape of P. calongei mushrooms assume the general form of a phallus ( an erect human penis ) with a single elongated hollow stipe topped by a bulbous cap @-@ like structure at the apex . The fruit bodies of P. calongei start out appearing similar to whitish " eggs " , with a membranous exoperidium ( outer tissue layer ) and gelatinous , translucent endoperidium ( inner tissue layer ) . The fully expanded fruit body consists of a single , thick , stalk with a ridged and pitted cap attached to the apex ; the cap is covered with olive @-@ green , slimy gleba . The fruit body can reach up to 24 cm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) tall and 3 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick . It is whitish and hollow , slightly tapered at both ends , and has a wall that consists of layers of perforated chambers . At the apex of the stalk is the " cap " , which can be up to 7 cm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) high and 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) thick . It is bell @-@ shaped to conical @-@ truncate with a pitted surface . As the gleba dissipates , the cap surface becomes strongly reticulated — forming a network of raised pinkish ridges . The tip of the cap is truncated , with a depressed and perforated surface . The gleba is olive @-@ green , fetid , and deliquescent ( melting away gradually ) . The spores are ellipsoid , smooth , and hyaline ( translucent ) , measuring 3 @.@ 5 – 4 @.@ 5 by 1 @.@ 5 – 2 @.@ 0 µm . The exoperidium of the " egg " remains at the base of the fruit body as a thin , membranous , undeveloped white volva . The edibility of the mushroom has not been determined .
= = = Similar species = = =
The only other Phallus species known with a pinkish @-@ colored cap is P. rubicundus ; its conical cap has a surface that is wrinkled , not reticulate . Other similar species include P. hadriani , which has a purple volva , P. macrosporus , which has a reddish volva , and P. formanosus , which has a pale pink stipe and volva .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
All species of Phallus are known to be saprobic , feeding off dead and decaying organic matter . P. calongei is known only from the type locality in Pakistan , where it was found growing on the ground at 2 @,@ 575 metres ( 8 @,@ 448 ft ) above sea level .
= Tropical Storm Delta ( 2005 ) =
Tropical Storm Delta was a late @-@ forming tropical storm of the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season which struck the Canary Islands as a strong extratropical storm , causing significant damage and then crossed over Morocco before dissipating . It was the twenty @-@ sixth tropical or subtropical storm of the season , making the 2005 season the first to record so many storms .
Tropical Storm Delta , like most late @-@ season storms , developed out of an extratropical low . The storm gradually gained tropical characteristics and was briefly a subtropical storm on November 22 . Delta moved erratically for a few days before moving towards the Canary Islands . It became extratropical just before it passed to the north of the archipelago .
= = Meteorological history = =
On November 19 , a broad area of eastward @-@ moving low pressure formed in the central Atlantic Ocean about 1400 miles ( 2200 km ) southwest of the Azores . It moved steadily eastward through November 20 , but on November 21 , under the influence of a cold front to its north , the low turned northeastward and started to develop central convection . On November 22 , the non @-@ tropical low pressure system began to gain some tropical characteristics , and its northward motion slowed to a stop . Late that afternoon , the low transitioned into a subtropical storm while stalled about 800 mi ( 1 @,@ 300 km ) west @-@ southwest of the Azores . Operationally , the National Hurricane Center considered that the storm had already gained enough tropical characteristics to be classified as a tropical storm , but in post @-@ storm analysis , this was reconsidered .
The storm 's convection organized around a central core , and the system became a tropical storm on November 23 and received the name Delta . An eye @-@ like feature appeared near the storm 's circulatory center several times that day . The larger @-@ scale deep @-@ layered cyclonic circulation within which it was embedded steered it on a slow southward and then south @-@ southwesterly track . Strong wind shear prevented immediate development and the system added an eastward component to its drift . Moving out of the high @-@ shear environment on November 24 , Delta gained organization . Outflow and convective banding increased and an eye feature became well defined . This eye signaled the storm 's peak strength of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) , just below hurricane status . However , the official forecast at the time predicted Delta to strengthen further and become a minimal hurricane . Delta 's motion stalled as it reached the southern base of a large cyclonic trough over the northern Atlantic within which it was embedded . Maintaining its intensity , Delta remained motionless for half a day until , that evening when it began a slow southward drift at 6 mph ( 9 km / h ) . Maintaining its intensity , Delta remained motionless for half a day Convection broke down in the storm 's western semicircle early on November 25 ; the decreased organization caused slight weakening . Maintaining its intensity , Delta remained motionless for half a day The southward motion slowed and the weakening trend continued into the evening . Cooling cold tops were counteracted by wind shear which exposed most of the low @-@ level center . The storm 's southward motion stopped and it began moving east at 6 mph ( 9 km / h ) . Some of the computer models suggested the weakening tropical storm could be absorbed by a developing low to the west , which a few days later became Hurricane Epsilon . This did not occur , and Tropical Storm Delta began to move to the northeast .
As Delta accelerated to the northeast towards the Canary Islands , it intensified again , reaching a second peak of just under hurricane strength on November 27 . In post @-@ storm analysis , the NHC noted that there was a possibility that Delta had briefly reached hurricane strength that day ; however , the data was not conclusive enough to justify an upgrade to hurricane status . On November 28 , as it neared the Canary Islands Tropical Storm Delta lost its tropical characteristics . The extratropical storm , which maintained winds of near @-@ hurricane strength , passed about 105 mi ( 165 km ) north of the islands that night . The storm moved over Morocco early on November 29 and rapidly weakened overland , dissipating late that day over northwestern Algeria .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Tropical Storm Delta 's arrival in the Canary Islands was described as a " historic " event . Tropical cyclones there are extremely rare and the islands had no tropical warning systems in place . The government issued a general emergency advisory and advised citizens to stay indoors . Tenerife North Airport was closed , stranding hundreds of passengers for the duration of the storm . The Education Board of the Canary Islands Government suspended Tuesday classes for all non @-@ university schools for 320 @,@ 000 students . The shipping company Fred Olsen suspended services linking the islands of Tenerife and La Palma and La Gomera . On the island of El Hierro the exposed road to Sabinosa Health Center was closed as a precaution .
Delta caused considerable damage in the Canary Islands . The storm claimed nineteen lives and caused a total of € 312 million ( $ 364 million 2005 US dollars ) damage throughout the archipelago . Eighteen died when a boat sank off the Canary Islands ; twelve of the bodies were never found . The nineteenth man was killed when while trying to repair his roof during the storm ; winds threw him from his ladder . The islands of Tenerife and La Palma were hardest hit , with many uprooted trees and landslides reported . The peak gust recorded at La Palma was 95 mph ( 152 km / h ) , and at Tenerife the maximum gust was 90 mph ( 147 km / h ) . Some patients at Tenerife 's University Hospital were evacuated to a safer part of the building when paneling from the hospital 's heliport was torn free and smashed some of the building 's windows . Off Santa Cruz 's southern quay a tug boat broke its ties , collided with another vessel , and sank . Passengers at Tenerife North Airport , who were stranded when their flights canceled , witnessed parts of the new international terminal 's roof tear off in the wind . In La Palma a falling palm tree , trunk snapped by the wind , injured the leg of a German tourist . Many palm trees along the Avenida Marítima were also blown down . The storms winds blew out windows and collapsed cornices , although other structural damage was minimal . Metal plates that had been used to board up buildings were strewn all over the island .
Over 225 @,@ 000 residents lost electricity and 12 @,@ 000 lost telephone service . Some vandalism and looting was reported during the loss of power , and the police made several arrests during the night . For over 24 hours roads were closed on the islands of El Hierro , Tenerife and La Palma : the first two due to landslides and the third by the collapse of an old house and a massive tree . One of the most famous geological features of the island of Gran Canaria , El Dedo de Dios ( or God 's finger ) , which had been pointing towards the sky for over a millennium , was destroyed by Delta 's wind and wave action along Gran Canaria 's shore . Upon hearing of the destruction of the natural monument one man , later found to be clinically insane , unsuccessfully tried to kill himself and then stabbed three members of his own family .
When the remnants of Delta arrived in Morocco they were described as a " normal atmospheric disturbance " . No damage was reported there and in fact the system was welcomed by farmers who needed the rain to complete the sowing of cereal crops .
= = Aftermath = =
With the Canary Islands ' power grid substantially disrupted , the Unelco @-@ Endesa power company was forced to use temporary generators to boost power at sub @-@ stations far from the main grid . In La Corujera in Santa Úrsula , these generators were poorly received and over 1 @,@ 000 local residents claimed to be affected by the noise and pollution . Children , the elderly and people with respiratory problems suffered most acutely . Roughly € 25 million ( US $ 37 @.@ 25 million ) was allocated by the government of the Canary Islands in relief and reconstruction funds . Of this total , € 22 @.@ 5 million ( US $ 33 @.@ 5 million ) was used to repair infrastructure and utilities ; € 1 @.@ 5 million ( US $ 2 @.@ 2 million ) was used for agricultural relief ; and € 1 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 5 million ) was used in home repairs . Due to the severity of crop losses , farmers would be given a grant from the government that would cover 50 % of their losses , including infrastructural . A tax break was also given to most residents who suffered damage from Delta .
Fishermen of the Canary Islands had to return to and remain in port for several days while weathering the storm , and this disruption was blamed for a 10 – 15 % reduction of the islands ' tuna catch . Tropical Storm Delta also had some further @-@ reaching effects . The political opposition Popular Party challenged that the impact of Tropical Storm Delta proved the need for the island to prepare an emergency plan to deal with natural and man @-@ made disasters . Only five of the island 's many municipalities had an emergency plan , and there was no coordination across the entire island chain . Delta also served to highlight the islands ' aging power grid , prompting the regional director general of industry and energy to consider building another power plant on the archipelago . The storm sparked a vigorous debate on the island about the effects of global climate change , how they will affect the islands , and how these effects can be avoided .
= Ronnie Wallwork =
Ronald " Ronnie " Wallwork ( born 10 September 1977 ) is an English former footballer who could play as either a defender or a midfielder . An England under @-@ 20 international , he began his career at Manchester United , where he made his professional debut in 1997 . He never fully established himself in the United first @-@ team however , and was loaned out to Carlisle United and Stockport County . During a further loan spell at Royal Antwerp , he was banned from football for life for attacking a Belgian referee , although the ban was later substantially reduced . He returned to football in 2014 signing for Ashton United .
In 2002 , Wallwork moved to West Bromwich Albion , where he was the Player of the Year for 2004 – 05 . He was not always a regular in the side however , and spent time on loan at Bradford City , Barnsley and Huddersfield Town . His spell at Barnsley was cut short when he was stabbed in a nightclub , causing him to miss more than two months of the 2006 – 07 season . Wallwork was transferred to Sheffield Wednesday in January 2008 , but was released just four months later and has since been without a club . In December 2011 , he was sentenced to 15 months in prison after he pleaded guilty to three counts of receiving stolen goods .
= = Football career = =
= = = Manchester United = = =
Born in Newton Heath , Manchester , Wallwork attended The Football Association 's School of Excellence at Lilleshall as a teenager . A lifelong Manchester United supporter , he joined the club as an apprentice in April 1993 , following a spell playing Sunday league football . Wallwork signed his first trainee contract in July 1994 , before turning professional in March 1995 . He became a regular in the Manchester United junior sides , making 77 appearances for the club 's various youth teams from 1994 to 1997 . Wallwork helped United to win the FA Youth Cup in 1995 and was named as the club 's Young Player of the Year in 1996 . In the summer of 1997 , he represented the England under @-@ 20 team at the 1997 FIFA World Youth Championship in Malaysia , where he played in all four of his country 's matches . England won all three group games to progress to the knockout stages , but lost to Argentina in the round of 16 .
By the start of the 1997 – 98 season , he had become a regular in the Manchester United reserve team and made his senior debut on 25 October 1997 , when he came on as a 64th @-@ minute substitute for Gary Pallister in the 7 – 0 home win against Barnsley . Later that season , Wallwork was loaned out twice : firstly to Carlisle United , where he scored his first goal in professional football , and then to Stockport County . He joined Royal Antwerp on loan during the following season and helped them to reach the play @-@ offs , but their hopes of promotion to the First Division were ended by a defeat to La Louvière . After the match , Wallwork grabbed referee Amand Ancion by the throat , for which he was banned from football for life . Another Manchester United loanee , Danny Higginbotham , was banned for a year for his part in the attack . A Belgian court reduced Wallwork 's sentence to a three @-@ year suspension , of which two years were probational , while Higginbotham 's ban was reduced to four months . The remaining twelve months of Wallwork 's ban applied only in Belgium , rather than the worldwide ban given under the initial ruling .
The 1999 – 2000 season saw Wallwork make further progress at Manchester United as he made seven appearances for the first @-@ team , mostly as a defensive midfielder . Then , in 2000 – 01 , he amassed enough league appearances to qualify for a Premier League winner 's medal . However , his spell in the United first @-@ team was short @-@ lived , as the signings of centre @-@ back Laurent Blanc and central midfielder Juan Sebastián Verón made Wallwork surplus to requirements . He made his final appearance for United on 26 January 2002 , playing 61 minutes of the FA Cup Fourth Round match against Middlesbrough before being replaced by Ryan Giggs . In his seven years at United , Wallwork played just 28 times , and in the summer of 2002 his contract was not renewed .
= = = West Bromwich Albion = = =
In July 2002 , Wallwork moved on to West Bromwich Albion on a Bosman free transfer , becoming the first player signed by Albion following their promotion to the Premier League . Manchester United manager Sir Alex Ferguson called him the " best Bosman of the summer " . Before the season started , Wallwork and his Albion team @-@ mates were involved in a dispute over bonuses with the club 's new board of directors . According to his agent , the player was said to be " shocked and disturbed " at the prospect of an 80 % reduction in bonuses compared with that offered by the outgoing board . Wallwork made his Albion debut as a substitute in a 3 – 1 home defeat to Leeds United on 24 August , and he went on to play in 27 of Albion 's 38 Premier League games in 2002 – 03 . Following the death of his mother in February 2003 , he and his team mates each wore a black armband for the match against Bolton Wanderers . The club was eventually relegated at the end of the campaign and Wallwork fell out of favour during 2003 – 04 , taking part in just five league matches during the first half of the season . In January 2004 , he joined Bradford City on an initial month @-@ long loan , during which time he scored in his first and last games . Albion initially refused an extension to the loan , citing concerns over the financial situation at Bradford , who were on the verge of administration . A second loan deal for a further two months at Bradford was agreed shortly afterwards , and Wallwork scored a further two goals , taking his total with Bradford to four in seven games . He attributed his new @-@ found goalscoring form to tactical instructions from manager Bryan Robson , who told him to get forward more often , in contrast to his deeper @-@ lying role at West Bromwich Albion . A broken toe sustained in a match against Rotherham United meant that he returned earlier than scheduled , however . While Wallwork was sidelined for six weeks , his West Bromwich Albion team mates secured promotion back to the Premier League at the first attempt .
Back in the top division , Wallwork was still unable to force his way back into Albion manager Gary Megson 's matchday squad . However , when Bryan Robson – who had been Wallwork 's manager at Bradford – replaced Megson in November 2004 , Wallwork became an integral part of the team . Robson referred to Wallwork as " an intelligent footballer " who could " sit , pass the ball and change the direction of a game " from central midfield . Wallwork returned to the team the following month and was ever @-@ present throughout the second half of the season , scoring his first Albion goal in a 2 – 0 home win over Manchester City on 22 January 2005 . The club successfully avoided relegation , retaining their top @-@ flight status on the final day of the season , when they beat Portsmouth . Albion became the first Premier League club to avoid relegation having been bottom of the table at Christmas . For his efforts , Wallwork was named as Albion 's Player of the Year for 2004 – 05 . In May 2005 , he signed a new contract , to keep him at Albion until June 2007 .
The following season Wallwork played in 31 out of 38 Premier League games , but was unable to prevent Albion 's relegation to the Championship . He nevertheless signed a new two @-@ year deal with the club in August 2006 . He remained a regular in the side during the early part of the 2006 – 07 season , but following the appointment of Bryan Robson 's successor Tony Mowbray in October , Wallwork played just once more for the club . Mowbray described Wallwork as " a very good professional " , but preferred a number of other midfielders ahead of him when selecting the team , moving Jonathan Greening from a wide position into the central midfield holding role previously occupied by Wallwork . In order to continue playing first @-@ team football , Wallwork joined Barnsley on loan on 22 November 2006 ; the loan spell was due to last until 1 January 2007 , though West Bromwich Albion had a recall option after 28 days .
On 30 November 2006 , Wallwork was attacked while on a night out with his girlfriend Amy Broadbent at the Sugar Lounge night club in Manchester
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. He was approached by a former boyfriend of Broadbent , Robert Rimmer , who asked him to leave . When Wallwork refused to do so , Rimmer used a fish knife to stab the footballer seven times in the hand , back and stomach . After being rushed to hospital , Wallwork 's condition was said to be stable and his injuries were not thought to be life @-@ threatening . Police investigating the stabbing described the attack as " not random " . They later named 20 @-@ year @-@ old Rimmer as the suspect and appealed for him to contact them . Rimmer handed himself into a police station in Manchester and was arrested on 7 December . In December 2007 , Rimmer , from Gorton , Manchester , was jailed for five @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years for stabbing Wallwork after admitting wounding with intent at Manchester Crown Court . Rimmer 's friend , Charles Ebbrell , a 27 @-@ year @-@ old from Denton , Greater Manchester , was given a suspended jail sentence after he admitted punching Wallwork during the attack . Wallwork was released from hospital on 10 December 2006 , the same day that Barnsley and West Bromwich Albion faced each other in a league game ; Barnsley supporters displayed a " Get well soon Ronnie " banner during the match . After returning to light training in late January , Wallwork made his comeback from the stabbing on 21 February 2007 , playing the full 90 minutes in a West Bromwich Albion reserve team game against Walsall .
= = = Huddersfield Town = = =
Wallwork was loaned out to Huddersfield Town on 27 September 2007 , joining up once more with manager Andy Ritchie , who had brought him to Barnsley the season before . He made his Huddersfield debut in a 2 – 0 home win over Luton Town on 29 September 2007 . On 20 October , he scored his first goal for Town in a match against Oldham Athletic , which finished 1 – 1 . His loan was extended by another month on 29 October . He was also given permission by West Bromwich Albion to play in Town 's FA Cup first round tie against Accrington Stanley on 10 November . Wallwork 's loan was extended on 22 November until 29 December , the maximum loan period of 93 days permitted under league rules , when he returned to West Bromwich Albion .
= = = Sheffield Wednesday = = =
On 11 January 2008 , Wallwork signed for Sheffield Wednesday on a free transfer until the end of the season , with a view to an extension afterwards . He made his debut the following day , coming on as a half @-@ time substitute for Steve Watson in a 1 – 0 defeat away at Cardiff City . He lost his place in the team to new signing Adam Bolder , and although he came on as an early substitute for Graham Kavanagh against Charlton Athletic on 12 February 2008 , he did not play for nearly another month until his appearance in a 2 – 1 victory against Queens Park Rangers . Wallwork played just seven games for Wednesday , who released him on 14 May 2008 . He trained with former club Carlisle United in August 2008 , but failed to earn a permanent contract . The player " wasn 't strong enough or fit enough for the levels we 're at " , according to Carlisle manager John Ward .
In 2014 he returned to football , signing for Ashton United .
= = International career = =
In the summer of 1997 , he represented the England under @-@ 20 team at the 1997 FIFA World Youth Championship in Malaysia , where he played in all four of his country 's matches . England won all three group games to progress to the knockout stages , but lost to Argentina in the round of 16 .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Club = = =
Last updated 14 May 2008 :
= = Honours = =
= = = Club = = =
Manchester United
Intercontinental Cup ( 1 ) : 1999
Premier League ( 1 ) : 2000 – 01
= = = Individual = = =
Jimmy Murphy Young Player of the Year ( 1 ) : 1995 – 96
West Bromwich Albion Player of the Year ( 1 ) : 2004 – 05
= = Personal life = =
Wallwork runs a clothes business , D & R Designers , in Failsworth , Greater Manchester . In 2007 , the business was burgled , with hundreds of pounds worth of goods stolen . On 18 August 2008 , Wallwork was seen to be talking on his mobile phone while driving his BMW 525 , in Failsworth . He pleaded guilty to the offence five months later and was fined £ 35 , ordered to pay £ 35 costs and a £ 15 victim surcharge , and was given three penalty points on his licence . On 18 January 2011 , he was charged with concealing criminal property in connection with offences relating to stolen cars . On 1 July 2011 , he pleaded guilty to three counts of handling stolen cars . Judge Simon Newell denied Wallwork 's defence lawyer 's pleas for his client to be given a suspended sentence and jailed Wallwork for 15 months on 5 December 2011 . He called the set @-@ up " professional and sophisicated " .
= August Meyszner =
August Meyszner ( 3 August 1886 – 24 January 1947 ) was an Austrian Gendarmerie officer and right @-@ wing politician who held the post of Higher SS and Police Leader in the German @-@ occupied territory of Serbia from January 1942 to March 1944 , during World War II .
Meyszner began his career as an officer in the Gendarmerie , served on the Italian Front during World War I and reached the rank of Major der Polizei by 1921 . He joined the Austrian Nazi Party in September 1925 and became a right @-@ wing parliamentary deputy and provincial minister in the Austrian province of Styria in 1930 . Due to his involvement with the Nazis , Meyszner was forcibly retired in 1933 and arrested in February 1934 , but released after three months at a detention centre in Wöllersdorf . That July , he was rearrested following an attempted coup , but escaped police custody and fled to Nazi Germany , where he joined the Ordnungspolizei and then the Allgemeine SS . After police postings in Austria , Germany and Norway , he was appointed as Higher SS and Police Leader in Serbia in early 1942 .
Meyszner 's time in Belgrade was characterised by friction and competition with German military , economic and foreign affairs officials and by his visceral hatred and distrust of Serbs . During his tenure , he oversaw regular reprisal killings , and his Gestapo detachment killed as many as 8 @,@ 000 Jewish women and children using a gas van . After the war , the Western Allies extradited Meyszner to Yugoslavia , where he was tried for war crimes . He was found guilty by a Yugoslav military court and executed in January 1947 .
= = Early life and World War I service = =
August Edler von Meyszner was born in Graz , Austria @-@ Hungary on 3 August 1886 , the son of Rudolf Edler von Meyszner , an Oberstleutnant in the Imperial @-@ Royal Landwehr who had been knighted two years earlier , and his wife Therese ( née Tuschner ) . His uncle was Feldmarschalleutnant Ferdinand von Meyszner . He completed primary and secondary schooling in Graz , before attending a cadet school in Vienna . In 1908 , he was posted to the 3rd Imperial @-@ Royal Landwehr Infantry Regiment in Graz as an officer candidate and on 1 May 1908 was commissioned as a Leutnant .
By May 1914 , Meyszner had transferred to the Austrian Gendarmerie as an Oberleutnant and been appointed to command the gendarmerie unit in Görz ( now the Italian town of Gorizia ) . Later that year , he was appointed to command the coastal gendarmerie section at Grado and then the border guard unit at Tolmein , in modern @-@ day Slovenia . A few days after the outbreak of World War I , Meyszner married Pia Gostischa from Marburg an der Drau . In 1916 , he was promoted to Rittmeister , and commanded the 12th Alpine Company on the Italian Front in 1917 . He was wounded once , and was also awarded several decorations for his service during the war , including the Order of the Iron Crown 3rd Class , Military Merit Cross 3rd Class , Military Merit Medal with Swords and War Decoration , Karl Troop Cross and Red Cross Decoration 2nd Class . In August 1917 , Meyszner was recalled to the Styrian Gendarmerie Command and was appointed as gendarmerie section commander in Trieste .
= = Interwar period = =
= = = Police and political career in Austria = = =
In 1919 , Meyszner was placed in charge of border police at the Styrian town of Judenburg , on the frontier with the newly created Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes ( later Yugoslavia ) , and was involved in fighting there . That year , he had become involved with the German @-@ nationalist sporting association Deutsch @-@ Völkischen Turnvereins and was made a leader in the right @-@ wing paramilitary Steirischen Heimatschutz ( Styrian Home Guard ) . He later used his senior position in the gendarmerie to funnel arms to the Home Guard .
Meyszner remained stationed at Judenburg for the next nine years , although he was sent on several detachments . In 1921 , he was promoted to Major der Polizei . While commanding a gendarmerie detachment sent to oversee the unification of Burgenland with Austria in August 1921 , Meyszner was shot in the leg by local Hungarians rebelling against the transfer . From 1922 , his unit dealt with significant labour unrest , which peaked in the aftermath of the July Revolt of 1927 . Meyszner joined the Austrian Nazi Party in September 1925 and in May 1927 was granted an audience with Adolf Hitler , along with two of his Home Guard comrades , Walter Pfrimer and Hanns Albin Rauter . On 1 January 1929 , Meyszner was transferred to Graz where he came into contact with more right @-@ wing organisations .
In 1930 , Meyszner became a right @-@ wing deputy in the Styrian provincial parliament ( German : Landtag ) and a minister of the provincial government . His governmental responsibilities meant that he was unable to take an active part in the abortive coup d 'état led by Pfrimer in 1931 but while claiming he knew nothing of the putsch beforehand , he openly stated in the Landtag that he approved of it . Pfrimer and his co @-@ conspirator Konstantin Kammerhofer went into hiding but Meyszner continued his Home Guard activities and began to forge closer links with Rauter and the Austrian Nazi Party , holding several meetings with Hitler 's delegate in Austria , Theodor Habicht . Habicht met Meyszner and Rauter in Venice to arrange the absorption of the Home Guard into the Nazi Party in early 1933 . The outcome of these discussions subsequently became known as the Venice Agreement . Meyszner 's conversion to Nazi thinking was demonstrated by an anti @-@ Jewish diatribe in the Landestag in April 1933 . From March 1933 , the authoritarian Fatherland Front government of Engelbert Dollfuss prorogued parliamentary government and in June they banned the Austrian Nazi Party , which had absorbed the Home Guard . A few days before this , public servants who were members of the Austrian Nazi Party were classified as subversive . Based on these decrees , Meyszner was denied his seat in parliament and was forcibly retired from the gendarmerie in September 1933 at the age of 47 .
As a result of his meetings with Habicht , Meyszner was appointed deputy leader of the Central Styria SA @-@ Brigade . He travelled widely , meeting Nazi leaders in Hungary and Yugoslavia . Consequently , in February 1934 he was interned in Wöllersdorf camp for three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half months for Nazi activities . Following a hunger strike and half @-@ hearted prison revolt , he was released . Soon after , the leaders of the Styrian Home Guard were arrested and Meyszner took control of the organisation . Arrested shortly after the July Putsch was launched by the Bavarian branch of the German Nazi Party , during which Dollfuss was assassinated , Meyszner escaped police custody on 27 July and fled to Yugoslavia . His role in the July Putsch is unclear , though Austrian authorities suspected that he had encouraged participation and provided supplies to the conspirators .
In Yugoslavia , Meyszner was no longer able to access his pension and had few assets . He travelled to Germany by sea in November 1934 and submitted his résumé to the Allgemeine SS . In it , he emphasised his experience as a political organiser and speaker and suggested that a purely military task would not make best use of his knowledge and skills .
= = = Germany = = =
Meyszner was briefly given a job coordinating support for Nazi refugees from Austria but soon after he arrived he joined the Schutzpolizei ( protection police ) , a branch of the uniformed Ordnungspolizei ( order police , or Orpo ) , in his previous rank of Major . He received German citizenship in May 1935 . He was honourably discharged from the SA and accepted into the SS but this was short @-@ lived , as police officers were not permitted to be members of the SS at that time . Meyszner was obliged to resign from the SS in October 1935 . On 20 April 1937 , he was promoted to the rank of Oberstleutnant der Polizei . He was allowed to return to the SS in October 1937 and was promoted to the SS rank of Oberführer , backdated to February 1935 . He was appointed to the staff of SS @-@ Abschnitt III ( SS District III ) , and Schutzpolizei Group East Berlin . In 1937 , Meyszner was appointed as an honorary judge of the People 's Court , and in 1941 this appointment was extended . In March 1938 , he was promoted to the rank of Oberst der Polizei . Following the Anschluss with Germany , Meyszner was elected as a deputy in the Reichstag , a position he retained to the end of World War II . On 12 April 1938 , he was sent to Vienna and appointed as the Inspector of Orpo in Austria , working for the State Secretary for Security in Austria , Ernst Kaltenbrunner .
Soon after arriving in Austria , Meyszner and Kaltenbrunner clashed , requiring the intervention of the Chief of the Orpo , SS @-@ Obergruppenführer und General der Polizei Kurt Daluege . Meyszner was transferred to the Sudetenland in early October 1938 , after its annexation by Germany , as an Orpo district commander . In June 1939 , he was again transferred , this time to Kassel , as Inspector of Orpo for the Prussian province of Hesse @-@ Nassau .
= = World War II = =
= = = 1940 – 42 = = =
With the outbreak of war , Meyszner started being appointed to more senior positions , beginning in the spring of 1940 when he was named a representative of the Higher SS and Police Leader ( German : Höherer SS- und Polizeiführer , HSSPF ) for Fulda @-@ Werra , SS @-@ Obergruppenführer Josias Waldeck @-@ Pyrmont . Soon after this , Reichsführer @-@ SS Heinrich Himmler appointed Meyszner to command the Orpo in newly occupied Norway , working with HSSPF Nord , SS @-@ Obergruppenführer Wilhelm Rediess . Meyszner remained in Norway until the end of 1941 . During 1941 , Meyszner was awarded the War Merit Cross 2nd Class with Swords . In mid @-@ January 1942 , he was recalled to Germany and , despite his low rank , attended a conference of senior SS leaders at Hegewald , Himmler 's field headquarters near Hitler 's Wolf 's Lair in East Prussia . The conference discussed the use of forced labour , the coming Final Solution and Generalplan Ost , a plan for the colonisation of Central and Eastern Europe by ethnic Germans . According to the German historian Martin Moll , Meyszner 's attendance at this conference highlighted his suitability for working in the German @-@ occupied territory of Serbia due to his relevant language skills .
= = = Higher SS and Police Leader in Serbia = = =
= = = = 1942 = = = =
The German @-@ occupied territory of Serbia , an area of Yugoslavia roughly corresponding to the borders of the pre @-@ 1912 Kingdom of Serbia , had been retained under military administration following the April 1941 German @-@ led Axis invasion of Yugoslavia . It included a Serbian puppet regime known as the Government of National Salvation , led by the former Yugoslav Minister of War , Milan Nedić . The appointment of a HSSPF had not been planned and this initially accorded with the preferences of the Wehrmacht commander in the territory . A communist @-@ led uprising had erupted in mid @-@ 1941 and while it had been brutally suppressed during Operation Uzice in December , it was expected to return in the spring of 1942 . To address this , it was decided to appoint a Higher SS and Police Leader for the occupied territory . Meyszner was chosen for the new position , despite the fact that few HSSPF were selected from the Orpo . At 55 years old , Meyszner was also the oldest HSSPF appointed .
Meyszner arrived in Belgrade in late January 1942 , inserted into a political maelstrom of conflicting lines of command and authority . Even the military lines of command were confusing , with a Military Commander in Serbia being responsible for the military administration and a Plenipotentiary Commanding General in Serbia being responsible for military operations against the insurgents . A few weeks after Meyszner 's arrival , the two military positions were finally combined into the Commanding General and Military Commander in Serbia , in the person of General der Artillerie Paul Bader , who had previously been the Plenipotentiary Commanding General in Serbia . Bader reported to the Wehrmacht Commander in South @-@ East Europe , General der Pioniere Walter Kuntze , who reported directly to Hitler . The military chain of command considered Meyszner 's appointment " a very peremptory organisational change " , with Kuntze 's chief of staff describing Meyszner as one " for whom we did not ask " .
Bader 's staff was split into a military command staff led by Oberst Erich Kewisch and an administrative staff under the control of SS @-@ Gruppenführer Harald Turner . Kewisch 's staff had direct control of the regional defence battalions and worked with the military forces of occupation in the territory . Turner 's staff supervised the Serbian puppet regime , the German commandants of the four military districts and the police and security forces .
Overlapping the military chain of command , there was a plenipotentiary of the Foreign Office , Felix Benzler , reporting to the Foreign Minister , Joachim von Ribbentrop and for economic affairs , a representative of Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring , Franz Neuhausen . These power structures competed with each other , to a greater extent than anywhere else in occupied Europe . Meyszner 's appointment further complicated an already complex situation , as prior to this decision , Turner had been responsible for police and security matters . Meyszner had to formally acknowledge Bader as his superior but received his orders from Hitler and Himmler . One of his priorities was to improve coordination of policies towards the Volksdeutsche ( or Germans of Yugoslavia ) , concentrated in the Banat region , as the decision had been made in late 1941 to subject them to conscription in order to raise a Waffen @-@ SS division . This decision , approved by Hitler a few days before Meyszner 's appointment , had strengthened Himmler 's case for a HSSPF in Belgrade .
Meyszner took control of the police organs that had formerly been under the control of Turner , grouped as Einsatzgruppe Serbien , consisting of Sicherheitsdienst ( Security Service , or SD ) and Sicherheitspolizei ( Security Police , or SiPo ) , as well as the 64th Reserve Police Battalion . These had been commanded by SS @-@ Standartenführer Wilhelm Fuchs , who had overseen the shooting of many Serbian and Jewish males and others , mainly by Wehrmacht units , between August 1941 and the end of that year . Meyszner 's deputy was SS @-@ Standartenführer Emanuel Schäfer and the head of the Belgrade Gestapo was SS @-@ Sturmbannführer Bruno Sattler . The head of the Gestapo Jewish Section was SS @-@ Untersturmführer Fritz Stracke .
As soon as he took office , Meyszner embarked on a thorough re @-@ organisation of all police operations in the occupied territory . He created four police area commands , aligned to the four military area commands and ten police districts , corresponding to the military district commands . He took under his command the forces of the Serbian puppet government , known as the Serbian State Guard , and also established a number of auxiliary and volunteer police units across the whole territory . One of the units controlled by Meyszner was the Auxiliary Police Troop , recruited from Russian Volksdeutsche from the occupied territory but also from Croatia , Bulgaria , Greece and Romania and trained by the Orpo . It was planned to reach a strength of 400 men but little is known about its activities .
As HSSPF , Meyszner was not restricted to police matters . His subordination to Bader was " personal and direct " but this did not mean the police and security apparatus he commanded was subject to day @-@ to @-@ day direction from Bader . Military jurisdiction over Meyszner and his organisation was restricted to matters involving the military security of the territory and military operations . Meyszner 's duties also extended to any matter related to the " strengthening " of the German minority in Serbia , which included authority over the security forces of the puppet regime and collection of revenue and the consolidation and utilisation of existing Volksdeutsche volunteer units in the Waffen @-@ SS . Almost as soon as he arrived in Belgrade , Meyszner met with SS @-@ Obergruppenführer Werner Lorenz , the Chief of the Hauptamt Volksdeutsche Mittelstelle ( Main Welfare Office for Ethnic Germans , or VoMi ) , founded to manage the interests of the Volksdeutsche outside the borders of the Reich . The VoMi was also responsible for orchestrating the Nazi ideology of Lebensraum ( living space ) in Eastern Europe . Meyszner also met with SS @-@ Obersturmführer Sepp Janko , the leader of the Volksdeutsche in the Banat and with SS @-@ Brigadeführer und Generalmajor der Waffen SS Artur Phleps , to discuss the formation of the new division , the 7th SS Volunteer Mountain Division Prinz Eugen . Plans for more general conscription of the Volksdeutsche did not meet with approval from Berlin .
As soon as he took up his role , Meyszner immediately ran into difficulties with Turner , who was responsible for internal affairs and co @-@ operation with the puppet regime . Turner was a proponent of strengthening the puppet regime and making use of all Serbs that were willing to collaborate with the occupiers . Meyszner had a diametrically opposite personal view and throughout his time in Belgrade refused to support or work with the Serb authorities , except at a purely tactical level . His dislike of Serbs was so great that his favourite slogan is said to have been , " I like a dead Serb better than a live one " . Meyszner was also reported to have referred to Serbs as " a people of rats " ( ein Rattenvolk ) . The historian Jonathan Steinberg describes Meyszner as one of Himmler 's most brutal subordinates .
In April , Turner wrote in a self @-@ congratulatory tone to Himmler 's personal staff officer , SS @-@ Obergruppenführer Karl Wolff , stating that he had already had all the available Jewish men killed and all the women and children placed in the Sajmište concentration camp . He went on to claim that he had arranged , with the help of the SD , a gas van to clear the camp in a period of a fortnight to four weeks . Holocaust historian Christopher Browning considers this claim suspect , stating that Turner 's reports about Jewish affairs were often inaccurate and self @-@ serving in an attempt to ingratiate himself with Hitler and shore up his position . Browning 's view is that a van was dispatched after regular requests from Belgrade for the remaining Jews to be deported directly , so that the local authorities could resolve the matter themselves . When the van arrived in Belgrade , Meyszner was kept informed , and Schäfer asked him for directions .
Schäfer delegated the task of killing the Jewish women and children to Sattler . In turn , Sattler tasked the camp commandant , Herbert Andorfer , to accompany the van , which would be operated by two SS @-@ Scharführers sent with the van from Berlin . Except for Sundays and public holidays , the van collected groups of about 100 women and children from the camp on a daily basis and drove them to a shooting range outside Belgrade . During the trip , the exhaust would be redirected into the cargo area , killing the occupants . On arrival at the range , a four @-@ man detachment from the 64th Reserve Police Battalion would be waiting with a group of seven Serbian prisoners from the Belgrade prison . The prisoners would unload the van and put the corpses in a pre @-@ dug mass grave . By 10 May 1942 , the camp was empty and as many as 8 @,@ 000 Jewish women and children had been killed by Meyszner 's Gestapo . On 8 June , Schäfer declared to a group of Wehrmacht officers , including Bader and Kuntze , that there was " no longer a Jewish question in Serbia " .
Turner and Meyszner clashed continually throughout 1942 , as Meyszner sought to remove all police matters from Turner 's remit , including the supervision of the security forces of the Serbian collaborationist regime . In response , Turner fought hard to maintain control over these areas . Meyszner believed the only way to maintain peace and security was the use of brutal police methods ; Turner wanted to empower the Nedić regime and then replace the military administration with a civil one , akin to the Reichskommissariat Niederlande , with himself as Reichskommissar ( governor ) . Meyszner attempted to have Turner 's staff downgraded and incorporated into Bader 's staff but Wolff 's intervention prevented this . However , Turner 's approach was also seriously out @-@ of @-@ step with the Wehrmacht , which considered the territory a combat zone and wanted to eliminate inefficiencies and overlapping jurisdictions .
Despite their initial misgivings , the Wehrmacht established a good working relationship with Meyszner during 1942 . Bader and Meyszner met regularly and supported each other where their interests coincided . By contrast , the conflict between Meyszner and Turner soon became intractable , with the men sending long letters of complaint to each other , with copies to Himmler . Himmler stuck to his general approach , which was that SS officers should resolve their differences face @-@ to @-@ face . Meyszner fundamentally opposed any attempts by Turner to expand the remit of the Serbian puppet regime , including the creation of sporting organisations and the re @-@ opening of Belgrade University , asserting that it could not be in Germany 's interests to " breed hostile Slavic intelligence " .
Meyszner 's reports to Himmler fueled distrust of the Serbian security forces , stating that it was " insane " to arm the 16 @,@ 000 @-@ strong Serbian State Guard , as he believed that their loyalties lay with the royalist Chetnik leader Draža Mihailović , not with the Germans or the Nedić regime . The depths to which Turner and Meyszner 's personal vendetta plunged is demonstrated by the fact that they could not agree on how to use the funds stolen from Serbian Jews killed as part of the Final Solution in 1941 and the first half of 1942 . On 1 August 1942 , Kuntze was replaced as Wehrmacht Commander in South @-@ East Europe by Luftwaffe Generaloberst Alexander Löhr , another Austrian . In early September 1942 , Meyszner filed an official report with Himmler alleging that Turner had breached section 90 of the German Penal Code by betraying state secrets . Concerned , in mid @-@ September Turner issued an order to his staff directing them to defer to the authority of the HSSPF and his staff in all police matters and also many other administrative and highly political matters , such as the approval of events , gambling , right of assembly and monitoring of commerce . The dispute was so out @-@ of @-@ hand that only outside intervention would be effective . In October , the Main SS Personnel Office sent an emissary to Belgrade to investigate and report on the situation . This report described the behaviour of both Turner and Meyszner as " shameful " but the die was cast .
On 17 October , Himmler met with Meyszner at Kraljevo while inspecting the newly created 7th SS Division . While mildly rebuking Meyszner and warning him that if such behaviour recurred , Himmler would have to dismiss him , Himmler was impressed with the new division . A decisive factor in Himmler 's final decision was undoubtedly the fact that the dismissal of Turner , part of the Wehrmacht command structure , would be much less embarrassing for him than the dismissal of his personal representative , Meyszner . Despite the fact that Turner was " strict and unyielding " , he was far more considerate of the concerns of Nedić , his regime and the Serbian population than any other senior member of the government of occupation . It was not just Meyszner 's machinations that eventually unseated Turner , because he had been joined in his call for Turner 's replacement by Kuntze . On 8 November 1942 , Turner and his deputy Georg Kiessel were finally forced out and Turner was succeeded by his legal department chief , Walter Uppenkamp . In December 1942 , Löhr was redesignated as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief South @-@ East Europe and Commander Army Group E but the local command situation did not change . During 1942 , Meyszner was awarded the War Merit Cross 1st Class with Swords .
= = = = 1943 = = = =
In January 1943 , Nedić proposed a fundamental law for Serbia , in effect a constitution creating an authoritarian corporative state similar to that long advocated by Dimitrije Ljotić . Bader asked the various agency heads for their views , and despite some specialists recommending its adoption , Meyszner strongly opposed it , seeing it as a threat to German interests . Passed to Löhr then to Hitler , a response was received in March . Hitler considered it " untimely " .
In March 1943 , Meyszner complained to Himmler that Benzler had adopted a " soft " policy towards the Serbs , allowing them to take charge of the supervision of crops . He considered those that granted additional powers and freedoms to the Serbian puppet regime were irresponsible , because they did not understand the real motives of the various Serb groups . One of many matters of concern to Meyszner was the formation of the Serbian Volunteer Corps , which was an extension of Ljotić 's pre @-@ war Yugoslav National Movement . Meyszner thought that Turner and Benzler had erred in allowing its formation and observed that it was spreading royalist propaganda . According to Moll , Meyszner 's perspective was very narrow and did not take into account foreign policy objectives associated with giving some power to the Nedić regime . By the end of 1942 , Meyszner had extracted all the usable military manpower from the Banat and the economy and administration of that territory was suffering . As a consequence , he requested the release of all men aged 40 and over from service in the 7th SS Division . As an alternative , he turned his attention to the minority groups that also lived in the Banat , including Hungarians , Romanians and Slovaks . His recommendation that these people be subjected to conscription was not accepted by Himmler .
From the time he had fled to Germany , Meyszner had been engaged in a dispute regarding his membership in the Nazi Party . He had believed that the Venice Agreement meant that he and other members of the Styrian Home Guard had been transferred to the Nazi Party with prestigious low Nazi Party numbers issued prior to Hitler 's seizure of power in 1933 . This became an issue when Hitler decided to mark the 10th anniversary of that event and tasked his private secretary and head of the Nazi Party Chancellery , Reichsleiter Martin Bormann , to determine who should be issued one of a strictly limited number of Golden Party Badges to mark the anniversary . Bormann did not accept the Vienna arrangements , retrospectively determined Meyszner 's party membership date to be 1 June 1938 and allocated him a party number of 6 @,@ 119 @,@ 650 . Due to these decisions , Meyszner did not qualify as an Alter Kämpfer ( Old Fighter ) and Himmler had to intervene on behalf of Meyszner to ensure he received the badge . Meyszner was one of only five SS men that Himmler considered worthy of the award .
Using his responsibility for the Volksdeutsche of the Banat as a pretext , Meyszner constantly interfered with operational orders issued to the 7th SS Division . In September 1943 , the total police forces at his disposal comprised the 5th SS @-@ Polizei Regiment , minus one company detached to occupied Greece and seven battalions of Hilfspolizei ( auxiliary police ) of various ethnicities , which had only received 4 – 5 weeks training due to constant employment .
The good relationship between Bader and Meyszner continued until spring 1943 , when Bader became aware that Meyszner had been undermining him in his reports to Himmler , blaming the Wehrmacht for the failure to combat the Partisan threat . In April 1943 , Bader wrote to Löhr complaining bitterly about Meyszner allocating 300 Soviet prisoners of war to the Russian Factory Protection Group without consulting him and the fact that he had not been advised of desertions from the Serbian Volunteer Corps . Bader described his situation as " impossible " , observing that Meyszner was disputing his orders through the police chain of command but that he , Bader , was held responsible for all matters concerning the occupied territory . Thereafter , Bader was no longer Meyszner 's ally and this did not bode well for any future clashes with other powerful individuals in the occupation regime . Nedić continued to rail against German occupation policy and the fact that he had to report to four different authorities , who issued sometimes contradictory orders . In May , Meyszner attended a meeting at the Foreign Office , at which he disparaged Nedić and his loyalty to Germany , stating that he could be considered reliable only in fighting the communists . In July and August , some simplification occurred , when Neuhausen was appointed as chief of the military administration staff but Meyszner remained largely independent . Meyszner 's police and security apparatus continued to carry out reprisals when requested by the Wehrmacht . At the end of June , Meyszner ordered the execution of 575 prisoners in response to an attack in which eight German auxiliary police officers were killed and seven were wounded .
In September 1943 , a new plenipotentiary of the Foreign Ministry was appointed for the Balkans . This made Benzler 's position redundant and he was recalled to Berlin . Special Envoy Hermann Neubacher arrived in Belgrade armed with orders from Hitler , directing him to undertake a range of tasks aimed at unifying the fight against communist forces in south @-@ east Europe . These orders specifically directed Neubacher to make best use of the local anti @-@ communist forces and to negotiate with them to achieve that goal . He was also empowered to streamline the German occupation administration and transfer more power to local proxies , like the Nedić regime . The orders also placed Neubacher in charge of all decisions regarding the carrying out of reprisals against the local population . But like Meyszner , Neubacher found that the local conditions meant his ability to carry out his mandate was limited . Neuhausen , having recently been appointed as the chief of the military administration , had far more real power than Neubacher and was doing too good a job of exploiting the Serbian economy to hand any of it over to the Serbs . Meyszner himself was strictly opposed to the transfer of any power to the Nedić puppet government and also resisted attempts to conclude agreements with the Chetniks to fight the Partisans , seeing the former as an attempt to return to Turner 's failed policies . The main success Neubacher was able to achieve was a significant reduction in reprisals . Neubacher was contemptuous of Meyszner and what Neubacher called his " totally primitive extermination thesis " .
In November , Meyszner 's area of responsibility was expanded to include the German occupied territory of Montenegro . The following month , SS @-@ Standartenführer Paul Blobel 's Kommando 1005 arrived in Belgrade to dig up and burn the bodies of the Jewish women and children killed by Meyszner 's Gestapo . At the end of 1943 , Meyszner was awarded the Iron Cross 2nd Class .
= = = = 1944 = = = =
In February 1944 , Meyszner 's campaign against the German @-@ Chetnik agreements escalated sharply . He had unusual allies in this , as Nedić and Ljotić were also against them , in their case because the agreements tended to sideline them in favour of the Chetniks . In particular , Meyszner strongly opposed the further arming of the Chetniks led by Đurišić and Lukačević , on the grounds that they had not upheld their previous agreements and that the Croats , as well as Muslims in Albania , Kosovo and the Sandžak , had expressed concerns about any strengthening of the Chetniks . The commander of the Bulgarian 1st Occupation Corps , General Asen Nikoloff , also opposed the agreements . Meyszner 's increasing objections to the agreements coincided with growing Partisan pressure from the west and the advance of the Red Army from the east .
In April , Neubacher and the Wehrmacht finally managed to get rid of Meyszner . The catalyst for his recall was Meyszner 's public criticism of Neubacher over reprisals , which Neubacher characterised as " undermining official discipline " . Neubacher was assisted in this by Meyszer 's old nemesis , Kaltenbrunner , who was now the chief of the RSHA . Even Schäfer was no longer able to work with Meyszner and supported Neubacher 's campaign against his superior . Meyszner was replaced by SS @-@ Gruppenführer und Generalleutnant der Polizei Hermann Behrends , a protégé of the assassinated head of the SD , SS @-@ Obergruppenführer und General der Polizei Reinhard Heydrich . Immediately prior to his appointment , Behrends had been serving as an SS @-@ Sturmbannführer der Reserve commanding a mountain artillery battalion in the 13th Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Handschar ( 1st Croatian ) . In mid @-@ May 1944 , Meyszner was awarded the Iron Cross 1st Class for his efforts fighting the Partisans in Serbia .
= = Fate = =
While he agreed to relieve Meyszner as HSSPF for Serbia and Montenegro , Himmler did this by transferring him to Berlin and appointing him as Generalinspekteur der Gendarmerie und Schutzpolizei der Gemeinden ( General Inspector of the Gendarmerie and Schutzpolizei in the Reich ) with the intention of establishing a Europe @-@ wide gendarmerie . Nothing is known about Meyszner 's activities in this role . At the end of the war , he fell into the hands of the Western Allies and his high SS rank ensured attention from investigators . He was interrogated by the United States Chief Counsel for the Prosecution of Axis Criminality , Robert H. Jackson , in June 1945 and was placed into Yugoslav custody soon after . His involvement in the carrying out of reprisal executions both on his own account and on behalf of the Wehrmacht , and the publication of his name along with lists of those executed , meant that his fate was certain .
As far as the killing of Jewish women and children is concerned , Meyszner 's direct involvement is less clear . According to Moll , Schäfer claimed that he had received the orders and gas van directly from Berlin and had carried out the killings with little reference to Meyszner . Manoschek accepts Schäfer 's assertion , stating that Schäfer also had an independent Gestapo chain of command , over which Meyszner had very limited control . Despite this , as HSSPF he was formally responsible for all his subordinates , including the Gestapo department that killed the Jewish women and children . He was also responsible for carrying out policies that saw 70 @,@ 000 Serbs transported to the Reich as forced labourers , 4 @,@ 000 of whom ended up in occupied Norway . The Holocaust in Serbia played little part in his trial before the Supreme Military Court in Belgrade between 9 and 22 December 1946 . On 22 December , he was sentenced to death , along with most of the 20 leading members of his HSSPF staff who were tried at the same time . On 24 January 1947 , Meyszner was executed by hanging .
= = = Books = = =
= = = Journals = = =
= = = Websites = = =
= SMS Friedrich Carl ( 1867 ) =
SMS Friedrich Carl was an ironclad warship built for the Prussian Navy in the mid @-@ 1860s . The ship was constructed in the French Societé Nouvelles des Forges et Chantiers shipyard in Toulon ; her hull was laid in 1866 and launched in January 1867 . The ship was commissioned into the Prussian Navy in October 1867 . The ship was the third ironclad ordered by the Prussian Navy , after Arminius and Prinz Adalbert , though the fourth ship to be acquired , Kronprinz , was ordered after but commissioned before Friedrich Carl .
Friedrich Carl served with the fleet from her commissioning in 1867 until 1895 , when she was removed from front @-@ line service to serve as a training ship . During the Franco @-@ Prussian War in 1870 – 1871 , the ship formed part of the main German squadron commanded by Vice Admiral Jachmann . Engine trouble , however , plagued the ship and two of the other three vessels in the squadron ; as a result , they made only two sorties from the port of Wilhelmshaven to challenge the French blockade . Neither resulted in combat .
Friedrich Carl was also deployed to Spain during an insurrection in 1873 , during which she assisted in the seizure of three rebel vessels in two engagements . The ship was refitted at the Imperial Dockyard in Wilhelmshaven in the 1880s . She was renamed Neptun in 1902 and used as a harbor ship until June 1905 , when she was removed from the naval register . The following year , she was sold to ship breakers in the Netherlands and dismantled for scrap .
= = Design = =
= = = General characteristics = = =
Friedrich Carl was 91 @.@ 13 meters ( 299 @.@ 0 ft ) long at the waterline and 94 @.@ 14 m ( 308 @.@ 9 ft ) long overall . She had a beam of 16 @.@ 60 m ( 54 @.@ 5 ft ) and a draft of 6 @.@ 90 m ( 22 @.@ 6 ft ) forward and 8 @.@ 05 m ( 26 @.@ 4 ft ) aft . The ship was designed to displace 5 @,@ 971 metric tons ( 5 @,@ 877 long tons ; 6 @,@ 582 short tons ) at a normal loading , and up to 6 @,@ 932 t ( 6 @,@ 823 long tons ; 7 @,@ 641 short tons ) with a combat load . The ship 's hull was constructed with transverse and longitudinal iron frames . It contained eight watertight compartments and a double bottom that ran for 76 percent of the length of the vessel .
Friedrich Carl was an excellent sea boat ; the ship was responsive to commands from the helm and had a moderate turning radius . She was somewhat unbalanced , however , and a 6 degree rudder to port was required to keep the ship on a straight course . The ship 's crew numbered 33 officers and 498 enlisted men , and while serving as a flagship , the crew was augmented with a command staff of 6 officers and 35 enlisted men . Friedrich Carl carried a number of smaller boats , including a large tender , two launches , a pinnace , two cutters , two yawls , and one dinghy .
A horizontal two @-@ cylinder single expansion steam engine powered the ship . It drove a four @-@ bladed screw 6 m ( 20 ft ) in diameter . Six trunk boilers , divided into two boiler rooms with 11 fireboxes in each , supplied steam to the engine at 2 standard atmospheres ( 200 kPa ) . The propulsion system was rated at 3 @,@ 300 indicated horsepower ( 2 @,@ 500 kW ) and a top speed of 13 knots ( 24 km / h ; 15 mph ) , though on trials Friedrich Carl managed to make 3 @,@ 550 ihp ( 2 @,@ 650 kW ) and 13 @.@ 5 knots ( 25 @.@ 0 km / h ; 15 @.@ 5 mph ) . The ship carried 624 t ( 614 long tons ; 688 short tons ) of coal , which enabled a maximum range of 2 @,@ 210 nautical miles ( 4 @,@ 090 km ; 2 @,@ 540 mi ) at a cruising speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . A barque rig with a surface area of 2 @,@ 010 square meters supplemented the steam engine , though in service they added little to the ship 's performance . Steering was controlled with a single rudder .
= = = Armament and armor = = =
As built , Friedrich Carl was equipped with twenty @-@ six rifled 72 @-@ pounder cannon . After her delivery to Germany , these guns were replaced with a pair of 21 @-@ centimeter ( 8 @.@ 3 in ) L / 22 guns and fourteen 21 cm L / 19 guns . The L / 22 gun could depress to − 5 degrees and elevate to 13 degrees , which provided a range of 5 @,@ 900 m ( 6 @,@ 500 yd ) . The shorter barreled L / 19 guns had a wider range of elevation , from − 8 to 14 @.@ 5 degrees , but the shorter barrel imposed a lower muzzle velocity , which correspondingly reduced the range of the gun to 5 @,@ 200 m ( 5 @,@ 700 yd ) . The two types of gun fired the same shell , of which the total supply numbered 1 @,@ 656 rounds of ammunition . The fourteen L / 19 guns were placed in a central battery amidships , seven on either broadside . The L / 22 guns were placed on either end of the ship . Later in her career , six revolver cannon and five 35 cm ( 14 in ) torpedo tubes were added . Two of the tubes were placed in the bow , two on the ship 's sides , and one in the stern on the port side . All were placed above water , and were supplied with 12 torpedoes .
Friedrich Carl 's armor consisted of wrought iron backed with heavy teak planking . The waterline armored belt consisted of 114 millimeters ( 4 @.@ 5 in ) of iron backed with 254 mm ( 10 @.@ 0 in ) of teak . The central battery was protected by 114 mm of sloped iron plating on 260 mm ( 10 in ) of timber . The battery 's roof was protected by 9 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 35 in ) thick iron plating . The ship 's conning tower had 114 mm thick iron armor mounted on 400 @-@ millimeter ( 15 @.@ 7 in ) of teak .
= = Service history = =
The Prussian Navy ordered Friedrich Carl from a French shipbuilder in 1865 . She was laid down at the Societé Nouvelles des Forges et Chantiers La Seyne shipyard in Toulon the following year . The ship was launched on 16 January 1867 ; fitting out work was completed rapidly , and the ship was completed before the end of the year . Friedrich Carl was delivered to Prussia in October 1867 and commissioned into the fleet on the 3rd of the month .
= = = Franco @-@ Prussian War = = =
At the outbreak of the Franco @-@ Prussian War in 1870 , the greatly numerically inferior Prussian Navy assumed a defensive posture against a naval blockade imposed by the French Navy . Friedrich Carl and the broadside ironclads Kronprinz and König Wilhelm , along with the small ironclad ram Prinz Adalbert , had been steaming in the English Channel before the French declared war ; they had left Plymouth on 10 July with the intention of steaming to Fayal in the Azores . On the 13th , however , they put into port and learned of the rising tension between France and Prussia . The ships therefore returned to Wilhelmshaven immediately , arriving on 16 July . France declared war on Prussia three days later on 19 July . Friedrich Carl , Kronprinz , and König Wilhelm were concentrated in the North Sea at the port of Wilhelmshaven . They were subsequently joined there by the turret ship Arminius , which had been stationed in Kiel .
Despite the great French naval superiority , the French had conducted insufficient pre @-@ war planning for an assault on the Prussian naval installations , and concluded that it would only be possible with Danish assistance , which was not forthcoming . The four ships , under the command of Vice Admiral Jachmann , made an offensive sortie in early August 1870 out to the Dogger Bank , though they encountered no French warships . Friedrich Carl and the other two broadside ironclads thereafter suffered from chronic engine trouble , which left Arminius alone to conduct operations . Friedrich Carl , Kronprinz , and König Wilhelm stood off the island of Wangerooge for the majority of the conflict , while Arminius was stationed in the mouth of the Elbe river . On 11 September , the three broadside ironclads were again ready for action ; they joined Arminius for another major operation into the North Sea . It too did not encounter French opposition , as the French Navy had by this time returned to France .
= = = Deployment to Spain = = =
In early 1873 , the First Spanish Republic was beset with the Cantonal Revolution . Friedrich Carl , under the command of Vice Admiral Reinhold Werner , steamed to Spanish waters along with a pair of unarmored vessels . The ships joined a British squadron that had been patrolling the southern Spanish coast . A rebel faction of the Spanish Navy had seized four of the country 's seven ironclads . Admiral Werner , the senior commander in the group , was given command of the Anglo @-@ German force . The squadron blockaded two rebel ironclads in the port of Cartagena after they had bombarded a coastal town . While steaming off Alicante , Friedrich Carl encountered the rebel armed steamer Vigilante , seized the vessel , and returned it to the national government .
Friedrich Carl and the British ironclad HMS Swiftsure attacked two of the rebel ships — Vitoria and Almansa — without authorization from London or Berlin . The rebel vessels had attempted to extort the port of Almería . In the brief engagement , the Anglo @-@ German force overwhelmed the rebels and seized both ships , which were subsequently turned over to the Spanish government . The rebels considered declaring war on Germany over the affair , but eventually decided against it . A captured rebel leader was briefly held on board Friedrich Carl . Admiral Werner 's blockade eventually forced the rebels to surrender , after which Friedrich Carl returned to Germany . Chancellor Otto von Bismarck ordered a court @-@ martial for Admiral Werner , whose actions Bismarck considered to be excessive . Bismarck prohibited the Imperial Navy from conducting " gunboat diplomacy " in the future .
= = = Later service = = =
In 1885 , Friedrich Carl had torpedo nets installed ; these remained on the ship until 1897 . In 1895 , the ship was disarmed ; she was placed into service as a torpedo test ship on 11 August of that year . She served in this capacity until 21 January 1902 , when she was renamed Neptun and used as a harbor ship . Her name was then freed to be reused on the new armored cruiser Friedrich Carl , which was launched on 22 June 1902 . Neptun was formally stricken from the naval register on 22 June 1905 and sold to a Dutch ship @-@ breaking firm in March 1906 for 284 @,@ 000 gold marks . The ship was then towed to the Netherlands and broken up for scrap .
= James Turner Morehead ( Kentucky ) =
James Turner Morehead ( May 24 , 1797 – December 28 , 1854 ) was a United States Senator and the 12th Governor of Kentucky . He was the first native @-@ born Kentuckian to hold the governorship of the state . A member of Henry Clay 's National Republican Party , Morehead entered politics just as his party was beginning to challenge the Democratic Party 's dominance in the state .
Morehead was nominated for lieutenant governor at his party 's nominating convention in Baltimore , Maryland in 1831 , and was elected on a split ticket with Democratic governor John Breathitt . He ascended to the governorship upon Breathitt 's death in 1834 . Saddled with a shortened term , Morehead was not able to formulate a significant legislative agenda , and stuck to the politically safe issue of internal improvements during his term . When his party changed its name to the Whig Party and wrested control of the General Assembly from the Democrats in the summer of 1834 , Morehead hosted the new party 's first nominating convention in Frankfort .
Following his term as governor , Morehead returned to the state legislature . An opponent of abolitionism , he accompanied John Speed Smith to Ohio to secure the return of slaves owned by Kentuckians . He was later appointed to the U.S. Senate , where he remained a close ally of Clay 's . In 1847 , he retired to Covington , Kentucky , practicing law until his death in 1854 . The city of Morehead , Kentucky is named in honor of Governor Morehead .
= = Early life and career = =
James Turner Morehead was born on May 24 , 1797 near Shepherdsville , Kentucky in Bullitt County . His parents , Armistead and Lucy ( Latham ) Morehead , moved to Russellville , Kentucky when he was very young , and he was educated at the public schools in that city . He attended Transylvania University in Lexington , Kentucky from 1813 to 1815 . He then returned to Russellville , where he studied law under circuit court judge H. P. Broadnax and John J. Crittenden . He was admitted to the bar in 1818 , and commenced practice in Bowling Green , Kentucky .
On May 1 , 1823 , Morehead married Susan A. Roberts ; the couple had two children . He was elected to the Kentucky House of Representatives representing Warren County from 1828 to 1831 . While there , he served on the Committee on Internal Improvements , and reported a bill for state subscription to the Maysville @-@ Lexington Turnpike Company in 1831 .
= = Governor of Kentucky = =
In 1831 , Morehead was also a delegate to the National Republican Party Convention in Baltimore , Maryland that nominated Henry Clay for president . During the convention , he was nominated for the office of lieutenant governor . Though his National Republican running mate , Richard A. Buckner , was defeated by Democrat John Breathitt , Morehead was elected the ninth Lieutenant Governor .
Governor Breathitt died of tuberculosis on February 21 , 1834 , and Morehead was sworn in as governor the following day . The replacement of a Democratic governor with one from the rival National Republican party caused a great deal of angst among Democrats , but the ascendancy of Democrat James Guthrie to president of the state senate and Morehead 's willingness to retain Breathitt 's secretary of state , Lewis Saunders , did much to allay their fears .
Later that year , the National Republican party began to re @-@ brand itself as the Whig Party , a name that first appeared in the Lexington Intelligencer on April 25 , 1834 . On July 4 , 1834 , Governor Morehead hosted the party 's first convention in Frankfort . Kentuckians flocked to the " new " party en masse , and the legislative elections of August 1834 saw the party garner majorities in both houses of the state legislature . Flexing their political muscles , the majority party ousted Guthrie from his post as president of the Senate and by a vote of 90 – 40 , and sent John J. Crittenden instead of Guthrie to the U.S. Senate in 1835 .
In his first address to the legislature , Morehead recommended a plan of expanded internal improvements , including improvements along the state 's rivers . The legislature responded by creating a state board of internal improvements , and named Morehead the ex @-@ officio president of the board . In this role , he authorized many surveys of Kentucky 's rivers and formulated several plans for improvements , but most of them were blocked by the Panic of 1837 . One improvement that did proceed was construction of the Lexington and Ohio Railroad , which was completed in 1835 . Though education was not a high priority for Governor Morehead , the Kentucky Common School Society and the Kentucky Association of Professional Teachers were formed during his term .
= = Later career = =
Following his service as governor , Morehead resumed his legal practice in Frankfort , Kentucky . In March 1837 , he was commissioned by Governor James Clark to act as an agent for the state , selling bonds to fund internal improvements . He returned to the state House from 1837 to 1838 , representing Franklin County . He was president of the Kentucky Board of Internal Improvements from 1838 to 1841 , and in 1839 , he and John Speed Smith were chosen as commissioners to the state of Ohio to secure the return of Kentucky @-@ owned slaves as property of their masters . They were successful in this endeavor .
Learned in Kentucky history , Morehead published An Address in Commemoration of the First Settlement of Kentucky , which contained original information regarding the early settlement of Boonesborough , Kentucky , in 1840 . In 1846 , he published another book , Practice in Civil Actions and Proceedings at Law .
In 1841 , Morehead was elected to the U.S. Senate and served from March 4 , 1841 to March 3 , 1847 . There he was chairman of the U.S. Senate Committee on Indian Affairs and the Committee on Retrenchment . During his service in the Senate , he defended a federal bank bill and opposed the annexation of Texas , though he supported the U.S.-Mexican War after it began . He was also a staunch supporter of fellow Kentuckian Henry Clay .
After his time in Congress , he continued the practice of law in Covington , Kentucky until his death . He was interred in the State lot of Frankfort Cemetery , Frankfort , Kentucky . The city of Morehead , Kentucky was named after him .
= USS South Carolina ( BB @-@ 26 ) =
USS South Carolina ( BB @-@ 26 ) , the lead ship of her class of dreadnought battleships , was the fourth ship of the United States Navy to be named in honor of the eighth state . She was also the first American dreadnought ; though she did not incorporate turbine propulsion like HMS Dreadnought , South Carolina 's design included revolutionary aspects as well , primarily the superfiring arrangement of her main battery . The ship was laid down in December 1906 and launched in July 1908 before being commissioned into the US Atlantic Fleet in March 1910 .
South Carolina spent much of her career in the Atlantic and Caribbean patrolling the eastern coast of the United States . She made two trips to Europe in 1910 and 1911 and participated in a visit by a German cruiser squadron in 1912 . In 1913 – 14 , she frequently patrolled the coast of Mexico to protect American interests during the Mexican Revolution , and in April 1914 she took part in the United States occupation of Veracruz . After the United States entered World War I in April 1917 , South Carolina trained sailors for the rapidly expanding wartime navy , and in late 1918 , she was assigned to convoy escort duty . An accident with her propellers in September kept her from active service for the remainder of the conflict . In 1919 , she made four trips to bring American soldiers back from Europe . Midshipmen training cruises followed in 1920 – 21 , but the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 cut her career short . She was broken up for scrap as part of the arms limitation treaty , starting in mid @-@ 1924 .
= = Design = =
South Carolina was 452 ft 9 in ( 138 m ) long overall and had a beam of 80 ft 3 in ( 24 m ) and a draft of 24 ft 6 in ( 7 m ) . She displaced 16 @,@ 000 long tons ( 16 @,@ 257 t ) as designed and up to 17 @,@ 617 long tons ( 17 @,@ 900 t ) at full combat load . The ship was powered by two @-@ shaft vertical triple @-@ expansion engines rated at 16 @,@ 500 ihp ( 12 @,@ 304 kW ) and twelve coal @-@ fired Babcock & Wilcox boilers , generating a top speed of 18 @.@ 5 kn ( 34 km / h ; 21 mph ) . The ship had a cruising range of 5 @,@ 000 nmi ( 9 @,@ 260 km ; 5 @,@ 754 mi ) at a speed of 10 kn ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . She had a crew of 869 officers and men .
The ship was armed with a main battery of eight 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) / 45 caliber Mark 5 guns in four twin gun turrets on the centerline , which were placed in two superfiring pairs forward and aft . The secondary battery consisted of twenty @-@ two 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) / 50 guns mounted in casemates along the side of the hull . As was standard for capital ships of the period , she carried a pair of 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedo tubes , submerged in her hull on the broadside . The main armored belt was 12 in ( 305 mm ) thick over the magazines , 10 in ( 254 mm ) over the machinery spaces , and 8 in ( 203 mm ) elsewhere . The armored deck was 1 @.@ 5 to 2 @.@ 5 in ( 38 to 64 mm ) thick . The gun turrets had 12 inch thick faces , while the supporting barbettes had 10 inch thick armor plating . Ten inch thick armor also protected the casemate guns . The conning tower had 12 inch thick sides .
= = Service history = =
The keel for South Carolina was laid down at the William Cramp & Sons shipyard in Philadelphia on 18 December 1906 . The completed hull was launched on 1 July 1908 , and Frederica Ansel , the daughter of the governor of the ship 's namesake state , Martin Ansel , christened the ship . Fitting @-@ out work was completed by the end of February 1910 , and she was commissioned into the fleet on 1
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from its food and would have to eat large volumes to survive . Like other large herbivores , Paraceratherium would have had a large digestive tract .
Granger and Gregory argued that the large incisors were used for defence or for loosening shrubs by moving the neck downwards , thereby acting as picks and levers . Tapirs use their proboscis to wrap around branches while stripping off bark with the front teeth ; this ability would have been helpful to Paraceratherium . Some Russian authors suggested that the tusks were probably used for breaking twigs , stripping bark and bending high branches and that , because species from the early Oligocene had larger tusks than later ones , they probably had a more bark than leaf based diet . Since the species involved are now known to have been contemporaneous , and that the differences in tusks are perhaps sexually dimorphic , the latter idea is not accepted today . Herds of Paraceratherium may have migrated while continuously foraging from tall trees , which smaller mammals could not reach . Osborn suggested that its mode of foraging would have been similar to that of the high @-@ browsing giraffe and okapi , rather than to modern rhinoceroses , whose heads are carried close to the ground .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Remains assignable to Paraceratherium have been found in early to late Oligocene ( 34 – 23 million years ago ) formations across Eurasia , in modern @-@ day China , Mongolia , India , Pakistan , Kazakhstan , Georgia , Turkey , Romania , Bulgaria , and the Balkans . Their distribution may be correlated with the palaeogeographic development of the Alpine @-@ Himalayan mountain belt . The range of Paraceratherium finds implies that they inhabited a continuous landmass with a similar environment across it , but this is contradicted by palaeogeographic maps that show this area had various marine barriers , so the genus was successful in being widely distributed despite this . The fauna which coexisted with Paraceratherium included other rhinoceroses , artiodactyls , rodents , beardogs , weasels , hyaenodonts , nimravids and cats .
The habitat of Paraceratherium appears to have varied across its range , based on the types of geological formations it has been found in . The Hsanda Gol Formation of Mongolia represents an arid desert basin , and the environment is thought to have had few tall trees and limited brush cover , as the fauna consisted mainly of animals that fed from tree tops or close to the ground . A study of fossil pollen showed that much of China was woody shrubland , with plants such as saltbush , mormon tea ( Ephedra ) , and nitre bush ( Nitraria ) , all adapted to arid environments . Trees were rare , and concentrated near groundwater . The parts of China where Paraceratherium lived had dry lakes and abundant sand dunes , and the most common plant fossils are leaves of the desert @-@ adapted Palibinia . Trees in Mongolia and China included birch , elm , oaks , and other deciduous trees , while Siberia and Kazakhstan also had walnut trees . Dera Bugti in Pakistan had dry , temperate to subtropical forest .
= = Extinction = =
The reasons Paraceratherium became extinct after surviving for about 11 million years are unknown , but it is unlikely that there was a single cause . Theorised reasons include climate change , low reproduction rate , and invasion by gomphothere proboscideans from Africa in the late Oligocene . Gomphotheres may have been able to considerably change the habitats they entered , in the same way that African elephants do today , by destroying trees and turning woodland into grassland . Once their food source became scarce and their numbers dwindled , Paraceratherium populations would have become more vulnerable to other threats . Large predators like Hyaenaelurus and Amphicyon also entered Asia from Africa during the early Miocene ; these may have predated Paraceratherium calves . Other herbivores also invaded Asia during this time .
= 2006 Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Bowl =
The 2006 Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Bowl was a postseason college football match between the Georgia Bulldogs and the Virginia Tech Hokies at the Georgia Dome in Atlanta , Georgia . The University of Georgia represented the Southeastern Conference ( SEC ) and Virginia Tech represented the Atlantic Coast Conference ( ACC ) in the competition . The game was the final competition of the 2006 football season for each team and resulted in a 31 – 24 Georgia victory , even though spread bettors favored Virginia Tech to win by three points . In exchange for the right to pick the first ACC team after the Bowl Championship Series selections , bowl representatives paid US $ 3 @.@ 25 million to the ACC , while the SEC , whose fifth team was selected , received $ 2 @.@ 4 million . The combined $ 5 @.@ 65 million payout was the seventh @-@ largest among all college football bowl games , and the fourth @-@ largest non @-@ BCS bowl game payout .
In a game that was expected to be a defensive struggle , Virginia Tech took a 21 – 3 lead in the first half . After halftime , Georgia answered Tech 's first @-@ half success , thanks in part to four second @-@ half turnovers by Tech quarterback Sean Glennon . Virginia Tech 's No. 1 ranked defense struggled in the second half , allowing 153 yards ( of 200 total ) in the final 30 minutes . As time ran out , Georgia held a one @-@ touchdown lead , 31 – 24 , having beaten back a last @-@ second Tech rally . 75 @,@ 406 people attended the game , making it the 10th consecutive Peach Bowl sellout , the largest crowd to ever attend an event at the Georgia Dome , and the third @-@ largest bowl game in terms of attendance for the 2006 – 2007 season . Each school sold out its allotment of 18 @,@ 500 tickets quickly . 31 @,@ 922 people attended the Chick @-@ fil @-@ A " fan fest " before the game , setting a new attendance record . Virginia Tech 's loss brought it to a final 2006 record of 10 – 3 , while Georgia 's final @-@ game win earned it a record of 9 – 4 .
= = Selection process = =
Beginning with the 2006 game , the Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Bowl had purchased the right to select the highest @-@ ranked Atlantic Coast Conference team after representatives from the Bowl Championship Series made their selection . According to the official selection rules still used today , the team chosen to represent the ACC must be within one conference victory of the remaining , highest @-@ ranked conference team or be ranked more than five spaces ahead of the ACC team with the best Conference record available in the final BCS Standings .
In choosing the SEC opponent , the Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Bowl selection committee had the right to select the first SEC school after the Bowl Championship Series , Cotton Bowl Classic , Capital One Bowl , and Outback Bowl made their selections . Just as in the ACC , the selection committee could not select an SEC team with two more losses than the highest available team . The bowl earned the right to select these teams via its multimillion @-@ dollar payout system , which guarantees a certain amount of money to the participating conferences . Prior to 2006 , the Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Bowl ( then known as the Peach Bowl ) matched the No. 5 team in the SEC versus the No. 3 team in the ACC . After the bowl increased its payout to $ 2 @.@ 8 million per squad , it then was given the second pick from the ACC , with the Gator Bowl dropping to third .
Leeman Bennett , the former head coach of the Atlanta Falcons and Tampa Bay Buccaneers , served as chairman of the selection committee , which had the task of picking the best teams from those made available by the selection criteria set by the two conferences . The committee would have approximately one month to select the two teams that would attract the most people to the game and generate the largest possible television audience . This fact helped eliminate ACC runner @-@ up Georgia Tech from the selection process , as the Yellow Jackets had already played Georgia earlier in the season , thus making a potential Georgia @-@ Georgia Tech showdown less attractive . In addition , that matchup , while attractive to football fans in the Atlanta area ( the site of the Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Bowl and home to Georgia Tech ) , would have less appeal to television viewers outside the Georgia area . Supervising the selection committee was the Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Bowl Executive Committee , which consisted of representatives from various Atlanta businesses and the Chick @-@ fil @-@ A corporation .
= = Pregame buildup = =
On the morning of December 3 , 2006 , Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Bowl representatives selected Virginia Tech to represent the ACC in the 2006 Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Bowl . A few hours later , Georgia was selected as the second half of the matchup . Two days after the selections were announced , the game was declared sold out , the 10th consecutive sellout in the combined history of the Peach and Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Bowls . Georgia and Virginia Tech each were assigned initial allocations of 18 @,@ 500 tickets for distribution , and following the quick sales of those ticket blocs , each asked for and received additional tickets to distribute .
The game was the third time Virginia Tech and the University of Georgia faced each other on the football field . The two previous games — one in 1931 and the other in 1932 — resulted in one loss and one win for each team . Various casinos and betting organizations favored Virginia Tech by 2 @.@ 5 – 3 points when setting their point spread .
= = = Media coverage = = =
Media discussion of the game in the weeks leading up to kickoff centered on the Hokies ' No. 1 @-@ nationally ranked defense and Georgia 's 5th @-@ ranked SEC defense . Most pundits predicted a low @-@ scoring game , and a few predicted an " all @-@ out defensive war " . A week before departing for Atlanta , Virginia Tech head coach Frank Beamer revealed that Ike Whitaker , Virginia Tech 's backup quarterback , would not be attending the game for undisclosed reasons . It was later revealed that Whitaker had been admitted to an alcohol treatment center in Salem , Virginia .
For Georgia , discussion centered on the play @-@ calling duties of assistant coach Mike Bobo . Bobo had been named the temporary offensive coordinator for the Bulldogs after then @-@ assistant coordinator Neil Calloway had been named the new head coach at the University of Alabama @-@ Birmingham . Calloway would remain with the Bulldogs as the offensive line coach during the Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Bowl , but Bobo would take over his role as offensive coordinator for the game . It was only the second time that Bobo performed as a play @-@ caller for the Bulldogs , the previous game having come in Georgia 's regular @-@ season closer , a 15 – 12 win against Georgia Tech .
= = = Offensive matchups = = =
With the fifth @-@ ranked defense in the SEC going up against the number @-@ one ranked scoring defense in the nation , attention centered on the likelihood of a low @-@ scoring defensive struggle . Of particular interest were the two teams ' quarterbacks and how they would likely fare against such a tough defense . Georgia struggled on offense for much of the season , resulting in a battle for the starting quarterback position between senior Joe Tereshinski and freshman Matthew Stafford . Though Stafford was eventually given the starting role , he struggled in his first year , completing 126 of 235 passes ( 53 @.@ 6 % ) for 1 @,@ 620 yards , with six touchdowns and 12 interceptions heading into the Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Bowl . On the opposite side of the field , Virginia Tech would be starting redshirt sophomore Sean Glennon . Named the starting quarterback at the beginning of the 2006 season , Glennon replaced Marcus Vick , who had been expelled from Virginia Tech at the end of the previous year . While not as statistically successful as Marcus Vick , Glennon still managed to lead the Hokies to their third consecutive 10 @-@ win season , and had the edge over Stafford in terms of experience .
On the ground , it appeared that Virginia Tech had the edge in experience , forcing Georgia 's defense to concentrate on stopping Tech 's run game . Virginia Tech running back Branden Ore suffered an ankle injury in the Hokies ' regular @-@ season game against Wake Forest , but still took the field in the Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Bowl . The same could not be said for Georgia , whose original starting running back , Thomas Brown , suffered a season @-@ ending knee injury in October . Filling his role were two inexperienced players : Kregg Lumpkin and Danny Ware . Making up for this inexperience , the two players were coached by Tony Ball , a former Virginia Tech wide receivers coach with insights into the Tech defense .
With Ore still not fully recovered from his injury and two inexperienced players on the Georgia side , it appeared that the teams ' passing offenses would have to take up the slack . Virginia Tech 's Eddie Royal , with 452 receiving yards , led both teams in receiving yardage coming into the game . Georgia 's receiving corps was led by wide receiver Mohammed Massaquoi and tight end Martrez Milner . Massaquoi caught 28 passes for 348 yards and two touchdowns coming into the game , while Milner had 27 receptions for 376 yards and two touchdowns .
= = = Defensive matchups = = =
Each offense would face tough defense in the air and on the ground . The Virginia Tech defense , led by junior linebackers Vince Hall and Xavier Adibi , was expected to present a challenge for the Georgia offense . " You try to find some kind of mismatch , but it 's very difficult to do " , Georgia head coach Mark Richt said before kickoff . " That 's why they 're the best ( defense ) in the country . Their interior defensive linemen are very , very strong and physical , and , really , everybody else is built for speed . Their edge rushers are tremendous , and their linebackers are outstanding and physical . Their defensive backs can all run and hit . It 's going to be a real challenge . " Of particular concern for quarterback Matt Stafford were Virginia Tech 's cornerbacks , whom he would have to go through in order to complete passes to his receivers . " They play kind of a different scheme than a lot of teams so it would be tough if you only had one week to try to prepare for these guys " , Stafford said in an interview prior to the game . " They trust their corners a lot , but they 've got good ones and can . They lock up a lot of time single receiver side because they 've got a good corner down there that plays on the boundary . "
Georgia 's defense , ranked fifth in the SEC , was no less a concern for Virginia Tech 's offense . " Defense is one of the major aspects of the SEC " , said Georgia center Nick Jones before the game . " You face great defenses week in and week out , and we face a great one week in and week out in practice against our defense . We 've been up against great defenses and great personnel , so it 's nothing new for us . " Heading into the game , Georgia was ranked ninth in total defense , giving up only 264 yards per game , and 22nd in scoring defense , allowing an average of just 17 @.@ 1 points a game .
= = Game summary = =
The 2006 Chick @-@ fil @-@ A bowl kicked off on December 30 , 2006 at 8 : 00 p.m. The game was nationally televised on ESPN , with over 5 million households tuning into the game at home , enough to earn ESPN a television rating of 4 @.@ 8 for the broadcast . 75 @,@ 406 people attended the game in person , making it the 10th consecutive Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Bowl sell @-@ out , the first since the word " Peach " was dropped from the title , the largest crowd ever to attend an event at the Georgia Dome , and the third @-@ largest bowl game in terms of attendance for the 2006 – 2007 season . 31 @,@ 922 people attended the Chick @-@ fil @-@ A " fan fest " prior to the game , setting a new attendance record . Due to the proximity of Atlanta to the University of Georgia 's main campus in Athens , Georgia , gave Georgia a home @-@ field advantage. but the Virginia Tech fans , known for traveling well to their bowl appearances , quickly bought out their school 's allotment of tickets and ensured a divided crowd .
= = = First quarter = = =
Defense dominated in the first quarter of the game . Virginia Tech received the opening kickoff , but failed to capitalize on its opening drive thanks to a personal foul penalty that forced the Hokies to punt . On its first possession , Georgia moved into scoring position courtesy of a 26 @-@ yard run by Kregg Lumpkin . Failing to advance the ball further , Georgia sent in kicker Brandon Coutu who kicked a 39 @-@ yard field goal to give Georgia the early lead , 3 – 0 .
The two teams proceeded to trade possessions , with no side able to gain an advantage over the other 's defense . Tech received the kickoff from Georgia , but was again hampered by penalties after earning a first down . After the Virginia Tech punt , Georgia went three @-@ and @-@ out , punting to the Hokies , who also went three @-@ and @-@ out .
After taking possession on his own 16 @-@ yard line , Georgia quarterback and true freshman Matthew Stafford caused the first turning point of the game as he threw an interception to Brenden Hill of Virginia Tech . Starting deep in Georgia territory , Virginia Tech was further aided by a personal foul on Georgia , which set up a first @-@ and @-@ goal situation for Virginia Tech on the Georgia 6 @-@ yard line . A two @-@ yard run by Virginia Tech tailback Branden Ore brought the ball closer to the goal line and ended the first quarter of play .
At the end of the first quarter , Georgia led Virginia Tech 3 – 0 .
= = = Second quarter = = =
The second quarter began with Virginia Tech inside the Georgia 10 @-@ yard line . After two unsuccessful plays , Virginia Tech was finally able to reach the end zone on a Branden Ore one @-@ yard rush in a fourth @-@ and @-@ one situation . The touchdown and extra point gave Virginia Tech a 7 – 3 lead with 13 : 23 left in the half .
Georgia began its first possession with a 25 @-@ yard kickoff return , but failed to earn a first down in the face of a tough Hokie defensive effort . Georgia punter Gordon Ely @-@ Kelso kicked a 56 @-@ yard punt following the Virginia Tech defensive stop . A breakdown in special teams coverage by Georgia allowed Virginia Tech kick returner Eddie Royal to break free , returning the kick 56 yards back to the original line of scrimmage . As a result of the excellent field position provided by the return , Virginia Tech was able to drive the remaining 30 yards to the end zone . Branden Ore earned his second touchdown of the game , making the score 14 – 3 with 6 : 13 remaining on the clock .
After a short return , Georgia QB Stafford went to work on the Georgia 24 @-@ yard line . Two incomplete passes and one sack later , Georgia was again punting . Virginia Tech again was in excellent field position , starting on their own 47 @-@ yard line . Instead of rushing the ball , as had been the trend for the Tech offense up to that point , Virginia Tech head coach Frank Beamer called for a trick play . At the snap , quarterback Sean Glennon lateraled the football to wide receiver Eddie Royal . Rather than running the ball , Royal threw the ball downfield , catching the Georgia defense off guard . Tight end Sam Wheeler , the target of the throw , had been left uncovered by a defense expecting a run . The pass was completed , and Wheeler ran unimpeded 53 yards for a touchdown . The play took 19 seconds to execute , and gave Virginia Tech a 21 – 3 lead with 4 : 00 remaining in the half .
Georgia was again unable to earn a first down in the ensuing possession , and attempted three straight rushing plays that earned a total of six yards . After a Georgia punt , Virginia Tech ran two rushing plays before attempting the same Royal pass that had gone for a touchdown earlier . Georgia , having anticipated the play , sacked Royal for a loss of two yards , ending the first half .
At halftime , Virginia Tech led Georgia 21 – 3 .
= = = Third quarter = = =
Because Virginia Tech had received the opening kickoff , Georgia received the ball to open the second half . Stafford was able to connect with wide receiver Mario Raley for a 24 @-@ yard gain , taking Georgia to the 50 @-@ yard line , but Virginia Tech 's defense stiffened and Georgia was forced to punt . Pinned at their ten @-@ yard line by the Georgia punt , Virginia Tech went three @-@ and @-@ out and was itself forced to punt .
A 19 @-@ yard punt return by Mikey Henderson put Georgia into good field position . Stafford capitalized on the opportunity , completing a 26 @-@ yard pass to put Georgia into field @-@ goal range . After three unsuccessful plays , kicker Brandon Coutu connected on a 51 @-@ yard field goal to cut the Virginia Tech lead to 21 – 6 .
On the kickoff following the field goal , Georgia head coach Mark Richt ordered an unorthodox onside kick . Surprised by the unexpected play , the Virginia Tech coverage team was unable to recover the ball , which was leapt upon by the kicker , Brian Mimbs . With a new chance at offense and a sense of optimism triggered by the successful onside kick , Georgia drove down the field . Aided by 20 yards in penalties against Virginia Tech , the drive resulted in a six @-@ yard touchdown pass to Martrez Milner . The touchdown and extra point boosted Georgia 's morale and cut the score to 21 – 13 , Virginia Tech leading by eight .
The third quarter came to a close as Virginia Tech struggled to answer the two Georgia scores . Tech quarterback Sean Glennon connected on a 29 @-@ yard pass to Eddie Royal , driving the Hokies to the Bulldog 47 @-@ yard line as the clock hit zero .
At the end of the third quarter , Virginia Tech still led Georgia , 21 – 13 .
= = = Fourth quarter = = =
The fourth quarter began with Virginia Tech searching for a way to answer Georgia 's previous two scores and quash the momentum Georgia had picked up . On the third play of the quarter , however , Virginia Tech quarterback Sean Glennon threw an interception to Georgia 's Tony Taylor . Beginning on their own 35 @-@ yard line , Georgia capitalized on the mistake quickly , courtesy of a 15 @-@ yard personal foul penalty and a 41 @-@ yard completion from Stafford to Milner . Georgia , hoping to tie the time , attempted and completed a two @-@ point conversion . The resulting scores tied the game at 21 – 21 with 12 : 39 remaining in the game .
Virginia Tech 's hopes to answer were smashed on the first play after Georgia 's kickoff as Glennon fumbled the snap , losing the ball to Georgia 's Quentin Moses . Georgia failed to pick up a first down following the turnover , but the fumble did turn into three points for the Bulldogs , as kicker Brandon Coutu connected on his third field goal of the day , giving Georgia its first lead since the first quarter , 24 – 21 .
After the Georgia kickoff , Glennon was again intercepted by Tony Taylor , who earned his second interception on the day and created Glennon 's third turnover . Taylor returned the ball 16 yards to the Tech one @-@ yard line , setting up an easy touchdown for the Bulldogs . With 6 : 54 remaining , Georgia took a 31 – 21 lead over Virginia Tech .
On the ensuing Tech possession , Tech 's quarterback continued to play poorly . On the third play following the kickoff , Glennon was intercepted for the fourth time in the game . The downfield interception set up Georgia at their own 11 @-@ yard line . Georgia rushed the ball three times , forcing Virginia Tech to use two timeouts in order to stop the clock . The punt by Georgia 's Ely @-@ Kelso was poorly done , and traveled only 15 yards before going out of bounds .
As a result of the excellent field position , Virginia Tech seemed in position for an easy score . However , after a quick Tech first down , the Georgia defense stiffened and Tech was forced to settle for a field goal . The 28 @-@ yard kick by Brandon Pace cut Georgia 's lead to 31 – 24 , but only 3 : 42 remained on the clock . Due to the short time remaining , Virginia Tech was forced to attempt an onside kick in order to have another chance at offense . The kick was recovered by Georgia , however , and the Bulldogs proceeded to rush the ball in three consecutive plays , forcing the Hokies to use their last timeout in order to conserve time for one final drive .
Georgia 's punt rolled into the end zone for a touchback , and with 1 : 28 remaining in the game , Virginia Tech began the final drive on its own 20 @-@ yard line . Any tension was soon defused by the Georgia defense , which forced three incompletions and a sack . Glennon 's attempt at a Hail Mary pass fell short , giving Georgia the win with a final score of 31 – 24 .
= = Final statistics = =
The 18 @-@ point comeback was the largest for Georgia under coach Mark Richt up to that point . In recognition of their performances during the game , Georgia linebacker Tony Taylor and quarterback Matthew Stafford were named the defensive and offensive MVPs of the game , respectively . Taylor 's two interceptions tied the Georgia bowl record for interceptions , first set by Scott Woerner and Ronnie Harris . The four Virginia Tech turnovers resulted in 18 Georgia points . Georgia 's sole turnover resulted in seven points for Virginia Tech .
= = = Georgia statistical recap = = =
Over a third of Georgia 's 71 rushing yards came on a single 26 @-@ yard run in the first quarter by halfback Kregg Lumpkin . After the run , Lumpkin would amass only 13 additional yards in the remaining three quarters of play . Over half of Georgia 's total offensive yards ( 200 total yards ) came through the air from Stafford , who finished with 129 passing yards , one interception , and one touchdown . Approximately a third ( 41 yards ) of Stafford 's passing yards came on a single completion in the fourth quarter . Another long pass play netted Stafford 24 yards . Together , the two plays accounted for half of Stafford 's total passing yards . Seven other completions netted only 64 yards , an average of just over 9 yards a play .
Georgia 's kicking game had a far more active day than its offense . Punter Gordon Ely @-@ Kelso booted seven punts and kicker Brandon Coutu nailed three field goals . The field goals , kicked from 39 , 51 , and 28 yards away and two extra points made Coutu Georgia 's leading scorer in the game , earning 11 points . Ely @-@ Kelso netted 264 yards in punts , an average of 37 @.@ 7 yards per kick . Though not long , the punts were high enough in the air to allow Georgia 's special teams to get downfield and prevent long punt returns . Only two of Ely @-@ Kelso 's punts were returned by Tech kick returner Eddie Royal , and one return was for negative yardage .
Georgia 's defense managed a strong performance statistically and in real terms . The most obvious examples of this were the three interceptions and one forced fumble that proved to be the turning point in the game . Two of the interceptions were caught by linebacker Tony Taylor , who also had nine tackles , two for a loss of yards . The tackles tied him with Paul Oliver , who also had nine . The third interception came from Kelin Johnson , while the fumble was forced by Charles Johnson . Johnson had an active day as well . In addition to the forced fumble , he recorded four tackles , two sacks , and a pass break @-@ up .
The defensive play of Taylor , Oliver , and Johnson greatly affected the course of the game and is apparent in Georgia 's time of possession and average starting position in each of the quarters . During the first and second quarters , Georgia had average starting positions on their own 19 and 26 @-@ yard lines , respectively . Their first @-@ quarter time of possession was just 5 : 41 , and their second @-@ quarter possession time was 6 : 34 . During the third and fourth quarters , when all four Virginia Tech turnovers took place , Georgia 's time of possession jumped to 10 : 41 and 7 : 47 , respectively . In the third quarter , their average starting possession gained ten yards to the Georgia 36 , and during the final quarter , their average starting position was the Virginia Tech 36 @-@ yard line . This fact allowed Georgia to capitalize on the Virginia Tech turnovers , turning them into points on the scoreboard .
= = = Virginia Tech statistical recap = = =
Sean Glennon 's four turnovers tied a career high for interceptions and brought his season interception mark to 11 . He completed 13 of his 26 passes for 94 yards and a completion percentage of 50 % . The passing total of 94 yards was the second @-@ lowest total in the entire season , coming behind only a November 4 game in Miami where Glennon passed for just 86 yards in the face of a tough defense . In a statistic unusual for the 2006 season , Glennon was not the only Tech player to complete a pass . Wide receiver Eddie Royal 's 53 @-@ yard TD pass made him just the third Virginia Tech player to complete a pass during the 2006 season . The play on which Royal made his throw , a lateral WR pass , had been attempted once previously in the season during a 38 – 27 loss to Georgia Tech .
On the ground , the Hokies had even less success than they did in the air . Branden Ore , Tech 's starting tailback , earned 42 yards in 20 short rushes during the game . With a long run of eight yards , Ore was kept in check by Georgia 's defense . The only other Hokie to achieve positive yardage on the ground was backup tailback Kenny Lewis , who only managed five yards . Glennon was sacked three times , once fumbling the ball . These sacks wiped out the 11 rushing yards he managed to gain during his scrambles for yardage . In the second quarter , Virginia Tech was aided by excellent field position , enabling them to score three offensive touchdowns . Tech 's average starting field position in that quarter was the Georgia 48 @-@ yard line , allowing for easy scores even for a struggling offense .
As with Georgia , Virginia Tech 's kicking and special teams proved to have more success than either aspect of the offense . Virginia Tech kicker Brandon Pace scored a single 28 @-@ yard field goal late in the fourth quarter , and punter Nic Schmitt blasted four punts for a total of 195 yards , averaging 48 @.@ 8 yards a punt . Pace 's field goal helped to trigger a late @-@ game rally by Virginia Tech , which had been stunned by a Georgia onside kick and several interceptions thrown by Glennon . Schmitt 's long punts , meanwhile , denied Georgia good field position in the first half of the game . Only in the second half , when Glennon 's interceptions allowed Georgia to start on the Tech side of the field , was the Georgia offense able to reach the end zone . In the first and second quarters , Georgia 's average starting position was their own 19 @-@ yard line and own 26 @-@ yard line , respectively .
That starting field position proved a boon for the Virginia Tech defense , which only allowed 200 total yards in the game . Tech linebacker Vince Hall led the Hokies and all defensive players with 13 tackles in the game . Tech recorded one interception during the game , courtesy of Brenden Hill , who also made three tackles . Georgia 's offensive line , despite starting only six scholarship offensive linemen , allowed just two sacks to the Virginia Tech defense . Chris Ellis and Noland Burchette each earned a single sack , accounting for a loss of 15 total yards .
= = Postgame effects = =
The win over # 14 Virginia Tech enabled the Bulldogs to break into the Top 25 rankings in the final college football poll of the season . Georgia was ranked # 23 in the country thanks to its win over the Hokies , who dropped to # 19 nationally following the loss . The loss snapped a six @-@ game winning streak by Virginia Tech and ended the Hokies ' bid at becoming just the fourth team in school history to win 11 games in a season . The 2006 Georgia Bulldogs , consequently , became the first team in school history to defeat three consecutive ranked teams . No. 5 Auburn , No. 16 Georgia Tech , and No. 14 Virginia Tech all fell to Georgia in November or December . The game and the tens of thousands of fans it attracted injected an estimated $ 35 million into the Atlanta area economy , mostly as a result of food , hotel , and other expenses incurred by visiting fans .
= = = 2007 season = = =
In August 2007 , Frank Beamer closed team practices to outside observers for the first time in 20 years . He cited concerns about unknown individuals watching Virginia Tech practice in Atlanta before the Hokies ' loss to Georgia , potentially leading to the defeat . During the 2007 season , Virginia Tech quarterback Sean Glennon was replaced as the Hokies ' starter by freshman Tyrod Taylor , causing many pundits to point to the four interceptions Glennon threw in the Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Bowl as an example of his failure as a quarterback . Brian Mimbs , the former walk @-@ on who kicked and recovered the onside kick that began Georgia 's rally was named the Bulldogs ' starting punter for the 2007 season , partially due to his performance in the Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Bowl .
At the end of the 2007 NCAA Division I FBS football season , both Georgia and Virginia Tech were named to Bowl Championship Series bowl games , indicating an increase over their 2006 performances . Georgia earned a bid to the 2008 Sugar Bowl in New Orleans , Louisiana against the Hawaii Warriors , who they defeated , 41 – 10 . Virginia Tech , having won the 2007 ACC Championship Game , earned an automatic bid to the 2008 Orange Bowl in Miami , Florida , losing 24 – 21 to the Kansas Jayhawks .
= 6th National Congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam =
The 6th National Congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam ( Vietnamese : Đại hội Đảng Cộng sản Việt Nam VI ) ( CPV ) was held in Ba Đình Hall , Hanoi , between 15 and 18 December 1986 . 1 @,@ 129 delegates represented the party 's estimated 1 @,@ 900 @,@ 000 members . The congress occurs once every five years . Preparations for the 6th National Congress began with 8th plenum of the 5th Central Committee and ended with the 10th plenum , which lasted 19 days . After the 10th plenum , local and provincial party organizations began electing delegates to the congress as well as updating party documents .
The congress is noteworthy because of the introduction of economic reforms , labelled Đổi Mới ( Renovation ) , and the election of a new party leadership . The sitting General Secretary , Trường Chinh was not reelected , and Nguyễn Văn Linh took his place . The 6th Politburo , 6th Secretariat and the Control Commission were elected . The Advisory Council to the Central Committee was established , and contained high @-@ ranking officials who had retired at the 6th National Congress . The 6th National Congress emphasized the need to strengthen the socialist mode of production .
= = Background = =
= = = The 8th plenum and reforms = = =
The 8th plenum of the 5th Central Committee ( 10 – 17 June 1985 ) — and its antecedents the 6th ( 3 – 10 July 1984 ) and the 7th ( 11 – 17 December 1984 ) plenums — instructed the party to direct a performance review of its organization , personnel and efficiency . Lê Đức Thọ , head of the Central Organizing Commission , said the party had become " a cumbersome and ponderous mechanism , only marginally efficient , marked by ill @-@ defined responsibilities and poorly divided functions . " He further stated that confusion within the party over operational responsibilities between the central party leadership , mass organizations and the state , and between higher and lower party echelons had developed into a serious problem , and that a cynical collective mindset within the party had taken hold and manifested itself through corruption , inflexibility and dishonesty .
The plenum put forward three points to solve the problems alleged by Tho ; ( 1 ) to get party cadres to focus on technical economic and management responsibilities , ( 2 ) cadres were to be organized and get specialized training in economic and administrative fields to reequip them with information on how to run an increasingly complex economy , and ( 3 ) engineer a shift in the internal balance of power.In a Nhân Dân ( The People ) editorial , Lê Đức Thọ stressed the need to go beyond political slogans and remonstration to enhance the level of management skills of party cadres in party @-@ level organizations . Lê Đức Thọ wanted to change the party 's role in the economy from that of implementer to one of supervisor . The central leadership faced an obstacle ; most party cadres had what the party leadership considered an outdated education from 20 to 30 years ago , while the party lacked young cadres . To solve this problem , the central party leadership began talking about the need to introduce personnel planning , a retirement age , rotation of officials and tenure length for cadres and sensitive posts .
Early in the reform process , the CPV devolved some powers of the party secretaries to the district @-@ level committees . The party planned to decentralize some duties and responsibilities at departmental and sectoral levels while empowering ward @-@ level party organs by strengthening their role in economic planning , market management and public security , and trying to improve the performance of the Control Commission and its lower @-@ level bodies . The party leadership tried to make the cumbersome bureaucracy efficient .
Economic reforms in 1985 led to rampant inflation , and the 9th plenum ( mid @-@ December 1985 ) forced the central leadership to reintroduce rationing in order to reduce the hardships for the poor , while in March 1985 the Council of Ministers legalized limited , small @-@ scale , private enterprise in the handicraft and small industry sectors . The CPV tried to introduce market rules into the planned economy , while stressing the need to control the markets . At this early stage , the party started a discussion on how much state control and economic planning were necessary . On 8 April , the 5th Politburo issued the " Draft Resolution on guaranteeing autonomy to basic economic units " , which decreed the implementation of the reform program agreed upon by the 8th plenum . The resolution tried to solve several problems by streamlining the bureaucracy to make it more efficient . However , while the party supported making state @-@ owned enterprises more autonomous , they still sought the abolition of individual trade — that is trade not sanctioned by the state . At this stage , the authorities did not seek to alter the duties and responsibilities of central state and party organs .
= = = Preparations = = =
Planning for the 6th National Congress began at the 19 @-@ day @-@ long 10th plenum of the 5th Central Committee ( 19 May – 9 June 1986 ) . Lê Duẩn , the General Secretary , gave the opening speech , where he reaffirmed the central party leadership 's commitment to reform . The 10th plenum unanimously approved the draft Political Report for the 6th National Congress . Preparations for the Congress began with party congresses at the grass @-@ root and provincial @-@ levels , during which delegates were elected .
Preparation for the Congress began slowly . According to a Central Organizing Commission conference , the lack of preparations were due to an unidentified number of party grassroots organs failing to prepare their personnel for the Congress , and superior echelons failing to inform lower @-@ level echelons on the status of the Congress . The 5th Secretariat announced the organizing of a Criticism / Self @-@ criticism campaign on 11 March on all party levels to prepare for the Congress . The campaign 's main goals were to discipline party committees at the upcoming local party congresses ; to assess the party 's performance with an emphasis on economics since the 5th National Congress ; to contribute to the future reorganization of the party and reassignment of personnel ; and to ensure that the drafting of the Congress ' resolutions were finished on time and to appoint new local executive committees in light of the requirements to implement reform . The 5th Secretariat published a list of requirements for possible candidates for membership in local executive committees in mid @-@ March 1986 , these were ;
( 1 ) the ability of candidates to understand the economic and managerial skills articulated by the 8th plenum of the 5th Central Committee ;
( 2 ) the need for young members within the party organization , with an emphasis on appointing officials to provincial @-@ level executive committees in the age group 40 – 49 , while officials aged 30 – 39 were to be appointed to district and grassroots executive committees ;
( 3 ) to ensure geographical mobility and flexibility regarding personnel assignments .
= = = District and provincial congresses and conferences = = =
The local congresses preceding the 6th National Congress were far more organized than those held before the 5th National Congress . Unlike the previous Congress , the central party leadership issued instructions and training programs for party cadres on how to organize party congresses and conferences . Certain party cadres were made responsible for tutoring the executive committee directly subordinate to them on the Central Committee 's draft Political Report . Local executive committees started convening conferences in early August to study the draft report . These conferences acted as precursors to the village- , municipal- , ward- and enterprise @-@ level Party committee congresses , which started convening in mid @-@ August . By early August , some grassroots @-@ level party organs had begun the election of delegates to the 6th National Congress . At least five provinces had completed preparations for the basic @-@ level party congresses by September , in four of these the basic @-@ level congresses ran until late September .
District @-@ level congresses convened in some provinces in late August , while other provinces started convening them in late September . According to the Vietnamese media , the district @-@ level congresses mostly agreed on basic economic goals and several proposed amendments to the draft Political Report . At the Binh Tri Thien Provincial Party Organization , 250 cadres reportedly made 3 @,@ 000 suggestions , " including amendments to and revision of the Draft Political Report " and concrete policies which featured prominently in it . The same occurred in the Standing Committee of the Hồ Chí Minh City Party Committee , where leading cadres unanimously approved a program for action and proposed changes to the draft Political Report . The Nha Trang Municipal Party Organization held a day @-@ long conference discussing the Draft Political Report , which ended tepidly ; the discussions were extended so that the delegates reached an unenthusiastic " identity of views " ( what was discussed is unknown as the media did not state them ) . While other party conferences criticized the draft Political Report , several others expressed enthusiasm or unanimously supported it . Because the National Assembly failed to issue a draft of the 4th Five @-@ Year Plan , the district @-@ level conferences were forced to discuss mostly local economic aims because they lacked national economic data .
The Cuu Long conference held between 6 and 10 October was the first provincial @-@ level conference to be held . By 22 October , 21 provinces had held provincial @-@ level party conferences . The central party leadership faced less criticism on the draft Political Report and socio @-@ economic policies from the provincial @-@ level conferences than by district @-@ level conferences . The provincial @-@ level conferences criticized central policies less and were evasive about critical issues . However , the provincial @-@ level conferences were not completely dormant and scored some minor victories , such as reducing the average age needed to join an executive committee and they adopted a more flexible and efficient mode of planning and organization . As during the district @-@ level conferences , there were certain convocations which attracted attention ; the An Giang Party Committee criticized past economic performance , while the Ha Son Binh Congress criticized the irrational management of provincial economic affairs . While these committees criticized past policies or well @-@ known deficiencies , none of them criticized the policies of the central party leadership .
General Secretary Trường Chinh in a speech to the Hồ Chí Minh City Party Organization admitted to " serious shortcomings and mistakes " by the central party leaders in economic leadership , and criticized the imposition of a superstructure on Vietnam 's current conditions . Trường Chinh endorsed the program of the 8th plenum of the 5th Central Committee and " new economic concepts " , but told the attendees that the 5th Politburo had undertaken a systematic assessment of economic policies , which included the continuation of a mixed economy , the acceptance of private ownership for the foreseeable future , the need to end bureaucratic centralism , and the need for decentralization in economic decision @-@ making . In his speech to the 4th Congress of the Hồ Chí Minh City Party Organization , Nguyễn Văn Linh , a member of the 5th Politburo and 5th Secretariat , endorsed the platforms of 6th , 7th and 8th plenums of the 5th Central Committee while supporting the conclusion reached at the 10th plenum of the 5th Central Committee . He emphasized several Politburo directives . Phạm Hùng , the Minister of Interior , in his speech to the Cuu Long Provincial Congress said that the reintroduction of the market economy and the renewed acceptance of private ownership would not hurt Vietnam 's socialist transformation . To secure Vietnam 's socialist credentials , the state would remain dominant to protect Vietnam from the uncontrolled free market . The 11th plenum ( 17 – 25 November 1986 ) , the last plenum before the 6th Congress , endorsed the platform for the congress .
= = The Congress = =
The 6th National Congress was convened on 15 December 1986 and lasted until 18 December . The Congress reaffirmed its commitment to the reform program of the 8th plenum of the 5th Central Committee , and issued five points ;
" concerted efforts to increase the production of food , consumer goods and exportable items " ;
" continue the efforts to control small merchants and capitalists , while at the same time acknowledging the reality of supporting a mixed economy " ;
" to regenerate the planning bureaucracy while making the economic management system more efficient by decentralizing authority and making room for more independent decision @-@ making " ;
" to clarify the powers and jurisdiction of the Council of Ministers , and the reorganization of state management apparatus to make it more efficient ;
" to improve party organizational capabilities , leadership and cadre training . "
In the Political Report delivered to the 6th National Congress on 15 December , Trường Chinh said that the Central Committee , the Politburo , the Secretariat and the Council of Ministers were responsible for their own inadequacies and Vietnam 's economic failures . The report functioned as a severe self @-@ criticism of the central party leadership . The leadership 's failures were reiterated by a host of speakers , including Nguyễn Văn Linh , who spoke about the problems of " sluggish production , confusion in distribution systems , enduring socio @-@ economic difficulties , and flagging confidence of the population " . Nguyễn Thanh Bình , the Central Committee Secretary responsible for agriculture , echoed previous sentiments during the preparations for the Congress and spoke of the need for decentralization , household and family economics , and the introduction of an independent market . Võ Trần Chí , a member of the Standing Committee of the Hồ Chí Minh City Party Committee , affirmed the Congress ' commitment to reform to strengthen productivity and managerial performance .
While supporting change , Trường Chinh in his Political Report talked about the validity of the party 's organizational principles , which had governed Vietnam 's economy . Democratic centralism was to remain unchanged , and centralized management of certain sectors were to be retained . In a closed session , the Presidium of the 6th National Congress on 18 December acknowledged the importance of the continued transformation of private industry and commerce and the validity of economic contracts between production and business units . He endorsed the state 's role as a supplier of goods produced by state @-@ owned enterprises and supported the long @-@ time policy of labour distribution . These policies were passed , and underwrote the economic policies initiated at the 4th and 5th National Congresses . The party leadership 's immediate goals set forth in the Political Report were : To restructure the production system ; readjust the investment outlay within the system ; continue the building and strengthening of the socialist relations of production ; to utilize and develop the economic sectors in the correct way ; to renovate the way economy was managed ; to emphasize the role of science and technology in the economy ; and to expand and to increase the effectiveness of Vietnam 's foreign economic relations .
Neither the Political Report nor any of the speakers at the 6th National Congress signalled a shift in Vietnam 's foreign policy . The Congress reaffirmed Vietnam 's strong ties with the Soviet Union and its " special relationships " with the socialist states of Laos and Kampuchea ( Cambodia ) . However , the Congress highlighted the need to strengthen its relationship with countries belonging to Comecon , the international communist trade organization . Yegor Ligachev , the head of the Soviet delegation to the Congress , surprised the Vietnamese and many foreign observers by announcing an economic aid package 8 – 9 million rubles ( 11 – 13 million US dollars ) at the time , and was about equal per capita of aid given to South Vietnam by the United States before 1975 . The Political Report mentioned the importance of Vietnam 's relations with India and its continued membership in the Non @-@ Aligned Movement . The Congress announced Vietnam 's wishes to improve its relations with the capitalist world , specifically mentioning Sweden , Finland , France , Australia and Japan .
Võ Văn Kiệt , a Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers , delivered the Economic Report to the 6th National Congress . The political and economic reports stressed Đổi Mới ( Renovation ) , and Vietnam specialist Carlyle Thayer wrote that Võ Văn Kiệt may have been the foremost advocate of this concept . In his speech to the Congress , Võ Văn Kiệt said , " in the economic field , there will be renovation in economic policies and the management system . " Võ Văn Kiệt said that agriculture and not heavy industry would be most important during the 4th Five @-@ Year Plan . During the 4th Five @-@ Year Plan , Võ Văn Kiệt said , " [ t ] he ... main orientation for heavy industry in this stage is to support agriculture and light industry on a proper scale and at an appropriate technical level . " Võ Văn Kiệt stressed the role of exports and the production of grain , food , and consumer goods to revitalize the Vietnamese economy . The main objective of the 4th Five @-@ Year Plan was the production of grain and food products ; " a target of 22 – 30 million metric tons of grain in paddy " was set for 1990 . While several methods were to be used to reach this goal , material incentives and end @-@ product contracts would play a prominent role .
The increases in grain and food production would in turn , according to the Economic Report , increase the production of consumer goods . The report stated that these policies were " aimed at ensuring the daily needs of the people , and the regeneration of the labour force , as well as attracting a million of labourers to solve the problem of employment for the people , and , on that basis , create the source of accumulation and an important source of export . " According to the Economic Report , during the 4th Five @-@ Year Plan , " the level of exports must be elevated by approximately 70 per cent over that of the previous five @-@ year period " . The export of agricultural products , " farm processing products , light industrial , small industrial , handicraft goods and aquatic and maritime products " were emphasized in the Economic Report . To achieve these goals the Economic Report stated economic reforms to improve efficiency coupled with the importance of foreign investment and possible tourism revenues .
The 6th National Congress elected the 6th Central Committee . At the 4th , 5th and 6th National Congresses approximately 45 percent of full Central Committee members were retained , 18 percent of alternate members were promoted to full membership and 37 percent were newly elected to the Central Committee as either full or alternate members . The 6th Congress continued the trend of increasing the size of the Central Committee ; membership was 124 full and 49 alternate members . Most of the new officials in the Central Committee were from the second generation of Vietnamese revolutionaries who gained prominence during Vietnam 's struggle against French colonial rule in the 1940s and 1950s . The composition of the Central Committee changed at the 6th National Congress , with a notable increase of economic specialists , technocrats and provincial secretaries as members , but military representation in the Central Committee decreased . Only 8 percent of members of the 6th Central Committee were from the Vietnam People 's Army . The number of central @-@ level officials also decreased ; 74 percent of the members of the 2nd Central Committee were central @-@ level officials , while only 46 percent in the 6th Central Committee were from the centre . These changes reflected the party 's overriding concern about basic problems .
= = = 1st plenum of the 6th Central Committee = = =
On 18 December at the end of the 6th National Congress , the delegates elected the 6th Central Committee , which contained eight more members than the 5th Central Committee , while alternate membership was increased by 13 ; the total membership of the new Central Committee was 173 . Immediately after the 8th National Congress on 18 December , the 6th Central Committee convened its 1st plenum to elect the composition of the 6th Politburo , the 6th Secretariat , the Control Commission and other central @-@ level party organs .
The 1st plenum of the 6th Central Committee brought an end to the protracted generational succession which had begun at the 4th National Congress in 1976 . On 17 December , the Congress ' third day , the three top leaders — Trường Chinh , Lê Đức Thọ — and head of government Phạm Văn Đồng , announced that they would not seek membership of the 6th Politburo or the 6th Central Committee . However , these three were appointed to the Advisory Council to the Central Committee . This was not new ; at the 5th National Congress six senior members of the 5th Politburo retired . When asked by foreign journalists if the same pattern would continue , a party spokesman stated that it would continue at the 6th National Congress . Văn Tiến Dũng , the Minister of National Defense , retired from the politburo but retained his seat in the 6th Central Committee . The 1st plenum elected Nguyễn Văn Linh to succeed Trường Chinh as party General Secretary .
= Keller Fountain Park =
Keller Fountain Park is a city park in downtown Portland , Oregon . Originally named Forecourt Fountain or Auditorium Forecourt , the 0 @.@ 92 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 37 ha ) park opened in 1970 across Third Avenue from what was then Civic Auditorium . In 1978 , the park was renamed after Ira Keller , head of the Portland Development Commission ( PDC ) from 1958 – 1972 . Civic Auditorium was renamed as Keller Auditorium in 2000 , but is named in honor of Richard B. Keller .
The central feature of the park is the concrete water fountain . Keller Fountain is often noted as a memorable feature of the public landscape in downtown Portland , and in 1999 was awarded a medallion from the American Society of Landscape Architects . The fountain was designed by Angela Danadjieva using inspiration from waterfalls in the Columbia River Gorge located east of Portland . While the park is named Keller Fountain Park , the fountain itself is named Ira Keller Fountain . The fountain 's pools hold 75 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 280 @,@ 000 l ; 62 @,@ 000 imp gal ) of water , while the waterfalls pump 13 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 49 @,@ 000 l ; 11 @,@ 000 imp gal ) per minute over the cascade .
= = History = =
Prior to being a park , the block was the location of a popular tavern run by Bud Clark , who was later to become a mayor of Portland . Clark purchased the tavern formerly known as " Dot Tavern " for $ 1 @,@ 600 , including acquisition of the lease for the building . Clark renamed it the Spatenhaus and it was reopened in October 1962 . As the area was already part of the South Auditorium urban renewal area , Clark lost the lease when the PDC acquired the block in May 1967 . The firm of Skidmore , Owings and Merrill was then asked by PDC to draw plans for the park , which foresaw a fountain , a traffic turnaround , and underground parking for 150 cars . Protests were raised however , by Walter Gordon , the architectural adviser to the PDC , and in July 1968 the Lawrence Halprin design firm was commissioned in to design the park , partly due to Gordon 's advocacy .
Angela Danadjieva , a designer at Lawrence Halprin & Associates , was charged with the artistic conception . Danadjieva began her career in design with work on Constructivist set designs for the Bulgarian State Film agency . In the early 1960s she defected to Paris and studied at the École des Beaux Arts , and then emigrating to the United States towards the end of the decade . She took her inspiration from a book on waterfalls of the Columbia River Gorge , which was given to her by Ira Keller at the design studio . It was built by the Schrader Construction Company for $ 512 @,@ 000 .
The plaza was dedicated on June 23 , 1970 by Halprin who called for the people of Portland to come together , referring to the Portland State University protests , which had occurred only weeks previously , stating , " I hope this will help us live together as a community , both here and all over this planet Earth " . As the water began flowing , Halprin waded into the water , dressed in a jacket and tie . Jane Jacobs , author of The Death and Life of Great American Cities , mayor Terry Schrunk , and PDC chairman Ira Keller attended the fountain opening . In 2003 , an article by Randy Gragg in The Oregonian summarized the moment , saying :
[ T ] he fountain 's 1970 unveiling became a local legend . Held in the edgy days following a violent clash between Portland police and antiwar protesters , the dedication took on the mood of a Wild West drama as city officials gathered for speeches at the foot of the fountain and hundreds of youths assembled at the top . When the spigots released the fountain 's 13 @,@ 000 @-@ gallon @-@ a @-@ minute flow , however , any tensions quickly dissolved . While the officials politely applauded , the youths jumped in to the rallying cries of " Right on ! " " These very straight people have somehow grasped what cities can be all about , " Halprin said , turning from dignitaries to revelers to emphasize the democratic spirit underlying his design . " As you play in this garden , please try to remember that we are all in this together " .
In 1988 , the Portland Water Bureau expressed their surprise at the cost of running the fountain , which at the time was consuming $ 34 @,@ 000 in water and $ 13 @,@ 000 in electricity each year . Also in 1988 , a 26 @-@ year @-@ old Vancouver man was drowned when he attempted to swim through a small water pipe and got wedged under a concrete slab . He was taken to the Oregon Health & Science University and was listed in critical condition . According to Portland police , he had been drinking alcohol .
In 1993 , all city departments were requested by mayor Vera Katz to identify areas where budgets could be reduced , and the Portland Water Bureau suggested mothballing fountains , including the Keller Fountain . The Oregonian stated " administrator Mike Rosenberger said the fountains were not an essential service , but he conceded that he would probably be taken out and shot before the public allowed him to shut the water off " .
Vandalism from " Soaping " , putting dish detergent in the fountain , has been common , and the massive amounts of generated foam cause more than $ 1000 damage , due to the need to drain and clean the fountain . In the first " soaping " incident soap and green dye was placed in the fountain the night before it opened . Another incident happened in September 2002 . In 2007 , the Portland Water Bureau posted the name and photograph of a 19 @-@ year @-@ old who placed dish soap in the fountain and received a misdemeanor criminal mischief . The public shaming of the teen caused the incident to be discussed in many places , including KATU , The Oregonian , The Portland Mercury ( " This is what happens when you screw with the Water Bureau " ) , and The New York Times ( " Don 't mess with the Portland Water Bureau " ) . The fountain was soaped at least four times in August 2007 alone .
From May to late August 1996 the park was closed for a $ 700 @,@ 000 refurbishment that included repairs and upgrades to filters and pumps , automated chlorination , restoration of cement , and updating of the lighting system . The fountain was also shut down in 1997 and 1998 for 10 months while the water bureau replaced a 1930s @-@ era pump . The piping was also relined with cross @-@ linked polyethylene in the spring of spring 2000 , a costly operation due to the original piping being cast into the concrete .
The Halprin Landscapes Conservancy was formed in 2001 and an article in The New York Times in 2008 stated that Keller was a Portland " ensemble considered to be one of Mr. Halprin 's masterpieces " .
= = Features = =
The park holds 75 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 280 @,@ 000 l ; 62 @,@ 000 imp gal ) of water , pumping 13 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 49 @,@ 000 l ; 11 @,@ 000 imp gal ) per minute through the waterfalls . While Portland Parks & Recreation maintains the park , in 1988 the Portland Water Bureau assumed responsibility for the fountain .
The park , which is known for its accessibility for allowing visitors to stand at the top of the waterfall , is designed according to construction code to prevent children or adults from falling down the waterfall ; the top of the falls are actually 36 inches ( 910 mm ) pockets of water , acting as a safety wall . City officials were worried about liability from falls and had wanted a fence put across the top .
Trees in the park include shore pines . For many years , the park has been home to a popular food cart serving bento .
= = = Events = = =
In 1987 , Tom Grant played a piano solo in the park for a KGW TV public service advertisement . In 1988 , a parade and march of The Music Man began at the fountain , walking to Pioneer Courthouse Square with actors John Davidson and Sally Spencer .
In September 2008 , the Time @-@ Based Art Festival included the " City Dance of Lawrence and Anna Halprin " , held at the fountain . The Oregonian called the performance " a major event and brilliant achievement " . The event included music by Morton Subotnick .
= = Reception = =
In June 1970 , Ada Louise Huxtable said it " may be one of the most important urban spaces since the Renaissance " , comparing it to the Piazza Navona and the Trevi Fountain . An article for The New York Times by Ivan Doig discussed how Portland 's " livability " didn 't contribute to its " visitability " , pointing out that the Forecourt Fountain and lunchtime was " one more moment of Portland 's showing some loveliness and then getting back to its self @-@ assured routine of life " . The Oregonian wrote that Halprin 's parks " changed the way American landscape architects thought about city parks , and it sparked a Portland tradition of great urban plazas and parks " . In 2003 , New York 's Thomas Balsley said , " I love the Lovejoy and Forecourt fountains " when asked
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" This just might be my masterpiece . "
= = Cast = =
Quentin Tarantino as scalped Nazi
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Tarantino spent just over a decade writing the film 's script because , as he told Charlie Rose in an interview , he became " too precious about the page , " meaning the story kept growing and expanding . Tarantino viewed the script as his masterpiece in the making , so he felt it had to become the best thing he had ever written . Tarantino described an early premise of the film as his " bunch @-@ of @-@ guys @-@ on @-@ a @-@ mission " film . He said it was " my Dirty Dozen or Where Eagles Dare or Guns of Navarone kind of thing " . According to Tarantino , all his films make the audience laugh at things that are not supposed to be funny , but the sense of humor differs in each .
By 2002 , Tarantino found Inglourious Basterds to be a bigger film than planned and saw that other directors were working on World War II films . At this point , Tarantino had produced three nearly finished scripts , proclaiming that it was " some of the best writing I 've ever done . But I couldn 't come up with an ending . " Consequently , the director held off his planned film and moved on to direct the two @-@ part film Kill Bill ( 2003 – 2004 ) . After the completion of Kill Bill , Tarantino went back to his first storyline draft and came up with the idea of turning it into a mini @-@ series . Instead he trimmed the script , using his script for Pulp Fiction as a guide to the right length . He then planned to begin production of Inglourious Basterds in 2005 . The revised premise focused on a group of soldiers who escape from their executions and embark on a mission to help the Allies . He described the men as " not your normal hero types that are thrown into a big deal in the Second World War " .
In November 2004 , Tarantino decided to hold off the film 's production and instead took an acting role in Takashi Miike 's Western film Sukiyaki Western Django and intended to make a kung fu film entirely in Mandarin . This project foundered as well , and he ultimately directed a part of the 2007 Grindhouse before returning to work on Inglourious Basterds . The film 's title was inspired by the English @-@ language title of director Enzo G. Castellari 's 1978 war film , The Inglorious Bastards . When asked for an explanation of the film 's title 's spelling during a news conference at the Cannes Film Festival , Tarantino said , " I 'm never going to explain that " . When pushed on it , Tarantino would not explain the first u in Inglourious , but said , " The Basterds ? That 's just the way you say it : Basterds . " Tarantino later stated in an interview that the misspelled title is " a Basquiat @-@ esque touch . " He further commented on Late Show with David Letterman that Inglourious Basterds is a " Quentin Tarantino spelling . "
= = = Casting = = =
Tarantino originally sought Leonardo DiCaprio to be cast as Hans Landa , before deciding to have the character played by a German actor . The role ultimately went to Austrian Christoph Waltz , who , according to Tarantino , " gave me my movie " as he feared the part was " unplayable . " Pitt and Tarantino had wanted to work together for a number of years , but were forced to wait for the right project . When Tarantino was halfway through the film 's script , he sensed that Pitt was a strong possibility for the role of Aldo Raine . By the time he had finished writing , Tarantino thought Pitt " would be terrific " and called Pitt 's agent to ask if he was available .
Tarantino asked Adam Sandler to play the role of Donny Donowitz , but Sandler declined due to schedule conflicts with the film Funny People . Eli Roth was cast in the role instead . Roth also directed the film @-@ within @-@ the @-@ film , Nation 's Pride , which used 300 extras . The director also wanted to cast Simon Pegg in the film as Lt. Archie Hicox , but he was forced to drop out due to scheduling difficulties with Spielberg 's Tintin adaptation . Irish @-@ German actor Michael Fassbender began final negotiations to join the cast as Hicox in August 2008 , although he originally auditioned for the role of Landa . The Office actor and writer , B. J. Novak , was also cast in August 2008 as Private First Class Smithson Utivich , " a New York @-@ born soldier of ' slight build ' " .
Tarantino talked to actress Nastassja Kinski about playing the role of Bridget von Hammersmark and even flew to Germany to meet her , but a deal could not be reached and Tarantino cast Diane Kruger instead . Rod Taylor was effectively retired from acting and no longer had an agent , but came out of retirement when Tarantino offered him the role of Winston Churchill in the film . This would be Taylor 's last appearance on film before his death on January 7 , 2015 . In preparation for the role , Taylor watched dozens of DVDs with footage of Churchill in order to get the Prime Minister 's posture , body language , and voice , including a lisp , correct . Taylor initially recommended British actor Albert Finney for the role during their conversation , but agreed to take the part because of Tarantino 's " passion . " Mike Myers , a fan of Tarantino , had inquired about being in the film since Myers ' parents had been in the British Armed Forces . In terms of the character 's dialect , Myers felt that it was a version of Received Pronunciation meeting the officer class , but mostly an attitude of " I 'm fed up with this war and if this dude can end it , great because my country is in ruins . " Tarantino met Mélanie Laurent in three rounds and played all the characters on the first . On the second one , he shared the lines with her , and the third one , it was dinner face @-@ to @-@ face . During the dinner , he told Laurent , " Do you know something — there 's just something I don 't like . It 's that you ’ re famous in your country , and I 'm really wanting to discover somebody . " Laurent replied " No , no , no . … I 'm not so famous . " And after four days he called and finalized her for the role of Shosanna . Samm Levine was cast as PFC Hirschberg , because , according to Levine , Tarantino was a big fan of Freaks and Geeks , which starred Levine .
Director Enzo Castellari also makes a cameo appearance in the film at the movie premiere . He previously cameoed as a German in his own Inglorious Bastards and reprised the same role in this film , but under a different rank and SS organization . Bo Svenson , who starred in Castellari 's The Inglorious Bastards , also has a small cameo in the film as a US colonel in the Nation 's Pride movie . Samuel L. Jackson and Harvey Keitel , who have both previously starred in Tarantino 's films , make small voice @-@ only contributions as the narrator and an OSS commander , respectively . German musician Bela B. has an uncredited cameo appearance as an usher at the cinema . Two characters , Mrs. Himmelstein and Madame Ada Mimieux , played by Cloris Leachman and Maggie Cheung respectively , were both cut from the final film due to length reasons .
= = = Filming = = =
Tarantino teamed with The Weinstein Company to prepare what he planned to be his film for production . In July 2008 , Tarantino and executive producers Harvey and Bob Weinstein set up an accelerated production schedule to be completed for release at the Cannes Film Festival in 2009 , where the film would compete for the Palme d 'Or . The Weinstein Company co @-@ financed the film and distributed it in the United States , and signed a deal with Universal Pictures to finance the rest of the film and distribute it internationally . Germany and France were scheduled as filming locations and principal photography started in October 2008 on location in Germany . Filming was scheduled to begin on October 13 , 2008 , and shooting started that week . Special effects were handled by KNB EFX Group with Greg Nicotero and much of the film was shot and edited in the Babelsberg Studios in Potsdam , Germany and in Bad Schandau , a small spa town near Germany 's border with the Czech Republic . Roth claimed that they " almost got incinerated " , during the theater fire scene , as they projected the fire would burn at 400 ° C ( 750 ° F ) , but it instead burned at 1200 ° C ( 2000 ° F ) . He claimed the swastika was not supposed to fall either , as it was fastened with steel cables , but the steel softened and snapped . On January 11 , 2013 , on the BBC 's The Graham Norton Show , Tarantino claimed that for the scene where Kruger was strangled , he personally strangled the actress , with his own bare hands , in one take , to aid authenticity .
Following the film 's screening at Cannes , Tarantino stated that he would be re @-@ editing the film in June before its ultimate theatrical release , allowing him time to finish assembling several scenes that were not completed in time for the hurried Cannes première .
= = = Music = = =
Tarantino originally wanted Ennio Morricone to compose the film 's soundtrack . Morricone was unable to , because the film 's sped @-@ up production schedule conflicted with his scoring of Giuseppe Tornatore 's Baarìa . However , Tarantino did use eight tracks composed by Morricone in the film , with four of them included on the CD .
The opening theme is taken from the pseudo @-@ folk ballad " The Green Leaves of Summer " , which was composed by Dimitri Tiomkin and Paul Francis Webster for the opening of the 1960 film The Alamo . The soundtrack uses a variety of music genres , including spaghetti western , R & B and David Bowie 's theme from the 1982 film Cat People . This is the first of Tarantino 's soundtracks that does not include dialogue excerpts from the film . The soundtrack was released on August 18 , 2009 .
= = Release = =
When the script 's final draft was finished , it was leaked on the Internet and several Tarantino fan sites began posting reviews and excerpts from the script .
The film 's first full teaser trailer premiered on Entertainment Tonight on February 10 , 2009 , and was shown in US theaters the following week attached to Friday the 13th . The trailer features excerpts of Lt. Aldo Raine talking to the Basterds , informing them of the plan to ambush and kill , torture , and scalp unwitting Nazi servicemen , intercut with various other scenes from the film . It also features the spaghetti @-@ westernesque terms Once Upon A Time In Nazi Occupied France , which was considered for the film 's title , and A Basterd 's Work Is Never Done , a line not spoken in the final film ( the line occurs in the script during the Bear Jew 's backstory ) .
The film was released on August 19 , 2009 in the United Kingdom and France , two days earlier than the US release date of August 21 , 2009 . It was released in Germany on August 20 , 2009 . Some European cinemas , however , showed previews starting on August 15 . In Poland , the artwork on all advertisements and on DVD packaging is unchanged , but the title was translated non @-@ literally to Bękarty Wojny ( Bastards of War ) , so that Nazi iconography could stylize the letter " O " .
= = = Promotion in Germany = = =
Universal Pictures adjusted the film 's German publicity website to the German penal law , as the display of Nazi iconography is restricted in Germany . The title has the swastika removed and the steel helmet has a bullet hole instead of the Nazi symbol . The German site 's download section was revised to exclude wallpaper downloads that openly feature the swastika . Though the advertisement posters and wallpapers may not show Nazi iconography , this does not apply to " works of art " according to German law , so the film itself is not censored in Germany .
= = = Home media = = =
The film was released on single @-@ disc DVD and a two @-@ disc special edition DVD and Blu @-@ ray Disc on December 15 , 2009 , by Universal Studios Home Entertainment in the United States and Australia . It was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray Disc on December 7 , 2009 , in the UK . On its first week of release , the film was number two , only behind The Hangover , selling an estimated 1 @,@ 581 @,@ 220 DVDs making $ 28 @,@ 467 @,@ 652 in the United States .
The German version is 50 seconds longer than the American version . The scene in the tavern has been extended . Although in other countries , the extended scene was released as a bonus feature , the German theatrical , DVD , and Blu @-@ ray versions are the only ones to include the full scene . To comply with Germany 's prohibition of the swastika symbol , some German DVD and Blu @-@ ray releases of the film show a bullet hole partially obscuring the swastika on the cover .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
Opening in 3 @,@ 165 screens , the film earned $ 14 @.@ 3 million on the opening Friday of its North American release , on the way to an opening weekend gross of $ 38 million , giving Tarantino a personal best weekend opening and the number one spot at the box office , ahead of District 9 . The film fell to number two in its second weekend , behind The Final Destination , with earnings of $ 20 million , and grossed $ 73 @.@ 8 million in its first ten days . Inglourious Basterds opened internationally at number one in 22 markets on 2 @,@ 650 screens making $ 27 @.@ 49 million . First place openings included France , taking in $ 6 @.@ 09 million on 500 screens . The United Kingdom was not far behind making $ 5 @.@ 92 million ( £ 3.8m ) on 444 screens . Germany took in $ 4 @.@ 20 million on 439 screens and Australia with $ 2 @.@ 56 million ( A $ 2.8m ) on 266 screens . It has come to gross $ 120 @.@ 5 million in the United States and Canada and $ 200 @.@ 9 million in other territories , making its worldwide gross $ 321 @.@ 4 million . Inglourious Basterds was Tarantino 's highest grossing film , both in the U.S. and worldwide until Django Unchained in 2012 .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 89 % of 297 critics have given the film a positive review , with a rating average of 7 @.@ 8 out of 10 . According to the site 's critical consensus , " A classic Tarantino genre @-@ blending thrill ride , Inglourious Basterds is violent , unrestrained , and thoroughly entertaining . " Metacritic , which assigns a score of 1 – 100 to individual film reviews , gives the film an averaged rating of 69 based on 36 reviews .
Critics ' initial reactions at the Cannes Film Festival were mixed . The film received an eight- to eleven @-@ minute standing ovation from critics after its first screening at Cannes , although Le Monde , a leading French newspaper , dismissed it , saying " Tarantino gets lost in a fictional World War II " . Despite this , Anne Thompson of Variety praised the film , but opined that it was not a masterpiece , claiming , " Inglourious Basterds is great fun to watch , but the movie isn 't entirely engaging ... You don 't jump into the world of the film in a participatory way ; you watch it from a distance , appreciating the references and the masterful mise en scène . This is a film that will benefit from a second viewing " . Critic James Berardinelli gave the film his first four @-@ star review of 2009 , stating , " With Inglourious Basterds , Quentin Tarantino has made his best movie since Pulp Fiction , " and that it was " one hell of an enjoyable ride . " Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times also gave the film a four @-@ star review , writing that " Quentin Tarantino 's Inglourious Basterds is a big , bold , audacious war movie that will annoy some , startle others and demonstrate once again that he 's the real thing , a director of quixotic delights . " Author and critic Daniel Mendelsohn was disturbed by the portrayal of Jewish @-@ American soldiers mimicking German atrocities done to European Jews , stating , " In Inglourious Basterds , Tarantino indulges this taste for vengeful violence by — well , by turning Jews into Nazis " . Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian stated he was " struck ... by how exasperatingly awful and transcendentally disappointing it is " . While praising Christoph Waltz 's performance ( " a good actor new to American audiences " ) , David Denby , of The New Yorker , dismissed the film with the following words : " The film is skillfully made , but it 's too silly to be enjoyed , even as a joke . [ ... ] Tarantino has become an embarrassment : his virtuosity as a maker of images has been overwhelmed by his inanity as an idiot de la cinémathèque . " Christopher Hitchens likened the experience of watching the film to " sitting in the dark having a great pot of warm piss emptied very slowly over your head . "
The film has met some criticism from Jewish press , as well . In Tablet , Liel Liebowitz criticizes the film as lacking moral depth . He argues that the power of film lies in its ability to impart knowledge and subtle understanding , but Inglourious Basterds serves more as an " alternative to reality , a magical and Manichaean world where we needn 't worry about the complexities of morality , where violence solves everything , and where the Third Reich is always just a film reel and a lit match away from cartoonish defeat " . Anthony Frosh , writer for the online magazine Galus Australis , has criticized the film for failing to develop its characters sufficiently , labeling the film " Enthralling , but lacking in Jewish content " .
= = = Accolades = = =
Christoph Waltz was singled out for Cannes honors , receiving the Best Actor Award at the festival 's end . Film critic Devin Faraci of CHUD.com stated : " The cry has been raised long before this review , but let me continue it : Christoph Waltz needs not an Oscar nomination but rather an actual Oscar in his hands .... he must have gold " . The film received four Golden Globe Award nominations including Best Motion Picture – Drama and Best Supporting Actor for Waltz , who went on to win the award . The film also received three Screen Actors Guild Award nominations and went on to win the awards for Best Cast and Best Supporting Actor , which was awarded to Waltz . The film was nominated for six BAFTA Awards , including Best Director for Tarantino , winning only one award — Best Supporting Actor for Waltz . In February 2010 , the film was nominated for eight Academy Awards , including Best Picture , Best Director , Best Supporting Actor for Waltz , and Best Original Screenplay . Waltz was awarded the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor .
= = In popular culture = =
On December 5 , 2010 , " The Fight Before Christmas " , the eighth episode of The Simpsons ' 22nd season , featured an Inglourious Basterds sequence during a World War II flashback .
When the Jewish , 6 feet 7 inches ( 2 @.@ 01 m ) , 314 @-@ pound American football player Gabe Carimi was drafted in the 2011 NFL Draft 's first round by the Chicago Bears , he was nicknamed " The Bear Jew " , a reference to the character in Inglourious Basterds .
In the American sitcom Community , the character Chang recruits a group of bodyguards he names " The Changlorious Bastards " ' .
= Al Pacino =
Alfredo James " Al " Pacino ( / pəˈtʃiːnoʊ / ; born April 25 , 1940 ) is an American actor of stage and screen , filmmaker , and screenwriter . Pacino has had a career spanning fifty years , during which time he has received numerous accolades and honors both competitive and honorary , among them an Academy Award , two Tony Awards , two Primetime Emmy Awards , a British Academy Film Award , four Golden Globe Awards , the Lifetime Achievement Award from the American Film Institute , the Golden Globe Cecil B. DeMille Award , and the National Medal of Arts . He is also one of few performers to have won a competitive Oscar , an Emmy and a Tony Award for acting , dubbed the " Triple Crown of Acting " .
A method actor and former student of the Herbert Berghof Studio and the Actors Studio in New York City , where he was taught by Charlie Laughton and Lee Strasberg , Pacino made his feature film debut with a minor role in Me , Natalie ( 1969 ) and gained favourable notices for his lead role as a heroin addict in The Panic in Needle Park ( 1971 ) . He achieved international acclaim and recognition for his breakthrough role as Michael Corleone in Francis Ford Coppola 's The Godfather ( 1972 ) . He received his first Oscar nomination and would reprise the role in sequels Part II ( 1974 ) and Part III ( 1990 ) . Pacino 's performance as Corleone is now regarded as one of the greatest screen performances in film history .
Pacino received his first Best Actor Oscar nomination for Serpico ( 1973 ) ; he was also nominated for The Godfather Part II , Dog Day Afternoon ( 1975 ) and ... And Justice for All ( 1979 ) and won the award in 1993 for his performance as a blind Lieutenant Colonel in Scent of a Woman ( 1992 ) . For his performances in The Godfather , Dick Tracy ( 1990 ) and Glengarry Glen Ross ( 1992 ) , Pacino was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor . Other notable roles include Tony Montana in Scarface ( 1983 ) , Carlito Brigante in Carlito 's Way ( 1993 ) , Lieutenant Vincent Hanna in Heat ( 1995 ) , Benjamin Ruggiero in Donnie Brasco ( 1997 ) , Lowell Bergman in The Insider ( 1999 ) and Detective Will Dormer in Insomnia ( 2002 ) . In television , Pacino has acted in several productions for HBO including the miniseries Angels in America ( 2003 ) and the Jack Kevorkian biopic You Don 't Know Jack ( 2010 ) , both of which won him the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Miniseries or a Movie .
In addition to his work in film , Pacino has had an extensive career on stage and is a two @-@ time Tony Award winner , in 1969 and 1977 , for his performances in Does a Tiger Wear a Necktie ? and The Basic Training of Pavlo Hummel respectively . A lifelong fan of Shakespeare , Pacino directed and starred in Looking for Richard ( 1996 ) , a documentary film about the play Richard III , a role which Pacino had earlier portrayed on @-@ stage in 1977 . He has also acted as Shylock in a 2004 feature film adaptation and a 2010 production of The Merchant of Venice . Having made his filmmaking debut with Looking for Richard , Pacino has also directed and starred in the independent film Chinese Coffee ( 2000 ) and the films Wilde Salomé ( 2011 ) and Salomé ( 2013 ) , about the play Salomé by Oscar Wilde . Since 1994 , Pacino has been the joint president of the Actors Studio with Ellen Burstyn and Harvey Keitel .
= = Early life and education = =
Pacino was born in New York City ( East Harlem ) , to Sicilian @-@ American parents Salvatore Pacino and Rose , who divorced when he was two years old . His mother moved near the Bronx Zoo to live with her parents , Kate and James Gerardi , who , coincidentally , had come from a town in Sicily named Corleone . His father , who was from San Fratello in the Province of Messina , moved to Covina , California , and worked as an insurance salesman and restaurateur .
In his teen years " Sonny " , as he was known to his friends , aimed to become a baseball player , and was also nicknamed " The Actor " . Pacino dropped out of many classes , but not English . He dropped out of school at age 17 . His mother disagreed with his decision ; they argued and he left home . He worked at low @-@ paying jobs , messenger , busboy , janitor , and postal clerk , to finance his acting studies . He once worked in the mail room for Commentary magazine .
He began smoking and drinking at age nine , and took up casual cannabis use at age 13 , but never used hard drugs . His two closest friends died from drug abuse at the ages of 19 and 30 . Growing up in The Bronx , he got into occasional fights and was considered something of a troublemaker at school .
He acted in basement plays in New York 's theatrical underground but was rejected for the Actors Studio while a teenager . Pacino then joined the Herbert Berghof Studio ( HB Studio ) , where he met acting teacher Charlie Laughton ( not to be confused with the British actor Charles Laughton ) , who became his mentor and best friend . In this period , he was often unemployed and homeless , and sometimes slept on the street , in theaters , or at friends ' houses .
In 1962 , his mother died at the age of 43 . The following year , Pacino 's grandfather James Gerardi , one of the most influential people in his life , also died .
= = Actors Studio training = =
After four years at HB Studio , Pacino successfully auditioned for the Actors Studio . The Actors Studio is a membership organization of professional actors , theatre directors and playwrights in the Hell 's Kitchen neighborhood of Manhattan in New York City . Pacino studied " method acting " under acting coach Lee Strasberg , who later appeared with Pacino in the films The Godfather Part II and in ... And Justice for All .
During later interviews he spoke about Strasberg and the Studio 's effect on his career . " The Actors Studio meant so much to me in my life . Lee Strasberg hasn 't been given the credit he deserves ... Next to Charlie , it sort of launched me . It really did . That was a remarkable turning point in my life . It was directly responsible for getting me to quit all those jobs and just stay acting . "
In another interview he added , " It was exciting to work for him [ Lee Strasberg ] because he was so interesting when he talked about a scene or talked about people . One would just want to hear him talk , because things he would say , you 'd never heard before ... He had such a great understanding ... he loved actors so much . "
Pacino is currently co @-@ president , along with Ellen Burstyn and Harvey Keitel , of the Actors Studio .
= = Stage career = =
In 1967 , Pacino spent a season at the Charles Playhouse in Boston , performing in Clifford Odets ' Awake and Sing ! ( his first major paycheck : $ 125 a week ) ; and in Jean @-@ Claude Van Itallie 's America , Hurrah , where he met actress Jill Clayburgh on this play . They had a five @-@ year romance and moved back together to New York City .
In 1968 , Pacino starred in Israel Horovitz 's The Indian Wants the Bronx at the Astor Place Theater , playing Murph , a street punk . The play opened January 17 , 1968 , and ran for 177 performances ; it was staged in a double bill with Horovitz 's It 's Called the Sugar Plum , starring Clayburgh . Pacino won an Obie Award for Best Actor for his role , with John Cazale winning for Best Supporting actor and Horowitz for Best New Play . Martin Bregman saw the play and became Pacino 's manager , a partnership that became fruitful in the years to come , as Bregman encouraged Pacino to do The Godfather , Serpico and Dog Day Afternoon . " Martin Bregman discovered me off Broadway . I was 26 , 25 . And he discovered me and became my manager . And that 's why I 'm here . I owe it to Marty , I really do , " Pacino himself has stated about his own career .
Pacino and this production of The Indian Wants the Bronx traveled to Italy for a performance at the Festival dei Due Mondi in Spoleto . It was Pacino 's first journey to Italy ; he later recalled that " performing for an Italian audience was a marvelous experience " . Pacino and Clayburgh were cast in " Deadly Circle of Violence " , an episode of the ABC television series NYPD , premiering November 12 , 1968 . Clayburgh at the time was also appearing on the soap opera Search for Tomorrow , playing the role of Grace Bolton . Her father would send the couple money each month to help .
On February 25 , 1969 , Pacino made his Broadway debut in Don Petersen 's Does a Tiger Wear a Necktie ? at the Belasco Theater produced by A & P Heir Huntington Hartford . It closed after 39 performances on March 29 , 1969 , but Pacino received rave reviews and won the Tony Award on April 20 , 1969 . Pacino continued performing onstage in the 1970s , winning a second Tony Award for The Basic Training of Pavlo Hummel and performing the title role in Richard III . In the 1980s , Pacino again achieved critical success on stage while appearing in David Mamet 's American Buffalo , for which Pacino was nominated for a Drama Desk Award . Since 1990 , Pacino 's stage work has included revivals of Eugene O 'Neill 's Hughie , Oscar Wilde 's Salome and in 2005 Lyle Kessler 's Orphans .
Pacino made his return to the stage in summer 2010 , as Shylock in a Shakespeare in the Park production of The Merchant of Venice . The acclaimed production moved to Broadway at the Broadhurst Theatre in October , earning US $ 1 million at the box office in its first week . The performance also garnered him a Tony Award nomination for Best Leading Actor in a Play . In October 2012 Pacino starred in the 30th anniversary Broadway revival of David Mamet 's classic play , Glengarry Glen Ross , which ran through January 20 , 2013 .
From the end of 2015 through January 2016 he starred on Broadway in " China Doll " , a play written for him by David Mamet . It is a limited run of 87 performances , after acclaimed reviews of 4 performances in October 2015 .
= = Film career = =
= = = Early film career = = =
Pacino found acting enjoyable and realized he had a gift for it while studying at The Actors Studio . However , his early work was not financially rewarding . After his success on stage , Pacino made his movie debut in 1969 with a brief appearance in Me , Natalie , an independent film starring Patty Duke . In 1970 , Pacino signed with the talent agency Creative Management Associates ( CMA ) .
= = = 1970s = = =
It was the 1971 film The Panic in Needle Park , in which he played a heroin addict , that brought Pacino to the attention of director Francis Ford Coppola , who cast him as Michael Corleone in the blockbuster Mafia film The Godfather ( 1972 ) . Although several established actors — including Jack Nicholson , Robert Redford , Warren Beatty , and little @-@ known Robert De Niro — also tried out for the part , Coppola selected the relatively unknown Pacino , to the dismay of studio executives .
Pacino 's performance earned him an Academy Award nomination , and offered a prime example of his early acting style , described by Halliwell 's Film Guide as " intense " and " tightly clenched " . Pacino boycotted the Academy Award ceremony , insulted at being nominated for the Supporting Acting award , noting that he had more screen time than co @-@ star and Best Actor winner Marlon Brando — who also boycotted the awards , but for unrelated reasons .
In 1973 , he co @-@ starred in Scarecrow , with Gene Hackman , and won the Palme d 'Or at the Cannes Film Festival . That same year , Pacino was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actor after starring in Serpico , based on the true story of New York City policeman Frank Serpico , who went undercover to expose the corruption of fellow officers . In 1974 , Pacino reprised his role as Michael Corleone in the sequel The Godfather Part II , which was the first sequel to win the Best Picture Oscar ; Pacino , meanwhile , was nominated for his third Oscar .
Newsweek has described his performance in The Godfather Part II as " arguably cinema 's greatest portrayal of the hardening of a heart " . In 1975 , he enjoyed further success with the release of Dog Day Afternoon , based on the true story of bank robber John Wojtowicz . It was directed by Sidney Lumet , who had directed him in Serpico a few years earlier , and Pacino was again nominated for Best Actor .
In 1977 , Pacino starred as a race @-@ car driver in Bobby Deerfield , directed by Sydney Pollack , and received a Golden Globe nomination for Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama for his portrayal of the title role . His next film was the courtroom drama ... And Justice for All , which again saw Pacino lauded by critics for his wide range of acting abilities , and nominated for the Best Actor Oscar for a fourth time . However he lost out that year to Dustin Hoffman in Kramer vs. Kramer — a role that Pacino had declined .
During the 1970s , Pacino had four Oscar nominations for Best Actor , for his performances in Serpico , The Godfather Part II , Dog Day Afternoon , and ... And Justice for All .
= = = 1980s = = =
Pacino 's career slumped in the early 1980s ; his appearances in the controversial Cruising , a film that provoked protests from New York 's gay community , and the comedy @-@ drama Author ! Author ! , were critically panned . However , 1983 's Scarface , directed by Brian De Palma , proved to be a career highlight and a defining role . Upon its initial release , the film was critically panned due to violent content , but later received critical acclaim . The film did well at the box office , grossing over US $ 45 million domestically . Pacino earned a Golden Globe nomination for his role as Cuban drug lord Tony Montana .
In 1985 , Pacino worked on his personal project , The Local Stigmatic , a 1969 Off Broadway play by the English writer Heathcote Williams . He starred in the play , remounting it with director David Wheeler and the Theater Company of Boston in a 50 @-@ minute film version . The film was not released theatrically , but was later released as part of the Pacino : An Actor 's Vision box set in 2007 .
His 1985 film Revolution about a fur trapper during the American Revolutionary War , was a commercial and critical failure , which Pacino blamed on a rushed production , resulting in a four @-@ year hiatus from films . At this time Pacino returned to the stage . He mounted workshop productions of Crystal Clear , National Anthems and other plays ; he appeared in Julius Caesar in 1988 in producer Joseph Papp 's New York Shakespeare Festival . Pacino remarked on his hiatus from film : " I remember back when everything was happening , ' 74 , ' 75 , doing The Resistible Rise of Arturo Ui on stage and reading that the reason I 'd gone back to the stage was that my movie career was waning ! That 's been the kind of ethos , the way in which theater 's perceived , unfortunately . " Pacino returned to film in 1989 's Sea of Love , when he portrayed a detective hunting a serial killer who finds victims through the singles column in a newspaper . The film earned solid reviews .
= = = 1990s = = =
Pacino received an Academy Award nomination for playing Big Boy Caprice in the box office hit Dick Tracy in 1990 , of which critic Roger Ebert described Pacino as " the scene @-@ stealer " . Later in the year he followed this up in a return to one of his most famous characters , Michael Corleone , in The Godfather Part III ( 1990 ) . The film received mixed reviews , and had problems in pre @-@ production due to script rewrites and the withdrawal of actors shortly before production .
In 1991 , Pacino starred in Frankie and Johnny with Michelle Pfeiffer , who co @-@ starred with Pacino in Scarface . Pacino portrays a recently paroled cook who begins a relationship with a waitress ( Pfeiffer ) in the diner where they work . It was adapted by Terrence McNally from his own Off @-@ Broadway play Frankie and Johnny in the Clair de Lune ( 1987 ) , that featured Kenneth Welsh and Kathy Bates . The film received mixed reviews , although Pacino later said he enjoyed playing the part . Janet Maslin in The New York Times wrote , " Mr. Pacino has not been this uncomplicatedly appealing since his " Dog Day Afternoon " days , and he makes Johnny 's endless enterprise in wooing Frankie a delight . His scenes alone with Ms. Pfeiffer have a precision and honesty that keep the film 's maudlin aspects at bay . "
In 1992 , Pacino won the Academy Award for Best Actor , for his portrayal of the blind U.S. Army Lieutenant Colonel Frank Slade in Martin Brest 's Scent of a Woman . That year , he was also nominated for Best Supporting Actor for Glengarry Glen Ross , making Pacino the first male actor ever to receive two acting nominations for two movies in the same year , and to win for the lead role .
Pacino starred alongside Sean Penn in the crime drama Carlito 's Way in 1993 , in which he portrayed a gangster released from prison with the help of his lawyer ( Penn ) and vows to go straight . Pacino starred in Michael Mann 's Heat ( 1995 ) , in which he and Robert De Niro appeared on @-@ screen together for the first time ( though both Pacino and De Niro starred in The Godfather Part II , they did not share any scenes ) .
In 1996 , Pacino starred in his theatrical docudrama Looking for Richard , a performance of selected scenes of Shakespeare 's Richard III and a broader examination of Shakespeare 's continuing role and relevance in popular culture . The cast brought together for the performance included Alec Baldwin , Kevin Spacey , and Winona Ryder . Pacino played Satan in the supernatural thriller The Devil 's Advocate ( 1997 ) which co @-@ starred Keanu Reeves . The film was a success at the box office , taking US $ 150 million worldwide . Roger Ebert wrote in the Chicago Sun @-@ Times , " The satanic character is played by Pacino with relish bordering on glee . "
In 1997 's Donnie Brasco , Pacino played gangster " Lefty " in the true story of undercover FBI agent Donnie Brasco ( Johnny Depp ) and his work in bringing down the mafia from the inside . In 1999 , Pacino starred as 60 Minutes producer Lowell Bergman in the multi @-@ Oscar nominated The Insider opposite Russell Crowe , and in Oliver Stone 's Any Given Sunday .
= = = 2000s = = =
Pacino has not received another Academy Award nomination since winning for Scent of a Woman , but has won three Golden Globes since the year 2000 , the first being the Cecil B. DeMille Award in 2001 for lifetime achievement in motion pictures .
In 2000 , Pacino released a low @-@ budget film adaptation of Ira Lewis ' play Chinese Coffee to film festivals . Shot almost exclusively as a one @-@ on @-@ one conversation between two main characters , the project took nearly three years to complete and was funded entirely by Pacino . Chinese Coffee was included with Pacino 's two other rare films he was involved in producing , The Local Stigmatic and Looking for Richard , on a special DVD box set titled Pacino : An Actor 's Vision , which was released in 2007 . Pacino produced prologues and epilogues for the discs containing the films .
Pacino turned down an offer to reprise his role as Michael Corleone in the computer game version of The Godfather . As a result , Electronic Arts was not permitted to use Pacino 's likeness or voice in the game , although his character does appear in it . He did allow his likeness to appear in the video game adaptation of 1983 's Scarface , quasi @-@ sequel titled Scarface : The World is Yours .
Director Christopher Nolan worked with Pacino on Insomnia , a remake of the Norwegian film of the same name , co @-@ starring Robin Williams . Newsweek stated that " he [ Pacino ] can play small as rivetingly as he can play big , that he can implode as well as explode " . The film and Pacino 's performance were well received , gaining a favorable rating of 93 percent on the review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes . The film did moderately well at the box office , taking in $ 113 million worldwide . His next film , S1m0ne , did not gain much critical praise or box office success .
He played a publicist in People I Know , a small film that received little attention despite Pacino 's well @-@ received performance . Rarely taking a supporting role since his commercial breakthrough , he accepted a small part in the box office flop Gigli , in 2003 , as a favor to director Martin Brest . The Recruit , released in 2003 , featured Pacino as a CIA recruiter and co @-@ stars Colin Farrell . The film received mixed reviews , and has been described by Pacino as something he " personally couldn 't follow " . Pacino next starred as lawyer Roy Cohn in the 2003 HBO miniseries Angels in America , an adaptation of Tony Kushner 's Pulitzer Prize winning play of the same name . For this performance , Pacino won his third Golden Globe , for Best Performance by an Actor , in 2004 .
Pacino starred as Shylock in Michael Radford 's 2004 film adaptation of The Merchant of Venice , choosing to bring compassion and depth to a character traditionally played as a villainous caricature . In Two for the Money , Pacino portrays a sports gambling agent and mentor for Matthew McConaughey , alongside Rene Russo . The film was released on October 8 , 2005 , to mixed reviews . Desson Thomson wrote in The Washington Post , " Al Pacino has played the mentor so many times , he ought to get a kingmaker 's award ... the fight between good and evil feels fixed in favor of Hollywood redemption . "
On October 20 , 2006 , the American Film Institute named Pacino the recipient of the 35th AFI Life Achievement Award . On November 22 , 2006 , the University Philosophical Society of Trinity College , Dublin awarded Pacino the Honorary Patronage of the Society .
Pacino played a spoof role in Steven Soderbergh 's Ocean 's Thirteen , alongside George Clooney , Brad Pitt , Matt Damon , Elliott Gould and Andy García , as the villain Willy Bank , a casino tycoon targeted by Danny Ocean and his crew . The film received generally favorable reviews .
88 Minutes was released on April 18 , 2008 , in the United States , after having been released in various other countries in 2007 . The film co @-@ starred Alicia Witt and was critically panned , although critics found fault with the plot , and not Pacino 's acting . In Righteous Kill , Pacino and Robert De Niro co @-@ star as New York detectives searching for a serial killer . The film was released to theaters on September 12 , 2008 . While it was an anticipated return for the two stars , it was not well received by critics . Lou Lumenick of the New York Post gave Righteous Kill one star out of four , saying : " Al Pacino and Robert De Niro collect bloated paychecks with intent to bore in Righteous Kill , a slow @-@ moving , ridiculous police thriller that would have been shipped straight to the remainder bin at Blockbuster if it starred anyone else . "
= = = 2010s = = =
Pacino played Dr. Jack Kevorkian in an HBO Films biopic entitled You Don 't Know Jack , which premiered April 2010 . The film is about the life and work of the physician @-@ assisted suicide advocate . The performance earned Pacino his second Emmy Award for lead actor and his fourth Golden Globe award .
It was announced in May 2011 that Pacino was to be honored with the " Glory to the Film @-@ maker " award at the 68th Venice International Film Festival . The award was presented ahead of the premiere of his film Wilde Salome , the third film Pacino has directed . Pacino , who plays the role of Herod in the film , describes it as his " most personal project ever " .
The United States premiere of Wilde Salomé took place on the evening of March 21 , 2012 , before a full house at the 1 @,@ 400 @-@ seat Castro Theatre in San Francisco 's Castro District . Marking the 130th anniversary of Oscar Wilde 's visit to San Francisco , the event was a benefit for the GLBT Historical Society .
Pacino most recently starred in a 2013 HBO biographical picture about record producer Phil Spector 's murder trial , titled Phil Spector .
Pacino and Robert De Niro were reportedly set to star in the upcoming project The Irishman , to be directed by Martin Scorsese and co @-@ star Joe Pesci . It was announced in January 2013 that Pacino would play the late former Penn State University football coach Joe Paterno in the movie tentatively titled Happy Valley and based on a 2012 biography of Paterno by sportswriter Joe Posnanski .
= = Personal life = =
Although he has never married , Pacino has three children . The eldest , Julie Marie ( born 1989 ) , is his daughter with acting coach Jan Tarrant . He also has twins , son Anton James and daughter Olivia Rose ( born January 25 , 2001 ) , with actress Beverly D 'Angelo , with whom he had a relationship from 1996 until 2003 . Pacino had a relationship with Diane Keaton , his co @-@ star in the Godfather trilogy . The on @-@ again , off @-@ again relationship ended following the filming of The Godfather Part II . He has had relationships with Tuesday Weld , Jill Clayburgh , Marthe Keller , Kathleen Quinlan and Lyndall Hobbs .
The Internal Revenue Service filed a tax lien against Pacino , claiming he owes the government a total of $ 188 @,@ 000 for 2008 and 2009 . A representative for Pacino blamed his former business manager Kenneth Starr for the discrepancy .
= = Filmography = =
= = Awards and nominations = =
Pacino has been nominated and has won many awards during his acting career , including eight Oscar nominations ( winning one ) , 15 Golden Globe nominations ( winning four ) , five BAFTA nominations ( winning two ) , two Primetime Emmy Awards for his work on television , and two Tony Awards for his stage work . In 2007 , the American Film Institute awarded Pacino with a lifetime achievement award and , in 2003 , British television viewers voted Pacino as the greatest film star of all time in a poll for Channel 4 .
= Woman Hollering Creek and Other Stories =
Woman Hollering Creek and Other Stories is a book of short stories published in 1991 by San Antonio @-@ based Mexican @-@ American writer Sandra Cisneros . The collection reflects Cisneros 's experience of being surrounded by American influences while still being familially bound to her Mexican heritage as she grew @-@ up north of the Mexico @-@ US border .
These tales focus on the social role of women , and their relationships with the men and other women in their lives . The majority of the characters are stereotypes : men embody machismo while women are naïve and generally weak . Cisneros focuses on three feminine clichés : the passive virgin , sinful seductress , and traitorous mother . Not properly belonging to either Mexico or America , the Chicana protagonists earnestly search for their identity , only to discover abuse and shattered dreams . Apart from focusing on these issues of struggling females , Cisneros simultaneously develops the readers ' sensitivity towards the lives of immigrants .
The vignettes are quite short on average ; the longest is 29 pages , while the shortest is fewer than five paragraphs . Despite such limited space , Cisneros experiments with daring poetic prose in her storytelling ; for example , each story presents a new character with a distinct literary voice and style . Such writing has earned her the title of an accomplished Chicana poet , with the added credentials of her published books of poetry My Wicked Wicked Ways ( 1987 ) and Loose Woman ( 1994 ) .
= = Background = =
From early on , a bond ran throughout Cisneros 's family as a result of being separated from their homeland and having to live as Mexican @-@ Americans in Chicago . Cisneros was born into a family of seven children and was often singled out as she was the only daughter . Despite the abundance of sibling playmates , Cisneros always felt lonely as a child , thus prompting her to begin creating stories to vary her daily routine .
After many years of writing , Cisneros used Woman Hollering Creek and Other Stories to explore the failed relationships of the female characters via their reactions to the men in their lives . This feminine focus in the stories may reflect Cisneros 's own views on relationships , as she does not appear to have a strong connection to any male figures in her life : " For her , men seem to be a utility that a woman turns on and off as required . " As the writing is from a Mexican @-@ American immigrant 's point of view , this feminism contends not only with the stereotype
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was awarded the Rajasthan Sangeet Natak Akademi Award for 1974 – 75 , the national Sangeet Natak Akademi Award for 1975 , and was made a fellow of the Rajasthan Sangeet Natak Akademi for 1988 – 89 . He received the Kalidas Samman from the Government of Madhya Pradesh for 1991 – 92 and was presented with the Aditya Vikram Birla Kalashikhar Puraskar in 1999 by P. C. Alexander , governor of Maharashtra . He also received the Maharashtra Gaurav Puraskar , the Shiromani Award , the Rajasthan Welfare Association Award , and in 2013 the Rajasthan Ratna . He was awarded the Lifetime Achievement Honour – Classical at the 4th Gionne Star Global Indian Music Academy ( GiMA ) Awards 2014 . The biographical film Pandit Ramnarayan – Sarangi Ke Sang was shown at the 2007 International Film Festival of India .
= = Family and personal life = =
Narayan shared a close relationship with his older brother , Chatur Lal , who learned the tabla primarily to accompany his brother 's sarangi playing . Lal studied under tabla teachers in his youth , but later turned to farming . Lal visited Narayan 1948 in Delhi after Narayan had become a professional sarangi player , and Narayan convinced Lal to work as a tabla player at the local AIR station . Lal became an acclaimed musician , toured with instrumentalists Ravi Shankar and Ali Akbar Khan in the 1950s , and helped popularise the tabla in Western countries . When Lal died in October 1965 , Narayan had difficulty performing and struggled with alcoholism , but overcame the addiction after two years . Narayan assisted his brother 's four children after their father 's death . Chatur Lal 's son , Charanjit Lal Biyavat , is a tabla player and has toured Europe with Narayan .
Narayan 's wife Sheela , a homemaker , came to Mumbai in the 1950s and they had four children . She died prior to 2001 . His oldest son , sarod player Brij Narayan , was born on 25 April 1952 in Udaipur , and his daughter Aruna Narayan was born in 1959 in Mumbai . She was the first woman to give a solo sarangi concert and immigrated to Canada in 1984 . Another son , Shiv , who is a year younger than Aruna , has learned to play the tabla , and toured Australia with his father . Brij Narayan 's son , Harsh Narayan , plays the sarangi . In 2009 , Narayan performed at BBC 's The Proms in the Royal Albert Hall , London , with Aruna , and he played at the 2010 Sawai Gandharva Music Festival , Pune , with Harsh .
Narayan is a Hindu and has stated " music is my religion " , arguing that there was no better access to divinity than music . He is based in Mumbai .
= = Discography = =
= = Writings = =
Sorrell , Neil ; Narayan , Ram ( 1980 ) . Indian music in performance : a practical introduction . Manchester University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 7190 @-@ 0756 @-@ 9 .
Narayan , Ram ( 2009 ) . एक सुर मेरा एक सारंगी का [ A tune of mine , one of the sarangi ] ( in Hindi ) . New Delhi : Kitabghar Prakashan . ISBN 81 @-@ 907221 @-@ 2 @-@ 3 .
= Lincolnshire , Illinois =
Lincolnshire is a village in Vernon Township , Lake County , in the U.S. state of Illinois . The village is a northern suburb of Chicago . The population of Lincolnshire was 7 @,@ 275 at the 2010 census . Lincolnshire was incorporated on August 5 , 1957 , from the unincorporated Half Day area when land was purchased to build a residential subdivision . The community underwent an aggressive era of expansion from 1983 to the 1990s . The Des Plaines River bisects the village , passing from north to south ; Illinois Route 22 also divides the village into two parts , crossing the village from east to west .
Lincolnshire is home to the public Adlai E. Stevenson High School and to the schools that compose the elementary Lincolnshire @-@ Prairie View School District 103 . It serves as the headquarters for corporations including the global outsourcing company Aon Hewitt , and was the base of operations for the Newman / Haas Racing team . The village of Lincolnshire hosts several annual festivals ( including one mirroring the Taste of Chicago ) in either commercial establishments such as City Park or the Village Green , or in one of its nine public parks . The village maintains a police department that closely collaborates with its local school districts . Lincolnshire manages a public works system at the direct expense of the village ; it retrieves all of its water from the city of Highland Park , which derives its water from adjacent Lake Michigan . The village has a council – manager government and is a home @-@ rule municipality . The mayor of Lincolnshire is Elizabeth J. Brandt .
= = History = =
= = = Prior to incorporation = = =
The first inhabitants of what would become the village of Lincolnshire were Native American Potawatomi migrants from Canada and Wisconsin . The tribesmen left these northern places in the 16th century in search of a warmer , more temperate climate . The first Europeans to visit the area were the French Jesuit explorers Father Jacques Marquette and Louis Jolliet . Shortly after arriving in 1673 at the site of what later became Waukegan , they sailed down the Des Plaines River and made contact with the local Potawatomi , who would dominate the area by 1768 . One of the Potawatomi villages that they encountered stretched along the west bank of the Des Plaines River , from what later became Illinois Route 22 south to Aptakisic Road , the first real settlement in the Lincolnshire and Half Day region .
The Lincolnshire area was originally a part of the town of Half Day , the first region settled by non @-@ Native American peoples in Lake County . The first white settler in the Lincolnshire area was Captain Daniel Wright , who arrived in 1834 . Chief Halfda allowed Wright to build his cabin at the south end of the Potawatomi village at the site of the intersection of present @-@ day Milwaukee Avenue and Aptakisic Road . The Potawatomi tribesmen were ousted a year later in the 1833 Treaty of Chicago , which was implemented two years after its ratification , and faced relocation .
The Half Day area experienced an economic boom with the arrival of new settlers during the two decades after Wright 's arrival . Among these pioneers were Seth Washburn , the first postmaster of the Vernon Township , who settled at the site of what later became the Lincolnshire @-@ Prairie View School District 103 's Half Day Intermediate School , and Laura Sprague , the first teacher to reside in the area . By 1855 , 21 years after the settling of the Half Day area by Wright , the town was a thriving community with a blacksmith 's shop , sawmill , country store , and a church . At this time , the Chicago and Milwaukee Railroad connected Milwaukee to the county seat of Waukegan , and it expanded throughout the Lake County area over the next few decades ; this also contributed to the town 's prosperity . Henry Ford 's invention of the automobile in the early 20th century made Half Day a more accessible destination to other communities within the Chicago metropolitan area , and the village became a popular recreation area . This prompted the opening of many businesses , including an amusement park , a race track , a bowling alley , a dance hall , and taverns , that catered to visitors .
= = = Incorporation and post @-@ incorporation ( 1957 – ) = = =
Vernon Township , in which the village of Half Day lay , was carved up between wealthy farmers after the end of World War I. Edward Ryerson , Adlai E. Stevenson II , Samuel Insull , and Louis Leverone bought the majority of the territory within Vernon Township 's borders . Leverone , who had purchased the Half Day area , sold a tract of land to developer Roger Ladd and his eponymous company in 1955 . The company organized a residential subdivision out of the ceded town of Half Day and christened it " Lincolnshire " , the precursor to the present @-@ day village of the same name . However , life in the village was problematic , as the new subdivision was served by dirt roads and had neither a sufficient communal sanitation system nor a gas line . Lincolnshire 's police coverage was inefficient , as officers patrolling the area had to be dispatched from Waukegan , approximately 16 miles ( 26 km ) to the north . As a result , the Cambridge Forest Association ( CFA ) was formed to lobby for improvement in the livelihoods of the people of Lincolnshire . With sponsorship from the Cambridge Forest Association , Lincolnshire was incorporated as a village on August 5 , 1957 . The CFA was later renamed the Lincolnshire Community Association ; the entity continues to play a significant role in the political life of the village .
Lincolnshire 's government initially adhered to a conservative and cautious approach , and refused to annex two corporate park divisions in the 1980s . Opponents to the village government 's methods , however , won out in later years ; supporting a quick growth to rival the increasing affluence of surrounding villages , they oversaw the cessions of the Marriott Lincolnshire Resort and Lincolnshire Corporate Center over a period of years following 1983 . Lincolnshire also sought to annex the old remnants of the unincorporated community of Half Day from which it was created , but lost in a court battle with the village of Vernon Hills in 1994 ; the court case set the present @-@ day border between the two villages , which lies along Route 22 up to its intersection with Milwaukee Avenue . To consolidate these new acquisitions , Lincolnshire set to work on a new village hall that was completed in 1993 , and constructed a downtown area centered on the intersection of Aptakisic Road and Milwaukee Avenue ; the village 's endeavors included commercial regions like the Lincolnshire Corporate Center , City Park , and the Lincolnshire Commons . These facilities were planned and constructed from the mid @-@ 1990s to the mid @-@ 2000s .
In 2005 , Buffalo Grove and Lincolnshire reached a boundary agreement with respect to the allocation of properties surrounding and concerning the unincorporated Prairie View area , which lay in between the two Lake County villages . The acreage in question was divided equally between the two villages .
= = Geography = =
Lincolnshire is located at 42 ° 11 ′ 47 ″ North and 87 ° 55 ′ 2 ″ West , and shares a border with the villages of Vernon Hills to the northwest , Buffalo Grove to the southwest , Bannockburn to the east , and Riverwoods to the southeast . The city of Lake Forest is located to the northeast of the village , while the unincorporated community of Prairie View borders the village directly to the west .
According to the 2010 census , Lincolnshire has a total area of 4 @.@ 674 square miles ( 12 @.@ 11 km2 ) , of which 4 @.@ 58 square miles ( 11 @.@ 86 km2 ) ( or 97 @.@ 99 % ) is land and 0 @.@ 094 square miles ( 0 @.@ 24 km2 ) ( or 2 @.@ 01 % ) is water .
The village of Lincolnshire is a suburb of the city of Chicago in the southern reaches of Lake County ; like Chicago , Lincolnshire is located in the extreme northeastern region of the state of Illinois . The Des Plaines River meanders through the eastern part of the village , dividing the town in half vertically at the village hall , while Half Day Road ( Illinois Route 22 ) splits the village in half in an east – west direction . Milwaukee Avenue ( U.S. Route 45 ) runs in a north – south direction through Lincolnshire , into the village of Buffalo Grove to the south and Vernon Hills to the north .
Lincolnshire has been a Tree City USA every year since 1988 . It has won the Tree City Growth Award for thirteen consecutive years . To maintain Lincolnshire 's foliage , the village passed the " Tree Preservation Ordinance " , a law that places tight restrictions on tree removal . As of 2008 , the village was working towards the eradication of gypsy moths in its area .
Lincolnshire lies on the border of two Chicago @-@ area watersheds : one pertaining to the Des Plaines River , and the other involving the nearby north fork of the Chicago River . This situation directly relates to the presence of the Des Plaines River in the village .
= = = Climate = = =
Due to its proximity to the city , Lincolnshire 's climate shares many of the same traits as Chicago . Lincolnshire lies in a humid continental climate zone and experiences four discernible seasons . Lincolnshire receives an average of 36 @.@ 28 inches ( 922 mm ) of precipitation each year .
= = Demographics = =
As of the census of 2010 , there were 7 @,@ 275 people living in the village . The racial makeup of the village was 91 @.@ 5 % White , 0 @.@ 9 % African American , 0 @.@ 01 % Native American , 6 @.@ 1 % Asian , 0 @.@ 3 % from other races , and 1 @.@ 2 % from two or more races . Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2 % of the population .
As of the census of 2000 , there were 6 @,@ 108 people , 2 @,@ 134 households , and 1 @,@ 796 families living in the village . The population density was 1 @,@ 386 @.@ 2 people per square mile ( 534 @.@ 8 / km ² ) . There were 2 @,@ 177 housing units at an average density of 494 @.@ 1 per square mile ( 190 @.@ 6 / km ² ) . The racial makeup of the village was 94 @.@ 1 % White , 0 @.@ 5 % African American , 0 @.@ 1 % Native American , 3 @.@ 7 % Asian , 0 @.@ 1 % Pacific Islander , 0 @.@ 5 % from other races , and 1 @.@ 1 % from two or more races . Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2 @.@ 5 % of the population .
There were 2 @,@ 134 households out of which 37 @.@ 4 % had children under the age of 18 living with them , 79 @.@ 1 % were married couples living together , 3 @.@ 7 % had a female householder with no husband present , and 15 @.@ 8 % were non @-@ families . 13 @.@ 3 % of all households were made up of individuals and 5 @.@ 6 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 2 @.@ 75 and the average family size was 3 @.@ 03 .
In the village the population was spread out with 26 @.@ 9 % under the age of 18 , 3 @.@ 0 % from 18 to 24 , 21 @.@ 3 % from 25 to 44 , 32 @.@ 6 % from 45 to 64 , and 16 @.@ 2 % who were 65 years of age or older . The median age was 44 years . For every 100 females there were 94 @.@ 8 males . For every 100 females age 18 and over , there were 93 @.@ 2 males .
The median income for a household in the village was $ 134 @,@ 259 , and the median income for a family was $ 150 @,@ 598 . Males had a median income of approximately $ 90 @,@ 000 versus $ 46 @,@ 328 for females . The per capita income for the village was $ 60 @,@ 115 . About 0 @.@ 7 % of families and 1 @.@ 6 % of the population were below the poverty line , including 1 @.@ 1 % of those under age 18 and 0 @.@ 7 % of those age 65 or over .
= = Economy = =
Lincolnshire serves as the headquarters of Van Vlissingen & Company , a commercial real estate developer , the global outsourcing Aon Hewitt company and the stationery products manufacturers Quill and ACCO Brands . Newman / Haas Racing , an auto racing team in the Indy Racing League , is based in the village . The Marriott Theatre is located in Lincolnshire , on the premises of the Marriott Lincolnshire Resort ; it sells approximately 400 @,@ 000 tickets each year .
The Half Day Road @-@ Milwaukee Avenue area , which is located near the Lincolnshire @-@ Vernon Hills border , is a major retail corridor that experiences heavy traffic at peak hours . Along with the Village Green area , this could loosely be considered Downtown Lincolnshire . Lincolnshire and several of its neighboring villages have collaborated in attempts to ease the traffic in the area . Another potential " downtown " is loosely centered on the intersection of Milwaukee Avenue and Aptakisic Road ; City Park , the Lincolnshire Commons , and the Lincolnshire Corporate Center constitute a retail hub in the southern end of Lincolnshire . Village Green plaza , at the intersection of Illinois Route 22 and Milwaukee Avenue , is the location for many of the festivities that the village holds .
Lincolnshire formerly housed the U.S. headquarters of Takeda Pharmaceutical Company . In 2003 Takeda announced that it would move its headquarters , which at the time housed 1 @,@ 600 employees , to Deerfield , Illinois .
= = = Top employers = = =
According to Lincolnshire 's 2009 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report , the top employers in the city are :
= = Culture and media = =
The village of Lincolnshire holds an annual summer festival , mirroring the more publicized and much larger Taste of Chicago in both nomenclature and intention . The Taste of Lincolnshire features and advertises " taste @-@ size " samples of local restaurants and provides local entertainment , including musicians , a raffle , and a local pet show . Since 1993 , Lincolnshire has also held the Lincolnshire Art Festival a few weeks prior to the Taste of Lincolnshire ; the event encourages Lake County artists to display their work to the community . As incentives for publicity , entertainment and parking are provided free of charge . Lincolnshire hosts a Fourth of July celebration annually known as " Red , White , and BOOM ! " , a collection of activities centered on the celebration of the American Independence Day . It incorporates live music , a raffle , and a fireworks show at local Spring Lake Park into its festivities .
Lincolnshire was also home to two motion picture performers : Alison LaPlaca , an actress famous for her role as snobbish yuppie Linda Phillips on the sitcom Duet and its spinoff , Open House , is an alumnus of Stevenson High School ; and Kyle Brandt , another graduate of Stevenson , who played Philip Kiriakis on the soap opera Days of Our Lives and appears as himself on the reality show The Real World : Chicago .
= = Sports and recreation = =
Lincolnshire , despite its relatively small size , is home to nine local public parks . Spring Lake Park , which is centered on an eponymous lake and sports a small beachhead , hosts Lincolnshire 's festivities during the Fourth of July . North Park , a major sporting field and nature reserve in northeastern Lincolnshire , collaborates with Lincolnshire @-@ Prairie View School District 103 to meet both the growing need for youth sports teams and extra recreational public park space ; School District 103 also collaborated with the village of Lincolnshire to create an educational nature center called Rivershire Park , which is located in southeastern Lincolnshire . The nature center runs programs to educate district students and other visitors about the local ecology , alongside the natural fauna and flora of the Lake County area , and Memorial Park is a rest stop for pedestrians and cyclists traversing eastern Lincolnshire ; Florsheim Nature Preserve , which sports an unusually high Floristic Quality Index rating , is shelter to endangered and threatened species of flora rarely found elsewhere in the county . Whytegate Park , an athletic complex overshadowed by nearby North Park , sports several sports courts and a fitness course , and Balzer Park is home to a short hiking trail and sports facilities . Lincolnshire 's other two parks , Bicentennial Park and Olde Mill Park , are little more than playgrounds for local children .
The Lincolnshire Marriott Resort takes up a large area of land to the west of the Des Plaines River , and has an eighteen @-@ hole golf course that hugs Illinois Route 22 to the south ; the golf course is not only available to guests , but also offers lessons to local residents . The resort is also home to the Marriott Theatre , which garnered a reputation through the acceptance of 370 Joseph Jefferson Award nominations presented throughout its history .
Four notable sportsmen have lived within the borders of the village of Lincolnshire . Andrea Jaeger , a professional tennis player known for her successful , albeit brief , career in tennis that saw progress in Wimbledon and the French Open , graduated from Adlai E. Stevenson High School ; Matt O 'Dwyer , a former NFL football player who played for numerous teams ranging from the New York Jets to the Green Bay Packers , was born in Lincolnshire . Robert Berland , an Olympian who won medals at the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles and the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul , lives in the village . Villanova University basketball player Jalen Brunson moved to Lincolnshire in 2010 to attend Stevenson High School .
In October 2013 , the Stanley Cup made its first ever @-@ appearance in Lincolnshire and again visited the village in July 2015 .
= = Government = =
The government of Lincolnshire is constituted as a council @-@ manager form government with elements of home rule , which it adopted via ordinance in 1976 . The village is headed by a mayor who presides over a board of six trustees at every meeting , although the daily functions of the village are carried out by a professional salaried village manager . Once elected , the mayor serves a four @-@ year term ; the elected trustees serve four @-@ year terms that are staggered . It is the responsibility of the mayor to appoint a village manager , although the manager cannot take office until the board has approved the mayor 's choice .
Government meetings are generally conducted on the second and fourth Mondays of the month . In the case of a tie , the mayor has the casting vote . Mayors of Lincolnshire can veto propositions set forth by the board of trustees , although this move may be overridden by a two @-@ thirds opposition vote from the board .
As of 2008 , the village office holders were :
= = = Safety = = =
Lincolnshire is served by its own police department , which is based in the village hall . This police force is staffed by 25 full @-@ time members ; 24 of them are sworn police officers , and the other is a community service officer . The Lincolnshire Police Department runs an emergency center that accepts 911 calls in the region .
The Lincolnshire Police Department collaborates with Lincolnshire @-@ Prairie View School District 103 's junior high school , Daniel Wright , to form a chapter of the Drug Abuse Resistance Education program . This program has graduated sixth graders from the school every year since 1991 .
The village is served by the Lincolnshire @-@ Riverwoods Fire Protection District , which employs 36 sworn full @-@ time firefighter / paramedics . The Fire Protection District has three fire stations : one located in central Lincolnshire , slightly to the west of the village hall , one to the south in Riverwoods , and a third located on the north end of the district in Vernon Hills . The Fire Protection District runs free services and programs , including fire safety surveys of houses in the area .
Lincolnshire lies in a floodplain region , a consequence of the presence of the Des Plaines River and the proximity a fork of the Chicago River on the far east border . A third factor involves small Indian Creek , which runs north of Lincolnshire . The village participates in the National Flood Insurance Program , a Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) project , to alleviate a portion of the costs of flood damage that may overtax affected village residents . The village also implements the Community Rating System , a disaster readiness plan .
= = Education = =
Lincolnshire has two school districts : Lincolnshire @-@ Prairie View School District 103 and Adlai E. Stevenson High School District 125 , although a few students living in the village also attend school in Aptakisic @-@ Tripp Community Consolidated School District 102 in neighboring Buffalo Grove . District 103 , which feeds into District 125 , is home to three schools : Laura B. Sprague Elementary School ( K @-@ 2 ) , Half Day Intermediate School ( 3 – 4 ) , and Daniel Wright Junior High School ( 5 – 8 ) ; District 125 comprises only Adlai E. Stevenson High School . Both are public school districts , funded by the government .
The first school to be built in what is now Lincolnshire was Half Day Intermediate School , which initially served all grades for the small town ; it was originally a one @-@ room schoolhouse before a major expansion project was undertaken to accommodate the district 's increasing population . Numerous changes were made to Half Day School between 1958 and 1965 , but it remained too small to receive all prospective students ; in 1983 , Half Day School was closed , its duties given to Laura B. Sprague Elementary School and Daniel Wright Junior High School . It was , however , reopened nine years later as Daniel Wright and Laura Sprague began to fill to capacity .
Lincolnshire is also served by a number of non @-@ government @-@ funded educational institutions . DeVry University 's Keller School of Management operates a branch in Lincolnshire , alongside the Southlakes Campus of the College of Lake County , which is located just to the north in the village of Vernon Hills . Alumni of Stevenson High School who wish to apply for the University of Illinois may do so at an extension site located in Grayslake , a village in northern Lake County . The Lincolnshire Community Nursery School , which was founded in 1973 , accepts preschoolers who live in the eastern reaches of the village of Lincolnshire .
The village is home to the Vernon Area Public Library , whose district serves a large region of the Vernon Township ( specifically , the villages of Lincolnshire ; Buffalo Grove ; and Long Grove , and portions of the village Vernon Hills ) . The library district also hosts a number of special events , including book talks and informational presentations .
= = Infrastructure = =
= = = Transportation = = =
Lincolnshire lies on three arterial roads : Illinois Route 22 , which is known as Half Day Road in this area ; Milwaukee Avenue , which appears as Illinois Route 21 / U.S. Route 45 ; and Aptakisic Road , which meets Milwaukee in the southern region of Lincolnshire . Lincolnshire shares its eastern border with the village of Bannockburn at Interstate 94 ( where it is a portion of the Tri @-@ State Tollway ) . Route 22 crosses the Des Plaines River before bridging Bannockburn and Lincolnshire by arching over Interstate Highway 94 .
Lincolnshire has two primary bike paths that cover a large expanse of the village . One runs in a north @-@ south direction alongside Riverwoods Road in the eastern half of the village , while the other runs in an east @-@ west direction from the eastern half of the village , across the Des Plaines River , and to the village hall in the west side of the village . Smaller bike paths connect individual neighborhood areas within and around Lincolnshire .
O 'Hare International Airport is 18 miles ( 29 km ) southwest of the village of Lincolnshire . Travel between Lincolnshire and the airport is facilitated by the Tri @-@ State Tollway , although travel by railway is also possible via the Prairie View Metra station just west of Lincolnshire .
= = = Utilities = = =
The Village of Lincolnshire negotiated and signed an agreement with the City of Highland Park in 1982 to create a more efficient means of obtaining water by purchasing filtered water from Lake Michigan . The Village of Lincolnshire also monitors the public pumps and water meters of private residents . Lincolnshire is served by a sanitary sewer that connects to the Lake County Sewage Treatment Plant , which lies on the Des Plaines River outside the Village limits ; the disposal of wastewater is left to the government of Lake County rather than the Village of Lincolnshire itself . Lincolnshire also runs a network of storm drains that run directly into the Des Plaines River ; to protect the river 's cleaniness , the village government has outlawed dumping of most chemicals into the network of storm drains . A plan to repair city streets was also implemented in 1982 , and continues ; the Village also offers public services to clear the streets during the fall and winter from fallen leaves and snow respectively , although on its arterial roads ( Illinois Routes 22 , 45 , and Aptakisic Road ) residents are provided with bags to clear their curbs during autumn months as it is not possible for the Village to safely clear these roads of leaf debris . The Village of Lincolnshire regularly sweeps other streets within its borders .
The Village of Lincolnshire is served by the Northern division of the Waste Management , Inc . Midwest Group for solid waste disposal .
The engineering division of Lincolnshire 's Public Works Department maintains roads and streets under the jurisdiction of Lincolnshire , inspects existing facilities , improves existing residential subdivisions , and considers the construction of new ones . The department also manages plans in case of river floods .
= 173rd Airborne Brigade Combat Team =
The 173rd Airborne Brigade Combat Team ( " Sky Soldiers " ) is an airborne infantry brigade combat team of the United States Army based in Vicenza , Italy . It is the United States European Command 's conventional airborne strategic response force for Europe .
Activated in 1915 , as the 173rd Infantry Brigade , the unit saw service in World War I , but is best known for its actions during the Vietnam War . The brigade was the first major United States Army ground formation deployed in Vietnam , serving there from 1965 to 1971 and losing almost 1 @,@ 800 soldiers . Noted for its roles in Operation Hump and Operation Junction City , the 173rd is best known for the Battle of Dak To , where it suffered heavy casualties in close combat with North Vietnamese forces . Brigade members received over 7 @,@ 700 decorations , including more than 6 @,@ 000 Purple Hearts . The brigade returned to the United States in 1972 , where the 1st and 2nd battalions of the 503rd Airborne Regiment were absorbed into the 3rd Brigade of the 101st Airborne Division . The remaining units of the 173rd were inactivated .
Since its reactivation in 2000 , the brigade served five tours in the Middle East in support of the War on Terror . The 173rd participated in the initial invasion of Iraq during Operation Iraqi Freedom in 2003 , and had four tours in Afghanistan in support of Operation Enduring Freedom in 2005 – 06 , 2007 – 08 , 2009 – 10 , and 2012 – 13 . The brigade returned recently from a deployment stretching from late 2013 to late 2014
The 173rd Airborne Brigade Combat Team has received 21 campaign streamers and several unit awards , including the Presidential Unit Citation for its actions during the Battle of Dak To during the Vietnam War .
= = Organization = =
The 173rd Airborne Brigade serves as the conventional airborne strategic response force for Europe . It is a subordinate unit of the U.S. Army 's V Corps and after June 2013 , subordinate to US Army Europe .
The 173rd Airborne Brigade currently consists of 3 @,@ 300 soldiers in seven subordinate battalions . The unit 's two active paratrooper infantry battalions are the 1st and 2nd Battalions of the 503rd Infantry Regiment , an association that can be traced back to the unit 's Vietnam service . It has one National Guard paratrooper infantry battalion , the 1st Battalion , 143rd Infantry Regiment of the Texas National Guard . The 1st Squadron , 91st Cavalry Regiment is the brigade 's light reconnaissance battalion , and the 4th Battalion , 319th Airborne Field Artillery Regiment ( AFAR ) its field artillery battalion .
In support of the regular combat forces are the Special Troops Battalion and the 173rd Support Battalion . All of these units including the 4 – 319th AFAR are airborne qualified , making the 173rd Airborne Brigade the only separate airborne brigade in the United States Army .
= = History = =
= = = World Wars = = =
The 173rd Infantry Brigade was constituted on 5 August 1917 as an infantry brigade and organized on 25 August at Camp Pike , Arkansas , as an element of the 87th Division along with the 174th Infantry Brigade . The brigade deployed to France along with the rest of the division in September 1918 , but it did not participate in any campaigns and never saw combat , instead being utilized as a pool of laborers and reinforcements for frontline units . Four months later , the brigade returned to the United States , and was demobilized with the rest of the division in January 1919 at Camp Dix , New Jersey .
On 24 June 1921 , the unit was reconstituted as the Headquarters and Headquarters Company ( HHC ) , 173rd Infantry Brigade , and was assigned to the Organized Reserve Corps and the 87th Division at Shreveport , Louisiana . It was reorganized in December 1921 at Mobile , Alabama , redesignated on 23 March 1925 as the HHC 173rd Brigade , and redesignated as HHC 173rd Infantry Brigade on 24 August 1936 .
During World War II , brigades were eliminated from divisions . Consequently , the HHC 173rd Infantry Brigade was designated as the 87th Reconnaissance Troop in February 1942 and activated on 15 December 1942 . Though the brigade in name did not exist during the war , the redesignation meant that it carried the lineage of the 87th Reconnaissance Troop , and when the brigade was reactivated , it would include the troop 's lineage and campaign streamers . The troop entered combat in 1944 and fought in three European campaigns ; central Europe , the Rhineland and Ardennes @-@ Alsace operations . The maneuver battalions of the Vietnam era 173rd trace their lineage to the 503rd Parachute Infantry Regiment , which successfully assaulted the fortress island of Corregidor in the Philippines by parachute and waterborne operations , thereby earning the nickname " The Rock " . After the war , the troop reverted to reserve status and was posted at Birmingham , Alabama from 1947 until 1951 . On 1 December 1951 , the troop was inactivated and released from its assignment to the 87th Infantry Division .
= = = Re @-@ creation as airborne brigade = = =
From 1961 to 1963 , the Army began reorganizing its force so that each division would have a similar structure , which would vary depending on the type of division it was . This move was called the Reorganization Objective Army Division ( ROAD ) plan . The plan eliminated regiments but reintroduced brigades to the Army 's structure , allowing three brigades to a division . The reorganization also allowed for the use of " separate " brigades which had no division headquarters and could be used for missions that did not require an entire division . The 173rd Brigade was selected to become a separate brigade and a special airborne task force , which could deploy rapidly and act independently . It was then designed uniquely from other separate brigades . The 173rd was the only separate brigade to have support formations permanently assigned to it , though other separate brigades would receive support elements of their own a year later . The brigade was also the only separate brigade to receive its own tank company , in the form of Company D , 16th Armor . Consistent with regimental combat teams activated before them , these separate brigades were given their own shoulder sleeve insignia . The soldiers of the 173rd Airborne Brigade created a patch with a wing on it to symbolize their status as an airborne unit , along with red , white , and blue , the national colors of the United States . The SSI would be given to them in May 1963 .
On 26 March 1963 , the 173rd Airborne Brigade ( Separate ) was assigned to the regular army and activated on Okinawa . Brigadier General Ellis W. Williamson took command of the unit , which was chartered to serve as the quick reaction force for the Pacific Command . Under Williamson , the unit trained extensively , making mass parachute jumps . They earned the nickname Tien Bien ( Chinese : 天兵 ) , literally Sky Soldiers , from the Taiwanese paratroopers . During their time in Okinawa , they prided themselves as the " toughest fighting men in Okinawa , if not the entire U.S. Armed Forces " . They took their theme song from the television series Rawhide . As the Pacific quick @-@ reaction force , they were the first brigade to be sent to Vietnam two years later when hostilities escalated there .
= = = Vietnam War = = =
The brigade arrived in Vietnam on May 7 , 1965 , the first major ground combat unit of the United States Army to serve in the country . Brigadier General Williamson boldly predicted on arrival that his men would defeat the Viet Cong quickly and that they " would be back in Okinawa by Christmas " . The 1st Brigade , 101st Airborne Division ; the 2nd Brigade , 1st Infantry Division ; and the 1st Cavalry Division quickly followed the 173rd into Vietnam , the first of what would eventually be 25 U.S. Army brigades to serve in the country . As larger US Army commands were established in Vietnam , the brigade was assigned to the III Corps and II Corps tactical zone , which they would serve in for the next six years . The brigade was put under the command of II Field Force , Vietnam .
The 1st and 2nd Battalions , 503rd Infantry were the first Army combat units from the 173rd sent into South Vietnam , accompanied by the 3rd Battalion , 319th Artillery . They were supported by the 173rd Support Battalion , 173rd Engineer Company , Troop E / 17th Cavalry and Company D / 16th Armor . The 1st Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment and the 161st Battery , Royal New Zealand Artillery were attached to the brigade for one year in 1965 . Late in August 1966 , the 173rd received another infantry battalion , the 4th Battalion , 503rd Infantry from Fort Campbell , Kentucky . The 3rd Battalion , 503rd joined the brigade at Tuy Hòa Province in September 1967 following the former 's activation and training at Fort Bragg , North Carolina . The 173rd was also assigned Company N ( Ranger ) , 75th Infantry . At its peak of its deployment in Vietnam , the 173rd Airborne Brigade ( Separate ) comprised over 7 @,@ 000 soldiers .
The brigade was the first unit sent into War Zone D to destroy enemy base camps , introducing the use of small Long Range Reconnaissance Patrols . On 8 November 1965 , the 173rd took part in Operation Hump , just north of Biên Hòa on the outskirts of Saigon , the capital of South Vietnam . They were ambushed by approximately 1 @,@ 200 Viet Cong fighters , suffering 48 deaths . The unit fought in the Iron Triangle , a Viet Cong stronghold north of Saigon , seeing many engagements with enemy forces during that time . They participated in Operation Crimp in 1966 , a failed attempt to root out enemy forces from the Cu Chi tunnels .
The attached helicopter unit became the Casper Aviation platoon , befitting a separate infantry brigade as the only separate aviation platoon deployed in Vietnam . Casper platoon was part of the HHC 173rd Airborne Brigade and its members wore the brigade patch . The attached Assault Helicopter Company , the 335th AHC , the " Cowboys " , deployed with the brigade all over Vietnam into mid @-@ 1968 and comprised the Airmobile capability along with the Caspers . Soldiers of the brigade became involved in Operation Attleboro in fall of 1966 , an operation that started out as a small search and destroy mission north of Saigon but eventually involved 22 @,@ 000 troops from 21 battalions . Soldiers of the brigade also took part in smaller humanitarian missions in between major combat operations .
On 22 February 1967 , the 173rd conducted Operation Junction City , the only combat parachute jump of the Vietnam War . The operation saw three brigades controlling eight battalions dropped by helicopters and US Air Force aircraft into War Zone C , in Tây Ninh Province . During the battle , the brigade operated out of the northeastern part of the war zone along with the 196th Infantry Brigade ( Separate ) , as four other brigades from the 1st and 25th Infantry Divisions attempted to surround and destroy the 9th Viet Cong Division in the War Zone . The operation was a success , and the battered VC division fled . In August of that year , the brigade received its distinctive unit insignia . The soldiers chose to have it contain a parachute and dagger to symbolize their participation in Operation Junction City and the other heavy fighting they had been through . The DUI was also inscribed " Sky Soldiers " as homage to the nickname that the Taiwanese soldiers had given them .
= = = Dak To = = =
In the Summer of 1967 , the 4th Infantry Division 's 1st and 2nd Brigades were making heavy contact with enemy forces in the Central Highlands of Vietnam , in western Kon Tum Province . These heavy enemy contacts prompted division commander Lieutenant General William R. Peers to request reinforcement and , as a result , on 17 June , two battalions of Brigadier General John R. Deane 's 173rd Airborne Brigade were moved into the Dak To area to begin sweeping the jungle @-@ covered mountains in Operation Greeley . The 173rd had been operating near Bien Hoa Air Base outside Saigon and had been in combat only against NLF guerrillas . Prior to its deployment to the highlands , Peers ' operations officer , Colonel William J. Livsey , attempted to warn the Airborne officers of the hazards of campaigning in the highlands . He also advised them that PAVN regulars were a much better equipped and motivated force than the NLF . These warnings , however , made little impression on the paratroopers , who were about to become victims of their own overconfidence .
On 20 June , Company C , 2nd Battalion ( Airborne ) , 503rd Infantry ( C / 2 @-@ 503 ) discovered the bodies of a Special Forces CIDG unit that had been missing for four days on Hill 1338 , the dominant hill mass south of Dak To . Supported by A / 2 @-@ 503 , the Americans moved up the hill and set up for the night . At 06 : 58 the following morning , Alpha Company began moving alone up a ridge finger and triggered an ambush by the 6th Battalion of the 24th PAVN Regiment . Charlie Company was ordered to support , but heavy vegetation and difficult terrain made movement extremely difficult . Artillery support was rendered ineffective by the limited range of visibility . Close air support was impossible for the same reasons . Alpha Company managed to survive repeated attacks throughout the day and night , but the cost was heavy . Of the 137 men that comprised the unit , 76 had been killed and another 23 wounded . A search of the battlefield revealed only 15 dead North Vietnamese .
In response to the destruction of Alpha Company , MACV ordered additional forces into the area . On 23 June , the 1st Battalion , 12th Cavalry ( 1st Brigade , 1st Air Cavalry Division ) arrived to bolster the 173rd . The following day , the Army of the Republic of Vietnam 's ( ARVN ) elite 1st Airborne Task Force ( the 5th and 8th Battalions ) and the 3rd Brigade , 1st Air Cavalry Division ( 5th Battalion , 7th Cavalry ; 2nd Battalion , 12th Cavalry ; and an additional infantry battalion ) arrived to conduct search and destroy operations north and northeast of Kon Tum . General Deane sent his forces 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) west and southwest of Dak To to search for the 24th PAVN Regiment . By October , the 173rd , the 4th Infantry Division , and six ARVN battalions were moved to Dak To . The North Vietnamese Army , in turn , had moved almost 6 @,@ 000 troops in four infantry regiments and one artillery regiment .
The battle around Dak To became more costly as 4 @-@ 503 of the 173rd was ordered to occupy Hill 823 , south of Ben Het Camp , for the construction of Fire Support Base . Only the battalion 's Company B was available for the attack , which was borne by helicopter . The company was able to take the hill but suffered 9 dead and 28 wounded . The following morning Bravo Company was relieved by Lieutenant Colonel David J. Schumacher 's 1 @-@ 503 , which ( against the admonitions of Colonel Livsey ) was divided into two small task forces . Task Force Black consisted of Charlie Company supported by two platoons of Dog Company and Task Force Blue which was composed of Alpha Company and the remaining platoon of Dog . Task Force Black left Hill 823 to find the North Vietnamese who had attacked B / 4 @-@ 503 . At 08 : 28 on 11 November , after leaving their overnight laager and following a PAVN communications wire , the force was ambushed by the 8th and 9th Battalions of the 66th PAVN Regiment and had to fight for its life . Task Force Blue drew the job of going to the relief of the beleaguered task force ; however , Task Force Blue ran into resistance and was pinned down by enemy fire on all sides . C / 4 @-@ 503 was then assigned the mission of relieving Task Force Black and they too encountered significant enemy fire , but they made it , reaching the trapped men at 15 : 37 . U.S. losses were 20 killed , 154 wounded , and two missing .
Following an attack on the Đắk Tô Base , and actions on hill 882 by the 1 @-@ 503rd that saw 7 men dead and 34 wounded , 330 men of 2 @-@ 503 moved in to assault Hill 875 . At 10 : 30 , as the Americans moved to within 300 metres ( 984 ft ) of the crest , PAVN machine gunners opened fire on the advancing paratroopers . Then B @-@ 40 rockets and 57 mm recoilless rifle fire were unleashed upon them . The paratroopers attempted to continue the advance , but the North Vietnamese , well concealed in interconnected bunkers and trenches , opened fire with small arms and grenades . At 14 : 30 PAVN troops hidden at the bottom of the hill launched a massed assault from the rear . Unknown to the Americans , they had walked into a carefully prepared ambush by the 2nd Battalion of the 174th PAVN Regiment . Soon , U.S. air strikes and artillery fire were being called in , but they had little effect on the battle because of the dense foliage on the hillside . Resupply became a necessity because of high ammunition expenditures and lack of water , but it was also an impossibility . Six UH @-@ 1 helicopters were shot down or badly damaged that afternoon trying to get to 2 @-@ 503 .
The next morning the three companies of 4 @-@ 503 were chosen to set out and relieve the men on Hill 875 . Because of intense PAVN sniper and mortar fire ( and the terrain ) it took until nightfall for the relief force to reach the beleaguered battalion . On the afternoon of 21 November both battalions moved out to take the crest . During fierce , close @-@ quarters fighting , some of the paratroopers made it into the PAVN trench line but were ordered to pull back as darkness fell .
The following day was spent in launching airstrikes and a heavy artillery bombardment against the hilltop , totally denuding it of cover . On 23 November , 2 @-@ 503 and 4 @-@ 503 were ordered to renew their assault while the 1st Battalion , 12th Infantry assaulted 875 from the south . This time the Americans gained the crest , but the North Vietnamese had already abandoned their positions , leaving only a few dozen charred bodies and weapons .
The battle of Hill 875 had cost 2 @-@ 503 87 killed , 130 wounded , and three missing . 4 @-@ 503 suffered 28 killed 123 wounded , and four missing . Combined with noncombatant losses , this represented one @-@ fifth of the 173rd Airborne Brigade 's total strength . For its combined actions during operations around Dak To , the 173rd Airborne Brigade was awarded the Presidential Unit Citation . 340 of the 570 173rd Airborne troops who attacked the hill became casualties .
= = = Pullout from Vietnam = = =
The intense fighting during the Battle of Dak To took a heavy human toll on the 173rd . While several of its units , including the 2 @-@ 503rd and A / 3 @-@ 319th were ordered to Tuy Hòa to repair and refit , the 173rd was transferred to Camp Radcliff in An Khê and Bong Son areas during 1968 , seeing very little action while the combat ineffective elements of the brigade were rebuilt . Company D , 16th Armor was engaged in a battle that took place on 4 March 1968 at North Tuy Hòa . During the day , the company lost 8 men killed and 21 wounded . The enemy took a much greater loss . An estimated 2 enemy battalions , 85th Main Force ( VC ) and the 95th NVA Regiment , were rendered ineffective as they had 297 KIA 's , with D / 16 Armor receiving credit for killing 218 . The company commander , Captain Robert Helmick , was awarded the DSC . One of few combat operations that brigade conducted during this time was an amphibious assault against North Vietnamese Army and Viet Cong forces as part of an operation to clear the rice @-@ growing lowlands along the Bong Song littoral . The unit then served in An Khê until mid @-@ 1969 , seeing little in the way of heavy fighting . From April 1969 until its withdrawal from Vietnam in 1971 , the brigade served in Bình Định Province . From April until August 1971 , the unit underwent the process of redeployment to Fort Campbell , Kentucky in the United States , the first time that the 173rd Airborne Brigade in name had returned to the country since 1942 . During more than six years of continuous combat , the brigade earned 14 campaign streamers and four unit citations , the Presidential Unit Citation , a Meritorious Unit Commendation , a Republic of Vietnam Cross of Gallantry , and a Republic of Vietnam Civil Action Honor Medal . Sky Soldiers serving in Vietnam received 13 Medals of Honor , 32 Distinguished Service Crosses , 1 @,@ 736 Silver Stars and more than 6 @,@ 000 Purple Hearts . The 173rd incurred 1 @,@ 533 deaths and around 6 @,@ 000 wounded .
After Vietnam , the Army retained the 173rd Airborne Brigade as a quick deploying contingency brigade . However , with the ending of conscription following America 's disengagement from Vietnam , many of the Army 's formations had to be rebuilt for the volunteer force . One of these was the 101st Airborne Division , which had also been redeployed to Fort Campbell . It was decided that the 173rd would be used to help rebuild the division , which had been converted into an airmobile formation during the Vietnam War . The brigade was inactivated on 14 January 1972 at the fort , and its assets were used to form the 3rd Brigade , 101st Airborne Division , a parachute component within the airmobile 101st . The 3rd Brigade went off jump status on 1 April 1974 , the same date on which the Airmobile Badge ( Air Assault Badge as of 4 October 1974 ) was introduced .
= = = Reactivation and preparation for Iraq = = =
In the late 1990s , Army leaders including General Eric Shinseki began shifting the Army force toward brigade centered operations . All separate brigades had been inactivated in the 1990s as part of the U.S. Army 's drawdown following the end of the Cold War . These inactivations , along with subsequent reorganization of U.S. Army divisions , saw several divisional brigades stationed in bases that were far from the division 's headquarters and support units . These brigades had difficulty operating without support from higher headquarters .
It was Shinseki 's idea to reactivate a few separate brigades and assign them their own support and sustainment units , which would allow them to function independently of division @-@ level headquarters . These formations were termed " brigade combat teams " . Such units could be stationed in bases far from major commands , not requiring division @-@ level unit support , an advantage in places like Alaska and Europe , where stationing entire divisions was unnecessary or impractical . The first of the separate brigades was the 172nd Infantry Brigade , activated in 1998 . The 173rd Airborne Brigade was reactivated in 2000 at Caserma Ederle in Vicenza , Italy , using the assets of the SETAF Infantry brigade , primarily the 1st Battalion , 508th Parachute Infantry Regiment and Battery D , 319th Airborne Field Artillery Regiment . Not long after its reactivation , elements were deployed to Kosovo as part of Operation Rapid Guardian in support of Kosovo Force ( KFOR ) .
In 2002 , 2nd Battalion , 503rd Parachute Infantry Regiment ( 2 @-@ 503rd ) activated , providing a second infantry battalion . The unit finally reached " initial operating capability " on 14 March 2003 , with all units ready for deployment . It would be in combat 12 days later .
In 2003 , as preparations were being made for Operation Iraqi Freedom , the 173rd Airborne Brigade was assigned to be a part of an assault from the north of Iraq . The original plan was for the 173rd to be attached to the 4th Infantry Division as a flexible force of airborne troops to complement the heavy weapons of the division 's three brigades . Supported by the 1st Infantry Division and the 10th Special Forces Group , the 4th Infantry Division was to assemble in Turkey and use its heavy mechanized brigades to attack through Tikrit and eventually assist V Corps , which would attack from the south , in surrounding Baghdad . However , this plan fell through when the government of Turkey would not allow offensive operations to be conducted from its soil , and the entire 4th Infantry Division was left stuck on ships in the Mediterranean for the opening of the operation . This meant that the entire northern front of the war would be conducted by the 173rd Airborne Brigade and Army special forces operating with aircraft from Europe as their only supply line . As the brigade had no heavy or mechanized forces and only a few Humvees and an artillery battery , heavier forces were attached to it in the form of two companies of M113 Armored Personnel Carriers , M1 Abrams tanks , and M2 Bradleys from a task force of 1st Battalion , 63rd Armor , which was attached to the brigade . Task Force 1 @-@ 63 consisted of HHC / 1 @-@ 63rd Armor , C / 1 @-@ 63rd Armor and B / 2 @-@ 2nd Infantry . The force also received force field artillery headquarters from the 2nd Battalion , 15th Field Artillery , which brought a Tactical Operations Center , a Q @-@ 36 counterfire radar and Combat Observation and Lasing Team ( COLT ) a pair of Dragoneye Unmanned Aerial Vehicles from the US Marine Corps , to be operated by the Brigades Ground Surveillance Systems ( GSS ) team .
The 173rd Airborne Brigade was made part of Task Force Viking , a special operations task force that contained elements of the 10th Mountain Division and the 10th Special Forces Group . The use of the 173rd as a part of a special operations task force was a unique first in U.S. Army history . This force was assisted by Kurdish rebels in northern Iraq and tasked with attacking key airfield and oil production positions deep in northern Iraq . The brigade would take off from Aviano Air Base in Italy , a 4 ½ -hour flight from northern Iraq . As the preparations for the brigade were in their final stages , it moved 10 trains and 300 trucks worth of equipment to the air base , as well as 120 busloads of soldiers . Though the brigade 's movement was impeded by Italian protestors , the Italian police provided escort operations to the brigade and ensured that it reached the Air Base without incident , and was not significantly delayed . Operation Iraqi Freedom began on 20 March with V Corps , consisting of the 101st Airborne Division , 82nd Airborne Division , and 3rd Infantry Division making a forceful push from the south , beginning the Iraq War . A few days later , the 173rd and 10th Special Forces Group departed for northern Iraq .
= = = Operation Iraqi Freedom I = = =
On 26 March 2003 , 954 soldiers of the 173rd Airborne Brigade conducted a combat jump from C @-@ 17 aircraft onto Bashur Airfield in Northern Iraq under the command of Colonel Mayville . The jump took a total of 58 seconds , though 32 paratroopers were unable to jump because they would have landed too far from the rest of the force . The force had been strung out over a 10 @,@ 000 @-@ yard drop zone , and it took 15 hours before it was completely assembled . In the weeks before there had been heavy rain and the mud created problems for those doing the jump . The paratroopers secured the airfield , allowing the C @-@ 17s to land and bring in the heavy armor and the 1 – 63rd Armor contingents . They jumped from aircraft of the 62d Airlift Wing and the 728th Airlift Squadron along with the 786th Security Forces Squadron . Over the next 96 hours , the wing landed in the remaining 1 @,@ 200 soldiers of the brigade as well as their vehicles . By 29 March the entire brigade was in Iraq and ready to conduct offensive operations .
The next day , American forces advanced to Kirkuk during Operation Option North , hoping to control oil fields and military airfields in and around the city . Controlling the oil fields had been a specific operational goal of the Task Force because they were viewed as the most valuable strategic asset in northern Iraq . Between 30 March and 2 April , the 173rd Airborne Brigade , along with the Special Forces detachment and the Kurdish forces , engaged and destroyed the 2nd , 4th , 8th and 38th Iraqi Infantry Divisions as well as a force loyal to Ansar al @-@ Islam . The brigade used field artillery assets , as well as coordinated airstrikes to attack Iraqi Republican Guard units defending the city . Within a week these units began to fall apart due to desertions . On 10 April the brigade was able to move into the city , securing it after a short urban battle . The entire battle for Kirkuk cost the brigade only nine casualties . During the operation , some of the troops discovered at least two caches of Iraqi gold , totaling more than 2 @,@ 000 bars . The unit then took part in Operation Peninsula Strike , quelling Ba 'ath party resistance and other insurgent groups . These operations , though successful , would have been more effective if the 4th Infantry Division 's four heavy brigades were able to enter Iraq through Turkey as originally planned . 4th ID had to relocate their forces from Turkey to Kuwait and were subsequently slowed down in Baghdad . V Corps was not able to surround Baghdad as quickly as it had hoped because of a lack of available forces in the north . The resulting wear and tear of 4th ID 's M1 Abrams and M2 Bradleys made them an ineffective unit in tight urban areas such as Jar Salah . Because their heavily armored tanks required so much maintenance , the 173rd incorporated much of 4th ID 's area of operation into their own . The 173rd secured these areas with company sized detachments , often patrolling the 4th ID 's sectors with two unarmored M998 cargo humvees at any given time .
After the end of major combat operations in summer of 2003 , the 173rd Airborne Brigade did not engage in any major battles , though it was regularly involved in skirmishes with Iraqi insurgents . As Task Force Bayonet , the brigade included the : 2nd Battalion , 503rd Parachute Infantry Regiment ; 1st Battalion , 508th Parachute Infantry Regiment ; 173rd Combat Support Company ; 74th Infantry Detachment ; Battery D , 319th Airborne Field Artillery Regiment ; 501st Forward Support Company ; and the attached 1st Battalion , 63rd Armor Regiment of the 1st Infantry Division from Rose Barracks , Germany ; 1st Battalion , 12th Infantry Regiment of the 4th Infantry Division from Fort Carson , Colorado ; and Company B , 110th Military Intelligence Battalion of the 10th Mountain Division from Fort Drum , New York . The brigade served mainly in Kirkuk for the next year . During its service , the brigade was involved in what later became known as the " Hood Event " , arresting Turkish special forces soldiers , believing them to be plotting attacks against local civilian officials in northern Iraq . The Turkish forces were eventually released . The brigade also participated in Operation Bayonet Lightning in 2003 , capturing weapons and materials that the Department of Defense claimed were possibly for use against coalition forces . On 21 February 2004 , the brigade returned to Italy for a one @-@ year rest before a new deployment .
= = = Afghanistan , 2005 – 06 = = =
The 173rd Airborne Brigade deployed to Afghanistan in March 2005 under the command of Colonel Kevin Owens , in support of Operation Enduring Freedom . The brigade , organized as Task Force Bayonet , assumed control of Regional Command @-@ South ( RC South ) .
The 1 @-@ 508th ( minus Company B ) conducted combat operations in eastern Afghanistan , attached to 1st Brigade , 82nd Airborne Division . The 2 @-@ 503rd conducted combat operations in Zabul Province . The 3rd Battalion , 319th Airborne
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and that the school 's logo falsely suggested Apple had authorized the school 's activities . The logo in question featured the outline of an apple and a leaf , although the design incorporated a mountain , had three bumps on top of the apple instead of the two used by Apple , and had no bite out of the apple , unlike Apple 's logo . In April 2011 , the school reported it had settled its 3 @-@ year dispute with Apple , was launching a new logo under a new name , Q College , and was expanding its operations . The settlement 's full terms were undisclosed .
= = = = Woolworths Limited logo = = = =
In October 2009 , Apple disputed a trademark application by Woolworths Limited in Australia over the new logo for its supermarket chain Woolworths Supermarkets , a stylised " W " , similar in shape to an apple . Apple reportedly took objection to the breadth of Woolworths ' application , which would allow it to brand products , including consumer electronics , with the logo . In April 2011 , Woolworths amended its trademark application to remove various goods and services , such as " apparatus for recording , transmission or reproduction of sound or images " and Apple withdrew its opposition , allowing the trademark to proceed to registration . In August 2011 Woolworths introduced a shopping app for the iPhone , and , as of July 2012 continues to use the logo , including on the face of its iPhone app . The Woolworth 's smartphone app is also available on Apple 's App Store where the logo is featured prominently ; Apple closely manages its App Store offerings .
= = = = Apple v. DOPi : lower @-@ case i use = = = =
In March 2010 , an Australian Trademarks tribunal denied Apple 's attempt to prevent a small company from trademarking the name DOPi for use on its laptop bags and cases for Apple products . Apple argued that the DOPi name — which is iPod spelled backwards — is too similar to its own product 's name , the iPod .
= = = = Proview : iPad trademark = = = =
In 2006 , Apple secured Taiwanese rights to the iPad mark from the Taiwanese company Proview Electronics ; in China the iPad mark was still owned by the subsidiary of Proview Electronics , Shenzhen company Proview Technology , as of April 2012 . Proview Technology sued Apple over the rights to the mark in China in 2011 ; Apple counter @-@ sued but lost and then appealed , with the case before the Xicheng district court , where Proview claimed $ 1 @.@ 6 billion USD in damages . Apple paid Proview approximately $ 53 @,@ 000 – $ 55 @,@ 000 for the mark in 2009 . In February 2012 , Proview sued Apple in the Santa Clara Superior Court , alleging several permutations of fraud ( intentional misrepresentation , concealment , inducement ) and unfair competition . Apple paid $ 60 million to Proview to end the dispute in a court @-@ mediated settlement in the Higher People 's Court of Guangdong province ; the U.S. case was thrown out of court .
= = = = Amazon " App Store " = = = =
In 2011 , Apple filed suit against Amazon.com alleging trademark infringement , unfair competition , and dilution under the Lanham Act and related California state law over Amazon 's use of the " App Store " phrase relating to Amazon 's " Amazon Appstore Developer Portal " and Amazon 's alleged other similar uses of the phrase . In its complaint , Apple did not refer to " apps " as a common name , but described its applications store as a place consumers license " software programs or products " ; Amazon countered in its answer that " app store " is a common phrase meaning a " place to buy apps " . Reuters reported that Microsoft was opposing Apple 's attempted registration of the phrase as a trademark and that part of the matter was before the Trademark Trial and Appeal Board ( TTAB ) . Apple motioned the court for a preliminary injunction to bar Amazon from using the " App Store " name but , in July 2011 , U.S. District Judge Phyllis Hamilton , presiding over Apple 's case against Amazon , denied Apple 's motion . In July 2012 , the case was still in the discovery stage of litigation .
In January 2013 , Apple 's claims were rejected by a US District judge , who argued that the company presented no evidence that Amazon had " [ attempted ] to mimic Apple ’ s site or advertising " , or communicated that its service " possesses the characteristics and qualities that the public has come to expect from the Apple APP STORE and / or Apple products " In July 2013 , Apple dropped the lawsuit .
= = = Trade secrets = = =
= = = = Apple v. Does = = = =
Ultimately decided under the title O 'Grady v. Superior Court , the suit filed by Apple against unnamed bloggers raised the issue for the first time of whether bloggers hold the same protections against revealing sources that journalists have . In November 2004 , three popular weblog sites featuring Apple rumors publicly revealed information about two unreleased Apple products , the Mac mini and an as yet unreleased product code @-@ named Asteroid , also known as Project Q97 . Apple subpoenaed three sites to force them to identify their confidential sources : Apple Insider , Power Page , and , separately , Think Secret , which did no original reporting on the case and thus had no sources to reveal . In February 2005 , a trial court in California decided that website operators do not have the same shield law protection as do other journalists . The journalists appealed and , in May 2006 , the California Court of Appeal reversed the trial court 's decision , ruling that activities in question were covered by the shield law .
= = = = Apple v. Think Secret = = = =
In Apple Computer v. DePlume , a case illustrating one of Apple 's methods of protecting its claims in trade secrets , Apple sued Think Secret 's parent company , the dePlume Organization LLC , and Think Secret 's editor in January 2005 , alleging misappropriation of trade secrets with regard to Think Secret 's stories on a " headless iMac " and new version of iWork . In response , DePlume filed a motion to dismiss the case based on First Amendment grounds under California 's state Anti @-@ SLAPP statute , a law designed to dispense with meritless legal claims attempting to silence valid exercises of freedom of speech . In late 2007 , Think Secret announced " Apple and Think Secret have settled their lawsuit , reaching an agreement that results in a positive solution for both sides . As part of the confidential settlement , no sources were revealed and Think Secret will no longer be published " .
= = = Copyright = = =
= = = = Apple v. Franklin = = = =
Apple v. Franklin established the fundamental basis of copyright of computer software , even if it was provided only as object code or in firmware . In 1982 , Apple filed a lawsuit against Franklin Computer Corp. , alleging that Franklin 's ACE 100 personal computer used illegal copies of the Apple II 's operating system and ROM . The case was decided in Franklin 's favor but reversed by the Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit .
= = = = Object code cases and conflicts of law = = = =
Apple 's litigation over object code contributed to the development of contemporary copyright law because the company 's object code cases brought different results in different courts , creating a conflict of laws that resulted in international litigation . In the 1980s , Apple litigated two copyright cases with central issues that included the question of whether object code ( as contrasted with source code ) of a computer program is subject to copyright laws . A third case in which Apple was not a party but that involved the Apple decisions followed in New Zealand . The specific cases were Computer Edge Pty . Ltd. v Apple Computer Inc . ( 1986 , Australia ) ( " Computer Edge " ) , Apple Computer Inc. v Mackintosh Computers Ltd . , ( Canada , 1987 ) ( " Apple v. Mackintosh " ) , and IBM v. Computer Imports Ltd . ( " IBM v. Computer Imports " ) , ( New Zealand , 1989 ) .
In the Computer Edge case , the Australian court decided against the then @-@ prevailing opinions in other courts ( the U.K. , Canada , South Africa , and the U.S. ) and ruled object code was not copyrightable , while the Supreme Court of Canada in Apple v. Mackintosh reversed its earlier decisions and ruled that because object code was a translation of source code and embodied in a silicon chip , it was therefore a translation of an original literary work expressed in a material form and unauthorized reproduction of the object code was therefore an infringement of copyright . The Canadian court opined that programs within ROM silicon chips are protected under the Copyright Act of Canada and the conversion from the source code into object code is a form of translation . It further held that such translation does not include the expression of an idea in another form , but rather only applies to the expression of an idea in another language , and that a translation has a one @-@ to @-@ one correspondence between works that are expressed in two different languages .
In these conflict of laws cases , Apple met with conflicting international judicial opinions : an Australian court decision conflicted with a Canadian court decision on the copyrightability of object code . In IBM v. Computer Imports , the High Court of New Zealand then considered these prior decisions and sided with the Canadian decision in ruling that , although object code is not an original literary work in its own right , it is a reproduction of source code in material form and therefore an infringement of copyright takes place if it is copied without the authorization of the copyright owner . Such legal conflicts affected not only Apple , but all other software companies as well , and the conflicts remained unresolved until the creation of an international legal regime embodied in further changes to national copyright laws , which ultimately made object code subject to copyright law . These revisions of law in favor of making object code subject to copyright law are still controversial . The revisions also form the technical underpinnings ( via the Digital Millennium Copyright Act ( DMCA ) and the Electronic Communications Privacy Act ) for the legal notions of electronic privacy violation and computer trespass , as well as the further development of anti @-@ hacking law @-@ making such as the Patriot Act and the Convention on Cybercrime .
= = = = Apple v. Microsoft and Hewlett @-@ Packard = = = =
In 1988 , after the introduction of Microsoft 's Windows 2 @.@ 0 , Apple filed a lawsuit against Microsoft and Hewlett @-@ Packard alleging that Microsoft Windows and HP 's NewWave violated Apple 's copyrights in the Macintosh user interface . Cited , among other things , was the use of overlapping and resizable windows in Windows 2 @.@ 0 . The case was one of the " look and feel " copyright lawsuits of the 1980s . After several years in court , Apple 's claims against Microsoft were dismissed , primarily due to a license John Sculley had negotiated with Bill Gates for Windows 1 @.@ 0 . The decision was upheld on appeal in 1994 , but legal disputes on this topic were still ongoing until 1997 , when the two companies came to a wide @-@ ranging agreement that included Microsoft buying non @-@ voting Apple stocks .
= = = = Xerox v. Apple Computer = = = =
Xerox Corp. v. Apple Computer was a 1989 case where Xerox sued Apple over its graphical user interface ( GUI ) copyrights . A federal district court dismissed Xerox 's claims without addressing whether Apple 's GUI infringed Xerox 's .
= = = = OdioWorks v. Apple = = = =
The OdioWorks case was one of the first high @-@ profile cases illustrating Apple 's attempts to employ federal police power in its litigation practices by invoking the anti @-@ circumvention provisions of the Digital Millennium Copyright Act ( DMCA ) as a means of shielding its intellectual property from reverse engineering . In November 2008 , Apple sent a cease @-@ and @-@ desist letter to BluWiki , a non @-@ commercial wiki provider , alleging BluWiki infringed Apple 's copyrights in publishing a discussion of how to make the latest iPods interoperate with other software and that , by so doing , violated the DMCA . In April 2009 , OdioWorks , the operators of BluWiki , backed by the Electronic Frontier Foundation ( EFF ) , defensively sued Apple seeking a declaration of non @-@ infringement and non @-@ circumvention . In July 2009 , Apple ceased claiming infringement , stating it was " withdrawing [ Apple 's ] takedown notifications " and that " Apple no longer has , nor will it have in the future , any objection to the publication of the itunesDB Pages which are the subject of the OdioWorks complaint " . After Apple withdrew its complaint and cited code obsolescence as a contributing factor in its decision to withdraw , BluWiki then republished its discussion of the issue . The EFF noted , " While we are glad that Apple retracted its baseless legal threats , we are disappointed that it only came after 7 months of censorship and a lawsuit " .
= = = Trade dress = = =
= = = = GEM " look and feel " suit = = = =
Prevailing in an early copyright infringement suit in the mid @-@ 1980s , Apple forced Digital Research to alter basic components in Digital 's Graphical Environment Manager ( " GEM " ) , almost a direct copy of the Macintosh 's graphical user interface ( GUI ) , or " look and feel " . Features Digital removed from GEM as a result of the lawsuit included disk drive icons on the desktop , movable and resizable windows in the file manager , shading in the title bars , and window open / close animations . In addition , visual elements including the scrollbar thumbs and the window close button were changed to be less similar to those in the Mac GUI .
= = = = Apple v. eMachines = = = =
In 1999 , Apple successfully sued eMachines , whose eOne too closely resembled the then @-@ new iMac 's trade dress . The eOne was taken off the market , resulting in eMachines ' losing the ability to sell the eOne as intended . In eMachines ' EDGAR statement for May 1 , 2001 , eMachines stated that its " net loss for the first quarter of 2001 was $ 31 @.@ 1 million , or $ 0 @.@ 21 per share , compared to a loss of $ 11 @.@ 9 million , or $ 0 @.@ 13 per share , in the first quarter of 2000 " , and that these results " reflect the substantial discounts and incentives that we gave to retailers to enable liquidation of product inventories " .
= = = Patent = = =
= = = = Creative Technology v. Apple , Inc . ( menu structure ) = = = =
In a dispute illustrating the nature of claims , defenses , and counterclaims for patent infringement based on arguments of prior art and first to file , rival digital music player maker Creative Technology sued Apple in May 2006 for Apple 's alleged infringement of Creative 's Zen patent claiming Apple infringed Creative 's patent for the menuing structures on an MP3 player . Creative claimed it began using its menuing method on its Nomad players in September 2000 , approximately a year prior to Apple 's first iPod release in October 2001 . Creative , a Singapore @-@ based consumer electronics group , also filed a trade complaint with the United States International Trade Commission ( ITC ) against Apple . Creative asked for a court injunction to block the import and sale of Apple 's iPod and iPod nano in the United States and for money damages for past sales . Apple filed a countersuit against Creative on similar grounds .
In August 2006 , Apple and Creative settled the suit with Apple agreeing to pay Creative $ 100 million USD for the right to implement Creative 's method of sorting songs on the iPod . The settlement effectively ended the patent dispute and five other pending lawsuits between the two companies . Creative also secured an agreement to participate in the " Made for iPod " program by producing accessories for the iPod .
= = = = Typhoon Touch Technologies ( touch screen ) = = = =
In June 2008 , Apple was named among others as a defendant in a suit brought by plaintiff Typhoon Touch Technologies in the federal U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Texas alleging patent infringement in portable touch screen technology . The suit illustrated the vagaries of litigating patent licensing and royalty collection issues in the commercial exploitation of intellectual property rights . Ultimately , Typhoon could not prevail against patent defense arguments of prior art and obviousness and earned itself a reputation as a patent troll . Typhoon acquired two pre @-@ existing patents , ( filed in 1993 and 1994 and issued in 1995 and 1997 ) , in mid @-@ 2007 for $ 350 @,@ 000 plus a percentage of collected licensing fees . The patents had languished for some time and were not being policed ; shortly after Typhoon acquired the patents , it began enforcement by bringing suit against exploiters of the technology who had not paid licensing fees . Typhoon was successful in its patent infringement suits against some small companies , and then expanded its litigation to go after larger ones . Typhoon alleged that Apple and others used its patented technology inventions without permission . Typhoon originally filed the suit in December 2007 against Dell after settling with some smaller companies but , in mid @-@ 2008 , amended its complaint to add Apple , Fujitsu , Toshiba , Lenovo , Panasonic , HTC , Palm , Samsung , Nokia , and LG . In 2010 , Apple settled with Typhoon for an undisclosed sum and was then dismissed from the litigation as of September 2010 . The other large companies were able to rebuff Typhoon 's claims , and Typhoon ceased doing business in 2008 after the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission ( SEC ) suspended its trading in a fraud investigation .
= = = = Nokia v. Apple ( wireless , iPhone ) = = = =
In October 2009 , Nokia Corporation sued Apple for Apple 's infringement of Nokia 's patents relating to wireless technology ; Apple countersued Nokia in December 2009 . The two companies engaged in nearly two @-@ years of litigation and both parties amended their claims multiple times and in multiple courts before finally settling in June 2011 . For an undisclosed amount of cash and future ongoing iPhone royalties to be paid by Apple , Nokia agreed to settle , with Apple 's royalty payments retroactively back @-@ payable to the iPhone 's introduction in 2007 , but with no broad cross @-@ licensing agreement made between the companies . Apple only agreed to cross @-@ license some patents to Nokia . " Apple said in a statement today that Nokia will have a license to some technology , “ but not the majority of the innovations that make the iPhone unique ” . Apple gets a license to some of Nokia ’ s patents , including ones that were deemed essential to industry standards on mobile phones .
= = = = Apple v. HTC = = = =
Apple filed a patent infringement suit against High Tech Computer Corp. ( HTC ) in March 2010 in the U.S. District Court for the District of Delaware in the two companies ' ongoing battle with each other , and a complaint against HTC under Section 337 of the Tariff Act of 1930 with the U.S. International Trade Commission ( ITC ) in Washington , D.C. Apple 's suit alleged 20 separate patent infringements relating to the iPhone 's user interface , underlying architecture and hardware . Steve Jobs exclaimed " We can sit by and watch competitors steal our patented inventions , or we can do something about it . We 've decided to do something about it ... [ We ] think competition is healthy , but competitors should create their own original technology , not steal ours " . The ITC rejected all but one of Apple 's claims , however , ruling for Apple on a single claim relating to data tapping . HTC motioned the Delaware court for a change of venue to the Northern District of California , arguing against Apple 's desire to consolidate the case with the similar cases brought by Nokia against Apple , alleging insubstantial overlap between those cases and Apple 's complaint , but Judge Gregory M. Sleet denied HTC 's motion for a venue change , ruling that Apple 's choice of forum would prevail . HTC countersued Apple in September 2011 in the same court claiming infringement of four patents HTC obtained from Google , also filing a counter @-@ complaint with the ITC , with HTC 's general counsel saying " HTC will continue to protect its patented inventions against infringement from Apple until such infringement stops . " In May 2012 the Delaware court ordered mediation between the companies . In November 2012 , HTC and Apple ended the patent dispute by settling the case , but did not disclose the terms of the settlement . The companies reported the settlement included a 10 @-@ year agreement for licensing both companies ' current and future patents to each other . "
= = = = Kodak v. Apple ( digital imaging ) = = = =
Eastman Kodak sued Apple and Research In Motion ( RIM ) in January 2010 , filing two lawsuits against Apple and a complaint with the U.S. International Trade Commission against both Apple and RIM after the companies refused to pay royalties for use of Kodak 's patents for digital cameras . Kodak alleged Apple 's and RIM 's phones infringed on patented Kodak digital imaging technology . Kodak sought an injunction against further imports into the United States of Apple 's iPhone and RIM 's BlackBerry . After Kodak filed an additional suit in January 2012 against Apple and another against HTC claiming infringement of four of its key patents , Apple filed a countersuit with the U.S. Bankruptcy Court to block Kodak 's efforts to use the disputed patents as collateral for loans . In the January complaint Kodak claimed violations of the same image preview technology at issue in the original dispute between Kodak , Apple , and RIM that is , as of 2012 , pending before ITC . In March 2012 , bankruptcy court judge Allen Gropper , overseeing Kodak 's restructuring , denied Apple 's request to file a patent complaint with the ITC over some of Kodak 's cameras , photo frames , and printers . In July 2012 , the Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit ruled that Kodak did not infringe on Apple 's patent technology for digital cameras , although a few days earlier Kodak lost its case before the ITC against Apple and RIM ; Kodak announced it would appeal that decision .
= = = = Motorola Mobility v. Apple = = = =
In the year before Apple and Samsung began suing each other on most continents , and while Apple and HTC were already embroiled in a patent fight , Motorola Mobility and Apple started a period of intense patent litigation . The Motorola @-@ Apple patent imbroglio commenced with claims and cross @-@ claims between the companies for patent infringement and encompassed multiple forums in multiple countries as each party sought friendly venues for litigating its respective claims ; the fight also included administrative law rulings as well as ITC and European Commission involvement . As of April 2012 , the controversy centered on whether a FRAND license to a components manufacturer carries over to an equipment manufacturer incorporating the component into equipment , an issue not addressed in the U.S. Supreme Court 's default exhaustion doctrine in Quanta v. LG Electronics . In June 2012 , appellate Judge Richard Posner ordered dismissal of the case with prejudice and Apple announced its intention to appeal a month later .
= = = = Apple v. Samsung : Android phones and tablets = = = =
Apple Inc. v. Samsung Electronics Co . , Ltd. was the first of many lawsuits between Apple and Samsung . In the spring of 2011 , Apple sued Samsung while already fully engaged in a patent war with Motorola . Apple 's multinational litigation over technology patents became known as the mobile device patent wars : Extensive litigation followed fierce competition in the global market for consumer mobile communications .
By August 2011 , Apple and Samsung were engaged in 19 ongoing lawsuits in 12 courts in nine countries on four continents ; by October , the fight expanded to 10 countries , and by July 2012 , the two companies were embroiled in more than 50 lawsuits around the globe with billions of dollars in damages claimed between them . As of August 2013 , the ultimate cost of these patent wars to consumers , shareholders , and investors is not known .
A U.S. jury trial was held on July 30 , 2012 , with Apple prevailing and Samsung ordered to pay more than $ 1 billion in damages , after which Samsung stated : " This is not the final word in this case or in battles being waged in courts and tribunals around the world , some of which have already rejected many of Apple 's claims . " Judge Lucy H. Koh later decided that the jury had miscalculated $ 450 million in its initial damage assessment and ordered a retrial that commenced in November 2013 . Following a week @-@ long trial , also overseen by Judge Koh , Samsung was ordered to pay $ 600 million to Apple for the 2012 lawsuit .
On August 9 , 2013 , the U.S. International Trade Commission ( USITC ) announced its decision regarding an Apple @-@ initiated case , whereby Samsung is accused of infringing four Apple patents related to user interfaces and headphone input functionality . The USITC sided with Apple in what was described in the media as a " mixed ruling " and stated that some of Samsung 's older devices infringe on two of Apple 's patents — one covering touch @-@ screen technology and another regarding headphone jacks ; however , no violations were identified in four other patents . The final determination of the ITC was signed by Lisa Barton , Acting Secretary to the Commission .
In a damage @-@ only retrial court session on November 13 , 2013 , as ordered by Judge Koh in December 2012 , a Samsung Electronics representative stated in a San Jose , U.S. courtroom that Apple 's hometown jury found that the company copied some features of both the iPhone and iPad . Samsung 's attorney clarified the purpose of the damage @-@ only retrial and stated the result of the first trial , " This is a case not where we 're disputing that the 13 phones contain some elements of Apple 's property , " but the company has disputed the $ 379 @.@ 8 million amount that Apple claimed — Samsung presented a figure of $ 52 million . The San Jose jury eventually awarded Apple $ 290 million in damages after jurors completed a one @-@ page assessment form for each infringed patent . The six @-@ woman , two @-@ man jury reached its decision after a three @-@ day period .
In the first week of January 2014 , a filing with the U.S. District court in San Jose showed that legal executives from both parties agreed to meet prior to February 19 , 2014 , to engage in settlement discussions . Both Samsung and Apple were responding to a court order that instructed the completion of such a meeting before a new trial begins in March 2014 . One of three Samsung chiefs met with Cook , but the filing did not reveal the name of the representative .
A new trial is scheduled for March 2014 , in which Apple will seek to prevent Samsung from selling some of its current devices in the U.S. The case will involve further debate over monetary compensation . In the 2014 lawsuit , Samsung is accused of infringing five of Apple Inc . ' s patents in 10 phone and tablet models , while Samsung has responded with a counterclaim , in which it states that two patents for nine phones and tablets have been infringed on by Apple . Jury selection for the trial occurred on March 31 , 2014 . Samsung stands to gain $ 6 million if the jury rules in its favor , while Apple is seeking $ 2 billion in damages and could proceed with similar lawsuits against other Android handset makers , as the relevant patent issues extend beyond Samsung 's software technology .
= = = Licensing = = =
= = = = Norwegian Consumer Council = = = =
In June 2006 , the Consumer Ombudsmen in Norway , Sweden and Denmark challenged Apple 's iTunes end user license agreement ( EULA ) through the Norwegian Consumer Ombudsman Bjørn Erik Thon , who claimed that Apple was violating contract and copyright laws in their countries . Thon stated that Apple 's " being an international company does not entitle [ it ] to disregard the laws of the countries in which it operates . The company 's standard customer contract violates Norwegian law " . An official complaint was filed by the Norwegian Consumer Council in January 2006 , after which German and French consumer groups joined the Nordic @-@ led drive to force Apple to make its iTunes online store compatible with digital music players made by rival companies . A French law allows regulators to force Apple to make its player and store compatible with rival offerings . The consumer protection regulators of Norway , Sweden , and Finland met with Apple in September 2006 in hopes of resolving the issues without litigation , but the matter was only resolved after Apple discontinued its FairPlay digital rights management ( DRM ) scheme .
= = = = Office of Fair Trading investigation = = = =
In 2008 , the UK National Consumer Council ( NCC , now Consumer Focus ) called on the UK 's Office of Fair Trading ( OFT ) to investigate Apple 's EULA , claiming Apple 's EULA , and those of multiple other technology companies , misled consumers and infringed legal rights . The NCC 's product complaint included Apple 's iLife as well as Microsoft 's Office for Mac , and products by Corel , Adobe , Symantec , Kaspersky , McAfee , and others . The OFT determined the licensing agreements were unfair and Apple agreed to improve its terms and conditions to make them clearer and fairer to consumers .
= = = = Apple Inc. v. Psystar Corporation = = = =
In July 2008 , Apple Inc. filed suit against Psystar Corporation alleging Psystar sold Intel @-@ based systems with Mac OS X pre @-@ installed and that , in so doing , violated Apple 's copyright and trademark rights and the software licensing terms of Apple 's shrink wrap license . That license required licensees to install Mac OS X only on Apple @-@ brand computer hardware . The case brought facets of the DMCA into a licensing dispute , with Apple ultimately prevailing and awarded permanent injunctive relief , with the decision affirmed on appeal in 2011 . Psystar tried arguing in its appeal that Apple 's license agreement was an unlawful attempt to extend copyright protection to products that are not copyrightable , but the court ruled that Psystar failed to demonstrate " copyright misuse " by Apple .
= = Corporate espionage and data theft = =
= = = QuickTime code theft litigation = = =
In 1995 , Apple added Microsoft and Intel to an existing lawsuit against the San Francisco Canyon Company , alleging that Microsoft and Intel knowingly used the software company to aid them in stealing several thousand lines of Apple 's QuickTime code in an effort to improve the performance of Video for Windows . After a threat to withdraw support for the Macintosh edition of Microsoft Office the suit was settled in 1997 , along with all lingering issues from the Apple Computer , Inc. v. Microsoft Corporation " look & feel " suit . Apple agreed to make Internet Explorer the default browser over Netscape , while Microsoft agreed to continue developing Office and other software for the Mac for the next five years and to purchase $ 150 million of non @-@ voting Apple stock .
= = = FBI demand to unlock iPhone = = =
In February 2016 , the Federal Bureau of Investigation , as part of its investigation into the 2015 San Bernardino attack , obtained a court order that demanded that Apple create a version of its operating system that would allow the FBI to circumvent security controls , so that it could inspect the contents of an iPhone used by one of the terrorists involved in the attack . Apple claimed the order " would undermine the very freedoms and liberty our government is meant to protect " and appealed . On March 28 , 2016 , the DOJ reported that it had retrieved the data from the attacker 's iPhone through an alternative method without Apple 's assistance , ending the legal proceedings .
= Joseph B. Foraker =
Joseph Benson Foraker ( July 5 , 1846 – May 10 , 1917 ) was the 37th Governor of Ohio from 1886 to 1890 and a Republican United States Senator from 1897 until 1909 .
Foraker was born in rural Ohio in 1846 , and enlisted at age 16 in the Union Army during the American Civil War . He fought for almost three years , attaining the rank of captain . After the war , he was a member of Cornell University 's first graduating class , and became a lawyer . Interesting himself in politics , he was elected a judge in 1879 and became well known as a political speaker . He was defeated in his first run for governor in 1883 , but was elected two years later . As governor , he built an alliance with Cleveland industrialist Mark Hanna , but fell out with him in 1888 . Foraker was defeated for re @-@ election in 1889 , but was elected United States Senator by the Ohio General Assembly in 1896 , after an unsuccessful bid for that office in 1892 .
In the Senate , he supported the Spanish – American War and the annexation of the Philippines and Puerto Rico ; the Foraker Act gave Puerto Rico its first civil government under American rule . He came to differ with President Theodore Roosevelt over railroad regulation and political patronage . Their largest disagreement was over the Brownsville Affair , in which black soldiers were accused of terrorizing a Texas town , and Roosevelt dismissed the entire battalion . Foraker zealously opposed Roosevelt 's actions as unfair , and fought for the soldiers ' reinstatement . The two men 's disagreement broke out into an angry confrontation at the 1907 Gridiron Dinner , after which Roosevelt worked to defeat Foraker 's re @-@ election bid . Foraker died in 1917 ; in 1972 , the Army reversed the dismissals and cleared the soldiers .
= = Early life and career = =
= = = Boyhood and Civil War = = =
Joseph Benson Foraker was born on July 5 , 1846 , on a farm about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) north of Rainsboro , Ohio , in Highland County . He was the son of Henry and Margaret ( Reece ) Foraker , and one of 11 children , of whom nine reached adulthood . Henry Foraker was the first in his line ( said to descend from Devon in England , though with German and Scots @-@ Irish influences ) to spell his name that way ; his father , named John , had spelled it as " Fouracre " , or sometimes as " Foreacer " . David Reece , Joseph 's maternal grandfather , was of English descent and had come from Grayson County , Virginia , to become a miller and farmer .
The house in which Joseph Foraker was born was a comfortable two @-@ story residence ; his later campaign publications often depicted it as a log cabin . When Joseph was age 2 , David Reece died , and the Foraker family purchased the mill and adjacent farm . There , Joseph grew up as a typical farm boy . He received little formal education , attending the local school for three or four months each winter . Nevertheless , young Joseph acquired a taste for military history , and a gift for speaking . He also became interested in politics ; at age 10 , he became an adherent of the newly formed Republican Party . Four years later , he supported the Republican candidate , former Illinois representative Abraham Lincoln , in the 1860 presidential race , marching in processions of the Wide Awakes and other pro @-@ Lincoln groups , and attending as many rallies as he could . Impressed enough by one speaker to follow him to a neighboring town , he learned not to make the same speech twice in two days — at least , not in venues close to each other .
In October 1861 , Foraker left his parents ' home to go to the county seat of Hillsboro where he was to live with his uncle , James Reece , auditor of Highland County , and work as a clerk in his office . He was sent to replace his older brother , Burch , by then enlisted in the Union Army as the American Civil War was raging . Foraker noted in his memoirs that while his time as auditor 's clerk greatly improved his penmanship , it also brought him into contact with many county officials , teaching him how a government worked . The young clerk was impressed by his brother 's letters home , and was anxious to join the army despite his youth . Soon after his 16th birthday , Joseph Foraker learned that a family friend was organizing a volunteer company , and sought to enlist . His uncle gave reluctant consent , and on July 14 , 1862 , Foraker was mustered in Company " A " , 89th Ohio Volunteer Infantry ; in late August , after training , he became second sergeant . With Confederate forces moving through Kentucky and threatening Cincinnati , the 89th was hurried into defenses set up across the Ohio River in Newport , Kentucky . The Confederates did not reach the Ohio , having been forced back well to the south , and the 89th moved to Fort Shaler , near Newport . While Foraker was at Fort Shaler , President Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation ; Foraker recounted in his memoirs that he and his comrades felt that the proclamation meant that they were fighting for the end of slavery , not just to preserve the Union .
Later in September 1862 , the 89th was sent to Western Virginia ( today West Virginia ) to reinforce Union forces there , and joined in their advance for a month . The regiment settled into winter quarters , but was called out for transport to Tennessee , where it helped relieve Fort Donelson in February 1863 . Before this action , Foraker had seen little fighting , and the bloody scenes there were a shock to him ; he wrote his parents , " To know how dreadful war is you must see it yourself . " The 89th remained at Donelson only a few days before being sent to join the Army of the Cumberland under the command of Major General William Rosecrans near Carthage ; there , Foraker was promoted to second lieutenant . In June , Foraker led an advance guard that clashed with the Confederate rear in what developed into the Battle of Hoover 's Gap , and the Union forces slowly advanced across Tennessee , reaching Chattanooga in September . From Chattanooga , Foraker and two other officers were sent home to collect new soldiers who were expected to be drafted , but the plan to draft recruits was abandoned due to political opposition . In November he returned to Chattanooga , where the 89th was now part of the Army of the Tennessee under Brigadier General William Tecumseh Sherman , in time to fight in the Battle of Missionary Ridge .
In May 1864 , Sherman began his Atlanta Campaign . Foraker fought in a number of fierce battles in that campaign , including Resaca , New Hope Church , and Kennesaw Mountain . Atlanta , or at least what was left of it after devastating fires , fell on September 2 . Foraker was detailed to the Signal Corps school that had been set up by the army at Atlanta , and spent a month there . He was then assigned to Major General Henry W. Slocum 's division , and remained with that division as it participated in Sherman 's March to the Sea , leaving a swath of destruction behind . In late December 1864 , the army reached Savannah , and Foraker , despite a storm , was able to communicate with US Navy ships offshore to alert them to the presence of Sherman 's army . After a month , the army marched north into South Carolina , determined to bring even more devastation to the state that had first seceded . Foraker was in charge of maintaining signals between the wings of the army , and was stationed on a gunboat as it moved up the Savannah River . He saw more active duty as a courier between Sherman 's main army and Slocum 's forces in March 1865 as they met Confederate forces in North Carolina in the Battle of Bentonville . On the day of the battle , March 19 , 1865 , Foraker was promoted to brevet captain , and was soon thereafter made aide @-@ de @-@ camp to General Slocum . In April , as Sherman 's army moved slowly northward , word came of the surrender of Confederate General Robert E. Lee and his forces at Appomattox , Virginia , effectively ending the war . In early May , Sherman 's Army of Georgia journeyed north towards Washington , passing in review on May 23 before the new president , Andrew Johnson , sworn in after Lincoln 's assassination the previous month . Foraker soon thereafter returned to Ohio , and was mustered out .
= = = Education and early career = = =
Foraker had been anxious to become a lawyer while a clerk for his uncle ; with peace restored he enrolled for a year at Salem Academy and then in 1866 Ohio Wesleyan University in Delaware , Ohio . He found the students who had not served in the army to be immature . He took the usual course , mostly of classics , with a few classes in the sciences , and registered as a clerk for a local attorney . Foraker courted Julia Bundy , daughter of Congressman Hezekiah S. Bundy and a student at nearby Ohio Wesleyan Female College ; the two would marry in 1870 . In 1868 , he learned that newly founded Cornell University in Ithaca , New York , was offering entrance by examination to students willing to transfer . Along with fellow Ohio Wesleyan students Morris Lyon Buchwalter and John Andrew Rea , Foraker enrolled at Cornell ; the three founded the first New York State chapter of Phi Kappa Psi fraternity , and in 1869 graduated as part of Cornell 's inaugural class of eight students . Foraker , in later years , served as a trustee of Cornell , elected by his fellow alumni .
After graduating from Cornell , Foraker moved to Cincinnati , where he resumed his study of law with a local firm ; he was admitted to the bar in October 1869 . Foraker 's first job in the legal profession was as a notary public ; he wrote in his memoirs how time consuming depositions were in the days before typewriters . Foraker wrote that he earned $ 600 in his first year as a lawyer , but by the fourth year was earning $ 2 @,@ 700 ; " after that it was easy " .
The Forakers lived in a boarding house on Elm Street in Cincinnati for two years after their wedding in 1870 . They then moved to a house in the suburb of Norwood and in 1879 built a home in upscale Mount Auburn . Joseph Foraker had initially intended to concentrate on his law practice , but in the early 1870s became a well @-@ regarded speaker for the Republicans . In 1872 , Foraker campaigned for President Ulysses S. Grant 's successful re @-@ election bid . In 1875 , he was for the first time a delegate to the Republican state convention , supporting fellow Cincinnatian Alphonso Taft for governor . However , Taft was defeated for the nomination by the incumbent , Rutherford B. Hayes , who that fall broke Ohio precedent by winning a third two @-@ year term . The following year , Foraker attended the 1876 Republican National Convention as a spectator , and listened spellbound as Robert Ingersoll dramatically nominated Maine Senator James G. Blaine for president , calling him a " plumed knight " . While Ingersoll 's speech gained Blaine a lasting nickname , it did not procure him the nomination , which fell to Governor Hayes . Foraker supported Hayes , who was elected that fall in a close and controversial election .
In 1876 , Foraker ran for judge of the Court of Common Pleas . Election fraud by Democratic political boss Eph Howard defeated Foraker and the rest of the Republican ticket . In 1878 , he ran for state 's attorney for Hamilton County ( where Cincinnati is located ) but was defeated in another Democratic sweep . In 1879 , Foraker won his first elective office , as judge of the Superior Court of Cincinnati . He served three years of a five @-@ year term , resigning in 1882 due to an illness , though he recovered after several months ' rest .
= = = Seeking the governorship ( 1883 – 1885 ) = = =
In 1883 , Ohio Governor Charles Foster , a Republican who had held the office since 1880 , looked for a Republican contender to succeed him . Foster had sought increased regulation of the liquor trade , offending many German @-@ Americans , who were deemed likely to vote Democratic in reaction , and who were especially concentrated in Cincinnati . Few expected the Republicans to retain the governorship , and prominent candidates such as Senator John Sherman and Congressman Benjamin Butterworth declined to run . Foster saw Foraker as a candidate likely to do well : he was a Civil War veteran with a good record as a lawyer and a promising public speaker — and his Cincinnati residence might win back some votes . Others agreed ; the local United States Attorney wrote to Senator Sherman that the Republicans should nominate " Foraker or some other unobjectionable man " . Foster accordingly wrote to Foraker , offering him the chance at " honorable distinction and useful service . " Foraker came to Columbus just before the 1883 state convention , and sounded out state Republican leaders such as Sherman and Congressman William McKinley . When Foraker found them willing to support him , he allowed his name to be placed in nomination , and once it was clear that Sherman would not run , the convention nominated Foraker by acclamation . The Democratic Cincinnati Enquirer summed up the Republican strategy : " They determined to sacrifice as little as possible , so they sacrificed Foraker . "
The Democrats nominated George Hoadly , another Cincinnatian , with whom Foraker was friendly . The major issue in the campaign was alcohol — the legislature had passed a law authorizing localities to license saloons , and had authorized two referenda to allow additional regulation . Hoadly , though ill for part of the campaign with malaria , deftly maneuvered the politically inexperienced Foraker into stating that he would not vote for the referenda . This offended " dry " Republicans , splitting the party . Foraker campaigned throughout the state , reaching nearly every county and generally speaking at least twice a day . Nevertheless , he was defeated by over 12 @,@ 000 votes , losing most counties , including Hamilton ; according to Walters , " although defeated in this campaign , Foraker gained by it ; he won political repute through the state ; no longer was he an ' unknown . ' " One reason cited for Foraker 's defeat was a failure to appeal to blacks , who constituted about two percent of Ohio 's population and who then mostly voted Republican .
Foraker returned to the practice of law , initially vowing to avoid politics ; however , he received a number of letters offering him support in a gubernatorial race in 1885 . The 1884 Republican state convention elected Foraker a delegate @-@ at @-@ large to the national convention along with Congressman McKinley and Cleveland industrialist Mark Hanna . Sherman 's political managers asked Foraker to play an active role in Sherman 's presidential campaign , and to place his name in nomination at the convention , which he did , though Walters describes his speech as " weak and unimpressive " by comparison with Foraker 's later efforts . Other candidates for the presidential nomination included President Chester A. Arthur ( who had succeeded the assassinated James A. Garfield ) and John A. Logan , but the convention was dominated by the Blaine forces . Sherman received 30 votes , mostly from Ohio , on the first ballot , but his total thereafter declined , and Blaine secured the nomination on the fourth ballot . There was talk of Foraker for vice president ; he received one vote , from New York delegate and Cornell president Andrew D. White . The nominating speech , despite its flaws , made Foraker a national figure . At the convention , Foraker worked with Hanna and with Charles G. Kurtz of Columbus : both would support Foraker in the years ahead , though in the case of Hanna , only for a time . In the fall campaign , both Foraker and Hanna supported Blaine , accompanying the New Englander when he toured Ohio in October . However , Blaine was defeated by the Democratic candidate , New York Governor Grover Cleveland .
Foraker received early support for a second run for governor in 1885 , but said little publicly until the state convention in Springfield in June . He did , however , respond to allegations that he had discriminated against blacks in his law practice and that he had withdrawn from Ohio Wesleyan because a black student had been admitted . Foraker refuted these charges without stating that he was a candidate for office . He arrived at the convention to the strains of " Marching Through Georgia " , in reference to his Civil War service , and won an easy first @-@ ballot victory : according to Walters , " the Springfield convention of 1885 marked the arrival of Foraker , the politician . " The major issues in the fall campaign were again the liquor question , at which Foraker proved more adept than two years previously , and treatment of the black voter , prompted by an incident in Cincinnati in 1884 when a Democratic @-@ minded policeman , Mike Mullen , locked up 150 blacks the night before the general election to prevent them from voting . Foraker was again opposed by Hoadly , who had pardoned Mullen , and who had accepted a $ 150 @,@ 000 fee from the city @-@ owned Cincinnati Southern Railway , though the governor professed not to know how he had earned it . Foraker forged an alliance with black editor Harry Clay Smith , who would be a supporter throughout his political career . On October 13 , 1885 , Foraker defeated Hoadly by 17 @,@ 451 votes . Although he won much of the state , he did not carry Hamilton County due to election fraud .
= = Governor of Ohio ( 1886 – 1890 ) = =
= = = Policies as governor = = =
Joseph Foraker was sworn in as governor on January 12 , 1886 , during an intense blizzard that prevented many of the political marching clubs hoping to honor him from reaching Columbus . In his inaugural address , he urged election reform , creation of a liquor licensing bureau , the abolition of laws that discriminated against blacks , and the establishment of a state board of health . With a Republican majority in both houses , the legislature enacted many of his proposals , including the Poorman Law , requiring voter registration in Cleveland and Cincinnati ( and later in all large cities ) , as well as the Pugsley Law , which established nonpartisan boards to appoint election officials . The Ohio State Journal commented , " Not all that is needed in the way of amendments to the election laws of Ohio , but it will do for a starter . " The Dow Law imposed an annual tax on businesses in the alcohol trade ; most of the proceeds would go for poor relief and to the police fund . With Foraker 's support , the remaining laws that allowed racial discrimination in Ohio were repealed .
Foraker became popular during his governorship for " waving the bloody shirt " , that is , castigating the South for the Civil War . President Cleveland in 1887 requested northern governors to return captured Confederate battle flags . When Foraker was asked by a supporter if he would allow the banners to go South , he responded by telegraph , " No rebel flags will be returned while I am governor . " Cleveland backed down , and Foraker was hailed as a hero by many , receiving thousands of congratulatory messages . Foraker criticized the President for vetoing a bill increasing war pensions and for going fishing on Decoration Day . When the governor visited Philadelphia later that year for the centennial of the Constitution , he rode at the head of a regiment of Ohio militia past the reviewing stand on which Cleveland stood . When Foraker saluted , Cleveland removed his hat , but did not bow slightly as he had for other state governors . Later that day , Foraker led a troop of Grand Army of the Republic veterans past Cleveland 's reviewing stand in another parade , bearing an array of captured battle flags .
Until mid @-@ 1888 , Foraker had the enthusiastic support of Hanna , who , while still boosting John Sherman for president , was a generous contributor to the governor 's 1885 and 1887 campaigns . Hanna hoped to be able to dispense patronage in northern Ohio . According to Hanna biographer William T. Horner , however , " unfortunately for Hanna , Foraker largely refused to grant Hanna the authority that by tradition he probably had earned . " One example , later cited by Foraker as a reason his close relationship with Hanna ended , was the question of the position of state oil inspector , whose substantial fees were paid , not by the taxpayer , but by the oil companies , and who was permitted to appoint large numbers of deputies . In 1885 , soon after Foraker 's inauguration , Hanna advocated the appointment of William M. Bayne , while Congressman McKinley pressed the name of Edwin Hartshorn . Hanna agreed to withdraw Bayne , not to accommodate McKinley , but to save Foraker from a difficulty . Hanna wrote to Foraker , " I had a call from Major McKinley and his oil inspector candidate . ... I tell him he ' wants the earth ' ... " However , Foraker instead reappointed the incumbent , Louis Smithnight . One of the men appointed deputy oil inspector was Harry Smith , the black editor who had supported Foraker in the 1885 election . McKinley again approached Foraker after his re @-@ election in 1887 seeking Hartshorn 's appointment ; however , Foraker appointed George B. Cox , Republican boss of Cincinnati , as chief though Smithnight was retained as a deputy . In later years , Foraker suggested the dispute over the oil inspectorship was a reason for Hanna breaking from him and allying with McKinley , stating after Hanna 's death in 1904 , " I have often thought since that my appointment of Cox made McKinley president . "
= = = 1888 convention ; defeat for third term = = =
Walters traces fissures between Foraker 's supporters and those of Sherman from as early as 1887 . Foraker 's meteoric rise in Ohio politics was a threat to Sherman , especially as Foraker was likely to seek another office after completing his time as governor . In 1887 , McKinley , Hanna , Sherman , and others met at the congressman 's home in Canton and decided to push for Sherman 's endorsement for president by the 1887 Republican state convention in Toledo , and to threaten Foraker should he refuse to get in line . Despite some anti @-@ Sherman feeling in Ohio , the resolution to endorse Sherman was adopted unanimously by the same convention that renominated Foraker , and later that year , the governor was re @-@ elected .
Sherman was a leading candidate for the 1888 Republican presidential nomination , commanding the support of Ohio , much of Pennsylvania , and the South . Uncertainty over whether Blaine would be a candidate hung over the 1888 Republican National Convention in June in Chicago . Although Blaine had stated he was not running , his devotees hoped he might change his mind . Sherman did not fully trust Foraker , and gave over the management of his campaign to Hanna ; the presidential candidate also declined to have Foraker place his name in nomination in favor of Daniel H. Hastings of Pennsylvania . At the convention , Foraker seconded Hastings ' nomination of Sherman , but the senator , on the first ballot , received few votes outside the states known to back him . Sherman 's southern support was discounted , as those states would not vote for the Republican nominee , and Sherman had paid the travel expenses of those delegates , who were for the most part black .
By the fourth ballot , on Saturday , June 23 , Sherman had about the same number of votes he had started with , but was being challenged by a surge from former Indiana senator Benjamin Harrison . The convention then adjourned until Monday , June 25 . With almost two days for intrigue , rumors swept through the convention that Blaine would be a candidate after all . Late on Saturday night , Foraker released a statement that he would support Blaine . Walters proffered several reasons for the switch : Foraker felt Sherman had no chance , resented not being thanked by Sherman for the seconding speech , and was annoyed at the trickle of votes McKinley had received , feeling that the congressman was being prepared as a backup candidate for the Sherman forces . There was also talk that Foraker might gain a place on the ticket , either for president or vice president , though he stated he would not accept a nomination without Sherman 's consent . The switch wounded Sherman 's candidacy by showing that his own state 's governor did not support him , and even though Foraker switched back to Sherman when Blaine wired reiterating that he was not a candidate , the damage was done ; Harrison gained the nomination on the eighth ballot .
According to Horner , Foraker 's temporary abandonment of Sherman was " the move that seems to have shattered his relationship with Hanna permanently " . However , Foraker gave other reasons for the break , stating after Hanna 's death that one reason for it was that Hanna bought up the extra tickets of black Southern convention delegates , a practice that the governor considered corrupt . J.B. Morrow , the newspaper publisher who took Foraker 's statement as source material for Herbert Croly 's 1912 biography of Hanna , disagreed : " it was understood at the time that his [ Foraker 's ] heart was not in Sherman 's candidacy ... his outraged feelings over Hanna 's bargaining with Southern delegates can 't be believed by me . " According to Horner , " the split between Foraker and Hanna had a profound impact on the subsequent behavior of both men , their careers in politics , and the Republican Party in Ohio , which was fractured by the dispute . "
Harrison was elected in November 1888 over President Cleveland . By 1889 , Foraker was openly opposed by a faction of Ohio Republicans , led by Hanna , Sherman and McKinley . Foraker felt relieved at the break , writing to a friend , " From Toledo to Chicago , my neck was under a yoke , but now I am free . " Despite the factional opposition , he sought a third term in 1889 , hoping that if Republicans kept their majority in the legislature , he could be elected to the Senate as Sherman 's junior colleague in the legislative election to be held in January 1890 . He was renominated at the 1889 state convention in Columbus on the second ballot , as the opposition to him was divided .
A law for the Sunday closing of saloons had been passed under Foraker ; when Cincinnati Mayor John B. Mosby proposed to enforce the law against local opposition , Foraker wired to Mosby the support of the state government . This stance alienated many anti @-@ Prohibition Republicans . Another damaging incident was Foraker 's claim , based on documents he procured that turned out to be forged , that Democratic gubernatorial candidate James E. Campbell had supported the adoption of a ballot box made by a company in which Campbell supposedly had a financial interest . The documents also bore the signatures of Sherman , McKinley , and other Foraker enemies ; they were later shown to have been taken from franked mail . Campbell was not in fact involved with the company , and the affair cost Foraker votes . A congressional committee conducted an investigation in 1891 and cleared all of those whose signatures had been reproduced . However , it blamed Foraker for using the documents without verifying their authenticity . By then , Foraker was no longer governor , having been defeated by Campbell by 10 @,@ 873 votes out of some 750 @,@ 000 cast . McKinley biographer H. Wayne Morgan noted , " Clearly Foraker acted hastily and unwisely because of his desperate fight against Campbell and his bitterness towards the Shermanites . " The defeat had consequences for Foraker ; according to another of McKinley 's biographers , Kevin Phillips : " when Foraker lost his bid for a third statehouse term , McKinley became Ohio 's next @-@ in @-@ line presidential favorite son " .
= = Wilderness years ( 1890 – 1896 ) = =
= = = Return to the law ; first run for senator = = =
Defeated for re @-@ election , Foraker returned to Cincinnati and the practice of law . Although initially he rejoined his old law partnership , he established his own offices in 1893 , the year his son Joseph Jr. became an assistant in his office upon graduation from Cornell . Joseph Benson Foraker Jr. was the first child of a Cornell alumnus to graduate from the university . The senior Foraker , though he accepted a broad array of cases , was a " political lawyer " , lobbying the legislature to grant franchises to his clients , and arranging for bills unfavorable to his clients ( who included the Edison Electric Company , Cincinnati Bell Telephone Company , and the Cincinnati Street Railway Company ) to be quashed .
The former governor was enraged when in March 1890 , Hanna gave a speech in New York stating , " Foraker is dead as a factor in our politics and Ohio is again as reliable a Republican state as it ever was . " Foraker determined to secure election to the Senate ; although the Democratic @-@ controlled legislature had elected Calvin S. Brice to the Senate in 1890 , Sherman
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time beating England was more important to the Scots . In 1960 – 61 , when Baxter played in all the qualifying matches for the 1962 World Cup , they finished first equal in their qualifying group but lost the play @-@ off against Czechoslovakia , who were runners @-@ up to Brazil in the Final . Four years later Baxter played in only two of the qualifying games , ( however one of these games was against Italy where he made John Greig 's winning goal after starting the move by taking the ball from Scotland 's keeper ) before breaking his leg in a club game in Vienna . Scotland finished second in their qualifying group , behind Italy . In 1968 – 69 he was not selected to play in any of the qualifiers for the 1970 World Cup .
= = = International goals = = =
Scores and results list Scotland 's goal tally first .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = International = = =
= = Personal life and retirement = =
After moving to Rangers , Baxter became a notorious womaniser . In his words , " One day , I was a Raith Rovers player who couldnae pull the birds at the Cowdenbeath Palais . The next day I was in Glasgow and the girls were throwing themselves at me . It was certainly a change and I wasn 't letting it go by . " However , in 1965 he married Jean Ferguson , a hairdresser , and the couple brought up two sons Alan and Steven . His marriage to Jean broke down in 1981 and the two divorced . Jean married golfer William McCondichie three years later . In 1983 Baxter formed a relationship with Norma Morton , and the couple remained together until his death in 2001 .
Baxter was free of the sectarianism that marked the rivalry between Glasgow 's two leading teams . His close friends included the Celtic players Billy McNeill , Pat Crerand and Mike Jackson , in defiance of the unwritten rule that rivals did not associate .
Like some other British football stars of the late 20th century , Baxter drank to excess , and at one point was said to be consuming three bottles of Bacardi a day . Scotland team @-@ mate Dave Mackay unsuccessfully advised him to train harder and live more sensibly . Baxter often got falling @-@ down drunk the night before a match , but this did not seem to hamper his play , and team managers took little notice of his drinking . After retiring from football Baxter became a pub licensee , an unsuitable career for a problem drinker . At the age of 55 he needed two liver transplants in four days , and promised to quit drinking .
His other lifelong addiction was gambling , at which he lost £ 500 @,@ 000 by his own estimate and £ 250 @,@ 000 by third @-@ party estimates . Later in his life , when asked if earning the huge incomes of footballers in later decades would have made a difference , he replied , " Aye , I would have gambled £ 50 @,@ 000 a week on the horses instead of £ 100 . "
In February 2001 , Baxter was diagnosed as suffering from cancer of the pancreas , and he died at his home on Glasgow 's South Side on 14 April 2001 , with his partner Norma and his sons Alan and Steven at his bedside . His funeral was held in Glasgow Cathedral , where a reading was given by Gordon Brown , a long @-@ time fan of Raith Rovers F.C. , where Baxter began his career .
= = Legacy = =
Baxter was noted for accurate passes , for sending opponents the wrong way with a swivel of his hips , and for inspiring team @-@ mates with his confident approach . Manchester United manager Alex Ferguson described Baxter as " arguably the best player to play in Scottish football " and " the greatest player I ever played with ... He had touch , balance , vision and just this wonderful aura ... " Rangers manager Willie Waddell said , " Jim was the finest left half ever produced by Rangers . " Jimmy Johnstone , who played for Ranger 's great rivals Celtic , said shortly after Baxter 's death , " He was a great man and a genius on the ball . " Allegedly Pelé once said that Baxter should have been a Brazilian . After Baxter 's performance in the 1963 " rest of the world " vs England match , Ferenc Puskás asked , " Where has this fellow been hiding ? " Shortly before he died George Best named Baxter as one of the best eleven players he had played with or against in an interview with FourFourTwo magazine .
Baxter is a member of the Rangers supporters ' Hall of Fame , and one of the first 50 added to the Scottish Sporting Hall of Fame when it was created in 2005 . In 2004 , he was also inducted into the Scottish Football Hall of Fame . In the December 1999 issue of World Soccer magazine he was voted by a readers ' poll into a list of the 100 greatest players of the 20th century . He played most of his best football in his early twenties , before the leg fracture against Rapid Vienna in December 1964 and the start of his heavy drinking that made his nickname " Slim Jim " less appropriate .
Baxter attracted attention by his stylish play , controlling the game with " unhurried artistry " and refusing to conform with the " efficient " style that dominated English football or the energetic , physical style that was typical of Rangers at the time . He described his approach as " treating the ball like a woman . Give it a cuddle , caress it a wee bit , take your time , and you 'll get the required response " . Although Rangers insisted that players tuck their shirts completely into their shorts , Baxter always let part of his dangle over his left hip . He was also noted as a joker on the pitch . After the replay of the Scottish Cup Final against Celtic in 1963 he stuffed the match ball up his shirt and later gave it to a new member of the team . The SFA insisted that the ball should be returned , and Rangers sent them a ball , but possibly not the match ball .
The Tartan Army unsuccessfully attempted to get the new Wembley Stadium footbridge named after him , and on 24 February 2005 Scottish National Party MP Pete Wishart presented an Early Day Motion in the House of Commons supporting this campaign .
In 2003 , a statue of Baxter was erected in his birthplace , Hill of Beath in Fife , after a campaign that raised £ 80 @,@ 000 .
= = Honours = =
Rangers
UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup ( Runners @-@ up ) : 1960 @-@ 61
Scottish League First Division : 1960 – 61 , 1962 – 63 , 1963 – 64
Scottish Cup : 1961 – 62 , 1962 – 63 , 1963 – 64
Scottish League Cup : 1960 – 61 , 1961 – 62 , 1963 – 64 , 1964 – 65
Individual
Scottish Football Hall of Fame ( inaugural inductee )
Scottish Sports Hall of Fame ( inaugural inductee )
= Mal Waldron =
Malcolm Earl " Mal " Waldron ( August 16 , 1925 – December 2 , 2002 ) was an American jazz pianist , composer , and arranger . He started playing professionally in New York in 1950 , after graduating from university . In the following dozen years or so Waldron led his own bands and played for those led by Charles Mingus , Jackie McLean , John Coltrane , and Eric Dolphy , among others . During Waldron 's period as house pianist for Prestige Records in the late 1950s , he appeared on dozens of albums and composed for many of them , including writing his most famous song , " Soul Eyes " , for Coltrane . Waldron was often an accompanist for vocalists , and was Billie Holiday 's regular accompanist from April 1957 until her death in July 1959 .
A breakdown caused by a drug overdose in 1963 left Waldron unable to play or remember any music ; he regained his skills gradually , while redeveloping his speed of thought . He left the U.S. permanently in the mid @-@ 1960s , settled in Europe , and continued touring internationally until his death .
In his 50 @-@ year career , Waldron recorded more than 100 albums under his own name and more than 70 for other band leaders . He also wrote for modern ballet , and composed the scores of several feature films . As a pianist , Waldron 's roots lay chiefly in the hard bop and post @-@ bop genres of the New York club scene of the 1950s , but with time he gravitated more towards free jazz . He is known for his dissonant chord voicings and distinctive later playing style , which featured repetition of notes and motifs .
= = Early life = =
Mal Waldron was born in New York City on August 16 , 1925 , to West Indian immigrants . His father was a mechanical engineer who worked on the Long Island Rail Road . The family moved to Jamaica , Long Island when Mal was four years old . Waldron 's parents discouraged his initial interest in jazz , but he was able to maintain it by listening to swing on the radio . Waldron had classical piano lessons from the age of around seven until he was about 16 . He then became inspired to play jazz on tenor saxophone when he heard Coleman Hawkins ' 1939 recording of " Body and Soul " , but bought an alto saxophone , unable to afford a tenor . He played alto for local bands that performed for " dances , bar mitzvahs , Spanish weddings " , frequently taking over the pianist 's role when other musicians took their solos .
In 1943 , after school and having enrolled at university , Waldron was called up by the army , and was based at West Point , in New York . This allowed him to listen to the greats of jazz in clubs on 52nd Street and elsewhere in the city . After two years in the army , he returned as a student to Queens College in New York , where he studied under composer Karol Rathaus and made the final decision to switch from saxophone to piano . This decision was influenced in part by hearing Charlie Parker 's virtuoso speed on saxophone , and by not having the extroverted personality Waldron thought necessary for that instrument . Not yet a professional musician , he received money through the G.I. Bill and continued to live with his parents . After obtaining a B.A. in music in 1949 , Waldron worked for a short time in rhythm and blues bands , including with Big Nick Nicholas .
= = Later life and career = =
= = = Early career in New York = = =
Waldron went on to work with Ike Quebec in New York in 1950 and made his recording debut with the saxophonist in 1952 . They played at Café Society Downtown on Mondays for six or seven months , which helped Waldron gain exposure and more work . Waldron worked frequently with Charles Mingus from 1954 to 1956 , as part of the latter 's jazz composers ' workshop . He was pianist on several Mingus recordings , including Pithecanthropus Erectus , which was a key development in the movement towards freer collective improvisation in jazz . In 1955 , Waldron worked with Lucky Millinder and Lucky Thompson . Waldron formed his own band in 1956 , which consisted of Idrees Sulieman ( trumpet ) , Gigi Gryce ( alto saxophone ) , Julian Euell ( bass ) , and Arthur Edgehill ( drums ) . This band recorded Waldron 's first release as a leader , Mal @-@ 1 , in November of that year . Waldron was Billie Holiday 's regular accompanist from April 1957 until her death in July 1959 , including for the all @-@ star television broadcast The Sound of Jazz .
Waldron played on numerous sessions for Prestige Records from 1956 to 1958 , as he was the house pianist with the label , a position he acquired after being introduced to Prestige by saxophonist Jackie McLean . Waldron appeared on several McLean @-@ led recordings , and was praised by critic John S. Wilson for these performances as being " a consistently interesting and inventive pianist , who apparently can create fresh and provocative ideas even in the midst of a shrilling bedlam " . Other leaders he worked under at Prestige included Gene Ammons , Kenny Burrell , John Coltrane , and Phil Woods . Waldron often used his own arrangements and compositions for the Prestige sessions , of which his most famous , " Soul Eyes " , written for Coltrane , became a widely recorded jazz standard following its initial appearance on the 1957 album Interplay for 2 Trumpets and 2 Tenors . He composed at night at home in St. Albans between all @-@ day recording sessions , and in a car travelling to and from the studio in Hackensack . Waldron estimated that he composed more than 400 pieces of music during his time with Prestige .
After Holiday died , Waldron played with vocalist Abbey Lincoln and her husband , drummer Max Roach . Around this time , Waldron 's playing on his own recordings became darker , featuring emotional shifts and variations in minor keys . In 1961 , Waldron played in Eric Dolphy and Booker Little 's quintet , a promising combination that ended when Little died that year , aged 23 .
In addition to writing for his own band and those led by others , Waldron wrote and arranged for early play @-@ along records that were published by Music Minus One . Some of these recordings on which Waldron played were released under his name . He also wrote scores for modern ballet in the 1950s and started writing film scores in the following decade . His writing for the film The Cool World ( released in 1964 ) was described in The Oxford Companion to Jazz as one of the first attempts to stress improvisation rather than composition in a jazz @-@ based film score .
= = = Breakdown and recovery = = =
In 1963 Waldron had a major breakdown caused by a heroin overdose . He recounted in 1998 that a lot of musicians in the 1950s and 1960s felt that taking drugs was necessary for career progression . The police assumed they were all doing it , according to Waldron :
The police would stop the musicians and search us as we came out of the clubs after work . We had to turn our pockets inside out . After a while , the musicians thought ... well , if you have the name you might as well have the game . Eventually , I overdosed . I couldn 't remember my own name . My hands were trembling , I couldn 't play the piano . I needed shock treatments and a spinal tap to bring me back .
Waldron always felt that he had to return to playing , but this was a slow process . About a year after the overdose , his physical recovery was sufficient to allow him to start relearning his skills , which he did partly by listening to his own records . His recovery as a musician continued for another two years , as his speed of thought was still too slow over that period to allow genuine improvisation : " I worked out my solos in advance and played what I had written out , until gradually all my faculties returned " .
= = = Career after move to Europe = = =
From the mid @-@ 1960s on , Waldron spent a lot of time in Europe : Paris , Rome , Bologna , and Cologne , before moving permanently to Munich in 1967 . Waldron originally moved to France when film director Marcel Carné asked him if he wanted to compose the score for Three Rooms in Manhattan in New York or Paris ; Waldron 's 1958 experience touring Europe with Holiday made the decision an easy one . Waldron 's stated reasons for settling in Europe were his disgust with the " fierce , cutthroat competition , just to get a job " and the fact that black musicians were paid less than their white counterparts in the U.S. The 1965 score for Three Rooms in Manhattan was followed by one for the American film Sweet Love , Bitter in 1967 . Waldron also composed for theater ( Amiri Baraka 's The Slave and Dutchman ) , television , and short films . In Europe around this time he played with other expatriates , including Ben Webster and Kenny Clarke .
Waldron 's 1969 album Free at Last was the first release on the ECM label . This recording was an example of Waldron playing , in his words , " rhythmically instead of soloing on chord changes " . Two years later , another Waldron recording session was the first for another label that became firmly established – Enja Records . In the early 1970s , he collaborated with the German avant @-@ rock band Embryo on two albums , Steig Aus ! and Rocksession . Waldron also wrote the score for the 1972 French film George Who ?
Waldron became popular in Japan , first playing there in 1970 , after being invited by Swing Journal following the success of one of his earlier recordings . From 1975 he made visits to the U.S. , mostly playing solo piano from the late 1970s to early 1980s . Other formats included a quartet with Joe Henderson , Herbie Lewis , and Freddie Waits ; another quartet with Charlie Rouse , Calvin Hill and Horacee Arnold ; a trio with Hill and Arnold ; and a duo with Cameron Brown . Waldron performed and recorded extensively throughout Europe and Japan . In the early 1980s he reported that he allotted agents in France , Germany , Italy and Scandinavia a month each per year of his time , but set aside two months for Japan .
During the 1980s and 1990s Waldron worked with Steve Lacy , notably in piano – soprano duets playing their own compositions as well as Thelonious Monk 's . Duet albums with others were also prominent in Waldron 's recordings from the early 1980s . This setting was chosen partly for economic reasons , but mainly for artistic ones , Waldron stated : " jazz is like a conversation . [ ... ] So to do this face to face , it is more direct , stronger and more accurate " . A further film score was written for Japanese director Haruki Kadokawa 's Tokyo Blues in 1986 .
Waldron moved from Munich to Brussels in the 1990s , stating that , in Belgium , " nobody stands on the corner waiting for the lights to change . In Germany they watch the lights instead of the cars . The lights never killed anybody . " From the mid @-@ 1990s , Waldron traveled to the U.S. less frequently , put off by no longer being allowed to smoke in many of the jazz clubs there . Around the same period , Waldron recorded several albums with vocalist Jeanne Lee . Two of his final recordings were duets with saxophonists who tended , as he did , to play in melodic and free forms : David Murray and Archie Shepp . After some years of indifferent health , Waldron , a heavy smoker , was diagnosed with cancer in 2002 . He continued to perform until his death on December 2 of that year in a hospital in Brussels , due to complications resulting from the cancer . He was 77 , and had played his final concert in Lille two weeks earlier .
= = Personal life = =
Waldron married twice and had seven children – two with his first wife and five with the second . Billie Holiday was godmother to his first daughter . Waldron 's first wife , Elaine , occasionally sang on his recordings . His second wife was Japanese , and they owned and let several apartments in Japan . Combining birthday celebrations with a tour , Waldron took both families – ex @-@ wife , wife , seven children and two grandchildren – on his three @-@ week tour of Japan that coincided with his seventieth birthday . Waldron 's mother died in 1979 . He could speak English , French , German , and Japanese .
= = Playing style = =
When he first played with Mingus , Waldron was a follower of Horace Silver 's style , which used added chords and passing notes , as well as Bud Powell 's , which contained many runs . Mingus encouraged him to strip away these things and concentrate on basic and altered harmonies . Before his breakdown , Waldron played in a lyrical way , but after it , " I couldn 't find that lyricism inside myself any more , so I became a very angular player " , becoming more like Thelonious Monk in playing and composition style .
From the time he moved to Europe , Waldron played mostly in a free style , while being able to play in a more traditional style when the audience or situation required it . He used thick chords in the lower bass register ; his emphasis on weight , texture and frequent repetition of a single and simple motif as opposed to linear and melodic improvisation gave a heavy and dark color to his sound . One facet of his playing was , according to The Penguin Guide to Jazz , " likened to American minimalism : a slow accretion of almost subliminal harmonic and rhythmic shifts steadily pile up until the music seems ready to overbalance " .
As an accompanist to vocalists Holiday , Lincoln , Lee and others , Waldron was described by critic and musician Alyn Shipton as " one of the most sublime accompanists in jazz " .
Waldron 's own assessment of his style was that it was partly a reflection of his personality : " It 's part of my personality to be very economical with what I have and to use it in all variations before I move to the next set of notes " . He acknowledged the influences of Holiday ( on his conception of space and playing behind the beat ) , Mingus ( for the importance of individuality ) , and Roach ( on the value of time signatures other than the usual 4 / 4 ) , as well as pianists Duke Ellington , Monk , Powell and Art Tatum .
= = Influence = =
Waldron has influenced later generations of pianists . Examples are Matthew Shipp and Stanley Cowell . Another , Ethan Iverson , describes Waldron as one of his biggest influences , and reports having imitated most aspects of the older man 's style during his own musical development , through listening to Waldron 's recordings . Waldron contributed more personally to Ran Blake 's progress : he was Blake 's teacher for a time , helping him to improve his rhythmic flexibility and idea development .
= = Discography = =
= Hydnellum ferrugineum =
Hydnellum ferrugineum , commonly known as the mealy tooth or the reddish @-@ brown corky spine fungus , is a species of tooth fungus in the family Bankeraceae . A widely distributed species , it is found in north Africa , Asia , Europe , and North America . The fungus fruits on the ground singly or in clusters in conifer forest , usually in poor ( low nutrient ) or sandy soil . Fruit bodies are somewhat top @-@ shaped , measuring 3 – 10 cm ( 1 – 4 in ) in diameter . Their velvety surfaces , initially white to pink , sometimes exude drops of red liquid . The lower surface of the fruit body features white to reddish @-@ brown spines up to 6 mm long . Mature fruit bodies become dark reddish brown in color , and are then difficult to distinguish from other similar Hydnellum species . H. ferrugineum forms a mat of mycelia in the humus and upper soil where it grows . The presence of the fungus changes the characteristics of the soil , making it more podzolized .
= = Taxonomy = =
The species was originally described scientifically by Elias Magnus Fries , who named it Hydnum ferrugineum in 1815 . Its taxonomic history includes transfers to the genera Calodon by Petter Karsten in 1881 , and Phaeodon by Joseph Schröter in 1888 . It was assigned its current binomial name by Karsten when he transferred it to its current genus , Hydnellum , in 1879 .
In 1964 , Canadian mycologist Kenneth A. Harrison described a hydnoid fungus found with Pinus resinosa in Michigan and Pinus banksiana in Nova Scotia . The fungus , which Harrison named Hydnellum pineticola , is considered to be synonymous with Hydnellum ferrugineum by the nomenclatural database Index Fungorum . Harrison noted " The attempts to recognize European species in North American collections has only increased the confusion in this country , and until someone has worked critically in the field on both continents , it is better to make a recognizable grouping of our own population as that to guess that they may be the same as those that grow in Europe . " Other taxa considered synonymous with H. ferrugineum are Pierre Bulliard 's 1791 Hydnum hybridum ( including later synonyms Calodon hybridus ( Bull . ) Lindau , and Hydnellum hybridum ( Bull . ) Banker ) ; Louis Secretan 's Hydnum carbunculus ( 1833 ) ; and Howard James Banker 's 1906 Hydnellum sanguinarium . Banker explained the difficulty in identifying old Hydnellum specimens : " A considerable number of collections have had to be set aside , as in the dried state , with no notes on the fresh characters , it was impossible to decide with any degree of satisfaction whether the plants represented H. sanguinarium , H. concrescens , H. scrobiculatum , or some undescribed form . "
Common names given to the species include the " reddish @-@ brown corky spine fungus " , and the British Mycological Society @-@ sanctioned name " mealy fungus " . The specific epithet ferrugineum is Latin for " rust @-@ colored " .
= = Description = =
The fruit bodies of Hydnellum ferrugineum are more or less top @-@ shaped with caps that are 3 – 10 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) in diameter . They are at first convex , then pulvinate ( cushion @-@ shaped ) , later flattening or becoming slightly depressed in the center . The cap surface of young fruit bodies is uneven , with a velvety to felted texture , and a whitish to pink color . It sometimes exudes blood @-@ red drops of fluid in the depressions . The surface later becomes flesh @-@ colored to dark reddish brown , but with wavy margin remaining whitish . The lower surface of the fruit body bears the hymenium , the fertile spore @-@ bearing tissue . It comprises a dense arrangement of white to reddish brown spines up to 6 mm long , hanging vertically downwards . The stout stipe measures 1 – 6 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 2 @.@ 4 in ) long by 1 – 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick , and is the same color as the cap . Fruit bodies have a " distinctly mealy " odor ( similar to the smell of freshly ground flour ) , but are inedible .
The flesh is reddish or purplish @-@ brown with white flecks . Initially spongy and soft , it becomes tough and corky as the fruit body matures . In the stipe , the flesh can become blackish in age . Like other Hydnellum species , fruit body tissue is made of generative hyphae that do not expand . This slows the growth of the fruit body , often enabling it to persist for several months . The fungus employs an indeterminate growth pattern , in which the fruit body formation begins from a vertical column of hyphae that eventually expand at the top to form the cap . Any solid objects encountered during growth , such as grass or twigs , can be enveloped by the expanding fruit body . Similarly , closely neighboring caps can fuse together during growth .
The broadly ellipsoid to roughly spherical spores are 5 @.@ 5 – 7 @.@ 5 by 4 @.@ 5 – 5 @.@ 5 μm . Their surfaces are covered with small rounded bumps . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are narrowly club @-@ shaped , four @-@ spored , and measure 25 – 30 by 6 – 7 @.@ 5 μm . The hyphae of the flesh are brownish with thin walls , and measure 4 – 6 μm ; hyphae in the spines are thin @-@ walled , septate , and sometimes branched , measuring 3 @.@ 5 – 4 @.@ 5 μm . The hyphae do not have clamp connections .
= = = Similar species = = =
Hydnellum peckii is similar in appearance , but has an acrid taste , and clamp connections in its hyphae . Hydnellum spongiosipes is readily confused with H. ferrugineum , and several authors have historically considered the two species to be the same ; molecular studies , however , indicate that the two fungi are closely related , but distinct . In contrast with H. ferrugineum , H. spongiosipes has a darker cap when young , darker flesh , and occurs in deciduous woods . Old fruit bodies of H. ferrugineum can be confused with those of Hydnellum concrescens .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Hydnellum ferrugineum is found mainly in coniferous woodland , often near pines , but occasionally with spruce . Fruit bodies have a preference for sandy soil with low levels of organic matter and nutrients , and grow singly or in clusters . They are more likely to be found in older @-@ growth forests . The fungus occurs in North America , including Mexico . It is widespread but generally uncommon throughout Europe , although there may be local areas where it is common . In Britain , H. ferrugineum is provisionally classified as endangered , and is protected under the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 ; it was included as one of 14 species considered in the United Kingdom Biodiversity Action Plan for stipitate hydnoid fungi ( i.e. , hydnoid fungi with a cap and stipe ) in 2004 . The fungus is protected in Montenegro . It has been collected in India and North Africa .
The fungus forms a tough mat of mycelia in the humus and upper soil of pine forests . This mycelial mat grows larger with old trees , and can cover an area of several square meters . These areas generally lack dwarf shrubs and promote the vigorous growth of mosses ; reindeer lichens often occur in the center of large mats . The presence of the fungus changes the nature of the soil , resulting in a thinner humus layer , decreased groundwater penetration , decreased soil pH , and increases in the level of root respiration as well as the quantity of roots . The fungus also decreases the organic carbon and nitrogen concentrations . Soil with the mycelium becomes more podzolized than the surrounding soil . Similar to some other Hydnellum species , H. ferrugineum is sensitive to the increased nitrogen deposition resulting from clear @-@ cutting , a forestry practice used in some areas of Europe . The fungus forms an unusual type of mycorrhiza with Scots pine ( Pinus sylvestris ) in which the ectomycorrhiza appears normal at the leading edge of the mycelial mat , but leaves behind dead and atrophied roots at the trailing edge , showing saprophytic tendencies .
= = Bioactive compounds = =
Hydnellum ferrugineum fruit bodies contain the pigments hydnuferrigin ( dark violet ) and hydnuferruginin ( yellow ) , as well as small amounts of the polyphenol compound atromentin . Hydnuferrigin has a chemical structure that closely resembles that of thelephoric acid , a pigment found in other species of Hydnellum and Hydnum , and they may originate from a common precursor compound .
= = = Cited works = = =
Pegler DN , Roberts PJ , Spooner BM ( 1997 ) . British Chanterelles and Tooth Fungi . Kew , UK : Royal Botanic Gardens . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 900347 @-@ 15 @-@ 0 .
= October 1996 India cyclone =
The October 1996 India cyclone ( also known as Cyclone 05A ) had an unusual and protracted path that spanned much of the northern Indian Ocean . It originated in a weather disturbance that formed on October 14 in the southern Bay of Bengal , off India 's east coast . Moving westward , it struck Andhra Pradesh on October 17 as a well @-@ defined low pressure area . It crossed southern India and reorganized in the Arabian Sea off the western coast of India . The system developed into a depression on October 22 and quickly intensified while moving northward . By October 24 , the cyclone approached hurricane intensity as it developed an eye , reaching peak winds of at least 110 km / h ( 70 mph ) . On October 25 , the storm abruptly stalled and weakened off Gujarat , and progressed southwestward as a minimal storm . It was no longer classifiable as a tropical cyclone by October 28 , although its remnants persisted until November 2 when they dissipated east of Somalia .
In southern India , the storm dropped heavy rainfall that caused severe flooding in Andhra Pradesh . At least 112 reservoirs and dams were breached , killing 200 people in Prakasam district . The floodwaters ruined about 1 @,@ 600 @,@ 000 ha ( 4 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ) of crops and damaged around 53 @,@ 000 houses , leaving thousands homeless . The floods killed 388 people in southern India and caused US $ 388 million in damage . The storm later brushed the west coast of India , stranding 50 boats . The Indian military helped with relief and rescue efforts . Another cyclone struck Andhra Pradesh in November , causing additional damage and deaths .
= = Meteorological history = =
The long @-@ tracked storm originated from the monsoon trough , which spawned an area of convection , or thunderstorms , in the southern Bay of Bengal on October 14 . It moved to the west @-@ northwest and later to the west without much development . The India Meteorological Department ( IMD ) classified the system as a well @-@ marked low pressure area before the system moved over the southern Indian state of Andhra Pradesh on October 17 . The system slowly crossed southern India , emerging into the Arabian Sea on October 21 . That day , the convection organized into a circular cluster as the circulation became more defined . The system slowed and turned to the north around the periphery of a ridge to the east . The system organized into a depression on October 22 , the same day that the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) classified it as Tropical Cyclone 05A .
As the storm moved slowly northward , it quickly intensified , and the IMD upgraded the system 's status from a depression on October 22 to severe cyclonic storm status late on October 23 . Around that time , the storm developed an eye , and the JTWC estimated 1 minute peak winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) at 18 : 00 UTC that day , equivalent to a minimal hurricane . On October 24 , the IMD estimated peak 3 minute winds of 110 km / h ( 70 mph ) , although estimates derived from the Dvorak technique suggested winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) .
On October 25 , the storm stalled about 95 km ( 60 mi ) south of the Gujarat coast , as steering currents from the retreating ridge of high pressure diminished . Strengthening wind shear , cooler waters , and dry air rapidly weakened the storm . By late on October 25 , the JTWC had discontinued warnings , and the IMD downgraded the storm to depression status . The system began moving to the southwest away from the wind shear . The IMD downgraded the system further to a remnant low on October 28 , although the JTWC began issuing advisories again after a nearby ship reported winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) . Accelerating to the west , the storm again weakened on October 31 , prompting the JTWC to discontinue advisories while the system was about 110 km ( 70 mi ) northeast of Socotra . The remnants turned to the southwest , dissipating near the east coast of Somalia on November 2 .
The JTWC remarked that the storm " had one of the most unusual tracks in North Indian Ocean cyclone history " and was also one of the longest tracked cyclones in the basin . According to the IMD , most storms approaching Gujarat strike the coast or weaken and move westward . The agency stated that " there is no parallel of this system in [ tropical cyclone history ] . "
= = Impact and aftermath = =
The precursor to the storm brought heavy rainfall to southern India , mainly in Andhra Pradesh , as well as in Tamil Nadu to the south , Karnataka to the west , and Kerala to the southwest . Daily totals reached 230 mm ( 9 @.@ 1 in ) in portions of Andhra Pradesh , where damage was heaviest . The rains flooded rivers and cities , with thousands of residents in Hyderabad stranded in their houses . About 40 villages were isolated in Kadapa district . Throughout the region , the storm damaged 53 @,@ 000 houses . About 86 @,@ 000 people sought shelter after the storm , and thousands were left homeless . Highways and railroads were inundated , with many bridges washed away . At least 112 reservoirs and dams were breached . The floods also damaged about 1 @,@ 600 @,@ 000 ha ( 3 @,@ 953 @,@ 000 acre ) of crop fields – 450 @,@ 000 ha ( 1 @,@ 111 @,@ 000 acre ) of rice and 1 @,@ 150 @,@ 000 ha ( 2 @,@ 842 @,@ 000 acre ) of ground nuts – and killed about 45 @,@ 000 head of cattle . At least 200 people were killed in the Prakasam district after reservoirs were damaged . In Tamil Nadu , south of Andhra Pradesh , at least 10 people were killed , all in Chennai . Overall , 388 people died in southern India due to the floods , including at least 326 in Andhra Pradesh . Damage was estimated at US $ 128 @.@ 5 million , of which US $ 120 million was in Andhra Pradesh .
After the floods , helicopters airlifted relief supplies like food and water to isolated villages , and to residents riding out the floods on their roofs . However , relief coordination was disrupted by damaged communication lines and ongoing rainfall . Rescue boats were used to rescue stranded residents . India 's Prime Minister H. D. Deve Gowda provided 500 million rupees ( US $ 15 million ) to help Andhra Pradesh with flood recovery . Conditions returned to normal within 12 days of the onslaught of the rains , with the exception of minor delays to trains . However , another cyclone struck Andhra Pradesh about three weeks after the flood event , killing over 1 @,@ 000 people .
Upon forming and moving parallel to India 's west coastline , the storm dropped rainfall in the Konkan region of Maharashtra and neighboring Goa . The threat of the storm prompted schools to be closed around Mumbai . Later , it brushed Gujarat with heavy rainfall and gusty winds . About 50 boats were stranded amid high seas , and 11 other boats were left missing from the Veraval port . During the height of the storm , 320 fishermen were unaccounted for , spurring the Indian navy to launch search and rescue missions .
= Convoy Faith =
Convoy Faith was a small , fast Allied convoy of World War II . It suffered heavy casualties when attacked by German Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 200 Condor long @-@ range bombers while en route from Britain to West Africa in July 1943 . The convoy comprised two large troopships and a freighter , later joined by two destroyers and two frigates as escorts at various dates after it sailed on 7 July 1943 . The two troopships , SS California and SS Duchess of York , both former liners , were carrying military personnel to West Africa , where locally recruited troops were to be embarked as reinforcements for the Allied forces in Burma and the Middle East . The freighter MV Port Fairy , carrying ammunition , was ultimately bound for Australia and New Zealand via the Panama canal .
On the evening of 11 July , four days after sailing , Convoy Faith was attacked by three Condors . Both troopships were severely damaged and subsequently sunk by torpedoes from the escorts ; over 100 of the personnel aboard the two ships were killed . The freighter escaped unscathed , but was damaged in a second air attack on 12 July en route to Casablanca . The loss of the two troopships delayed the movement of a division of West African soldiers to India until four replacements arrived .
The British military was surprised by the attack on Convoy Faith , as it had been believed that the Condors no longer posed a serious threat . In response , the convoy route between Britain and Africa was moved to the west . The German Condor force attempted to repeat its success against Convoy Faith by carrying out similar attacks on other convoys , but sustained heavy losses from Allied anti @-@ aircraft guns and aircraft .
= = Background = =
From August 1940 to June 1941 , the German Luftwaffe ( air force ) unit III . / KG 40 , which was based at Bordeaux – Mérignac Airport in southern France and equipped with Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 200 Condors , attacked Allied shipping travelling in the Atlantic . The unit made a number of successful attacks on convoys and individual ships traveling in the Western Approaches as well as on the route between Britain and Gibraltar . In response , the Allies increased the anti @-@ aircraft armament carried by many merchant ships , and began to deploy CAM ships and escort carriers to provide fighter protection for convoys . During the last six months of 1941 these improved defences inflicted heavy losses on the Condor force , and it ceased attacking shipping in early 1942 . In 1942 , III . / KG 40 mainly operated in the reconnaissance role and reported targets for U @-@ boats to attack . A small number of attacks were made on ships travelling between Britain and Gibraltar from May onwards , but these cost the unit eight Condors destroyed in action and seven in accidents for no sinkings . As a result of the Condor 's vulnerability to Allied defences , the commander of the Luftwaffe 's Atlantic anti @-@ shipping force ( Fliegerführer Atlantik ) recommended in December that the aircraft be withdrawn from service .
The British military conducted regular convoys to transfer personnel from the United Kingdom to the Middle East and India from mid @-@ 1940 until late 1943 . This convoy route was assigned the code " WS " , which was widely believed to be an abbreviation for " Winston Special " in honor of Prime Minister Winston Churchill . The WS convoys typically comprised several large ocean liners which had been converted to troopships protected by a strong force of warships . As the Mediterranean Sea was a war zone , the convoys normally traveled from the Clyde in Scotland to the Middle East or South Asia via the Cape of Good Hope at the southern tip of Africa . En route , the ships typically stopped at Freetown in West Africa to refuel and embark water , and again at either Cape Town or Durban in South Africa . German aircraft , submarines and surface ships attacked the WS convoys on occasion .
= = Prelude = =
Despite its poor performance during most of 1942 , III . / KG 40 's ability to attack Allied shipping was improved late in the year . During the last months of 1942 the unit received 18 C @-@ 4 variants of the Fw 200 which were fitted with the Lotfe 7D bombsight . This sight reduced the Condors ' vulnerability to anti @-@ aircraft fire by allowing them to bomb targets from medium altitudes ; previously they had only been able to attack accurately from low levels . Several of the unit 's Condors were also fitted with surface search radar , which improved their ability to locate Allied ships . In early 1943 it was decided to use these aircraft to renew attacks on convoys travelling to Gibraltar in an attempt to disrupt the Allied buildup in the Mediterranean during the Tunisia Campaign . These attacks began in early March and were conducted off Portugal between Lisbon and Cape St Vincent ; this area was beyond the range of Allied fighter aircraft based in Gibraltar , and few escort carriers were available to protect convoys . III . / KG 40 sank five merchant ships and damaged another two between March and the start of July , for the loss of at least five Condors . In response , the British began to use de Havilland Mosquito fighters to patrol the Bay of Biscay , deployed four additional squadrons of patrol aircraft to Gibraltar , and embarked signals intelligence teams on board warships in the Bay of Biscay to monitor KG 40 's radio communications .
In February 1943 the British Government decided to transfer the recently raised 81st ( West Africa ) Division from West Africa to India to take part in the Burma Campaign . This unit required much more shipping space than other British divisions , as its fighting units were supported by thousands of porters . To facilitate the division 's movement , additional troopships were assigned to the regular WS convoys . The 81st Division 's advance parties departed Freetown with Convoys WS 29 and WS 30 in April and May , and the 6th ( West Africa ) Brigade embarked on ships of Convoy WS 31 at Lagos between 2 and 10 July . It was planned to transport the division 's two remaining brigades in convoys WS 32 and WS 33 .
The 5th ( West Africa ) Brigade was the second of the 81st Division 's brigades to be shipped from West Africa . The brigade comprised 12 @,@ 000 personnel and was scheduled to depart with Convoy WS 32 on 31 July . The liners Britannic , Largs Bay and Tamaroa were available in Freetown to carry 8 @,@ 528 of these men , and it was decided to sail the troopship SS California directly from the Clyde to provide the remaining berths .
California was a liner that had spent the first years of the war as an armed merchant cruiser before being converted to a troopship . She had previously carried troops to Bombay in India as part of convoys WS 22 and 26 . She returned to the Clyde from Gibraltar on 4 June as part of Convoy MFK 15 and spent the next month docked in Glasgow undergoing repairs . Once this work was complete , California began to embark 470 personnel bound for West Africa on 4 July . She was to be accompanied on this voyage by SS Duchess of York , which had been tasked with carrying 600 Royal Air Force personnel and civilians to West Africa , but had missed an earlier convoy owing to electrical problems . Like California , Duchess of York was a pre @-@ war liner which had been converted to a troopship . Prior to the ships ' departure it was decided to use Duchess of York to transport elements of the 5th ( West Africa ) Brigade to Bombay after the ships arrived at Freetown , while California would instead carry other West African personnel to the Middle East .
= = Attack = =
California and Duchess of York sailed from Greenock on the afternoon of 7 July . They spent the night at anchor in the Clyde ; shortly after getting underway early the next day they were joined by the storeship MV Port Fairy , bound for Australia and New Zealand via West Africa and the Panama Canal . The master of the Duchess of York , Captain W.G. Busk @-@ Wood , probably served as the Convoy Commodore . Busk @-@ Wood had been the master of the liner SS Duchess of Bedford prior to the war , and remained in command of this ship until November 1942 when he transferred to the Duchess of York . He also held the rank of commander in the Royal Naval Reserve . The merchant ships were escorted by the destroyer HMS Douglas and frigate HMS Moyola from 9 July , and the Canadian destroyer HMCS Iroquois joined the convoy the next day . While Iroquois ' commanding officer , Commander W.B.L Holms , was the most senior officer present , he chose to not assume command of the convoy as his destroyer would not remain with the troopships for their entire journey . The route taken by Convoy Faith was similar to that of other recent convoys sailing between Britain and Africa . While the strength of the escort force was much smaller than that assigned to the regular convoys , it was believed that submarines posed the main threat and that three warships would provide adequate protection .
Convoy Faith was detected by a German Condor at 8 : 00 pm on 11 July while about 480 kilometres ( 300 mi ) off the Portuguese coast . This aircraft circled near the ships , broadcasting a homing signal . Two other Condors joined the first aircraft at about 9 : 00 pm , and they commenced their attack on the convoy shortly thereafter . At this time , Convoy Faith was deployed in a formation intended to protect the ships from submarines . The two troopships and Port Fairy were sailing line abreast ( Duchess of York was the westernmost of the three ships , California was in the centre and Port Fairy at the east of this group ) , Iroquois was located 3 @,@ 000 yards ( 2 @,@ 700 m ) ahead and the two other escorts were on each flank of the troopships . Busk @-@ Wood had maintained this formation after the first Condor was spotted in the belief that the aircraft would call in submarines rather than conduct an attack .
The three Condors made their attack from an altitude of about 15 @,@ 000 feet ( 4 @,@ 600 m ) . Despite heavy anti @-@ aircraft fire from the escorts , California was badly damaged by a near miss from the first plane to attack , and was hit by two bombs dropped by the second attacker . The damage caused by these bombs flooded one of the ship 's holds and set her on fire . California 's passengers were evacuated on board lifeboats while the crew tried to save the ship . This proved unsuccessful , however , and they abandoned ship later that night . Duchess of York also came under attack ; several bombs hit the centre of the ship and set her on fire . This fire could not be brought under
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over @-@ vigorous play . Biggs himself was described by the press as " palpably nervous " before the kick @-@ off , though many of the backs appeared withdrawn , apart from William Stadden and James Webb appearing calm . Not only did Biggs have the Māori opposition to contend with , the Swansea crowd were also hostile towards their own team , as they felt the Swansea backs should have been selected instead . Biggs , as an inexperienced new cap from rivals Cardiff , was picked out by the crowd as one of those players unworthy of his place and was heckled . Nonetheless , the Welsh team were victorious , with tries from Thomas , Towers and Hannan and a single conversion from Webb . A week later on 29 December , Biggs faced the same tourists , this time as part of the Cardiff team . Biggs had been disappointing in his international debut , but regained his form on the pitch at the Cardiff Arms Park . Within 90 seconds of the start of the match , Biggs scored a " sparkling try " . Biggs should have scored again , but dropped the ball after crossing the line in the slippery conditions . Cardiff won by a goal and a try to one try .
= = = Home Nations Championship matches = = =
Later in the 1888 – 89 season , Biggs was reselected for the Welsh team as part of the 1889 Home Nations Championship . He was not chosen for the first game of the season against Scotland , but was accepted for the second and final game to Ireland . Under the captaincy of Arthur Gould , Biggs was partnered on the wing by Abel Davies of London Welsh . Wales lost to Ireland by two tries to nil , the first time the Irish had won on Welsh soil . Biggs and Davies were both dropped for the next season .
It took Biggs until the 1892 Home Nations Championship to regain his place in the national team , again he was chosen for the final game of the tournament against Ireland . Although the Welsh backs contained the talents of Billy Bancroft , brothers Evan and David James and Arthur and Bert Gould , the Welsh team were outclassed by Victor Le Fanu 's Ireland . It was the first time Wales had lost all three games in the Championship . Despite the loss Biggs was reselected for all three games of the 1893 tournament , all under the captaincy of " Monkey " Gould . In a reversal of fortunes from the previous season , Wales managed to win all three matches , lifting the Triple Crown for the first time in the country 's history . Biggs played an important role during the Triple Crown winning season , scoring two tries , one each in the games against England and Scotland . The 1893 away game against Scotland is described as Biggs ' best international match and ' his speed and general play were the main factors in securing the first victory of the Principality over Scotland at Scotland ' .
Biggs played in two more internationals for Wales , both in the 1894 Championship and both resulted in losses . The first game of the 1894 Championship was against England , and Wales suffered a heavy defeat , losing 24 – 3 . In an after match interview Biggs was asked why he had failed to tackle Harry Bradshaw , who scored the first try ; Biggs responded " Tackle him ? It was as much as I could do to get out of his way ! " . In his final game against Ireland , Biggs was part of an all Cardiff three @-@ quarters , along with Tom Pearson , Dai Fitzgerald and Jack Elliott . The very next international saw Biggs ' younger brother Selwyn selected for the first time , the brothers missing each other by just one match .
= = = International matches played = = =
Wales
England 1893 , 1894
Ireland 1889 , 1892 , 1893 , 1894
Māori 1888
Scotland 1893
= = = Club and county = = =
Biggs played for Cardiff from the 1886 – 87 season through to 1898 – 99 , though not continuously , spending some time in the early 1890s in London . He played in 166 matches for Cardiff , was one of the highest scoring players the club had produced . He scored five or more try conversions in a single match on seven occasions , six in the same season ( 1893 – 94 ) , against Gloucester , Bristol , London Welsh , Penygraig , Exeter and Cardiff & D.R.U. The 1893 – 94 season saw Biggs score 58 conversions , 25 tries and two dropped goals bringing his points tally to 199 points . This remained a club record until the 1972 – 73 season when it was surpassed by John Davies . Biggs ended his Cardiff career with 107 tries , four less than his brother Cecil .
Biggs played for several club teams throughout his career , including England 's Richmond and Welsh exile club London Welsh . On 24 December 1890 , Biggs played for London Welsh in a match against his longterm club Cardiff . The London Welsh team produced a ' devastating display ' to beat Cardiff by a single try . At county level he represented Glamorgan where he played alongside his brother , and later turned out for Somerset . During the 1893 / 94 season Biggs was made club captain of Cardiff , and in the same season he led Cardiff against the invitational team the Barbarians , not only winning the game but also scoring two tries and kicking a successful conversion . The same season as he faced the Barbarians with Cardiff , Biggs was invited to join the tourists ; one of four of the Biggs brothers to play for the team . The last notable club Biggs represented was Bath , captaining the senior team during the 1899 – 1900 season .
In 1894 Biggs was invited to play for the Barbarians , and on 2 April , he faced Rockcliff , playing alongside his brother Selwyn , who was also making his Barbarian 's debut . Biggs played twice more for the Barbarians , both matches against Bath Rugby . In the 1894 encounter Biggs converted a try in a 14 @-@ 0 victory , while the 1896 match saw Biggs score a try and two conversions in a 13 @-@ 13 draw .
= = Later life and military career = =
After the outbreak of the Second Boer War , Biggs volunteered for active service and was posted as a private to the Glamorgan Yeomanry , which formed 4 Company , 1st Battalion Imperial Yeomanry for service in South Africa . Biggs later reflected how life in the Yeomanry was a constant struggle , and he engaged in 57 skirmishes with his unit coming under daily sniper fire . He was wounded near Vrede on 11 October 1900 , when he was shot through the thigh whilst patrolling . He was returned to England on the hospital ship Simla which left Cape Town 26 November and arrived at Southampton on 18 December . He was then commissioned as a second lieutenant on 16 February 1901 . On 17 April he was promoted lieutenant and attached to 4th Battalion Imperial Yeomanry . Later in the year he either received a further wound , or fell ill , since The Times reported on 26 September that he had been discharged from hospital and returned to duty in the week ending 8 September . He returned home on the steamship Goorkha , which left Cape Town on 19 July . He relinquished his commission on 12 September , and was granted the honorary rank of lieutenant , and permission to continue wearing his uniform .
Biggs was then commissioned as a lieutenant in the 3rd Battalion Welsh Regiment on 13 June 1903 . He was appointed an Instructor of Musketry on 10 May 1905 , He was then seconded to the Colonial Office and posted to Northern Nigeria as a superintendent of police in a military area on 10 February 1906 , by that time he had also been promoted captain . He was killed in 1908 when he was struck by a poison arrow , while on patrol in Kebbi State , Nigeria .
= 2010 Guatemala City sinkhole =
The 2010 Guatemala City sinkhole was a disaster in which an area approximately 65 ft ( 20 m ) across and 300 ft ( 90 m ) deep collapsed in Guatemala City 's Zona 2 , swallowing a three @-@ story factory . The sinkhole occurred for a combination of reasons , including Tropical Storm Agatha , the Pacaya Volcano eruption , and leakage from sewer pipes .
= = Background = =
Overall , the risk of sinkholes occurring in Guatemala City is high and unpredictable . One recent , similar sinkhole had collapsed in 2007 , forming a pit 100 metres deep . The 2007 Guatemala City sinkhole was formed by fluid from a sewer eroding uncemented volcanic ash , limestone , and other pyroclastic deposits underlying Guatemala City . The hazards around the pipe have since then been mitigated , by improved handling of the city 's wastewater and runoff . Several rainstorms also contributed to the sinkhole 's collapse , as stormwater percolated into the ground , further dissolving the rocks beneath Guatemala City . The 2010 sinkhole was formed for similar reasons .
= = Formation = =
= = = Sewage pipes = = =
The sinkhole formed due to volcanic pumice deposits , upon which Guatemala City is built . These deposits were unconsolidated and of low density , allowing easy erosion . According to Sam Bonis , a geologist at Dartmouth College , leaking pipes went unfixed long enough to create the conditions necessary for sinkhole formation because of lax city zoning regulations and building codes . Bonis also says that the Guatemala City sinkhole is a misnomer : sinkholes have natural causes , but this one was mainly artificial . In addition , according to Bonis , sinkholes are usually formed from limestone but there is no limestone hundreds of metres underneath Guatemala City . Bonis proposes that the sinkhole be renamed a piping feature .
= = = Tropical Storm Agatha = = =
Tropical Storm Agatha was first identified as a trough of low pressure of the western coast of Costa Rica on May 24 , 2010 . On May 29 , the depression intensified into a tropical storm and was given the name Agatha . Later that day , the system intensified slightly before making landfall near the Mexico @-@ Guatemala border with winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) . By the morning of May 30 , the center of Agatha moved over the highest terrain in Central America , resulting in the dissipation of the low @-@ level circulation . Torrential rains from the storm widened the cavity , eventually causing the collapse of the sinkhole .
= = = Pacaya volcano eruption = = =
On May 27 , three days before Agatha became a tropical depression , the Pacaya volcano , located about 25 mi ( 40 km ) south of Guatemala City , erupted , killing at least one person and blanketing nearby areas with layers of ash . The eruption prompted officials to shut down the country 's international airport . Upon the formation of Agatha , people feared that excessive rainfall from the storm could exacerbate the situation and trigger lahars . This had the effect of clogging the underground pipes with soot , increasing the chances of pipe rupture .
= = Collapse and aftermath = =
Mariela Castañón , a reporter for the daily newspaper La Hora , reported that the ground collapsed suddenly , taking a three @-@ story house that was used as a factory , and possibly a security guard , along with it . Electricity poles were also sucked in . Authorities said they could not confirm the security guard 's death .
The sinkhole 's collapse in Guatemala City 's Zona 2 left at least 15 dead , and a further 300 residents ' lives were put at risk . Because of the role played by sewage pipes in the sinkhole 's collapse , Sam Bonis , along with other geologists , has demanded that the government inspect the sewer system more regularly .
According to officials , the sinkhole had similarities with another Guatemalan sinkhole which collapsed in 2007 , which may also have been formed by ruptured sewage pipes .
On a wider scale , immediately following reports of fatalities due to Agatha , a state of emergency was declared for Guatemala . On May 31 , the government started to deploy national aid , and donation centers for victims of the storm were opened across the country . According to the Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs ( OCHA ) , schools in Guatemala were to be closed until at least June 4 .
= = = Filling in the sinkhole = = =
Immediately after the sinkhole 's collapse , there were plans to fill it in with a soil cement made from cement , limestone , and water known locally as lodocreto . This substance was also used to fill in the 2007 Guatemala City sinkhole . However , another technique , which geologists call the graded @-@ filter technique , in which the sinkhole is filled with successive layers of boulders , smaller rocks , and gravel , could possibly be a better solution . This is because filling the hole in with cement diverts water runoff to other areas , potentially increasing the risk of sinkholes occurring in other parts of the city . The graded @-@ filter technique , on the other hand , allows water to seep through .
= Cannon Fodder 3 =
Cannon Fodder 3 is an action @-@ strategy PC game developed and published – originally in Russia – by Game Factory Interactive ( GFI ) , along with developer Burut CT . The game is the second sequel to Cannon Fodder , a commercially and critically successful game released for multiple formats in 1993 . Jon Hare and his company Sensible Software , the developers of Cannon Fodder and its prior sequel , were uninvolved with Cannon Fodder 3 . GFI instead licensed the intellectual property from now @-@ owner Codemasters .
The game is a combination of action and strategy involving a small number of soldiers battling enemy terrorists . The protagonists are heavily outnumbered and easily killed . The player must rely on strategy and heavy secondary weapons to overcome enemies , their vehicles and installations .
Cannon Fodder 3 was released in Russia in December 2011 and – via download service GamersGate – Europe and North America on 9 February 2012 , receiving mixed reviews . Reviewers found the game to be enjoyable but limited and repetitive . The graphics and humour received both positive and negative criticism . Critics derided the poor English translations as well as technical problems .
= = Overview = =
Cannon Fodder 3 has a basic premise involving American soldiers battling disparate terrorists who have united with the aim of world domination . Like the earlier games in the series , it features a mix of " old school " action and strategy gameplay viewed from an isometric perspective . The player directs a small squad of soldiers , primarily with the mouse though the keyboard is used to deploy additional weaponry . The control system " is very similar to ‘ twin @-@ stick ’ shooters like Geometry Wars , except here you control just one of the four soldiers while the others fall in line , shooting when the lead does . " Each squad begins with four soldiers . They are fragile ( though , possessing health bars , are somewhat tougher than the protagonists of the originals ) , but increase in status and power should they survive ; the player is provided with a replacement squad should all his platoon die . The player can also split the squad into smaller units should strategy so require . The game has an online cooperative mode for up to four players , though Strategy Informer noted this mode is unpopular . As well as facing large numbers of equally frail enemy infantry , the player must combat vehicles , buildings and turrets which cannot be destroyed with the standard machine guns . For this reason , the player must rely on explosive secondary weapons such as grenades and rockets , which are essential to destroy enemy structures and more powerful units . He can also make use of vehicles – such as tanks and helicopters – as well as various power @-@ ups . The game features an extensively destructible environment and several settings , including the moon .
= = Development = =
Cannon Fodder 3 is the third instalment in the Cannon Fodder series , the first two games of which – Cannon Fodder and Cannon Fodder 2 – were successful across multiple formats in the 1990s . Those games were created by Sensible Software led by Jon Hare ; Hare later worked on abortive sequels for both the PlayStation 2 and PlayStation Portable , as well as planning a version for smartphones . However , the publisher Codemasters had acquired Sensible Software and its intellectual property . In 2008 Codemasters licensed Russian company Game Factory Interactive ( GFI ) – which had previously been involved in games such as The Precursors , Boiling Point : Road to Hell and White Gold : War in Paradise – to develop Cannon Fodder 3 . While English @-@ language media reported on the development in January 2011 , GFI was initially permitted only to release the game in Russia and the Commonwealth of Independent States , with the possibility of a wider European or North American release unclear . GFI , described as an " unknown " , or " little @-@ known " company , published the game in Russia in December 2011 , with both GFI and Burut CT variously reported as developers . Eurogamer then reported that Codemasters had clarified the agreement between itself and GFI : Codemasters had reserved the option to publish the game in the UK , but ultimately declined . This allowed GFI to distribute the game out with Russia and dispelled the belief that GFI was not authorised to make such a release . The game was released via GamersGate , in Europe and North America , on 9 February 2012 .
GFI 's Oleg Lychaniy stated the developers attempted to retain the most appealing elements of the original Cannon Fodder while attracting new players . GFI also attempted to retain Cannon Fodder 's " antimilitarist message " and was most proud of the new destructible environment . The developers broadened the variety of weapons and vehicles and changed the level structure by adding sub @-@ missions .
= = Reception = =
Richard Cobbet , writing in PC Gamer UK said : " just maybe , this is going too far " , in reference to images of soldiers ' gory corpses cleared from the interface by windscreen wipers . The reviewer expressed bemusement at " Terrorists with robots and plasma guns " antagonists , but reflected – in reference to Cannon Fodder 2 – " Still , could be worse . They could be time @-@ travelling aliens again . " He said the " biggest issue " is that a " gung @-@ ho " approach to play is infeasible and that the " precise and tactical " approach faithful to earlier games in the series " turns out to be a very different experience from before . Far less satisfying " . This is due to the " key problem " of the ease with which enemy weapons such as rocket launcher @-@ armed turrets can destroy the player 's soldiers . The player is thus forced " to play with aching , paranoid care , picking away at base defences from as far away as possible , and rubbing up against the save points like a lovely cat finally reunited with its owner . This is not fun . " He also complained about the arbitrary death inflicted by exploding barrels " raining down over the entire screen . " Cobbet summarised that the departure from the original game meant that Cannon Fodder 3 did not evoke nostalgia and was a " poor substitute " for other action or strategy games . On the other hand , he found the game " admittedly nowhere near as frustrating " as the original . He reflected that it " does have a solid crack at updating the action for a new age , and it 's far from as bad as expected " given its obscure development .
Liam Martin of Digital Spy noted that the variety of locations and weather effects added to the distinctiveness of individual levels . He praised the " simple but effective " , " cartoonish " and colorful visual style , the improved detail from the game 's predecessors along with the " light @-@ hearted tone " and " spectacular and bloody " gore effects . He praised the destructible environments but thought the characters too small . He felt use of strategy to be " limited " but the action " enormous amounts of explosive fun " and enjoyed the gratification of destroying enemies and buildings with rifles and tanks . The writer found the game a " little repetitive " with a " tendency to grate " , which he blamed on somewhat tedious level design , a lack of variety in objectives , a poor camera and long loading times . The lack of a tutorial or mini @-@ map proved sometimes confusing . He noted the " welcome " but limited on @-@ line cooperative mode . Martin felt the game was " best played in short bursts " and summarised : " Provided you 're not expecting a game with much depth or that 's oozing innovation , Cannon Fodder 3 proves that virtual war can still be a lot of fun . "
Nathan Cocks of PC PowerPlay complained the need for secondary weapons proves frustrating : " It is not uncommon to run out of the weapons needed for the job , forcing the player to engage in a tedious game of hide and seek as they scour the map in the hopes of finding another cache . " He wrote : " In fact , tedium is a frequent bedfellow in Cannon Fodder 3 " , due to the lack of variety in the gameplay and mission objectives . He felt the player 's vehicles to be of limited effectiveness as is the ability to split the squad . Cocks complained of the game 's " bargain basement production " ruining the tone of the game due to low quality translations and voice acting , as well as numerous bugs causing problems with running the game , crashes , spawning and using vehicles . The reviewer acknowledged the " wonderfully cartoony " graphics , found the gory windscreen wipers " amusing " and wrote " It ’ s all over @-@ the @-@ top explosive goodness and contributes a great deal to what little appeal is present . " Cocks summarised : " Cannon Fodder 3 is the ultimate coat @-@ tail rider [ ... ] perhaps there is some nostalgic pleasure to be taken in this but for the most part , we suggest leaving well enough alone . "
Strategy Informer felt the game had updated and improved upon the original , noting better controls , more forgiving health bars and save points , and more engaging mission goals . The reviewer criticised the poor translations and perceived bordeline ethnic stereotypes in the enemy characters . Overall the reviewer was impressed by the game , saying " in the end CF3 far exceeded my expectations " . Metro had some praise for the graphics but complained of a lack of any fun and poor camera , controls and level design . The reviewer called the translated dialogue worse than that of Zero Wing . Greece 's PC Master praised the game as enjoyable and while somewhat repetitive , a successful update of the Cannon Fodder series . Czech website Games.cz criticised the game as a failure , with poor graphics , music , sound effects and immature , unimpressive humour , saying the game would only be worth buying at a lower price .
= 2007 NBA betting scandal =
The 2007 NBA betting scandal was a scandal involving the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) and accusations that an NBA referee used his knowledge of relationships between referees , coaches , players and owners to bet on professional basketball games . In July 2007 , reports of an investigation by the Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) were made public , which alleged that during the 2005 – 06 and 2006 – 07 NBA seasons , referee Tim Donaghy bet on games in which he officiated .
On August 15 , 2007 , Donaghy pleaded guilty to two federal charges related to the investigation , and a year later he was sentenced to 15 months in prison and three years of supervised release . As a result , the general reaction by the media was that the NBA 's popularity would be hurt by the news of this scandal .
= = Initial reports = =
The story first broke when the New York Post reported that the FBI was investigating allegations that an NBA referee had bet on games . The story was soon picked up by other major news agencies , as it was revealed that Donaghy was the referee under investigation . The reports claimed that Donaghy had started betting on games in 2005 , and had connections to organized crime .
The day after the initial reports , NBA commissioner David Stern said " that no amount of effort , time or personnel is being spared to assist in this investigation , to bring to justice an individual who has betrayed the most sacred trust in professional sports , and to take the necessary steps to protect against this ever happening again . " He then held a press conference on July 24 to address questions about the investigation . Although he called the Donaghy matter " an isolated case " , he also said it was " the most serious situation and worst situation that I have ever experienced " .
On July 27 , U.S. Congressman Bobby Rush of Illinois , chairman of the Energy and Commerce Commerce , Trade and Consumer Protection Subcommittee , asked to meet with Stern regarding the Donaghy matter . In a letter to Stern , Rush indicated that he might call a hearing " should the facts warrant public scrutiny . " He also said that the affair could potentially be " one of the most damaging scandals in the history of American sports . " On the same day , it was reported that a high school classmate of Donaghy 's , and the classmate 's boss , had bet on NBA games based on Donaghy 's tips . Donaghy later revealed that he was rewarded $ 2 @,@ 000 cash for each correct pick based on the tips he would pass along .
= = = Surrender = = =
After the initial reports , Donaghy stayed at his home , before moving to a secure location to avoid the media scrutiny . He surrendered on August 15 , 2007 , and pleaded guilty to two felony charges of conspiracy . He told judges that he had used coded language to tip others about players ' physical condition and player / referee relations , and he specifically admitted to passing information about two games during the 2006 – 07 season . In total , he received $ 30 @,@ 000 to pass inside information to the bookies . Donaghy also admitted that he had a severe gambling addiction , and was on medication to address it . He was released on a $ 250 @,@ 000 bond .
= = Sentencing = =
On June 11 , 2008 , Donaghy alleged in a statement through his lawyers that several series in the NBA Playoffs had been improperly refereed according to the NBA 's instructions . He alluded specifically to a playoff game where " personal fouls [ resulting in obviously injured players ] were ignored even when they occurred in full view of the referees " because " it was in the NBA 's interest to add another game to the series . " The game referred to was widely believed to be Game 6 of the 2002 Western Conference Finals between the Los Angeles Lakers and the Sacramento Kings , in which the Lakers shot 27 free throws in the fourth quarter . Donaghy also referred to a playoff series where " Team 3 's Owner alleged that referees were letting a Team 4 player get away with illegal screens . NBA Executive Y told Referee Supervisor Z that the referees for that game were to enforce the screening rules strictly against that Team 4 player . " The playoff series was believed to be the first @-@ round encounter between the Houston Rockets and the Dallas Mavericks in the 2005 NBA Playoffs . The Rockets led 2 – 0 in the series before losing in 7 games , and then @-@ Rockets head coach Jeff Van Gundy was fined $ 100 @,@ 000 for stating that a referee was targeting Houston center Yao Ming .
On July 29 , 2008 , Donaghy was sentenced to 15 months in prison , and three years of supervised release . Although his lawyer asked for a probationary sentence , Donaghy admitted that he had " brought shame on myself , my family and the profession " .
Donaghy was released from federal prison on November 4 , 2009 . He is under supervised release by a federal parole @-@ type officer .
= = Reaction = =
Immediately after the reports were released , several writers said that the NBA 's popularity would be hurt by the news . Chris Sheridan of ESPN said that " the general American public has been turning away since the end of the Bulls ' dynasty , and this fiasco isn 't going to help bring it back " , and J. A. Adande said that " the integrity of the games just took a major hit " .
Sports gambling expert R. J. Bell , president of sports betting information site Pregame.com , tracked every game Donaghy worked from 2003 to 2007 . He discovered that during the two seasons investigated by the NBA , the teams involved scored more points than expected by the Las Vegas sports books 57 percent of the time . In the previous two seasons , this only happened 44 percent of the time . According to Bell , the odds of such a discrepancy are 1 in 1 @,@ 000 , and there was " a 99 @.@ 9 percent chance that these results would not have happened without an outside factor . " He also found 10 straight games in 2007 in which Donaghy worked the game that the point spread moved 1 @.@ 5 points or more before the tip — an indication that big money had been wagered on the game . The big money won every time — another indication that " something ( was ) going on " . However , Bell suggested that there was no way anyone who wasn 't in on the fix could have known that something was amiss about Donaghy 's actions during a game ; he said it would have been another year at the earliest before anyone could have caught on .
Handicapper Brandon Lang told ESPN that it is fairly easy for a crooked sports official to fix a game , despite Stern 's insistence that Donaghy was a " rogue official " . According to Lang , an official can directly influence the outcome of a game 75 percent of the time if he has money on the game . For instance , Lang said that a crooked NBA referee can fix the total score by calling enough fouls to get both teams in the bonus . When a game is being fixed , Lang said , the officials should be the prime suspects because the players are making too much money to risk their future . Lang also believed a bookie connected to the mob turned Donaghy in to the FBI .
As a result of the betting scandal , Stern revised the guidelines on the behavior of NBA referees during the Board of Governors ' meeting in 2007 . Despite the labor agreement for referees , which restricted them from participating in almost all forms of gambling , it was revealed that about half of the NBA 's officials had made bets in casinos , albeit not with sportsbooks . In addition , almost all referees had admitted to engaging in some form of gambling . Stern stated that " [ the ] ban on gambling is absolute , and in my view it is too absolute , too harsh and was not particularly well @-@ enforced over the years " . The gambling rules were revised to allow referees to engage in several forms of betting — though not on sports . There were several other referee @-@ related rule changes made : the announcement of referees of a game was moved from 90 minutes before tip @-@ off to the morning of the game , to reduce the value of the information to gamblers ; referees received more in @-@ season training and counseling on gambling ; more thorough background checks were carried out ; the league declared its intention to analyze the statistical relationship between NBA games and referees ' gambling patterns for those games ; and the interactions between referees and NBA teams were made easier and more formal .
= Torrey Smith =
James Torrey Smith ( born January 26 , 1989 ) is an American football wide receiver for the San Francisco 49ers of the National Football League ( NFL ) .
Smith attended Stafford Senior High School in Stafford County , Virginia , where he played basketball and football . He accepted a scholarship to the University of Maryland , and redshirted his first year . In 2008 , he set the Atlantic Coast Conference single @-@ season kickoff return record with 1 @,@ 089 yards after a 99 @-@ yard touchdown in the 2008 Humanitarian Bowl . He ended the year with 24 catches for 336 yards and two touchdowns . In 2009 , he surpassed his own mark and re @-@ set the ACC single @-@ season kickoff return record at 1 @,@ 309 yards . That season , he amassed 2 @,@ 129 all @-@ purpose yards , the second @-@ highest all @-@ time mark for an ACC player . He earned many All @-@ ACC honors following the season .
A panel of scouts considered Smith a potential third- or fourth @-@ round selection for the 2010 NFL Draft , but he decided to return to Maryland for his junior season . In 2010 , Smith was named to the Paul Hornung Award and Biletnikoff Award watchlists before the season . That season , he set the ACC career kickoff return record . Smith chose to forgo his senior season to enter the 2011 NFL Draft , where the Baltimore Ravens selected him in the second round with the 58th overall pick . After four years with the Ravens , Smith signed with the San Francisco 49ers in March 2015 .
= = Early life = =
Smith was born on January 26 , 1989 and grew up with his mother Monica Jenkins in Colonial Beach , Virginia and Fredericksburg , Virginia . The oldest of seven children , Smith helped his single mother , who attended Rappahannock Community College in the day and worked at night , with household chores and earned honor roll grades in school . Smith attended Colonial Beach Elementary School , where his physical education teacher , Steve Swope , recognized his athletic ability and allowed Smith to attend his camps free of charge . Smith noted , " Coach Swope knew me before I knew myself ... Every kid who 's athletic in that town goes through Coach Swope . " Smith went on to Stafford Senior High School , where he played basketball as a guard , and football at several different positions . He enjoys fishing as a pastime .
Smith played on the Stafford Indians football team as a quarterback , running back , wide receiver , cornerback , kickoff returner , and punt returner . In Stafford 's 2004 game against King George , Smith opened with a 54 @-@ yard kickoff return , played quarterback , and scored on a 63 @-@ yard punt return . His coach , Roger Pierce , said , " Torrey can do those type of things for us . We expect him to do those things . " During his senior year in 2006 , Smith had 155 carries for 815 yards and 12 touchdowns , completed nine of 25 passes for 230 yards and two touchdowns , and made three receptions for 81 yards . Over the course of his interscholastic career , Smith returned six kickoffs for touchdowns . He earned all @-@ state kick returner honors as a sophomore , all @-@ district honors as a junior , and honorable mention All @-@ Northwest Region quarterback honors , and all @-@ district and all @-@ area honors as a senior .
As a college prospect , Rivals.com ranked him 30th nationally among dual @-@ threat quarterbacks , Scouts , Inc. ranked him 33rd nationally among wide receivers , and SuperPrep placed him on its Virginia 33 . ESPN assessed him as a " do @-@ it @-@ all prospect " and projected him as a wide receiver because of his size and speed . Smith was recruited by Maryland , Penn State , and Virginia Tech . He was shown interest by Virginia , but did not receive a scholarship offer . The Virginia staff , which questioned whether he had recovered his speed after a basketball injury during his junior year , asked Smith to run a 4 @.@ 5 @-@ second 40 @-@ yard dash at a Nike combine at Clemson University , which he did . The Virginia staff then asked him to repeat the feat at the University of Virginia campus , but Maryland offered a scholarship , which Smith accepted . He later said , " I kind of hold a grudge against U.Va. a little bit . I 'm not afraid to say it . I kind of want to show them that they questioned my speed and whether I was going to get it back . I want to show them that I 'm all healed up . " Virginia head coach Al Groh said of the Fredericksburg native before the 2009 game against Maryland , " Clearly if we forsaw [ sic ] him being the type of player that he is now , he would be returning kicks for Virginia . So we are not above admitting that there is a player that certainly has turned out to be superior to what many people thought , including ourselves . He 's — regardless of what the circumstances were in the past — he is a superior college football player . "
= = College career = =
= = = 2007 season = = =
Smith sat out the 2007 season at Maryland on redshirt status , and was voted the scout team player of the year . He was named the scout team player of the week before the Florida State game . In summer camp , Smith adjusted from playing quarterback to wide receiver , a position he had limited experience with in high school . Teammate Darrius Heyward @-@ Bey said , " He 's like a sponge . He 's taking it all in , asking a lot of questions — and that 's good for a receiver . " In December , he practiced with the first team after Isaiah Williams suffered an injury .
= = = 2008 season = = =
Smith drew praise from the Maryland coaching staff during summer workouts before the 2008 season , and The Washington Times predicted Smith , alongside receiver Ronnie Tyler , would earn significant playing time . He played in all 13 games and started in the last six of the season . He also saw action on special teams as a kickoff returner . Smith recorded 24 receptions for 336 yards and two touchdowns . In its midseason report , The Baltimore Sun credited Smith for often giving an inconsistent Maryland team good field position with his long kick returns .
Against Middle Tennessee , Smith returned four kicks for 86 yards . He made his first career reception for three yards the following week against 23rd @-@ ranked California . Against Eastern Michigan , Smith recorded two receptions for 58 yards and four kickoffs for 126 yards . Smith tallied his first collegiate touchdown on a third @-@ quarter reception from quarterback Chris Turner in the 20 – 17 comeback at 20th @-@ ranked Clemson . He recorded 144 return yards against Virginia .
In the 26 – 0 victory over 21st @-@ ranked Wake Forest , Smith returned the opening kick 34 yards , and caught two passes for eight yards . Smith made his career first start against NC State and recorded four kickoff returns for 85 yards , which set the school single @-@ season kickoff return yards record for a freshman , surpassing the 566 @-@ yard mark set by Da 'Rel Scott in 2007 . Smith blocked a punt against Virginia Tech , and led the team with 163 all @-@ purpose yards including 62 receiving yards . He recorded one reception for 12 yards against 16th @-@ ranked North Carolina .
In the latter part of the season , Smith increased his role and was elevated over Isaiah Williams as the number @-@ two receiver across from Darrius Heyward @-@ Bey . Head coach Ralph Friedgen explained that his presence would alleviate the coverage on Heyward @-@ Bey and praised Smith 's blocking ability in the running game . Against Florida State , Smith broke the school record for single @-@ season kickoff return yards , previously held by cornerback Josh Wilson . He had 119 all @-@ purpose yards , including one 13 @-@ yard reception . Smith posted his season @-@ best performance against 21st @-@ ranked Boston College with 245 all @-@ purpose yards and eight receptions for 115 yards and a touchdown .
In the 2008 Humanitarian Bowl he returned a kickoff 99 yards for a touchdown against Nevada , which broke the bowl 's previous return record of 98 yards . It was also the first time a Maryland player returned a kickoff for a touchdown in a bowl game . At the end of the season , Smith had returned 42 kickoffs for 1 @,@ 089 yards , which set a new Atlantic Coast Conference single @-@ season record . Smith led the team with 1 @,@ 425 all @-@ purpose yards , which put him ahead of starting running back Da 'Rel Scott who compiled 1 @,@ 304 yards .
= = = 2009 season = = =
Before the 2009 season , Smith reportedly struggled in Maryland 's summer camp , dividing his time between practice and online courses at night . Towards the end of camp , head coach Ralph Friedgen noted an improvement in his performance , which reestablished Smith as the team 's top receiver alongside Adrian Cannon .
During the season , Smith saw action in all twelve games , including ten as a starter , and he amassed 61 receptions for 824 receiving yards and five touchdowns , 51 kickoff returns for 1 @,@ 309 yards and two touchdowns , and eleven rushing attempts for 59 yards and one touchdown . His kickoff return yardage surpassed the ACC single @-@ season record that he had set the previous year . Smith finished the season ranked sixth in the nation in all @-@ purpose yards . He was one of two players , alongside Donald Buckram of UTEP , to record more than 260 all @-@ purpose yards in three games . Smith led the team in receptions , receiving yards and return yards . Smith 's 2 @,@ 192 all @-@ purpose yards were the second @-@ most ever recorded by an ACC player behind only C. J. Spiller of Clemson .
In the season opener at 12th @-@ ranked California , he caught one pass for 28 yards and made two rushing attempts for 16 yards . Against Division I FCS James Madison , Smith caught eight passes for 80 yards , rushed twice for 22 yards and a touchdown , and returned four kickoffs 127 yards , including one 81 @-@ yard touchdown return . Despite the strong statistical performance , head coach Ralph Friedgen said , " To be honest with you , I was kind of expecting more out of Torrey . I 've got a lot of faith in him . I 'm not surprised at all about the return yards . But I think if you asked Torrey , he has high expectations for himself , too . " Smith agreed with the criticism , and acknowledged that in his second season as a wide receiver , he had room for improvement . He recorded five catches for 165 yards and two touchdowns in the Middle Tennessee game , and caught four passes for 112 yards against Rutgers . He led the team with three receptions for 64 yards and a 29 @-@ yard touchdown against Clemson , and became the first player in the nation to reach 1 @,@ 000 all @-@ purpose yards on the season . Against Wake Forest , Smith returned six kickoffs 194 yards and caught a career @-@ high ten passes for 70 yards and a touchdown . For his performance , he was named the Atlantic Coast Conference Specialist of the Week . Wake Forest head coach Jim Grobe said , " This kid is probably a better receiver [ than Darrius Heyward @-@ Bey ] . He catches the ball better , he 's got great foot speed . He can hurt you running the ball or catching it . Everywhere you look , he 's a problem . "
Coach Friedgen named Smith the special teams captain for the Virginia game . During the game , Virginia chose to kick short to keep the ball away from Smith on kickoffs , and quarterback Chris Turner did not target him until the fourth quarter . He finished with three receptions for 34 yards and no returns . He recorded two receptions for 13 yards at Duke . At NC State , he caught eight passes for 64 yards and returned a kickoff 84 yards for a touchdown . During the game , he surpassed the ACC single @-@ season kickoff return yards record which he had set the previous season . He had four receptions for 55 yards against 21st @-@ ranked Virginia Tech , seven receptions for 71 yards against Florida State , and six receptions for 68 yards and a touchdown against Boston College .
After the season , the Atlantic Coast Sports Media Association named Smith to the All @-@ ACC second team as both a wide receiver and return specialist . Phil Steele 's and The Sporting News named him to their All @-@ ACC first teams as a wide receiver . Phil Steele 's and Rivals.com named him to their All @-@ ACC second teams as a kick returner . Smith submitted his name to a panel of NFL scouts after the season , which evaluated him as a third- or fourth @-@ round selection in the 2010 NFL Draft .
= = = 2010 season = = =
Smith returned to Maryland for the 2010 season to increase his NFL draft stock , complete his criminology and criminal justice degree in December , and improve the team 's record from a 2 – 10 finish the year prior . He said , " I 'll have the same talk with the same people [ about the draft ] . But my focus is to change what happened last year . " Prior to the start of the season , the coaching staff planned to increase Smith 's efficiency by playing him fewer snaps in an attempt to keep him fresh . In the Red – White spring game , Smith accounted for 90 of starting quarterback Jamarr Robinson 's 146 passing yards , including a " fingertip catch in the end zone " on the opening drive , and the two roommates were reported to have developed a good rapport . Before the season , Smith was named to the watchlists for the Paul Hornung Award and Biletnikoff Award .
Maryland started the 2010 season against Navy , which intentionally kicked away from the elusive return man . In the home opener against Morgan State , Smith scored on a 24 @-@ yard pass from backup quarterback Danny O 'Brien and a five @-@ yard pass from starter Jamarr Robinson . Smith scored two touchdowns of 60 and 80 yards in Maryland 's failed comeback attempt at 21st @-@ ranked West Virginia , 31 – 17 . After the West Virginia game , Sports Illustrated considered Smith a rising prospect for the 2011 NFL Draft and described him as " a true vertical threat who has NFL size and home @-@ run hitting speed . " Redshirt freshman Danny O 'Brien secured the starting quarterback position after Jamarr Robinson suffered a shoulder injury , and the rookie soon " found great chemistry " with Smith . Against Florida International , Smith made eight receptions for 159 yards , including a 68 @-@ yard touchdown catch and a 32 @-@ yard catch that set up another score . He limped off of the field after his touchdown catch , but later said , " I was fine . I was Jim Brown @-@ ing . " The following week , he was limited in practice , but started against Duke and caught a 44 @-@ yard reception during a first @-@ half scoring drive . However , the lingering ankle ailment continued to bother Smith , and head coach Ralph Friedgen considered using punt returner Tony Logan for kickoff returns until he fully healed . Smith had four receptions for 55 yards in the 31 – 7 loss to Clemson , but was hindered by his sore ankle which kept him out of practice . Smith said , " I don 't like sitting out [ practices ] . I feel like I 'm leaving my teammates out to dry . I didn 't battle with them all week . " After the game , Friedgen said in the future he would sit players who could not practice by the Thursday before a game .
Against Boston College , running back Da 'Rel Scott handled some of the kickoff return duties , but Smith returned two for 38 yards . He also caught eight passes for 34 yards and a touchdown . The following week , Maryland clinched bowl eligibility with a 62 – 14 rout of Wake Forest . Regarding the turnaround from the previous season 's 2 – 10 record , Smith said , " We expected to be in this position . No one else expected it , " but added " No one is going to respect us [ yet ] because we have not beaten any top dogs . " In the game , Smith had five catches for 66 yards , including a 17 @-@ yard touchdown reception . Before the game against Miami , the coaching staff reported Smith 's ankle had improved and he was " as healthy as he has been in a while . " Against Miami , he had three receptions for 35 yards . Smith also compiled 46 yards on two kickoff returns to break the ACC career kickoff return yards record with 2 @,@ 724 yards , which surpassed the previous mark of 2 @,@ 688 yards held
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using potent psychedelics — in particular , DMT — more frequently ; Alex discovered that Oscar slept with Victor 's mother ; and finally , we again see Oscar meet Victor at The Void to sell him drugs , only to be shot in the bathroom .
Afterwards , a disembodied Oscar floats over Tokyo and witnesses the aftermath of his death . Linda becomes withdrawn and despondent , especially after getting an abortion ; Oscar 's dealer , Bruno , destroys his stash ; Alex lives in hiding on the streets ; and Linda wishes she would have been with Alex instead of Mario , as Oscar had wanted . On one occasion , Linda wishes that Oscar would come back to life ; Oscar then enters Linda 's head , after which he wakes up at the morgue , from which his body is taken to be cremated .
Meanwhile , Victor and his mother scream at each other because she had had sex with Oscar , and because of that Victor had informed the police about Oscar 's drug dealing ; Victor is then thrown out of his parents ' home . He shows up at Linda 's apartment and apologizes for having had her brother killed , but says Linda is partially to blame since she hung around with creeps . This angers Linda , who repeatedly screams that Victor should just go kill himself .
The perspective now hovers high above Tokyo and enters an airplane , where Oscar 's mother breast @-@ feeds a baby to whom she whispers Oscar 's name . The view then drops to Linda and Alex , who take a taxi to a Tokyo love hotel and have sex . The perspective moves among hotel rooms and observes several other couples having sex in various positions . Each couple emanates a pulsating electric @-@ like pink glow from their genitals . Oscar enters Alex 's head and witnesses the sex with Linda from Alex 's point of view . He then travels inside Linda 's vagina to witness Alex 's thrusting , then observes his ejaculation and follows the semen into the fertilization of his sister 's ovum . The final scene is shot from the perspective of a baby being born to Oscar 's mother . ( According to the director , this is a flashback to Oscar 's own birth in the form of a false memory ) .
= = Themes = =
The cinematic experience itself is the main focus of the film , but there is also a central theme of emptiness . Noé describes the film 's subject as " the sentimentality of mammals and the shimmering vacuity of the human experience . " The dramaturgy after Oscar has been shot is loosely based on The Tibetan Book of the Dead , and ends with the spirit 's search for a way to reincarnate . The director , who opposes all religious beliefs , says that " the whole movie is a dream of someone who read The Tibetan Book of the Dead , and heard about it before being [ shot by a gun ] . It 's not the story of someone who dies , flies and is reincarnated , it 's the story of someone who is stoned when he gets shot and who has an intonation of his own dream . " Noé describes the ending of the film as Oscar 's recollection of " the most traumatic moment of his life – his own birth " . The director also leaves open the possibility that Oscar 's life starts over again in an endless loop , due to the human brain 's perception of time .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
The idea for the film had been growing since Noé 's adolescence , when he first became interested in matters of death and existence . In his early twenties — while under influence of psilocybin mushrooms — he saw Robert Montgomery 's Lady in the Lake , a 1947 film shot entirely in a first @-@ person perspective . He then decided that , if he ever made a film about the afterlife , that was the way in which it would be filmed . Noé had been working on different versions of the screenplay for fifteen years before the film went into production . The story had initially been more linear , and the drafts were set in different locations , including the Andes , France , and New York City . Tokyo was chosen because it could provide colourful environments required for the film 's hallucinogenic aspects , and because Japan 's repressive drug laws add to the drama , explaining the intensity of the main character 's fear of the police .
Noé first tried to get the film funded in the early 2000s . Several producers responded positively to the script , and it was briefly under development for Tom Tykwer 's German company X @-@ Filme Creative Pool . It was considered too expensive and the producers dropped out . Prospects changed when Irréversible ( 2002 ) became a commercial success . Noé had written and directed Irréversible for StudioCanal , and it was sold internationally by their subsidiary , Wild Bunch . When the producers at Wild Bunch asked Noé what he wanted to do next , he answered Enter the Void . The project was once again considered too expensive in relation to its commercial potential , but when Wild Bunch discovered that Noé had started to develop the film for Pathé instead of them , they said that they were willing to fund it . Since development went slowly at Pathé , Noé chose to not renew his contract with the studio and accepted Wild Bunch 's offer .
Enter the Void was produced under Fidélité Films , with 70 % of the budget invested by Wild Bunch . French co @-@ producers included Noé 's company Les Cinémas de la Zone and the visual effects studio BUF Compagnie . It received pre @-@ sales investment from Canal + and funding from Eurimages . Additional co @-@ production support was provided by Essential Filmproduktion of Germany and BIM Distribuzione of Italy . The total budget was 12 @.@ 38 million euro . In retrospect , Noé called Irréversible a bank robbery , a film made in order to finance Enter the Void . He also saw it as a helpful technical exercise .
= = = Cast = = =
The decision to use English @-@ speaking actors was made early . Since the film would be very visual , the director wanted audiences to be able to focus on the images , and not have to rely on subtitles . He later expressed his approval of the use of dubbed voice tracks in non @-@ English speaking countries .
The role of Linda was the first to be cast . Noé found Paz de la Huerta after holding auditions in New York City . " I met Paz and I really liked her . She had the profile for the character because she likes screaming , crying , showing herself naked — all the qualities for it . " Due to a desire that Linda and Oscar should be believable as siblings , Nathaniel Brown , a non @-@ professional , was cast because of his resemblance to Huerta . Noé feared that a professional actor would be frustrated by being shown almost exclusively from behind , but he felt that Brown , an aspiring director , would find it stimulating to merely be present on the set . Auditions were held for westerners living in Japan for other Tokyo @-@ based roles . Cyril Roy went to an audition with a friend only because he wanted to talk with the director , whose previous films he admired . Roy was cast as Alex , since Noé found his talkative personality suitable for the role . Noé said about Brown and Roy :
The thought of acting in a film had never even entered their minds . They 're easy @-@ going people , they have a good time in front of the camera and I don 't think there was a single moment where either of them felt they were working . Paz , however , was definitely conscious of the fact that she was interpreting a role .
= = = Visual conception = = =
Noé had tried various hallucinogens in his youth , and used those experiences as inspiration for the visual style . Later , when the director was already planning the film , he tried the psychoactive brew ayahuasca , in which the active substance is DMT . This was done in the Peruvian jungle , where the brew is legal due to its traditional use as an entheogen . Noé described the experience as very intense , and said he regarded it " almost like professional research . " Since few on the design team had ever taken a hallucinogen , it was necessary for Noé to collect and provide visual references in the forms of paintings , photographs , music videos , and excerpts from films . One reference used was the works of biologist Ernst Haeckel , whose drawings influenced the organic patterns seen during Oscar 's visions .
Another important stylistic influence was the experimental oeuvre of Kenneth Anger , and in particular Inauguration of the Pleasure Dome . Noé saw Anger 's films in the early 1990s , while promoting the short film Carne , and quickly became a fan . Other influences from experimental cinema included the works of Jordan Belson and Peter Tscherkassky . Noé 's favourite film , 2001 : A Space Odyssey , was the most prominent influence among mainstream films ; Noé wanted to become a filmmaker after he saw it at the age of seven . Brian De Palma 's Snake Eyes and other films which feature hovering overhead shots inspired Noé to make a film largely from such a perspective .
There were two reasons for showing Oscar 's head and shoulders within the frame during the flashback scenes , rather than letting the camera be the character 's eyes . The first was that this is the way Noé usually sees himself in dreams and when recalling past events . He also thought it would be easier for the viewer to care about a character who is visible , as many point @-@ of @-@ view films , in his opinion , look unintentionally funny .
= = = Filming = = =
The crew filmed in Tokyo from 19 October to 15 December 2007 . Flashback scenes were shot in Montreal over the course of four weeks the following spring , until 16 May 2008 . The team went back to Tokyo twice for additional footage , once before the Montreal session and once when principal photography was complete . Only four persons on the Tokyo set were French ; the rest of the crew was Japanese . Marc Caro worked as the supervisor of set designs in Tokyo . According to Noé , Caro had three months free after finishing Dante 01 , his first effort as a solo director , so Noé asked him to come to Japan .
The 100 @-@ page screenplay detailed plot developments and many of the visual traits , but very little dialogue was scripted , so the actors were asked to improvise their lines . Noé explained this approach : " For me , directing actors is just finding the right people and putting them in the right mood on the set and letting them go . ... I think the energy has to come on the set at the very last minute . " Locations were used in Kabukichō and other parts of Shinjuku . Since much of the film was set in neighbourhoods known for gambling and prostitution , the producers made agreements with the Yakuza crime syndicates before filming some of the on @-@ location scenes . Criminal organisations were not involved in the actual production . Studio scenes set in Tokyo were filmed at Toho Studios . More scenes than originally planned had to be filmed in the studio because of the many complicated crane arrangements . Some of the overhead sequences took a full day to arrange and film . The scenes where Oscar is alive were mostly shot on location , but the crane shots were exclusively taken in the studio ; this included revisits to some of the previous locations , which were replicated as large indoor sets . Other shots were taken from helicopters flying over the city . Much attention was paid to the continuity of the geography , and filming was overseen by a supervisor from the visual @-@ effects team .
The film was mainly shot on Kodak Vision3 250D film stock . Scenes where Oscar is alive were shot in the super 35 format with Arricam LT cameras , and the rest in super 16 with an Aaton XTR Prod . The cinematographer was Benoît Debie , who also shot Irréversible . As in Irréversible , Noé was reluctant to use artificial lighting that would destroy the illusion if the camera was turned around . Thanks to Tokyo 's many neon signs , very little additional lighting was required for the exterior scenes , despite the fact that many were shot late at night . For the interior scenes Debie mainly used practical , in @-@ frame light sources . Some exceptions were made . One was that the moods of the characters were meant to be indicated by different colours , ranging from orange to purple with occasional greens . For this , Debie used a set of red , green , and blue programmable disco lights , which allowed for all different hues . The disco lights were easy to hide . They were also used for simulation of neon flashes , and to add a tint of red to the dressing @-@ room scenes . Another exception was the use of strobe lights , which were programmed together with the coloured lights . Blue colour was avoided throughout , since the filmmakers did not associate it with dreams . Noé was the film 's camera operator , except for a few shots of Oscar running in the streets , as they required a taller cameraman . In those scenes , the camera was held by Debie .
= = = Post @-@ production = = =
Enter the Void 's post @-@ production process lasted more than a year . Work on the digital effects was led by Pierre Buffin of BUF Compagnie . Every scene in the film includes computer @-@ generated imagery ( CGI ) — even the flashback scenes , where the backdrops were digitally altered . Studio scenes , helicopter shots , and CGI were forged together in the hovering sequences with the intention that the viewer should be unable to determine which is which . For shots from high altitudes , the team started with helicopter footage from video , and then created computer models of the neighbourhoods with textures from photographs . Neon lights , reflections , and dark areas were consistently accentuated . Flickers were created through a mixture of motion blur , chromatic aberration , and focus effects . For scenes seen as through a fisheye lens , the team recreated the sets digitally and progressively increased the environments ' reflection values along with the lens effect .
Noé initially asked the Daft Punk member Thomas Bangalter , who had composed the music for Irréversible , to create an original soundtrack for Enter the Void . Bangalter was occupied with work on Tron : Legacy and had to decline . As a compromise , he provided Noé with an arrangement of ambient sounds and samples from existing experimental music , from which Noé compiled what he envisioned as " a maelstrom of sounds . " Bangalter is billed in the credits as sound effects director , and the film features his track " Désaccords " originally composed for Irréversible . One of the sources of inspiration for the soundtrack was " Revolution 9 " by The Beatles , a sound collage which Noé describes as a work " where you catch the beginning of a note , or of a melody and then it 's already somewhere else . " The two main musical themes of the film are " Freak " by the British electro artist LFO , which is played during the opening credits , and a recording by Delia Derbyshire of Johann Sebastian Bach 's " Air on the G String " , which serves as the theme for Oscar 's childhood and his relationship with Linda . The beginning of " ANS " by the British band Coil is heard during Oscar 's first DMT trip . The Throbbing Gristle song " Hamburger Lady " plays as Oscar tries to deliver drugs to Victor at the bar . The soundtrack notably includes excerpts from nearly every part of Jean @-@ Claude Éloy 's two compositions , Shânti and Gaku @-@ no @-@ Michi . Other songs on the soundtrack include Toshiya Tsunoda 's " Music for Baby " , Alvin Lucier 's " Music for Gamelan Instruments , Microphones , Amplifiers and Loudspeakers " , and works by Denis Smalley , Lullatone , and Zbigniew Karkowski .
When the film premiered at film festivals , it was initially shown in a version without any credits . As several people at the screenings complained about the length of the film , Noé decided that if the final version would have any opening titles , they would have to be " as fast as possible and as graphic as possible " . The German experimental filmmaker Thorsten Fleisch was hired to create the title logo . Noé discovered Fleisch through his 2007 film Energie ! , for which the technique of animated sparks had been developed .
= = Release = =
A 163 @-@ minute version of the film competed in the main competition of the 2009 Cannes Film Festival . The Cannes cut lacked much of the finished film 's sound design , and some visual effects were not fully in place . Noé said about the version : " the film was like a baby of three months . I took it out of my belly to show it , flattered by [ festival general ] Thierry Frémaux 's invitation , but it was still in gestation . So I had to put it back into my belly , that is to say to tweak many details . "
Festival screenings of subsequent versions followed throughout the year , including the Toronto , Sitges , London , and Stockholm international film festivals . The final 154 @-@ minute cut premiered at the 2010 Sundance Film Festival . At the Cannes premiere , the film had alternatively been listed with the French title Soudain le vide , which means " Suddenly the void " .
When it was released in France , it used the English title . It premiered in France on 5 May 2010 through Wild Bunch Distribution . The Japanese release followed ten days later .
Distribution rights for the United States were picked up at Sundance by IFC Films . Trinity Filmed Entertainment was the British distributor . The film was released in the United States and the United Kingdom on 24 September 2010 . In both these countries , the film was distributed without the seventh of its nine reels . The running time was therefore 137 minutes at 25 frames per second , which the director had instructed that the film should be played at , or 142 minutes at the more common 24 frames per second . Noé says that none of the cut material is essential for the film . He describes it as " some astro @-@ visions , an orgy scene with Linda and the Japanese girl , the scene where you see [ Oscar ] waking up at the morgue and he thinks he 's alive but he 's not , and then the camera goes down the plughole where she 's tipping his ashes . " The reason the shorter version was made was that Noé had promised the investors to make an alternative edit if the film ended up being longer than two hours and 20 minutes . The film was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray Disc in France on 1 December 2010 . Each edition features both the complete version and the shorter cut .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Thomas Sotinel of Le Monde started his review by recalling the irritation the film caused upon its world premiere in Cannes , and compared the cut he had seen there to the final version : " In all honesty , the difference does not jump to my eyes . Of course , the film seems more consistent , but that may be because we 've already traveled this maze once . While leaving , we might remain calmer , but still amazed by the mixture of exuberant invention and puerility . " A positive review came from L 'Express , written by Laurent Djian , who compared the film to 2001 : A Space Odyssey . He applauded how he found the strobe lights hypnotising in a way that influenced the perception of time . " In 2010 , no other filmmaker [ in France ] than Gaspar Noé can shoot with such mastery , nor draw us into a vortex of sensations as vertiginous . " Ouest @-@ France 's critic , on the other hand , was immensely bored by the film , and called it " a padding of simple ideas , stereotypes and cliches in a heap of contrived and vain images which think they 're technical prowess . Soporific cinema . "
Upon the Japanese release , the critic writing for The Japan Times reflected : " If Lost in Translation is the film you 'd make when all you know about Japan are the pampered press junkets at Shinjuku 5 @-@ star hotels , then Enter the Void is what you would make if you never got beyond the Roppongi pub @-@ crawl . " While the review was largely negative , the author was still impressed by the visual depiction of the Japanese capital : " Visually , much of the film is stunning ... and the art design by Marc Caro ( Delicatessen ) takes Tokyo 's love of neon gaudiness to a surreal extreme " .
Enter the Void holds a 70 % approval rating on review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes , based on 88 English @-@ language reviews , with a weighted average score of 6 @.@ 7 / 10 . On Metacritic , the film holds a normalized score of 69 out of 100 , based on 19 critics , indicating " generally favorable reviews " .
Peter Bradshaw included the film in The Guardian 's top 50 films of the decade so far , and gave it five stars out of five . He compared it to Irréversible , which he had disliked :
Enter the Void is , in its way , just as provocative , just as extreme , just as mad , just as much of an outrageous ordeal [ . ] ... But despite its querulous melodrama and crazed Freudian pedantries , it has a human purpose the previous film lacked , and its sheer deranged brilliance is magnificent . ... Love him or loathe him – and I 've done both in my time – Gaspar Noé is one of the very few directors who is actually trying to do something new with the medium , battling at the boundaries of the possible .
Andrew Male rated the film two out of five in Empire . Male called it " technically stunning " , but also " dreadfully acted , tediously ' profound ' and painfully overlong " , and accused the director of misogyny . The Village Voice 's Karina Longworth had several reservations about the film . She thought that the characters lacked emotional depth and called the story " a lame fusion of stoner lifestyle , sexual fetish , and philosophical inquiry " , but still ended the review : " I could stare at this movie for days and not get tired of the sensation . A mash @-@ up of the sacred , the profane , and the brain @-@ dead , Enter the Void is addictive . " Jen Chaney of The Washington Post thought that the film was successful as an " attempt to transport moviegoers to a hallucinatory version of the hereafter unlike anything they 've ever witnessed on film " , but added : " The problem is that it 's also the most excruciating sit in recent cinematic memory . And no , the fact that it 's intentionally excruciating doesn 't make it less excruciating . "
= = = Box office = = =
The film was a financial failure ; according to Wild Bunch in February 2011 , the film had returned 1 @.@ 25 % of the investment . In France , it was launched on 30 prints and sold 51 @,@ 126 tickets in total . Producer Brahim Chioua said that the film had been difficult to sell abroad for a reasonable price due to the late @-@ 2000s financial crisis . The Numbers reported that the worldwide theatrical revenues corresponded to US $ 1 @,@ 467 @,@ 278 .
= = = Accolades = = =
Enter the Void won the Special Jury Award and the prize for Best Cinematography at the 2009 Sitges Film Festival . It received the main award for best film at the 2010 Neuchâtel Film Festival . This especially delighted Noé , since one of the jury members in Neuchâtel was Douglas Trumbull , the special effects supervisor of 2001 : A Space Odyssey .
= Indonesia =
Indonesia ( / ˌɪndəˈniːʒə / IN @-@ də @-@ NEE @-@ zhə or / ˌɪndoʊˈniːziə / IN @-@ doh @-@ NEE @-@ zee @-@ ə ; Indonesian : [ ɪndonesia ] ) , officially the Republic of Indonesia ( Indonesian : Republik Indonesia [ rɛpublik ɪndonesia ] ) , is a country in Southeast Asia . Situated between the Indian and Pacific oceans , it is the world 's largest island country , with more than thirteen thousand islands . It has an estimated population of over 258 million people and is the world 's fourth most populous country as well as the most populous Muslim majority country . The world 's most populous island of Java contains more than half of the country 's population .
Indonesia 's republican form of government includes an elected legislature and president . Indonesia has 34 provinces , of which five have Special Administrative status . Its capital and most populous city is Jakarta . The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea , East Timor , and Malaysia . Other neighbouring countries include Singapore , the Philippines , Australia , Palau , and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands . Indonesia is a founding member of ASEAN and a member of the G @-@ 20 major economies . The Indonesian economy is the world 's 16th largest by nominal GDP and the 8th largest by GDP at PPP .
The Indonesian archipelago has been an important trade region since at least the 7th century , when Srivijaya and then later Majapahit traded with China and India . Local rulers gradually absorbed foreign cultural , religious and political models from the early centuries CE , and Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms flourished . Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources . Muslim traders and Sufi scholars brought the now @-@ dominant Islam , while European powers brought Christianity and fought one another to monopolise trade in the Spice Islands of Maluku during the Age of Discovery . Following three and a half centuries of Dutch colonialism starting from Amboina and Batavia , and eventually all of the archipelago including Timor and West Papua , at times interrupted by Portuguese , French and British rule , Indonesia secured its independence after World War II . Indonesia 's history has since been turbulent , with challenges posed by natural disasters , mass slaughter , corruption , separatism , a democratisation process , and periods of rapid economic change .
Indonesia consists of hundreds of distinct native ethnic and linguistic groups . The largest – and politically dominant – ethnic group are the Javanese . A shared identity has developed , defined by a national language , ethnic diversity , religious pluralism within a Muslim @-@ majority population , and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it . Indonesia 's national motto , " Bhinneka Tunggal Ika " ( " Unity in Diversity " literally , " many , yet one " ) , articulates the diversity that shapes the country . Despite its large population and densely populated regions , Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support the world 's second highest level of biodiversity . The country has abundant natural resources like oil and natural gas , tin , copper and gold . Agriculture mainly produces rice , tea , coffee , spices and rubber . Indonesia 's major trading partners are Japan , the United States and the surrounding nations of Singapore , Malaysia and Australia .
= = Etymology = =
The name Indonesia derives from the Greek translation of the Indus River and the word nèsos , meaning " Indian island " . The name dates to the 18th century , far predating the formation of independent Indonesia . In 1850 , George Windsor Earl , an English ethnologist , proposed the terms Indunesians — and , his preference , Malayunesians — for the inhabitants of the " Indian Archipelago or Malayan Archipelago " . In the same publication , a student of Earl 's , James Richardson Logan , used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago . However , Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia . Instead , they used the terms Malay Archipelago ( Maleische Archipel ) ; the Netherlands East Indies ( Nederlandsch Oost Indië ) , popularly Indië ; the East ( de Oost ) ; and Insulinde .
After 1900 , the name Indonesia became more common in academic circles outside the Netherlands , and Indonesian nationalist groups adopted it for political expression . Adolf Bastian , of the University of Berlin , popularised the name through his book Indonesien oder die Inseln des Malayischen Archipels , 1884 – 1894 . The first Indonesian scholar to use the name was Suwardi Suryaningrat ( Ki Hajar Dewantara ) , when he established a press bureau in the Netherlands with the name Indonesisch Pers @-@ bureau in 1913 .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
Fossils and the remains of tools show that the Indonesian archipelago was inhabited by Homo erectus , popularly known as " Java Man " , between 1 @.@ 5 million years ago and 35 @,@ 000 years ago . Homo sapiens reached the region by around 45 @,@ 000 years ago . Austronesian peoples , who form the majority of the modern population , migrated to Southeast Asia from Taiwan . They arrived in Indonesia around 2000 BCE , and as they spread through the archipelago , confined the indigenous Melanesian peoples to the far eastern regions .
Ideal agricultural conditions and the mastering of wet @-@ field rice cultivation as early as the 8th century BCE , allowed villages , towns , and small kingdoms to flourish by the 1st century CE . Indonesia 's strategic sea @-@ lane position fostered inter @-@ island and international trade , including links with Indian kingdoms and China , which were established several centuries BCE . Trade has since fundamentally shaped Indonesian history .
From the 7th century CE , the powerful Srivijaya naval kingdom flourished as a result of trade and the influences of Hinduism and Buddhism that were imported with it . Between the eighth and 10th centuries CE , the agricultural Buddhist Sailendra and Hindu Mataram dynasties thrived and declined in inland Java , leaving grand religious monuments such as Borobudur , Sewu and Prambanan . This period marked a renaissance of Hindu @-@ Buddhist art in ancient Java .
Around the first quarter of the 10th century , the centre of the kingdom was shifted from Mataram area in Central Java to Brantas River valley in East Java by Mpu Sindok , who established the Isyana Dynasty . Subsequently , series of Javanese Hindu @-@ Buddhist polities rise and fall , from Kahuripan kingdom ruled by Airlangga to Kadiri and Singhasari . In West Java , Sunda Kingdom was re @-@ established circa 1030 according to Sanghyang Tapak inscription . In Bali , the Warmadewas established their rule on the Kingdom of Bali in the 10th century . The Hindu Majapahit kingdom was founded in eastern Java in the late 13th century , and under Gajah Mada , its influence stretched over much of Indonesia .
= = = Colonial era = = =
Although Muslim traders first traveled through Southeast Asia early in the Islamic era , the earliest evidence of Islamized populations in Indonesia dates to the 13th century in northern Sumatra . Other Indonesian areas gradually adopted Islam , and it was the dominant religion in Java and Sumatra by the end of the 16th century . For the most part , Islam overlaid and mixed with existing cultural and religious influences , which shaped the predominant form of Islam in Indonesia , particularly in Java .
The first regular contact between Europeans and the peoples of Indonesia began in 1512 , when Portuguese traders led by Francisco Serrão , sought to monopolize the sources of nutmeg , cloves , and cubeb pepper in Maluku . Dutch and British traders followed . In 1602 , the Dutch established the Dutch East India Company ( VOC ) , and in following decades , the Dutch has gained foothold in Batavia and Amboina . Throughout 17th and 18th centuries , the Company became the dominant European power in the archipelago .
Following bankruptcy , the VOC was formally dissolved in 1800 , and the government of the Netherlands established the Dutch East Indies as a nationalised colony . For most of the colonial period , Dutch control over the archipelago was tenuous outside of coastal strongholds ; only in the early 20th century did Dutch dominance extend to what was to become Indonesia 's current boundaries . Despite major internal political , social and sectarian divisions during the National Revolution , Indonesians , on the whole , found unity in their fight for independence . Japanese occupation during World War II ended Dutch rule , and encouraged the previously suppressed Indonesian independence movement .
= = = Modern era = = =
A later UN report stated that four million people died in Indonesia as a result of famine and forced labor during the Japanese occupation . Two days after the surrender of Japan in August 1945 , Sukarno , an influential nationalist leader , declared independence and was appointed president . The Netherlands tried to reestablish their rule , and an armed and diplomatic struggle ended in December 1949 , when in the face of international pressure , the Dutch formally recognized Indonesian independence ( with the exception of the Dutch territory of West New Guinea , which was incorporated into Indonesia following the 1962 New York Agreement , and the UN @-@ mandated Act of Free Choice of 1969 ) .
Sukarno moved Indonesia from democracy towards authoritarianism , and maintained his power base by balancing the opposing forces of the military and the Communist Party of Indonesia ( Partai Komunis Indonesia , PKI ) . An attempted coup on 30 September 1965 was countered by the army , who led a violent anti @-@ communist purge , during which the PKI was blamed for the coup and effectively destroyed . Large @-@ scale killings took place which targeted communists , ethnic Chinese and alleged leftists . The most widely accepted estimates are that between 500 @,@ 000 and one million people were killed , with some estimates as high as two to three million .
The head of the military , General Suharto , outmaneuvered the politically weakened Sukarno and was formally appointed president in March 1968 . His New Order administration was supported by the US government , and encouraged foreign direct investment in Indonesia , which was a major factor in the subsequent three decades of substantial economic growth . However , the authoritarian " New Order " was widely accused of corruption and suppression of political opposition .
Indonesia was the country hardest hit by the late 1990s Asian financial crisis . This increased popular discontent with the New Order and led to popular protest across the country . Suharto resigned on 21 May 1998 . In 1999 , East Timor voted to secede from Indonesia , after a twenty @-@ five @-@ year military occupation that was marked by international condemnation of repression of the East Timorese .
Since Suharto 's resignation , a strengthening of democratic processes has included a regional autonomy program , and the first direct presidential election in 2004 , which was won by Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono , who went on to win a second term in 2009 . Political and economic instability , social unrest , corruption , and terrorism slowed progress ; however , in the last five years the economy has performed strongly . Although relations among different religious and ethnic groups are largely harmonious , sectarian discontent and violence have persisted . A political settlement to an armed separatist conflict in Aceh was achieved in 2005 .
= = Government and politics = =
Indonesia is a republic with a presidential system . As a unitary state , power is concentrated in the central government . Following the resignation of President Suharto in 1998 , Indonesian political and governmental structures have undergone major reforms . Four amendments to the 1945 Constitution of Indonesia have revamped the executive , judicial , and legislative branches .
The president of Indonesia is the head of state and head of government , commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Indonesian National Armed Forces , and the director of domestic governance , policy @-@ making , and foreign affairs . The president appoints a council of ministers , who are not required to be elected members of the legislature . The 2004 presidential election was the first in which the people directly elected the president and vice @-@ president . The president may serve a maximum of two consecutive five @-@ year terms .
The highest representative body at national level is Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat ( People 's Consultative Assembly ) or MPR . Its main functions are supporting and amending the constitution , inaugurating the president , and formalising broad outlines of state policy . It has the power to impeach the president . The MPR comprises two houses ; Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat ( People 's Representative Council ) or DPR , with 560 members , and Dewan Perwakilan Daerah ( Regional Representative Council ) or DPD , with 132 members . The DPR passes legislation and monitors the executive branch ; party @-@ aligned members are elected for five @-@ year terms by proportional representation . Reforms since 1998 have markedly increased the DPR 's role in national governance . The DPD is a new chamber for matters of regional management .
Most civil disputes appear before Pengadilan Negeri ( State Court ) ; appeals are heard before Pengadilan Tinggi ( High Court ) . Mahkamah Agung is the country 's highest court , and hears final cessation appeals and conducts case reviews . Other courts include the Commercial Court , which handles bankruptcy and insolvency ; Pengadilan Tata Negara ( State Administrative Court ) to hear administrative law cases against the government ; Mahkamah Konstitusi ( Constitutional Court ) to hear disputes concerning legality of law , general elections , dissolution of political parties , and the scope of authority of state institutions ; and Pengadilan Agama ( Religious Court ) to deal with codified Sharia Law cases .
= = = Politics = = =
Since 1999 Indonesia has had a multi @-@ party system . In the two legislative elections since the fall of the New Order regime , no political party has managed to win an overall majority of seats , resulting in coalition governments .
The Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle is the party of Joko Widodo , the Indonesian President . The Great Indonesia Movement Party is the third largest political party .
= = = Foreign relations = = =
In contrast to Sukarno 's anti @-@ imperialistic antipathy to Western powers and tensions with Malaysia , Indonesia 's foreign relations since the New Order era have been based on economic and political co @-@ operation with the Western world . Indonesia maintains close relationships with its neighbours in Asia , and is a founding member of ASEAN and the East Asia Summit . The country restored relations with the People 's Republic of China in 1990 following a freeze in place since anti @-@ communist purges early in the Suharto era .
Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950 , and was a founder of the Non @-@ Aligned Movement ( NAM ) and the Organisation of the Islamic Conference ( OIC ) . Indonesia is signatory to the ASEAN Free Trade Area agreement , the Cairns Group , and the World Trade Organization ( WTO ) , and a member of OPEC . Indonesia has received humanitarian and development aid since 1966 , in particular from the United States , western Europe , Australia , and Japan .
The Indonesian government has worked with other countries to apprehend and prosecute perpetrators of major bombings linked to militant Islamism and Al @-@ Qaeda . The deadliest bombing killed 202 people ( including 164 international tourists ) in the Bali resort town of Kuta in 2002 . The attacks , and subsequent travel warnings issued by other countries , severely damaged Indonesia 's tourism industry and foreign investment prospects .
= = = Military = = =
Indonesia 's Armed Forces ( TNI ) include the Army ( TNI – AD ) , Navy ( TNI – AL , which includes Marine Corps ) , and Air Force ( TNI – AU ) . The army has about 400 @,@ 000 active @-@ duty personnel . Defense spending in the national budget was 4 % of GDP in 2006 , and is controversially supplemented by revenue from military commercial interests and foundations . One of the reforms following the 1998 resignation of Suharto was the removal of formal TNI representation in parliament ; nevertheless , its political influence remains extensive .
Separatist movements in the provinces of Aceh and Papua have led to armed conflict , and subsequent allegations of human rights abuses and brutality from all sides . Following a sporadic thirty @-@ year guerrilla war between the Gerakan Aceh Merdeka ( GAM ) and the Indonesian military , a ceasefire agreement was reached in 2005 . In Papua , there has been a significant , albeit imperfect , implementation of regional autonomy laws , and a reported decline in the levels of violence and human rights abuses , since the presidency of Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono .
= = = Administrative divisions = = =
Administratively , Indonesia consists of 34 provinces , five of which have special status . Each province has its own legislature and governor . The provinces are subdivided into regencies ( kabupaten ) and cities ( kota ) , which are further subdivided into districts ( kecamatan or distrik in Papua and West Papua ) , and again into administrative villages ( either desa , kelurahan , kampung , nagari in West Sumatra , or gampong in Aceh ) .
The village is the lowest level of government administration in Indonesia . Furthermore , a village is divided into several community groups ( rukun warga ( RW ) ) which are further divided into neighbourhood groups ( rukun tetangga ( RT ) ) . In Java the desa ( village ) is divided further into smaller units called dusun or dukuh ( hamlets ) , these units are the same as rukun warga . Following the implementation of regional autonomy measures in 2001 , the regencies and cities have become the key administrative units , responsible for providing most government services . The village administration level is the most influential on a citizen 's daily life and handles matters of a village or neighbourhood through an elected lurah or kepala desa ( village chief ) .
The provinces of Aceh , Jakarta , Yogyakarta , Papua , and West Papua have greater legislative privileges and a higher degree of autonomy from the central government than the other provinces . The Acehnese government , for example , has the right to create certain elements of an independent legal system . In 2003 , it instituted a form of sharia ( Islamic law ) .
Yogyakarta was granted the status of Special Region in recognition of its pivotal role in supporting Indonesian Republicans during the Indonesian Revolution and its willingness to join Indonesia as a republic . Papua , formerly known as Irian Jaya , was granted special autonomy status in 2001 and was split into Papua and West Papua in February 2003 . Jakarta is the country 's special capital region .
Indonesian provinces and their capitals , listed by region
Indonesian name is in parentheses if different from English .
* indicates provinces with special status
= = Geography = =
Indonesia lies between latitudes 11 ° S and 6 ° N , and longitudes 95 ° E and 141 ° E. It is the largest archipelagic country in the world , extending 5 @,@ 120 kilometres ( 3 @,@ 181 mi ) from east to west and 1 @,@ 760 kilometres ( 1 @,@ 094 mi ) from north to south . According to a geospatial survey conducted between 2007 and 2010 by National Coordinating Agency for Survey and Mapping ( Bakosurtanal ) , Indonesia has 13 @,@ 466 islands , about 6 @,@ 000 of which are inhabited . These are scattered over both sides of the equator . The largest are Java , Sumatra , Borneo ( shared with Brunei and Malaysia ) , New Guinea ( shared with Papua New Guinea ) , and Sulawesi . Indonesia shares land borders with Malaysia on Borneo , Papua New Guinea on the island of New Guinea , and East Timor on the island of Timor . Indonesia shares maritime borders across narrow straits with Singapore , Malaysia , the Philippines , and Palau to the north , and with Australia to the south . The capital , Jakarta , is on Java and is the nation 's largest city , followed by Surabaya , Bandung , Medan , and Semarang .
At 1 @,@ 919 @,@ 440 square kilometres ( 741 @,@ 050 sq mi ) , Indonesia is the world 's 15th @-@ largest country in terms of land area and world 's 7th @-@ largest country in terms of combined sea and land area . Its average population density is 134 people per square kilometre ( 347 per sq mi ) , 79th in the world , although Java , the world 's most populous island , has a population density of 940 people per square kilometre ( 2 @,@ 435 per sq mi ) .
At 4 @,@ 884 metres ( 16 @,@ 024 ft ) , Puncak Jaya in Papua is Indonesia 's highest peak , and Lake Toba in Sumatra its largest lake , with an area of 1 @,@ 145 square kilometres ( 442 sq mi ) . Indonesia 's largest rivers are in Kalimantan , and include the Mahakam and Barito ; such rivers are communication and transport links between the island 's river settlements .
Indonesia 's location on the edges of the Pacific , Eurasian , and Australian tectonic plates makes it the site of numerous volcanoes and frequent earthquakes . Indonesia has at least 150 active volcanoes , including Krakatoa and Tambora , both famous for their devastating eruptions in the 19th century . The eruption of the Toba supervolcano , approximately 70 @,@ 000 years ago , was one of the largest eruptions ever , and a global catastrophe . Recent disasters due to seismic activity include the 2004 tsunami that killed an estimated 167 @,@ 736 in northern Sumatra , and the Yogyakarta earthquake in 2006 . However , volcanic ash is a major contributor to the high agricultural fertility that has historically sustained the high population densities of Java and Bali .
Lying along the equator , Indonesia has a tropical climate , with two distinct monsoonal wet and dry seasons . Average annual rainfall in the lowlands varies from 1 @,@ 780 – 3 @,@ 175 millimetres ( 70 @.@ 1 – 125 @.@ 0 inches ) , and up to 6 @,@ 100 millimetres ( 240 inches ) in mountainous regions . Mountainous areas – particularly in the west coast of Sumatra , West Java , Kalimantan , Sulawesi , and Papua – receive the highest rainfall . Humidity is generally high , averaging about 80 % . Temperatures vary little throughout the year ; the average daily temperature range of Jakarta is 26 – 30 ° C ( 79 – 86 ° F ) .
= = = Biodiversity = = =
Indonesia 's size , tropical climate , and archipelagic geography , support the world 's second highest level of biodiversity after Brazil . Its flora and fauna is a mixture of Asian and Australasian species . The islands of the Sunda Shelf ( Sumatra , Java , Borneo , and Bali ) were once linked to the Asian mainland , and have a wealth of Asian fauna . Large species such as the tiger , rhinoceros , orangutan , elephant , and leopard , were once abundant as far east as Bali , but numbers and distribution have dwindled drastically . Forests cover approximately 60 % of the country . In Sumatra and Kalimantan , these are predominantly of Asian species . However , the forests of the smaller , and more densely populated Java , have largely been removed for human habitation and agriculture . Sulawesi , Nusa Tenggara , and Maluku – having been long separated from the continental landmasses — have developed their own unique flora and fauna . Papua was part of the Australian landmass , and is home to a unique fauna and flora closely related to that of Australia , including over 600 bird species .
Indonesia is second only to Australia in terms of total endemic species , with 36 % of its 1 @,@ 531 species of bird and 39 % of its 515 species of mammal being endemic . Indonesia 's 80 @,@ 000 kilometres ( 50 @,@ 000 miles ) of coastline are surrounded by tropical seas that contribute to the country 's high level of biodiversity . Indonesia has a range of sea and coastal ecosystems , including beaches , sand dunes , estuaries , mangroves , coral reefs , seagrass beds , coastal mudflats , tidal flats , algal beds , and small island ecosystems . Indonesia is one of Coral Triangle countries with the world 's greatest diversity of coral reef fish with more than 1 @,@ 650 species in eastern Indonesia only .
The British naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace described a dividing line between the distribution of Indonesia 's Asian and Australasian species . Known as the Wallace Line , it runs roughly north – south along the edge of the Sunda Shelf , between Kalimantan and Sulawesi , and along the deep Lombok Strait , between Lombok and Bali . West of the line the flora and fauna are more Asian - moving east from Lombok they are increasingly Australian . In his 1869 book , The Malay Archipelago , Wallace described numerous species unique to the area . The region of islands between his line and New Guinea is now termed Wallacea .
= = = Environment = = =
Indonesia 's high population and rapid industrialisation present serious environmental issues , which are often given a lower priority due to high poverty levels and weak , under @-@ resourced governance . Issues include large @-@ scale deforestation ( much of it illegal ) and related wildfires causing heavy smog over parts of western Indonesia , Malaysia and Singapore ; over @-@ exploitation of marine resources ; and environmental problems associated with rapid urbanisation and economic development , including air pollution , traffic congestion , garbage management , and reliable water and waste water services .
Deforestation and the destruction of peatlands make Indonesia the world 's third largest emitter of greenhouse gases . Habitat destruction threatens the survival of indigenous and endemic species , including 140 species of mammals identified by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) as threatened , and 15 identified as critically endangered , including the Bali starling , Sumatran orangutan , and Javan rhinoceros .
Much of Indonesia 's deforestation is caused by forest clearing for the palm oil industry , which has cleared 18 million hectares of forest for palm oil expansion . Palm oil expansion requires land reallocation as well as changes to the local and natural ecosystems . Palm oil expansion can generate wealth for local communities , but it can also degrade ecosystems and cause social problems .
= = Economy = =
Indonesia has a mixed economy in which both the private sector and government play significant roles . The country is the largest economy in Southeast Asia and a member of the G @-@ 20 major economies . Indonesia 's estimated gross domestic product ( nominal ) , as of 2014 , was US $ 887 billion while GDP in PPP terms is US $ 2 @.@ 685 trillion . It is the sixteenth largest economy in the world by nominal GDP and is the eighth largest in terms of GDP ( PPP ) . As of 2014 , per capita GDP in PPP was US $ 10 @,@ 651 ( international dollars ) while Nominal per capita GDP was US $ 3 @,@ 518 .
The debt ratio to GDP is 26 % . The industry sector is the economy 's largest and accounts for 46 @.@ 4 % of GDP ( 2012 ) , this is followed by services ( 38 @.@ 6 % ) and agriculture ( 14 @.@ 4 % ) . Since 2012 , the service sector has employed more people than other sectors , accounting for 47 @.@ 9 % of the total labour force , this has been followed by agriculture ( 38 @.@ 9 % ) and industry ( 13 @.@ 2 % ) . Agriculture , however , had been the country 's largest employer for centuries .
Indonesia was the 27th biggest exporting country in the world in 2010 , moving up three places from the previous year . Indonesia 's main export markets ( 2009 ) are Japan ( 17 @.@ 28 % ) , Singapore ( 11 @.@ 29 % ) , the United States ( 10 @.@ 81 % ) , and China ( 7 @.@ 62 % ) . The major suppliers of imports to Indonesia are Singapore ( 24 @.@ 96 % ) , China ( 12 @.@ 52 % ) , and Japan ( 8 @.@ 92 % ) . In 2014 , Indonesia ran a trade deficit with export revenues of US $ 176 billion and import expenditure of US $ 178 @.@ 2 billion .
Indonesia has extensive natural resources , including crude oil , natural gas , tin , copper , and gold . Indonesia 's major imports include machinery and equipment , chemicals , fuels , and foodstuffs , and the country 's major export commodities include oil and gas , electrical appliances , plywood , rubber , and textiles . In an attempt to boost the domestic mineral processing industry and encourage exports of higher value @-@ added mineral products , the Indonesian government implemented a ban on exports of unprocessed mineral ores in 2014 .
Palm oil production is important to the economy of Indonesia as the country is the world 's biggest producer and consumer of the commodity , providing about half the world supply . Oil palm plantations stretch across 6 million hectares ( roughly twice the size of Belgium ) . Indonesia plans by 2015 to add 4 million additional hectares towards oil palm biofuel production . As of 2012 , Indonesia produces 35 percent of the world 's certified sustainable palm oil ( CSPO ) .
The tourism sector contributes to around US $ 10 @.@ 1 billion of foreign exchange in 2013 , and ranked as the 4th largest among goods and services export sectors . Singapore , Malaysia , Australia , China and Japan are the top five source of visitors to Indonesia .
Corruption has been a persistent problem . Transparency International , for example , has since ranked Indonesia below 100 in its Corruption Perceptions Index . Since 2007 , however , with the improvement in banking sector and domestic consumption , national economic growth has accelerated to over 6 % annually and this helped Indonesia weather the 2008 – 2009 Great Recession . The Indonesian economy performed strongly during the financial crisis of 2007 – 08 and in 2012 , its GDP grew by over 6 % . Indonesia regained its investment grade rating in late 2011 after losing it in 1997 . As of 2014 , 11 % of the population lived below the poverty line and the official open unemployment rate was 5 @.@ 9 % .
Indonesia has a sizeable automotive industry , which produced almost 1 @.@ 3 million motor vehicles in 2014 , ranking as the 15th largest producer in the world . Nowadays , Indonesian automotive companies are able to produce cars with high ratio of local content ( 80 % - 90 % ) . With production peaking at 14 @.@ 5 billion packs in 2011 , Indonesia is the second largest producer of instant noodle after China which produces 42 @.@ 5 billion packs a year . Indofood is the largest instant noodle producer in the world . Indomie brand by Indofood is one of the Indonesia 's best known global brand .
Of the world 's 500 largest companies measured by revenue in 2014 , the Fortune Global 500 , two are headquartered in Indonesia i.e. Pertamina and Perusahaan Listrik Negara .
= = = Transportation = = =
Road transport is predominant , with a total system length of 437 @,@ 759 km in 2008 . Many cities and towns have some form of transportation for hire available as well such as taxis . There are usually also bus services of various kinds such as the Kopaja buses and the more sophisticated TransJakarta bus rapid transit system in Jakarta . The TransJakarta is the largest bus rapid transit system in the world , boasts some 194 km and carriers more than 300 @,@ 000 passengers daily . In addition , BRT systems exist in Yogyakarta , Palembang , Bandung , Denpasar , Pekanbaru , Semarang , Makassar , and Padang without segregated lane . Many cities also have motorised auto rickshaws ( bajaj ) of various kinds . Cycle rickshaws , called becak in Indonesia , are a regular sight on city roads and provide inexpensive transportation .
The rail transport system has four unconnected networks in Java and Sumatra primarily dedicated to transport bulk commodities and long @-@ distance passenger traffic . The inter @-@ city rail network on Java is complemented by local commuter rail services in the Jakarta metropolitan area ( KA Commuter Jabodetabek ) , Surabaya , Medan , and Bandung . In Jakarta , suburban rail services carry 700 @,@ 000 passengers a day . In addition , mass rapid transit and light rail transit systems are under construction in Jakarta and Palembang .
Sea transport is extremely important for economic integration and for domestic and foreign trade . It is well developed , with each of the major islands having at least one significant port city . Because Indonesia encompasses a sprawling archipelago , maritime shipping provides essential links between different parts of the country . Boats in common use include large container ships , a variety of ferries , passenger ships , sailing ships , and smaller motorised vessels . Traditional wooden vessel pinisi still widely used as the inter @-@ island freight service within Indonesian archipelago . Port of Tanjung Priok is Indonesia 's busiest port , and the 21st busiest port in the world in 2013 , handling over 6 @.@ 59 million TEUs . To boost the port capacity , two @-@ phase " New Tanjung Priok " extension project is currently ongoing . When fully operational in 2023 , it will triple existing annual capacity .
Frequent ferry services cross the straits between nearby islands , especially in the chain of islands stretching from Sumatra through Java to the Lesser Sunda Islands . On the busy crossings between Sumatra , Java , and Bali , multiple car ferries run frequently twenty @-@ four hours per day . There are also international ferry services between across the Strait of Malacca between Sumatra and Malaysia , and between Singapore and nearby Indonesian islands , such as Batam . A network of passenger ships makes longer connections to more remote islands , especially in the eastern part of the archipelago . The national shipping line , Pelni , provides passenger service to ports throughout the country on a two to four week schedule . These ships generally provide the least expensive way to cover long distances between islands . Still smaller privately run boats provide service between islands .
As of 2014 , there were 237 airports in Indonesia , including 17 international airports . Soekarno – Hatta International Airport is the 18th busiest airport in the world , serving 54 @,@ 053 @,@ 905 passengers , according to Airports Council International . Today the airport is running over capacity . After T3 Soekarno @-@ Hatta Airport expansion will be finished in August 2016 , the total capacity of three terminals become 43 million passengers a year . T1 and T2 also will be revitalised , so all the three terminals finally will accommodate 67 million passengers a year . When finished , Soekarno @-@ Hatta airport will be an aerotropolis .
Juanda Airport in Surabaya and Ngurah Rai in Bali are the country 's 2nd and 3rd busiest airport . Garuda Indonesia , flag carrier of Indonesia since 1949 , was selected by Skytrax as " The World 's Best Economy Class " in 2013 . In December 2014 , Garuda Indonesia was awarded as a " 5 @-@ Star Airline " by Skytrax and the eight best airlines in the world . As well as in June 2015 , it also was awarded with " The World 's Best Cabin Crew " .
= = = Science and technology = = =
Living in an agrarian and maritime culture the people in Indonesian 's archipelago have been famous in some traditional technologies , particularly in agriculture and marine . In agriculture , for instance , the people in Indonesia , and also in many other Southeast Asian countries , are famous in paddy cultivation technique namely terasering . Bugis and Makassar people in Indonesia are also well @-@ known with their technology in making wooden sailing vessel called pinisi boat .
In aerospace technology , Indonesia has a long history in developing military and small commuter aircraft as the only country in Southeast Asia to produce and develop its own aircraft , also producing aircraft components for Boeing and Airbus , with its state @-@ owned aircraft company ( founded in 1976 ) , the Indonesian Aerospace ( Indonesian : PT . Dirgantara Indonesia ) , which , with EADS CASA of Spain developed the CN @-@ 235 aircraft , which has been exported to many countries . B. J. Habibie , a former Indonesian president played an important role in this achievement . While active as a professor in Germany , Habibie conducted many research assignments , producing theories on thermodynamics , construction , and aerodynamics , known as the Habibie Factor , Habibie Theorem , and Habibie Method respectively . Indonesia also hopes to manufacture the South Korean KAI KF @-@ X fighter .
Indonesia has a well established railway industry , with its state @-@ owned train manufacturer company , the Indonesian Railway Industry ( Indonesian : PT . Industri Kereta Api ) , located in Madiun , East Java . Since 1982 the company has been producing passenger train wagons , freight wagons and other railway technologies and exported to many countries , such as Malaysia and Bangladesh . In the 1980s an Indonesian engineer , Tjokorda Raka Sukawati invented a road construction technique named Sosrobahu which becomes famous afterwards and widely used by many countries . The technology has been exported to the Philippines , Malaysia , Thailand and Singapore and in 1995 , a patent was granted to Indonesia .
= = Demographics = =
According to the 2010 national census , the population of Indonesia is 237 @.@ 6 million , with high population growth at 1 @.@ 9 % . 58 % of the population lives in Java , the world 's most populous island . In 1961 , the first post @-@ colonial census gave a total population of 97 million .
Indonesia currently possess a relatively young population , with a median age of 28 @.@ 2 years ( 2011 estimate ) .
The population is expected to grow to around 269 million by 2020 and 321 million by 2050 . An additional 8 million Indonesian live overseas , comprising one of the world 's largest diasporas . Most of them settled in Malaysia , Saudi Arabia , United Arab Emirates , South Korea , Japan , Singapore , Netherlands , United States , and Australia .
= = = Ethnic groups = = =
Indonesia is a very ethnically and linguistically diverse country , with around 300 distinct native ethnic groups , and 742 different languages and dialects . Most Indonesians are descended from Austronesian @-@ speaking peoples whose languages can be traced to Proto @-@ Austronesian , which possibly originated in Taiwan . Another major grouping are the Melanesians , who inhabit eastern Indonesia .
The largest ethnic group are the Javanese , who comprise 42 % of the population , and are politically and culturally dominant . The Sundanese , ethnic Malays , and Madurese are the largest non @-@ Javanese groups . A sense of Indonesian nationhood exists alongside strong regional identities .
Social , religious and ethnic tensions have triggered communal violence . Chinese Indonesians are an influential ethnic minority comprising 3 – 4 % of the population . Much of the country 's privately owned commerce and wealth is Chinese @-@ Indonesian @-@ controlled . Chinese businesses in Indonesia are part of the larger bamboo network , a network of overseas Chinese businesses operating in the markets of Southeast Asia that share common family and cultural ties . This has contributed to considerable resentment , and even anti @-@ Chinese violence .
= = = Languages = = =
More than 700 regional languages are spoken in Indonesia 's numerous islands . Most belong to the Austronesian language family , with a few Papuan languages also spoken . The official language is Indonesian ( also known as Bahasa Indonesia ) a variant of Malay , which was used in the archipelago . It borrows heavily from local languages such as Javanese , Sundanese , Minangkabau , etc . Indonesian is primarily used in commerce , administration , education and the media , but most Indonesians speak other languages , such as Javanese , as their first language .
Indonesian is based on the prestige dialect of Malay , that of the Johor @-@ Riau Sultanate , which for centuries had been the lingua franca of the archipelago . It is the official language of Singapore , Malaysia and Brunei . Indonesian is universally taught in schools and consequently is spoken by nearly every Indonesian . It is the language of business , politics , national media , education , and academia .
Indonesian was promoted by Indonesian nationalists in the 1920s , and declared the official language under the name Bahasa Indonesia in the proclamation of independence in 1945 . Most Indonesians speak at least one of several hundred local languages and dialects , often as their first language . In comparison , Papua has over
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into obscurity . Academic Barry Judd called him " a ghost inhabiting the margins of written history " . Coinciding with a revival of interest in Australia 's colonial past , Wills has risen " almost to a vogue " , and is seen as a forerunner of today 's self @-@ destructive star athletes , some of those qualities that alienated his peers " being less shocking to a generation that likes its heroes flawed " . The subject of works in the arts , his story has been likened to Ned Kelly 's as an epic and quintessentially Australian narrative . After several attempts by different authors since the 1930s , a definitive biography was published in 2008 , Greg de Moore 's Tom Wills : First Wild Man of Australian Sport .
Wills ' unmarked gravesite was restored in 1980 with a headstone erected by the MCC and by public subscription . He was inducted into the Sport Australia Hall of Fame in 1989 and was made an inaugural member of the Australian Football Hall of Fame in 1996 . The Tom Wills Room in the MCG 's Great Southern Stand serves as a venue for corporate functions . A statue outside the MCG , sculpted by Louis Laumen and erected in 2001 , depicts Wills umpiring the famous 1858 football match between Melbourne Grammar and Scotch College . The AFL commemorated the 150th anniversary of the match by staging the Tom Wills Round during the 2008 AFL Season . The two schools played in a curtain raiser at the MCG ahead of the round opener between Melbourne and Geelong . That same year , Victoria 's busiest freeway interchange , the Monash – EastLink interchange in Dandenong North , was named the Tom Wills Interchange . Tom Wills Oval , inaugurated in 2013 at Sydney Olympic Park , serves as the training base for the Greater Western Sydney Giants of the AFL .
= = = Marngrook theory = = =
Since the 1980s , it has been suggested that Wills played or observed an Aboriginal football game , Marngrook , as a child growing up in the Grampians among the Djab wurrung , and incorporated features of this game into early Australian football . The theory has provoked intense debate , amounting to a controversy dubbed " football 's history wars " . In her essay " A Seductive Myth " , published in the AFL 's The Australian Game of Football Since 1858 ( 2008 ) , Hibbins calls the proposed link an " emotional belief " lacking " any intellectual credibility " . She points out that neither Wills nor any of his fellow football founders mention Aboriginal games in existing documents , and states that there is no evidence of Marngrook being played in the vicinity where Wills grew up . Since then , among the personal papers of ethnographer Alfred William Howitt , an interview has been found with a Mukjarrawaint man who recalls playing Marngrook in the Grampians . Also , in his first @-@ hand account of Aboriginal games , James Dawson , an Aboriginal rights activist , records the Djab wurrung word for football as " Min 'gorm " . De Moore therefore argues that Marngrook was likely played around where Wills lived as a boy , " or , at the very least , that the local Aboriginal people knew of such a game " . That Wills knew of Marngrook , he adds , is speculative at best .
Proponents of a link point to similarities between the two games , such as drop punting the ball into the air and leaping , catching feats . Jenny Hocking and Nell Reidy write that Wills , in adapting football to Melbourne 's parklands , wanted a game that kept the players off the ground and the ball in the air . " It is here " , they argue , " in the interstices between rugby and Australian football , that the influence of [ Marngrook ] can be seen most clearly " . Others have countered that until the 1870s , Australian football was aligned with rugby @-@ style roots , and bore little resemblance to Marngrook . According to de Moore , Wills was " almost solely influenced " by Rugby School football , with local conditions also having an effect .
Flanagan promoted the Marngrook theory in his novel The Call ( 1996 ) , a fictionalised account of Wills ' life , and argued in an essay addressed to Wills that he must have known Aboriginal games as it was in his nature to play : " There 's two things about you everybody seems to have agreed on — you 'd drink with anyone and you 'd play with anyone . " He quotes Lawton Wills Cooke , a Wills family descendent , who said there was a story in the family 's oral history about Tom playing Marngrook as a boy . This claim was disputed by family historian T. S. Wills Cooke . Despite the contentious nature of the Wills @-@ Marngrook tradition , it has become part of football folklore , and in Moyston , the self @-@ proclaimed " Birthplace of Australian Football " , stands a monument commemorating Wills ' upbringing in the area playing Marngrook .
= = = Father of football ? = = =
The role of Wills and others in pioneering Australian football went largely unrecognised in their lifetimes as the sport had yet to develop a historical perspective . By 1908 , the year of football 's jubilee celebrations , Wills ' cousin Harrison was proclaimed " the father of football " for his reputation as a player , rule @-@ maker and administrator . Wills was the next most often recalled pioneer during this period , and it was Harrison who said that his cousin initiated the sport when he " recommended that we Australians should work out a game of our own . "
It has been said that , due to his suicide , Wills was written out of the game 's history , or at the very least downplayed as a significant figure . One sportswriter opined in the 1980s that Wills had " received very little credit due to him in originating the game ... somehow he is forgotten today . " More recent histiography has elevated Wills to a position of pre @-@ eminence . Hibbins questions the significance of Wills ' off @-@ field contributions , such as his 1858 letter . Echoing Hibbins ' arguments , Roy Hay writes that Wills , while the sport 's " catalyst " , was " much more interested in playing and performing than in organising . " British historian Tony Collins even compared Wills to William Webb Ellis and Abner Doubleday , the apocryphal inventors of rugby and baseball respectively . In response to Collins ' suggestion that Wills " quickly faded from the footballing scene " , ABC journalist James Coventry drew attention to his seventeen @-@ year playing career ( by far the longest of the pioneers ) , the influence he wielded as captain of various clubs for much of that time , and his administrative work . He concludes that Collins and other scholars have " perversely " devalued Wills ' real contributions " in their rush to discredit [ the Marngrook theory ] " . Blainey said of Wills : " It is far too much to say that he founded the game , but it would be too little to say that he was simply one among many founders . "
= Hurricane Gladys ( 1964 ) =
Hurricane Gladys was a tropical cyclone that caused minor impact along the East Coast of the United States and in Bermuda and Atlantic Canada . The ninth named storm and fifth hurricane of the 1964 Atlantic hurricane season , Gladys developed from a tropical wave located east of the Lesser Antilles on September 13 . Shortly thereafter , it strengthened into a tropical storm . On September 14 , Gladys abruptly intensified into a Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . However , early on the following day , Gladys weakened slightly to a Category 1 hurricane . Between late on September 16 and late on September 17 , the storm rapidly strengthened , peaking as a 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) Category 4 hurricane on the latter . Gladys began weakening on the following day and curved northward on September 19 .
The storm turned northwestward on September 22 and briefly threatened the East Coast of the United States . However , it veered northeastward on September 23 and moved rapidly toward Atlantic Canada . By 0000 UTC on September 25 , Gladys became extratropical while centered between Sable Island and Nova Scotia . Along the East Coast of the United States , Gladys produced light rainfall , gusty winds , and storm surge . Coastal flooding was reported in North Carolina and Virginia . In the former , high tides inundated homes and buildings with 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) of water in two small villages on the Outer Banks and flooded a highway to Manteo . In the state of Virginia , one death occurred when a man was fatally struck in the throat by debris . Tides also effected the Mid @-@ Atlantic , New England , and Atlantic Canada .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical wave was first observed over western Africa on September 8 and moved offshore in the vicinity of Dakar , Senegal on the following day . At 0600 UTC on September 13 , a tropical depression developed while centered about halfway between Cape Verde and the Lesser Antilles . Later that day , the S.S. Gerwi reported heavy rain and winds of 63 mph ( 101 km / h ) , confirming the existence of Tropical Storm Gladys at 1200 UTC on September 13 . Four hours later , the Weather Bureau Office in San Juan , Puerto Rico initiated advisories on Gladys . A hurricane hunter plane flew into Gladys on the afternoon of September 13 was unable to obtain wind data due to darkness . A reconnaissance flight into the storm on September 14 noted that it had strengthened into a hurricane , while moving west @-@ northwestward at about 18 mph ( 29 km / h ) . HURDAT records indicate that around that time , Gladys became a Category 2 hurricane as winds reached 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) . However , early on September 15 , Gladys weakened slightly to a Category 1 hurricane .
Early on September 17 , the storm began to rapidly intensify . By 1800 UTC , Gladys attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 945 mbar ( 27 @.@ 9 inHg ) . The storm later began to weaken and fell to a Category 3 hurricane early on September 19 . Around that time , Gladys curved northward in response to a weak trough in the westerlies . Early on September 20 , it further weakened to a Category 2 hurricane . Rising atmospheric pressures to the north forced the storm to curve northwestward on September 21 . Later that day , Gladys weakened to a Category 1 hurricane . The storm posed a threat to the East Coast of the United States , and passed about 140 miles ( 230 km ) east of Cape Hatteras , North Carolina , before a deepening low pressure area over the Great Lakes region caused it to veer northeastward . Gladys then accelerated and approached Atlantic Canada , before transitioning into an extratropical cyclone at 0000 UTC on September 25 , while located between Nova Scotia and Sable Island . The extratropical remnants continued northeastward into Newfoundland and dissipated later on September 25 .
= = Preparations = =
As Gladys strengthened in the Atlantic Ocean , forecasters at the United State Weather Bureau predicted that the storm would bring high surf to areas as far north as North Carolina . Additionally , it was suggested that Gladys could have threatened northern Florida , as the storm was on a similar path as Hurricane Dora . As a result , residents along the coast of the Southeastern United States were advised to remain alert and small craft advisories were issued . On September 20 , small craft advisories were issued for The Bahamas . After Gladys turned northwestward on September 21 , forecasters at the United State Weather Bureau issued hurricane watches for North Carolina , Virginia , and some Mid @-@ Atlantic states . Gale warnings and small craft advisories were issued on September 23 from Massachusetts to Rhode Island . In Rhode Island , ships of the United States Navy were diverted to Narragansett Bay as a precaution . At 0400 UTC on September 24 , the gale warnings for New England were lowered as Gladys turned northeastward away from the coast however , small water craft were advised to remain in port until the seas subsided .
= = Impact = =
= = = United States = = =
In the United States , Gladys produced high tides as far south as Florida and Georgia . Hurricane Gladys ' effects on South Carolina was minimal as the center of the hurricane was a considerable distance from the coastline . The only effects Gladys was minor rainfall , peaking at 1 inch ( 25 @.@ 4 mm ) in Myrtle Beach , as well as storm tides of 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 6 m ) above normal along the upper coast of South Carolina .
In North Carolina , the large wind field of Gladys produced tropical storm force winds near Manteo . Waves produced by the strong winds flooded a highway leading away from Manteo . Between Kill Devil Hills and Nags Head , U.S. Route 158 was inundated by 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) of water . Near Cape Hatteras , a weather station recorded sustained winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) and gusts up to 41 mph ( 66 km / h ) . Additionally , tides in the area ranged from 2 – 2 @.@ 5 feet ( 0 @.@ 6 @-@ 0 @.@ 76 m ) above normal . The abnormal tides and heavy wave action flooded two small villages , leaving many homes and buildings under 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 6 m ) of water and washed away grasses that were planted to stabilize the sand dunes . In Wilmington , sustained winds of 25 mph ( 40 km / h ) and gusts of 28 mph ( 45 km / h ) were reported , as well as tides 2 – 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 6 @-@ 0 @.@ 9 m ) above normal . Elsewhere in the Outer Banks , high winds caused a mobile home to fall off its foundations and blew down two television antennas .
A weather station in Norfolk , Virginia recorded gusts of 38 – 44 mph ( 61 – 71 km / h ) and 0 @.@ 17 inches ( 4 @.@ 31 mm ) of rainfall . In Cape Henry , sustained winds of 42 mph ( 68 km / h ) and a precipitation total of 0 @.@ 02 inches ( 0 @.@ 5 mm ) were reported . Coastal sections of southeastern Virginia experienced tides 2 @.@ 2 – 6 @.@ 1 feet ( 0 @.@ 6 – 1 @.@ 8 m ) above normal , resulting in minor tidal flooding . One indirect fatality was attributed from Gladys when a man suffered fatal wounds to his throat due to flying debris . High winds and strong ocean currents from Gladys produced beach erosion in New Jersey , New York and Massachusetts . In Rhode Island , the outer bands of Gladys produced light rainfall , peaking at 0 @.@ 38 inches ( 9 @.@ 6 mm ) . A boy was washed into the sea by the waves offshore Narragansett and was rescued by United States Coast Guard servicemen , who dove into the water after two previous attempts to rescue him failed .
= = = Elsewhere = = =
Hurricane Gladys produced rough seas that affected Puerto Rico , the Virgin Islands , the northern Leeward Islands and the northern Bahamas . The outer bands of Gladys also lashed Bermuda with winds but little damage if any was reported . In Atlantic Canada , Gladys passed over Newfoundland as a 70 mph ( 120 km / h ) extratropical storm but no damage was reported . At St. John 's Harbor , 65 ships took shelter as a precaution . Some ships suffered damage , including two foreign freighters .
= Students ' Building ( Vassar College ) =
The Students ' Building on the campus of Vassar College in the town of Poughkeepsie , New York , U.S. , houses the school 's All Campus Dining Center ( ACDC or Deece ) as well as additional multifunctional student space on its second floor . Designed by Joseph Herenden Clark of McKim , Mead & White and built in 1913 , the structure originally housed a variety of different student organizations and school functions . In 1973 , it was converted into a campuswide dining hall ; it underwent a second renovation in 2003 that returned multipurpose student functionalities to its upper floors .
= = History = =
James Monroe Taylor , fourth president of Vassar College in the town of Poughkeepsie , New York , wrote in 1901 of a dearth of a dedicated social space on campus " not devoted to college work but to college recreation . " He envisioned a building akin to Harvard 's University Club and the University of Pennsylvania 's Houston Club ; with a swelling student body size and rapid decentralization of the campus over the course of the first decade of the 1900s , the need for such a structure become even more crucial .
The Students ' Building was erected in 1913 after its cornerstone was laid on September 25 , 1912 . Funding for its construction came from an anonymous donor who sought to provide for the " exclusive needs and interests of student organizations " with the gift and who specified the name Students ' Building for the structure . Mary Babbott Ladd of the Vassar class of 1908 was later identified as that donor .
Until World War II , dining at Vassar was an elegant affair with table linens and serving maids , but after the war was over , these features were never brought back to student life . In 1973 , the All Campus Dining Center , also called the ACDC or the Deece , opened within the building , serving as a replacement to individual dining rooms in each of the college 's dormitories . The old system had proved too costly and overcrowded , necessitating the ACDC 's creation . The $ 3 @.@ 5 million renovation was conducted by Walker O. Cain and Associates , with over $ 1 million of the funds coming from friends and family of Babbott Ladd . An $ 11 million renovation in 2003 was designed by Finegold Alexander + Associates Inc .
= = Architecture and uses = =
The Students ' Building was designed by the New York City architecture firm of McKim , Mead & White , representing their only project at Vassar College . The plans were drawn up by young architect Joseph Herenden Clark , a recent graduate of the Columbia School of Architecture who , upon hearing the requirement that the structure be made from brick with white trim and a slate roof , recalled Christ Church in Alexandria , Virginia . Clark had studied Christ Church , which George Washington attended , during his days at Columbia . He trekked to Alexandria to study the interior and exterior of the church and ultimately the designs for the Students ' Building , his first public plan , were inspired by its architecture and features . Bishop and Company were contracted to construct the Students ' Building , an example of the Southern colonial revival style . It sits on the north edge of campus due south of the college 's North Gate and southeast of residential quad dorms like Lathrop House . Noyes House was built in 1958 and rests immediately to the southeast of the Students ' Building .
When the Students ' Building opened , it stood two stories tall with a basement , as well as wooden pillars on its facade supporting a pediment . A cupola topped the structure and stairs beneath the pediment led to a three sets of double doors — one large , the others smaller but otherwise identical . Above each set of doors was a single large window . In the 1973 renovation , two red brick wings were added to the east and west sides of the building to accommodate numerous dining rooms . Featuring large windows , the new wings were more modern in their style than the old central portion of the building .
The first floor of the building was built as a grand 1 @,@ 200 @-@ seat auditorium with a proscenium stage , and meeting rooms dedicated to student organizations . The second floor consisted of a U @-@ shaped balcony and the Old Council Room , a gathering space for smaller organizations . The Old Council Room was repainted in 1945 as part of a minor renovation of the building that also included the opening of a student eatery called The Hoot on the west side . The ceiling was made from decorated plaster and dentils evoked the exterior neoclassical architectural style . The basement housed several offices and later a bicycle exchange , used bookshop , and student storage space . After the 1973 renovation , dishwashing equipment for the ACDC was housed upstairs , along with staff offices . The 2003 renovation saw the removal of this dishwashing equipment ; instead , the second upstairs was repurposed as a multifunctional student space , in line with the original intentions for the building . The second story — called UpC — is now an open space capable of seating 600 people when chairs are added ; it also features multimedia equipment and a third @-@ floor mezzanine that , until 2015 , housed the UpC Cafe .
Historically , the structure was used by and for student organizations . Formerly housed in the Calisthenium and Riding Academy and later the Alumnae Gymnasium , the Philaletheis Society moved into the Students ' Building upon its opening and began to use the space for its theatrical performances . The junior prom , lectures from a wide array of speakers , and faculty @-@ led skits all took place beneath the building 's roof . Vassar 's yearbook , the Vassarion , as well as its weekly newspaper , The Miscellany News , were also headquartered in the Students ' Building . An annual Christmas party , complete with students clad as reindeer pulling a sled on which sat political science professor Charles Gordon Post dressed as Santa Claus , once occurred within the building as well .
= Be Here Now ( song ) =
" Be Here Now " is a song by English musician George Harrison released on his 1973 album Living in the Material World . The recording features a sparse musical arrangement and recalls Harrison 's work with the Beatles during 1966 – 68 , through its Indian @-@ inspired mood and use of drone @-@ like sitar . Part of Harrison 's inspiration for the composition was the popular book Be Here Now by spiritual teacher Ram Dass – specifically , a story discussing the author 's change in identity from a Western academic to a guru in the Hindu faith . Harrison biographers interpret " Be Here Now " as a comment from him on the public 's nostalgia for the past following the Beatles ' break @-@ up .
Harrison wrote the song in Los Angeles in 1971 , while working on the soundtrack to the Ravi Shankar documentary Raga , and shortly before organising the Concert for Bangladesh . The recording took place in late 1972 at his Friar Park home , with musical contributions from Klaus Voormann , Nicky Hopkins , Gary Wright and Jim Keltner . Contrary to the song 's message , its release coincided with heightened speculation regarding a possible Beatles reunion , following Harrison , Ringo Starr and John Lennon recording together in Los Angeles in March 1973 .
" Be Here Now " has received critical attention for its dreamlike sound and the quality of Harrison 's acoustic guitar playing . Stephen Holden of Rolling Stone described the track as a " meltingly lovely meditation @-@ prayer " , while author Ian Inglis views it as a musical expression of " the spiritual , scientific , and metaphysical implications of time " . Singers Robyn Hitchcock and Ian Astbury have each covered the song .
= = Background and composition = =
In his 1980 autobiography , I , Me , Mine , George Harrison recalls coming up with the tune for " Be Here Now " while staying in Nichols Canyon , Los Angeles , in the spring of 1971 . At the time , Harrison was in Los Angeles producing the soundtrack to Raga , an Apple Films documentary about Indian sitarist Ravi Shankar . The same visit led to Harrison staging the Concert for Bangladesh in New York that summer , following a plea from Shankar , a Bengali Hindu , that something be done to raise international awareness for refugees of the Bangladesh Liberation War .
In his autobiography , Harrison says of writing the song : " I was almost falling asleep . I had the guitar in bed and the melody came fast . " In keeping with this description , " Be Here Now " is noted for its meditative and dreamlike qualities .
The song is in the musical key of A , with a time signature of 4 / 4 throughout . According to his handwritten note on the lyrics reproduced in I , Me , Mine , Harrison played the guitar part in open G tuning – which would typically require the placing of a capo on the guitar 's second fret , to attain an open chord of A major . Author and music journalist Paul Trynka writes of " Be Here Now " containing " modal folk riffs " .
Harrison drew inspiration for his lyrics from " The Transformation : Dr. Richard Alpert , PhD. into Baba Ram Dass " . A humorous story , " The Transformation " was the first of four sections in Ram Dass 's book Be Here Now , a popular introductory text to Hindu spirituality . As Richard Alpert , Dass had been a Harvard academic and an associate of Timothy Leary during the early 1960s , before embracing Hinduism – like Harrison in 1966 , via experimentation with hallucinogenic drugs – and changing his name . Before the book 's publication in 1971 , according to musicologist Ian MacDonald , the phrase " Be here now " had become a " hippie maxim " , reflecting a fundamental contention of Hindu philosophy regarding the all @-@ importance of the present moment . For Harrison , the present meant his identity outside the public 's perception of him as a Beatle , a role he had already tired of in 1965 – 66 , during the height of the band 's fame .
Author Ian Inglis writes of the parallels between " Be Here Now " and one of Harrison 's 1968 compositions for the Beatles , " Long , Long , Long " , due to the two songs ' " common subject matter : time " . In " Be Here Now " , Harrison delivers his message in simple terms , stating that " The past was " , whereas " Now is " .
According to theologian Dale Allison , the song also addresses the Hindu concept of maya , whereby the physical world is an illusion and the only truth is to realise the divine nature of one 's soul . Harrison warns against what Allison terms " mistak [ ing ] the material world , which is only a grand illusion , for the real world " , particularly in the lyrics to the song 's middle eight :
Why try to live a life
That isn 't real
No how ?
A mind that wants to wander
'Round a corner
Is an unwise mind .
Harrison 's musical biographer , Simon Leng , views " Be Here Now " as the singer questioning the validity of his role as a world @-@ famous musician . Leng writes of Harrison yearning to escape " a Fab Four prehistory that so obsessed the media and his fans " , and draws parallels between the former Beatle 's predicament and a comedy sketch by Monty Python , featuring the character Arthur " Two Sheds " Jackson . In the sketch , Jackson is a composer of modern symphonies , yet the interviewer fixates on the trivial detail of how he acquired his unusual nickname .
In his book discussing the religious themes in Harrison 's songwriting , Allison qualifies the literal message of " Be Here Now " by stating , " this song must be understood as an endorsement [ of Dass 's book ] " , yet it is " hardly the typical George " . Allison cites a number of compositions from throughout Harrison 's career , all covering issues of karma and reincarnation , as evidence that Harrison " encourages all of us to ponder our inescapable end and so imagine the future " , rather than focusing only on the here and now . Harrison would return to the specific theme of " Be Here Now " in later songs such as " Flying Hour " and " Just for Today " , the last of which adopts the here @-@ and @-@ now message as an inspirational statement for members of Alcoholics Anonymous .
= = Recording = =
Harrison recorded " Be Here Now " for his second post @-@ Beatles solo album , Living in the Material World , sessions for which began in October 1972 . With Phil McDonald serving as engineer , the recording took place at Apple Studio in London , according to the album credits . Bassist Klaus Voormann has stated that Harrison 's Friar Park home studio in Oxfordshire was the true location , however , a contention supported by Jim Keltner , the drummer at the sessions . Harrison self @-@ produced Material World and deliberately pared down the sound , keen to avoid the big production employed by Phil Spector on All Things Must Pass , his acclaimed 1970 triple album . Author Robert Rodriguez writes that as a producer Harrison " gave the tunes breathing space , allowing the instruments to sparkle " , which included " a nearly imperceptible undercurrent of sitar " on " Be Here Now " . Inglis views the recording as " musically evoking the mystery and profundity of time " , as a complement to the song 's lyrics .
Besides Harrison , the musicians on the song were his fellow Hindu convert Gary Wright ( on organ ) , Nicky Hopkins ( piano ) , and the rhythm section of Voormann and Keltner – all of whom served as the core band on Material World . Behind Harrison 's acoustic guitar and the sitar drone , the sparse instrumentation provides what author Elliot Huntley terms " a lesson in understatement " . In the search for a good sound , Voormann recorded his part , on standup bass , in one of the bathrooms at Friar Park ; he remembers being interrupted during a take by longtime Beatles aide Mal Evans flushing the toilet .
In his book The Beatles Forever , Nicholas Schaffner describes Harrison 's use of Indian instrumentation on " Be Here Now " and " Living in the Material World " as marking " a return to the quasi @-@ Indian mode " of his work with the Beatles during 1966 – 68 , following which , Harrison admitted , he had rarely played the sitar . Although Schaffner credits the part as a tambura , other commentators describe the instrument as a sitar .
Among the other tracks recorded for the album , " The Light That Has Lighted the World " and " Who Can See It " similarly reflect Harrison 's desire to escape his Beatles past . In March 1973 , following the completion of Material World , Harrison recorded " I 'm the Greatest " in Los Angeles with former bandmates Ringo Starr and John Lennon , for inclusion on Starr 's first rock solo album , Ringo . The session immediately led to rumours of a possible Beatles reunion , partly encouraged by the three musicians having severed ties with manager Allen Klein .
= = Release and reception = =
Apple Records released Living in the Material World on 30 May 1973 . " Be Here Now " appeared as the second track on side two of the original LP format , following what Rodriguez describes as the " funky uptempo " " The Lord Loves the One ( That Loves the Lord ) " . It marked the first of four consecutive ballads on that side , which some music critics objected to at the time . Never a fan of Harrison 's solo work , Robert Christgau would comment on the album : " Harrison sings as if he 's doing sitar impressions , and four different people , including a little man in my head who I never noticed before , have expressed intense gratitude when I turned the damned thing off during ' Be Here Now ' . "
By contrast , Rolling Stone 's Stephen Holden admired Material World as " a pop religious ceremony for all seasons " and described the song as " a meltingly lovely meditation @-@ prayer , the ultimate aural refinement of ' Blue Jay Way ' " . In his review for Melody Maker , Michael Watts wrote of " Be Here Now " ' s middle eight providing a " Confucius @-@ like ' truth ' " and commented that reading the album 's lyric sheet was " rather like finding yourself at the feet of some Tibetan [ lama ] " .
= = Retrospective appraisal and legacy = =
= = = Cultural influence and 2006 reissue = = =
The phrase " Be Here Now " was used by the English band Oasis for the title of their third album , issued in 1997 . Further to the group naming their hit song " Wonderwall " after Harrison 's 1968 solo album , as well as their appropriation of various musical influences from his work , Harrison was not flattered by the apparent compliment , and was outspoken in his criticism of the band following the release of Be Here Now .
Living in the Material World was reissued in remastered form in 2006 , five years after Harrison 's death from cancer at the age of 58 . Among reviews at that time , Music Box editor John Metzger wrote that the " meditative fragility " of " Be Here Now " contributes to " the Zen @-@ like beauty that emanates from Harrison 's hymns to a higher power " on the album , while two years before , in The Rolling Stone Album Guide , Mac Randall described the tune as " rank [ ing ] among Harrison 's prettiest " . In his 2006 album review , for Mojo , Mat Snow considered it a " wonderful song " that " blends two of George 's Beatle peaks , ' Blue Jay Way ' and ' Long , Long , Long ' , to movingly transcendental effect " . Less impressed , PopMatters ' Zeth Lundy bemoaned the stripped @-@ down sound of Living in the Material World after the " thunderous extravagance " of All Things Must Pass , such that " Be Here Now " was rendered " a little too slow @-@ moving and dramatically anaemic " .
Writing for The Huffington Post in 2011 , Steve Rabey cited Harrison 's drawing of inspiration from Dass 's book , as from the Tao Te Ching and Autobiography of a Yogi in other songs , as an example of his standing as both a " cafeteria Hindu " and " perhaps the most explicitly and consistently theological rock star of the last half @-@ century " . Rabey concludes : " While he failed to convert everyone to his beliefs , he nudged his [ former ] bandmates – and his listener fans – a bit further to the East , encouraging audiences to open themselves to new ( or very old ) spiritual influences . "
= = = Biographers ' assessment = = =
Among Beatles and Harrison biographers , Chip Madinger and Mark Easter admire the " hypnotic , droning effect " on " Be Here Now " , which they describe as " a lovely track " ; Elliot Huntley views the arrangement as a " masterpiece " ; and Alan Clayson praises the production and Harrison 's " decorative fingering and harmonics " on guitar , which he rates " on a par with the acoustic virtuosity of John Renbourn " . In The Rough Guide to the Beatles , Chris Ingham cites " the graceful ' Be Here Now ' " as an example of how Harrison 's " melodious gifts and distinctive ear for a harmony are in evidence throughout [ Material World ] " .
Ian Inglis admires the song as " one of Harrison 's most haunting and mysterious compositions " , and writes of the recording : " The gentle , largely acoustic backing , and Harrison 's achingly beautiful vocal give the song a nebulous , yearning quality , almost as if something barely understood is slipping out of sight . " Inglis likens " Be Here Now " to the performance monologue " Time " by English actress and author Joyce Grenfell , whose conclusion that " there is no such thing as time – only this very minute , and I am in it " he finds echoed in Harrison 's " sense of wonder and helplessness in the face of the spiritual , scientific , and metaphysical implications of time " .
= = = 2014 appraisal = = =
The song continues to receive attention following the 2014 Apple Years Harrison reissues . In Mojo , Tom Doyle writes of Living in the Material World " spot [ lighting ] the spirituality and the dreaminess " in Harrison 's songwriting , through " the gentle , non @-@ preachy ' The Light That Has Lighted the World ' and ' Be Here Now ' , both great works of look @-@ around @-@ you wonder " . In a review for Blogcritics , Chaz Lipp views the production on the album as " meticulous " and superior to All Things Must Pass , such that " [ t ] he delicate melodies of songs like ' The Day the World Gets ' Round ' and ' Be Here Now ' are never lost in bombast . " Writing for PopMatters , Scot Elingburg pairs " Be Here Now " with " Don 't Let Me Wait Too Long " as Material World tracks that " offer much more than just Harrison 's Hindu @-@ inspired teachings ; they also offer up the chance for larger dialogue within music . "
Nick DeRiso , co @-@ founder of the music website Something Else ! , includes " Be Here Now " among the highlights of Harrison 's solo career on Apple Records , and describes the track as " [ a ] n enveloping moment of wonder " . New Zealand Herald music critic Graham Reid has similarly written of " Be Here Now " belonging among Harrison 's " finest work " , and he finds the song " every bit as emotionally revealing as anything by Lennon " .
In his review for Classic Rock magazine , Paul Trynka writes :
The towering achievement of this album is , you might say , the preachiest song , ' Be Here Now ' . A straightforward evocation of Buddhist philosophy , its modal folk riffs and wavering melody are enchanting . Writer Ian MacDonald suggested that Nick Drake 's ' River Man ' was based on this same Buddhist notion of mindfulness , and there 's a similar combination of dreaminess and fierce intensity in this song , which is a masterpiece .
= = Cover versions = =
Singer Robyn Hitchcock recorded the track , along with covers of songs by Johnny Cash , Bob Dylan , David Bowie and others , for a download @-@ only album released in December 2010 . Described by the website Slicing Up Eyeballs as a " pristine acoustic take " , Hitchcock 's version of " Be Here Now " appeared as the opening track on the collection .
Coinciding with the release of The Apple Years , " Be Here Now " was one of 27 Harrison songs played at George Fest , an all @-@ star concert organised by his son Dhani and held at the Fonda Theatre , Los Angeles , on 28 September 2014 . The song was performed by Cult vocalist Ian Astbury . In a review of the concert , for No Depression magazine , C.J. Gronner described Astbury 's performance as " my favorite part of the night " .
= = Personnel = =
According to Simon Leng :
George Harrison – vocals , acoustic guitar , sitar , backing vocals
Nicky Hopkins – piano
Gary Wright – organ
Klaus Voormann – standup bass
Jim Keltner – drums
= Devil May Cry ( video game ) =
Devil May Cry ( Japanese : デビル メイ クライ , Hepburn : Debiru Mei Kurai ) is an hack and slash action @-@ adventure video game developed and published by Capcom , released in 2001 for the PlayStation 2 . While the game primarily focuses on sword fighting , the player gains new weapons after beating the game 's bosses resulting in a variety of combos to perform .
Set in modern times on the fictional Mallet Island , the story centers on Dante , a demon hunter who uses his business to get his revenge on the demons after losing his brother and mother . He meets a woman named Trish who takes him on a journey to defeat the demon lord Mundus . The story is told primarily through a mixture of cutscenes , which use the game 's engine and several pre @-@ rendered full motion videos .
The game was originally conceived in 1999 as Resident Evil 4 . Due to the staff feeling it would not fit the Resident Evil franchise , the project dropped its ties to Resident Evil and was made into its own story instead . Devil May Cry received prominent coverage
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lack of configuration options . GameSpy cited the camera 's behavior , the learning curve for the controls , and graphical shortcomings such as flickering and jagginess . GameSpot criticized the game 's conclusion for its dramatic change in gameplay to a rail shooter @-@ like style at the story 's climax , as well as a leveling @-@ off of the difficulty . Lastly , Gamecritics felt that the story was overly short and the characters were underdeveloped .
= = = Legacy = = =
Devil May Cry has spawned a sequel , Devil May Cry 2 and a prequel , Devil May Cry 3 ; both of which have sold more than one million copies . A fourth game , Devil May Cry 4 , was released on February 5 , 2008 in the United States for PlayStation 3 , Xbox 360 and PC . Total sales for all versions as of February 10 , 2009 is approximately 2 @.@ 48 million copies . The game has likewise resulted in the release of two novels by Shinya Goikeda , and an anime series . On October 15 , 2004 , three years after the game 's release , a soundtrack containing the game 's music was released alongside the soundtrack to Devil May Cry 2 . Plans for a PlayStation Portable installment , tentatively titled Devil May Cry Series , and a live action film adaptation have been announced , although it was later confirmed in 2009 that the PSP adaptation of Devil May Cry was officially cancelled . A reboot titled DmC : Devil May Cry was released in 2013 by Ninja Theory and Capcom . Kamiya considers his 2009 video game Bayonetta to have evolved from Devil May Cry although he played the sequel Devil May Cry 4 when developing it .
Devil May Cry has been cited as the beginning of a subgenre of action games called " Extreme Combat " , which focus on powerful heroes fighting hordes of foes with a focus on stylish action . The game has also been described as being the first game that " successfully captured the twitch @-@ based , relentlessly free @-@ flowing gameplay style of so many classic 2D action games " . The series has become the standard against which other 3D action games are measured , with comparisons in reviews of games including God of War , Chaos Legion , and Blood Will Tell .
= The Best Man Wins ( 1910 film ) =
The Best Man Wins is a 1910 American silent short drama produced by the Thanhouser Company . The film features Thanhouser 's leading players Anna Rosemond , Martin Faust , Frank H. Crane and Marie Eline in a drama about morality . Two suitors are vying for the hand of Julia Seaton and propose to her on the same day , but she asks for a month to decide between them . In the time the caliber of both men are tested when asked by a young girl , named May , to help her dying mother . The doctor refuses to help and the lawyer offers his assistance , but her mother soon dies . The orphan is taken in by the Seaton family and personally attests to the character of both men when Julia Seaton has to choose between her suitors . The writer , director and cameraman are unknown . Released on May 14 , 1910 , the film was met with mostly positive reviews by critics . The film is presumed lost .
= = Plot = =
Though the film is presumed lost , a surviving synopsis was published in The Moving Picture World . It states : " Julia Seaton , a rich heiress , has two suitors , Dr. John Seymour , a wealthy physician , and Richard Calhoun , a poor lawyer . They both propose in the same evening , but while inclined to prefer John , Julia has not yet made a definite choice , and tells both to come back in a month for their answer . The scene shifts to the squalid home of the charwoman , Mrs. Smith , who , ill in bed and unable to earn the rent money , is about to be evicted with her tiny daughter May . The mother faints from weakness , and May rushes for a doctor . She sees Seymour 's sign in a window , and asks him to help her mother . Then the man shows his caliber . Because she has no money , he turns her away . Calhoun , the lawyer , meets May , learns of her plight , and , although poor , pays the overdue rent , and the family moved back in the house . But the privation she has suffered proved fatal to the mother and tiny May is left an orphan . On her death bed , Mrs. Smith is found by Miss Seaton , who is visiting the poor quarters on charity work , and on the charwoman 's passing , society girl adopts poor little May . The child becomes a happy member of the Seaton family and at the end of the month is a fast friend of the kind @-@ hearted Julia . At the end of a month , too , Julia prepares to decide who shall be her life partner , as promised . But it is little May who really decides . At sight of Seymour , she recalls the physician who turned her away , and denounces him to his own and Miss Julia 's face . May recognizes Calhoun as the friend in need , and tells Miss Julia so . The latter feels that Calhoun is a real man and would make a splendid husband , so it 's a cinch that ' the best man wins . ' "
= = Cast = =
Anna Rosemond as Julia Seaton , the rich heiress
Martin Faust as Dr. John Seymour , the wealthy physician
Frank H. Crane as Richard Calhoun , the poor lawyer
Marie Eline as May , the young daughter
= = Production = =
The writer of the scenario is unknown , but it may have been Lloyd Lonergan . Lonergan was an experienced newspaperman still employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions . He was the most important script writer for Thanhouser , averaging 200 scripts a year from 1910 to 1915 . While the director of the film is not known , two Thanhouser directors are possible . Barry O 'Neil was the stage name of Thomas J. McCarthy , who would direct many important Thanhouser pictures , including its first two @-@ reeler , Romeo and Juliet . Lloyd B. Carleton was the stage name of Carleton B. Little , a director who would stay with the Thanhouser Company for a short time , moving to Biograph Company by the summer of 1910 . Bowers does not attribute either as the director for this particular production nor does Bowers credit a cameraman . Blair Smith was the first cameraman of the Thanhouser company , but he was soon joined by Carl Louis Gregory who had years of experience as a still and motion picture photographer . The role of the cameraman was uncredited in 1910 productions .
The leading lady , Anna Rosemond , was one of two leading ladies that Thanhouser would have in its first year of productions . Martin J. Faust and Frank H. Crane , both which were leading men in numerous productions . Frank H. Crane was involved in the very beginnings of the Thanhouser Company from 1909 . Crane 's was the first leading man of the company and acted in numerous productions before becoming a director at Thanhouser . The two suitors vying for her hand in marriage is Bowers credits Martin J. Faust as one of the most important actors in for Thanhouser in 1910 and 1911 , but Faust 's role in productions were often went uncredited . The role of a young daughter was Marie Eline , soon to be known and famous as the " Thanhouser Kid " . A possible film still exists for the work and the identity of the actors are complimentary in between two identical stills in the Jonathan Silent Film Collection . The description of T @-@ 151 , identifies the man in the center as Martin Faust and notes the possibility that the still comes from this work . However , the description for T @-@ 176 identifies two actors as Harry Benham and Frank Crane , but asserts that the two only worked together in 1911 .
= = Release and reception = =
The single reel drama , 957 feet long , was released on May 13 , 1910 . Whether the film is 957 feet or 950 feet long is subject to debate . Bowers notes that some sources state the film is 950 feet long , one such example is the advertising for the film which lists it as being approximately this length . Advertising for the film recognized negativity of Friday the 13th and used it to promote the film to redefine the date to instead bring joy . The film was shown across the United States , advertisements for the showing included theaters in Kansas , Texas , and Pennsylvania . Identifying the theaters showing this work is complicated by the identically named The Best Man Wins by Vitagraph . The silent western produced in 1909 was still being shown and advertised in theaters at the time of the release of Thanhouser 's film . An ambiguous advertisement , but most likely Vitagraph reference , is seen in The Hawaiian Star of Hawaii was published on the same day of the Thanhouser release .
Reviews for the film were generally positive . The Moving Picture World found the story to be interesting and well acted , giving no criticism of the production . The New York Dramatic Mirror 's review criticized the weak plot and the satisfactory acting which was diminished by camera consciousness . The review also found that , " [ i ] n the scene where the child is taken from her mother 's death bed too little attention is paid to the corpse . " The Leavenworth Times included a review that was favorable and praised the film 's photography . The Arkansas City Daily Traveler had an advertisement from the Lotus Theater that stated Thanhouser films were rivaling Independent Moving Pictures . No known existing copies , complete or partial , are known to exist .
= June 2011 Christchurch earthquake =
The June 2011 Christchurch earthquake was a shallow magnitude 6 @.@ 3 ML earthquake that occurred on 13 June 2011 at 14 : 20 NZST ( 02 : 20 UTC ) . It was centred at a depth of 6 km ( 3 @.@ 8 mi ) , about 10 km ( 6 mi ) from Christchurch , which had previously been devastated by another magnitude 6 @.@ 3 ML earthquake in February 2011 . The June quake was preceded by a magnitude 5 @.@ 9 ML tremor that struck the region at a slightly deeper 8 @.@ 9 km ( 5 @.@ 5 mi ) . The United States Geological Survey reported a magnitude of 6 @.@ 0 Mw at a depth of about 9 km ( 5 @.@ 6 mi ) .
The earthquake produced severe shaking that registered VIII on the Mercalli scale in and around the city of Christchurch , destroying some buildings and causing additional damage to many structures affected by previous earthquakes . The damaged tower of the historic Lyttelton Timeball Station collapsed before dismantling work could be completed . The earthquake downed phone lines and triggered widespread outages , which left around 54 @,@ 000 households without power . Rebuilding costs in Christchurch increased by NZ $ 6 billion ( US $ 4 @.@ 8 billion ) owing to the additional damage from the quake . Forty @-@ six people suffered injuries , and one elderly man died after being knocked unconscious .
= = Background = =
New Zealand in its entirety , particularly the North Island , is located along the seismically volatile Pacific Ring of Fire , and has a long history of earthquakes . Since the European settlement , the largest on record was a magnitude 8 @.@ 2 ML major earthquake that occurred on 23 January 1855 near the Wairarapa plains of the North Island . Another destructive magnitude 7 @.@ 8 ML earthquake struck the region near Hawke 's Bay on 3 February 1931 ; it is the deadliest earthquake recorded on the island to date , greatly affecting much of Napier and Hastings .
In comparison , the South Island has experienced fewer large earthquakes . The magnitude 7 @.@ 1 Mw event of 4 September 2010 produced by far the strongest ground motions ever recorded in the Canterbury Region , triggering a large number of aftershocks . Although similar aftershock sequences have historically occurred around the world , such occurrences were extremely unusual in the region , which had shown low levels of seismic activity for thousands of years . The event has led to the discovery of previously dormant geological faults across central @-@ eastern South Island , in particular beneath regional plains and the adjacent seabed .
= = Geology = =
The magnitude 6 @.@ 3 ML earthquake occurred inland on 13 June 2011 at 14 : 20 NZST , ( 02 : 20 UTC ) at a shallow depth of 6 @.@ 0 km ( 4 mi ) , about 10 km ( 6 mi ) to the east @-@ southeast of Christchurch , New Zealand . Owing to the interaction of the major Pacific and Australia Plates , much of the regional plate boundary along central South Island is characterised by land deformation . The earthquake was a direct result of strike @-@ slip faulting at the eastern end of the rupture zone of another strong magnitude 6 @.@ 3 ML earthquake , which occurred on 22 February 2011 along the Port Hills Fault . The June earthquake was preceded by a magnitude 5 @.@ 9 ML tremor with a similar focal mechanism that struck 1 hour and 20 minutes earlier . Experts believe the quakes were triggered by a previously undiscovered fault in the region , located several kilometres south of the Port Hills Fault . The United States Geological Survey reported a magnitude of 6 @.@ 0 Mw and a focal depth of 9 km ( 5 @.@ 6 mi ) for the earthquake , while the precursor tremor was assigned a magnitude of 5 @.@ 2 Mw at a similar depth .
Seismologists reported that the earthquakes were part of a prolonged aftershock sequence associated with the major magnitude 7 @.@ 1 earthquake of September 2010 , which includes the February 2011 event . They were succeeded by multiple lighter aftershocks ; the strongest , a moderate magnitude 5 @.@ 1 MLstruck a minute after the event. another tremor 5 @.@ 0 ML struck the region two days later . Despite significant energy release , the earthquakes were believed to have increased the risk of an additional aftershock of similar magnitude ; calculations from GNS Science indicated a 23 percent probability of a magnitude 6 @.@ 0 – 6 @.@ 9 ML earthquake occurring in the Canterbury aftershock zone within the 12 months following the event . Weeks later , a magnitude 5 @.@ 4 ML tremor jolted Christchurch overnight on 22 June , causing additional damage and prompting evacuations .
Focused only several kilometres below the surface , the earthquake resulted in significant shaking over a large portion of central @-@ eastern South Island . Maximum ground motions registered at VIII ( severe ) on the Mercalli intensity scale in Christchurch , while strong shaking ( MM VI ) was felt in adjacent populated areas such as Rolleston and Lincoln . The landforms of Sumner recorded intensified shaking due to the effects of its topographic setting . Widespread lighter motions were observed throughout much of the remaining region , with slight property damage reported from as far afield as Dunedin . The earthquake was felt as far away as New Plymouth and Invercargill .
= = Damage , casualties and effects = =
The earthquake and its precursor tremor struck during the afternoon near an extremely populated area , with most buildings in the area already left in precarious conditions by previous earthquakes . It affected roughly 400 @,@ 000 people directly , most of which were estimated to have experienced at least strong ( MM VI ) shaking . Hospital officials confirmed at least 46 injuries after its occurrence ; falling debris struck several people , while two others were left in critical condition . In the city centre , two workers had to be rescued from a collapsed church and were promptly hospitalised . The morning after , officials confirmed an elderly man had died after being knocked unconscious in a rest home when the earthquake struck . Mass casualties were avoided owing to a combination of building evacuations prompted by the weaker shock and an epicentre removed from populous areas .
In the wake of the earthquake , multiple phone lines were down , and scattered power outages affected about 54 @,@ 000 households . Moreover , at least 70 underground 11 @,@ 000 volt cables sustained some degree of damage , contributing to the outages . The shaking ruptured local water mains , resulting in widespread flooding that affected several streets . Furthermore , officials ordered the closure of bridges in the area as a precautionary measure ; one bridge was reported to have succumbed to the strong ground motions . Days after its occurrence , a small electrical fire ignited in a control panel at Christchurch Hospital due to dislodged wiring as a result of ongoing aftershocks .
Strong ground motions caused many secondary effects , including gas leaks and widespread soil liquefaction . Consequently , sand boils emerged from asphalt roads , toppling a few cars and sinking another . Several houses in the hill suburbs of Sumner and Redcliffs were affected by falling boulders from hillsides . Following its occurrence , much of Christchurch lost water pressure ; residents were thus urged to conserve water use . In some parts of the Heathcote Valley , previously dormant or non @-@ existent natural springs surfaced as a consequence of the sudden rise in the water table , flooding some properties .
= = = Socioeconomic impact = = =
The NZX 50 Index fell by 0 @.@ 4 percent to its lowest level since 20 April ; within the index , a total of 24 stocks fell , while six rose and 20 remained unchanged . In addition , the New Zealand dollar declined in the wake of the disaster , reportedly dropping by nearly 0 @.@ 01 US dollar , or about 1 @.@ 3 percent . Following a dramatic decline in event numbers , Vbase , a council @-@ owned venue management company , announced the disemployment of 151 of its full @-@ time staff workers . Nationwide , building consents tumbled considerably , dropping by 4 @.@ 5 percent in the wake of the aftershock . The disaster 's impact extended beyond national grounds ; in light of its occurrence , Insurance Australia Group reported an estimated net claim loss of A $ 65 million ( US $ 61 @.@ 5 million ) .
= = = Damage evaluation = = =
Though the exact extent of losses was unclear , the earthquake caused further damage to many structures in Christchurch ; approximately half of the buildings in the centre of the city were already damaged or destroyed by previous strong earthquakes . Preliminary assessments indicate over 100 additional buildings were rendered beyond repair in the area . Despite its moderate magnitude , the preceding magnitude 5 @.@ 6 ML tremor caused several two @-@ story buildings at a road intersection in the city to collapse . Multiple hospitals and residential care facilities in Christchurch were left without essential services , and some reported considerable damage to infrastructure .
In spite of earlier renovation attempts , authorities were considering the complete demolition of the 130 @-@ year @-@ old Christchurch Cathedral . The building had become structurally compromised due to the collapse of its western wall , and the strong vibration had shattered its stained glass rose window . Similar damage was inflicted to the Christchurch Arts Centre , although it had been in a precarious state prior to the event . A three @-@ month reconstruction project was scheduled to take place starting in October 2011 , with associated costs estimated at NZ $ 30 million ( US $ 24 million ) . The tower of the historic Lyttelton Timeball Station , which sustained damage from the February 2011 earthquake , collapsed after plans to dismantle the building had been initiated . Lyttelton Port , a major harbour in the region , suffered additional damage from the tremors and opted to initiate full engineering assessments . The multi @-@ story HSBC Tower shook considerably during the quake , though damage was limited to cracks and broken roof tiles . Artifacts from the Canterbury Museum collection were thrown into disorder by the aftershocks , several days after reordering work had been completed since the February 2011 earthquake . In all , experts believed the earthquake would increase reconstruction costs in Christchurch by approximately NZ $ 6 billion ( US $ 4 @.@ 83 billion ) .
= = Response = =
In light of the possibility of aftershocks , police evacuated shopping malls and office buildings around the city . Essential organisations in the area were evacuated as a safety precaution , including the police headquarters and offices of the Canterbury Earthquake Recovery Authority . At Christchurch International Airport , officials halted operations after the earthquake , but all flights resumed later that day . Months before the event , a severe magnitude 6 @.@ 3 earthquake occurred in a similar area adjacent to Christchurch , causing widespread destruction and fatalities in the city . Concerns arose about the condition of previously damaged structures , and the 13 June earthquakes caused further distress among many victims . Dozens of dissatisfied residents were expected to move out of the city , and many others sought professional help for anxiety and depression @-@ related issues .
= = = Relief efforts = = =
In the immediate aftermath of the earthquakes , the National Crisis Management Centre was activated through The Ministry of Civil Defence and Emergency Management to manage public response to the disaster ; hundreds of police officers were accordingly dispatched to patrol the city streets . Authorities proposed to set up an outdoors emergency operations centre , as well as a public welfare centre to provide shelter to victims overnight . The Student Volunteer Army — which partook in silt shifting after the February 2011 quake — again prepared the recruitment of participants to initiate street clearing actions . A total of NZ $ 285 @,@ 000 ( US $ 230 @,@ 000 ) was allocated for donations to nine charities , including NZ $ 40 @,@ 000 ( US $ 32 @,@ 000 ) to both the Red Cross Christchurch earthquake appeal and the Canterbury Earthquake Appeal Salvation Army funds . At Westpac Bank , a public donation account was opened in order to provide financial assistance for earthquake victims . Chief executives from the Commonwealth Bank sponsored an exclusive dinner in Sydney to raise money for rebuilding costs ; an initial A $ 700 @,@ 000 ( US $ 660 @,@ 000 ) was allocated prior to the event , with entry costs of A $ 10 @,@ 000 ( US $ 9 @,@ 500 ) per ticket .
= Petition of Right =
The Petition of Right is a major English constitutional document that sets out specific liberties of the subject that the king is prohibited from infringing . Passed on 7 June 1628 , the Petition contains restrictions on non @-@ Parliamentary taxation , forced billeting of soldiers , imprisonment without cause , and the use of martial law . Following disputes between Parliament and King Charles I over the execution of the Thirty Years ' War , Parliament refused to grant subsidies to support the war effort , leading to Charles gathering " forced loans " without Parliamentary approval and arbitrarily imprisoning those who refused to pay . Moreover , the war footing of the nation led to the forced billeting of soldiers within the homes of private citizens , and the declaration of martial law over large swathes of the country .
In response , the House of Commons prepared a set of four Resolutions , decrying these actions and restating the validity of Magna Carta and the legal requirement of habeas corpus . These were rejected by Charles , who also announced that Parliament would be dissolved ; in response , the Commons met on 6 May to discuss alternatives , and concluded that a petition of right was the way forward . Accordingly , a committee under Sir Edward Coke drafted such a petition , and it was passed by the Commons on 8 May and sent to the House of Lords . After three weeks of debates and conferences between the two chambers , the Petition of Right was ratified by both houses on the 26th and 27 May . Following additional debates in which the King restricted the right of the Commons to freely speak , he bowed to the pressure ; in need of Parliamentary support for the war effort , the Petition was accepted on 2 June . Unhappy with the method chosen , both houses joined together and demanded the King fully ratify the Petition , which he did on 7 June .
Despite debates over its legal status , the Petition of Right was highly influential . Domestically , the Petition is seen as " one of England 's most famous constitutional documents " , of equal value to the Magna Carta and Bill of Rights 1689 . In a period in which Charles 's main protection from the Commons was the House of Lords , the willingness of both chambers to work together marked a new stage in the constitutional crisis that would eventually lead to the English Civil War . The Petition remains in force in the United Kingdom and , thanks to Imperial legislation , many parts of the Commonwealth of Nations including Australia and New Zealand . Internationally , it helped influence the Massachusetts Body of Liberties , and is seen as a predecessor to the Third , Fifth , Sixth and Seventh amendments to the Constitution of the United States .
= = Background = =
= = = Charles I = = =
On 27 March 1625 , King James I of England died , and was succeeded by his son , who became Charles I. Along with the throne , Charles inherited the Thirty Years ' War , in which Christian IV of Denmark and Frederick V , Elector Palatine , who was married to Charles 's sister Elizabeth , were attempting to take back their hereditary lands and titles from the Habsburg Monarchy . James had caused significant financial problems with his attempts to support Christian and Frederick , and it was expected that Charles would be more amenable to prosecuting the war responsibly . After he summoned a new Parliament to meet in April 1625 , it became clear that he was not ; he demanded over £ 700 @,@ 000 to assist in prosecuting the war . The House of Commons refused , and instead passed two bills granting him only £ 112 @,@ 000 . In addition , rather than renewing the customs due from Tonnage and Poundage for the entire life of the monarch , which was traditional , the Commons only voted them in for one year . Because of this , the House of Lords rejected the bill , leaving Charles without any money to provide for the war effort .
Displeased with this , Charles adjourned it on 11 July , but finding himself in need of money recalled the Members on 1 August , when they met in Oxford . Not only did the Commons continue to refuse to provide money , led by Robert Phelips and Sir Edward Coke they began investigating the Duke of Buckingham . Buckingham , Charles 's favourite , was in charge of prosecuting the war , and with it going badly the Commons inquired into Buckingham 's use of previous grants , and various controversies within the admiralty . This was a pretext to impeachment , and Charles reacted by dissolving Parliament less than two weeks later on 12 August . By 1627 , with England still at war , Charles decided to raise " forced loans " ; taxes not authorised by Parliament . Anyone who refused to pay would be imprisoned without trial , and if they resisted , sent before the Privy Council . Although the judiciary initially refused to endorse these loans , they succumbed to pressure after the Chief Justice of the King 's Bench , Sir Randolph Crewe , was dismissed .
For refusing to contribute to the forced loan , over 70 gentlemen were arbitrarily jailed , without trial or charges brought against them . Five of them , Sir Thomas Darnell , Sir John Corbet , Sir Walter Erle , Sir John Heveningham and Sir Edmund Hampden , attempted to gain their freedom , petitioning the Court of King 's Bench for a writ of habeas corpus . These were awarded on 3 November 1627 , with the court ordering the bailiffs to present these prisoners to the King 's Bench for examination by 8 November . None of the prisoners were presented , because the bailiffs were unable to determine what they were charged with ; in an attempt to get a test case to decide on the legality of the forced loans , the Attorney General Sir Robert Heath secured a writ for Darnell . This led to the Five Knights ' Case , known as Darnell 's Case . Darnell , unnerved by the situation , ceased pursuing his freedom , and the other four secured writs instead , represented by John Bramston , Henry Calthorp and John Selden .
The judges denied the defendants bail , concluding that if no charges had been brought , " the [ prisoners ] could not be freed as the offence was probably too dangerous for public discussion " . This was merely a ruling on bail , not on the legality of the loans , and Charles decided not to pursue the charges against the knights , fearing that , if asked to rule on the loans themselves , the judges would find them illegal . An unforeseen side effect was that although Charles continued to demand the loans , more and more wealthy landowners refused to pay , reducing the income from the loans and necessitating a new Parliament being called in March 1627 . With widespread public opposition to Charles , Buckingham and the war , this resulted in the election of " a preponderance of MPs opposed to the King " , including Selden , Coke , John Pym and a young Oliver Cromwell .
= = = Martial law and the Parliamentary response = = =
To cope with the ongoing war situation , Charles had introduced martial law to large swathes of the country ; he extended this during 1626 and 1627 , as the financial constraints imposed by Parliament began to cut into pay , leading to soldiers rioting . Under the law of the time , martial law was declared by the local military commander , at which point a group of Commissioners would be empowered to decide on the facts of offences , before passing the case to the commander , who would pass judgment . In practice , things worked completely differently . In Dover , the forces were commanded by Lord Conway , who declared martial law . Not only were commissioners authorised to decide on the facts , they were also permitted to authorise summary judgments , including the execution of people they deemed to be guilty . In addition , the commissioners were given the power not only to resolve billeting disputes between soldiers and civilians , but to order civilians to provide quarters for the troops . A later declaration of martial law in Portsmouth extended the commission 's remit yet again , allowing for civilians to be tried under martial law and , if necessary , sentenced to death . Even this did not solve the problems , as soldiers would often wander outside the jurisdiction of the commissioners ; to deal with this , February 1627 saw a Provost Marshal introduced to each county , bringing the entire nation under martial law .
Crucially , martial law as then understood was not a form of substantive law , but instead a suspension of the rule of law ; it was the replacement of normal statutes with a law based on the whims of the local military commander . It was , however , based on certain firm rules , primarily that it should only be used " in time of war or open rebellion in the realm " . In previous reigns , this had not been a problem , with monarchs such as Elizabeth I instituting martial law without issues . Charles , however , lacked both the public popularity of Elizabeth and the support within Parliament , and his justification for martial law was not as sound . As a result , the opposition in Parliament , already aggrieved with his behaviour , was further inflamed .
All of those imprisoned for failing to pay the loans were released in December 1627 , and although martial law remained in force , Charles decided that the only way to prosecute the war was to again ask Parliament for money . Accordingly , Parliament began meeting on 17 March 1628 , and " immediately became locked into debates on English liberties " , specifically relating to the forced loans , the trial of the five knights , the billeting of soldiers and martial law . Members of Parliament , already angry with Charles , were further enraged when Selden discovered that Heath had attempted to have the decision in the five knights case enrolled as binding precedent on the legality of the forced loans , pressuring the clerk of the King 's Bench to do so ; MPs reacted by declaring the judgment illegal .
Coke , not satisfied by this , immediately began preparing the Resolutions on 1 April , a series of Parliamentary declarations . The four resolutions were that imprisonment was illegal , except under law , that habeas corpus should be granted to anyone , whether they are imprisoned by the King or the Privy Council , that defendants could not be remanded in custody until the crime they were charged with was shown , and that non @-@ Parliamentary taxation such as the forced loans was illegal . This was " a dogmatic summary of subjects ' rights as enshrined in English ' due process ' legislation since 1225 " , and the first three later became the foundations of the Habeas Corpus Act 1679 . The Resolutions were unanimously accepted by the Commons on 3 April , and Coke , Selden , Dudley Digges and Thomas Littleton presented them to the House of Lords . There , the Resolutions met a mixed reception – something rendered moot when Charles refused to accept them , since resolutions of the Commons had no power outside the chamber .
= = Passage = =
= = = Formation = = =
With the Resolutions rejected , Charles presented the Commons with an alternative ; he was willing to allow them to pass a bill confirming Magna Carta and six other liberty @-@ related statutes , on the condition that such a bill contained " no enlargement of former bills " . A majority of MPs , however , rejected this offer ; although they did not necessarily distrust Charles , the illegal acts committed by his ministers , both in the war and in relation to the five knights ' case , left them loathe to accept a state of affairs which would leave the government with the right to interpret the law . Instead , on 3 May , they approved a formal reply to Charles , which assured him that the Commons was " as full of trust and confidence in your royal word as ever House of Commons reposed in any of their best kings " but that , because of the illegal acts publicly committed by his ministers , nothing except a public remedy would " raise the dejected hearts of your loving subjects to a cheerful supply of your Majesty " .
Charles conferred with the House of Lords , and then had Lord Coventry deliver his reply ; that if the Commons did indeed trust the King , they should not request a public bill , and that Parliament would be prorogued on 13 May . With this , the Commons gave up on pursuing a public bill against Charles 's wishes , since it would require his assent to be made law , and on 6 May turned to what to do next . A number of possible alternatives were debated . John Coke and a number of " courtiers " suggested simply trusting Charles , while William Coryton continued to push for an explanatory bill – precisely what Charles had rejected . Nathaniel Rich suggested asking Charles to explain his understanding of the law and declare certain acts illegal . Finally , Sir Edward Coke made a speech suggesting that the Commons join with the House of Lords , and pass their four resolutions as a petition of right . He was not the first to do so – Digges had suggested such a move as early as 26 April – but his proposal on 6 May was the one to be adopted , and he is thus normally seen as the originator of the Petition of Right .
The idea of a petition of right was an established element of Parliamentary procedure , and in addition , had not been expressly prohibited by Charles , allowing the Commons to evade the restrictions placed upon them while still acting legitimately . Once the Commons agreed to move forward with a petition of right , and on its contents , Coke moved that the Commons " join with the Lords " in the petition and then have it " exemplified under the great seal " . This was accepted by the Commons almost unanimously , and they formed a drafting committee led by Coke . The committee produced a petition containing the same elements as the Resolutions , covering discretionary imprisonment , non @-@ Parliamentary taxation , martial law and forced billeting , and had its recommendations accepted by the Commons on 8 May .
= = = House of Lords = = =
On 8 May , the Petition was formally presented to the Lords by Coke , accompanied by a bill for subsidies for the King to encourage them to accept the Petition . It was read to the House , and debated on 9 and 10 May . The Lords approved the substance of the petition , but were worried it would be distasteful to Charles and attempted to " sweeten " the wording . On 12 May , before a resolution had been reached , the Lords were presented with a message from Charles , expressing his reservations over the clause on imprisonment . He wrote that although he had attempted to " satisfy all moderate minds , and free them from all just fears on this matter " , he insisted that if Parliament accepted that " in no case whatsoever ( though they should never so nearly concern matters of state or government ) we , or our Privy Council , have power to commit any man without the cause shown " , then this " would soon dissolve the foundation and frame of our monarchy [ and ] without overthrow of our sovereignty ... we cannot suffer this power to be impeached " .
This message was read to the Commons later in the morning , and the MPs decided to simply ignore it , not even bothering to reply . In response to the message , the Lords proposed eight alterations to the petition and the modification of the imprisonment clause to appease the king . When these changes were debated on 13 May , they were all rejected except for one minor change in wording . The Lords still favoured a compromise , and suggested the addition of a paragraph to the petition reading " We humbly present this petition to your majesty , not only with a care of preserving our own liberties , but with due regard to leave entire that sovereign power , wherewith your majesty is trusted , for the protection , safety , and happiness of your people " . By 20 May the Commons had agreed to one more minor alteration , but had not decided whether to accept the new paragraph . Coke made a speech urging them to reject all of it , saying that to use the phrase " sovereign power " would mean admitting that the King had the power to destroy any limitations the Petition might place on his power " .
After further debate , the Commons informed the Lords that they would not accept the addition . The Lords attempted to rebut the arguments at a conference on 21 May , but were unsuccessful , and then proposed a joint conference of 23 members from each house to find some middle ground . When this was rejected on 24 May , the Lords abandoned any attempt to accommodate the King . Instead , they unanimously voted to join with the Commons on the Petition of Right , while passing their own resolution on 26 May insisting that their intention was " not to lessen or impeach any thing which by the oath of supremacy [ we had ] sworn to assist and defend " , assuring the King of their loyalty . With this , the amended Petition was quickly approved by the Lords on 26 May , the Commons on 27 May , and transmitted back to the Lords , who would present it to Charles .
= = = Acceptance by Charles = = =
Following the acceptance of the Petition by the House of Lords , Charles sent a message to the Commons " forbidding them to meddle with affairs of state " , something that produced a furious debate . John Finch , the Speaker of the House of Commons , announced that he had been commanded to interrupt any Member of Parliament who should insult or cast aspersion on a Minister of State , such as the Duke of Buckingham . This produced a " spectacle of passions " in the House ; the tradition of free speech within the Commons was a long one , and many MPs found themselves " unable to speak for tears running down their faces at the thought of the destruction of the liberties of Parliament " . Coke , although crying , declared that he did not know whether he would be allowed to speak in Parliament again , but named Buckingham anyway , saying that " the Duke of Buckingham is the cause of all our miseries , and till the King be informed thereof we shall never go out with honour , or sit with honour here ; that man is the grievance of grievances ; let us set down the cause of all our disasters and they will reflect upon him " .
Selden immediately moved that the commons produce " The Common Remonstrance against the Duke " , which demanded his removal from office . Faced with both the Petition of Right and a demand to remove his favourite , while requiring Parliament to provide subsidies for the war effort , Charles accepted defeat . After he gave a grudging assurance that the petition would be accepted on 2 June , saying :
The King willeth that right be done according to the laws and customs of the realm ; and that the statutes be put in due execution , that the subject may have no just cause of complaint for any wrong or oppression , contrary to their just rights and liberties , to the preservation whereov he holds himself in conscience as well obliged of his just prerogative .
Unsatisfied , with this vague answer , the Commons and the Lords banded together and demanded " that a clear and satisfactory answer be given by His Majesty in full Parliament " . On 7 June , Charles capitulated , appearing within Parliament at 4pm and , following a reading of the full Petition , saying " soit droit fait comme est desire " – the phrase normally used in the acceptance of a Parliamentary bill . This was met with widespread adulation ; contemporary accounts report the ringing of church bells and the lighting of bonfires throughout the country . As a symbolic admission of defeat , Charles also picked 7 June to restore to favour all peers in opposition to him , a list that " read like the leadership of the pro @-@ Petition forces in the Lords " . After setting out a list of individual grievances and statutes that had been broken , the Petition of Right declares that Englishmen have various " rights and liberties " , and provides that no person should be forced to provide a gift , loan or tax without an Act of Parliament , that no free individual should be imprisoned or detained unless a cause has been shown , and that soldiers or members of the Royal Navy should not be billeted in private houses without the free consent of the owner . In relation to martial law , the Petition first repeated the due process chapter of Magna Carta , and then provided that :
Nevertheless , of late divers commissions under Your Majesty 's great seal have issued forth , by which certain powers have been assigned and appointed commissioners , with power and authority to proceed within the land according to the justice of martial law against such soldiers and marines or other dissolute persons going with them as should commit robbery murder , etc ... and by such summary course and order as is used by armies in time of war , to proceed to the trial and condemnation of such offenders , and to cause them to be executed and put to death according to the law martial ... We do humbly pray , Your most excellent Majesty ... that the aforesaid commissions ... may be revoked and anulled ; and that hereafter no commission of like nature may issue forth to any person or persons whatsoever to be executed as aforesaid , lest by color of them any of Your Majesty 's be destroyed or put to death contrary to the laws or practises of the land .
This clause was directly addressed to the various commissions issued by Charles and his military commanders , restricting the use of martial law except in war or direct rebellion and prohibiting the formation of commissions . A state of war automatically activated martial law ; as such , the only purpose for commissions , in their view , was to unjustly permit martial law in circumstances that did not require it .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Significance = = =
Historians have traditionally considered the passage of the Petition of Right an important moment in the Stuart period . Whig historians such as Samuel Rawson Gardiner described it as the founding of the United Kingdom 's modern constitutional monarchy , and although revisionists have " virtually abolished " Gardiner 's works , the Petition of Right is still considered an important moment , with Conrad Russell arguing that it was the " culmination of a national war crisis [ and ] an ideological watershed " . In its own right , the Petition has been described as " one of England 's most famous constitutional documents " , with writers considering it of equal standing to the Magna Carta and the 1689 Bill of Rights . Within what is now the Commonwealth of Nations , the Petition was also heavily influential ; through the various statutes which enforced Imperial law , it remains in force in both New Zealand and Australia , as well as the United Kingdom itself .
The Petition profoundly influenced the rights contained by the Constitution of the United States . The clauses relating to the billeting of troops later helped form the Third Amendment to the United States Constitution , which states that " No soldier shall , in time of peace be quartered in any house , without the consent of the owner , nor in time of war , but in a manner to be prescribed by law " . Steve Bachmann , writing in the Quinnipiac Law Review , goes further ; he says that the Criminal Trials Clause of the Sixth Amendment , the Due Process Clause of the Fifth Amendment and the Civil Jury Trial Clause of the Seventh Amendment all are influenced by the Petition of Right , primarily through the Massachusetts Body of Liberties .
Domestically , the Petition marked " a major step on the way to the English Civil War of the 1640s " . Although Parliament lacked what would be considered political parties , and would continue to do so until the 18th century , the Petition of Right marked a substantial cooperative work between individual parliamentarians and between the Commons and Lords , something that had previously been lacking . Moreover , it saw Charles lose the " precious initiative in policy direction " ; the Commons had only previously been prevented from twisting the King 's intentions and policies due to the presence of the Lords , which acted as a buffer . With the Lords now indicating a willingness to work with the lower house , " the Crown 's most important protection within Parliament had been shaken as never before and the constitutional crisis between the Stuarts and their Parliaments had entered a new stage of development " .
= = = Legal status = = =
Clashes over the interpretation and legality of the Petition began almost immediately , with the Lords and Commons arguing with the King as early as 20 June 1628 , leading to the prorogation of Parliament on the 26th . The Petition of Right was not a formal statute , and despite it being reaffirmed as a bill by the Long Parliament in 1641 , the legal status of the initial Petition has been debated . It has been considered a declaratory act , a private bill , or simply a petition , which permitted an individual harmed by the government to take action against the crown . A petition is the oldest form of Parliamentary proceeding , and the one through which most early statutes were originally passed ; the King would be petitioned to take action by Members of Parliament , and would assent to their request ; laws passed in this way include Magna Carta and the Statute of Westminster . Whether or not this made it legally binding was debated . F.H. Relf argued that the recognition of the Petition was a judicial matter and at best a private bill , and as such it was not binding on the King or on Parliament . L.J. Reeve , on the other hand , considers it to have had the strength of a public bill ; it was a legislative act , and as such legally binding .
Reeve bases this argument on several things . Firstly , the judiciary of the time were asked by Charles what standing they would give to the Petition were it passed ; they concluded that it was a potentially legislative act . Charles 's assent to the Petition was also made in Parliament , not in Whitehall , something normally done with statutes , and Henry Elsynge , the Clerk of the House of Commons , had the Petition placed on the statute rolls as if it were an Act of Parliament . It was later enforced by the courts ; when Selden and other Members of Parliament were imprisoned , they cited the Petition as a reason to grant habeas corpus , something the judges accepted , and the ship money case , although a victory for Charles , was a victory in spite of the Petition rather than because of it ; the judgment concluded that Charles 's actions were acceptable under the Royal Prerogative , but would otherwise be in violation of the Petition . Stephen D. White simply says that " it seems impossible to establish conclusively which of these interpretations of the petition is correct . The Petition of Right of 1628 was a unique parliamentary act . It was interpreted differently by different people . And there are probably no absolute criteria by which its true nature can be determined " .
= Architecture of Scotland in the Roman era =
The architecture of Scotland in the Roman era includes all building within the modern borders of Scotland , from the arrival of the Romans in northern Britain in the first century BCE , until their departure in the fifth century . Although Ptolemy indicated that there were 19 " towns " in Caledonia , north of the Roman province of Britannia , no clear evidence of urban settlements has been found and these were probably hillforts . There is evidence of over 1 @,@ 000 such forts , most below the Clyde @-@ Forth line , but the majority seem to have been abandoned in the Roman period . There is also evidence of distinctive stone wheelhouses and small underground souterrains .
From about 71 CE the Romans began military expeditions into what is now Scotland , building forts , like that at Trimontium , and probably pushing north as far as the River Tay where they created more fortifications , like those at Inchtuthil . These were soon abandoned , and the Romans settled for the occupation of the Southern Uplands by the end of the first century , below a line drawn between the Tyne and Solway Firth . This resulted in more fortifications and the building of Hadrian 's Wall across what is now northern England . Around 141 CE they moved up to construct a new limes , a sward @-@ covered wall made of turf known as the Antonine Wall , the largest Roman structure in modern Scotland . They soon retreated to Hadrian 's Wall , with occasional expeditions that involved the building and reoccupation of forts , until the collapse of Roman power in the early fifth century .
= = Caledonia = =
Caledonia was the name that the Romans gave to the land north of their province of Britannia . In his Geographia , Ptolemy , possibly drawing on earlier sources of information as well as more contemporary accounts from the Agricolan invasion , identified 19 " towns " in Caledonia . No archaeological evidence of any truly urban places has been found from this time , and the names may have indicated hill forts , temporary markets or meeting places . Most of the names are obscure : Devana may be the modern Banchory , Alauna ( meaning " the rock " ) in the west is probably Dumbarton Rock and the place of the same name in the east of the Lowlands may be the site of Edinburgh Castle . Lindon may be Balloch on Loch Lomond side . There is evidence for about 1 @,@ 000 Iron Age hillforts in Scotland , most located below the Clyde @-@ Forth line . The majority are circular , with a single palisade around an enclosure . However , they appear to have been largely abandoned in the Roman period . There are also numerous vitrified forts , whose walls have been subjected to fire , which may date to this period , but an accurate chronology has not been created . Extensive studies of this type of fort at Finavon Hill near Forfar in Angus , suggest dates for the destruction of the site in either the last two centuries BCE , or the mid @-@ first millennium CE . Many of these forts would be reoccupied after the Roman departure .
Beyond the area of Roman occupation , in the west and north , there are over 60 sites identified of wheelhouses . Perhaps a development of earlier Atlantic roundhouses , these have a characteristic outer wall surrounding a circle of stone piers ( bearing a resemblance to the spokes of a wheel ) . Over 400 souterrains , small underground constructions , have been discovered in Scotland , many of them in the south @-@ east , and although few have been dated , those that have suggest a construction date in the second or third centuries CE . They are usually found close to settlements ( whose timber frames are much less well @-@ preserved ) and may have been for storing perishable agricultural products .
= = Early Roman constructions = =
The Romans began military expeditions into what is now Scotland from about 71 CE . In 78 CE Gnaeus Julius Agricola arrived in Britain to take up his appointment as the new governor and began a series of major incursions . Two years later his legions constructed a substantial fort at Trimontium near Melrose . He is said to have pushed his armies to the estuary of the " River Taus " ( usually assumed to be the River Tay ) and established forts there , including a legionary fortress at Inchtuthil . After his victory over the northern tribes at Mons Graupius in 84 CE , a series of forts and towers were established along the Gask Ridge , which marked the boundary between the Lowland and Highland zones , probably forming the first Roman limes or frontier in Scotland .
Agricola 's successors were unable or unwilling to further subdue the far north . The fortress at Inchtuthil was dismantled before its completion , and the other fortifications of the Gask Ridge were abandoned within the space of a few years . By CE 87 the occupation was limited to the Southern Uplands , and by the end of the first century the northern limit of Roman expansion was a line drawn between the Tyne and Solway Firth . Elginhaugh fort , in Midlothian , dates to about this period , as may Castle Greg in West Lothian . The Romans eventually withdrew to a line in what is now northern England , building the fortification known as Hadrian 's Wall from coast to coast .
= = The Antonine Wall and later invasions = =
Around 141 CE the Romans undertook a reoccupation of southern Scotland , moving up to construct a new limes between the Firth of Forth and the Firth of Clyde . The resulting Antonine Wall is the largest Roman construction inside Scotland . It is a sward @-@ covered wall made of turf , around 20 feet ( 6 m ) high , with nineteen forts and extending for 37 miles ( 60 km ) . The stone foundations and wing walls of the original forts demonstrate that the intention was to build a stone wall similar to Hadrian 's Wall , but this was quickly amended . There is a wide ditch on the north side , and a military way on the south . The Romans initially planned to build forts every 6 miles ( 10 km ) , but this was soon revised to every 2 miles ( 3 km ) . One of the best preserved forts , but also one of the smallest , is Rough Castle Fort . In addition to the forts , there are at least nine smaller fortlets , probably on Roman mile spacings , which formed part of the original scheme , some of which were later replaced by forts . The most visible fortlet is Kinneil , at the eastern end of the Wall , near Bo 'ness . Having taken twelve years to build , the wall was overrun and abandoned soon after CE 160 . The Romans retreated to the line of Hadrian 's Wall .
Roman troops penetrated far into the north of modern Scotland several more times , with at least four major campaigns . The Antonine Wall was occupied again for a brief period after 197 CE . The most notable invasion was in 209 when the emperor Septimius Severus led a major campaign . A string of forts was constructed in the north @-@ east ( some of which may have been begun in the earlier Antonine campaign ) . These include camps associated with the Elsick Mounth , such as Normandykes , Ythan Wells , Deers Den and Glenmailen . However , only two forts in Scotland , at Cramond and Carpow ( in the Tay valley ) are definitely known to have been permanently occupied during this incursion . There is evidence that these campaigns are coincident with the wholesale destruction and abandonment of souterrains in southern Scotland . This may have been due either to Roman military aggression or the collapse of local grain markets in the wake of Roman withdrawal . After the death of Severus in 210 the Romans withdrew back to Hadrian 's Wall , which would be the frontier until Roman authority in Britain collapsed in the fifth century .
= Saving Mr. Banks =
Saving Mr. Banks is a 2013 period drama film directed by John Lee Hancock from a screenplay written by Kelly Marcel and Sue Smith . Centered on the development of the 1964 film Mary Poppins , the film stars Emma Thompson as author P. L. Travers and Tom Hanks as filmmaker Walt Disney , with supporting performances by Paul Giamatti , Jason Schwartzman , Bradley Whitford , and Colin Farrell . Named after the father in Travers ' story , Saving Mr. Banks depicts the author 's fortnight @-@ long meetings during 1961 in Los Angeles , during which Disney attempts to obtain the screen rights to her novels .
Essential Media Entertainment and BBC Films initially developed Saving Mr. Banks as an independent production until 2011 , when producer Alison Owen approached Walt Disney Pictures for permission to use copyrighted elements . The film 's subject matter piqued Disney 's interest , leading the studio to acquire the screenplay and produce the film . Principal photography commenced the following year in September before wrapping in November 2012 ; the film was shot entirely in the Southern California area , primarily at the Walt Disney Studios in Burbank , where a majority of the film 's narrative takes place .
Saving Mr. Banks premiered at the London Film Festival on October 20 , 2013 , and was released theatrically that same year in the United Kingdom on November 29 and in the United States on December 13 . Upon release , the film received positive reviews , with praise directed towards the acting , screenplay , and musical score . Thompson 's performance garnered a BAFTA Award , Golden Globe Award , Screen Actors Guild Award , and Critic 's Choice Award nominations for Best Actress , while composer Thomas Newman earned an Academy Award nomination for Best Original Score . The film was also commercially successful , grossing $ 118 million at the worldwide box office .
= = Plot = =
In 1961 , the financially strapped author Pamela " P. L. " Travers reluctantly travels from her home in London to Los Angeles to work with Walt Disney at the urging of her agent , Diarmuid Russell . Disney has pursued the film rights to her Mary Poppins stories for twenty years , having promised his daughters that he would produce a film based on them . Travers has steadfastly resisted Disney 's efforts because she fears what he would do to her character . However , she has not written anything in a while and her book royalties have dwindled to nothing , so she risks losing her house . Still , Russell has to remind her that Disney has agreed to two major stipulations — no animation and unprecedented script approval — before she agrees to go .
Travers ' difficult childhood in Allora , Queensland , Australia , is depicted through flashbacks , and is the inspiration for much of Mary Poppins . Travers idolized her loving , imaginative father , Travers Robert Goff , but his chronic alcoholism resulted in his repeated firings , strained her parents ' marriage , and caused her distressed mother to attempt suicide . Goff died at an early age from tuberculosis when Travers was seven years old .
In Los Angeles , Travers is irritated by what she perceives as the city 's unreality and the inhabitants ' intrusive friendliness , personified by her limousine driver , Ralph . At the Walt Disney Studios in Burbank , Travers meets the creative team that are developing Mary Poppins for the screen : screenwriter Don DaGradi , and music composers Richard and Robert Sherman . She finds their presumptions and casual manners highly improper , a view she also holds of the jocular Disney .
Travers ' working relationship with Disney and his team is difficult from the outset , with her insistence that Mary Poppins is the enemy of sentiment and whimsy . Disney and his people are puzzled by Travers ' disdain for fantasy , given the nature of the Mary Poppins story , as well as Travers ' own rich imagination . She particularly objects to how the character George Banks , the estranged father of the children in Mary Poppins ' charge , is depicted , insisting that he is neither cold nor cruel . Gradually , they grasp how deeply personal the Mary Poppins stories are to her and how many of the characters were inspired by her past .
The team realize Travers has valid criticisms and make changes , though she becomes increasingly disengaged as painful childhood memories resurface . Seeking to understand what troubles her , Disney invites Travers to Disneyland , which , along with her developing friendship with Ralph , the creative team 's revisions to the George Banks character , and the addition of a new song and a different ending , help dissolve Travers ' opposition . Her creativity reawakens , and she begins working with the team ; however , when Travers discovers that there is to be an animation sequence , she confronts Disney over his broken promise and returns home .
Disney learns that Travers is actually her pen name , taken from her father 's given name . Her real name is Helen Goff , and she 's actually Australian , not British . This gives Disney new insight into Travers , and he follows her to London . Arriving unexpectedly at her door , Disney tells her that he also had a less @-@ than @-@ ideal childhood , but stresses the healing value of his art . He urges Travers to not let deeply @-@ rooted past disappointments dictate the present . Travers relents and grants Disney the film rights .
Three years later , in 1964 , Mary Poppins is to have its world premiere at Grauman 's Chinese Theatre in Hollywood . Disney has not invited Travers , fearing how she might react with the press watching . Prompted by Russell , Travers shows up unannounced at Disney 's office ; he reluctantly issues her an invitation . Initially , she watches Mary Poppins with a lack of enthusiasm , particularly during the animated sequences . She gradually warms to the rest of the film ; however , becoming deeply moved by the depiction of George Banks ' personal crisis and redemption .
= = Cast = =
Emma Thompson as Pamela " P. L. " Travers , birth name Helen Goff .
Annie Rose Buckley as seven @-@ year @-@ old Helen
Tom Hanks as Walt Disney
Colin Farrell as Travers Robert Goff , Helen 's father
Ruth Wilson as Margaret Goff , Helen 's mother
Paul Giamatti as Ralph , Travers ' chauffeur
Bradley Whitford as Don DaGradi , co @-@ writer of the screenplay for Mary Poppins
B. J. Novak as Robert B. Sherman , composer and lyricist who co @-@ wrote the film 's songs with his brother Richard
Jason Schwartzman as Richard M. Sherman , composer and lyricist
Kathy Baker as Tommie , Disney 's executive assistant
Melanie Paxson as Dolly , Disney 's secretary
Rachel Griffiths as Ellie , Helen 's aunt , who serves as the model for Mary Poppins
Ronan Vibert as Diarmuid Russell
Kristopher Kyer as Dick Van Dyke
Victoria Summer as Julie Andrews
Credits adapted from The New York Times .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
In 2002 , Australian producer Ian Collie produced a documentary film on P. L. Travers titled The Shadow of " Mary Poppins " . During the documentary 's production , Collie noticed that there was " an obvious biopic there " and convinced Essential Media and Entertainment to develop a feature film with Sue Smith writing the screenplay . The project attracted the attention of BBC Films , which decided to finance the project , and Ruby Films ' Alison Owen , who subsequently hired Kelly Marcel to co @-@ write the screenplay with Smith . Marcel 's drafts removed a subplot involving Travers and her son , and divided the story into a two @-@ part narrative : the creative conflict between Travers and Walt Disney , and her dealings with her childhood issues , describing it as " a story about the pain of a little girl who suffered , and the grown woman who allowed herself to let go " . Marcel 's version , however , featured certain intellectual property rights of music and imagery which would be impossible to use without permission from The Walt Disney Company . " There was always that elephant in the room , which is Disney , " Collie recalled . " We knew Walt Disney was a key character in the film and we wanted to use quite a bit of the music . We knew we 'd eventually have to show Disney . " In early 2010 , Robert B. Sherman provided producer Alison Owen with an advance copy of a salient chapter from his then upcoming book release , Moose : Chapters From My Life . The chapter entitled , " ' Tween Pavement and Stars " contained characterizations and anecdotes which proved seminal to Marcel 's script rewrite , in particular , the anecdote about there not being the color red in London . In July 2011 , while attending the Ischia Film Festival , Owen met with Corky Hale , who offered to present the screenplay to Richard M. Sherman . Sherman read the screenplay and gave the producers his support . Later that year , Marcel and Smith 's screenplay was listed in Franklin Leonard 's The Black List , voted by producers as one of the best screenplays that were not in production .
In November 2011 , Walt Disney Pictures ' president of production , Sean Bailey , was informed of Marcel 's existing script . Realizing that the screenplay included a depiction of the studio 's namesake , Bailey conferred with Disney CEO Bob Iger and Walt Disney Studios chairman Alan Horn , the latter of whom referred to the film as a " brand deposit , " a term adopted from Steve Jobs . Together , the executives discussed the studio 's potential choices ; purchase the script and shut the project down , put the film in turnaround , or co @-@ produce the film themselves . With executive approval , the studio acquired the screenplay in February 2012 and joined the production with Owen , Collie and Philip Steuer as producers , and Christine Langan , Troy Lum , Andrew Mason , and Paul Trijbits serving as executive producers . John Lee Hancock was hired to direct the film later that same month .
Iger subsequently contacted Tom Hanks to consider playing the role of Walt Disney , which would become the first @-@ ever depiction of Disney in a mainstream film . Hanks accepted the role , viewing it as " an opportunity to play somebody as world @-@ shifting as Picasso or Chaplin " . Hanks made several visits to the Walt Disney Family Museum and interviewed some of Disney 's former employees and family relatives , including his daughter Diane Disney Miller . The film was subsequently dedicated to Disney Miller , who died shortly before it was released . In April 2012 , Emma Thompson entered final negotiations to star as P. L. Travers , after the studio was unable to secure Meryl Streep for the part . Thompson said that the role was the most difficult one that she has played , describing Travers as " a woman of quite eye @-@ watering complexity and contradiction . " " She wrote a very good essay on sadness , because she was , in fact , a very sad woman . She 'd had a very rough childhood , the alcoholism of her father being part of it and the attempted suicide of her mother being another part of it . I think that she spent her whole life in a state of fundamental inconsolability and hence got a lot done . " Colin Farrell , Paul Giamatti , Jason Schwartzman , Bradley Whitford , B. J. Novak , and Ruth Wilson were cast in July 2012 .
With Disney 's backing , the production team was given access to 36 hours of Travers ' audio recordings of herself , the Shermans , and co @-@ writer Don DaGradi that were produced during the development of Mary Poppins , in addition to letters written between Disney and Travers from the 1940s through the 1960s . Richard M. Sherman also worked on the film as a music supervisor and shared his side of his experiences working with Travers on Mary Poppins . Initially , Hancock had reservations about Disney 's involvement with the film , believing that the studio would edit the screenplay in their co @-@ founder 's favor . However , Marcel admitted that the studio " specifically didn 't want to come in and sanitize it or change Walt in any way . " Hancock elaborated , " I was still worried that they might want to chip away at Walt a little bit ... I thought the portrayal of Walt was fair and human so I came in and they said , ‘ No , we like it . ’ But still , every step of the way , I had my fist balled up behind my back ready to fight in case it happened , but it didn ’ t . " Although the filmmakers did not receive any creative interference from Disney regarding Walt Disney 's depiction , the studio did request that they omit any onscreen inhalation of cigarettes due to the company 's policy of not directly depicting smoking in films released under the Walt Disney Pictures banner , and to avoid receiving an R @-@ rating from the Motion Picture Association of America . Instead , Disney is shown extinguishing a lit cigarette in one scene , and his notorious smoker 's cough is heard off @-@ screen several times throughout the film .
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subjugated by the Aztec Triple Alliance at the end of the 15th century , under the emperor Ahuizotl , and paid tribute in cacao . The Cholan Maya @-@ speaking Lakandon ( not to be confused with the modern inhabitants of Chiapas by that name ) controlled territory along the tributaries of the Usumacinta River spanning eastern Chiapas and southwestern Petén in Guatemala . The Lakandon had a fierce reputation amongst the Spanish .
= = Prelude to conquest = =
Rumours of strangers on the Atlantic coast reached Chiapas long before the physical presence of Spaniards in the region . This was followed by messengers from the Aztec emperor , Moctezuma II , to the K 'iche ' Maya of the Guatemalan Highlands , warning them to prepare for war against the Spanish intruders . This was soon followed by news that the great Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan had fallen to the conquistadores . A mixed embassy that included Chiapanecas , K 'iche 's and Kaqchikel Maya visited Hernan Cortés in the recently conquered Aztec capital , and were well received .
In 1522 , Spanish ships explored the Pacific shore of Chiapas when Andrés Niño followed the coast from Panama northwest to the Isthmus of Tehuantepec . In December that year , Cuzcacuatl , who was lord of the Tzotzil Maya town of Zinacantan , travelled to the Spanish settlement at Villa del Espíritu Santo ( modern Coatzacoalcos ) to pledge an alliance with the newcomers .
= = Strategies , tactics and weaponry = =
The Spanish conquest had as its principal aims the physical incorporation of the indigenous peoples of Chiapas into the Spanish Empire , and their spiritual conversion to Christianity . This involved the dismantling of indigenous power structures , the destruction of pagan temples and idols , the concentration of indigenous populations in centralised settlements that could be more easily controlled and evangelised , the incorporation of these new settlements into the Spanish system of tributes and taxes , and the introduction of Christian imagery . One side of this involved armed struggle and the imposition of Spanish colonial administration by force ; the religious side of this struggle was the generally peaceful conversion of indigenous populations to Christianity . In Chiapas , such evangelisation efforts were generally carried out by the Dominican Order . The Dominicans became involved in the concentration of Indians into new settlements , the construction of churches and convents , and the religious instruction of the natives .
The 16th @-@ century Spanish conquistadores were armed with broadswords , rapiers , crossbows , matchlocks and light artillery . Mounted conquistadores were armed with a 3 @.@ 7 @-@ metre ( 12 ft ) lance , that also served as a pike for infantrymen . A variety of halberds and bills were also employed . As well as the one @-@ handed broadsword , a 1 @.@ 7 @-@ metre ( 5 @.@ 5 ft ) long two @-@ handed version was also used . Crossbows had 0 @.@ 61 @-@ metre ( 2 ft ) arms stiffened with hardwoods , horn , bone and cane , and supplied with a stirrup to facilitate drawing the string with a crank and pulley . Crossbows were easier to maintain than matchlocks , especially in a humid tropical climate .
Metal armour was of limited use in the hot , wet tropical climate . It was heavy and had to be constantly cleaned to prevent rusting ; in direct sunlight , metal armour became unbearably hot . Conquistadores often went without metal armour , or only donned it immediately prior to battle . They were quick to adopt quilted cotton armour based upon that used by their native opponents , and commonly combined this with the use of a simple metal war hat . Shields were considered essential by both infantry and cavalry ; generally this was a circular target shield , convex in form and fashioned from iron or wood . Rings secured it to the arm and hand .
While the encomienda colonial labour @-@ supply system was in the process of being established , slave raids became a part of the cycle of conquest . The Spanish would round up indigenous peoples , brand them as slaves , and trade them at ports on the Gulf of Mexico for horses and weaponry , allowing further conquest and the acquisition of new slaves for trade .
The Tzotzil Maya of highland Chiapas used spears , thrown rocks , bows and arrows , and large flexible cotton shields that protected the warrior from head to foot and could be rolled up for storage . Towns were sometimes defended with walls and barricades , built from packed earth and stone , and reinforced with tree trunks . Defenders would hurl stones down from above , or pour boiling water mixed with lime and ashes upon attackers . As the Spanish became established in Chiapas , indigenous resistance took the form of flight to inaccessible regions .
= = = Impact of Old World diseases = = =
Although heavily populated prior to the conquest , the impact of Old World diseases was one of the factors that resulted in the depopulation of the hot , moist lands of the Depresión Central , which remain sparsely populated to this day . Likewise , Soconusco was rapidly depopulated as a result of disease soon after contact with the Spanish . Among the most deadly diseases were smallpox , influenza , measles and a number of pulmonary diseases , including tuberculosis .
= = Conquest of Soconusco = =
Spanish conquistador Pedro de Alvarado passed through Soconusco with a sizeable force in 1523 , en route to conquer Guatemala . Alvarado 's army included hardened veterans of the conquest of the Aztecs , and included cavalry and artillery ; there were also a great many indigenous allies from Cholula , Tenochtitlan , Tezcoco , Tlaxcala , and Xochimilco . Alvarado was received in peace in Soconusco , and the inhabitants swore allegiance to the Spanish Crown . They reported that neighbouring groups in Guatemala were attacking them because of their friendly outlook towards the Spanish . Alvarado 's letter to Hernán Cortés describing his passage through Soconusco is lost , and knowledge of events there come from the account of Bernal Díaz del Castillo , who was not present , but related the report of Gonzalo de Alvarado . By 1524 , Soconusco had been completely pacified by Alvarado and his forces . Over the next fifty years , native population levels collapsed catastrophically as a result of exposure to Old World diseases , with an estimated 90 – 95 % drop . In spite of this , the colonial administration demanded twice as much tribute in cacao as had been paid to the Aztecs prior to the Spanish invasion , and cacao continued to be an important crop throughout the colonial period . Due to the economic importance of cacao to the new colony , the Spanish were reluctant to move the indigenous inhabitants far from their established cacao orchards . As a result , the inhabitants of Soconusco were less likely to be rounded up into new reducción settlements , where the planting of a new cacao crop would have required five years to mature .
Spanish jurisdiction over the province of Soconusco was subject to frequent changes . Immediately after the conquest , it was held in encomienda first by Hernán Cortés , then by Jorge de Alvarado . By 1530 , the Audiencia Real of Mexico had jurisdiction over the province of Soconsusco , which was now held in encomienda by the Spanish Crown . It was governed by colonial officers appointed in Mexico . In 1556 , Soconusco passed into the jurisdiction of the Audiencia Real of Guatemala , with independent governors appointed by the Crown . From 1564 – 69 , Soconusco was passed back into the jurisdiction of Mexico , before once again becoming an independent province administered by the Audiencia Real of Guatemala , where it remained until the late 18th century .
Ecclesiastical jurisdiction over the inhabitants was equally chaotic ; it was first placed under the Diocese of Tlaxcala but was transferred to the Diocese of Guatemala in 1536 . The Dominican Order was active in Soconusco during the early years of colonial rule , but withdrew in 1545 due to the low levels of indigenous population and the unhealthy climate . In 1545 it became a part of the Diocese of Chiapa . It was returned to Guatemala in 1561 , and back to Chiapa in 1596 .
= = Reconnaissance expeditions , 1524 – 1525 = =
= = = Luis Marín , 1524 = = =
In 1524 Luis Marín led a small party on a reconnaissance expedition into Chiapas . He set out from Coatzacoalcos ( renamed Espíritu Santo by the Spanish ) , on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico . His party passed through Zoque territory and followed the Grijalva upriver . Near modern Chiapa de Corzo the Spanish party fought and defeated the Chiapanecos . Following this battle , Marín headed into the central highlands of Chiapas , and around Easter , he passed through the Tzotzil Maya town Zinacantan without opposition from the inhabitants . The Zinacantecos , true to their pledge of allegiance two years earlier , aided the Spanish against the other indigenous peoples of the region .
Marín arrived at Chamula , another Tzotzil town , where he was initially met by a peaceful embassy . Marín understood this as the submission of the inhabitants , but he was met by armed resistance when he tried to enter the province . The Spanish found that upon their approach the Chamula Tzotzil had abandoned their lands and stripped it of food in an attempt to discourage the invaders . A day after their initial approach , Marín found that the Chamula Tzotzil had gathered their warriors upon a ridge that was too steep for the Spanish horses to climb . The conquistadores were met with a barrage of stones , spears , arrows , boiling water mixed with lime and ash , and found the nearby town defended by a formidable 1 @.@ 2 @-@ metre ( 4 ft ) thick defensive wall fashioned from stone and earth and reinforced with treetrunks . The Tzotzil mocked the Spanish , hurling small quantities of gold at them and inviting them to try and take the rest that they had within their walls . The Spanish stormed the wall , to find that the inhabitants had left spears planted inside to make the Spanish think that warriors were still defending the town , when they had actually withdrawn under cover of torrential rain that had interrupted the battle . After taking the deserted Chamula , the Spanish expedition continued against their allies at Huixtan . Again the inhabitants offered armed resistance before abandoning their town to the Spanish . Conquistador Diego Godoy wrote that the Indians killed or captured at Huixtan numbered no more than 500 . The Spanish , by now disappointed with the scarce pickings , decided to retreat to Coatzacoalcos in May 1524 .
The expedition originally had high expectations of encountering a densely populated region that would quickly submit to Spanish rule , with the natives being parcelled out in encomienda to the conquistadores , effectively as slave labour . The fierce resistance to Luis Marín 's expedition quickly extinguished such hopes . However , within two years of this first reconnaissance , titles of encomienda were being issued and used as justification to seize slaves . Chamula was given to Bernal Díaz , and Zinacantan was given to Francisco de Marmolejo .
= = = Pedro de Alvarado , 1525 = = =
A year later , Pedro de Alvarado entered Chiapas when he crossed a part of the Lacandon Forest in an attempt to link up with an expedition headed by Hernán Cortés , that crossed from the Gulf of Mexico to Honduras . Alvarado entered Chiapas from Guatemala via the territory of the Acala Ch 'ol ; he was unable to locate Cortés , and his scouts eventually led him to Tecpan Puyumatlan ( modern Santa Eulalia in Guatemala ) , in a mountainous region near the territory of the Lakandon Ch 'ol . The inhabitants of Tecpan Puyumatlan offered fierce resistance against the Spanish @-@ led expedition , and Gonzalo de Alvarado wrote that the Spanish suffered many losses , including the killing of messengers sent to summon the natives to swear loyalty to the Spanish Crown . After failing to locate Cortés , the Alvarados returned to Guatemala .
= = Conquest of the Chiapas Highlands , 1527 @-@ 1547 = =
Highland Chiapas , known as Chiapa , fell under the jurisdiction of New Spain until 1530 , when it was transferred to Guatemala . In 1540 , Chiapa became a self @-@ governing province for four years , after which it once again fell within the jurisdiction of Guatemala . The province of Chiapa was governed from Ciudad Real , now known as San Cristóbal de las Casas .
Pedro de Portocarrero , a young nobleman , led the next expedition into Chiapas after Alvarado , again from Guatemala . His campaign is largely undocumented but in January 1528 he successfully established the settlement of San Cristóbal de los Llanos in the Comitán valley , in the territory of the Tojolabal Maya . This served as a base of operations that allowed the Spanish to extend their control towards the Ocosingo valley . One of the scarce mentions of Portocarrero 's campaign suggests that there was some indigenous resistance but its exact form and extent is unknown . The Coxoh Maya , who inhabited a small area along the San Gregorio River between Comitán and the Guatemalan border , were probably conquered in 1528 . The Spanish concentrated them into five small reducciones , three of which were established along the Royal Road ( Spanish : Camino Real ) running from San Cristóbal to Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala . Portocarrero established Spanish dominion over a number of Tzeltal and Tojolabal settlements , and penetrated as far as the Tzotzil town of Huixtan . He travelled no further into Tzotzil territory , since those lands had already been given in encomienda to residents of Villa de Espíritu Santo .
By 1528 , Spanish colonial power had been established in the Chiapas Highlands , and encomienda rights were being issued to individual conquistadores . Spanish dominion extended from the upper drainage of the Grijalva , across Comitán and Teopisca to the Ocosingo valley . This area was incorporated into the Villa de San Cristóbal district , also including Chamula , Chiapan , and Zinacantán . The north and northwest were incorporated into the Villa de Espíritu Santo district , that included Ch 'ol Maya territory around Tila , and Zoque territory around Quechula and Tecpatán .
In the early years of conquest , encomienda rights effectively meant rights to pillage and round up slaves , usually in the form of a group of mounted conquistadores launching a lightning slave raid upon an unsuspecting population centre . Prisoners would be branded as slaves , and taken to a port to be sold , in order that the conquistadores could purchase weapons , supplies , and horses . In some cases the conquistadores would round up the elders , chain them up , whip them and set their war dogs upon them , in order to force the natives to hand over tribute such as food and clothing .
= = = Diego Mazariegos , 1528 = = =
In 1528 , captain Diego Mazariegos crossed into Chiapas via the Isthmus of Tehuantepec with artilley and recruits recently arrived from Spain , who were without military experience . By this time , the indigenous population had been greatly reduced by a combination of disease and famine . They first travelled to Jiquipilas to meet up with a delegation from Zinacantan , who had asked for Spanish assistance against rebellious vassals in Macuil Suchitepeque . A small contingent of Spanish cavalry was enough to bring the Zinacantecos ' vassals back into line . After this , Mazariegos and his companions proceeded to Chiapan and set up a temporary camp nearby , that they named Villa Real . Mazariegos was the cousin of the then governor of New Spain , Alonso de Estrada . He had arrived with a mandate to establish a new colonial province of Chiapa in the Chiapas Highlands . He initially met with resistance from the veteran Spanish conquistadores who had already established themselves in the region . Mazariegos heard that Pedro de Portocarrero was in the highlands , and sought him out in order to persuade him to leave . The two conquistadors eventually met up in Huixtan . Mazariegos entered into protracted three @-@ month negotiations with the Spanish settlers in Coatzacoalcos ( Espíritu Santo ) and San Cristóbal de los Llanos . Eventually an agreement was reached , and the encomiendas of Villa del Espíritu Santo that lay in the highlands were removed from that jurisdiction and merged those of San Cristóbal to form the new province . Unknown to Mazariegos , the king had already issued an order that the settlements of San Cristóbal de los Llanos be transferred to Pedro de Alvarado . The end result of the negotiations between Mazariegos and the established settlers was that Villa de San Cristóbal de los Llanos was broken up , and those settlers who wished to remain were transferred to Villa Real , which had been moved to the fertile Jovel valley , containing rich arrable land belonging to Chamula . Pedro de Portocarrero decided to leave Chiapas , and he returned to Guatemala . Mazariegos proceeded with the policy of moving the Indians into reducciones , new nuclear settlements that were easy to control . This process was made easier by the much reduced indigenous population levels . The town of San Andrés Larráinzar was established in this way by the relocation of the Tzotzil inhabitants of the Huitiupan valley . Mazariegos reallocated those encomiendas that had belonged to the inhabitants of Villa del Espíritu Santo , and gave Zinacantan to Pedro de Estrada , his brother . Mazariegos issued licences of encomienda covering still unconquered regions , such as Pochutla at the edge of the Ocosingo valley , in order to encourage colonists to conquer new territory . The Province of Chiapa had no coastal territory , and at the end of this process about 100 Spanish settlers were concentrated in the remote provincial capital at Villa Real , surrounded by hostile Indian settlements , and with deep internal divisions .
= = = Rebellion = = =
Although Mazariegos had managed to establish his new provincial capital without armed conflict , excessive Spanish demands for labour and supplies soon provoked the locals into rebellion . The colonists demanded that the Indians supply them with food , wood for construction and firewood , and that they build new houses for the Spanish . In addition , pigs had been introduced by the Spanish and were causing great damage to the natives ' maize fields . In August 1528 , Mazariegos replaced the existing encomenderos with his friends and allies ; the natives , seeing the Spanish isolated and witnessing the hostility between the original and newly arrived settlers , took this opportunity to rebel and refused to supply their new masters . Zinacantán was the only indigenous settlement that remained loyal to the Spanish .
Villa Real was now surrounded by hostile territory , and any Spanish help was too far away to be of value . The colonists quickly ran short of food and responded by taking up arms and riding against the Indians in search of food and slaves . The Indians abandoned their towns and hid their women and children in caves . The rebellious populations concentrated themselves on easily defended mountaintops . At Quetzaltepeque a lengthy battle was fought between the Tzeltal Maya and the Spanish , resulting in the deaths of a number of Spanish as a result of rocks being cast down upon them from the mountaintop . The battle lasted various days , and the Spanish were supported by indigenous warriors from central Mexico . The battle eventually resulted in a Spanish victory , but the rest of the province of Chiapa remained rebellious .
After the battle of Quetzaltepeque , Villa Real was still short on food and Mazariegos was ill . He sent his brother to the capital of New Spain to ask for help , and then retreated to Copanaguastla against the protests of the town council , which was left to defend the fledgling colony . By now , Nuño de Guzmán was governor in Mexico , and he despatched Juan Enríquez de Guzmán to Chiapa as end @-@ of @-@ term judge over Mazariegos , and as alcalde mayor ( a local colonial governor ) . He occupied his post for a year , during which time he attempted to reestablish Spanish control over the province , especially the northern and eastern regions , but was unable to make much headway .
= = = Founding of Ciudad Real = = =
The constant change of colonial administrators , and the corresponding reissue of encomienda licenses to relatives and friends of the incoming official , prolonged the instability in the province of Chiapa . In 1531 , Pedro de Alvarado finally took up the post of governor of Chiapa . He immediately reinstated the old name of San Cristóbal de los Llanos upon Villa Real . Once again , the encomiendas of Chiapa were transferred to new owners . The Spanish launched an expedition against Puyumatlan ; it was not successful in terms of conquest , but enabled the Spanish to seize more slaves to trade for weapons and horses . The newly acquired supplies would then be used in further expeditions to conquer and pacify still @-@ independent regions , leading to a cycle of slave raids , trade for supplies , followed by further conquests and slave raids .
Alvarado despatched his lieutenant Baltasar Guerra to pacify the rebel Chiapanecas and Zoques , and the victorious conquistadores in turn demanded encomiendas . The general instability continued , but the Mazariegos family managed to establish a power base in the local colonial institutions . In 1535 , the Mazariegos faction succeeded in having San Cristóbal de los Llanos declared a city , with the new name of Ciudad Real . They also managed to acquire special privileges from the Crown in order to stabilise the colony , such as an edict that specified that the governor of Chiapa must govern in person and not through a delegated representative . In practise , the quick turnover of encomiendas continued , since few Spaniards had legal Spanish wives and legitimate children who could inherit . This situation would not stabilise until the 1540s , when the dire shortage of Spanish women in the colony was alleviated by an influx of new colonists . At around the same time , the Audiencia de los Confines intervened , appointing judges to exert greater control over the allocation of encomiendas .
= = = Establishment of the Dominicans = = =
In 1542 , the New Laws were issued with the aim of protecting the indigenous peoples of the Spanish colonies from their overexploitation by the encomenderos . In an effort to enforce the New Laws , a fleet of 27 ships set out from Spain on 19 July 1544 , carrying friar Bartolomé de las Casas and his religious followers . Las Casas arrived in Ciudad Real with 16 fellow Dominicans on 12 March 1545 . The Dominicans were the first religious order to attempt the evangelisation of the native population . Their arrival meant that the colonists were no longer free to treat the natives as they saw fit without the risk of intervention by the religious authorities .
The Dominicans soon came into conflict with the established colonists . They refused to take confessions or give sacraments to Spaniards who mistreated Indians , and even went so far as to imprison a dean and excommunicate the president of the Audiencia Real . Colonial opposition to the actions of the Dominicans reached such dangerous levels that the Dominicans were forced to flee Ciudad Real in fear of their lives . They established themselves nearby in two indigenous villages , the old site of Villa Real de Chiapa and Cinacantlán . Las Casas based himself in the former , and friar Tomás Casillas took charge of Cinacantlán . From Villa Real , Bartolomé de las Casas and his companions prepared for the evangelisation of all the territory that fell within the Bishopric of Chiapa . The territory of Chiapas was subdivided into a number of regions based on prehispanic divisions ; these were the Chiapaneca , Lakandon , Mokaya , Tojolabal , Tzeltal , and Zoque . The Dominicans promoted the veneration of Santiago Matamoros ( St. James the Moor @-@ slayer ) as a readily identifiable image of Spanish military superiority .
It soon became evident that the Dominicans needed to reestablish themselves in Ciudad Real , and the hostilities with the colonists were calmed . In 1547 , while de las Casas was in Spain , Francisco Marroquín , bishop of Guatemala , placed the first stone for the new Dominican convent in Ciudad Real . The Dominicans dedicated themselves to destroying indigenous temples and idols , and preached sermons with destructive imagery , such as from the Book of Revelation , that were more familiar to the Mesoamerican worldview . Saints were associated with animals , in much the same way as the Indians identified themselves with nahual spirit @-@ forms . Different Mesoamerican otherworlds were tied to Christian concepts , where the Mictlan world of the dead became Hell , Ihuicatl became Heaven , and Tlalocan became Paradise .
= = Conquest of the Lacandon Forest , 1559 – 1695 = =
By the mid @-@ 16th century , the Spanish frontier expanding outwards from Comitán and Ocosingo reached the Lacandon Forest , and further advancement was impeded by the region 's fiercely independent inhabitants . At the time of Spanish contact in the 16th century , the Lacandon Forest was inhabited by Ch 'ol people referred to as Lakam Tun . This name was Hispanicised , first to El Acantun , then to Lacantun and finally to Lacandon . The Lakandon Ch 'ol of the time of the Spanish conquest should not be confused with the modern Yucatec @-@ speaking Lacandon people occupying the same region . The main Lakandon village was situated on an island in Lake Miramar , also referred to as Lakam Tun by the inhabitants . The Lakandon were aggressive , and their numbers were swelled by refugees from neighbouring indigenous groups fleeing Spanish domination . The ecclesiastical authorities were so worried by this threat to their peaceful efforts at evangelisation that they eventually supported military intervention . The first Spanish expedition against the Lakandon was carried out in 1559 , commanded by Pedro Ramírez de Quiñones .
From time to time the Spanish launched punitive military expeditions against the Lakandons to try to stabilise the northern frontier of the Guatemalan colony ; the largest expeditions took place in 1685 and 1695 . Repeated expeditions into the Lacandon Forest succeeded in destroying some villages but did not manage to subdue the inhabitants of the region , nor bring it within the Spanish Empire . This successful resistance against Spanish attempts at domination served to attract ever more Indians fleeing colonial rule .
Resistance against the Spanish continued , and hostile Ch 'ol killed a number of newly baptised Christian Indians . Franciscan friars Antonio Margil and Melchor López were active among the Lakandon and Manche Ch 'ol between 1692 and 1694 ; they eventually outstayed their welcome and were expelled by the Ch 'ol . In 1695 , the colonial authorities decided to act upon a plan to connect the province of Guatemala with Yucatán , and soldiers commanded by Jacinto de Barrios Leal , president of the Real Audiencia of Guatemala , conquered a number of Ch 'ol communities . The most important of these was Sakb 'ajlan on the Lacantún River in eastern Chiapas , which was renamed as Nuestra Señora de Dolores , or Dolores del Lakandon , in April 1695 . This was one part of a three @-@ pronged attack against the independent inhabitants of Chiapas and neighbouring Petén ; a second group joined up with Barrios Leal having marched from Huehuetenango , in the Guatemalan Highlands . The third group , under Juan Díaz de Velasco , marched from Verapaz , Guatemala , against the Itza of northern Petén . Barrios Leal was accompanied by Franciscan friar Antonio Margil who served as an advisor as well as his personal confessor and chaplain to his troops . The Spanish built a fort and garrisoned it with 30 Spanish soldiers . Mercederian friar Diego de Rivas was based at Dolores del Lakandon , and he and his fellow Mercederians baptised several hundred Lakandon Ch 'ols in the following months and established contacts with neighbouring Ch 'ol communities .
Antonio Margil remained in Dolores del Lakandon until 1697 . The Ch 'ol of the Lacandon Forest were resettled in Huehuetenango , in the Guatemalan Highlands , in the early 18th century . The resettled Lakandon Ch 'ol were soon absorbed into the local Maya populations there and ceased to exist as a separate ethnicity . The last known Lakandon Ch 'ol were three Indians that were recorded as living in Santa Catarina Retalhuleu in 1769 .
= = Historical sources = =
Conquistador Diego Godoy accompanied Luis Marín on his reconnaissance of Chiapas , and wrote an account of the battle against the inhabitants of Chamula in a letter to Hernán Cortés a few days after the encounter . His letter survives and is entitled Relación hecha por Diego Godoy a Hernando Cortés . Many years after the events he described , Bernal Díaz del Castillo wrote his Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva España , which included an account of the conquest of the Chiapas highlands . Bernal Díaz had also accompanied Luis Marín on his 1524 incursion into Chiapas . Gonzalo de Alvarado described the fierce resistance offered by the natives against Pedro de Alvarado 's 1525 expedition in his Probanza de Gonzalo de Alvarado .
= Muhammad =
Muḥammad ( Arabic : محمد ; c . 570 CE – 8 June 632 CE ) is the central figure of Islam and widely regarded as its founder by non @-@ Muslims . He is known to Muslims as the " Holy Prophet " , almost all of whom consider him to be the last prophet sent by God to mankind to restore Islam , which they believe to be the unaltered original monotheistic faith of Adam , Abraham , Moses , Jesus , and other prophets . He united Arabia into a single Muslim polity and ensured that his teachings , practices , and the Quran , which Muslims believe was revealed to him by God , formed the basis of Islamic religious belief .
Born in the Arabian city of Mecca , in approximately 570 CE , Muhammad was orphaned at an early age ; he was raised under the care of his paternal uncle Abu Talib . After his childhood , Muhammad primarily worked as a merchant . Occasionally , he would retreat to a cave named Hira in the mountains for several nights of seclusion and prayer ; later , at age 40 , he reported being visited by Gabriel in the cave , where he stated he received his first revelation from God . Three years after this event Muhammad started preaching these revelations publicly , proclaiming that " God is One " , that complete " surrender " ( lit. islām ) to him is the only way ( dīn ) acceptable to God , and that he was a prophet and messenger of God , similar to the other prophets in Islam .
Muhammad gained few early followers , and met hostility from some Meccan tribes . To escape persecution , Muhammad sent some followers to Abyssinia before he and his followers migrated from Mecca to Medina ( then known as Yathrib ) in the year 622 . This event , the Hijra , marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar , also known as the Hijri Calendar . In Medina , Muhammad united the tribes under the Constitution of Medina . In December 629 , after eight years of intermittent conflict with Meccan tribes , Muhammad gathered an army of 10 @,@ 000 Muslim converts and marched on the city of Mecca . The attack went largely uncontested and Muhammad seized the city with little bloodshed . He destroyed 360 pagan idols at the Kaaba . In 632 , a few months after returning from the Farewell Pilgrimage , Muhammad fell ill and died . Before his death , most of the Arabian Peninsula had converted to Islam .
The revelations ( each known as Ayah , lit . " Sign [ of God ] " ) , which Muhammad reported receiving until his death , form the verses of the Quran , regarded by Muslims as the " Word of God " and around which the religion is based . Besides the Quran , Muhammad 's teachings and practices ( sunnah ) , found in the Hadith and sira literature , are also upheld by Muslims and used as sources of Islamic law ( see Sharia ) .
= = Names and appellations in the Quran = =
The name Muhammad ( / mʊˈhæməd , -ˈhɑːməd / ) means " praiseworthy " and appears four times in the Quran . The Quran addresses Muhammad in the second person by various appellations ; prophet , messenger , servant of God ( ' abd ) , announcer ( bashir ) [ Quran 2 : 119 ] , witness ( shahid ) , [ Quran 33 : 45 ] bearer of good tidings ( mubashshir ) , warner ( nathir ) , [ Quran 11 : 2 ] reminder ( mudhakkir ) , [ Quran 88 : 21 ] one who calls [ unto God ] ( dā ‘ ī ) , [ Quran 12 : 108 ] light personified ( noor ) [ Quran 05 : 15 ] , and the lightgiving lamp ( siraj munir ) [ Quran 33 : 46 ] . Muhammad is sometimes addressed by designations deriving from his state at the time of the address : thus he is referred to as the enwrapped ( al @-@ muzzammil ) in Quran 73 : 1 and the shrouded ( al @-@ muddaththir ) in Quran 74 : 1 . In Sura Al @-@ Ahzab 33 : 40 God singles out Muhammad as the " Seal of the Prophets " , or the last of the prophets . The Quran also refers to Muhammad as Aḥmad " more praiseworthy " ( Arabic : أحمد , Sura As @-@ Saff 61 : 6 ) .
= = = Quran = = =
The Quran is the central religious text of Islam . Muslims believe it represents the words of God revealed by the archangel Gabriel to Muhammad .
Although it mentions Muhammad directly only four times , [ Quran 3 : 144 ] [ Quran 33 : 40 ] [ Quran 47 : 2 ] [ Quran 48 : 29 ] there are verses which can be interpreted as allusions to Muhammad 's life . The Quran , however , provides minimal assistance for Muhammad 's chronological biography ; most Quranic verses do not provide significant historical context .
= = = Early biographies = = =
An important source may be found in the historic works by writers of the 2nd and 3rd centuries of the Muslim era ( AH – 8th and 9th century CE ) . These include the traditional Muslim biographies of Muhammad ( the sira literature ) , which provide additional information about Muhammad 's life .
The earliest surviving written sira ( biographies of Muhammad and quotes attributed to him ) is Ibn Ishaq 's Life of God 's Messenger written c . 767 CE ( 150 AH ) . Although the work was lost , this sira was used verbatim at great length by Ibn Hisham and Al @-@ Tabari . Another early history source is the history of Muhammad 's campaigns by al @-@ Waqidi ( death 207 of Muslim era ) , and the work of his secretary Ibn Sa 'd al @-@ Baghdadi ( death 230 of Muslim era ) .
Many scholars accept the earliest biographies as accurate , though their accuracy is unascertainable . Recent studies have led scholars to distinguish between the traditions touching legal matters and purely historical ones . In the former sphere , traditions could have been subject to invention while in the latter sphere , aside from exceptional cases , the material may have been only subject to " tendential shaping " .
= = = Hadith = = =
Another important source may be found in hadith collections , accounts of the verbal and physical teachings and traditions of Muhammad . Hadiths were compiled several generations after his death by notable individuals such as Muhammad al @-@ Bukhari , Muslim ibn al @-@ Hajjaj , Muhammad ibn Isa at @-@ Tirmidhi , Abd ar @-@ Rahman al @-@ Nasai , Abu Dawood , Ibn Majah , Malik bin Anas , al @-@ Daraqutni etc .
Some Western academics cautiously view the hadith collections as accurate historical sources . Scholars such as Madelung do not reject the narrations which have been compiled in later periods , but judge them in the context of history and on the basis of their compatibility with the events and figures .
= = Pre @-@ Islamic Arabia = =
The Arabian Peninsula was largely arid and volcanic , making agriculture difficult except near oases or springs . The landscape was dotted with towns and cities ; two of the most prominent being Mecca and Medina . Medina was a large flourishing agricultural settlement , while Mecca was an important financial center for many surrounding tribes . Communal life was essential for survival in the desert conditions , supporting indigenous tribes against the harsh environment and lifestyle . Tribal grouping was encouraged with unity being based on blood relations . Indigenous Arabs were either nomadic or sedentary , the former constantly travelling from one place to another seeking water and pasture for their flocks , while the latter settled and focused on trade and agriculture . Nomadic survival also depended on raiding caravans or oases ; nomads did not view this as a crime .
Byzantine and Sassanian empires dominated the pre @-@ Islamic Middle East region . The Roman @-@ Persian Wars between the two had devastated the region , making the empires unpopular amongst local tribes . Politically Arabia at the time was divided between two tribal confederations , the Banu Qais , loosely allied with Byzantium and who were originally powerful in Northern and Western Arabia , and the Banu Kalb , who had originally come from Yemen , and were loosely allied with Sassanid Persia .
In pre @-@ Islamic Arabia , gods or goddesses were viewed as protectors of individual tribes , their spirits being associated with sacred trees , stones , springs and wells . As well as being the site of an annual pilgrimage , the Kaaba shrine in Mecca housed 360 idols of tribal patron deities . Three goddesses were associated with Allah as his daughters : Allāt , Manāt and al- ‘ Uzzá . Monotheistic communities existed in Arabia , including Christians and Jews . Hanifs – native pre @-@ Islamic Arabs who " professed a rigid monotheism " – are also sometimes listed alongside Jews and Christians in pre @-@ Islamic Arabia , although their historicity is disputed among scholars . According to Muslim tradition , Muhammad himself was a Hanif and one of the descendants of Ishmael , son of Abraham .
= = Life = =
= = = In Mecca = = =
Muhammad was born in Mecca and lived there for roughly the first 52 years of his life ( c . 570 – 622 ) . This period is generally divided into two phases , before and after declaring his prophetic visions .
= = = = Childhood and early life = = = =
Muhammad was born about the year 570 and his birthday is believed to be in the month of Rabi ' al @-@ awwal . He belonged to the Banu Hashim clan , part of the Quraysh tribe , and was one of Mecca 's prominent families , although it appears less prosperous during Muhammad 's early lifetime . Tradition places the year of Muhammad 's birth as corresponding with the Year of the Elephant , which is named after the failed destruction of Mecca that year by the Abraha , Yemen 's king , who supplemented his army with elephants . Alternatively some 20th century scholars have suggested different years , such as 568 or 569 .
Muhammads ' father , Abdullah , died almost six months before he was born . According to Islamic tradition , soon after birth he was sent to live with a Bedouin family in the desert , as desert life was considered healthier for infants ; some western scholars reject this tradition 's historicity . Muhammad stayed with his foster @-@ mother , Halimah bint Abi Dhuayb , and her husband until he was two years old . At the age of six , Muhammad lost his biological mother Amina to illness and became an orphan . For the next two years , he was under the guardianship of his paternal grandfather Abd al @-@ Muttalib , of the Banu Hashim clan until his death ; Muhammad was eight years old . He then came under the care of his uncle Abu Talib , the new leader of Banu Hashim . According to Islamic historian William Montgomery Watt there was a general disregard by guardians in taking care of weaker members of the tribes in Mecca during the 6th century , " Muhammad 's guardians saw that he did not starve to death , but it was hard for them to do more for him , especially as the fortunes of the clan of Hashim seem to have been declining at that time . "
In his teens , Muhammad accompanied his uncle on Syrian trading journeys to gain experience in commercial trade . Islamic tradition states that when Muhammad was either nine or twelve while accompanying the Meccans ' caravan to Syria , he met a Christian monk or hermit named Bahira who is said to have foreseen Muhammad 's career as a prophet of God .
Little is known of Muhammad during his later youth , available information is fragmented , causing difficulty to separate history from legend . It is known that he became a merchant and " was involved in trade between the Indian ocean and the Mediterranean Sea . " Due to his upright character he acquired the nickname " al @-@ Amin " ( Arabic : الامين ) , meaning " faithful , trustworthy " and " al @-@ Sadiq " meaning " truthful " and was sought out as an impartial arbitrator . His reputation attracted a proposal in 595 from Khadijah , a 40 @-@ year @-@ old widow . Muhammad consented to the marriage , which by all accounts was a happy one .
Several years later , according to a narration collected by historian Ibn Ishaq , Muhammad was involved with a well @-@ known story about setting the Black Stone in place in the wall of the Kaaba in 605 CE . The Black Stone , a sacred object , was removed to facilitate renovations to the Kaaba . The Meccan leaders could not agree which clan should return the Black Stone to its place . They decided to ask the next man who comes through the gate to make that decision . That man was the 35 @-@ year @-@ old Muhammad ; this event happened five years before the first revelation by Gabriel to him . He asked for a cloth and laid the Black Stone in its center . The clan leaders held the corners of the cloth and together carried the Black Stone to the right spot , then Muhammad laid the stone , satisfying the honour of all .
= = = Beginnings of the Quran = = =
Muhammad began to pray alone in a cave named Hira on Mount Jabal al @-@ Nour , near Mecca for several weeks every year . Islamic tradition holds that during one of his visits to that cave , in the year 610 the angel Gabriel appeared to him and commanded Muhammad to recite verses that would be included in the Quran . Consensus exists that the first Quranic words revealed were the beginning of Surah 96 : 1 . Muhammad was deeply distressed upon receiving his first revelations . After returning home , Muhammad was consoled and reassured by Khadijah and her Christian cousin , Waraqah ibn Nawfal . Waraqah is variously described as an Ebionite priest ( possibly of Mecca ) or Nestorian . He also feared that others would dismiss his claims as being possessed . Shi 'a tradition states Muhammad was not surprised or frightened at Gabriel 's appearance ; rather he welcomed the angel , as if he was expected . The initial revelation was followed by a three @-@ year pause ( a period known as fatra ) during which Muhammad felt depressed and further gave himself to prayers and spiritual practices . When the revelations resumed he was reassured and commanded to begin preaching : " Thy Guardian @-@ Lord hath not forsaken thee , nor is He displeased . "
Sahih Bukhari narrates Muhammad describing his revelations as " sometimes it is ( revealed ) like the ringing of a bell " . Aisha reported , " I saw the Prophet being inspired Divinely on a very cold day and noticed the sweat dropping from his forehead ( as the Inspiration was over ) " . According to Welch these descriptions may be considered genuine , since they are unlikely to have been forged by later Muslims . Muhammad was confident that he could distinguish his own thoughts from these messages . According to the Quran , one of the main roles of Muhammad is to warn the unbelievers of their eschatological punishment ( Quran 38 : 70 , Quran 6 : 19 ) . Occasionally the Quran did not explicitly refer to Judgment day but provided examples from the history of extinct communities and warns Muhammad 's contemporaries of similar calamities ( Quran 41 : 13 – 16 ) . Muhammad did not only warn those who rejected God 's revelation , but also dispensed good news for those who abandoned evil , listening to the divine words and serving God . Muhammad 's mission also involves preaching monotheism : The Quran commands Muhammad to proclaim and praise the name of his Lord and instructs him not to worship idols or associate other deities with God .
The key themes of the early Quranic verses included the responsibility of man towards his creator ; the resurrection of the dead , God 's final judgment followed by vivid descriptions of the tortures in Hell and pleasures in Paradise , and the signs of God in all aspects of life . Religious duties required of the believers at this time were few : belief in God , asking for forgiveness of sins , offering frequent prayers , assisting others particularly those in need , rejecting cheating and the love of wealth ( considered to be significant in the commercial life of Mecca ) , being chaste and not killing newborn girls .
= = = Opposition = = =
According to Muslim tradition , Muhammad 's wife Khadija was the first to believe he was a prophet . She was followed by Muhammad 's ten @-@ year @-@ old cousin Ali ibn Abi Talib , close friend Abu Bakr , and adopted son Zaid . Around 613 , Muhammad began to preach to the public ( Quran 26 : 214 ) . Most Meccans ignored him and mocked him , though a few became his followers . There were three main groups of early converts to Islam : younger brothers and sons of great merchants ; people who had fallen out of the first rank in their tribe or failed to attain it ; and the weak , mostly unprotected foreigners .
According to Ibn Saad , opposition in Mecca started when Muhammad delivered verses that condemned idol worship and the polytheism practiced by the Meccan forefathers . However , the Quranic exegesis maintains that it began as Muhammad started public preaching . As his followers increased , Muhammad became a threat to the local tribes and rulers of the city , whose wealth rested upon the Ka 'aba , the focal point of Meccan religious life that Muhammad threatened to overthrow . Muhammad 's denunciation of the Meccan traditional religion was especially offensive to his own tribe , the Quraysh , as they were the guardians of the Ka 'aba . Powerful merchants attempted to convince Muhammad to abandon his preaching ; he was offered admission to the inner circle of merchants , as well as an advantageous marriage . He refused both of these offers .
Tradition records at great length the persecution and ill @-@ treatment towards Muhammad and his followers . Sumayyah bint Khabbab , a slave of a prominent Meccan leader Abu Jahl , is famous as the first martyr of Islam ; killed with a spear by her master when she refused to give up her faith . Bilal , another Muslim slave , was tortured by Umayyah ibn Khalaf who placed a heavy rock on his chest to force his conversion .
In 615 , some of Muhammad 's followers emigrated to the Ethiopian Aksumite Empire and founded a small colony under the protection of the Christian Ethiopian emperor Aṣḥama ibn Abjar . Ibn Sa 'ad mentions two separate migrations . According to him , most of the Muslims returned to Mecca prior to Hijra , while a second group rejoined them in Medina . Ibn Hisham and Tabari , however , only talk about one migration to Ethiopia . These accounts agree that Meccan persecution played a major role in Muḥammad 's decision to suggest that a number of his followers seek refuge among the Christians in Abyssinia . According to the famous letter of ʿUrwa preserved in al @-@ Tabari , the majority of Muslims returned to their native town as Islam gained strength and high ranking Meccans , such as Umar and Hamzah converted .
However , there is a completely different story on the reason why the Muslims returned from Ethiopia to Mecca . According to this account – initially mentioned by Al @-@ Waqidi then rehashed by Ibn Sa 'ad and Tabari , but not by Ibn Hisham and not by Ibn Ishaq – Muhammad , desperately hoping for an accommodation with his tribe , pronounced a verse acknowledging the existence of three Meccan goddesses considered to be the daughters of Allah . Muhammad retracted the verses the next day at the behest of Gabriel , claiming that the verses were whispered by the devil himself . Instead , a ridicule of these gods was offered . This episode known as " The Story of the Cranes " ( translation : قصة الغرانيق , transliteration : Qissat al Gharaneeq ) is also known as " Satanic Verses " . According to the story this led to a general reconciliation between Muḥammad and the Meccans , and the Abyssinia Muslims began to return home . When they arrived Gabriel had informed Muḥammad the two verses were not part of the revelation , but had been inserted by Satan . Notable scholars at the time argued against the historic authenticity of these verses and the story itself on various grounds . Later , the incident received some acceptance , though strong objections to it arose from the 10th century onwards , on theological grounds . The objections continued until rejection of these verses and the story itself eventually became the only acceptable orthodox Muslim position .
In 617 , the leaders of Makhzum and Banu Abd @-@ Shams , two important Quraysh clans , declared a public boycott against Banu Hashim , their commercial rival , to pressure it into withdrawing its protection of Muhammad . The boycott lasted three years but eventually collapsed as it failed in its objective . During this , Muhammad was only able to preach during the holy pilgrimage months in which all hostilities between Arabs was suspended .
= = = Isra and Mi 'raj = = =
Islamic tradition states that in 620 , Muhammad experienced the Isra and Mi 'raj , a miraculous night @-@ long journey said to have occurred with the angel Gabriel . At the journey 's beginning , the Isra , he is said to have travelled from Mecca on a winged steed ( Buraq ) to " the farthest mosque " ( in Arabic : masjid al @-@ aqsa ) . Later , during the Mi 'raj , Muhammad is said to have toured heaven and hell , and spoke with earlier prophets , such as Abraham , Moses , and Jesus . Ibn Ishaq , author of the first biography of Muhammad , presents the event as a spiritual experience ; later historians , such as Al @-@ Tabari and Ibn Kathir , present it as a physical journey .
Some western scholars hold that the Isra and Mi 'raj journey traveled through the heavens from the sacred enclosure at Mecca to the celestial al @-@ Baytu l @-@ Maʿmur ( heavenly prototype of the Kaaba ) ; later traditions indicate Muhammad 's journey as having been from Mecca to Jerusalem .
= = = Last years in Mecca before Hijra = = =
Muhammad 's wife Khadijah and uncle Abu Talib both died in 619 , the year thus being known as the " year of sorrow " . With the death of Abu Talib , leadership of the Banu Hashim clan passed to Abu Lahab , a tenacious enemy of Muhammad . Soon afterwards , Abu Lahab withdrew the clan 's protection over Muhammad . This placed Muhammad in danger ; the withdrawal of clan protection implied that blood revenge for his killing would not be exacted . Muhammad then visited Ta 'if , another important city in Arabia , and tried to find a protector , but his effort failed and further brought him into physical danger . Muhammad was forced to return to Mecca . A Meccan man named Mut 'im ibn Adi ( and the protection of the tribe of Banu Nawfal ) made it possible for him to safely re @-@ enter his native city .
Many people were visiting Mecca on business or as pilgrims to the Kaaba . Muhammad took this opportunity to look for a new home for himself and his followers . After several unsuccessful negotiations , he found hope with some men from Yathrib ( later called Medina ) . The Arab population of Yathrib were familiar with monotheism and were prepared for the appearance of a prophet because a Jewish community existed there . They also hoped , by the means of Muhammad and the new faith , to gain supremacy over Mecca ; the Yathrib were jealous of its importance as the place of pilgrimage . Converts to Islam came from nearly all Arab tribes in Medina ; by June of the subsequent year , seventy @-@ five Muslims came to Mecca for pilgrimage and to meet Muhammad . Meeting him secretly by night , the group made what is known as the " Second Pledge of al-`Aqaba " , or , in Orientalists ' view , the " Pledge of War " . Following the pledges at Aqabah , Muhammad encouraged his followers to emigrate to Yathrib . As with the migration to Abyssinia , the Quraysh attempted to stop the emigration . However , almost all Muslims managed to leave .
= = = Hijra = = =
The Hijra is the migration of Muhammad and his followers from Mecca to Medina in 622 CE . In June 622 , warned of a plot to assassinate him , Muhammad secretly slipped out of Mecca and moved his followers to Medina , 450 kilometres ( 280 miles ) north of Mecca .
= = = = Migration to Medina = = = =
A delegation , consisting of the representatives of the twelve important clans of Medina , invited Muhammad to serve as chief arbitrator for the entire community ; due to his status as a neutral outsider . There was fighting in Yathrib : primarily the dispute involved its Arab and Jewish inhabitants , and was estimated to have lasted for around a hundred years before 620 . The recurring slaughters and disagreements over the resulting claims , especially after the Battle of Bu 'ath in which all clans were involved , made it obvious to them that the tribal concept of blood @-@ feud and an eye for an eye were no longer workable unless there was one man with authority to adjudicate in disputed cases . The delegation from Medina pledged themselves and their fellow @-@ citizens to accept Muhammad into their community and physically protect him as one of themselves .
Muhammad instructed his followers to emigrate to Medina , until nearly all his followers left Mecca . Being alarmed at the departure , according to tradition , the Meccans plotted to assassinate Muhammad . With the help of Ali , Muhammad fooled the Meccans watching him , and secretly slipped away from the town with Abu Bakr . By 622 , Muhammad emigrated to Medina , a large agricultural oasis . Those who migrated from Mecca along with Muhammad became known as muhajirun ( emigrants ) .
= = = = Establishment of a new polity = = = =
Among the first things Muhammad did to ease the longstanding grievances among the tribes of Medina was to draft a document known as the Constitution of Medina , " establishing a kind of alliance or federation " among the eight Medinan tribes and Muslim emigrants from Me
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devised a unique score at the request of Anderson , who judged the series ' archived incidental music unsuited to the episode 's tone . Voice actress Liz Morgan remembers the emotion of the script , while Anderson praises Barwick for his " humanised " writing of the series ' regular characters , considering the nature of the plot to be mainly " dark humour " . In 1980 , the New York offices of Century 21 's distributor , ITC Entertainment , re @-@ edited " Attack on Cloudbase " into a segment of the Captain Scarlet compilation film Captain Scarlet vs the Mysterons .
= = Plot = =
While on regular patrol , Symphony Angel is forced to eject into the Sahara Desert following an explosion to the rear of her interceptor 's cockpit . Suffering from sunstroke , she quickly falls unconscious . After the Mysterons warn of its imminent destruction , Spectrum 's airborne headquarters , Cloudbase , is placed on red alert and sealed from all external contact . Destiny Angel is launched to search for her comrade , but in the light of the Mysterons ' threat is recalled on the orders of Spectrum 's commander @-@ in @-@ chief , Colonel White . This decision provokes a heated argument between White and Captain Blue , who confesses that he and Symphony are romantically involved . White refuses to allow Blue to join the ground forces that are being mobilised to locate Symphony .
Night falls , and Captain Magenta detects an unusual signal in the Cloudbase Radar Room . Rhapsody Angel is launched to investigate and finds that the readings are emanating from a spinning Mysteron spacecraft , which obliterates her interceptor in mid @-@ air . To prevent civilian casualties on the ground , Cloudbase is moved into Himalayan airspace on its horizontal thrusters , while its personnel prepare for the inevitable final confrontation . When more spacecraft appear on the radar , Captain Scarlet volunteers to challenge the Mysterons in Destiny 's place , but crash @-@ lands on the Cloudbase flight deck after his interceptor is damaged .
As the Mysterons start to fire on Cloudbase , Dr Fawn is killed . Posing as his assistant , Mysteron intermediary Captain Black reports that Scarlet is dead with no possibility of recovery , his retro @-@ metabolic ability being too weak to heal such extensive injuries . The Mysteron assault intensifies , resulting in the deaths of Magenta and the remaining Angels , until only White , Blue and Lieutenant Green are left alive in the Control Room . As the stricken Cloudbase loses altitude , Green is killed by another explosion , which also cripples Blue and leaves him unable to save himself . White resolves to go down with his command , and is seen standing to attention and saluting in a spiralling freeze frame shot , accompanied by the sounds of Cloudbase crashing to Earth .
Immediately after Cloudbase 's apparent destruction , Symphony wakes up in the desert ; she is face @-@ to @-@ face with Scarlet and Blue , who are part of the ground forces that have been dispatched to rescue her . In the final scene , it is explained that Symphony dreamt the attack on Cloudbase in a nightmare brought on by the heat of the desert sun .
= = Production = =
One of the last episodes of Captain Scarlet to be produced , filming for " Attack on Cloudbase " commenced towards the end of October 1967 . In Tony Barwick 's original script for this episode , the role of Captain Magenta was filled by a previously unseen Spectrum officer , Captain Sienna . However , the lines passed to Magenta after the production staff determined that the costs of making a new Spectrum puppet uniform would be too high . The director role was given to Ken Turner , executive producer Gerry Anderson believing that his style of direction best suited the episode 's " more bizarre " tone . Unique among Captain Scarlet episodes , " Attack on Cloudbase " contains no guest characters ; additionally , it is one of only two episodes ( the other being " Flight to Atlantica " ) in which all the regular Spectrum characters appear , although not all are given dialogue .
The stranding of Symphony Angel in the desert and the Mysteron assault on Cloudbase posed several technical challenges to the special effects department , under the supervision of Derek Meddings . A shot depicting the jet of Destiny Angel shooting past the grounded Symphony required close collaboration between the puppet operators and the effects technicians ( the former controlling the wired Symphony marionette , the latter staging the flyby of the scale model interceptor ) . The Mysteron spacecraft design was based on the appearance of conventional , " saucer @-@ shaped " UFOs as reported during the 1960s . To make it appear that the objects are spinning in mid @-@ air , Meddings added " veins " to each model to reflect light directed onto the set . Only the foreground of the high @-@ altitude attack sequence was populated by scale models ; since the department lacked the necessary number of operators , small light bulbs were fitted to the backdrop to give the impression of a larger fleet .
Immediately before Cloudbase crashes to Earth off @-@ screen , a still frame depicts Colonel White giving a salute from behind his Control Room desk . Anderson , who attributes this creative decision to maritime tradition , specifically remembered suggesting " Let 's make sure [ Colonel White ] goes down like the captain of a big ship . " Liz Morgan , who provided the voices of Destiny and Rhapsody Angels , has discussed how the emotion of the script manifested itself at the recording session : " It was a moment when Destiny was very worried about Captain Scarlet and she was making impassioned pleas for him . Well , I started to cry , and immediately a voice came down from the recording booth and [ producer ] Reg Hill , who was directing that particular week , said , ' No , Liz , love . Do it again , love . Puppets don 't cry ! ' "
" Attack on Cloudbase " is one of a minority of Captain Scarlet episodes whose incidental music was scored especially , as opposed to being recycled from the series ' audio library . Composer Barry Gray devised the unique score following Anderson 's determination that none of the used tracks fitted the episode 's unusual tone . The recording was conducted on 3 December 1967 , four months after Gray 's last contribution to the series , with an orchestra of 14 instrumentalists . The new tracks were titled " Desert Symphony " and " The Mysterons Attack ! " Music for " Expo 2068 " originated from the same studio session . It is also one of four episodes where members of Spectrum come face to face with Captain Black , the other three episodes being " Manhunt " , " Spectrum Strikes Back " and " Flight to Atlantica " .
= = Reception = =
James Stansfield of the entertainment website Den of Geek considers " Attack on Cloudbase " the best episode of Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons , ranking it first in his " Top 10 " list . Describing the instalment as highly entertaining , even if " shocking and surprisingly bleak " , he praises the characterisation and Tony Barwick 's writing in general , and in particular the shocking killing of Rhapsody Angel and the conflict between Captain Blue and Colonel White . Stansfield 's review is not without criticism , conveying disappointment with the plot twist conclusion and also questioning a minor plot hole : why Symphony Angel discards her helmet after crash @-@ landing , thereby breaking off radio communication with Cloudbase . He suggests that the unreality of the main plot is inferred some time before it is confirmed in dialogue , with the demise of the normally " indestructible " Captain Scarlet and the presence of Captain Black – whose appearance does not in any way astonish Blue – serving as " hints ... that all might not be quite as it seems " .
Morgan Jeffery of Digital Spy describes " Attack on Cloudbase " as " thrilling " , opining that it is " perhaps the highlight " of the series . Like Stansfield , he is critical of what he refers to as the " lame , ' it was all a dream ' ending " , judging it to be rendered more frustrating by the fact that the series ' final episode , " The Inquisition " , is a clip show that ends ambiguously with regard to the fates of Spectrum and the Mysterons : " Cut the final few minutes from ' Attack on Cloudbase ' and imagine what a finale that would have been ! "
In a DVD audio commentary for the episode , Gerry Anderson remembered that the writing of " Attack on Cloudbase " set out to strike a purely comic note ; he suggested that the nature the finished product was more typical of black comedy . While admitting that the dream sequence and reset button technique were arguably uninspiring clichés , in the case of " Attack on Cloudbase " he defended the use of such plot devices for their suitability in both initially alarming viewers ( with the apparent deaths of the main characters ) and ultimately reassuring them ( with the revelation that the attack on Cloudbase was , in the end , " all a dream " ) . Anderson praised Tony Barwick 's script , citing Blue and Symphony 's romantic relationship and the underlying tension between Blue and Colonel White as examples of Barwick 's " humanisation " of the puppet characters . Captain Magenta 's comic quality as the herald of the attack is , similarly , another " wonderful example of ' Barwickism ' " .
Chris Drake and Graeme Bassett describe " Attack on Cloudbase " as " tense and exciting " , adding that it is " guaranteed to keep the viewer guessing " . The British Board of Film Classification ( BBFC ) has passed the episode with a U certificate , while also noting that " Attack on Cloudbase " contains " very mild , fantasy " violence . Anderson argues that the weight of the episode 's dark and violent tone is lessened by the relaxed closing scene , whose writing was inspired by the reasoning that there should be " a sequence where everyone was happy together , and clearly no one had come to any grief " , thus creating the " inevitable happy ending " to an otherwise tragic plot .
= = 1980 re @-@ edit = =
Footage from " Attack on Cloudbase " was re @-@ edited to form part of Captain Scarlet vs the Mysterons , a compilation film released in 1980 . A new ending , specially filmed by ITC Entertainment New York , comprises a CGI " pyramid " with an accompanying Mysteron voice @-@ over ( provided by an American actor ) , implying that the attack on Cloudbase was in fact real , and not the product of a nightmare . The Mysterons use their powers to reverse time , aborting the timeline in which Cloudbase was destroyed and its personnel killed . The re @-@ writing of the ending was received negatively by fans of the original , uncut episode .
= Scarborough Historic District =
The Scarborough Historic District is a national historic district located in the suburban community of Scarborough @-@ on @-@ Hudson , in Briarcliff Manor , New York . The 376 @-@ acre ( 152 ha ) district was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1984 , and contains seven historically and architecturally significant properties dating from the late 18th century to the early 20th century . Most of the properties are domestic , or used for education or religion . The most common architectural styles within the district are Mid @-@ 19th Century Revival and Late Victorian .
= = Profile = =
The 376 @-@ acre ( 152 ha ) district contains 26 contributing buildings , two contributing sites , and one contributing structure . They are associated with three estates : Beechwood , Rosemont , and Woodlea ( now Sleepy Hollow Country Club ) ; The Clear View School , a school complex ; two religious properties : Saint Mary 's Episcopal Church and Scarborough Presbyterian Church ; and Sparta Cemetery , which dates back to before the Revolutionary War . All properties stand in much the same condition as when first nominated , except Rosemont , which was demolished in the mid- to late @-@ 1980s .
Several properties within the district exemplify Mid @-@ 19th Century Revival architectures , including Greek , Gothic , Renaissance , and Neoclassical styles ; their formal landscaping exemplifies estate landscaping at the turn of the 19th century . Most of the properties were established by wealthy landowners , ranging from the late 18th century to the early 20th century . The district , which remains generally rural and sparsely developed , borders the Hudson River and lies within the towns of Ossining and Mount Pleasant , between the villages of Ossining and Sleepy Hollow .
Most of the district 's buildings are set on large parcels of land , and many are clearly visible from U.S. Route 9 ( the former Albany Post Road ) , the district 's major thoroughfare . Stone and brick walls line Route 9 within the boundaries of the district . The district achieved State Register status on August 6 , 1984 , National Register district status on September 7 , 1984 , and local landmark status on January 5 , 1988 .
= = Beechwood = =
Beechwood is an estate built in 1780 ; it was most notably the home of National City Bank president Frank A. Vanderlip and his family . The mansion has gone through a number of expansions and renovations ; the most recent involved dividing the mansion into three segments for use as condominiums . Beechwood was a filming location of the 1970 film House of Dark Shadows , and a filming location and the primary setting of Savages , a 1972 Merchant Ivory film .
In the 1890s , Henry Walter Webb substantially added to the estate from numerous properties , including an earlier estate named Beechwood . Webb also renovated and expanded the mansion , hiring R. H. Robertson to double the size of the house . Robertson designed the expansion in the Colonial Revival style , to be compatible with the neoclassical Federal style of the original but more ornate .
= = The Clear View School = =
The Clear View School was built in 1917 by Frank Vanderlip on his Beechwood property as the Scarborough School , the first Montessori school in the United States . In 1978 , the school closed ; The Clear View School purchased the property in 1980 and opened in 1981 . It runs a day treatment program for 83 students with mental disorders .
= = Rosemont = =
Rosemont , also known by the names Scarborough House and Hillside , was a Greek Revival mansion built around 1840 . The house was John Lorimer Worden 's birthplace . It became headquarters to Stein and Day in 1973 , and was known at that time as Scarborough House . The house was demolished in February 1990 .
The mansion was used by Frank Vanderlip as a dormitory for Scarborough School boarding students . Rosemont stood opposite Vanderlip 's Beechwood , at the corner of Route 9 and Scarborough Road .
= = Saint Mary 's Episcopal Church = =
Saint Mary 's Episcopal Church , founded in 1839 by William Creighton and incorporated in 1883 as Saint Mary 's Church , Beechwood , is Briarcliff Manor 's oldest church ; it was reincorporated in 1945 as Saint Mary 's Church of Scarborough . Its first service was in 1839 in a small schoolhouse on an acre of Creighton 's Beechwood property , at the corner of Albany Post and Sleepy Hollow Roads . The service was led by Creighton 's son @-@ in @-@ law Reverend Edward Nathaniel Meade .
The granite church was built in 1850 by local stonemasons and paid for primarily by Creighton and Meade , but also by Creighton 's wealthy neighbors , including US Navy Commodore Matthew C. Perry , James Watson Webb , William Aspinwall , and Ambrose Kingsland . The first services there were held on September 21 , 1851 . The church is in near @-@ original condition , with a design based on the 14th @-@ century Gothic St. Mary 's parish church in Scarborough , England and is the only church with a complete set of John Bolton ( brother of William Jay Bolton ) stained @-@ glass windows .
The church 's rectory was built in 1931 as a memorial to its first two rectors Creighton and Meade . Notable parishioners included Commodore Matthew Perry , Viola Allen , and Washington Irving . Irving , the author of " Rip Van Winkle " and " The Legend of Sleepy Hollow " , brought and planted the ivy surrounding the church . He had received it from Walter Scott , from Abbotsford . The ivy of the parish house was brought from the Argonne battlefield , after World War I , by Narcissa Vanderlip . The 200 @-@ acre @-@ plus ( 81 ha ) Sleepy Hollow Country Club surrounds the church grounds on three sides .
During World War I , the New York Guard 's First Provisional Regiment was stationed at the former Holbrook Military Academy , guarding the Croton Aqueduct . The regiment held a service at Saint Mary 's in 1918 , as described in a contemporary regimental history :
On Sept . 29th , Supply Company trucks , sector cars , and auxiliary motor service brought from every unit of the regiment on the east side of the Hudson River details to the stated regimental service held at St. Mary 's Church , Scarborough , as a tribute from the men of the regiment to Captain Baldwin .
It was a beautiful bright Sunday morning and the men of the various companies , clad in their Sunday best , made a splendid appearance . As each company arrived , it was formed along the side of the Albany Post Road facing the church , and at 11 o 'clock , while the church bells rang a final call to worship , Sergt . Bugler Corrie and the headquarters field @-@ music sounded church call . This was immediately followed by assembly , and then , headed by the field @-@ music , the staff , non @-@ commissioned staff , Headquarters Company , Supply Company and the company details of the two battalions marched up through the church grounds to the church itself . At the entrance the field @-@ music swung out of line and played the remainder of the column into the church , where the organist took up the processional .
With the entire church filled with soldiers , it was impossible to seat the civilian congregation and all of the detachments of the National League for Women 's Service , the Motor Corps ' of America and the Red Cross Motor Corps who marched in the column . Many found seats in the cloister , and others sat on chairs outside the doors of the church .
On July 5 , 2015 , Saint Mary 's Episcopal Church closed after 175 years in operation .
= = Scarborough Presbyterian Church = =
The church has its origins with Elliott Fitch Shepard and his wife Margaret Louisa Vanderbilt Shepard purchasing a roadhouse on the Albany Post Road . In 1892 , after enlarging and remodeling the store , adding diamond @-@ paned windows and replacing the floors and porches , the building was first used as a church . The church 's organization meeting was held with nineteen charter members .
After Elliott Fitch Shepard 's death in March 1893 , Margaret donated the present church building and manse . The Spanish Renaissance @-@ style church was designed by Augustus Haydel ( a nephew of Stanford White ) and August D. Shepard ( a nephew of Elliott Shepard and of William Rutherford Mead ) . The two nephews later designed the 1899 Fabbri Mansion in Manhattan . The church 's cornerstone was laid on October 13 , 1893 , and the completed church was dedicated on May 11 , 1895 in memory of Elliott Fitch Shepard . It was built of pink granite rubble with limestone trim , with a steeple supported by flying buttresses . The interior has fluted pilasters with gilded capitals , a coffered ceiling made of redwood , and stained @-@ glass windows . The church 's 1 @,@ 498 @-@ pipe organ was constructed around 1894 ; it was the first all @-@ electric action organ in the world . The 3 @-@ acre ( 1 @.@ 2 ha ) church property also contains the church 's carriage house , used for offices , and the parish house , designed by Augustus D. Shepard and completed in 1908 .
Since around 1995 , the church has run the Scarborough Presbyterian Children ’ s Center , a non @-@ denominational preschool housed in a building next door to the church , with an outdoor playground nearby . The preschool serves families in Briarcliff Manor and Scarborough , Ossining , Tarrytown , Sleepy Hollow , Pocantico Hills , and Pleasantville .
= = Sleepy Hollow Country Club = =
Sleepy Hollow Country Club was founded in 1911 . The main building of Sleepy Hollow Country Club was known as Woodlea , the 140 @-@ room $ 2 million ( $ 52 @.@ 7 million in 2015 ) mansion built in 1895 for Elliott Fitch Shepard and his family . The building , with Beaux @-@ Arts and Georgian Revival features , was designed by McKim , Mead & White and built from 1892 to 1895 . In 1910 , Margaret Louisa Vanderbilt Shepard sold the estate to Frank A. Vanderlip and William Rockefeller , who converted it into a country club . Current members include Bill Murray , James Patterson , and several members of the Rockefeller family .
= = Sparta Cemetery = =
Sparta Cemetery , or the Presbyterian Burying Ground at Sparta , is a two @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 81 ha ) burying ground dating to 1764 , making it the oldest cemetery in Westchester County . It is the only contributing property outside Briarcliff Manor ; the Ossining Historical Society has maintained the cemetery since 1984 . As of 1984 , the cemetery is still owned by the First Presbyterian Church of Ossining ; its original church building was built c . 1768 and was moved towards the center of Ossining in 1800 . The grounds hold 34 known Revolutionary War veterans . Many of the area 's earliest residents are buried in the cemetery .
In September 1780 , HMS Vulture fired a cannonball into the gravestone of Abraham Ladew , Jr . , who died in 1774 , at the age of 7 years . The Vulture was traveling south from Croton Point to pick up Major John André , a rendezvous that never occurred ; Andre was captured in Tarrytown on his way to the vessel .
= = = Gallery = = =
= Phoenix , Arizona =
Phoenix ( / ˈfiːnɪks / ) is the capital and largest city of the U.S. state of Arizona . With 1 @,@ 563 @,@ 025 people ( as of 2015 ) , Phoenix is the sixth most populous city nationwide , the most populous state capital in the United States , and the only state capital with a population of more than 1 million residents .
Phoenix is the anchor of the Phoenix metropolitan area , also known as the Valley of the Sun , which in turn is a part of the Salt River Valley . The metropolitan area is the 12th largest by population in the United States , with approximately 4 @.@ 3 million people as of 2010 . In addition , Phoenix is the county seat of Maricopa County and is one of the largest cities in the United States by land area .
Settled in 1867 as an agricultural community near the confluence of the Salt and Gila Rivers , Phoenix incorporated as a city in 1881 . Located in the northeastern reaches of the Sonoran Desert , Phoenix has a subtropical desert climate . Despite this , its canal system led to a thriving farming community , many of the original crops remaining important parts of the Phoenix economy for decades , such as alfalfa , cotton , citrus , and hay ( which was important for the cattle industry ) . In fact , the " Five C 's " ( Cotton , Cattle , Citrus , Climate , and Copper ) , remained the driving forces of Phoenix 's economy until after World War II , when high @-@ tech industries began to move into the valley and air conditioning made residences much more comfortable in the very hot summers .
The city averaged a 4 percent annual population growth rate over a 40 @-@ year period from the mid @-@ 1960s to the mid @-@ 2000s . This growth rate slowed during the Great Recession of 2007 – 09 , and has rebounded slowly . Phoenix is the cultural center of the Valley of the Sun , as well as the entire state .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
For more than 2 @,@ 000 years , the Hohokam peoples occupied the land that would become Phoenix . The Hohokam created roughly 135 miles ( 217 km ) of irrigation canals , making the desert land arable . Paths of these canals would later become used for the modern Arizona Canal , Central Arizona Project Canal , and the Hayden @-@ Rhodes Aqueduct . The Hohokam also carried out extensive trade with the nearby Anasazi , Mogollon and Sinagua , as well as with the more distant Mesoamerican civilizations . It is believed that between 1300 and 1450 , periods of drought and severe floods led to the Hohokam civilization 's abandonment of the area .
After the departure of the Hohokam , groups of Akimel O 'odham ( commonly known as Pima ) , Tohono O ’ odham and Maricopa tribes began to use the area , as well as segments of the Yavapai and Apache . The O 'odham were offshoots of the Sobaipuri tribe , who in turn were thought to be the descendants of the formerly urbanized Hohokam .
The Akimel O ’ odham were the major Indian group in the area , and lived in small villages , with well @-@ defined irrigation systems , which spread over the entire Gila River Valley , from Florence in the east to the Estrellas in the west . Their crops included corn , beans and squash for food , while cotton and tobacco were also cultivated . Mostly a peaceful group , they did band together with the Maricopa for their mutual protection against incursions by both the Yuma and Apache tribes . The Maricopa are part of the larger Yuma people , however they migrated east from the lower Colorado and Gila Rivers in the early 1800s , when they began to be enemies with their Yuma brethren , settling amongst the existing communities of the Akimel O 'odham .
The Tohono O 'odham lived in the region as well , but their main concentration was to the south , and stretched all the way to the Mexican border . Living in small settlements , the O 'odham were seasonal farmers who took advantage of the rains , rather than the large @-@ scale irrigation of the Akimel . They grew crops such as sweet Indian corn , tapery beans , squash , lentils sugar cane and melons , as well as taking advantage of native plants , such as saguaro fruits , cholla buds , mesquite tree beans , and mesquite candy ( sap from the mesquite tree ) . They also hunted local game such as deer , rabbit and javalina for meat .
When the Mexican – American War ended in 1848 , Mexico sold its northern zone to the United States and residents became U.S. citizens . The Phoenix area became part of the New Mexico Territory . In 1863 the mining town of Wickenburg was the first to be established in what is now Maricopa County , to the northwest of modern Phoenix . At the time Maricopa County had not yet been incorporated : the land was within Yavapai County , which included the major town of Prescott to the north of Wickenburg .
The U.S. Army created Fort McDowell on the Verde River in 1865 to forestall Native American uprisings . The fort established a camp on the south side of the Salt River by 1866 , which was the first non @-@ native settlement in the valley after the decline of the Hohokam . In later years , other nearby settlements would form and merge to become the city of Tempe , but this community was incorporated after Phoenix .
= = = Founding and incorporation = = =
The history of the city of Phoenix begins with Jack Swilling , a Confederate veteran of the Civil War . In 1867 , while traveling through the Salt River Valley , he saw a potential for farming , much like the military had already cultivated further east , near Fort McDowell . He formed a small community that same year about 4 miles ( 6 km ) east of the present city . Lord Darrell Duppa , one of the original settlers in Swilling 's party , suggested the name " Phoenix " , as it described a city born from the ruins of a former civilization .
The Board of Supervisors in Yavapai County , which at the time encompassed Phoenix , officially recognized the new town on May 4 , 1868 , and the first post office was established the following month , with Swilling as the postmaster . On February 12 , 1871 , the territorial legislature created Maricopa County , the sixth one formed in the Arizona Territory , by dividing Yavapai County . The first election for county office was held in 1871 , when Tom Barnum was elected the first sheriff , running unopposed when the other two candidates , John A. Chenowth and Jim Favorite , fought a duel wherein Chenowth killed Favorite , and then was forced to withdraw from the race .
The town grew during the 1870s , and President Ulysses S. Grant issued a land patent for the present site of Phoenix on April 10 , 1874 . By 1875 , the town had a telegraph office , sixteen saloons , and four dance halls , but the " townsite @-@ commissioner form of government " needed an overhaul , so that year an election was held in which three village trustees , as well as several other officials , were elected . By 1880 , the town 's population stood at 2 @,@ 453 .
By 1881 , Phoenix 's continued growth made the existing village structure with a board of trustees obsolete . The Territorial Legislature passed " The Phoenix Charter Bill " , incorporating Phoenix and providing for a mayor @-@ council government , and became official on February 25 , 1881 when it was signed by Governor John C. Fremont , officially incorporating Phoenix as a city with an approximate population of 2 @,@ 500 .
In the 1880s , the arrival of the railroad in the valley was the first of several key events that altered the economy of Phoenix . Phoenix became a trade center , with its products reaching eastern and western markets . In response , the Phoenix Chamber of Commerce was organized on November 4 , 1888 . Earlier in 1888 the city offices were moved into the new City Hall , at Washington and Central . When the territorial capital was moved from Prescott to Phoenix in 1889 the temporary territorial offices were also located in City Hall . With the arrival of the Santa Fe , Prescott and Phoenix Railroad in 1895 , Phoenix was connected to Prescott , Flagstaff and other northern state communities . The increased access to commerce expedited the city 's economic rise . The year 1895 also saw the establishment of Phoenix Union High School , with an enrollment of 90 .
= = = 1900 to World War II = = =
On February 25 , 1901 , Governor Murphy dedicated the permanent Capitol building , and the Carnegie Free Library opened seven years later , on February 18 , 1908 , dedicated by Benjamin Fowler . The National Reclamation Act was signed by President Theodore Roosevelt in 1902 , which allowed for dams to be built on waterways in the west for reclamation purposes . The first dam constructed under the act , the Theodore Roosevelt Dam began in 1903 . It supplied both water and electricity , becoming the first multi @-@ purpose dam , and Roosevelt himself attended the official dedication on May 18 , 1911 . At the time , it was the largest masonry dam in the world , forming Theodore Roosevelt Lake in the mountain east of Phoenix .
On February 14 , 1912 , under President William Howard Taft , Phoenix became the capital of the newly formed state of Arizona . This occurred just six months after Taft had vetoed a joint congressional resolution granting statehood to Arizona , due to his disapproval of the state constitution 's position regarding the recall of judges . In 1913 Phoenix adopted a new form of government , changing from a mayor @-@ council system to council @-@ manager , making it one of the first cities in the United States with this form of city government . After statehood , Phoenix 's growth started to accelerate , and eight years later , its population had reached 29 @,@ 053 . In 1920 Phoenix would see its first skyscraper , the Heard Building . In 1929 Sky Harbor was officially opened , at the time owned by Scenic Airways . It would later be purchased by the city in 1935 , who operates it to this day .
On March 4 , 1930 , former U.S. President Calvin Coolidge dedicated a dam on the Gila River named in his honor . However , the state had just been through a long drought , and the reservoir which was supposed to be behind the dam was virtually dry . The humorist Will Rogers , who was also on hand as a guest speaker joked , " If that was my lake I 'd mow it . " Phoenix 's population had more than doubled during the 1920s , and now stood at 48 @,@ 118 . It was also during the 1930s that Phoenix and its surrounding area began to be called " The Valley of the Sun " , which was an advertising slogan invented to boost tourism .
During World War II , Phoenix 's economy shifted to that of a distribution center , transforming into an " embryonic industrial city " with the mass production of military supplies . There were three air force fields in the area : Luke Field , Williams Field , and Falcon Field , as well as two large pilot training camps , Thunderbird Field No. 1 in Glendale and Thunderbird Field No. 2 in Scottsdale .
= = = Post @-@ World War II explosive growth = = =
A town that had just over sixty @-@ five thousand residents in 1940 became America 's sixth largest city by 2010 , with a population of nearly 1 @.@ 5 million , and millions more in nearby suburbs . When the war ended , many of the men who had undergone their training in Arizona returned bringing their new families . Learning of this large untapped labor pool enticed many large industries to move their operations to the area . In 1948 high @-@ tech industry , which would become a staple of the state 's economy , arrived in Phoenix when Motorola chose Phoenix for the site of its new research and development center for military electronics . Seeing the same advantages as Motorola , other high @-@ tech companies such as Intel and McDonnell Douglas would also move into the valley and open manufacturing operations .
By 1950 , over 105 @,@ 000 people resided in the city and thousands more in surrounding communities . The 1950s growth was spurred on by advances in air conditioning , which allowed both homes and businesses to offset the extreme heat experienced in Phoenix and the surrounding areas during its long summers . There was more new construction in Phoenix in 1959 alone than during the period of more than thirty years from 1914 to 1946 .
Like many emerging American cities at the time , Phoenix 's spectacular growth did not occur evenly . It largely took place on the city 's north side , a region that was nearly all Caucasian . In 1962 , one local activist testified at a US Commission on Civil Rights hearing that of 31 @,@ 000 homes that had recently sprung up in this neighborhood , not a single one had been sold to an African @-@ American . Phoenix 's African @-@ American and Mexican @-@ American communities remained largely sequestered on the town 's south side . The color lines were so rigid that no one north of Van Buren Street would rent to the African @-@ American baseball star Willie Mays , in town for spring training in the 1960s . In 1964 , a reporter from the New Republic wrote of segregation in these terms : " Apartheid is complete . The two cities look at each other across a golf course . "
= = = 1960s to present = = =
The continued rapid population growth led more businesses to the valley to take advantage of the labor pool , and manufacturing , particularly in the electronics sector , continued to grow . The convention and tourism industries saw rapid expansion during the 1960s , with tourism becoming the third largest industry by the end of the decade . In 1960 the Phoenix Corporate Center opened ; at the time it was the tallest building in Arizona , topping off at 341 feet . The 1960s saw many other buildings constructed as the city expanded rapidly , including the Rosenzweig Center ( 1964 ) , today called Phoenix City Square , the landmark Phoenix Financial Center ( 1964 ) , as well as many of Phoenix 's residential high @-@ rises . In 1965 the Arizona Veterans Memorial Coliseum was opened at the Arizona State Fairgrounds , west of downtown . When Phoenix was awarded a NBA franchise in 1968 , which would be called the Phoenix Suns , they played their home games at the Coliseum until 1992 , after which they moved to Talking Stick Resort Arena . In 1968 , the Central Arizona Project was approved by President Lyndon B. Johnson , assuring future water supplies for Phoenix , Tucson , and the agricultural corridor in between . The following year , Pope Paul VI created the Diocese of Phoenix on December 2 , by splitting the Archdiocese of Tucson , with Edward A. McCarthy as the first Bishop .
In the 1970s the downtown area experienced a resurgence , with a level of construction activity not seen again until the urban real estate boom of the 2000s . By the end of the decade , Phoenix adopted the Phoenix Concept 2000 plan which split the city into urban villages , each with its own village core where greater height and density was permitted , further shaping the free @-@ market development culture . Originally , there were 9 villages , but this has been expanded to 15 over the years ( see Cityscape below ) . This officially turned Phoenix into a city of many nodes , which would later be connected by freeways . 1972 would see the opening of the Phoenix Symphony Hall , Other major structures which saw construction downtown during this decade were the Wells Fargo Plaza , the Chase Tower ( the tallest building in both Phoenix and Arizona ) and the U.S. Bank Center .
Nominated by President Reagan , on September 25 , 1981 Phoenix resident Sandra Day O 'Connor broke the gender barrier on the U.S. Supreme Court , when she was sworn in as the first female judge . 1985 saw the Palo Verde Nuclear Generating Station , the nation 's largest nuclear power plant , begin electrical production . 1987 was marked by visits by both Pope John Paul II and Mother Teresa .
There was an influx of refugees due to low @-@ cost housing in the Sunnyslope area in the 1990s , resulting in 43 different languages being spoken in local schools by the year 2000 . The new 20 @-@ story City Hall opened in 1992 , and 1993 saw the creation of " Tent City " by Sheriff Joe Arpaio , using inmate labor , to alleviate overcrowding in the Maricopa County Jail system , the fourth @-@ largest in the world . The famous " Phoenix Lights " UFO sightings took place in March 1997 .
Phoenix has maintained a growth streak in recent years , growing by 24 @.@ 2 % before 2007 . This made it the second @-@ fastest @-@ growing metropolitan area in the United States , surpassed only by Las Vegas . In 2008 , Squaw Peak , the second tallest mountain in the city , was renamed Piestewa Peak after Army Specialist Lori Ann Piestewa , an Arizonan and the first Native American woman to die in combat while serving in the U.S. military , as well as being the first American female casualty of the 2003 Iraq War . 2008 also saw Phoenix as one of the cities hardest hit by the subprime mortgage crisis , and by early 2009 the median home price was $ 150 @,@ 000 , down from its $ 262 @,@ 000 peak in 2007 . Crime rates in Phoenix have gone down in recent years , and once troubled , decaying neighborhoods such as South Mountain , Alhambra , and Maryvale have recovered and stabilized . Recently , downtown Phoenix and the central core have experienced renewed interest and growth , resulting in numerous restaurants , stores , and businesses opening or relocating to central Phoenix .
= = Geography = =
Phoenix is in the southwestern United States , in the south @-@ central portion of Arizona , and about halfway between Tucson to the south and Flagstaff to the north . The metropolitan area is known as the " Valley of the Sun " , due to its location in the Salt River Valley . It lies at a mean elevation of 1 @,@ 086 feet ( 331 m ) , in the northern reaches of the Sonoran Desert .
Other than the mountains in and around the city , the topography of Phoenix is generally flat , allowing the city 's main streets to run on a precise grid with wide , open @-@ spaced roadways . Scattered , low mountain ranges surround the valley : McDowell Mountains to the northeast , the White Tank Mountains to the west , the Superstition Mountains far to the east , and the Sierra Estrella to the southwest . On the outskirts of Phoenix are large fields of irrigated cropland and several Indian reservations . The Salt River runs westward through the city of Phoenix , and the riverbed is often dry or contains a little water due to large irrigation diversions . The community of Ahwatukee is separated from the rest of the city by South Mountain .
According to the United States Census Bureau , the city has a total area of 517 @.@ 9 square miles ( 1 @,@ 341 km2 ) ; 516 @.@ 7 square miles ( 1 @,@ 338 km2 ) of it is land and 1 @.@ 2 square miles ( 0 @.@ 6 km ² , or 0 @.@ 2 % ) of it is water . Even though it is the 6th most populated city , the large area gives it a low density rate of approximately 2 @,@ 797 people per square mile . In comparison , Philadelphia , the 5th most populous city has a density of over 11 @,@ 000 .
As with most of Arizona , Phoenix does not observe daylight saving time . In 1973 , Gov. Jack Williams argued to the U.S. Congress that due to air conditioning units not being used as often in the morning on standard time , energy use would increase in the evening . He went on to say that energy use would rise " because there would be more lights on in the early morning . " He was also concerned that daylight savings time would cause children to go to school in the dark .
= = = Cityscape = = =
= = = = Neighborhoods = = = =
Since 1979 , the City of Phoenix has been divided into urban villages , many of which are based upon historically significant neighborhoods and communities that have since been annexed into Phoenix . Each village has a planning committee that is appointed directly by the city council . According to the village planning handbook issued by the city , the purpose of the village planning committees is to " work with the city 's planning commission to ensure a balance of housing and employment in each village , concentrate development at identified village cores , and to promote the unique character and identity of the villages . " There are 15 urban villages : Ahwatukee Foothills , Alhambra , Camelback East , Central City , Deer Valley , Desert View , Encanto , Estrella , Laveen , Maryvale , North Gateway , North Mountain , Paradise Valley , Rio Vista , and South Mountain .
The urban village of Paradise Valley is different than the nearby town of Paradise Valley . Although the urban village is part of Phoenix City , the town is independent .
In addition to the above urban villages , Phoenix has a variety of commonly referred @-@ to regions and districts , such as Downtown , Midtown , West Phoenix , North Phoenix , South Phoenix , Biltmore , Arcadia , and Sunnyslope .
= = = Climate = = =
Phoenix has a hot desert climate ( Köppen climate classification BWh ) , typical of the Sonoran Desert in which it lies . Phoenix has long , very hot summers and short , mild winters . The climate is arid , with plenty of sunshine and clear skies . Average high temperatures in summer are the hottest of any major city in the United States , and the city has more days when the temperature exceeds 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) than any other city in the United States . On average ( 1981 – 2010 ) , there were 107 days annually with a high of at least 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) , including most days from late May through early October . Highs top 110 ° F ( 43 ° C ) an average of 18 days during the year . Every day from June 10 through August 24 , 1993 , the temperature in Phoenix reached 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) or more , the longest continuous number of days ( 76 ) in the city 's history . Officially , the number of days with a high of at least 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) has historically ranged from 48 in 1913 to 143 in 1989 . For comparison , From 1870 through 2012 , New York City has seen a temperature of 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) or more a total of only 61 days . On June 26 , 1990 , the temperature reached an all @-@ time recorded high of 122 ° F ( 50 ° C ) . However , despite Phoenix 's claim to the most extreme temperatures , it does not have the highest average temperature . In that respect it comes in second to Miami , with an average daily temperature of 75 ° F ( 24 ° C ) , compared to Miami 's 77 ° F ( 25 ° C ) .
Most deserts undergo drastic fluctuations between day and nighttime temperatures , but not Phoenix due to the urban heat island effect . As the city has expanded , average summer low temps have been rising steadily . The daily heat of the sun is stored in pavement , sidewalks and buildings , and is radiated back out at night . During the summer , overnight lows greater than 80 ° F ( 27 ° C ) are commonplace , as the daily normal low remains at or above 80 ° F ( 27 ° C ) from June 22 to September 8 . On average , 67 days throughout the year will see the nighttime low at or above 80 ° F ( 27 ° C ) . On July 15 , 2003 Phoenix set their record for the warmest minimum daily temperature , at 96 ° F ( 36 ° C ) .
The city averages approximately 300 days of sunshine , or over 85 % of daylight hours per year , and receives scant rainfall , the average annual total at Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport from 1933 – 2015 being 7 @.@ 46 in ( 189 mm ) . Precipitation is sparse during most of the year , but the monsoon brings an influx of moisture . Historically , the monsoon officially started when the average Dew point was 55 ° F ( 13 ° C ) for three days in a row ; on average this event occurred around July 7 ; however , in 2008 the National Weather Service decreed that from that point forward , June 15 would be the official first day of the monsoon , and it would end on September 30 . The monsoon raises humidity levels and can cause heavy localized precipitation , occasional flooding , large hail , strong winds , the rare tornado , and dust storms , which can rise to the level of a haboob in some years .
July is the wettest month of the year ( 1 @.@ 05 in ( 27 mm ) ) , while June is the driest ( 0 @.@ 02 in ( 0 @.@ 51 mm ) ) . On September 8 , 2014 , the city of Phoenix recorded its single highest rainfall total by the National Weather Service with a total of 3 @.@ 30 in ( 84 mm ) . This total rainfall on this day measured more than Phoenix 's annual rainfall average and broke a 75 @-@ year @-@ old previous record of 2 @.@ 91 in ( 74 mm ) , set back on September 4 , 1939 . This storm was created from the remnants of Hurricane Norbert that had moved up from the Gulf of California and turned the city 's major interstates and low @-@ lying roadways into flood plains , stranding hundreds of motorists . Dewpoints range from 39 @.@ 0 ° F ( 4 ° C ) in June to 58 @.@ 2 ° F ( 15 ° C ) in August .
On average , Phoenix has only one day per year where the temperature drops to or below freezing . However , the frequency of freezes increases the further one moves outward from the urban heat island . Frequently , outlying areas of Phoenix see frost . Officially , the earliest freeze on record occurred on November 4 , 1956 , and the latest occurred on March 31 , 1987 . The all @-@ time lowest recorded temperature in Phoenix was 16 ° F ( − 9 ° C ) on January 7 , 1913 , while the coldest daily high temperature ever recorded was 36 ° F ( 2 ° C ) on December 10 , 1898 . The longest continuous stretch without a day of frost in Phoenix was over 5 years , from November 23 , 1979 , to January 31 , 1985 . Snow is a very rare occurrence for the city of Phoenix . Snowfall was first officially recorded in 1898 , and since then , accumulations of 0 @.@ 1 inches ( 0 @.@ 25 cm ) or greater have occurred only eight times . The heaviest snowstorm on record dates to January 21 – 22 , 1937 , when 1 to 4 inches ( 2 @.@ 5 to 10 @.@ 2 cm ) fell in parts of the city and did not melt entirely for three days . The most recent snow of significance fell on December 6 , 1998 , across the northwest portions of the valley that are below 2 @,@ 000 feet . During the 1998 event , Sky Harbor reported a dusting of snow . On December 30 , 2010 and February 20 , 2013 , graupel fell , although it was widely believed to be snow .
= = = Flora and fauna = = =
Due to its location in the Sonoran Desert , nearly all of the native desert fauna are occasionally found within Phoenix boundaries , but mostly in the suburbs and the remaining desert areas around the city . Mammal species found around the Phoenix area include coyote , javelina , bobcat , occasionally jaguar , mountain lion , desert cottontail rabbit , jackrabbit , antelope ground squirrel , mule deer , and a few species of bats that roost in and around the city . There are many species of native birds , including Gambel 's quail , Gila woodpecker , mourning dove , white @-@ winged dove , the roadrunner , the state bird , the cactus wren , and many species of raptors , including falcons , hawks , owls , vultures , such as the turkey vulture and black vulture , and eagles , including the golden and the bald eagle . The suburbs and surrounding areas of Phoenix are also home to a plethora of native reptile species , including the Western diamondback rattlesnake , Sonoran sidewinder , several other types of rattlesnakes , Sonoran coral snake , dozens of species of non @-@ venomous snakes , including the Sonoran gopher snake , and the California kingsnake , the gila monster , desert spiny lizard , several types of whiptail lizards , the chuckwalla , desert horned lizard , Western banded gecko , Sonora mud turtle , and the desert tortoise . Native amphibian species , include the Couch 's spadefoot toad , Chiricahua leopard frog , and the Sonoran desert toad . Phoenix and the surrounding areas are also home to a wide variety of native invertebrates , including the Arizona bark scorpion , giant desert hairy scorpion , Arizona blond tarantula , Sonoran Desert centipede , tarantula hawk wasp , camel spider , and tailless whip scorpion .
The Arizona Upland subdivision of the Sonoran Desert ( of which Phoenix is a part ) has " the most structurally diverse flora in the United States . " One of the most well @-@ known types of succulents , the giant saguaro cactus , is found throughout the city and its neighboring environs . Other native species are the organpipe , ocotillo , barrel , prickly pear and cholla cacti , Palo Verde trees , various types of palm trees , agaves , foothill and blue paloverde , ironwood , mesquite and the creosote bush .
The Greater Phoenix region is home to the only thriving feral population of rosy @-@ faced lovebirds in the U.S. This bird is a popular birdcage pet , native to southwestern Africa . Feral birds were first observed living outdoors in 1987 , probably escaped or released pets , and by 2010 the Greater Phoenix population had grown to about 950 birds . These lovebirds prefer older neighborhoods where they nest under untrimmed dead palm tree fronds .
= = Demographics = =
Phoenix is the sixth most populous city in the United States according to the 2010 United States Census , with a population of 1 @,@ 445 @,@ 632 , making it the most populous state capital in the United States . Phoenix 's ranking as the sixth most populous city was a drop from the number five position it had held since the U. S. Census Bureau released population estimates on June 28 , 2007 . Those statistics used data from 2006 , which showed Phoenix 's population at 1 @,@ 512 @,@ 986 , which put it just ahead of Philadelphia .
After leading the nation in population growth for over a decade , the sub @-@ prime mortgage crisis , followed by the recession , led to a slowing in the growth of Phoenix . There were approximately 77 @,@ 000 people added to the population of the Phoenix metropolitan area in 2009 , which was down significantly from its peak in 2006 of 162 @,@ 000 . Despite this slowing , Phoenix 's population grew by 9 @.@ 4 % since the 2000 census ( a total of 124 @,@ 000 people ) , while the entire Phoenix metropolitan area grew by 28 @.@ 9 % during the same period . This compares with an overall growth rate nationally during the same time frame of 9 @.@ 7 % . Not since 1940 – 50 , when the city had a population of 107 @,@ 000 , had the city gained less than 124 @,@ 000 in a decade . Phoenix 's recent growth rate of 9 @.@ 4 % from the 2010 census is the first time it has recorded a growth rate under 24 % in a census decade .
The Phoenix Metropolitan Statistical Area ( MSA ) ( officially known as the Phoenix @-@ Mesa @-@ Glendale MSA ) , is one of 10 MSAs in Arizona , and was the 14th largest in the United States , with a total population of 4 @,@ 192 @,@ 887 as of the 2010 Census . Consisting of parts of both Pinal and Maricopa counties , the MSA accounts for 65 @.@ 5 % of the total population of the state of Arizona . Phoenix only contributed 13 % to the total growth rate of the MSA , down significantly from its 33 % share during the prior decade . Phoenix is also part of the Arizona Sun Corridor megaregion ( MR ) , which is the 10th most populous of the 11 MRs , and the 8th largest by area . It had the 2nd largest growth by percentage of the MRs ( behind only the Gulf Coast MR ) between 2000 and 2010 .
The population is almost equally split between men and women , with men making up 50 @.@ 2 % of city 's citizens . The population density is 2 @,@ 797 @.@ 8 people per square mile , and the median age of the city is 32 @.@ 2 years , with only 10 @.@ 9 of the population being over 62 . 98 @.@ 5 % of Phoenix 's population lives in households with an average household size of 2 @.@ 77 people . There were 514 @,@ 806 total households , with 64 @.@ 2 % of those households consisting of families : 42 @.@ 3 % married couples , 7 % with an unmarried male as head of household , and 14 @.@ 9 % with an unmarried female as head of household . 33 @.@ 6 % of those households have children below the age of 18 . Of the 35 @.@ 8 % of non @-@ family households , 27 @.@ 1 % of them have a householder living alone , almost evenly split between men and women , with women having 13 @.@ 7 % and men occupying 13 @.@ 5 % . Phoenix has 590 @,@ 149 housing units , with an occupancy rate of 87 @.@ 2 % . The largest segment of vacancies is in the rental market , where the vacancy rate is 14 @.@ 9 % , and 51 % of all vacancies are in rentals . Vacant houses for sale only make up 17 @.@ 7 % of the vacancies , with the rest being split among vacation properties and other various reasons .
The median income for a household in the city was $ 47 @,@ 866 , and the median income for a family was $ 54 @,@ 804 . Males had a median income of $ 32 @,@ 820 versus $ 27 @,@ 466 for females . The per capita income for the city was $ 24 @,@ 110 . 21 @.@ 8 % of the population and 17 @.@ 1 % of families were below the poverty line . Out of the total population , 31 @.@ 4 % of those under the age of 18 and 10 @.@ 5 % of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line .
According to the 2010 Census , the racial breakdown of Phoenix was as follows :
White : 65 @.@ 9 % ( 46 @.@ 5 % non @-@ Hispanic )
Black or African American : 6 @.@ 5 % ( 6 @.@ 0 % non @-@ Hispanic )
Native American : 2 @.@ 6 %
Asian : 3 @.@ 2 % ( 0 @.@ 8 % Indian , 0 @.@ 5 % Filipino , 0 @.@ 5 % Korean , 0 @.@ 4 % Chinese , 0 @.@ 4 % Vietnamese , 0 @.@ 2 % Japanese , 0 @.@ 2 % Thai , 0 @.@ 1 % Burmese )
Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander : 0 @.@ 1 %
Other race : 0 @.@ 1 %
Two or more races : 1 @.@ 7 %
Phoenix 's population has historically been predominantly white . From 1890 to 1970 , over 90 % of the citizens were white . In recent years , this percentage has dropped , reaching 65 % In 2010 . However , a significant portion of this decrease can be attributed to new guidelines put out by the U.S. Census Bureau in 1980 , when a question regarding Hispanic origin was added to the census questionnaire . This has led to an increasing tendency for some groups to no longer self @-@ identify as white , and instead categorize themselves as " other races " . 20 @.@ 6 % of the population of the city was foreign born in 2010 . Of the 1 @,@ 342 @,@ 803 residents over 5 years of age , 63 @.@ 5 % spoke only English , 30 @.@ 6 % spoke Spanish at home , 2 @.@ 5 % spoke another Indo @-@ European language , 2 @.@ 1 % spoke Asian or Islander languages , with the remaining 1 @.@ 4 % speaking other languages . About 15 @.@ 7 % of non @-@ English speakers reported speaking English less than " very well " . The largest national ancestries reported were Mexican ( 35 @.@ 9 % ) , German ( 15 @.@ 3 % ) , Irish ( 10 @.@ 3 % ) , English ( 9 @.@ 4 % ) , Black ( 6 @.@ 5 % ) , Italian ( 4 @.@ 5 % ) , French ( 2 @.@ 7 % ) , Polish ( 2 @.@ 5 % ) , American Indian ( 2 @.@ 2 % ) , and Scottish ( 2 @.@ 0 % ) . Hispanics or Latinos of any race make up 40 @.@ 8 % of the population . Of these the largest groups are at 35 @.@ 9 % Mexican , 0 @.@ 6 % Puerto Rican , 0 @.@ 5 % Guatemalan , 0 @.@ 3 % Salvadoran , 0 @.@ 3 % Cuban .
According to a 2014 study by the Pew Research Center , 66 % of the population of the city identified themselves as Christians , while 26 % claimed no religious affiliation . The same study says that other religions ( including Judaism , Buddhism , Islam , and Hinduism ) collectively make up about 7 % of the population . In 2010 , according to the Association of Religion Data Archives , which conducts religious census each ten years , 39 % of those polled in Maricopa county considered themselves a member of a religious group . Of those who expressed a religious affiliation , the area 's religious composition was reported as 35 % Catholic , 22 % to Evangelical Protestant denominations , 16 % Latter @-@ Day Saints ( LDS ) , 14 % to nondenominational congregations , 7 % to Mainline Protestant denominations , and 2 % Hindu . The remaining 4 % belong to other religions , such as Buddhism , and Judaism . While there was an overall increase in the number of religious adherents over the decade of 103 @,@ 000 , that did not keep pace with the overall population increase in the country during the same period , which increased by almost three @-@ quarters of million individuals , resulting in the percentage drop . The largest aggregate increases were in the LDS ( a 58 % increase ) and Evangelical Protestant churches ( 14 % increase ) , while all other categories saw their numbers drop slightly , or remain static . Overall , the Catholic Church had an 8 % drop , while Mainline Protestant groups saw a 28 % decline .
= = Economy = =
The early economy of Phoenix was focused primarily on agriculture and natural resources , dependent on the " 5Cs " of copper , cattle , climate , cotton , and citrus . With the establishment of the Southern Pacific rail line in 1926 , the opening of the Union Station in 1923 , and the creation of Sky Harbor airport by the end of the decade , the city became more easily accessible . The Great Depression affected Phoenix , but Phoenix had a diverse economy and by 1934 the recovery was underway . At the conclusion of World War II , the valley 's economy surged , as many men who had undergone their military training at the various bases in and around Phoenix returned with their families . The construction industry , spurred on by the city 's growth , further expanded with the development of Sun City . It became the template for suburban development in post @-@ WWII America , and Sun City became the template for retirement communities when it opened in 1960 . The city averaged a 4 percent annual growth rate over a 40 @-@ year period from the mid @-@ 1960s to the mid @-@ 2000s .
As the national financial crisis of 2007 – 10 began , construction in Phoenix collapsed and housing prices plunged . Arizona jobs declined by 11 @.@ 8 % from peak to trough ; in 2007 Phoenix had 1 @,@ 918 @,@ 100 employed individuals , by 2010 that number had shrunk by 226 @,@ 500 to 1 @,@ 691 @,@ 600 . By the end of 2015 , the employment number in Phoenix had risen to 1 @.@ 97 million , finally regaining its pre @-@ recession levels , with job growth occurring across the board .
As of 2014 , the Phoenix MSA had a Gross Domestic Product ( GDP ) of just over $ 215 billion . The top five industries were : real estate ( $ 35.5B ) , Finance and insurance ( $ 18.8B ) , manufacturing ( $ 18.2B ) , Retail trade ( $ 16.6B ) , and health care ( $ 16.6B ) . Government , if it had been a private industry , would have been ranked third on the list , generating $ 18 @.@ 9 billion .
In Phoenix , real estate developers face few constraints when planning and developing new projects . Accordingly , the city is prone to overbuilding during times of economic prosperity . This explains the city 's higher @-@ than @-@ average vacancy rates .
As of 2010 , the top five employment categories were office and administrative support ( 17 @.@ 8 % ) , sales ( 11 @.@ 6 % ) , food preparation and serving ( 9 % ) , transportation and material moving ( 6 @.@ 1 % ) , and management ( 5 @.@ 8 % ) . The single largest occupation is retail salespersons , which account for 3 @.@ 7 % of the workforce . As of January 2016 , 10 @.@ 5 % of the workforce were government employees , a high number because the city is both the county seat and state capitol . The civilian labor force was 2 @,@ 200 @,@ 900 , and the unemployment rate stood at 4 @.@ 6 % .
Phoenix is currently home to four Fortune 500 companies : electronics corporation Avnet , mining company Freeport @-@ McMoRan , retailer PetSmart , and waste hauler Republic Services . Honeywell 's Aerospace division is headquartered in Phoenix , and the valley hosts many of their avionics and mechanical facilities . Intel has one of their largest sites in the area , employing about 12 @,@ 000 employees , the second largest Intel location in the country . The city is also home to : the headquarters of U @-@ HAUL International ; Best Western ; and Apollo Group , parent of the University of Phoenix . US Air / American Airlines is the largest carrier at Sky Harbor International Airport in Phoenix . Mesa Air Group , a regional airline group , is headquartered in Phoenix .
The military has a significant presence in Phoenix , with Luke Air Force Base located in the western suburbs . The city was severely impacted by the effects of the sub @-@ prime mortgage crash . However , Phoenix has recovered 83 % of the jobs lost due to the recession .
= = Culture = =
= = = Performing arts = = =
The city has numerous performing arts venues , most of which are located in and around downtown Phoenix or Scottsdale . The Phoenix Symphony Hall is home to the Phoenix Symphony Orchestra , the Arizona Opera and Ballet Arizona . The Arizona Opera company also has intimate performances at its new Arizona Opera Center , which opened in March 2013 . Another venue is the Orpheum Theatre , which is home to the Phoenix Opera . Ballet Arizona , in addition to the Symphony Hall , also has performances at the Orpheum Theatre as well at the Dorrance Theater . Concerts also regularly make stops in the area . The largest downtown performing art venue is the Herberger Theater Center , which houses three performance spaces and is home to two resident companies , the Arizona Theatre Company and the Centre Dance Ensemble . Three other groups also use the facility : Valley Youth Theatre , iTheatre Collaborative and Actors Theater .
Concerts can be attended at Talking Stick Resort Arena and Comerica Theatre in downtown Phoenix , Ak @-@ Chin Pavilion in Maryvale , Gila River Arena in Glendale , and Gammage Auditorium in Tempe ( the last public building designed by Frank Lloyd Wright )
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. Several smaller theaters including Trunk Space , the Mesa Arts Center , the Crescent Ballroom , Celebrity Theatre , and Modified Arts support regular independent musical and theater performances . Music can also be seen in some of the venues usually reserved for sports , such as the Wells Fargo Arena and the University of Phoenix Stadium .
Several television series have been set in Phoenix , including Alice ( 1976 – 85 ) , the 2000s paranormal drama Medium , the 1960 – 61 syndicated crime drama The Brothers Brannagan , and The New Dick Van Dyke Show from 1971 to 1974 .
= = = Museums = = =
Dozens of museums exist throughout the valley . They include the Phoenix Art Museum , Arizona Capitol Museum , Arizona Military Museum , Hall of Flame Firefighting Museum , the Pueblo Grande Museum and Cultural Park , Children 's Museum of Phoenix , Arizona Science Center , and the Heard Museum . In 2010 the Musical Instrument Museum opened their doors , featuring the biggest musical instrument collection in the world .
Designed by Alden B. Dow , a student of Frank Lloyd Wright , the Phoenix Art Museum was constructed in a single year , opening in November 1959 . The Phoenix Art Museum has the southwest 's largest collection of visual art , containing more than 17 @,@ 000 works of contemporary and modern art from around the world . Interactive exhibits can be found in nearby Peoria 's Challenger Space Center , where individuals learn about space , renewable energies , and meet astronauts .
The Heard Museum has over 130 @,@ 000 square feet ( 12 @,@ 000 m ² ) of gallery , classroom and performance space . Some of the signature exhibits include a full Navajo hogan , the Mareen Allen Nichols Collection containing 260 pieces of contemporary jewelry , the Barry Goldwater Collection of 437 historic Hopi kachina dolls , and an exhibit on the 19th @-@ century boarding school experiences of Native Americans . The Heard Museum attracts about 250 @,@ 000 visitors a year .
= = = Fine arts = = =
The downtown Phoenix art scene has developed in the past decade . The Artlink organization and the galleries downtown have successfully launched a First Friday cross @-@ Phoenix gallery opening . In April 2009 , artist Janet Echelman inaugurated her monumental sculpture , Her Secret Is Patience , a civic icon suspended above the new Phoenix Civic Space Park , a two @-@ city @-@ block park in the middle of downtown . This netted sculpture makes the invisible patterns of desert wind visible to the human eye . During the day , the 100 @-@ foot ( 30 m ) -tall sculpture hovers high above heads , treetops , and buildings , the sculpture creates what the artist calls " shadow drawings " , which she says are inspired by Phoenix 's cloud shadows . At night , the illumination changes color gradually through the seasons . Author Prof. Patrick Frank writes of the sculpture that " ... most Arizonans look on the work with pride : this unique visual delight will forever mark the city of Phoenix just as the Eiffel Tower marks Paris . "
= = = Architecture = = =
Phoenix is the home of a unique architectural tradition and community . Frank Lloyd Wright moved to Phoenix in 1937 and built his winter home , Taliesin West , and the main campus for The Frank Lloyd Wright School of Architecture . Over the years , Phoenix has attracted notable architects who have made it their home and have grown successful practices . These architectural studios embrace the desert climate , and are unconventional in their approach to the practice of design . They include the Paolo Soleri ( who created Arcosanti ) , Al Beadle , Will Bruder , Wendell Burnette , and Blank Studio architectural design studios . Another major force in architectural landscape of the city was Ralph Haver whose firm , Haver & Nunn , designed commercial , industrial and residential structures throughout the valley . Of particular note was his trademark , " Haver Home " , which were affordable contemporary @-@ style tract houses .
= = = Tourism = = =
The tourist industry is the longest running of today 's top industries in Phoenix . Starting with promotions back in the 1920s , the industry has grown into one of the top 10 in the city . Due to its climate , Phoenix and its neighbors have consistently ranked among the nation 's top destinations in the number of Five Diamond / Five Star resorts . With more than 62 @,@ 000 hotel rooms in over 500 hotels and 40 resorts , greater Phoenix sees over 16 million visitors each year , the majority of whom are leisure ( as opposed to business ) travelers . Sky Harbor Airport , which serves the Greater Phoenix area , serves about 40 million passengers a year , ranking it among the 10 busiest airports in the nation .
One of the biggest attractions of the Phoenix area is golf , with over 200 golf courses . In addition to the sites of interest in the city , there are many attractions near Phoenix , such as : Agua Fria National Monument , Arcosanti , Casa Grande Ruins National Monument , Lost Dutchman State Park , Montezuma 's Castle , Montezuma 's Well , and Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument . Phoenix also serves as a central point to many of the sights around the state of Arizona , such as the Grand Canyon , Lake Havasu ( where the London Bridge is located ) , Meteor Crater , the Painted Desert , the Petrified Forest , Tombstone , Kartchner Caverns , Sedona and Lowell Observatory in Flagstaff .
= = = Other attractions and annual events = = =
Due to its natural beauty and climate , Phoenix has a plethora of outdoor attractions and recreational activities . The Phoenix Zoo is the largest privately owned , non @-@ profit zoo in the United States . Since opening in 1962 , the zoo has developed an international reputation for its efforts on animal conservation , including breeding and reintroducing endangered species back into the wild . Right next to the zoo , the Phoenix Botanical Gardens were opened in 1939 , and are acclaimed worldwide for their exhibits and educational programs , featuring the largest collection of arid plants in the U.S. South Mountain Park , the largest municipal park in the U.S. , is also the highest desert mountain preserve in the world .
Other popular sites in the city are : Japanese Friendship Garden , Historic Heritage Square , Phoenix Mountains Park , Pueblo Grande Museum , Tovrea Castle , Camelback Mountain , Hole in the Rock , Mystery Castle , St. Mary 's Basilica , Taliesin West , and the Wrigley Mansion .
There is long list of annual events in and near Phoenix which celebrate the heritage of the city , as well as its diversity . Some of those are : the Scottsdale Arabian Horse Show , the largest horse show in the world ; Matsuri , a celebration of Japanese culture ; Pueblo Grande Indian Market , an event highlighting Native American arts and crafts ; Grand Menorah Lighting , an annual December event celebrating Hanukah ; ZooLights , an annual December evening event at the Phoenix Zoo , featuring millions of lights ; the Arizona State Fair , begun in 1884 , an annual fair ; Scottish Gathering & Highland Games , an annual event celebrating Scottish heritage ; Estrella War , an annual event celebrating medieval life ; Tohono O 'odham Nation Rodeo & Fair , Oldest Indian rodeo in Arizona ; and the Chinese Week & Culture & Cuisine Festival , an annual celebration of Chinese culture .
= = = Cuisine = = =
Like many other western towns , the earliest restaurants in Phoenix were often steakhouses . Today , Phoenix is also renowned for its Mexican food , thanks to both its large Hispanic population and its proximity to Mexico . Some of Phoenix 's restaurants have a long history . The Stockyards steakhouse dates to 1947 , while Monti 's La Casa Vieja ( Spanish for " The Old House " ) was in operation as a restaurant since the 1890s , but closed its doors November 17 , 2014 . Macayo 's ( a Mexican restaurant chain ) was established in Phoenix in 1946 , and other major Mexican restaurants include Garcia 's ( 1956 ) and Manuel 's ( 1964 ) . The recent population boom has brought people from all over the nation , and to a lesser extent from other countries , and has since influenced the local cuisine . Phoenix currently boasts cuisines from all over the world , such as Korean , barbecue , Cajun / Creole , Greek , Hawaiian , Irish , Japanese , sushi , Italian , fusion , Persian , Indian , Spanish , Thai , Chinese , southwestern , Tex @-@ Mex , Vietnamese , Brazilian , and French .
The first McDonald 's franchise was sold by the McDonald brothers to a Phoenix entrepreneur in 1952 . Neil Fox paid $ 1 @,@ 000 for the rights to open an establishment based on the McDonald brothers ' restaurant . The hamburger stand opened in 1953 on the southwest corner of Central Avenue and Indian School Road on the growing north side of Phoenix , and was the first location to sport the now internationally known " golden arches " , which were initially twice the height of the building . Three other franchise locations opened that year , a full two years before Kroc purchased McDonald 's and opened his first franchise in Illinois .
= = Sports = =
= = = Major league = = =
Phoenix is home to several professional sports franchises , and is one of only 13 U.S. cities to have representatives of all four major professional sports leagues , although only one of these teams actually carry the city name and two of them play within the city limits .
The Phoenix Suns were the first major sports team in Phoenix , being granted a National Basketball Association ( NBA ) franchise in 1968 . They had originally played at the Arizona Veterans Memorial Coliseum before moving to America West Arena ( now Talking Stick Resort Arena ) in 1992 . The year following their move to the new arena , the Suns made it to the NBA finals for the second time in franchise history , losing to Michael Jordan 's Chicago Bulls , 4 games to 2 . The U.S. Airways Center hosted both the 1995 and the 2009 NBA All @-@ Star Games .
In 1997 , the Phoenix Mercury were one of the original eight teams to launch the Women 's National Basketball Association ( WNBA ) . They also play at Talking Stick Resorts Arena . They have won the WNBA championship three times : first in 2007 when they defeated the Detroit Shock , again in 2009 when they defeated the Indiana Fever , and in 2014 when they swept the Chicago Sky .
The Arizona Diamondbacks of Major League Baseball began play as an expansion team in 1998 . The team has played all of its home games in the same downtown park , now known as Chase Field . It is the second highest stadium in the U.S. ( after Coors Field in Denver ) , and is known for its swimming pool beyond the outfield fence . In 2001 , the Diamondbacks defeated the New York Yankees 4 games to 3 in the World Series , becoming the city 's first professional sports franchise to win a national championship while located in Arizona . The win was also the fastest an expansion team had ever won the World Series , surpassing the old mark of the Florida Marlins of 5 years , set in 1997 .
The Arizona Cardinals are the oldest continuously run professional football franchise in the nation . Founded in 1898 in Chicago , they moved to Phoenix from St. Louis in 1988 and currently play in the Western Division of the National Football League 's National Football Conference . Upon their move to Phoenix , the Cardinals originally played their home games at Sun Devil Stadium on the campus of Arizona State University in nearby Tempe . In 2006 they moved to the newly constructed University of Phoenix Stadium in suburban Glendale . Since moving to Phoenix , the Cardinals have made one championship appearance , Super Bowl XLIII in 2009 , where they lost 27 – 23 to the Pittsburgh Steelers .
Sun Devil Stadium held Super Bowl XXX in 1996 . The University of Phoenix Stadium hosted Super Bowl XLII in 2008 , and Super Bowl XLIX in 2015 .
The Arizona Coyotes of the National Hockey League moved to the area in 1996 , formerly known as the Winnipeg Jets . They originally played their home games at America West Arena in downtown Phoenix before moving in December 2003 to the Jobing.com Arena ( now named the Gila River Arena ) in Glendale .
* Note : The Cardinals won 2 of their championships while in Chicago , pre @-@ modern era .
= = = Other sports = = =
The Phoenix area hosts two annual college football bowl games : the Fiesta Bowl , played at the University of Phoenix Stadium , and the Motel 6 Cactus Bowl , which is held at Chase Field .
Phoenix has an arena football team , the Arizona Rattlers of the Arena Football League . Their games are also played at Talking Stick Resort Arena . They won their first of five AFL championships in 1994 ; in 2014 they won their third championship in a row .
The Greater Phoenix area is home to the Cactus League , one of two spring training leagues for Major League Baseball . With the move by the Colorado Rockies and the Arizona Diamondbacks to their new facility in Scottsdale , the league is entirely based in the Greater Phoenix area . With the Cincinnati Reds ' move to Goodyear , fifteen of MLB 's thirty teams are now included in the Cactus League .
The Phoenix International Raceway was built in 1964 with a one @-@ mile oval , with a one @-@ of @-@ a @-@ kind design , as well as a 2 @.@ 5 @-@ mile road course . It currently hosts several NASCAR events per season , and the annual Fall NASCAR weekend , which includes events from four different NASCAR classes , is a huge event . After thirty years of hosting various events , especially NHRA drag racing events , Firebird International Raceway ( FIR ) closed operations in 2013 , but the NHRA re @-@ opened the venue to NHRA events in 2014 under the new name , " Wild Horse Pass Motorsports Park " .
The city is also host to several major professional golf events , including the LPGA 's Founder 's Cup and , since 1932 , The Phoenix Open of the PGA . The Phoenix Marathon is a new addition to the city 's sports scene , and is a qualifier for the Boston Marathon . The Rock ' n ' Roll Marathon series has held an event in Phoenix every January since 2004 .
= = Parks and recreation = =
Phoenix is home to a large number of parks and recreation areas . The city of Phoenix includes national parks , county ( Maricopa County ) parks and city parks . Tonto National Forest forms part of the northeast boundary of the city , while the county has the largest park system in the country . The city park system was established to preserve the desert landscape in areas that would otherwise have succumbed to development and includes South Mountain Park , the world 's largest municipal park with 16 @,@ 500 acres ( 67 km2 ) . The city park system has 182 parks which contain over 41 @,@ 900 acres ( 16 @,@ 956 ha ) , making it the largest municipal park system in the country . The park system has facilities for hiking , camping , swimming , horseback riding , cycling , and climbing . Some of the other notable parks in the system are Camelback Mountain , Encanto Park ( another large urban park ) and Sunnyslope Mountain , also known as " S " Mountain . Papago Park in east Phoenix is home to both the Desert Botanical Garden and the Phoenix Zoo , in addition to several golf courses and the Hole @-@ in @-@ the @-@ Rock geological formation . The Desert Botanical Garden , which opened in 1939 , is one of the few public gardens in the country dedicated to desert plants , and displays desert plant life from all over the world . The Phoenix Zoo is the largest privately owned non @-@ profit zoo in the United States and is internationally known for its programs devoted to saving endangered species .
= = Government = =
In 1913 , Phoenix adopted a new form of government , switching from the mayor @-@ council system to the council @-@ manager system , making it one of the first cities in the United States with this form of city government , where a city manager supervises all city departments and executes the policies adopted by the Council . Today , Phoenix represents the largest municipal government of this type in the country .
The city council consists of a mayor and eight city council members . While the mayor is elected in a citywide election , Phoenix City Council members are elected by votes only in the districts they represent , with both the Mayor and the Council members serving four @-@ year terms . The current mayor of Phoenix is Greg Stanton , a Democrat who was elected in 2011 , and re @-@ elected in 2015 . The mayor and city council members each have equal voting power in regards to setting city policy and passing rules and regulations . The city 's website was given a " Sunny Award " by Sunshine Review for its transparency efforts .
= = = State government facilities = = =
As the capital of Arizona , Phoenix houses the state legislature , along with numerous state government agencies , many of which are located in the State Capitol district immediately west of downtown . The Arizona Department of Juvenile Corrections operates the Adobe Mountain and Black Canyon Schools in Phoenix . Another major state government facility is the Arizona State Hospital , operated by the Arizona Department of Health Services . This is a mental health center which is the only medical facility run by the state government . The headquarters of numerous Arizona state government agencies are in Phoenix , with many located in the State Capitol district .
= = = Federal government facilities = = =
The Federal Bureau of Prisons operates the Federal Correctional Institution ( FCI ) Phoenix which is within the city limits , near its northern boundary .
The Sandra Day O 'Connor U.S. Courthouse , the U.S. District Court of Arizona , is located on Washington Street downtown . It is named in honor of retired U.S. Supreme Court Justice Sandra Day O 'Connor , who was raised in Arizona .
The Federal Building is at the intersection of Van Buren Road and First Avenue downtown , and contains various federal field offices and the local division of the U.S. Bankruptcy Court . This building formerly housed the U.S. District Court offices and courtrooms , but these were moved in 2001 to the new Sandra Day O 'Connor U.S. Courthouse . Before the construction of this building in 1961 , federal government offices were housed in the historic U.S. Post Office on Central Avenue , completed in the 1930s .
= = = Crime = = =
By the 1960s crime was becoming a significant problem in Phoenix , and by the 1970s crime continued to increase in the city at a faster rate than almost anywhere else in the country . It was during this time frame when an incident occurred in Phoenix which would have national implications . On March 16 , 1963 , Ernesto Miranda was arrested and charged with rape . The subsequent Supreme Court ruling on June 13 , 1966 , Miranda v. Arizona , has led to practice in the United States of issuing a Miranda Warning to all suspected criminals .
With Phoenix 's rapid growth , one of the prime areas of criminal activity was land fraud . The practice became so widespread that newspapers would refer to Phoenix as the Tainted Desert . These land frauds led to one of the more infamous murders in the history of the valley , when Arizona Republic writer Don Bolles was murdered by a car bomb in 1976 . It was believed that his investigative reporting on organized crime and land fraud in Phoenix made him a target . Bolles was the only reporter from a major U.S. newspaper to be murdered on U.S. soil due to his coverage of a story . Max Dunlap was convicted of first @-@ degree murder in the case .
Street gangs and the drug trade had turned into public safety issues by the 1980s , and the crime rate in Phoenix continued to grow . After seeing a peak in the early and mid @-@ 1990s , the city has seen a general decrease in crime rates . The Maricopa County Jail system is the fourth @-@ largest in the world . The violent crime rate peaked in 1993 at 1146 crimes per 100 @,@ 000 people , while the property crime rate peaked a few years earlier , in 1989 , at 9 @,@ 966 crimes per 100 @,@ 000 .
In the most recent numbers from the FBI ( 2012 ) , those rates currently stand at 637 and 4091 , respectively . Since their peak in 2003 , murders have dropped from 241 to 114 in 2014 .
In 2001 and 2002 Phoenix ranked first in the nation in vehicle thefts , with over 22 @,@ 000 and 25 @,@ 000 cars stolen each year respectively . It has declined every year since then , stood at 7200 in 2014 , a drop of almost 70 % during that timeframe . The Phoenix MSA has dropped to 70th in the nation in terms of car thefts in 2012 .
As the first decade of the new century came to a close , Arizona had become the gateway to the U.S. for drug trafficking . Another crime issue related to the drug trade are kidnappings . In the late 2000s , Phoenix earned the title " Kidnapping capital of the USA " . The majority of the kidnapped are believed to be victims of human smuggling , or related to illegal drug trade , while the kidnappers are believed to be part of Mexican drug cartels .
= = Education = =
Public education in the Phoenix area is provided by 33 school districts . There are 21 elementary school districts , which contain over 215 elementary schools , and they are paired with 4 high school districts , which have a total of 31 high schools serving Phoenix . Three of the high school districts ( Glendale Union , Tempe Union and Tolleson Union ) only partially serve Phoenix . With over 27 @,@ 000 students , and spread over 220 square miles , The Phoenix Union High School District is one of the largest high school districts in the country , containing 16 schools and nearly 3 @,@ 000 employees . In addition , there are 4 unified districts , which cover grades K @-@ 12 , which add an additional 58 elementary schools and 4 high schools to Phoenix 's educational system . Of those four , only the Paradise Valley district completely serves Phoenix . Phoenix is also served by an expanding number of charter schools , with well over 100 currently operating in the city .
= = = Post @-@ secondary education = = =
Arizona State University is the main institution of higher education in the region . Its main campus is in Tempe . ASU also has campuses in northwest Phoenix ( ASU West Campus ) , downtown Phoenix ( ASU Downtown Campus ) , Mesa ( ASU Polytechnic Campus ) , and Glendale ( Thunderbird School of Global Management ) . ASU is one of the largest public universities in the U.S. , with a 2012 student enrollment of 72 @,@ 254 .
A branch of the University of Arizona College of Medicine is located near ASU 's downtown Phoenix campus . There is also a small satellite campus for Northern Arizona University ( based in Flagstaff ) located in Phoenix .
The Maricopa County Community College District includes ten community colleges and two skills centers throughout Maricopa County , providing adult education and job training . Phoenix College , part of the district , was founded in 1920 and is the oldest community college in Arizona and one of the oldest in the country .
The city is also home to numerous other institutions of higher learning . Notable institutions include : Barrow Neurological Institute , the world 's largest neurological disease treatment and research institution ; Grand Canyon University , a private Christian university initially founded in 1949 as a non @-@ profit school , it now operates as a for @-@ profit institution ; the University of Phoenix is the nation 's largest for @-@ profit university with over 300 @,@ 000 students at campuses throughout North America , as well as online ; and the Arizona Summit Law School , a private , for @-@ profit law school located in downtown Phoenix .
= = Media = =
The first newspaper in Phoenix was the weekly Salt River Valley Herald , established in 1878 , which would change its name the following year to the Phoenix Herald . The paper would go through several additional name changes in its early years before finally settling on the Phoenix Herald , which still exists today in an on @-@ line form . Today , the city is served by two major daily newspapers : The Arizona Republic , which along with its online entity , azcentral.com , serves the greater metropolitan area ; and the East Valley Tribune , which primarily serves the cities of the East Valley . The Jewish News of Greater Phoenix is an independent weekly newspaper established in 1948 . In addition , the city is also served by numerous free neighborhood papers and weeklies such as the Phoenix New Times , and Arizona State University 's The State Press .
The Phoenix metro area is served by many local television stations and is the largest designated market area ( DMA ) in the Southwest , and the 12th largest in the U.S. , with over 1 @.@ 8 million homes ( 1 @.@ 6 % of the total U.S. ) . The major network television affiliates are KNXV 15 ( ABC ) , KPHO 5 ( CBS ) , KPNX 12 ( NBC ) , KSAZ 10 ( Fox ) , KASW 61 ( The CW ) , KUTP 45 ( MyNetworkTV ) , and KAET 8 ( PBS , operated by Arizona State University ) . Other network television affiliates operating in the area include KPAZ 21 ( TBN ) , KTVW @-@ DT 33 ( Univision ) , KFPH @-@ DT ( UniMás ) , KTAZ 39 ( Telemundo ) , KDPH 48 ( Daystar ) , and KPPX @-@ TV 51 ( ION ) . KTVK 3 ( 3TV ) and KAZT 7 ( AZ @-@ TV ) are independent television stations operating in the metro area . KSAZ @-@ TV , KUTP , KPAZ @-@ TV , KTVW @-@ DT , KFPH @-@ DT , KTAZ , KDPH @-@ LP , and KPPX @-@ TV are network owned @-@ and @-@ operated stations .
Many major feature films and television programs have been filmed in the city . From the opening sequences in Psycho , to the night attack by the aliens in 1953 's The War of the Worlds , to freeway scenes in Little Miss Sunshine , Phoenix has been the location for numerous major feature films . Other notable pictures filmed at least partially in Phoenix include Raising Arizona , A Home at the End of the World , Bill & Ted 's Excellent Adventure , Days of Thunder , The Gauntlet , The Grifters , Waiting to Exhale and Bus Stop .
The radio airwaves in Phoenix cater to a wide variety of musical and talk radio interests . Stations include classic rock formats of KOOL @-@ FM and KSLX @-@ FM , to pop stations like KYOT @-@ FM and alternative stations like KDKB @-@ FM , to the talk radio of KFYI @-@ AM , the Christian programming of KZZP @-@ FM and KALV @-@ FM , and the country sounds of KMLE @-@ FM . With its large Hispanic population there are numerous Spanish stations , such as KNAI @-@ FM , KHOT @-@ FM , and KOMR @-@ FM .
= = Infrastructure = =
= = = Transportation = = =
= = = = Air = = = =
Phoenix is served by Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport ( IATA : PHX , ICAO : KPHX ) , one of the ten busiest airports in the United States , serving over 110 @,@ 000 people on over 1000 flights per day . The airport is centrally located in the metro area near several major freeway interchanges east of downtown Phoenix . The airport serves more than 100 cities with non @-@ stop flights .
Aeroméxico , Air Canada , British Airways , and WestJet are among several international carriers as well as American carrier American Airlines ( which maintains a hub at the airport ) providing flights to destinations such as Canada , Costa Rica , Mexico , and London .
The Phoenix @-@ Mesa Gateway Airport ( IATA : AZA , ICAO : KIWA ) in neighboring Mesa also serves the area 's commercial air traffic . It was converted from Williams Air Force Base , which closed in 1993 . The airport has recently received substantial commercial service with Allegiant Air opening a hub operation at the airport with non @-@ stop service to over a dozen destinations .
Smaller airports that primarily handle private and corporate jets include Phoenix Deer Valley Airport , located in the Deer Valley district of north Phoenix , and Scottsdale Airport , located just east of the Phoenix / Scottsdale border . There are also other municipal airports including Glendale Municipal Airport , Falcon Field Airport in Mesa , and Phoenix Goodyear Airport .
= = = = Rail and bus = = = =
Amtrak served Phoenix Union Station until 1996 when the Union Pacific Railroad ( UP ) threatened to abandon the route between Yuma , Arizona and Phoenix . Amtrak rerouted trains to Maricopa , 30 miles south of downtown Phoenix , where passengers can board the Texas Eagle ( Los Angeles @-@ San Antonio @-@ Chicago ) and Sunset Limited ( Los Angeles @-@ New Orleans ) . Though UP ultimately retained the trackage , Amtrak did not return , although the station remains .
Amtrak Thruway buses connect Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport to Flagstaff , Arizona for connection with the Los Angeles @-@ Chicago Southwest Chief . Phoenix is also served by Greyhound bus service , which stops at 24th Street near the airport .
Valley Metro provides public transportation throughout the metropolitan area , with its trains , buses , and a ride @-@ share program . 3 @.@ 38 % of workers commute by public transit . Valley Metro 's 20 @-@ mile ( 32 km ) light rail project , called Valley Metro Rail , through north @-@ central Phoenix , downtown , and eastward through Tempe and Mesa , opened December 27 , 2008 . Future rail segments of more than 30 miles ( 48 km ) are planned to open by 2030 .
= = = = Roads and freeways = = = =
Phoenix auto traffic depends on both surface streets and freeways . Freeways fall under the auspices of the Arizona Department of Transportation ( ADOT ) . Phoenix ranks first in the nation in the quality of its urban freeways , and the state as a whole ranks first in the nation in the quality of bridges . While being the sixth most populous city in the nation , Phoenix 's freeways do not suffer from the same type of congestion seen in other large cities . In fact , in a recent study , there is not a single stretch of freeway in Phoenix ranked in the 100 worst freeways for either congestion or unreliability .
Part of the reason for this is the extensive freeway system in the city , due to the majority of that system being funded by local , rather than federal funds , through a ½ cent general sales tax measure approved by voters in 1985 . Another offshoot of this local funding is that Phoenix is the largest city in the United States to have two Interstate Highways and no 3 @-@ digit interstates .
As of 2005 , the metropolitan area of Phoenix contains one of the nation 's largest and fastest growing freeway systems , consisting of over 1 @,@ 405 lane miles . The freeway system is a mix of Interstate , U.S. , and State highways which include Interstate 10 , Interstate 17 , US 60 , SR 51 , Loop 101 , Loop 202 , SR 51 , SR 143 , and SR 30 . There are still major additions to routes 101 , 202 and 303 underway , as well as several other smaller projects around the valley . State Routes 30 , 87 , 85 , and 74 connect Phoenix with other areas of the Valley and Arizona .
The street system in Phoenix ( and some of its suburbs ) is laid out in a grid system , with most roads oriented either north @-@ south or east @-@ west , and the zero point of the grid being the intersection of Central Avenue and Washington Street . The original plan was for the east @-@ west streets to be named after presidents , with the north @-@ south streets named after Indians , however the north @-@ south streets were quickly changed to numbers , with avenues running to the west of Central , and streets to its east . Major arterial streets are spaced one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) apart , divided into smaller blocks approximately every ⅛ of a mile . For example , Scottsdale Road , being the 7200 block , lies 9 miles to the east of Central Avenue ( 72 / 8 ) .
Freeways and state highways in Phoenix :
= = = = Alternate forms of transportation = = = =
The Maricopa Association of Governments has a bicycle advisory committee working to improve conditions for bicycling on city streets and off @-@ road paths . Bicycling Magazine ranked Phoenix the 15th most bicycle friendly city of fifty cities in the United States with a population greater than 100 @,@ 000 .
= = = Utilities = = =
Being located in the desert , Phoenix relies on a water supply delivered to the city via a system of canals which divert water from the region 's rivers and lakes , with the largest portion of the city 's water coming from the Colorado River through the Central Arizona Project 's canal . The city 's electrical needs are served primarily by Arizona Public Service , although some customers receive their electricity from the Salt River Project ( SRP ) . The main sources of electrical generation are nuclear , and coal power plants . Arizona is home to the Palo Verde Nuclear Power Station , the largest nuclear @-@ generating facility in the United States . SRP is also the largest water provider in Phoenix .
= = = Health care = = =
In 2011 ( the last year for which information is available ) , Phoenix had a slightly younger population than the country as a whole . While the United States had 13 @.@ 3 % of its population over the age of 65 , Phoenix 's percentage stood significantly lower , at 8 @.@ 1 % . Phoenix 's percentage of 18 @.@ 8 % in the next age group , 45 – 64 was also a great deal lower than the national average of 26 @.@ 6 % . This results in 73 % of Phoenix 's population being 44 or younger , as compared to the national percentage of 60 .
In 2010 ( the last year for nationally reported figures ) , Phoenix was at or below national levels for most reportable diseases , with the exception of both hepatitis A and B , where they were slightly over the national average ( 0 @.@ 8 and 1 @.@ 8 to 0 @.@ 5 and 1 @.@ 1 % , respectively ) .
In most major categories , Phoenix had a lower incidence of death than the rest of the nation . Only deaths due to Alzheimer 's ( 29 @.@ 7 to 27 @.@ 2 deaths per 100 @,@ 000 ) and pre @-@ natal conditions ( 5 @.@ 3 to 3 @.@ 8 deaths per 100 @,@ 000 ) were slightly above the national average . Deaths due to HIV and liver disease were exactly at the national average of 2 @.@ 5 and 10 @.@ 8 respectively . However , in several major categories , Phoenix had significantly lower indices of death : deaths by cancer stood at only 57 % ( 106 ) of the national average of 184 @.@ 6 deaths per 100 @,@ 000 ; deaths due to heart disease , 56 @.@ 1 % of the national rate of 249 @.@ 8 per 100 @,@ 000 . Cancer and heart disease were the two top causes of death in the country .
Low @-@ weight births ( 7 @.@ 5 % ) were below the national average of 8 @.@ 1 % , yet infant mortality ( 7 @.@ 2 % ) was higher than the rest of the U.S. ( 6 @.@ 1 % ) . Births to teen mothers were significantly higher than the rest of the country , sitting at 12 @.@ 2 % as compared to 8 @.@ 4 % nationally .
The Phoenix metropolitan area is serviced by 56 hospitals and medical centers . The Mayo Clinic , a not @-@ for @-@ profit medical practice and medical research group based in Rochester , Minnesota . Phoenix is one of two other locations with Mayo Clinics ( the other being Jacksonville , Florida ) . It is the first and largest integrated not @-@ for @-@ profit medical group practice in the world ; Mayo Clinic has been near or at the top of the U.S. News & World Report List of " Best Hospitals " for more than 20 years . St. Joseph 's Hospital and Medical Center is part of Dignity Health ( formerly Catholic Healthcare West ) , one of the largest healthcare systems in the western United States . St. Joseph 's is a not @-@ for @-@ profit hospital with special advocacy for the poor and underserved . John C. Lincoln North Mountain Hospital is a general medical and surgical hospital , which performed nearly at the level of nationally ranked U.S. News Best Hospitals in 4 adult specialties . Phoenix Children 's Hospital in Phoenix , AZ is nationally ranked in 5 pediatric specialties according to U.S. News & World Report . It is a 425 @-@ bed children 's teaching hospital . Arizona Heart Institute , opened in 1971 , is known internationally as one of the first freestanding outpatient clinics dedicated exclusively to cardiovascular health . Banner Health is a non @-@ profit health system in the United States , based in Phoenix . It operates 23 hospitals as well as specialized facilities . The health system is the 2nd largest employer in Arizona , behind Walmart , employing more than 35 @,@ 000 . Banner Health was created in 1999 through a merger of Lutheran Health Systems , based in North Dakota , and Samaritan Health System , based in Phoenix . Of the top 10 rated hospitals in the city ( top 12 in the state ) , 4 are Banner hospitals . Barrow Neurological Institute ( BNI ) at St. Joseph 's Hospital and Medical Center is the world 's largest dedicated neurosurgical center and a leader in neurosurgical training , research , and patient care . More operative neurosurgical procedures take place at BNI than at any other institution in the United States .
= = Notable people = =
= = Sister cities = =
With the creation of the Phoenix Sister Cities ( PSC ) organization in 1972 , Phoenix became a member of the international Sister City movement . It would take the organization several years to become official , not filing for Articles of Incorporation until 1975 , and not entering into their first Sister City agreement until 1976 , with Hermosillo , Mexico . The organization 's mission statement states their purpose is to " ... create people @-@ to @-@ people relationships between the residents of Phoenix and its sister cities through commercial , educational , cultural and artistic exchange programs and events that create and sustain global , long @-@ term , international partnerships and business opportunities for the citizens of Phoenix . " Currently , Phoenix has ten sister cities , as designated by the Phoenix Sister Cities Commission and Sister Cities International , shown in the table below . Phoenix and Prague have shared a Capital Cities relationship since May 1991 , which was expanded to Sister City Status in 2013 .
= Fast Five =
Fast Five ( alternatively known as Fast & Furious 5 or Fast & Furious 5 : Rio Heist ) is a 2011 American action film directed by Justin Lin and written by Chris Morgan . It is the fifth installment in The Fast and the Furious franchise . It was released first in Australia on April 20 , 2011 , and then in the United States on April 29 , 2011 . Fast Five follows Dominic Toretto ( Vin Diesel ) , Brian O 'Conner ( Paul Walker ) , and Mia Toretto ( Jordana Brewster ) as they plan a heist to steal $ 100 million from corrupt businessman Hernan Reyes ( Joaquim de Almeida ) while being pursued for arrest by U.S. Diplomatic Security Service ( DSS ) agent Luke Hobbs ( Dwayne Johnson ) .
When developing Fast Five , Universal Studios deliberately departed from the street racing theme prevalent in previous films in the series , to transform the franchise into a heist action series involving cars . By doing so , they hoped to attract wider audiences that might otherwise be put off by a heavy emphasis on cars and car culture . Fast Five is considered the transitional film in the series , featuring only one car race and giving more attention to action set pieces such as gun fights , brawls , and the heist of $ 100 million . The production mounted a comprehensive marketing campaign , marketing the film through social media , virtual games , cinema chains , automobile manufacturers , and at NASCAR races .
Fast Five achieved financial success , breaking box office records for the highest @-@ grossing April opening weekend and the second @-@ highest spring opening weekend , and surpassing Fast & Furious ( 2009 ) to become the highest @-@ grossing film in the franchise . Fast Five has grossed over $ 625 million worldwide , making it number 66 on the all @-@ time worldwide list of highest @-@ grossing films , in unadjusted dollars , and the seventh @-@ highest @-@ grossing film of 2011 .
Fast Five received mostly positive reviews , with critics praising the combination of comedy and " action sequences that toy idly with the laws of physics " ; some labeled it the best film in the series . Johnson was singled out for praise in numerous reviews for his performance , with critics calling him " the best thing , by far , in Fast Five " and remarking that scenes shared by Johnson and Diesel were often the " best moments " . Despite the positive response , many were critical of the film 's running time , considering it too long , and others criticized the treatment of women , stating " [ Females ] cameo strikingly in buttock form . Others actually have first names . " South American reviewers were critical of the film 's portrayal of Rio de Janeiro as a haven for drug trafficking and corruption , labeling it a " stereotype " . A sequel , Fast & Furious 6 , was released in May 2013 to box office success , surpassing Fast Five as the highest @-@ grossing film in the franchise . Another sequel , Furious 7 , released in April 2015 , soon surpassed Fast & Furious 6 , grossing over $ 1 @.@ 5 billion worldwide .
= = Plot = =
When Dominic " Dom " Toretto is being transported to Lompoc Prison by bus , his sister Mia Toretto and friend Brian O 'Conner lead an assault on the bus , causing it to crash and freeing Dom . While the authorities search for them , the trio escapes to Rio de Janeiro . Awaiting Dom 's arrival , Mia and Brian join their friend Vince and other participants on a job to steal three cars from a train . Brian and Mia discover that agents from the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration ( DEA ) are also on the train and that the cars are seized property . When Dom arrives with the rest of the participants , he realizes that one of them , Zizi , is only interested in stealing one car , a Ford GT40 . Dom has Mia steal the car herself before he and Brian fight Zizi and his henchmen , during which Zizi kills the DEA agents assigned to the vehicles . Dom and Brian are captured and brought to crime lord Hernan Reyes , the owner of the cars and Zizi 's boss . Reyes orders the pair be interrogated to discover the location of the car , but they manage to escape and retreat to their safehouse .
While Brian , Dom , and Mia examine the car to discover its importance , Vince arrives and is caught trying to remove a computer chip from it . He admits he was planning to sell the chip to Reyes on his own , and Dom forces him to leave . Brian investigates the chip and discovers it contains details of Reyes ' criminal empire , including the locations of US $ 100 million in cash .
Diplomatic Security Service agent Luke Hobbs and his team arrive in Rio to arrest Dom and Brian . With the help of local officer Elena Neves , they travel to Dom 's safehouse , but find it under assault by Reyes ' men . Brian , Dom and Mia escape ; Dom suggests they split up and leave Rio , but Mia announces she is pregnant with Brian 's child . Dom agrees to stick together and suggests they steal the money from Reyes to start a new life . They organize a team to perform the heist : Han , Roman , Tej , Gisele , Leo , and Santos . Vince later joins the team after saving Mia from being captured by Reyes ' men .
Hobbs and his team eventually find and arrest Dom , Mia , Brian , and Vince . While transporting them to the airport for extradition to the United States , the convoy is attacked by Reyes ' men , who kill Hobbs ' team . Hobbs and Elena are saved by Dom , Brian , Mia , and Vince as they fight back and escape , but Vince is shot in the process and dies . Wanting to avenge his murdered team , Hobbs and Elena agree to help with the heist . The gang breaks into the police station and tear the vault holding Reyes ' money from the building using their cars , dragging it through the city . After an extensive police chase , Dom makes Brian continue without him while he attacks the police and the pursuing Reyes , using the vault attached to his car to smash their vehicles . Brian returns and kills Zizi while Reyes is badly injured by Dom 's assault . Hobbs arrives on the scene and kills Reyes . Though Hobbs refuses to let Dom and Brian go free , he gives them a 24 @-@ hour head start to escape on the condition they leave the vault as it is . However , the vault is empty as it had been switched during the chase . After splitting the cash ( Vince 's share is given to his family ) , they go their separate ways .
On a tropical beach , Brian and a visibly pregnant Mia relax . They are met by Dom and Elena . Brian challenges Dom to a final , no @-@ stakes race to prove who is the better driver .
In a mid @-@ credits scene , Hobbs is given a file by Monica Fuentes
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concerning the hijack of a military convoy in Berlin , where he discovers a recent photo of Dom 's former girlfriend Letty , who had been presumed dead .
= = Cast = =
Vin Diesel as Dominic Toretto
A professional criminal , street racer , and fugitive . Diesel was reportedly paid $ 15 million to star in and produce the film .
Paul Walker as Brian O 'Conner
A former FBI agent turned criminal . He is in a relationship with Mia Toretto . Walker did many of his own stunts for the film , training with parkour professional Paul Darnell to improve his movement .
Jordana Brewster as Mia Toretto
Dominic 's sister and the girlfriend of Brian O 'Conner .
Tyrese Gibson as Roman Pearce
Brian 's childhood friend . Gibson 's involvement was confirmed on June 30 , 2010 . Gibson was committed to Transformers : Dark of the Moon at the time he signed on to Fast Five , so he flew between Puerto Rico and Atlanta to accommodate both films .
Chris Bridges as Tej Parker
Brian 's and Roman 's friend from Miami . Ludacris confirmed his involvement in the film on July 12 , 2010 , when he stated he had arrived in Puerto Rico to begin filming .
Matt Schulze as Vince
Dominic 's childhood friend . Schulze had appeared in the first film , and it was confirmed on July 16 , 2010 , that he would be returning .
Sung Kang as Han Seoul @-@ Oh
A street racer who was Dominic 's business partner in the Dominican Republic .
Dwayne Johnson as Luke Hobbs
A Diplomatic Security Service agent . According to producer Vin Diesel , the role of Hobbs was originally developed with Tommy Lee Jones in mind . However , when reading feedback on his Facebook page , Diesel noted a fan stating a desire to see Diesel and Johnson in a film together . Diesel and Lin then redesigned the role for Johnson . Johnson wanted to work with Universal Studios , citing their support for him during his transition from wrestling to acting . He described the role as a former bounty hunter turned US Marshal and as " the government 's version of the best bounty hunter on the planet " . He undertook an extensive daily workout regime to enlarge his physique , wanting his character to appear as a " hunter " and to be formidable enough to present a credible threat to the protagonists .
Gal Gadot as Gisele
A former Mossad agent . Although Gadot had prior experience handling motorbikes , she was required to learn how to ride the larger , more powerful Ducati Streetfighter for the film .
Joaquim de Almeida as Hernan Reyes
A ruthless drug lord posing as a legitimate business man . It was confirmed on July 16 , 2010 , that Almeida would play Reyes . Having previously played several antagonists , he hesitated to take this role , but accepted it after speaking with Lin and hearing his take on the character .
Elsa Pataky as Elena Neves
A Rio police officer who works with Hobbs ' team and becomes Dominic 's love interest . It was confirmed on July 16 , 2010 , that Pataky would take this role . She underwent several days of tactical training with a police / military technical advisor and was required to learn how to handle her gun in a variety of situations to portray Elena believably .
The central cast is rounded out by Puerto Rican singers Tego Calderón and Don Omar as Leo and Santos respectively , members of the heist team . Michael Irby plays Reyes ' right @-@ hand man Zizi . Alimi Ballard , Fernando Chien , Yorgo Constantine , and Geoff Meedy portray Hobbs ' team members Fusco , Wilkes , Chato , and Macroy . Michelle Rodriguez appears in photographs as Letty Ortiz , Dominic 's girlfriend who is presumed dead following the events of Fast & Furious . Eva Mendes appears in an uncredited cameo as agent Monica Fuentes , reprising her role from 2 Fast 2 Furious .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
By February 3 , 2010 , it was confirmed that a fifth film , referred to as Fast Five , was going into production in the Fast and Furious series , and that a sixth film was being planned . It was also confirmed that Diesel , Walker , writer Chris Morgan and producer Neal H. Moritz would all return to their roles for the new installment . Moritz said that , following the success of Fast & Furious ( 2009 ) , which had reunited Diesel , Brewster , Walker and Rodriguez from the original film , the production wanted to bring them back again for the next one . Diesel felt that the story between the characters portrayed by himself and Walker should continue , envisioning it as three chapters , of which Fast Five would be the last . Diesel also wanted to bring back a variety of characters that had been in previous films without interacting , put them together and " have a lot of fun " .
The production had originally intended to film on location in Rio de Janeiro . However , the Puerto Rican government offered tax incentives totaling nearly $ 11 million , influencing the decision to film there , using Puerto Rico to represent Rio de Janeiro .
Universal intended to transform the series from street @-@ racing action into a series of heist films with car chases in the vein of The Italian Job ( 1969 ) and The French Connection ( 1971 ) , with Fast Five as the transitional movie . In April 2011 , Universal chairman Adam Fogelson said :
The question putting Fast Five and Fast Six together for us was : Can we take it out of being a pure car culture movie and into being a true action franchise in the spirit of those great heist films made 10 or 15 years ago ?
Fogelson said that the racing aspect had put a " ceiling " on the number of people willing to see films in the series , and that , by turning it into a series where car driving ability is just one aspect of the film , he hoped to increase the series ' audience .
= = = Writing = = =
Lin wanted to explore the elements of " freedom and family " in the film and collaborated with Morgan towards that ideal , both having worked together on previous installments of the franchise . Morgan worked with Diesel to produce a story arc that would further explore and develop Diesel 's character . An idea involving heisting a large safe had been conceived by Morgan during the production of Fast & Furious , but that film 's premise did not work with how Morgan envisioned it . He later incorporated it into Fast Five .
= = = Filming = = =
On a budget of $ 125 million , the shooting of Fast Five was scheduled for July and August 2010 . Shooting had started by July 14 , 2010 , but it took longer than forecast : the film was still being shot in early November 2010 .
Three film units worked simultaneously . The main cast were required to travel to Rio at the behest of Lin , who felt it important to understand the area and its culture to give the film a good sense of place . Diesel agreed that it was important to shoot key scenes in Brazil , commenting " we were able to shoot where other productions might not be able to shoot because our franchise has such good street cred . "
The Rio film unit captured aerial shots of the city including Sugarloaf Mountain , Fort Copacabana , Ipanema Beach , the Dona Marta lookout point and the Christ the Redeemer statue . Establishing shots of the heist team members were taken as each arrived in Rio . Gibson was filmed arriving in character at Galeão International Airport but , when it became publicly known that a scene was being shot at the airport , the cast and crew were mobbed . A similar situation occurred while Ludacris was shooting a scene in which his character buys a car to drive around the city . A scene where the completed heist team walk down a beach was filmed in Copacabana .
The rooftop chase across favelas was filmed in Puerto Rico , where the production could have more control over the area . The main and second filming units began filming in and around the capital , San Juan . The island 's mixture of tropical greenery and wide streets allowed the production to re @-@ create the densely populated favelas of Rio while completing the larger action and external scenes without incident . Production designer Peter Wenham had the task of transforming Puerto Rico and Atlanta into the previously scouted Rio locations in four weeks , as the production deemed Rio unsuitable for filming many of the larger scenes . Wenham had to reinforce buildings to support the heavy camera equipment , and to alter the colors of more than 30 buildings in the city to make them suitable for filming . His team needed to alter the buildings and strew debris to make the area look disheveled and appear as a Rio shantytown . Wenham remarked that , though the development was difficult , in part due to the heat , it was " a walk in the park " compared with filming in the Rio favelas themselves . Wenham aimed to maintain a monochromatic color scheme for the film , with muted blacks and grays , including his choice of colors for the cars used . He only chose to add a multitude of colors in the favela set . The Teodoro Moscosco bridge connecting San Juan to neighboring Isla Verde was used to film the final showdown between Dom and Reyes , while a U.S. Navy base pier 60 miles outside San Juan stood in for the bridge for scenes involving the vault smashing cars . Action scenes were also filmed in the Hato Rey and Río Piedras districts of San Juan .
A foot pursuit in which Diesel , Brewster and Walker are chased across favela rooftops by Johnson and his team was filmed over the course of a week in the small hillside town of Naranjito , Puerto Rico . The scene was considered difficult to shoot , as pathways were slippery from moist tropical heat and the scene involved actors and stunt doubles running while avoiding dogs , chickens and other stray animals loose in the area . To capture the scene , a 420 @-@ foot cable @-@ camera rig was used to allow for a fast moving , birds @-@ eye view of the action , and cameras on cranes were set up on rooftops and in alleyways . Walker and Brewster made multiple takes of the conclusion of the scene , requiring them to jump nearly 30 feet from a building onto a waiting safety mat . In total the production employed 236 technicians , 13 @,@ 145 extras , and generated 16 @,@ 824 room nights at hotels , contributing $ 27 million to the Puerto Rican community .
Filming moved to Atlanta , Georgia for the final phase . Wenham and his team transformed a defunct train yard into an abandoned auto plant used by the protagonists as their headquarters . Redesigning the train yard took place over several months . It was required to allow enough space for stunt drivers to drive into the building , and it had to include an integrated lighting system . The design team removed walls , hauled out old railway cars , suspended rusted car parts and auto @-@ plant car rails , and constructed smaller buildings within the main building to transform the site . With twenty @-@ five pages of script to shoot in a limited time , cinematographer Stephen Windon and his team spent three weeks setting up a series of high @-@ powered , motorized lights in the rafters of the building , that could be controlled remotely to allow lighting to be altered quickly while fully illuminating the set . An exterior scene involving Diesel and Walker attending a car party , involving several high @-@ performance cars , was filmed near the Georgia Dome . The train heist scene was filmed in Rice , California over three weeks .
A brawl scene between Johnson 's and Diesel 's characters was considered difficult to choreograph . The characters were written to be equally formidable , so the fight was punctuated with moments of character development , as Moritz felt this made the fight more exciting . The scene required several weeks of rehearsal and more than a week of filming by the actors and their stunt doubles , who incurred several minor injuries .
= = = Vehicle stunts = = =
The climatic vault heist required four weeks of preparation with every scene and camera angle determined in advance . The filmmakers hired stunt director Spiro Razatos and stunt coordinator Jack Gill to direct the second @-@ unit action filming . The pair initially began research for the stunt by testing the capabilities of the prop vaults and the Dodge Chargers driven by Diesel and Walker . Filmed on the streets of Hato Rey , the chaotic scene demanded specific timing that had to be synchronized with the various character interactions also occurring during the scene . Razatos chose to use a series of camera cars including a crane @-@ mounted camera atop a Porsche Cayenne , which allowed him to film from a variety of angles and heights while the vehicles were in motion , and a Subaru STI with a steel cage built around it that allowed for tracking shots . The Subaru 's driver Allen Padelford would occasionally accidentally collide with the vault creating a shower of sparks that inadvertently became useful footage . Padelford also developed a top @-@ mount dual @-@ drive system for the Chargers that allowed a stunt driver to control the vehicle from the roof , while the actor focused on their performance inside the car .
Six versions of the 8 @-@ foot high vault were built , each with specific uses . One of the vaults was a façade built onto the front of a semitruck and was used for filming close shots of the vault destroying street cars . Another vault was a reinforced , four @-@ wheel self @-@ drive vehicle that was connected to 30 @-@ foot cables and dragged through the streets of San Juan by the two stunt Dodge Chargers . The four @-@ ton vault was driven by stunt driver Henry Kingi , who had to wear a temperature controlled suit to compensate for the temperatures within that could exceed 100 degrees . A scene where the vault tumbled as the cars rounded a corner was a practical effect , and the result was more violent than the filmmakers had anticipated . Over 200 vehicles were destroyed by the vault during filming . Several stunts had to be cut including a final scene that would have seen the vault hanging over the edge of the Teodoro Moscoso Bridge . This stunt was abandoned when it was determined that even the powerful Chargers would not be able to support the vault 's weight .
The train heist presented several challenges . The filmmakers were required to effectively purchase a length of working railroad for filming and the trains necessary to ride the tracks . Then trucks had to be built that could race the train and meet the needs of the heist itself . Lin also required that the cars being carried on the train be able to jump out of the train at full speed . The scene took precise execution . The filmmakers chose to use cars they could cheaply replicate for the train heist — a 1972 De Tomaso Pantera , a 2007 Corvette GS Roadster , and a Ford GT40 — to avoid the expense of replacing a genuine $ 2 million Ford GT40 .
= = Marketing = =
The first trailer for Fast Five was released on Diesel 's Facebook page on December 14 , 2010 , in what was believed to be the first ever use of this marketing approach . At the time , Diesel 's page had over 20 million subscribers ( one of the top five personal sites of celebrities ) , providing a wide audience for the trailer . Following this debut , other members of the cast with personal social media platforms released the teaser trailer to their own fans .
The Facebook game Car Town by Cie Games and the theater chain Regal Entertainment Group ( REG ) collaborated with Universal in a cross @-@ media marketing promotion . Car Town allowed players to view the trailer for the film in an REG @-@ branded , in @-@ game drive @-@ in theater and race around a virtual Rio de Janeiro . The game also featured missions and locations based on the plot of the film , while allowing players to race against Fast Five characters and take part in a bank heist . REG offered players of Car Town the ability to purchase tickets in @-@ game via Fandango for films at REG theaters . By buying these tickets in @-@ game , players were given promotional codes which in turn allowed them to unlock a virtual 1970s Dodge Charger , used by Diesel 's character in the original film . REG promoted the partnership between the film and the game in their theaters across 37 states , online and through social media , while Universal promoted it via their own Facebook , Twitter and YouTube sites . In October 2011 , it was claimed that over 200 million races had taken place within the virtual Rio de Janeiro environment in the six months since the campaign 's April launch .
Automobile manufacturer Dodge collaborated with Universal in marketing the film , supplying several Dodge Chargers to use in it . The partnership with Dodge included the " Fast Five " Dodge Charger driven by Robby Gordon in the NASCAR Sprint Cup Series throughout April 2011 – the opening month of Fast Five . Dodge also sponsored the world premiere of the film in Rio de Janeiro .
= = Release = =
The premiere of Fast Five took place on April 15 , 2011 , at the Cinépolis Lagoon theater in Rio de Janeiro , Brazil . It was hosted by actress Susie Castillo and sponsored by car manufacturer Dodge .
= = = Box office = = =
Fast Five accrued $ 209 @,@ 837 @,@ 675 ( 33 @.@ 5 % ) in the United States and Canada and a further $ 416 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 ( 66 @.@ 5 % ) elsewhere – a total of $ 626 @,@ 137 @,@ 675 . Worldwide , it is the seventy @-@ first highest @-@ grossing film , the seventh highest @-@ grossing 2011 film , the third highest @-@ grossing film in the Fast & Furious series ( behind Fast Six and Furious 7 ) , and the fifth highest @-@ grossing Universal film . It achieved a worldwide opening weekend of $ 109 @.@ 6 million . The film reached a peak of number 55 on the list of all @-@ time highest @-@ grossing films worldwide in October 2011 . It became the highest @-@ grossing film of the series in worldwide grosses ( as well as separately in the US and Canada , and outside the US and Canada ) but was out @-@ grossed in all three cases by Fast & Furious 6 .
Outside the United States and Canada
Fast Five is the ninth highest @-@ grossing 2011 film , the third highest @-@ grossing film of the Fast and Furious franchise ( behind Fast 6 and Furious 7 ) and the fifth highest @-@ grossing Universal film . It was initially released in Australia on Wednesday , April 20 , 2011 – nine days before the release date in North America – followed by releases in the UK , South Korea and New Zealand . The earlier start in these countries was timed to coincide with their Easter holidays and avoided competition from forthcoming summer films , although this placed it in direct competition with Thor in some countries . By the end of its opening weekend , the film had accrued a total of $ 23 @.@ 4 million from these countries . On its second weekend , Fast Five earned $ 46 @.@ 3 million across 3 @,@ 139 theaters in 14 countries , ranking first at the box office in each of its ten new markets . For the overall weekend , it ranked second behind Thor . In the third weekend of release , Fast Five topped the box office in a further 44 countries , playing in a total of 6 @,@ 979 theaters across 58 countries . It ranked first during the weekend with $ 85 @.@ 8 million . It set an opening @-@ weekend record in the United Arab Emirates ( $ 1 @.@ 65 million ) , holding this record for two weeks before being out @-@ grossed by Pirates of the Caribbean : On Stranger Tides ( $ 2 @.@ 24 million ) .
Across all markets , the film scored Universal 's highest @-@ grossing opening weekend in Russia , Spain , Turkey , Argentina , Brazil , Chile , France , India , Italy , Malaysia , Mexico , the Netherlands , Thailand , the United Arab Emirates and Vietnam .
United States and Canada
Fast Five is the third highest @-@ grossing film in the Fast and Furious franchise ( behind Fast 6 and Furious 7 ) , the sixteenth highest @-@ grossing Universal film , the sixth highest @-@ grossing 2011 film , the second highest @-@ grossing heist / caper film , behind Inception , and the second highest @-@ grossing car @-@ racing film , behind Cars . According to Box Office Mojo , Fast Five is one of the most successful sequels of 2011 , when taking into account that it is one of few to have outperformed the immediately @-@ preceding instalment of its franchise in the US and Canada .
Fast Five opened on April 29 , 2011 , in 3 @,@ 644 theaters , It took $ 3 @.@ 8 million in midnight showings , setting new records for the Fast and the Furious series and Universal ( both records overtaken by Fast 6 ) . By the end of its opening day , it had accrued a total of $ 34 @.@ 4 million ( including midnight earnings ) , setting an April opening @-@ day record , replacing Fast & Furious ( $ 30 @.@ 1 million ) , and marking the third largest Friday outside of the summer and holiday period , behind The Hunger Games and Alice in Wonderland . In total , Fast Five earned $ 86 @.@ 2 million during its opening weekend , an average of $ 23 @,@ 655 per theater , with IMAX showings contributing over $ 8 million . It thus set an opening @-@ weekend record for the Fast and Furious series , for Universal , ( both records overtaken by Fast 6 ) and for films released in April ( the record was surpassed in 2014 by Captain America : The Winter Soldier ) . It also achieved the third @-@ largest spring opening , behind The Hunger Games and Alice in Wonderland . The film also set an opening @-@ weekend record among films starring Diesel , Walker , Brewster , Johnson , Moritz and Lin , records overtaken in all cases by Fast 6 .
The film opened dropped 62 % on its second weekend , earning $ 32 @.@ 4 million , and ranking second behind Thor . This result was partially attributed to the reduction in IMAX and large @-@ format screens showing the film ( reduced from 244 to 20 ) , since IMAX only contributed $ 510 @,@ 000 to the film 's second @-@ weekend gross . On June 4 , 2011 , 37 days after release in the US , the film became the first of 2011 to accrue more than $ 200 million . The film received a one @-@ week re @-@ release in IMAX theaters on September 30 , 2011 .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Fast Five received positive reviews from critics . On Rotten Tomatoes , the film has a rating of 78 % , based on 192 reviews , with an average rating of 6 @.@ 4 / 10 . The site 's critical consensus reads , " Sleek , loud , and over the top , Fast Five proudly embraces its brainless action thrills and injects new life into the franchise . " On Metacritic , the film has a score of 67 out of 100 , based on 29 critics , indicating " generally favorable reviews " .
Roger Ebert gave the film 3 out of 4 stars , praising it as " a skillfully assembled 130 minutes at the movies , with actors capable of doing absurd things with straight faces , and action sequences that toy idly with the laws of physics " , while Richard Corliss of Time considered it " maybe the first great film of the post @-@ human era " . The New York Times said it deftly combined action and humor , stating " The only time you won 't be watching the screen is when your eyes have squeezed shut because you 're laughing so hard . " The Telegraph appreciated the presence of Johnson and Diesel together , calling it a " cosmic event " , and added that director Lin had revitalized the series , saying " the start and finish here , defying every imaginable law of physics , are series highs . " Empire also heaped praise on Johnson , saying " How to re @-@ ignite an ageing franchise ? Drop [ Johnson ] on it . The best thing , by far , in Fast Five ... Dwayne Johnson hulks through the movie leaving testosterone trails in his wake . " However , Empire took the view that the film itself was " not , by any normal criteria , a good film " , arguing that it was too long , although conceding that the action scenes , in particular the final car chase , made the film " the most entertaining in the series . " Anna Smith of Time Out London also commented that the film was too long and criticized the simplistic characters and dialog , but she called the film " slick " and stated that these criticisms could be overlooked because " it doesn 't take itself too seriously . " Variety focused on the roles of Johnson and Diesel , lamenting the current lack of 1980s @-@ style " brawny " leading men and of the " manly men " typical of the 1950s and 1960s , and calling their pairing " a welcome injection of tough @-@ guy vigor " . Variety commented that , based on Fast Five , a " sixth entry could be something worth waiting for " . The New Yorker called the action scenes " spectacular " , praising director Lin by saying his " direction and the sharp editing never confuse or lose momentum " , but also found the film too long and criticized the dialog , labeling it " subpar Ocean 's Eleven @-@ style banter " . On the characters , The New Yorker considered Walker and Diesel " serviceable " , but singled out Johnson for praise for bringing a " hip , comic knowingness to his role ... his enjoyment is infectious and keeps the movie speeding along . "
Total Film welcomed the return of Ludacris and Tyrese Gibson to " [ inject ] the film with much @-@ needed laughs " and felt that Johnson fit into the established cast with ease , though it believed the film itself was " no mould @-@ breaker . " Peter Travers of Rolling Stone , who disliked the previous movies , gave the film 2 @.@ 5 stars out of 4 , praising the transformation of the series into a heist film ( " Damn it , it works " ) , commenting favorably on scenes between Johnson and Diesel , and judging that " Fast Five will push all your action buttons , and some you haven 't thought of . " The Los Angeles Times felt that scenes shared by Diesel and Johnson were the " best moments " and appreciated the humor , but considered the pacing a " strange mix " , switching between exposition , comedy scenes and then sudden action . The reviewer echoed other critics ' sentiments concerning the running time of the film , but concluded that " the sheer audacity of " Fast Five " is kind of breathtaking in a metal @-@ twisting , death @-@ defying , mission @-@ implausible , B @-@ movie @-@ on @-@ steroids kind of way " , labeling it the " best " of the series .
Both Empire and Variety noted that the final chase scene of Fast Five contained allusions to Bad Boys II ( 2003 ) : Variety stated that the scene " seems inspired in part by a similarly spectacular scene in Bad Boys II " ; Empire said that it " nearly out @-@ Bad @-@ Boys @-@ 2s Bad Boys 2 " .
Not all reviews were positive , however . Film4 criticized both the film 's long running time and its treatment of female characters , remarking " [ Females ] cameo strikingly in buttock form . Others actually have first names " . But Film4 praised Johnson 's role as DSS agent Luke Hobbs , saying he " provides a more credible anti @-@ antagonist to our anti @-@ heroes than the straight up villains can manage " . The Boston Herald gave a more mixed reaction : it derided the lack of realism as removing any sense of threat to the protagonists , but conceded that " these films may be robustly anti @-@ intellectual and deplorably commercialized , but they are the envy of the rest of the world . " Despite giving the film a positive review and praising the action , The Hollywood Reporter was critical of its stars , saying " it 's clear the budget wasn 't used on acting lessons for the cast . " The New York Post 's Kyle Smith gave the film a negative review , criticizing the shortage of car @-@ related action before the finale and calling it less a " vroomer " and more a " knucklehead Ocean 's Eleven " . Smith went on to call the film 's villain Reyes ( Almeida ) " unforgivably dull " and considered the long running time a result of taking " that long to read every item in the cliché dictionary . " Time Out New York stated that " The Fast and the Furious movies haven 't exactly gotten better as they 've gone along " but gave the director a backhanded compliment , saying " Justin Lin , taking his third turn behind the franchise 's wheel , is at least a competent hack . " Ebert was more complimentary , saying " Justin Lin is emerging as a first @-@ rate director in this second @-@ rate genre " and Rolling Stone managed " Justin Lin , who misdirected the last two sequels , finds his pace this time , staging dynamite action . "
= = = Brazilian critics = = =
Brazilian reviewers criticized the use of Rio de Janeiro in the film , claiming it was stereotyped as " dominated by heavily armed drug traffickers , corrupt police , and sexy women " . O Globo accused the producers of using " aerial shots and quick editing " to " deceive the viewer " into believing that the criminal acts take place in Rio . Globo also reacted negatively to the use of " foreigners " to represent Brazilians , " speaking Portuguese with laughable accents " . Veja agreed with O Globo , saying , " The city of Rio and the Rio Film Commission supported the production . But the image that will spread across the world is exactly what the city doesn 't want . "
= = = Accolades and recognition = = =
Tyler 's score for Fast Five earned him an award at the 2011 BMI Film Music Awards . The marketing components of Fast Five were nominated for three Golden Trailer Awards , winning one for Best Summer Blockbuster 2011 TV Spot . For the 2011 Teen Choice Awards , Fast Five received five nominations , including Choice Action Movie and Choice Action Movie Actress . Three of the five available nomination slots for Choice Action Movie Actor were taken by actors from Fast Five : Vin Diesel , Dwayne Johnson and Paul Walker . The film ultimately received one Teen Choice Award , for Choice Action Movie . The film received two nominations for the 2011 People 's Choice Awards for Favorite Action Movie , and Favorite Action Movie Star for Diesel . Diesel was nominated for an NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Actor in a Motion Picture . The film 's sound and music editing was nominated for a Golden Reel Award for Sound Effects and Foley in a Feature Film by the Motion Picture Sound Editors society . The film also received two Saturn Award nominations from the Academy of Science Fiction , Fantasy & Horror Films for Best Action / Adventure Film and Best Editing for Kelly Matsumoto , Fred Raskin , and Christian Watner .
In December , 2011 , Richard Corliss ranked the film number 10 on his list of the Top 10 Best Movies of 2011 , saying , " A carnival of roguish heroes and pretty girls , car chases and cliffhangers , Fast Five is as much a tribute as The Artist or Hugo to the cinema 's primal thrills . " Empire placed the film number 20 on its list of the Top 20 Films of 2011 , while IGN named it the " Best Action Movie " of 2011 . Fast Five was listed as the number 1 most illegally downloaded film of 2011 on BitTorrent with approximately 9 @.@ 3 million downloads .
= = = Home media = = =
On August 2 , 2011 , USA Network purchased the rights to the United States network premiere of Fast Five . The film was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray in the United Kingdom on September 5 , 2011 , and in the United States on October 4 , 2011 , in 2 @.@ 35 : 1 aspect ratio with DTS HD Master Audio 5 @.@ 1 sound . A triple pack was also released containing a Blu @-@ ray , DVD , and digital copy of the film in either Blu @-@ ray or DVD packaging . The Blu @-@ ray versions contains several exclusive additional features , including behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage , cast and crew interviews , a " virtual car garage " that provides further details on the vehicles used in the production , and music tracks from the film . Both the DVD and the Blu @-@ ray contain a theatrical and extended cut of the film , director commentary , deleted scenes , a gag reel and features on the three central characters . Commenting on the extended cut , Lin said " this is the version that I prefer . " During first week sales in the United States the DVD was the number 1 selling DVD , the number 1 rental DVD , and the number 2 selling Blu @-@ ray disc behind the Blu @-@ ray re @-@ release of The Lion King . 57 % of the total first week disc sales of Fast Five were the Blu @-@ ray disc version .
To promote the release of the DVD and Blu @-@ ray , Universal Studios Home Entertainment sponsored the first race of the NASCAR Camping World Truck Series , at the Chicagoland Speedway . The event , renamed as the " Fast Five 225 " , took place on September 16 , 2011 , with Gibson and Brewster as Grand Marshals ; Gibson sang the American national anthem for the event and Brewster acted as honorary starter . The event served as the first race in the Chase for the Sprint Cup and was won by Austin Dillon . The deal marked the first time that a film promotion had been allowed to take over a NASCAR race as a title sponsor . Continuing the partnership with Car Town , the game was used as the exclusive means of pre @-@ ordering the Blu @-@ ray / DVD combo release at Walmart , via players clicking on a Walmart @-@ themed truck , which in turn provided the player with Fast Five branded in @-@ game rewards .
= = Music = =
Fast Five ( Original Motion Picture Soundtrack ) was released on iTunes on April 25 , 2011 , and on CD on May 3 , 2011 , by ABKCO Records . It features many reggaeton and rhythmic Latin tracks , including songs by Don Omar , Busta Rhymes and many others , with three pieces from Tyler 's original score for the film : " Assembling the Team " , " Mad Skills " and " Fast Five Suite " . Music guide AllMusic awarded the album 3 stars out of 5 , commenting that " The goal here is to accompany a picture that , as usual , is packed with driving sequences involving flashy cars , beautiful , scantily clad women , and muscled men . That goal is accomplished with this beat @-@ heavy music and the gruff , aggressive Latin rapping . " Ludacris collaborated with Slaughterhouse and Claret Jai for the soundtrack 's lead single , " Furiously Dangerous " .
The film score was released on May 3 , 2011 , by Varèse Sarabande . The release has 25 tracks and plays for 78 minutes . The score spent four weeks on the Billboard 200 , peaking as high as number 60 and reaching number 24 on the digital albums chart and number 5 on the soundtrack @-@ only chart .
= = Sequel = =
A sixth film in The Fast and the Furious series was planned in February 2010 as development on Fast Five began , and in April 2011 , it was confirmed that Morgan had begun work on a script for the potential sixth film . Diesel and Moritz returned as producers for the film and Lin would return to direct . Fast & Furious 6 was released on May 24 , 2013 .
= Cornell Plantations =
The Cornell Plantations botanical gardens located adjacent to the Cornell University campus in Ithaca , New York . The Plantations proper consist of 25 acres ( 10 ha ) of botanical gardens and 150 acres ( 61 ha ) of the F.R. Newman Arboretum . The greater Plantations includes 40 different nature areas around Cornell and Ithaca , covering 4 @,@ 300 acres ( 1 @,@ 700 ha ) .
The origin of the Plantations dates back to Cornell 's beginning in the mid @-@ 19th century and are part of the university 's longtime interest in agriculture , forestry , and the natural sciences . The Plantations saw a major planting effort during the 1930s and assumed their present name in 1944 . Gardens and facilities have continually expanded , including a construction program at the start of the 21st century . The Plantations also maintains four gardens on Cornell 's central campus . The Plantations offers three courses for academic credit , are used as a resource by other classes , host a number of informal lectures and tours , and have played a part in many scholarly papers . As of 2009 , the Plantations had a $ 2 @.@ 9 million annual operating budget .
The botanical gardens at the Plantations specialize in trees and shrubs native to New York State . The themed herb garden is especially noted . The Plantations have been the subject of several books and films over the years , are open daily without charge , and have been recommended as a visitation site by a number of travel books and newspaper travel sections .
= = History = =
Prior to the founding of Cornell University , Ezra Cornell had a large farm on the East Hill above Ithaca , New York . As part of locating New York State 's land @-@ grant college in Ithaca , Cornell offered to donate the farm for use as a campus . In 1862 , Cornell 's first president , Andrew Dickson White , wrote a colleague that a great university should include a botanical garden : “ It must have the best of Libraries – collections in different departments – Laboratory – Observatory – Botanical Garden perhaps … ” At the university 's opening ceremony in 1868 , Louis Agassiz , an internationally @-@ known naturalist , remarked that no other area could compete with Cornell 's surroundings in the opportunities offered for the study of natural history . From its inception , Cornell formed a reputation for creative means of research into the natural sciences , including the establishment of the pioneering College of Agriculture .
When the university built its first women 's dormitory in 1875 , it included a conservatory for growing plants and a specimen tree collection . Separately , the College of Veterinary Medicine started a specialized garden of plants that are poisonous to livestock . Cornell 's farm included two deep gorges which flanked both sides of the early campus , and as the campus developed the gorges remained undeveloped and filled with native plants and wildlife . These became the start of the on @-@ campus gardens and arboretum . A goal of creating an explicit arboretum was proposed in various university reports to trustees and other publications in 1877 , 1883 , 1908 , and 1914 .
Cornell 's acquisition of off @-@ campus forest land dates to 1898 and the founding of the New York State College of Forestry , which was the first forestry college in North America . As a part of establishing that school , Cornell acquired a demonstration forest near Saranac Lake in the Adirondack Mountains . The harvesting of trees from that forest drew heated opposition from neighboring land owners . Although political opposition caused Cornell to transfer the forest lands under the " forever wild " protection of the Adirondack Forest Preserve and to transfer Cornell 's forestry education programs to its College of Agriculture , Cornell continued to acquire forest land remote from its main campus . In 1935 , the decision to create an arboretum was finally made and the university established the Arboretum as a separate department . From 1935 to 1940 , the federal government 's Civilian Conservation Corps Camp SP 48 devoted 170 to 200 workers to planting trees , constructing dikes , and building trails in order to develop the Arboretum .
In 1944 , Liberty Hyde Bailey , the Dean emeritus of the College of Agriculture and a horticulturalist highly regarded around the world , proposed the present name " Cornell Plantations " for an expanded department in a report that reflected the work of a number of botany and horticulture professors . By 1948 , the Plantations numbered 1 @,@ 000 acres ( 400 ha ) and the first Director was named , John F. Cornman . During a 1949 broadcast on widely heard radio station WGY , Cornell emeritus professor Bristow Adams reflected upon the now five @-@ year @-@ old Plantations , and stated that the relationship between humans and things that grow were of utmost importance and that gardens , forests , and parks were everlasting collections that " have the care and trusteeships of generation after generation . "
In the mid @-@ 1960s , the sculpture garden was constructed in the middle of the Arboretum as a project of the College of Architecture Art and Planning . By 1965 , the Plantations consisted of 1 @,@ 500 acres ( 610 ha ) . By 1970 , the university was issuing a publication called The Cornell Plantations , which contained general articles on nature and environmental topics . Beginning in the early 1970s , the Arboretum was upgraded with new roads and plantings funded by major gifts from oil industry figure Floyd R. Newman , and in 1982 the Arboretum was formally named in his honor ( as were several other buildings and facilities at Cornell over the years ) .
During the 1980s , the Plantations experienced people stealing pines and firs for Christmas trees , with in some cases trees being taken that were worth several thousand dollars . A successful countermeasure created by Gerardo Sciarra at the Plantations was covering the trees with a harmless yet visually unpleasant " Ugly Mix " spray that included hydrated limestone , an anti @-@ desiccant , and water . The technique was subsequently recommended to others worried about tree theft . In 2009 , the Plantations suffered from a series of thefts of new or rare plants . A director at the Plantations , which had no security in place , said that the thieves must have been experienced horticulturalists and that the loss of research and species had been a demoralizing experience .
At the start of the 21st century , the Plantations embarked on a construction program which included : Arboretum Center ( 2000 ) , Horticultural Center ( 2001 ) , Mullestein Winter Garden ( 2002 ) , Ramin Administration Building ( 2003 ) , Rowley Carpenter Shop ( 2004 ) , Plant Production Facility ( 2007 ) , and Lewis Education Center ( 2008 ) . The new $ 7 @.@ 5 million Brian C. Nevin Welcome Center was dedicated on October 28 , 2010 . Five years in the designing and building , the new facility was built to LEED gold standards and won a 2010 Award of Excellence from Canadian Architect magazine .
= = Current extent = =
= = = F.R. Newman Arboretum = = =
The F.R. Newman arboretum contains the following collections on 150 acres ( 61 ha ) :
Chestnut Collection
Established in 2000 with 5 transplanted , grafted chestnut trees for each of 5 cultivars . At present 4 trees remain , representing 3 of the 5 cultivars . Eventually 25 cultivars will be represented .
Conifer Collection
Several sites with 21 taxa of firs ( excluding dwarf forms ) , 39 of pines , and 25 of spruces .
Flowering Crabapple Collection
83 cultivars in a new collection ; many trees are quite small .
Maple Collection
One of the core collections . One site contains Red Maple ( Acer rubrum ) , Sugar Maple ( Acer saccharum ) , Silver Maple ( Acer saccharinum ) , and Striped Maple ( Acer pensylvanicum ) . Another contains an overstory of Acer x freemanii with an understory of shade @-@ loving maples , including snakebark maples ( Acer davidii and Acer tegmentosum ) and small trees similar to the Japanese maple , such as Acer shirasawanum and Acer pseudosieboldianum . A third site consists primarily of small Asian Maples .
Oak Collection
50 oak taxa in a fairly young collection , with a goal of acquiring all species hardy in Zone 5 .
Urban Tree Collection
Planted throughout the arboretum .
Walnut Collection
The oldest collection , planted in the early 1960s . 20 cultivars , representing Black Walnut ( Juglans nigra ) , Butternut ( Juglans cinerea ) and Heartnut ( Juglans ailanthifolia ) .
In addition , the arboretum features an extensive set of trails .
= = = Botanical gardens = = =
The botanical gardens specialize in trees and shrubs native to New York State . Overall , they contain a wide variety of ornamental , useful , and native plants on 25 acres ( 10 ha ) , arranged into gardens as follows :
Container Gardens
Ornamental plants suitable for growing in containers , such as Agastache foeniculum , Agave , Alocasia esculenta , Amaranthus , Canna × generalis , Celosia , Coleus , Colocasia , Cordyline , Cuphea , Cycad , Duranta erecta , Eucalyptus cinerea , Fuchsia , Hibiscus acetosella , Iresine , Lantana camara , Melianthus major , Perilla frutescens , Phormium tenax , Salpiglossis sinuata , and Solenostemon scutellarioides .
Deans Garden
Herbaceous and woody plants , many uncommon in the Ithaca area , such as Vancouveria hexanra and Stuartia pseudocamellia .
Decorative Arts Flower Garden
A wide variety of flowers including sunflower , carnation , rose , poppy , peony , iris , lily , chrysanthemum , daisy , and tulip .
Flowering Shrub and Ornamental Grass Garden
Flowering shrubs , ornamental grasses , and perennials including daylillies . Shrubs include Hypericum , Hydrangea , and Potentilla ; grasses include Calamagrostis , Chasmanthium latifolium , Festuca , Miscanthus , Molinia , Panicum virgatum , Pennisetum alopecuroides , and Saccharum ravennae .
Groundcover Garden
Groundcovers including Asarum , Athyrium , Cyclamen hederifolium , Dryopteris , Helleborus orientalis , Hosta , Lysimachia , Marrubium , and Pachysandra .
Robison Herb Garden
Opened in 1974 after 20 years of being envisioned and 2 years of construction , it consists of 17 raised beds of herbs , arranged by theme as follows : Ornamental Herbs ; Herbs of the Ancients ; Herbs in Literature ; Bee Herbs ; Salads and Potherbs ; Edible flowers ; Herbs of the Native Americans ; Medicinal Herbs ; Culinary Herbs ; Economic Herbs ; Dye Herbs ; Tea Herbs ; Fragrant Herbs ; Sacred Herbs ; Scented Geraniums ; Savory Seed Herbs ; and Tussie @-@ Mussies and Nosegays . The sources to begin the garden came from around the world , with some species linked to cultures from antiquity . More than 500 plants are included . The design inspired plans for a similar herb garden in New London , Connecticut in 1980 .
Heritage Vegetable Garden
Four beds , representing typical vegetables grown in the northeastern United States in the 18th century , the late 19th century , World Wars I and II , and today 's gardens . Such gardens are not common . The gardener in charge of it has been mentioned in newspaper columns as an expert in growing tomatoes .
International Crop and Weed Garden
Crop plants and economically important plants from around the world , including bananas , sugar cane , coffee , tea , sorghum , cotton , grasses , and forbs ( non @-@ grass plants eaten by livestock ) ; also a collection of weeds arranged in an attractive agricultural setting .
Peony and Sun Perennial Garden
Over 90 cultivars of peonies , as well as a display of recent perennial cultivars suitable for sunny locations .
Poisonous Plants Garden
Plants poisonous to livestock , including Atropa , Chelidonium , Cicuta , Digitalis , Lobelia , Phytolacca , and Rheum . ( Although Cannabis was included in the garden for many years , it was removed by the early 1970s . )
Rhododendron and Woodland Perennial Garden
Hundreds of rhododendrons and azaleas , set among white pines , ferns , hostas , etc .
Rock Garden
Rock garden , including Aethionema , Arenaria , Aubrieta , Cymbalaria , Dianthus , Erigeron , Globularia , Houstonia , Leiophyllum , Linaria , Penstemon , Pulsatilla , Sedum , Silene , Veronica , etc .
Wildflower Garden
Wildflowers including skunk cabbage , trout lily , marsh marigold , and trillium .
Winter Garden
Plants interesting in all seasons , including dogwood , willow , birch , hawthorn , and dwarf to midsize conifers .
Woodland Streamside Garden
A boardwalk through a boggy areas including royal ferns , blue and yellow flag iris , and Japanese primrose .
= = = Nature areas = = =
In addition to the gardens and arboretum , Cornell Plantations also manages an additional 3 @,@ 500 acres ( 1 @,@ 400 ha ) of biologically diverse natural areas , including bogs , fens , gorges , glens , meadows , and woodlands . These areas contain some 9 miles ( 14 km ) of walking trails .
Bald Hill – Mountain laurel ( Kalmia latifolia ) is abundant in this area .
Beebe Lake and Woods – In 1828 , to capture the waterpower of Fall Creek , Ezra Cornell help construct Beebe Dam on Fall Creek . The dam and Lake have since been upgraded .
Bluegrass Lane Natural Areas – located near the Robert Trent Jones Golf Course .
Brooktondale Meadow
Carter Creek Preserve – 244 acres ( 99 ha ) of woodlands about 14 miles ( 23 km ) southwest of Cornell .
Cascadilla Gorge – a gorge formed as Cascadilla Creek drops 400 feet ( 120 m ) from the campus to downtown Ithaca , with a walking trail and many waterfalls .
Cascadilla Meadows – Cascadilla Creek was channelized when the Wilson Lab was constructed in this meadow flood plain .
Cayuga Marsh – a low @-@ lying wetland of cattails ( Typha latifolia ) at the north end of Lake Cayuga .
Cayuga Lake – 95 acres ( 38 ha ) on northeast shore .
Etna Fringed Gentian Area
Fall Creek Valley North
Fall Creek Valley South
Fischer Old @-@ Growth Forest – a 42 @-@ acre ( 17 ha ) preserve containing rare examples of yellow oak ( Quercus muehlenbergii ) .
Hertel Bowl
Lick Brook
Lighthouse Point – a biological station located a bit over 3 miles ( 5 km ) from campus on the eastern shore of Lake Cayuga .
McDaniel Meadow , Woods and Swamp – 60 @-@ acre ( 24 ha ) former farm about 7 miles ( 11 km ) north of campus .
McGowan Woods and Meadow
Mitchell Street Natural Areas – examples of abandoned agricultural land .
Monkey Run
Mount Pleasant
Mundy Wildflower Garden
North Campus Natural Areas
Park Park – Forest Home Drive near New York Route 366
Polson Natural Area
Purvis Road Natural Areas – 43 acres ( 17 ha )
Renwick Slope
Slaterville 600 – 600 acres ( 240 ha ) that includes the Slaterville Wildflower Preserve and old growth forest , given to the university by the Lloyd Library and Museum under condition that it remain forever wild .
Slim Jim Woods – borders the arboretum .
Steep Hollow Creek
The Tarr @-@ Young Preserve
Turkey Hill Road Meadow
Upper Cascadilla
Warren Woods – 37 acres ( 15 ha )
= = Academic role = =
The Plantations ' Director is funded as a professor of Horticulture in the College of Agriculture and Life Sciences , although 85 percent of the Plantations ' budget comes from gifts . The Plantations continue to grow as it receives donations of environmentally @-@ sensitive land throughout New York State . As of 2009 , the Plantations had a $ 2 @.@ 9 million annual operating budget .
In conjunction with the Department of Horticulture in the College of Agriculture , the Plantations sponsors a Graduate Fellowship in Public Garden Leadership , where students earn a Master of Professional Studies degree after a four @-@ semester program . The program of study requires an internship , selection of a particular topic of interest , and completion of an action project . Numerous scientific papers have been published that relate to work done at the Plantations or written by academics affiliated with the Plantations . The Plantations offers three courses for academic credit and a number of informal lectures and tours . Lab work is done at the Plantations by students taking other courses in various subjects , including geology courses in the interdisciplinary Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences . Indeed , the greater Plantations has a connection of some kind to over a hundred courses at Cornell . The Plantations ' Director has also been responsible for summer session courses at the Plantations aimed towards alumni and horticultural enthusiasts .
The Plantations operate side @-@ by @-@ side with Cornell 's other programs . Cornell 's academic buildings , which are owned by either the university or New York State ( for statutory college buildings ) , are on a landscaped campus with Plantations ' gardens interspersed among them ; the Plantations maintains four such gardens on Cornell 's central campus . In addition , the College of Agriculture operates the Arnot Woods as a teaching forest , about 15 miles ( 24 km ) southwest of Ithaca ; it was given to the university in 1927 . Near the Plantations , the College operates the Dilmun Hill Student Farm , which practices sustainable agriculture . The College operates Campus Area Farms that comprise 11 different farms and 325 acres ( 132 ha ) on campus and nearby . The difference between the Plantations and these other adjacent properties is that the Plantations are open to the public and are designed for both instruction as well as leisure , while the other properties are closed to the general public and focused upon teaching and research . Aside from physical proximity , the Plantations has affiliations with a number of Cornell academic departments . In fact , during the latter part of the 20th century , public gardens attached to colleges and universities such as the Plantations became a popular trend , due to the beneficial effects they had on campus unity and recruitment of students , creating bonds with and outreach to the local community , and providing a basis for ongoing research as well as establishing a living museum .
The Plantations earned a relatively brief mention as a campus diversion in the 112 @-@ page Cornell Desk Book publication of 1972 aimed at incoming students . The Cornell Daily Sun listed it in 2010 as one of the natural wonders of the Cornell and Ithaca areas that students frequently went past , or lived near to , without noticing .
A 1973 New York Times survey of public arboreta listed the Plantations as one of the 17 best in the Eastern U.S. for educational value . The same paper characterized the Robison Herb Garden as " a student 's living reference library " when it opened in 1974 .
The 200 @-@ page volume The Cornell Plantations , written by Ralph S. Hosmer , was published by the university in 1947 , shortly after the gardens were so named . A film Cornell Plantations was made during 1974 – 1975 and shown on PBS in Connecticut and elsewhere . In 1987 , the Plantations released a VHS video entitled A Year in the Garden , which showed seasonal changes in the F. R. Newman Arboretum and along the trails . The New York Times called the effort " thin " and best suited for Cornell alumni . The university published the volume Cornell Plantations Path Guide : The Gardens , Gorges , Landscapes , and Lore of Cornell in 1995 , and a 172 @-@ page second edition was published with a slightly altered title in 2002 .
Working with the Newman 's Own Foundation and the Center for Plant Conservation , the Plantations are trying to restore the regional population of the American globeflower ( Trollius laxus ) . The Plantations are trying to use predatory beetles ( Laricobius nigrinus ) to control the spread of the hemlock wooly adelgid ( HWA ) .
= = Events and visiting = =
The Plantations are open daily without charge from dawn to dusk . From the campus , one walks out Forest Home Drive past the College of Agriculture quadrangle ; the nearest highway is New York State Route 366 . Walk @-@ up tours are offered twice a week . Adult volunteers also serve as stewards , tour guides and special event staff . Such docents are challenged by the large variety of plants ; one joked in 2010 that , " The ones I don ’ t know the name of , I call Species Nocluesem . "
The New York Times has recommended Cornell Plantations as a place to visit several times , calling it " a satisfying experience " in 1965 , one of the sights of Cornell in 1979 , a destination along a bicycling tour in 1985 , " another free diversion " in 1989 , and " one last outing before leaving [ Ithaca ] " in 2002 . The Boston Globe recommended the Plantations in 2000 as a " free to the public museum of living plants " . In 2007 , The Ithaca Journal referred to it as " one of the area 's gems " and three years later said it " combines the best of walking with the eye appeal of well tended gardens " . The Buffalo News portrayed the Plantations in 2010 as one of the places that made Cornell worth a vacation for non @-@ students .
National Geographic 's 1998 guide to the 300 best public gardens in North America has an entry for the Plantations . The American Automobile Association 's New York TourBook lists the Plantations as one of five arboreta and sixty gardens in the state ; it does not get the " GEM " rating that one of the arboreta and ten of the gardens receive . Fodor 's travel book for New York State lists the Plantations as an ordinary entry and says the gardens have " interesting cold @-@ weather colors and textures " . The Moon Handbooks volume for the state also lists it as a regular entry , without much commentary , as does the Great Destinations series The Finger Lakes Book . The Fun with the Family Upstate New York volume groups it with several other sights as " a real bargain " to explore for free . Most enthusiastic is the Frommer 's travel guide for New York State , which rates the Plantations as a one @-@ star ( " highly recommended " ) sight , saying the Plantations is " a real find and well worth a visit for garden lovers or anyone seeking a bit of solace . " The herb garden and knoll of rhododendrons come in for particular praise .
The Plantations provide a venue for a number of annual activities , including a " Fall In " festival , a celebration of Arbor Day and the Cornell Reunion 5 Mile Run . The Plantations is one of eight cultural and educational sites on the Ithaca Discovery Trail network . The Friends of the Gorges is a Cornell student organization , supported by Cornell Plantations , that performs trail repair and maintenance and clean @-@ ups .
= Tropical Depression Two @-@ E ( 2006 ) =
Tropical Depression Two @-@ E was a short @-@ lived tropical cyclone that brought heavy rainfall to southwestern Mexico . It was the only cyclone during the month in the eastern North Pacific Ocean , forming on June 3 from a tropical wave . The depression initially moved northeastward , threatening the Mexican states of Michoacán and Guerrero with a potential of it attaining tropical storm status . It remained a tropical depression , weakening due to land interaction and wind shear , and on June 5 it dissipated just off the coast . Rainfall from the depression peaked at 19 @.@ 1 inches ( 486 mm ) in Acapulco , which resulted in mudslides and flooding . A total of 42 houses were flooded , and 72 people were forced to leave their homes due to the storm ; no deaths were reported .
= = Meteorological history = =
The tropical depression originated from a tropical wave off the southern coast of Mexico in late May 2006 . An area of convection was associated with the wave , and forecasters at the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) remarked that environmental conditions favored gradual development . The system , which was enhanced by the Intertropical Convergence Zone ( ITCZ ) , drifted northward with an anticyclone to its east and west . On June 1 , the convection became more concentrated , and by early the next day it developed a low pressure area ; by that time , it began a steady northwestward track .
An upper @-@ level anticyclone north of the system provided a more favorable environment for organization , allowing the convection to organize into banding features . The system also developed good outflow , though initially the surface circulation was too elongated for it to be considered a tropical cyclone . Early on June 3 , the nearby anticyclone moved northeastward , which increased wind shear over the system and caused it briefly to become less @-@ organized . However , convection increased over the center , and at 1500 UTC on June 3 the NHC classified the system as Tropical Depression Two @-@ E about 140 mi ( 240 km ) southwest of Zihuatanejo , Guerrero ; the upgrade was due to the system developing sufficiently organized convection , as well as a closed surface circulation .
Upon being classified as a tropical cyclone , the depression was in an area not favorable for significant strengthening , due to land interaction and wind shear . It was tracking steadily northeastward , and as it moved closer to the coastline , the center of the depression was difficult to locate . However , the overall organization briefly improved , and in one forecast the depression was predicted to attain tropical storm status . Early on June 4 , convection weakened significantly , leaving the center partially exposed . Continued wind shear brought most of the associated thunderstorm activity onshore southwestern Mexico while the center of the depression remained just offshore . Late on June 4 , the circulation accelerated away from the deep convection as it passed a short distance south of Acapulco . Early on June 5 , the circulation dissipated , and later that night the remnants moved inland .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Due to uncertainty in whether the depression would attain tropical storm status or not , the government of Mexico issued a tropical storm warning from Punta San Telmo , Michoacán to Acapulco , Guerrero . Prior to affecting the coastline , the Mexican meteorological agency issued a heavy rainfall advisory , also mentioning the potential for flooding and mudslides , for the states of Jalisco , Colima , Michoacán , Guerrero , and Oaxaca . Officials prepared 21 shelters in the region .
The depression produced heavy rainfall along the coastline , including a total of 19 @.@ 1 inches ( 486 mm ) measured in a 48 ‑ hour period in Acapulco . Totals of over 2 inches ( 50 mm ) spread across much of Guerrero and Oaxaca , causing flash flooding and mudslides . The storm partially flooded about 40 houses , and a total of 72 people were forced to leave their homes . In Acapulco , floodwaters washed trash from street corners onto the beaches . Elsewhere in Guerrero , the flooding and mudslides blocked several highways , which stranded dozens of vehicles . The wall of a prison collapsed due to the rainfall . Also in Acapulco , the rainfall downed trees and power lines , causing power outages and sparking a fire when a transformer exploded . No deaths were reported .
= IPad ( 3rd generation ) =
The third @-@ generation iPad ( marketed as The new iPad , colloquially referred to as the iPad 3 ) is a tablet computer , developed and marketed by Apple Inc . The third device in the iPad line of tablets , it added a Retina display , the new Apple A5X chip with a quad @-@ core graphics processor , a 5 megapixel camera , HD 1080p video recording , voice dictation , and support for LTE networks in North America . It shipped with iOS 5 @.@ 1 , which also provides a platform for audio @-@ visual media , including electronic books , periodicals , films , music , computer games , presentations and web content .
In the US and Canada , nine variations of the third @-@ generation iPad were offered , compared to six in the rest of the world , although some countries had only the Wi @-@ Fi only model . Each variation was available with black or white front glass panels , with options for 16 , 32 , or 64 GB of storage . In North America , connectivity options were Wi @-@ Fi only , Wi @-@ Fi + 4G ( LTE ) on Verizon , AT & T , Telus , Rogers , or Bell . For the rest of the world outside North America , connectivity options are Wi @-@ Fi only ( on the Wi @-@ Fi model ) or Wi @-@ Fi + 3G ( on the Wi @-@ Fi + Cellular model ) , with the latter unavailable in some countries , as 4G ( LTE ) connectivity for the device is not available outside North America . The Wi @-@ Fi + Cellular model includes GPS capability .
Initially , the cellular version was titled and marketed worldwide as the " Wi @-@ Fi + 4G " model , but due to regional differences in classification of 4G ( LTE ) connectivity outside of North America , Apple later rebranded and altered their marketing to call this the " Wi @-@ Fi + Cellular " model .
The tablet was released in ten countries on March 16 , 2012 . It gained mostly positive reviews , earning praise for its Retina display , processor and 4G ( LTE ) capabilities . However , controversy arose when the LTE incompatibilities became known . Three million units were sold in the first three days .
After only seven months ( 221 days ) of official availability , the third @-@ generation iPad was discontinued on October 23 , 2012 , following the announcement of the fourth generation iPad . The third @-@ generation iPad had the shortest lifespan of any iOS product .
= = History = =
Speculation about the product began shortly after Apple released the iPad 2 , which featured front and back cameras as well as a dual @-@ core Apple A5 processor . Speculation increased after news of a 2 @,@ 048 by 1 @,@ 536 pixel screen leaked . During this time , the tablet was called the " iPad 3 " , a colloquial name sometimes still used after the release . On February 9 , 2012 , John Paczkowski of All Things Digital stated that " Apple ’ s not holding an event in February – strange , unusual or otherwise . But it is holding one in March – to launch its next iPad . " Another common rumor at the time was that the tablet would have an Apple A6 processor .
On February 29 , 2012 , Apple announced a media event scheduled for March 7 , 2012 , at the Yerba Buena Center for the Arts . The company did not predisclose the subject of the event , but analysts widely expected the event to announce a new version of the iPad . The announcement affected the tablet resale market positively .
At the event , Apple CEO Tim Cook introduced iOS 5 @.@ 1 , a Japanese version of Siri , and the third generation Apple TV before the third @-@ generation iPad . Cook claimed that the new product would be one of the main contributors to the emerging " post @-@ PC world " – a world in which digital life would not be tied to the PC .
The March 16 , 2012 , release included eight countries including Australia , Canada , Japan , Singapore , the United Kingdom and the United States . The March 23 , 2012 , release included many European countries , Mexico and Macau . The April 20 , 2012 , release added a dozen countries including South Korea and Malaysia . The April 27 , 2012 , release added nine more countries , including India and South Africa . May 2012 releases added 31 countries , including Brazil and Turkey .
On October 23 , 2012 , upon the announcement of the fourth @-@ generation iPad , the third @-@ generation iPad was discontinued . In response to criticism from its owners , the return policy of select Apple Stores was briefly extended to thirty days to allow customers to exchange the third generation model for the fourth generation model .
= = Features = =
= = = Software = = =
The third @-@ generation iPad shipped with iOS 5 @.@ 1 , which was released on March 7 , 2012 . It can act as a hotspot with some carriers , sharing its internet connection over Wi @-@ Fi , Bluetooth , or USB , providing that it is a Wi @-@ Fi + Cellular model . It can also access the App Store , a digital application distribution platform for iOS developed and maintained by Apple . The service allows users to browse and download applications from the iTunes Store that were developed with Xcode and the iOS SDK and were published through Apple . From the App Store , GarageBand , iMovie , iPhoto , and the iWork apps ( Pages , Keynote , and Numbers ) are available .
The iPad comes with several pre @-@ installed applications , including Safari , Mail , Photos , Videos , YouTube , Music , iTunes , App Store , Maps , Notes , Calendar , Game Center , Photo Booth , and Contacts . Like all iOS devices , the iPad can sync content and other data with a Mac or PC using iTunes , although iOS 5 and later can be managed and backed up without a computer . Although the tablet is not designed to make phone calls over a cellular network , users can use a headset or the built @-@ in speaker and microphone and place phone calls over Wi @-@ Fi or cellular using a VoIP application , such as Skype . The device has dictation , using the same voice recognition technology as the iPhone 4S . The user speaks and the iPad types what they say on the screen provided that the iPad is connected to a Wi @-@ Fi or cellular network .
The third @-@ generation device has an optional iBooks application , which displays books and other ePub @-@ format content downloaded from the iBookstore . Several major book publishers including Penguin Books , HarperCollins , Simon & Schuster and Macmillan have committed to publishing books for the device . Despite being a direct competitor to both the Amazon Kindle and Barnes & Noble Nook , both Amazon.com and Barnes & Noble offer e @-@ reader apps for the iPad .
On September 19 , 2012 , iOS 6 , which contains 200 new features , was released . The iOS 6 update includes new features such as Apple Maps , which replaced a mapping application operated by Google , Facebook integration and the ability to operate Siri on the third @-@ generation iPad .
The third @-@ generation iPad is compatible with iOS 7 , which was released in 2013 . Although complete support , some newer features such as AirDrop that were released to newer models were not supported . This is the similar support that was also given on the iPhone 4S .
iOS 8 is also supported by the iPad 3rd Generation . However , some features have been stripped down .
iOS 9 supports the third @-@ generation iPad as well . It is the fifth major iOS release that this model supports . The iOS 9 public beta was also compatible with it . This model has been supported for more than 3 years .
iOS 9 @.@ 3 @.@ 3 is the latest version to support the iPad 3rd Generation . Unlike the iPad 4th Generation , the iPad 3rd Generation will not support iOS 10 due to hardware limitations .
= = = Jailbreaking = = =
Researchers demonstrated within hours of the product release that the third @-@ generation iPad can be " jailbroken " to use applications and programs that are not authorized by Apple . The third @-@ generation iPad can be jailbroken with Redsn0w 0 @.@ 9 @.@ 12 or Absinthe 2 @.@ 0 . Jailbreaking violates the factory warranty . One of the main reasons for jailbreaking is to expand the feature set limited by Apple and its App Store . Most jailbreaking tools automatically install Cydia , a native iOS APT client used for finding and installing software for jailbroken iOS devices . Many apps unapproved by Apple are extensions and customizations for iOS and other apps . Users install these programs to personalize and customize the interface , adding desired features and fixing annoyances , and simplify app development by providing access to the filesystem and command @-@ line tools . However , Apple often patches the exploits used by jailbreaking teams with iOS updates . This is why the iPad 3rd Generation is not always jailbreakable .
= = = Hardware = = =
The device has an Apple A5X SoC with a 1 GHz dual @-@ core 32 @-@ bit Cortex @-@ A9 CPU and a quad @-@ core PowerVR SGX543MP4 GPU ; 1 GB of RAM ; a
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= = Marriage and family = =
Kemp graduated from Occidental in 1957 and married Joanne Main , his college sweetheart , after she graduated from Occidental in 1958 . Main had grown up in Fillmore , California , and attended Fillmore High School in Ventura County . Her father was a teacher and football coach in the Fillmore Unified School District before becoming vice principal and eventually superintendent of the district . Kemp 's Biblical Literature professor , Keith Beebe , presided over the wedding , after which Kemp converted to his wife 's Presbyterian faith . Jack Kemp was a 33rd degree Freemason in the Northern Masonic Jurisdiction .
They had two sons , who were both professional football quarterbacks : Jeff Kemp ( born in 1959 ) played in the NFL from 1981 to 1991 , and Jimmy Kemp ( born in 1971 ) played in the CFL from 1994 to 2002 . Significantly for a man with his demanding schedule , Jack never missed one of their games as children or in college . They also had two daughters : Jennifer Kemp Andrews ( born in 1961 ) and Judith Kemp ( born in 1963 ) .
In 1976 , C. Everett Koop wrote The Right to Live , The Right to Die , setting down his own concerns about abortion , infanticide , and euthanasia . Koop also took some time off from his surgical practice to make a series of films with Christian apologists Frank Schaeffer and his father Francis Schaeffer in 1978 , entitled Whatever Happened to the Human Race ? based on the book of the same title that had been previously written by the elder Schaeffer . Frank Schaeffer and his associate , Jim Buchfuehrer provided a private , five @-@ hour screening of Whatever Happened to the Human Race ? to Jack Kemp and wife Joanne in their home that , according to Frank Schaeffer 's account of the late evening and early morning event in his book Crazy for God , led to both the Schaeffers and Koop obtaining " ... access to everyone in the Republican Party " . Joanne Kemp once suffered a miscarriage , which Kemp later said made him re @-@ evaluate the sanctity of human life and affirmed his opposition to abortion .
Kemp is survived by his wife of fifty years , his four children and 17 grandchildren .
= = Football career = =
After being selected by the Detroit Lions in the 17th round of the 1957 NFL draft , Kemp was cut from the team before the 1957 NFL season began . He spent 1957 with the Pittsburgh Steelers and 1958 on the taxi squads of the San Francisco 49ers and New York Giants . The Giants hosted the NFL championship game , known as the " Greatest Game Ever Played " and the first overtime NFL playoff game , but , as a third @-@ string quarterback member of the taxi squad , Kemp did not take the field .
After his time in the NFL , Kemp served a year as a private in the United States Army Reserve . During his service , he played one game for the Calgary Stampeders of the Canadian Football League , which made him ineligible for the NFL in 1959 . According to his older brother Tom , his parents drove him from California to Calgary , Alberta only to see him cut . By this time Kemp had been cut from five professional teams ( Lions , Steelers , Giants , 49ers , and Stampeders ) and his family encouraged him to get on with his life .
On February 9 and 11 , 1960 , the newly formed AFL agreed to " no tampering " policies with the NFL and CFL respectively , protecting each league 's players . Players like Kemp , with modest NFL experience , were often signed by the AFL at the time . Kemp signed as a free agent with the AFL 's Los Angeles Chargers .
= = = Sid Gillman era ( 1960 – 1962 ) = = =
In 1960 , Kemp led the Chargers to a Western Division Championship with a 10 – 4 record . He finished second in the league to Frank Tripucka in passing attempts , completions , and yards ( making him and Tripucka the league 's first 3 @,@ 000 @-@ yard passers ) , led the AFL in yards per completion and times sacked , and finished one rushing touchdown short of the league lead . Under Kemp , the Chargers ' offense averaged 46 points over its last four games and scored more than 41 points in five of its last nine games . In the AFL championship game , he led the team to field goals on its first two possessions , but after the Houston Oilers posted a touchdown in the second quarter for a 7 – 6 lead , the Chargers never recovered .
In 1961 , San Diego Union editor Jack Murphy convinced Barron Hilton to move the Chargers from Los Angeles to San Diego . Kemp led the relocated team to a 12 – 2 record and a repeat Western Division Championship . He again finished second in passing yards ( this time to George Blanda ) . The Chargers earned an AFL championship game rematch against the Oilers . However , this time the Chargers were unable to score until a fourth @-@ quarter field goal in a 10 – 3 loss .
The Berlin Wall was erected in August 1961 . On October 15 , 1961 , President John F. Kennedy activated Kemp 's San Diego @-@ based 977th Transportation Company reserves unit for duty in response . In September , the right @-@ handed Kemp had injured his left shoulder while playing football . Medical examiners found swelling and muscle spasms and described his voluntary range of motion at 80 % . In a decision that was reviewed and upheld by the Surgeon General of the United States Army , Army doctors found him as unfit for active duty . That year , he led the Chargers to a division title , passing for 2 @,@ 686 yards and 15 touchdowns . Years later , Kemp 's 1961 Chargers roommate , Ron Mix , recalled that Kemp needed " ten or so " shots of painkillers before each game and commented that " it sounds weird , but he could play football and not be fit to serve in the Army . "
In 1962 , Kemp broke his middle finger two games into the season and was unable to play . He persuaded his doctors to set his broken finger around a football , so that his grip would not be affected once the finger healed . Chargers coach Sid Gillman put Kemp on waivers to try to " hide " him . Buffalo Bills coach Lou Saban noticed that Kemp was available and claimed him for a $ 100 waiver fee on September 25 , 1962 , in what sportswriter Randy Schultz has called one of the biggest bargains in professional football history . The Dallas Texans and Denver Broncos also attempted to claim Kemp , but he was awarded to Buffalo by AFL commissioner Joe Foss .
= = = Lou Saban era ( 1962 – 1965 ) = = =
According to Billy Shaw , Kemp 's acquisition solved the Bills ' quarterback problem , but Kemp was not excited about coming to Buffalo . According to Van Miller , " Jack 's a skier , and he wanted to go to Denver and play for the Broncos . He hated the thought of coming to Buffalo . " In Buffalo , he would become known for his love of reading a broad range of books including those by Henry Thoreau , which led to chidings from Saban .
Injuries , including the broken finger , kept Kemp from playing for most of 1962 . That season , Kemp received a military draft notice for service in the Vietnam War but was granted a draft waiver because of a knee problem . The injuries healed , and Kemp debuted for Buffalo on November 18 , 1962 , by directing the only touchdown drive in a 10 – 6 win over the Oakland Raiders . He played only four games for Buffalo in 1962 , but made the AFL All @-@ Star team . The Bills won three of their last four games to finish 7 – 6 – 1 .
On December 14 , 1962 , the Bills outbid the Green Bay Packers for Notre Dame quarterback Daryle Lamonica . In 1963 , a four @-@ season starting quarterback battle began that continued until Lamonica left for the Raiders . Lamonica felt he " ... learned a lot from Jack about quarterbacking . And I truly believe that we were a great one @-@ two punch at the position for the Bills . " In 1963 , Kemp led the Bills from a slow start to a tie for the AFL Eastern Division lead with a 7 – 6 – 1 record . Kemp again placed second in passing attempts , completions , and yards , and he also finished second to teammate Cookie Gilchrist in rushing touchdowns . The Bills played the Boston Patriots in an Eastern Division playoff game to determine the division title on December 28 at War Memorial Stadium in Buffalo , New York , in 10 ° F ( − 12 ° C ) weather . During the game , Buffalo replaced Kemp with Lamonica after falling behind 16 – 0 , but still lost 26 – 8 .
Kemp was said to be the " clubhouse lawyer " for the Bills because of his role in mediating conflicts . In 1964 , he managed personalities such as Gilchrist , who walked off the field when plays were not being called for him , and Saban , whom he kept from cutting Gilchrist the following week . He also managed the politics of his quarterback battle with Lamonica , who engineered four winning touchdown drives in the Bills ' first seven games . Kemp was the first and only Professional Football player to pass for three touchdowns in the first quarter of a season @-@ opening game , against the Kansas City Chiefs in 1964 , until the record was tied but not broken , 47 years later in 2011 by Aaron Rodgers . The 1964 team won its first nine games and went 12 – 2 for the regular season , winning the Eastern Division with a final game victory over the Patriots at Fenway Park . Kemp led the league in yards per attempt and finished one rushing touchdown short of the league lead , which was shared by Gilchrist and Sid Blanks . In the AFL championship game , he scored the final touchdown with just over nine minutes left in a 20 – 7 victory .
According to Lamonica , the 1965 team had a new emphasis : " In ' 64 we had depended a lot on Gilchrist and our running attack to carry us . . .But that all changed in ' 65 . The Bills had traded Gilchrist in the off season to the Denver Broncos . So we went to a pass @-@ oriented game more that season than we ever had before . We not only went to our receivers , but we threw a lot to our running backs . And I really think it brought out the best in Jack that year . " In 1965 , the Bills finished with a 10 – 3 – 1 record . Kemp finished the season second in the league in pass completions . In the 1965 AFL Championship Game , Buffalo defeated the Chargers 23 – 0 ; for Kemp , the victory was special because it came against his former team . Kemp 's role in leading the Bills to a repeat championship without Gilchrist and with star receiver Elbert Dubenion playing only three games earned him a share of the AFL MVP awards that he split with former Charger teammate , Paul Lowe . Kemp also won the Associated Press award and the Championship Game Most Valuable Player award .
= = = Joe Collier and John Rauch eras ( 1966 – 1969 ) = = =
Following the championship game , Saban resigned to coach the University of Maryland and defensive coordinator Joe Collier was promoted to head coach for the 1966 season . Kemp led the Bills to their third consecutive division title with a 9 – 4 – 1 record . However , in the AFL championship game , which was played for the right to represent the AFL in Super Bowl I , the Bills lost to the Kansas City Chiefs 31 – 7 . Kemp was named an AFL All @-@ Star for the sixth consecutive year . The 1967 Bills endured a 4 – 10 1967 AFL season , in which Kemp was not named to the All @-@ Star game for the first time in his AFL career .
On August 23 , 1968 , the Bills suffered a blowout preseason loss to the Houston Oilers . On August 26 , Collier put the Bills through a 40 @-@ play scrimmage . During the scrimmage , Ron McDole fell on Kemp 's right knee and injured it , forcing Kemp to sit out the entire 1968 season . The Bills went 1 – 12 – 1 without Kemp .
Despite Kemp 's return from injury and the arrival of running back O. J. Simpson , the Bills only compiled a 4 – 10 record during the 1969 season under new coach John Rauch . Kemp was named an AFL All @-@ Star in 1969 for the seventh time in the league 's 10 years . He advocated recognition of the league , and in its last year , 1969 , lobbied Pete Rozelle to have AFL teams wear an AFL patch to honor it . In 1969 , the Erie County Republican Party approached him about running for the United States Congress . After the January 17 , 1970 , AFL All @-@ Star game , Kemp returned home and talked to his wife before deciding to enter politics . Kemp said , " I had a four @-@ year no @-@ cut contract with the Bills at the time . ... I figured that if I lost I could always come back and play . But the fans had their say and I was elected to Congress . "
= = = Career summary = = =
Kemp led Buffalo to four straight years in the AFL playoffs , three consecutive Eastern Division titles and two straight AFL Championships . He led the league in career passes attempted , completions , and yards gained passing . He played in five of the AFL 's 10 Championship Games , and holds the same career records ( passing attempts , completions , and yardage ) for championships . He is second in many other championship game categories , including career and single @-@ game passer rating . He ranks third in rushing touchdowns by an NFL or AFL quarterback with 40 , behind Steve Young 's 52 and Otto Graham 's 44 . A Sporting News All @-@ League selection at quarterback in 1960 and 1965 , and the AFL MVP in 1965 . He was the only AFL quarterback to be listed as a starter all 10 years of the league 's existence and one of only 20 players to serve all 10 of those years . His number 15 was retired by the Bills in 1984 .
However , despite his success and important AFL records , he is most prominently listed in the NFL record book for less flattering accomplishments , including his place as a former record holder for most quarterback sacks in a game . Despite Kemp 's many records , Joe Namath and Len Dawson were selected as the quarterbacks for the All @-@ time AFL team . Kemp is a member of the Greater Buffalo Sports Hall of Fame and the Buffalo Bills ' Wall of Fame .
Kemp co @-@ founded the AFL Players Association with Tom Addison of the Boston Patriots , and was elected its president five times . His founding of and involvement in the players ' union contributed to his frequent siding with the Democrats on labor issues later in his career .
The NCAA 's highest honor , the Theodore Roosevelt Award , was presented to Kemp in 1992 , and he was named one of the Association 's 100 most influential student @-@ athletes in 2006 .
= = Political career = =
Kemp 's political career began long before his 1970 campaign . In 1960 and 1961 , Kemp was an editorial assistant to San Diego Union editor and future Richard Nixon aide Herb Klein . Subsequently , Kemp became a volunteer in both Barry Goldwater 's 1964 presidential campaign and Ronald Reagan 's successful 1966 California gubernatorial campaign . In the 1967 football off @-@ season , Kemp worked on Reagan 's staff in Sacramento . In 1969 he was special assistant to the Republican National Committee chairman .
Kemp was a voracious reader , and his political beliefs were founded in early readings of Goldwater 's The Conscience of a Conservative , Ayn Rand 's libertarian novels , such as The Fountainhead , and Friedrich von Hayek 's The Constitution of Liberty . He also brought from his football career a belief in racial equality , which came from playing football with black teammates : Kemp said , " I wasn 't there with Rosa Parks or Dr. King or John Lewis . But I am here now , and I am going to yell from the rooftops about what we need to do . " Kemp 's football colleagues confirmed this influence : John Mackey explained that " the huddle is colorblind . "
= = = Congress ( 1971 – 1989 ) = = =
As a self @-@ described " bleeding @-@ heart conservative " , Kemp represented a part of the suburban Buffalo region known as the Southtowns ( that traditionally voted Democratic ) in the United States House of Representatives from 1971 to 1989 . He is as fondly remembered for his good hair and handsome looks as for his athletic prowess and political savvy , and was described as having the charisma of the earlier J.F.K. ( John F. Kennedy ) . David Rosenbaum described Kemp as an independent politician who often legislated outside his committees ' jurisdictions and often spoke in favor of ideals and principles rather than his party 's political platforms . As a supply @-@ sider , he was not a proponent of balanced budgeting and trivialized it while speaking of growth as an economic goal .
The Erie County , New York Republicans had drafted Kemp after incumbent congressman Richard D. McCarthy decided to run for the United States Senate . During his inaugural campaign , his district was in economic malaise , and The New York Times described him as a John F. Kennedy throwback who campaigned on family values , patriotism , sports , and defense . Upon his election to the Congress in a class of sixty @-@ two freshmen , he was one of six newcomers — along with Ronald Dellums , Bella Abzug , Louise Day Hicks , Robert Drinan , and Pete du Pont — discussed in Time . The article described him as a football fan like United States President Richard Nixon and as the recipient of advice from White House adviser Robert Finch and former Kemp boss Herb Klein , Nixon 's director of communications . The Nixon aides encouraged Kemp to endorse the Cambodian invasion and to oppose criticism of Nixon 's war policies in order to firm up Kemp 's support from military hawks .
Kemp championed several Chicago school and supply @-@ side economics issues : economic growth , free markets , free trade , tax simplification and lower tax rates on both employment and investment income . He was a long @-@ time proponent of the flat tax . He also defended the use of anti @-@ Communist contra forces in Central America , supported the gold standard , spoke for civil rights legislation , opposed abortion , and was the first lawmaker to popularize enterprise zones , which he supported to foster entrepreneurship and job creation and expand homeownership among public housing tenants . During his career , he sometimes sounded like a liberal Democrat : he supported affirmative action and rights for illegal immigrants . The New York Times described Kemp as the most proactive combatant in the war on poverty since Robert Kennedy . He differed from Rockefeller Republicans and earlier combatants such as Lyndon Johnson by supporting incentive @-@ based systems instead of traditional social programs . For his commitment to inner city concerns from within the Republican party , David Gergen heralded him as a " courageous voice in the wilderness . " Although he was liberal on many social issues and supported civil liberties for homosexuals , he opposed certain gay rights such as the right to teach in schools . Kemp at times felt his role was that of " freewheeling , entrepreneurial , wildcatting backbencher . "
Time magazine identified 38 @-@ year @-@ old second @-@ term congressman Kemp as a future leader in its 1974 " Faces for the Future " feature . Another early @-@ career notable magazine appearance was in a 1978 issue of Esquire . The article explained allegations of homosexual activity among staffers in Ronald Reagan 's Sacramento office in 1967 ; Kemp was not implicated . Kemp considered running for the U.S. Senate in 1980 and Hugh Sidey mentioned him as a contender to unseat Jimmy Carter in the 1980 presidential election and was a front runner for the vice presidency at the 1980 Republican National Convention , where he received 43 votes from conservative detractors of George H. W. Bush . After he was reelected for a sixth term in 1980 , his Republican peers elected him to a party leadership position , and he served seven years as chairman of the House Republican Conference . This promotion occurred immediately after Kemp and David Stockman urged Reagan by memorandum to dedicate his first 100 days to working on an economic package with Congress . Kemp considered running for Governor of New York in 1982 but ultimately decided to stay in the House . By 1984 , many viewed Kemp as Reagan 's heir apparent .
Kemp had his first encounter with supply @-@ side economics in 1976 , when The Wall Street Journal 's Jude Wanniski interviewed him at his Congressional office . Kemp questioned Wanniski all day ( until midnight , at Kemp 's Bethesda , Maryland home ) and was eventually converted to University of Southern California professor Arthur Laffer 's supply @-@ side discipline . Thereafter , Kemp espoused supply @-@ side economics freely , and in 1978 he and Sen. Bill Roth of Delaware proposed tax @-@ cutting legislation . Kemp has been credited as responsible for supply @-@ side economics ' inclusion in President Reagan 's economic plan , although at the time of Robert Mundell 's Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics recognition some attributed much of the credit to Mundell , Laffer , Robert Bartley , and Wanniski . In 1979 , Kemp wrote An American Renaissance ( ISBN 0 @-@ 06 @-@ 012283 @-@ 8 ) , to deliver his message that " A rising tide lifts all boats . " Although the realization of early 1980s tax cuts are attributed to Reagan , they were initiated by Kemp and Roth through their 1981 Kemp – Roth Tax Cut legislation . Reagan 's budget based on this legislation passed over the objection of United States House Committee on Ways and Means Chairman Dan Rostenkowski .
During the Reagan years , Kemp and his followers ignored budget balancing while promoting tax cuts and economic growth . These tax cuts have been credited by conservatives for the economic growth from 1983 to 1990 , which by 1996 had become one of the longest expansions in American history . Kemp notes that Federal Reserve chairman Paul Volcker 's success at stemming inflation and the favorable regulatory environment were also major factors . Detractors note that the expansion was fueled by undesirable sectors like gaming , prisons , medical treatment , and credit card use .
An early Kemp tax reform attempt was an unsuccessful 1979 proposal to index tax brackets for cost of living fluctuations , which was incorporated in Reagan 's 1980 package . Kemp co @-@ sponsored a legislative attempt at enterprise zones in 1980 . One of Kemp 's more trying times as a congressman came in 1982 when Reagan decided to reverse the tax cuts and promote tax increases . The reversal was controversial and stimulated opposition by Kemp . Nonetheless , the revised taxes passed . In 1983 , Kemp opposed the policies of chairman Volcker on multiple occasions . The debates included domestic monetary involvement and roles in funding the International Monetary Fund .
Kemp delivered speeches at several Republican National Conventions . He addressed the convention on July 15 at the 1980 Republican National Convention in Detroit , Michigan and on August 21 at the 1984 Republican National Convention in Dallas , Texas . During the 1984 Convention , with Trent Lott as Republican Party Platform Committee chairman , Congressmen Kemp and Newt Gingrich claimed control of the party platform to the consternation of G.O.P. senators Bob Dole and Howard Baker . Kemp 's official role was as the chairman of the platform subcommittee on foreign policy . However , the three platform planks that he proposed involved tax hikes , the gold standard and the role of the Federal Reserve . Despite Kemp 's official role , his real influence as an author was on the grammatical structure of the plank on tax hikes . By 1985 , Kemp was a leading contender for the 1988 Presidential nomination . He also delivered remarks on free enterprise zones at the 1992 Republican National Convention in Houston , Texas . Despite efforts and considerations of expanding his political domain , Kemp never held a fundraiser outside of his suburban Western New York district until well into his eighth term in Congress .
Kemp was a critic of association football , known as soccer in the United States . In 1986 , during a House floor debate over whether the United States should host the 1994 FIFA World Cup , Kemp proclaimed : " I think it is important for all those young out there — who someday hope to play real football , where you throw it and kick it and run with it and put it in your hands — [ that ] a distinction should be made that football is democratic capitalism , whereas soccer is a European socialist sport . " Kemp compared his speech to George Carlin 's 1984 comedy routine on the differences between baseball and American football and wrote that his " tongue was firmly planted in cheek " when making the speech . Despite the levity of the speech , it garnered significant backlash . However , he continued to insist that soccer 's main problem is " it doesn 't have a quarterback " . Kemp noted that about half of his grandchildren play or have played organized soccer and claimed to have " changed " his position on soccer . He even attended the 1994 FIFA World Cup with longtime soccer fan Henry Kissinger , although he wrote during the 2006 FIFA World Cup that soccer can be interesting to watch but is still a " boring game " .
= = = Presidential bid ( 1988 ) = = =
In 1988 , if Kemp had won his campaign for the United States Presidency , it would have made him the first person to move from the United States House of Representatives to the White House since James Garfield . When he formed his exploratory committee , he signed Ed Rollins , Reagan 's 1984 re @-@ election political director , as an advisor . From the outset , Kemp had failed to position himself as the primary alternative to Vice President Bush . Except for a select few cognoscenti , the general public did not recognize Kemp 's leadership ability , although he was a successful man of ideas . In fact , most of the Republican electorate found themselves unfamiliar with Kemp early in his campaign . Political pundits recognized him , however , as a visionary idea man . In addition , he was quickly perceived as a verbose speaker who sometimes lost contact with his audience . Although Kemp tried to appeal to the conservatives , his libertarian philosophies of tolerance and individual rights and his commitment to supporting minorities , women , blue @-@ collar workers and organized labor clashed with conservative voters ' social and religious values . To Democrats , Kemp 's free @-@ market philosophies were a form of laissez @-@ faire anarchy . However , as much as Kemp wanted to minimize government 's role , he acknowledged that moves toward a more laissez @-@ faire system should be well @-@ thought out .
After the May 1987 Gary Hart – Donna Rice scandal , a questionnaire by The New York Times requested things such as psychiatric records and access to FBI files from all 14 presidential candidates . Candidates from each party expressed opinions on both sides of the personal privacy issue , and Kemp rejected the Times inquiry as " beneath the dignity of a presidential candidate " . His campaign was on an early positive course with many key early endorsements in New Hampshire , but Bush held the support of much of the Republican establishment in New York . Although he had an eclectic mix of supporters , Kemp 's campaign began borrowing against anticipated Federal matching funds because it had quickly spent itself into the red , which may have been due to the use of expensive direct mail fundraising techniques . To offset his socially moderate stances , Kemp clarified his opposition to abortion , his support of the Strategic Defense Initiative ( SDI ) and his support for a stronger military than that favored by Secretary of State George Shultz . To position himself as Reagan 's successor , Kemp called for Shultz 's resignation based on claims that Shultz had neglected freedom fighters in Afghanistan and Nicaragua and had waffled on SDI . In an attempt to highlight his stands on key Reagan Era foreign policy initiatives , Kemp traveled in September 1987 to Costa Rica , Honduras and El Salvador to lobby the presidents of those nations against the Arias Peace Plan — a peace accord US conservatives felt too conciliatory to Central American communists . He was accompanied on the trip by 50 @-@ plus US conservative leaders .
Despite a platform covering the full range of political subjects , Kemp 's primary campaign weapon was a fiscal policy based on tax cuts . As part of his fiscal policy , he opposed a Social Security benefits freeze and endorsed a freeze on government spending . Some viewed Kemp 's supply @-@ side stance as an attempt to ignore the national budget deficit . In late 1987 , political pundits saw that Kemp needed to gain support from the far right on non @-@ social issues . Kemp was among the majority of Republican candidates in opposition to Reagan 's INF Treaty agreement with the Soviet Union 's Mikhail Gorbachev despite general Republican voter approval of the treaty . With aspirations of support from right @-@ wing voters , all candidates with low levels of poll support for the nomination took this same " sabre @-@ rattling " stand . By early 1988 , the moderates ( Bush and Dole ) were clearly the front @-@ runners and Kemp was battling with Pat Robertson as the conservative alternative to the moderates .
He used a somewhat negative advertising campaign that seemed to have the intended initial effect of boosting him to serious contention . His 1988 campaign was based on the platform of supply @-@ side economics and inner @-@ city enterprise zones . In Bare Knuckles and Back Rooms : My Life in American Politics , campaign chairman Rollins described Kemp as a candidate with foibles . Kemp 's campaign managers say he was unmanageable : he ignored timers on his speeches , refused to call contributors , and refused to practice for debates . A humbling Super Tuesday , in which his 39 delegate total was fewer than eventual nominee and President Bush and both Dole and Pat Robertson , ended his campaign . After withdrawing from the race , he was still considered a contender for the Vice President nomination . In 1989 , the Kemps switched their official residence from Hamburg , New York to Bethesda , Maryland , their residence at the time of his death . In 1994 , Kemp 's 1988 campaign reached a settlement with the Federal Election Commission by agreeing to pay $ 120 @,@ 000 in civil penalties for 1988 campaign election law violations for , among other things , excessive contributions , improper direct corporate donations , press overbilling , exceeding spending limits in Iowa and New Hampshire , and failure to reimburse corporations for providing air transportation .
= = = Cabinet ( 1989 – 1993 ) = = =
As a so @-@ called " bleeding @-@ heart conservative " , Kemp was a logical choice for Bush as the Secretary of Housing and Urban Development , whose job would be to foster public sector and private sector methods to meet the demands of public housing . However , the scandals of Reagan 's Secretary of Housing and Urban Development Samuel Pierce and the neglect of the president were obstacles from the start , and Kemp was unsuccessful at either of his major initiatives : enacting enterprise zones and promoting public housing tenant ownership . The goal of these two plans was to change public housing into tenant @-@ owned residences and to lure industry and business into inner cities with federal incentives . Although Kemp did not affect much policy as HUD 's director , he cleaned up HUD 's reputation , and developed a plan to salvage the troubled Federal Housing Administration . He halted or revamped corrupt programs and developed an antidrug offensive , which enabled him to collaborate with Director of the National Drug Control Policy Bill Bennett . He supported " Operation Clean Sweep " and similar movements to prohibit firearm possession in public housing .
Although Kemp coaxed Bush to support a $ 4 billion housing program that encouraged public housing tenants to buy their own apartments , the Democratic Congress allocated only $ 361 million to the plan . In addition to opposition in Congress , Kemp fought White House Budget Director Richard Darman , who opposed Kemp 's pet project HOPE ( Homeownership and Opportunity for People Everywhere ) . The project involved selling public housing to its tenants . Darman also opposed Kemp 's proposed welfare adjustment of government offsets . HOPE was first proposed to White House chief of staff John Sununu in June 1989 to create enterprise zones , increase subsidies for low @-@ income renters , expand social services for the homeless and elderly , and enact tax changes to help first @-@ time home buyers . Sununu opposed it at first as did most of the Cabinet , but in August 1990 Sununu , at the urging of United States Attorney General Dick Thornburgh , encouraged President Bush to endorse Kemp 's Economic Empowerment Task Force . However , the Persian Gulf War and the budget negotiations overshadowed Kemp 's new project . Darman battled Kemp and his allies such as Gingrich , James Pinkerton , and Vin Weber . The budget left him with $ 256 million for his plan , which Kemp increased during some appropriations battles . Soon after Clayton Yeutter was appointed chief White House domestic policy advisor , Kemp 's Economic Empowerment Task Force was abolished .
President Bush avoided federal antipoverty issues , and instead used Kemp as a mouthpiece to speak on the administration 's low priority conservative activist agenda . Bush 's contribution to the urban agenda had been volunteerism through his " Points of Light " theme , and Kemp received stronger support for his ideas from Presidential candidate Bill Clinton . By the time of the Los Angeles riots of 1992 , Bush was a bit late in supporting enterprise zones , tenant ownership and welfare reform : Mort Zuckerman compared Bush 's vision on racial issues to that of a man riding backwards in a railroad car . Nonetheless , the riots made Kemp a focal point of the administration , even though at first , Kemp had been overlooked . However , Charles E. Schumer had probably summarized the prospects of Kemp 's success in advance best when he said in 1989 , " Good ideas with money can do a whole lot . Good ideas without money aren 't probably going to do a whole lot , " and the issue here was the decision not to fund Kemp 's ideas . Although Kemp was unable to procure money for his visions , he was among the administration 's leading users of first class corporate jets . He cited lingering effects from a knee injury as the reason he had to fly first class at government expense as the Housing Secretary .
Generally , his time as housing secretary was considered unsuccessful . However , although he could not get federal funding for empowerment zones passed during his tenure , by 1992 38 states had created empowerment zones , and in 1994 $ 3 @.@ 5 billion was approved for them under President Clinton . A free market Kemp initiative to allow homeowners to subdivide their houses for the purpose of creating rental units without inordinate bureaucracy did not get executed under the Clinton administration , however . In 1992 , with H. Ross Perot mounting a formidable campaign , Kemp was again considered a Vice Presidential candidate .
Kemp was partly at fault for not achieving either of his primary goals because he did not get along with the rest of the Cabinet . At one point , Kemp told James Baker , White House Chief of Staff , that Bush 's best chance to win reelection was to dump his economic advisors in dramatic fashion . Before the 1992 Republican National Convention , Kemp and six prominent Republican conservatives prepared a controversial memo urging Bush to revise his economic policy . Contemporaneously , conservative Republicans in office and in the media such as William F. Buckley Jr. and George Will felt Dan Quayle should be ousted in favor of Kemp . This followed Kemp 's reference to parts of the President 's economic policy as " gimmicks " after the 1992 State of the Union Address . Kemp was respected within the party for opposing Bush , and towards the end of Bush 's administration insiders recognized his value . In late 1991 , 81 of the 166 Republican Congressmen signed a letter co @-@ authored by Curt Weldon and Dan Burton requesting that Bush cede some domestic authority to Kemp as a " domestic policy czar . " The letter , highlighting Kemp 's " energy , enthusiasm and national clout " , insulted Bush . Kemp was a bit of a surprise to stay in the Bush Cabinet for the duration of his presidency , and he was described as one of the few Bush Administration members who would take tough stands . Kemp did not expect to be retained if the Republicans were reelected in 1992 , and some pundits agreed with him .
= = = Post @-@ HUD years ( 1993 – 1996 ) = = =
Kemp gave public speeches for $ 35 @,@ 000 apiece between his time as Housing Secretary and his Vice Presidential nomination . By 1994 , Kemp had embarked on 241 fund @-@ raising dinners to raise $ 35 million for a 1996 Presidential bid and to pay off his 1988 campaign debts . After stepping down from his $ 189 @,@ 000 Secretary of Housing and Urban Development job , Kemp personally earned $ 6 @.@ 9 million in the next three years , primarily for speaking on behalf of local Republican candidates . During the Super Bowl XXVIII festivities , Kemp hosted a notable fundraiser series .
Kemp was considered the star of the 1992 Republican National Convention . In 1992 and 1993 , Kemp was considered the favorite or co @-@ favorite for the 1996 Presidential nomination . At the time of the 1994 mid @-@ term elections , Kemp was widely anticipated to announce his candidacy for 1996 , and his supporters wanted a formal announcement by the end of the year . In January 1995 , Kemp 's stated reason for not entering the 1996 Republican Party presidential primaries was that his personal beliefs were out of balance with the contemporary Republican political landscape : Kemp opposed term limits , he always preferred tax cuts to anything resembling a balanced budget amendment and , unlike most Republicans , favored federal incentives to combat urban poverty . In 1995 , Gloria Borger noted Kemp was not in step with the 1994 Contract with America . Kemp also noted a distaste for the vast fundraising necessary for a Presidential campaign . Gergen stated that by 1996 the selection process had become so expensive , mean and personally invasive that it discouraged several top Republicans from running . In 1995 , while the world awaited the campaign decision announcement by Colin Powell , Kemp had positive thoughts on the prospect of such a campaign .
Senate Majority Leader Dole and Gingrich appointed Kemp to head a tax reform commission , ( the Kemp Commission ) , in response to voter concern that the tax code had become too complicated . Kemp championed many issues including the flat tax , which he formally proposed after he was appointed . The proposal included some politically popular income tax deductions , such as mortgage interest , but it remained fairly general . Among the 1996 Republican Party candidates , both Steve Forbes and Phil Gramm proposed the flat tax .
During the campaign , Kemp 's endorsement was highly coveted . Forbes had tried to get Kemp to run in the 1996 campaign , but Kemp declined and in fact endorsed Forbes just as Dole was closing in on the nomination , and just after Dole gained the endorsements of former contenders Lamar Alexander and Richard Lugar . Some feel the primary reason for the endorsement was to keep the flat tax idea and other supply @-@ side views alive . Many thought Kemp had destroyed his own political future with the endorsement , and Kemp profusely apologized to Dole 's campaign offices . After it became clear Dole would be the nominee , Kemp attempted to form a bipartisan seminar with
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3 . Try to Remember did not get picked up as a regular series .
= 1997 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1997 Atlantic hurricane season was a below average season and is the most recent season to feature no tropical cyclones in August – typically one of the most active months . The season officially began on June 1 , and lasted until November 30 . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin . The 1997 season was inactive , with only seven named storms forming , with an additional tropical depression and an unnumbered subtropical storm . It was the first time since the 1961 season that there were no active tropical cyclones in the Atlantic basin during the entire month of August . A strong El Niño is credited with reducing the number of storms in the Atlantic , while increasing the number of storms in the Eastern and Western Pacific basin to 19 and 29 storms , respectively . As is common in El Niño years , tropical cyclogenesis was suppressed in the tropical latitudes , with only two becoming tropical storms south of 25 ° N.
The first system , an operationally unnoticed subtropical storm , developed north of The Bahamas on June 1 and dissipated by the following day without impact . Tropical Storm Ana developed offshore South Carolina on June 30 and dissipated on July 4 , after causing minor affects in North Carolina . Hurricane Bill was a short @-@ lived storm between that lasted from July 11 to July 13 and produced light rainfall in Newfoundland . As Bill as dissipating , Tropical Storm Claudette developed and caused rough seas in North Carolina . The most devastating storm was Hurricane Danny , which caused extensive flooding , particularly in southern Alabama . Danny resulted in 9 fatalities and about $ 100 million ( 1997 USD ) in damage . The outerbands of Hurricane Erika brought rough seas and gusty winds to the Lesser Antilles , causing 2 deaths in $ 10 million in losses . The precursor to Tropical Storm Grace caused minor flooding in Puerto Rico . Tropical Depression Five and Tropical Storms Fabian did not impact land . Collectively , the storms of the 1997 Atlantic hurricane season resulted in 12 fatalities and approximately $ 111 @.@ 46 million in damage .
= = Season summary = =
= = = Pre @-@ season forecasts = = =
Forecasts of hurricane activity are issued before each hurricane season by noted hurricane experts such as Dr. William M. Gray and his associates at Colorado State University ( CSU ) . A normal season as defined by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , has eleven named storms , of which six reach hurricane strength , and two major hurricanes . The May 1997 forecast stated that eleven storms would form and that seven would reach hurricane status . In addition , it was predicted that three of the seven hurricanes would intensify into a major hurricane – a Category 3 rating on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale .
= = = Season activity = = =
The Atlantic hurricane season officially began on June 1 , and an unnamed subtropical storm developed on the same day . 1997 was the least active hurricane season in above average era of tropical cyclogenesis , which began in 1995 . Only nine tropical depressions formed . Eight of the depressions attained tropical storm status , and just three of these attained hurricane status . There was only one tropical cyclone to reach major hurricane status , which was slightly below the 1950 – 2005 average of two per season . Only Danny made landfall at hurricane strength during the season , although Hurricane Erika and Tropical Storm Grace also caused damage and fatalities . Those three cyclones collectively caused 11 deaths and $ 111 @.@ 46 million in damage . The last storm of the season , Tropical Storm Grace , dissipated on October 17 , over a month before the official end of the season on November 30 .
The 1997 Atlantic hurricane season had a very active beginning . In June , two tropical cyclones developed – the unnoticed subtropical storm and Tropical Storm Ana . An unusual four tropical cyclones formed in the month of July , three of which reached tropical storm intensity , and two of them became hurricanes . Despite the active start , the other months of the season featured record low activity , especially in August and September , both of which combined produced only one tropical cyclone . As a result of the active start and subsequent lack of activity , it showed that early season activity has no correlation to the entire season . The lone tropical cyclone during the period was Hurricane Erika , which developed on September 3 . In October , two short @-@ lived tropical cyclones developed , Fabian and Grace . Tropical cyclogenesis ceased after Grace transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on October 17 .
The season 's activity was reflected with a low accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) rating of 41 . ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , have high ACEs . ACE is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 34 knots ( 39 mph , 63 km / h ) or tropical storm strength . Although officially , subtropical cyclones , such as the unnamed storm , are excluded from the total , the figure above includes periods when storms were in a subtropical phase .
= = Storms = =
= = = Unnamed Subtropical Storm = = =
A cluster of thunderstorms developed over Florida in late May . A shortwave trough brought it to the northeast , enhancing convection around a developing center of circulation . The low pressure area , which formed on May 31 , developed into a subtropical depression on June 1 . Operationally , it was treated as a frontal low , but post @-@ analysis suggested it remained separate throughout its lifetime , and was classified as an unnamed subtropical storm . It reached subtropical storm strength six hours later as it moved rapidly parallel to the East Coast of the United States . The convection continued to wrap around the center , and despite unfavorable conditions from an approaching cold front it continued to intensify . Late on June 1 , it reached its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) while off the coast of North Carolina . The storm turned to the east , and transitioned extratropical late on June 2 southeast of Massachusetts . Shortly thereafter , the remnants of the storm merged with a cold front .
= = = Tropical Storm Ana = = =
A frontal low pressure system off the coast of South Carolina developed into Tropical Depression One at 1200 UTC on June 30 . It moved slowly eastward , and attained tropical storm status on July 1 . After becoming a tropical storm , Ana slightly intensified . Early on July 2 , Ana attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) and a minimum central pressure of 1 @,@ 000 mbar ( 30 inHg ) . Later on July 2 , a shortwave trough forced Ana to northeastward , into a region of increasing vertical wind shear . Simultaneously , Ana began to weaken , as it was moving into an area of decreasing sea surface temperatures ( SST ) .
By late on July 3 , Ana weakened to a tropical depression . The storm also lost tropical characteristics and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone early on July 4 , over the western Atlantic Ocean . The extratropical remnants persisted until dissipating about twenty @-@ four hours later . Minimal impact was reported as a result of Ana , other than rip currents in coastal North Carolina . Due to the rough seas , 14 rescues and one serious injury occurred at Carolina Beach . In addition , five rescues were made at Kure Beach and at least one person was hospitalized . However , there were no fatalities at either location .
= = = Hurricane Bill = = =
A large upper @-@ level low separated from a trough north of Puerto Rico in early July . Convection increased on July 7 after a surface trough developed , and a low pressure area formed east of the Bahamas once the upper @-@ level low retreated to the southwest . Wind shear decreased across the region , allowing the convection to increase and organize , and it is estimated the system developed into a tropical depression on July 11 about 330 miles ( 530 km ) southwest of Bermuda . After developing , the cyclone moved northeastward in advance of an approaching cold front . It quickly intensified into Tropical Storm Bill , and briefly threatened to pass near Bermuda . As a result , a tropical storm warning was issued , although it was quickly dropped ; there was no impact on the island from Bill .
Bill quickly intensified as it continued northeastward . By midday on July 12 , an eye feature was observed on satellite images , which suggested that Bill intensified into hurricane status at a relatively high latitude . Bill had in fact intensified into a hurricane , and the storm had attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) minimum pressure of 986 mbar ( 29 @.@ 1 inHg ) . After only 12 hours at hurricane status , Bill weakened back to tropical storm status , and on July 13 was absorbed by the cold front about 185 miles ( 298 km ) south of Cape Race , Newfoundland . Bill dropped very light rainfall on Newfoundland , peaking at slightly less than 1 inch ( 25 mm ) .
= = = Tropical Storm Claudette = = =
The frontal system that influenced the track of Hurricane Bill spawned a non @-@ tropical low off the southeast United States on July 11 . The low remained nearly stationary as the front dissipated , and it developed into Tropical Depression Three on July 13 about 325 miles ( 523 km ) south @-@ southeast of Wilmington , North Carolina . The depression quickly intensified into Tropical Storm Claudette , based on reconnaissance aircraft data . It moved northeastward , passing southeast of the Outer Banks . Despite the presence of wind shear it developed banding features . On July 14 , the storm reached peak winds of 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) . Thereafter , Claudette turned eastward ahead of a frontal system .
Its associated thunderstorm activity was sporadic and relatively disorganized , and the storm weakened to a tropical depression on July 16 . Claudette briefly re @-@ intensified into a tropical storm before becoming extratropical later that day . Shortly thereafter , it merged with a cold front , while the remnants were last noted near the Azores on July 23 . Tropical Storm Claudette had minimal effects on land . Severe rip currents from Claudette in North Carolina caused several rescues and one person was injured , although no fatalities occurred . Some residents of coastal North Carolina were even disappointed that Claudette was to remain offshore , as the region was suffering from dry conditions .
= = = Hurricane Danny = = =
A tropical low over the northern Gulf of Mexico developed into Tropical Depression Four on July 16 . The depression headed slowly east @-@ northeastward , and intensified into Tropical Storm Danny on the following day . Danny continued east @-@ northeastward , and reached hurricane strength just before landfall near Buras , Louisiana . Because of the narrowness of that piece of land , most of Danny remained over water and it lost little strength . Danny re @-@ emerged into the Gulf of Mexico , and strengthened slightly making two landfalls in Alabama as a low @-@ end Category 1 hurricane on July 19 . After remaining stationary for a day , Danny moved northward and weakened to a tropical depression . Heading northward across Alabama , Danny turned to the east and crossed over the Southeastern United States . While centered over North Carolina , Danny interacted with a developing trough , which caused it to re @-@ intensify into a tropical storm . Shortly thereafter , Danny emerged over the Atlantic Ocean near the North Carolina / Virginia border on July 24 . Danny took a northward turn , and came within 30 mi ( 48 km ) of Nantucket Island on July 26 . It then turned out to sea and was absorbed by a front on July 27 .
Although Danny was a hurricane upon landfall , strong winds were confined to a small area , with only portions of extreme eastern Louisiana reporting hurricane @-@ force winds . Danny also dropped torrential amounts of rain in Louisiana , peaking at 11 @.@ 40 in ( 290 mm ) in Buras @-@ Triumph . Flooding occurred in portions of the state due to heavy rainfall . The floods and high winds produced by Danny damaged over 300 houses and more than 170 businesses in Louisiana alone . In Mississippi , Danny dropped heavy rainfall on the southern portion of the state , resulting in minor street and house flooding . As Danny crossed Dauphin Island , Alabama on July 19 , it dropped 37 @.@ 75 inches ( 959 mm ) of rain . This made Danny the wettest tropical cyclone on record in Alabama . Hurricane force @-@ winds were reported on Dauphin Island and the western shores of Mobile Bay . In the same area , many buildings had sustained roof damage . In addition , many homes on the Fowl and Fish Rivers reported significant damage . Further north in South Carolina and Virginia , Danny spawned several tornadoes ; some of them caused significant damage . Heavy rainfall also occurred in some isolated areas ; in central North Carolina between 8 – 12 inches ( 200 – 300 mm ) of rain was reported . Danny eventually affected Massachusetts , bring light rainfall and tropical storm @-@ force winds to the southeastern portions of the state . Overall , Danny caused nine fatalities , and approximately $ 100 million in damage .
= = = Tropical Depression Five = = =
A tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic Ocean from the west coast of Africa on July 11 . The wave moved westward across the tropical Atlantic , and finally began to show consistent evidence of a cloud system center . Deep convection associated with the wave became concentrated on satellite images on July 17 , and it is estimated that the disturbance became Tropical Depression Five around 0600 UTC on that day while centered about 547 miles ( 880 km ) east of Barbados . The tropical depression moved west @-@ northwestward and started showing signs of falling apart on July 18 . Early on the following day , the depression degenerated into a tropical wave . Recon observations before the storm fell apart suggested that it may have briefly reached tropical storm strength . The tropical wave continued westward without regenerating and lost its identity on July 23 over the eastern Gulf of Mexico .
= = = Hurricane Erika = = =
A tropical wave developed into Tropical Depression Six while it was centered about 1 @,@ 150 miles ( 1 @,@ 850 km ) east of the southernmost Lesser Antilles on September 3 . Later that day , the depression intensified enough to be upgraded to Tropical Storm Erika . It moved west @-@ northwestward and steadily intensified to attain hurricane status on September 4 . Erika passed a short distance to the north of the Lesser Antilles , and later turned to the north in response to an approaching trough . The hurricane quickly strengthen to reach peak winds of 125 mph ( 195 km / h ) on September 8 , and after maintaining peak strength for 24 hours Erika weakened over cooler waters . It turned to the east , weakened to a tropical storm , and became extratropical after passing near the Azores on September 15 .
The hurricane produced light rainfall and winds throughout the northern Lesser Antilles . The passage of Erika brought a cloud of ash to Antigua from the eruption of the Soufrière Hills Volcano on Montserrat , a rare occurrence . Strong waves from the hurricane produced beach erosion and coastal flooding in northern Puerto Rico , and also killed two surfers . Moderate wind gusts in Puerto Rico left thousands without power , and the hurricane resulted in $ 10 million in damage to the Caribbean territory of the United States . Erika also produced gusty winds and light rain in the Azores . Later in its duration , the storm brought hurricane @-@ force wind gusts and rainfall to the Azores , though no damage was reported . Erika was the only tropical cyclone in the Atlantic Ocean in the months of August and September , the first such occurrence in a hurricane season since 1929 .
= = = Tropical Storm Fabian = = =
A tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic Ocean from the west coast of Africa near Dakar , Senegal on September 22 . The wave traveled westward with minimal tropical cyclogenesis and reached the Lesser Antilles about a week later . While passing through the islands , heavy rainfall and strong winds were reported . Eventually , the system developed into a broad area of low pressure and acquired a low @-@ level circulation . However , upper @-@ level wind shear resulted in no immediate further organization . After crossing Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands , wind shear decreased , since the low was moving in the same direction as the upper @-@ level winds .
At 1800 UTC October 4 , it is estimated that system developed into Tropical Depression Seven , while 410 miles ( 660 km ) north of Puerto Rico . However , the National Hurricane Center did not initiate advisories until 1500 UTC on October 7 . The depression strengthened and about 24 hours after forming , it became Tropical Storm Fabian later on October 5 . No further significant change in intensity occurred for the remainder of its duration , as Fabian had peaked with winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) . The storm began losing tropical characteristics and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone at 1200 UTC on October 8 .
= = = Tropical Storm Grace = = =
An extratropical low formed just north of Hispaniola on October 14 , and on the following day , it attained gale force winds . In addition , the system was also acquiring tropical characteristics , and was classified as Tropical Storm Grace on October 16 at 0000 UTC . Strong vertical wind shear prevented further intensification , and Grace immediately peaked with maximum sustained winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 999 mbar ( 29 @.@ 5 inHg ) . Though Grace was classified as a tropical cyclone , it still held onto some extratropical characteristics . Thereafter , Grace steadily weakened and eventually degenerated into an extratropical low on October 17 .
The precursor disturbance of Grace dropped moderate to heavy rainfall across Puerto Rico , peaking at 12 @.@ 69 inches ( 322 mm ) in Aibonito . As a result , flash flooding occurred throughout the island of Puerto Rico , while landslides caused damage to roads and bridges . In addition , numerous rivers overflowed their banks , which forced 37 people to seek shelter across the island . One fatality occurred , and damage amounted to $ 1 @.@ 46 million . In addition , the extratropical system produced light to moderate rainfall in the U.S. Virgin Islands , and precipitation reached 7 inches ( 180 mm ) along western sides of the islands .
= = Storm names = =
The following names were used for named storms that formed in the north Atlantic in 1997 . In the spring of 1998 , no names were retired , so it was used again in the 2003 season . This is the same list used for the 1991 season except for Bill , which replaced Bob . A storm was named Bill for the first time in 1997 . Names that were not assigned are marked in gray .
= = Season effects = =
This is a table of all of the storms that formed in the 1997 Atlantic hurricane season . It includes their duration , names , landfall ( s ) – denoted by bold location names – damages , and death totals . Deaths in parentheses are additional and indirect ( an example of an indirect death would be a traffic accident ) , but are still related to that storm . Damage and deaths include totals while the storm was extratropical or a wave or low , and all of the damage figures are in 1997 USD .
= Jean @-@ Joseph Rabearivelo =
Jean @-@ Joseph Rabearivelo ( 4 March 1901 or 1903 – 22 June 1937 ) , born Joseph @-@ Casimir Rabearivelo , is widely considered to be Africa 's first modern poet and the greatest literary artist of Madagascar . Part of the first generation raised under French colonization , Rabearivelo grew up impoverished and failed to complete secondary education . His passion for French literature and traditional Malagasy poetry prompted him to read extensively and educate himself on a variety of subjects , including the French language and its poetic and prose traditions . He published his first poems as an adolescent in local literary reviews , soon obtaining employment at a publishing house where he worked as a proofreader and editor of its literary journals . He published numerous poetry anthologies in French and Malagasy , as well as literary critiques , an opera , and two novels .
Rabearivelo 's early period of modernist @-@ inspired poetry showed skill and attracted critical attention but adhered strictly to traditional genre conventions . The surrealist poetry he composed beginning in 1931 displayed greater originality , garnering him strong praise and acclaim . Despite increasing critical attention in international poetry reviews , Rabearivelo was never afforded access to the elite social circles of colonial Madagascar . He suffered a series of personal and professional disappointments , including the death of his daughter , the French authorities ' decision to exclude him from the list of exhibitors at the Universal Exposition in Paris , and growing debt worsened by his philandering and opium addiction . Following Rabearivelo 's suicide by cyanide poisoning in 1937 , he became viewed as a colonial martyr .
The death of Rabearivelo occurred just prior to the emergence of the Négritude movement , by which time the Malagasy poet had established an international reputation among literary figures such as Léopold Sédar Senghor as Africa 's first modern poet . The Government of Madagascar declared Rabearivelo its national poet upon independence in 1960 . The legacy and influence of his works continue to be felt and his works are a focus of ongoing academic study . Modern Malagasy poets and literary figures including Elie Rajaonarison have cited him as a major inspiration . A street and a high school in Antananarivo have been named after him , as well as a dedicated room in the National Library of Madagascar .
= = Biography = =
= = = Childhood = = =
Jean @-@ Joseph Rabearivelo , born Joseph @-@ Casimir on 4 March 1901 or 1903 in Ambatofotsy ( north of Antananarivo ) , Madagascar , was the only child of an unwed mother descended from the Zanadralambo ( " sons of Ralambo " ) caste of the Merina andriana ( nobles ) . When the French colonized Madagascar in 1897 , Merina nobles including Rabearivelo 's mother lost the privileges , prestige , and wealth to which they had been entitled under the former monarchy , the Kingdom of Imerina . Madagascar had been a French colony for less than a decade when Rabearivelo was born , situating him among the first generation of Malagasy to grow up under the colonial system . He first studied at the Frères des Écoles Chrétiennes school in the affluent neighborhood of Andohalo , then transferred to the prestigious Collège Saint @-@ Michel , where he was expelled for lack of discipline , poor academic performance , and his reluctance to become religiously observant . He ended his studies at École Flacourt in 1915 . He is believed to have published his first poems at age 14 in the literary review Vakio Ity under the pen name K. Verbal .
After leaving school , he worked a variety of low @-@ skilled jobs , including as a lace designer , an errand boy , and a secretary and interpreter to a district administrator . During this period he developed a passion for French 19th and 20th century literature and refined his fluency in the French language ; he also began teaching himself English , Spanish , and Hebrew . He changed his name to Jean @-@ Joseph Rabearivelo to have the same initials as Jean @-@ Jacques Rousseau , while continuing to occasionally use pseudonyms , including " Amance Valmond " and " Jean Osmé " . He was particularly attracted to poets and writers who were outcasts in their own society , including Baudelaire and Rimbaud .
= = = Early period = = =
In 1920 , Rabearivelo was hired as an assistant librarian at the Cercle de l 'Union social club . That same year he drafted his first book , a short novel written in the Malagasy language . He began to correspond with a wide range of writers around the world , including André Gide , Paul Valéry , Jean Amrouche , Paul Claudel , and Valery Larbaud , and spent large sums to buy books and ship them to Madagascar . By these means he amassed a diverse collection that constituted the richest library on the island . In 1924 he took a job as a proofreader at the publishing house Imprimerie de l 'Imerina , a position he would continue to occupy for the rest of his life . In 1921 he befriended high @-@ level French colonial bureaucrats who shared his passion for French literature , including Robert Boudry , the colony 's financial manager , and Pierre Camo , Madagascar 's postal magistrate and founder of the literary magazine 18 ° Latitude Sud .
He published his first collection of poems , La coupe de cendres ( " The Cup of Ashes " ) in 1924 ; the same year he also translated twelve previously unpublished Malagasy language poems into French and published them in literary magazines , including 18 ° Latitude Sud in Antananarivo and La Vie in Paris . This publication launched him into the intellectual and cultural circles of Antananarivo high society , where he established himself as Madagascar 's leader not only in poetry and prose , but as an esteemed journalist , art critic , translator , and writer of essays and plays .
In 1925 he published a historical novel called L 'Aube Rouge ( " The Red Dawn " ) about the last years of the Kingdom of Imerina . In it he honored Rainandriamampandry , the governor of Toamasina who was executed by the French in 1896 for his suspected role in the Menalamba rebellion . Rabearivelo published his second and third poetry anthologies , Sylves ( " Woodlands " ) and Volumes , in 1927 and 1928 respectively . He also published his second historical novel in 1928 , L 'interférence ( " Interference " ) , which depicts the life of a noble family from the last years of the monarchy until colonization . Throughout the 1920s , he translated the works of foreign poets and writers into Malagasy , including Baudelaire , Rimbaud , Laforgue , Rilke , Whitman , and Góngora ; he also translated traditional Malagasy kabary ( oratory ) into French for publication in French @-@ language literary reviews .
In 1926 , Rabearivelo married Mary Razafitrimo , the daughter of a local photographer , and together they had five children . He was also a womanizer and abused alcohol and opium , growing increasingly dependent on the substances after the death of his daughter . Rabearivelo constantly struggled with debt , and despite his growing fame and artistic success , he was unable to escape from poverty .
= = = Late period = = =
Throughout the 1930s , Rabearivelo joined with other Malagasy poets and writers in an emerging literary movement termed " Hitady ny Very " ( " The Search for Lost Values " ) , which sought to promote the traditional literary and oral arts of Madagascar . Together with fellow artists Charles Rajoelisolo and Ny Avana Ramanantoanina , in August 1931 he founded a literary journal called Ny Fandrosoam @-@ baovao ( " New Progress " ) to promote Malagasy @-@ language poetry . He published two more anthologies of thirty poems each : Presque @-@ Songes ( " Dream Images " ) ( 1931 ) and Traduit de la nuit ( " Translated from the Night " ) ( 1932 ) . As an experiment , he wrote Malagasy and French versions of each poem in these two books ; the French versions were published in 1934 and 1935 respectively . For the remainder of his life he focused primarily on the translation of hainteny ( traditional Malagasy poetry ) into French , work which was published posthumously . He also wrote Madagascar 's first and only opera , Imaitsoanala ( 1935 ) , named for the legendary heroine mother of King Ralambo ; it was set to music composed by Andrianary Ratianarivo and was performed by Ratianarivo 's Troupe Jeanette at the Municipal Theater of Isotry in Antananarivo .
In 1933 , his three @-@ year @-@ old daughter Voahangy became ill and died . Rabearivelo was deeply affected by this loss and was plunged into grief from which he never recovered . His last daughter , who was born in 1936 , he named Velomboahangy ( " Voahangy Alive " ) . The theme of death became prominent and recurrent in his works and journal .
The colonial high society of Antananarivo showcased Rabearivelo 's work as evidence of the success of the French assimilation policy and the beneficial effects of colonialism in Africa . In his journals , the poet wrote that he felt " used " by the French authorities in Madagascar . Governor Montagné awarded him an affiliation ( membre correspondant ) with the Académie Malgache in 1932 . But in 1937 , Rabearivelo 's trust in the assimilation messages and gestures of Antananarivo 's colonial high society was betrayed . He was imprisoned for three days for failing to pay taxes , a penalty from which he should have been exempted due to his status as a low @-@ ranking employee of the colonial administration . He had also been promised that he would represent Madagascar at the 1937 Universal Exposition in Paris , but in May 1937 the colonial authorities informed him that he would not be part of the island 's delegation . Consequently , Rabearivelo became embittered toward France and its colonial message of assimilation , a sentiment strongly expressed in his journals . He was likewise rejected by Malagasy high society , who condemned his unconventional behavior and views , particularly in light of his role as husband and father . His compatriots also held him in contempt for his perceived eagerness to embrace the French colonial rule and culture .
Rabearivelo was deeply troubled by these disappointments and his worsening chronic financial troubles , in addition to the continuing grief he felt for the death of his daughter . On 19 June 1937 , a French friend informed him that his hope to eventually earn a higher official role within the administrative authority could never materialize as he was largely self @-@ taught and lacked the required diplomas . Having staked his future on a government career , Rabearivelo began to muse about his own death in his journal , writing " Perhaps one needs to die to be found sincere . "
= = = Death = = =
Rabearivelo committed suicide by cyanide poisoning on the afternoon of 22 June 1937 . He may have been seriously ill with tuberculosis at the time . The morning of his suicide , Rabearivelo completed several unfinished works ; he then took fourteen 250 @-@ milligram quinine capsules with water at 1 : 53 pm , followed at 2 : 37 pm by ten grams of potassium cyanide . Before dying he wrote a final poem and burned the first five volumes of his personal journal , the Calepins Bleus ( " Blue Notebooks " , 1924 – 1937 ) , leaving four volumes of approximately 1 @,@ 800 pages that document his life after 4 January 1933 . In his final journal entries he recorded the detailed experience of his suicide , concluding with his final entry at 3 : 02 pm . At the time of his death , only half of his twenty literary works had been published ; the remainder were printed posthumously .
= = Style and influences = =
Rabearivelo 's first poetic work , La coupe de cendres ( 1924 ) , demonstrates the evident mastery of meter and rhythm in his earliest works , despite an absence of innovation on the classic models of poetry he uses . The works that follow this initial effort can be broadly clustered into two phases , the first being highly influenced by the symbolist and romantic schools of poetry , and the second reflecting greater creativity and individuality in personal expression , and with a recurrent interest in reconciling a mental image of a " mythic past " with an " alienating modernity " .
In the romantic period , typified by Sylves ( 1927 ) and Volumes ( 1928 ) , Rabearivelo 's poems are shorter and reflect a purer form of traditional models . He identified himself and his work as post @-@ symbolist in the early part of his artistic career . Regarding Rabearivelo 's works from this period , editor Jacques Rabemananjara acknowledged the poet 's evident talent but critiqued his over @-@ adherence to form and poetic conventions at the expense of innovation and genuine self @-@ expression .
Beginning in 1931 , his works begin to change in tone and show the influences of surrealism and modernism . His poems become more daring , free , and complex , while also reflecting greater doubt . According to academic Arnaud Sabatier , this change reflects " the rediscovery and embrace of the sound and images of traditional Malagasy poetry , from which he had previously distanced himself or which he had subjected to the colonial language and culture . " These later works are described by academic Claire Riffard as " his strangest , evoking rural and commonplace images alongside unexpected dreamlike visions , superimposing the new and the forgotten ... " His break from convention in this period offered greater freedom to reconcile his conflicted identity , such as through his bilingual creations , Presque @-@ Songes ( 1931 ) and Traduit de la nuit ( 1932 ) .
= = Legacy = =
Rabearivelo has long been considered the first modern poet of Africa . Academic Arnaud Sabatier identifies him as " one of the most important writers of the twentieth century " . He has also been described by Radio France Internationale journalist Tirthankar Chanda as " the founder of the African francophonie " and " the enfant terrible of French literature " . Rabearivelo is the most internationally famous and influential Malagasy literary figure . Jeune Afrique described him as " Madagascar 's greatest poet " , a sentiment echoed by Léopold Sédar Senghor , first president of Senegal and founder of the Négritude movement , who called him the " prince of the Malagasy poets " . He was described by academic Claire Riffard as " one of the principal founders of contemporary Malagasy literature " , and following national independence in 1960 , the government of Madagascar affirmed his cultural contributions by promoting him as the island 's national writer .
Rabearivelo struggled throughout his life to reconcile his identity as Malagasy with his aspiration toward French assimilation and connection with the greater universal human experience . He has been depicted as a martyr figure as a result of his suicide following the refusal of French authorities to grant him permission to go to France . He has been the subject of a significant number of books and conferences ; on the fiftieth anniversary of his death , his work was commemorated at events organized in North America , Europe and Africa , including a week @-@ long conference at the University of Antananarivo . Recent scholarship has questioned Rabearivelo 's elevation as a colonial martyr , arguing that the poet was by and large an assimilationist who did not view himself as African .
The Lycée Jean @-@ Joseph Rabearivelo was inaugurated in central Antananarivo on 21 December 1946 in honor of the poet . A room has been dedicated to the poet in the National Library of Madagascar , located in the capital city .
He was included in the seminal volume of poetry of the Négritude movement , Léopold Senghor 's Anthologie de la nouvelle poesie negre et malgache ( " Anthology of New Black and Malagasy Poetry " ) , published in 1948 . He has inspired many Malagasy writers and poets after him , including Elie Rajaonarison , an exemplar of the new wave of Malagasy poetry .
The Francophone University Agency and Madagascar 's National Center for Scientific Research collaborated to publish the entirety of Rabearivelo 's works in three volumes . The first volume , comprising his journal and some of his correspondence with key figures in literary and colonial circles , was printed in October 2010 . The second volume , a compilation of all his previously published works , was released in July 2012 . The remaining 1 @,@ 000 pages of materials produced by Rabearivelo have been published in digital format . The first complete English translation of his masterpiece Translated from the Night was published by Lascaux Editions in 2007 .
= = Works = =
Complete anthologies :
Oeuvres complètes , tome I. Le diariste ( Les Calepins bleus ) , l 'épistolier , le moraliste . Edited by Serge Meitinger , Liliane Ramarosoa and Claire Riffard . Paris : Éditions du CNRS , 2010 .
Oeuvres complètes , tome II . Le poète , le narrateur , le dramaturge , le critique , le passeur de langues , l 'historien . Edited by Serge Meitinger , Liliane Ramarosoa , Laurence Ink and Claire Riffard . Paris : Éditions du CNRS , 2012 .
Poetry :
La Coupe de cendres . Antananarivo : G. Pitot de la Beaujardière , 1924 .
Sylves . Antananarivo : Imprimerie de l 'Imerina , 1927 .
Volumes . Antananarivo : Imprimerie de l 'Imerina , 1928 .
Presque @-@ songes . Antananarivo : Imprimerie de l 'Imerina , 1934 .
Traduit de la nuit . Tunis : Éditions de Mirage , 1935 ; Paris : Éditions Orphée La Différence , 1991 ; Paris : Éditions Sépia / Tananarive : Tsipika , 2007 .
Chants pour Abéone . Antananarivo : Éditions Henri Vidalie , 1936 .
Lova . Antananarivo : Imprimerie Volamahitsy , 1957 .
Des Stances oubliées . Antananarivo : Imprimerie Liva , 1959 .
Poèmes ( Presque @-@ songes , Traduit de la nuit ) . Antananarivo : Imprimerie officielle , 1960 .
Amboara poezia sy tononkalo malagasy . Antananarivo : Éditions Madagasikara , 1965 .
Vieilles chansons des pays d 'Imerina . Antananarivo : Éditions Madprint , 1967 .
Poèmes ( Presque @-@ songes , Traduit de la nuit , Chants pour Abéone ) . Paris : Hatier , 1990 .
Theatrical plays :
Imaitsoanala , fille d 'oiseau : cantate . Antananarivo : Imprimerie officielle , 1935 .
Aux portes de la ville . Antananarivo : Imprimerie officielle , 1936 .
Imaitsoanala , zana @-@ borona . Antananarivo : Imprimerie nationale , 1988 .
Eo ambavahadim @-@ boahitra . Antananarivo : Imprimerie nationale , 1988 .
Resy hatrany . Antananarivo : Imprimerie nationale , 1988 .
Prose :
L 'Interférence , suivi de Un conte de la nuit . Paris : Hatier , 1988 .
Irène Ralimà sy Lala roa . Antananarivo : Imprimerie nationale , 1988 .
L 'Aube rouge . Paris : Bouquins , 1998 .
Miscellaneous :
Enfants d 'Orphée . Mauritius : The General Printing , 1931 .
Ephémérides de Madagascar . Edited by M. Eugene Jaeglé . Antananarivo : 1934 .
Tananarive , ses quartiers et ses rues . Edited by E. Baudin . Antananarivo : Imprimerie de l 'Imerina , 1936 .
Audio recordings :
" Jean @-@ Joseph Rabearivelo . " Audio archives of African and Indian Ocean literature . Radio France Internationale , in cooperation with Radio Télévision Malagasy . December 1990 .
= Wales =
Wales ( / ˈweɪlz / ; Welsh : Cymru [ ˈkəm.rɨ ] ) is a country that is part of the United Kingdom . Located on the island of Great Britain , it is bordered by England to the east , the Irish Sea to the north and west , and the Bristol Channel to the south . It had a population in 2011 of 3 @,@ 063 @,@ 456 and has a total area of 20 @,@ 779 km2 ( 8 @,@ 023 sq mi ) . Wales has over 1 @,@ 680 miles ( 2 @,@ 700 km ) of coastline and is largely mountainous , with its higher peaks in the north and central areas , including Snowdon ( Yr Wyddfa ) , its highest summit . The country lies within the north temperate zone and has a changeable , maritime climate .
Welsh national identity emerged among the Celtic Britons after the Roman withdrawal from Britain in the 5th century , and Wales is regarded as one of the modern Celtic nations . Llywelyn ap Gruffudd 's death in 1282 marked the completion of Edward I of England 's conquest of Wales , though Owain Glyndŵr briefly restored independence to Wales in the early 15th century . The whole of Wales was annexed by England and incorporated within the English legal system under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 – 1542 . Distinctive Welsh politics developed in the 19th century . Welsh Liberalism , exemplified in the early 20th century by Lloyd George , was displaced by the growth of socialism and the Labour Party . Welsh national feeling grew over the century ; Plaid Cymru was formed in 1925 and the Welsh Language Society in 1962 . Established under the Government of Wales Act 1998 , the National Assembly for Wales holds responsibility for a range of devolved policy matters .
At the dawn of the Industrial Revolution , development of the mining and metallurgical industries transformed the country from an agricultural society into an industrial nation ; the South Wales Coalfield 's exploitation caused a rapid expansion of Wales ' population . Two @-@ thirds of the population live in south Wales , mainly in and around Cardiff ( the capital ) , Swansea and Newport , and in the nearby valleys . Now that the country 's traditional extractive and heavy industries have gone or are in decline , Wales ' economy depends on the public sector , light and service industries and tourism . Wales ' 2010 gross value added ( GVA ) was £ 45 @.@ 5 billion ( £ 15 @,@ 145 per head , 74 @.@ 0 % of the average for the UK , and the lowest GVA per head in Britain ) .
Although Wales closely shares its political and social history with the rest of Great Britain , and the vast majority of the population speaks English , the country has retained a distinct cultural identity and is officially bilingual . Over 560 @,@ 000 Welsh language speakers live in Wales , and the language is spoken by a majority of the population in parts of the north and west . From the late 19th century onwards , Wales acquired its popular image as the " land of song " , in part due to the eisteddfod tradition . At many international sporting events , such as the FIFA World Cup , Rugby World Cup and the Commonwealth Games , Wales has its own national teams , though at the Olympic Games , Welsh athletes compete as part of a Great Britain team . Rugby union is seen as a symbol of Welsh identity and an expression of national consciousness .
= = Etymology = =
The English words " Wales " and " Welsh " derive from the same Germanic root ( singular Walh , plural Walha ) , which was itself derived from the name of the Celtic tribe known to the Romans as Volcae and which came to refer indiscriminately to all Celts and , later , to all inhabitants of the Roman Empire . The Old English @-@ speaking Anglo @-@ Saxons came to use the term Wælisc when referring to the Celtic Britons in particular , and Wēalas when referring to their lands . The modern names for some Continental European lands ( e.g. Wallonia and Wallachia ) and peoples ( e.g. the Vlachs via a borrowing into Old Church Slavonic ) have a similar etymology .
Historically in Britain , the words were not restricted to modern Wales or to the Welsh but were used to refer to anything that the Anglo @-@ Saxons associated with the Britons , including other non @-@ Germanic territories in Britain ( e.g. Cornwall ) and Germanic territories particularly associated with Celtic Britons ( e.g. Walworth in County Durham and Walton in West Yorkshire ) , as well as items associated with non @-@ Germanic Europeans , such as the walnut .
The modern Welsh name for themselves is Cymry , and Cymru is the Welsh name for Wales . These words ( both of which are pronounced [ ˈkəm.rɨ ] ) are descended from the Brythonic word combrogi , meaning " fellow @-@ countrymen " . The use of the word Cymry as a self @-@ designation derives from the post @-@ Roman Era relationship of the Welsh with the Brythonic @-@ speaking peoples of northern England and southern Scotland , the peoples of " Yr Hen Ogledd " ( English : The Old North ) . It emphasised a perception that the Welsh and the " Men of the North " were one people , different from other peoples . In particular , the term was not applied to the Cornish or the Breton peoples , who are of similar heritage , culture , and language to both the Welsh and the Men of the North . The word came into use as a self @-@ description probably before the 7th century . It is attested in a praise poem to Cadwallon ap Cadfan ( Moliant Cadwallon , by Afan Ferddig ) c . 633 . In Welsh literature , the word Cymry was used throughout the Middle Ages to describe the Welsh , though the older , more generic term Brythoniaid continued to be used to describe any of the Britonnic peoples ( including the Welsh ) and was the more common literary term until c . 1100 . Thereafter Cymry prevailed as a reference to the Welsh . Until c . 1560 the word was spelt Kymry or Cymry , regardless of whether it referred to the people or their homeland .
The Latinised forms of these names , Cambrian , Cambric and Cambria , survive as lesser @-@ used alternative names for Wales , Welsh and the Welsh people . Examples include the Cambrian Mountains ( which cover much of Wales and gave their name to the Cambrian geological period ) , the newspaper Cambrian News , and the organisations Cambrian Airways , Cambrian Railways , Cambrian Archaeological Association and the Royal Cambrian Academy of Art . Outside Wales , a related form survives as the name Cumbria in North West England , which was once a part of Yr Hen Ogledd . The Cumbric language , which is thought to have been closely related to Welsh , was spoken in this area until becoming extinct around the 12th century . This form also appears at times in literary references , as in the pseudohistorical " Historia Regum Britanniae " of Geoffrey of Monmouth , where the character of Camber is described as the eponymous King of Cymru .
= = History = =
= = = Prehistoric origins = = =
Wales has been inhabited by modern humans for at least 29 @,@ 000 years . Continuous human habitation dates from the end of the last ice age , between 12 @,@ 000 and 10 @,@ 000 years before present ( BP ) , when Mesolithic hunter @-@ gatherers from central Europe began to migrate to Great Britain . At that time sea levels were much lower than today , and the shallower parts of what is now the North Sea were dry land . The east coast of present day England and the coasts of present day Denmark , Germany and the Netherlands were connected by the former landmass known as Doggerland , forming the British Peninsula on the European mainland . Wales was free of glaciers by about 10 @,@ 250 BP , the warmer climate allowing the area to become heavily wooded . The post @-@ glacial rise in sea level separated Wales and Ireland , forming the Irish Sea . Doggerland was submerged by the North Sea and , by 8 @,@ 000 BP , the British Peninsula had become an island . By the beginning of the Neolithic ( c . 6 @,@ 000 BP ) sea levels in the Bristol Channel were still about 33 feet ( 10 metres ) lower than today . John Davies has theorised that the story of Cantre 'r Gwaelod 's drowning and tales in the Mabinogion , of the waters between Wales and Ireland being narrower and shallower , may be distant folk memories of this time .
Neolithic colonists integrated with the indigenous people , gradually changing their lifestyles from a nomadic life of hunting and gathering , to become settled farmers about 6 @,@ 000 BP – the Neolithic Revolution . They cleared the forests to establish pasture and to cultivate the land , developed new technologies such as ceramics and textile production , and built cromlechs such as Pentre Ifan , Bryn Celli Ddu and Parc Cwm long cairn between about 5 @,@ 800 BP and 5 @,@ 500 BP . In common with people living all over Great Britain , over the following centuries the people living in what was to become known as Wales assimilated immigrants and exchanged ideas of the Bronze Age and Iron Age Celtic cultures . According to John T. Koch and others , Wales in the Late Bronze Age was part of a maritime trading @-@ networked culture that also included the other Celtic nations , England , France , Spain and Portugal where Celtic languages developed . This view , sometimes called " Atlantic @-@ Celtic " , stands against the view that the Celtic languages have their origins further east with the Hallstatt culture . By the time of the Roman invasion of Britain the area of modern Wales had been divided among the tribes of the Deceangli , Ordovices , Cornovii , Demetae and Silures for centuries .
= = = Roman era = = =
The Roman conquest of Wales began in AD 48 and took 30 years to complete . Roman rule lasted over 300 years . The campaigns of conquest are the most widely known feature of Wales during the Roman era , because of the spirited , but ultimately unsuccessful , defence of their homelands by two native tribes : the Silures and the Ordovices . Roman rule in Wales was a military occupation , save for the southern coastal region of south Wales , east of the Gower Peninsula , where there is a legacy of Romanisation . The only town in Wales founded by the Romans , Caerwent , is in south east Wales . Both Caerwent and Carmarthen , also in southern Wales , became Roman civitates . Wales had a rich mineral wealth . The Romans used their engineering technology to extract large amounts of gold , copper and lead , as well as modest amounts of some other metals such as zinc and silver . Roman economic development was concentrated in south @-@ eastern Britain , and no significant industries located in Wales . This was largely a matter of circumstance , as Wales had none of the necessary materials in suitable combination , and the forested , mountainous countryside was not amenable to industrialisation . Although Latin became the official language of Wales , the people tended to continue to speak in Brythonic . While Romanisation was far from complete , the upper classes of Wales began to consider themselves Roman , particularly after the ruling of 212 that granted Roman citizenship to all free men throughout the Empire . Further Roman influence came through the spread of Christianity , which gained many followers when Christians were allowed to worship freely ; state persecution ceased in the 4th century , as a result of Constantine I issuing an edict of toleration in 313 .
Early historians , including the 6th century cleric Gildas , have noted 383 as a significant point in Welsh history , as it is stated in literature as the foundation point of several medieval royal dynasties . In that year the Roman general Magnus Maximus , or Macsen Wledig , stripped all of western and northern Britain of troops and senior administrators , to launch a successful bid for imperial power ; continuing to rule Britain from Gaul as emperor . Gildas , writing in about 540 , says that Maximus departed Britain , taking with him all of its Roman troops , armed bands , governors and the flower of its youth , never to return . Having left with the troops and Roman administrators , and planning to continue as the ruler of Britain in the future , his practical course was to transfer local authority to local rulers . The earliest Welsh genealogies give Maximus the role of founding father for several royal dynasties , including those of Powys and Gwent . It was this transfer of power that has given rise to the belief that he was the father of the Welsh Nation . He is given as the ancestor of a Welsh king on the Pillar of Eliseg , erected nearly 500 years after he left Britain , and he figures in lists of the Fifteen Tribes of Wales .
= = = Post @-@ Roman era = = =
The 400 @-@ year period following the collapse of Roman rule is the most difficult to interpret in the history of Wales . After the Roman departure from Britain in AD 410 , much of the lowlands of Britain to the east and south @-@ east was overrun by various Germanic peoples . Before extensive studies of the distribution of R1b Y @-@ DNA subclades , some previously maintained that native Britons were displaced by the invaders . This idea has been discarded in the face of evidence that the population has , mainly , at latest Hallstatt era origins , but probably late Neolithic , or at earliest Mesolithic origins with little contribution from Anglo @-@ Saxon source areas . However , by AD 500 , the land that would become Wales had divided into a number of kingdoms free from Anglo @-@ Saxon rule . The kingdoms of Gwynedd , Powys , Dyfed and Seisyllwg , Morgannwg and Gwent emerged as independent Welsh successor states
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. Archaeological evidence , in the Low Countries and what was to become England , shows early Anglo @-@ Saxon migration to Great Britain reversed between 500 to 550 , which concurs with Frankish chronicles . John Davies notes this as consistent with the British victory at Badon Hill , attributed to Arthur by Nennius . This tenacious survival by the Romano @-@ Britons and their descendants in the western kingdoms was to become the foundation of what we now know as Wales . With the loss of the lowlands , England 's kingdoms of Mercia and Northumbria , and later Wessex , wrestled with Powys , Gwent and Gwynedd to define the frontier between the two peoples .
Having lost much of what is now the West Midlands to Mercia in the 6th and early 7th centuries , a resurgent late @-@ seventh @-@ century Powys checked Mercian advancement . Aethelbald of Mercia , looking to defend recently acquired lands , had built Wat 's Dyke . According to John Davies , this endeavour may have been with Powys king Elisedd ap Gwylog 's own agreement , as this boundary , extending north from the valley of the River Severn to the Dee estuary , gave Oswestry to Powys . Another theory , after carbon dating placed the dyke 's existence 300 years earlier , is that it may have been built by the post @-@ Roman rulers of Wroxeter . King Offa of Mercia seems to have continued this consultative initiative when he created a larger earthwork , now known as Offa 's Dyke ( Clawdd Offa ) . Davies wrote of Cyril Fox 's study of Offa 's Dyke : " In the planning of it , there was a degree of consultation with the kings of Powys and Gwent . On the Long Mountain near Trelystan , the dyke veers to the east , leaving the fertile slopes in the hands of the Welsh ; near Rhiwabon , it was designed to ensure that Cadell ap Brochwel retained possession of the Fortress of Penygadden . " And , for Gwent , Offa had the dyke built " on the eastern crest of the gorge , clearly with the intention of recognizing that the River Wye and its traffic belonged to the kingdom of Gwent . " However , Fox 's interpretations of both the length and purpose of the Dyke have been questioned by more recent research . Offa 's Dyke largely remained the frontier between the Welsh and English , though the Welsh would recover by the 12th century the area between the Dee ( Afon Dyfrdwy ) and the Conwy , known then as Y Berfeddwlad . By the 8th century , the eastern borders with the Anglo @-@ Saxons had broadly been set .
In 853 the Vikings raided Anglesey , but in 856 Rhodri Mawr defeated and killed their leader , Gorm . The Britons of Wales later made their peace with the Vikings and Anarawd ap Rhodri allied with the Norsemen occupying Northumbria to conquer the north . This alliance later broke down and Anarawd came to an agreement with Alfred , king of Wessex , with whom he fought against the west Welsh . According to Annales Cambriae , in 894 , " Anarawd came with the Angles and laid waste Ceredigion and Ystrad Tywi . "
= = = Medieval Wales = = =
The southern and eastern parts of Great Britain lost to English settlement became known in Welsh as Lloegyr ( Modern Welsh Lloegr ) , which may have referred to the kingdom of Mercia originally and which came to refer to England as a whole . The Germanic tribes who now dominated these lands were invariably called Saeson , meaning " Saxons " . The Anglo @-@ Saxons called the Romano @-@ British ' Walha ' , meaning ' Romanised foreigner ' or ' stranger ' . The Welsh continued to call themselves Brythoniaid ( Brythons or Britons ) well into the Middle Ages , though the first written evidence of the use of Cymru and y Cymry is found in a praise poem to Cadwallon ap Cadfan ( Moliant Cadwallon , by Afan Ferddig ) c . 633 . In Armes Prydain , believed to be written around 930 – 942 , the words Cymry and Cymro are used as often as 15 times . However , from the Anglo @-@ Saxon settlement onwards , the people gradually begin to adopt the name Cymry over Brythoniad .
From 800 onwards , a series of dynastic marriages led to Rhodri Mawr 's ( r . 844 – 77 ) inheritance of Gwynedd and Powys . His sons in turn would found three principal dynasties ( Aberffraw for Gwynedd , Dinefwr for Deheubarth and Mathrafal for Powys ) . Rhodri 's grandson Hywel Dda ( r . 900 – 50 ) founded Deheubarth out of his maternal and paternal inheritances of Dyfed and Seisyllwg in 930 , ousted the Aberffraw dynasty from Gwynedd and Powys and then codified Welsh law in the 940s . Maredudd ab Owain ( r . 986 – 99 ) of Deheubarth ( Hywel 's grandson ) would , ( again ) temporarily oust the Aberffraw line from control of Gwynedd and Powys .
Maredudd 's great @-@ grandson ( through his daughter Princess Angharad ) Gruffydd ap Llywelyn ( r . 1039 – 63 ) would conquer his cousins ' realms from his base in Powys , and even extend his authority into England . Historian John Davies states that Gruffydd was " the only Welsh king ever to rule over the entire territory of Wales ... Thus , from about 1057 until his death in 1063 , the whole of Wales recognised the kingship of Gruffudd ap Llywelyn . For about seven brief years , Wales was one , under one ruler , a feat with neither precedent nor successor . " Owain Gwynedd ( 1100 – 70 ) of the Aberffraw line was the first Welsh ruler to use the title princeps Wallensium ( prince of the Welsh ) , a title of substance given his victory on the Berwyn Mountains , according to John Davies .
Within four years of the Battle of Hastings England had been completely subjugated by the Normans . William I of England established a series of lordships , allocated to his most powerful warriors along the Welsh border , the boundaries fixed only to the east . This frontier region , and any English @-@ held lordships in Wales , became known as Marchia Wallie , the Welsh Marches , in which the Marcher Lords were subject to neither English nor Welsh law . The area of the March varied as the fortunes of the Marcher Lords and the Welsh princes ebbed and flowed . The March of Wales , which existed for over 450 years , was abolished under the Acts of Union in 1536 .
Owain Gwynedd 's grandson Llywelyn Fawr ( the Great , 1173 – 1240 ) , wrested concessions through the Magna Carta in 1215 and receiving the fealty of other Welsh lords in 1216 at the council at Aberdyfi , became the first Prince of Wales . His grandson Llywelyn ap Gruffudd also secured the recognition of the title Prince of Wales from Henry III with the Treaty of Montgomery in 1267 . Later however , a succession of disputes , including the imprisonment of Llywelyn 's wife Eleanor , daughter of Simon de Montfort , culminated in the first invasion by King Edward I of England . As a result of military defeat , the Treaty of Aberconwy exacted Llywelyn 's fealty to England in 1277 . Peace was short lived and , with the 1282 Edwardian conquest , the rule of the Welsh princes permanently ended . With Llywelyn 's death and his brother prince Dafydd 's execution , the few remaining Welsh lords did homage for their lands to Edward I. Llywelyn 's head was carried through London on a spear ; his baby daughter Gwenllian was locked in the priory at Sempringham , where she remained until her death 54 years later .
To help maintain his dominance , Edward constructed a series of great stone castles : Beaumaris , Caernarfon and Conwy . His son , the future King Edward II of England , was born at Edward 's new castle at Caernarfon in 1284 . He became the first English Prince of Wales , not as an infant , but in 1301 . The apocryphal story that Edward tricked the Welsh by offering them a Welsh @-@ born Prince who could speak no English was first recorded in 1584 . The title also provided an income from the north @-@ west part of Wales known as the Principality of Wales , until the Act of Union ( 1536 ) , after which the term principality , when used , was associated with the whole of Wales . After the failed revolt in 1294 – 95 of Madog ap Llywelyn – who styled himself Prince of Wales in the Penmachno Document – and the rising of Llywelyn Bren ( 1316 ) , the next major uprising was that led by Owain Glyndŵr , against Henry IV of England . In 1404 , Owain was reputedly crowned Prince of Wales in the presence of emissaries from France , Spain and Scotland . Glyndŵr went on to hold parliamentary assemblies at several Welsh towns , including Machynlleth . But the rebellion failed , and Owain went into hiding in 1412 ; peace was essentially restored in Wales by 1415 . Although the Statute of Rhuddlan in 1284 provided the constitutional basis for post @-@ conquest government of the Principality of north Wales from 1284 until 1536 , there was no formal Union until 1536 . Shortly afterwards Welsh law , which had continued to be used in Wales after the Norman conquest , was fully replaced by English law , under what would become known as the Act of Union .
= = = Industrial Wales = = =
Prior to the British Industrial Revolution , which saw a rapid economic expansion between 1750 and 1850 , there were signs of small @-@ scale industries scattered throughout Wales . These ranged from industries connected to agriculture , such as milling and the manufacture of woollen textiles , through to mining and quarrying . Until the Industrial Revolution , Wales had always been reliant on its agricultural output for its wealth and employment and the earliest industrial businesses were small scale and localised in manner . The emerging industrial period commenced around the development of copper smelting in the Swansea area . With access to local coal deposits and a harbour that could take advantage of Cornwall 's copper mines and the copper deposits being extracted from the then @-@ largest copper mine in the world at Parys Mountain on Anglesey , Swansea developed into the world 's major centre for non @-@ ferrous metal smelting in the 19th century . The second metal industry to expand in Wales was iron smelting , and iron manufacturing became prevalent in both the north and the south of the country . In the north of Wales , John Wilkinson 's Ironworks at Bersham was a significant industry , while in the south , a second world centre of metallurgy was founded in Merthyr Tydfil , where the four ironworks of Dowlais , Cyfarthfa , Plymouth and Penydarren became the most significant hub of iron manufacture in Wales . In the 1820s , south Wales alone accounted for 40 % of all pig iron manufactured in Britain .
In the late 18th century , slate quarrying began to expand rapidly , most notably in north Wales . The Penrhyn Quarry , opened in 1770 by Richard Pennant , was employing 15 @,@ 000 men by the late 19th century , and along with Dinorwic Quarry , it dominated the Welsh slate trade . Although slate quarrying has been described as ' the most Welsh of Welsh industries ' , it is coal mining which has become the single industry synonymous with Wales and its people . Initially , coal seams were exploited to provide energy for local metal industries but , with the opening of canal systems and later the railways , Welsh coal mining saw a boom in its demand . As the south Wales coalfield was exploited , mainly in the upland valleys around Aberdare and later the Rhondda , the ports of Swansea , Cardiff and later Penarth , grew into world exporters of coal and , with them , came a population boom . By its height in 1913 , Wales was producing almost 61 million tons of coal . As well as in south Wales , there was also a significant coalfield in the north @-@ east of the country , particularly around Wrexham . As Wales was reliant on the production of capital goods rather than consumer goods , it possessed few of the skilled craftspeople and artisans found in the workshops of Birmingham or Sheffield in England and had few factories producing finished goods – a key feature of most regions associated with the Industrial Revolution . However , there is increasing support that the industrial revolution was reliant on harnessing the energy and materials provided by Wales and , in that sense , Wales was of central importance .
= = = Modern Wales = = =
Historian Kenneth Morgan described Wales on the eve of the First World War as a " relatively placid , self @-@ confident and successful nation " . Output from the coalfields continued to increase , with the Rhondda Valley recording a peak of 9 @.@ 6 million tons of coal extracted in 1913 . The outbreak of the First World War ( 1914 – 1918 ) saw Wales , as part of the United Kingdom , enter hostilities with Germany . A total of 272 @,@ 924 Welshmen served in the war , representing 21 @.@ 5 % of the male population . Of these , roughly 35 @,@ 000 were killed . The two most notable battles of the War to include Welsh forces were those at Mametz Wood on the Somme and the Battle of Passchendaele .
The first quarter of the 20th century also saw a shift in the political landscape of Wales . Since 1865 , the Liberal Party had held a parliamentary majority in Wales and , following the general election of 1906 , only one non @-@ Liberal Member of Parliament , Keir Hardie of Merthyr Tydfil , represented a Welsh constituency in Westminster . Yet by 1906 , industrial dissension and political militancy had begun to undermine Liberal consensus in the southern coalfields . In 1916 , David Lloyd George became the first Welshman to become Prime Minister of Britain when he was made head of the 1916 coalition government . In December 1918 , Lloyd George was re @-@ elected at the head of a Conservative @-@ dominated coalition government , and his poor handling of the 1919 coalminers ' strike was a key factor in destroying support for the Liberal party in south Wales . The industrial workers of Wales began shifting towards a new political organisation , established by Hardie and others to ensure an elected representation for the working class , which is now called the Labour Party . When in 1908 the Miners ' Federation of Great Britain became affiliated to the Labour Party , the four Labour candidates sponsored by miners were all elected as MPs . By 1922 , half of the Welsh seats at Westminster were held by Labour politicians — the start of a Labour hegemony which would dominate Wales into the 21st century .
After economic growth in the first two decades of the 20th century , Wales ' staple industries endured a prolonged slump from the early 1920s to the late 1930s , leading to widespread unemployment and poverty in the south Wales valleys . For the first time in centuries , the population of Wales went into decline ; the scourge of unemployment only relented with the production demands of the Second World War . The Second World War ( 1939 – 1945 ) saw Welsh servicemen and women fight in all the major theatres of war , with some 15 @,@ 000 of them killed . Bombing raids brought major loss of life as the German Air Force targeted the docks at Swansea , Cardiff and Pembroke . After 1943 , 10 % of Welsh conscripts aged 18 were sent to work in the coal mines , where there were labour shortages ; they became known as Bevin Boys . Pacifist numbers during both World Wars were fairly low , especially in the Second World War , which was seen as a fight against fascism . Of the political parties active in Wales , only Plaid Cymru took a neutral stance , on the grounds that it was an " imperialist war " .
The 20th century saw a revival in Welsh national feeling . Plaid Cymru was formed in 1925 , seeking greater autonomy or independence from the rest of the UK . In 1955 , the term England and Wales became common for describing the area to which English law applied , and Cardiff was proclaimed as capital city of Wales . Cymdeithas yr Iaith Gymraeg ( The Welsh Language Society ) was formed in 1962 , in response to fears that the language might soon die out . Nationalist sentiment grew following the flooding of the Tryweryn valley in 1965 to create a reservoir supplying water to the English city of Liverpool . Despite 35 of the 36 Welsh MPs voting against the bill ( the other one abstained ) , Parliament passed the bill and the village of Capel Celyn was submerged , highlighting Wales ' powerlessness in her own affairs in the face of the numerical superiority of English MPs in the Westminster Parliament . Both the Free Wales Army and Mudiad Amddiffyn Cymru ( Welsh Defence Movement , abbreviated as MAC ) were formed as a direct result of the Tryweryn destruction , conducting campaigns from 1963 . In the years leading up to the investiture of Prince Charles as Prince of Wales in 1969 , these groups were responsible for a number of bomb blasts — destroying water pipes , tax and other offices and part of the dam at the new Clywedog reservoir project in Montgomeryshire , being built to supply water to the English Midlands . In 1966 the Carmarthen Parliamentary seat was won by Gwynfor Evans at a by @-@ election , Plaid Cymru 's first Parliamentary seat . In the following year , the Wales and Berwick Act 1746 was repealed and a legal definition of Wales and of the boundary with England was stated .
By the end of the 1960s , the regional policy of bringing firms into disadvantaged areas of Wales through financial incentives had proven very successful in diversifying the industrial economy . This policy , begun in 1934 , was enhanced by the construction of industrial estates and improvements in transport communications , most notably the M4 motorway linking south Wales directly to London . It was believed that the foundations for stable economic growth had been firmly established in Wales during this period ; but this view was shown to be wildly optimistic after the recession of the early 1980s saw the collapse of much of the manufacturing base that had been built over the preceding forty years .
The first referendum , in 1979 , in which the Welsh electorate voted on the creation of an assembly for Wales resulted in a large majority for the " no " vote . However in 1997 a referendum on the same issue secured a " yes " , although by a very narrow majority . The National Assembly for Wales ( Cynulliad Cenedlaethol Cymru ) was set up in 1999 ( under the Government of Wales Act 1998 ) and has the power to determine how the central government budget for Wales is spent and administered , although the UK parliament reserves the right to set limits on the powers of the Welsh Assembly .
The governments of the United Kingdom and of Wales almost invariably define Wales as a country . The Welsh Government says : " Wales is not a Principality . Although we are joined with England by land , and we are part of Great Britain , Wales is a country in its own right . " The title Prince of Wales is still conferred on the heir apparent to the British throne , currently Prince Charles . However the Prince of Wales has no constitutional role in modern Wales . According to the Welsh Government : " Our Prince of Wales at the moment is Prince Charles , who is the present heir to the throne . But he does not have a role in the governance of Wales , even though his title might suggest that he does . "
= = Government and politics = =
Wales is a country that is part of the United Kingdom . Constitutionally , the UK is a de jure unitary state , its parliament and government in Westminster . In the House of Commons – the lower house of the UK government – Wales is represented by 40 MPs ( of 650 ) from Welsh constituencies . Labour MPs hold 26 of the 40 seats , the Liberal Democrats hold three seats , Plaid Cymru three and the Conservatives eight . A Secretary of State for Wales sits in the UK cabinet and is responsible for representing matters pertaining to Wales . The Wales Office is a department of the United Kingdom government , responsible for Wales . Alun Cairns has been Secretary of State for Wales since March 2016 .
Referendums held in Wales and Scotland in 1997 chose to establish a form of self @-@ government in both countries . In Wales , the consequent process of devolution began with the Government of Wales Act 1998 , which created the National Assembly for Wales ( Welsh : Cynulliad Cenedlaethol Cymru ) . Powers of the Secretary of State for Wales were transferred to the devolved government on 1 July 1999 , granting the Assembly the power to decide how the Westminster government 's budget for devolved areas is spent and administered . The 1998 Act was amended by the Government of Wales Act 2006 which enhanced the Assembly 's powers , giving it legislative powers akin to those of the Scottish Parliament and Northern Ireland Assembly . The Assembly has 60 members , known as Assembly Members ( Aelodau y Cynulliad ) . Members ( AMs ( ACau ) ) are elected for four @-@ year terms under an additional member system . Forty of the AMs represent geographical constituencies , elected under the First Past the Post system . The remaining twenty AMs represent five electoral regions , each including between seven and nine constituencies , using the d 'Hondt method of proportional representation . The Assembly must elect a First Minister , who selects ministers to form the Welsh Government .
Labour remained the largest Assembly party following the 2007 election , winning 26 of the 60 seats . Having insufficient support to form a government , the Labour Party entered into the ' One Wales ' agreement with Plaid Cymru , forming a coalition , with the Labour leader as First Minister . Carwyn Jones has been First Minister and leader of Welsh Labour since Rhodri Morgan retired from office in December 2009 , after nine years and ten months as First Minister . Ieuan Wyn Jones , Deputy First Minister in the coalition government , was leader of Plaid Cymru , the second @-@ largest party in the Assembly with 14 of the 60 seats . Under the ' One Wales ' agreement , a referendum on giving the Welsh assembly full law @-@ making powers was promised " as soon as practicable , at or before the end of the assembly term ( in 2011 ) " and both parties have agreed " in good faith to campaign for a successful outcome to such a referendum " .
Welsh Labour again remained the largest party within the Assembly following the National Assembly for Wales election , 2011 winning 30 of the 60 seats . Other parties represented in the assembly are the Welsh Conservatives , the loyal opposition with 14 seats , Plaid Cymru which have 11 seats and the Welsh Liberal Democrats with five seats . Carwyn Jones remained First Minister following the election , this time leading a Welsh Labour ministerial team . The Presiding Officer of the Assembly is Rosemary Butler of Welsh Labour .
The twenty areas of responsibility devolved to the Welsh Government , known as " subjects " , include agriculture , economic development , education , health , housing , local government , social services , tourism , transport and the Welsh language . On its creation in 1999 , the National Assembly for Wales had no primary legislative powers . However , since the Government of Wales Act 2006 ( GoWA 2006 ) came into effect in 2007 , the Assembly had power to pass primary legislation as Assembly Measures on some specific matters within the areas of devolved responsibility . Further matters have been added subsequently , either directly by the UK Parliament or by the UK Parliament approving a Legislative Competence Order ( LCO ) ; a request from the National Assembly for additional powers . The GoWA 2006 allows for the Assembly to gain primary lawmaking powers on a more extensive range of matters within the same devolved areas if approved in a referendum .
A referendum on extending the law @-@ making powers of the National Assembly was accordingly held on 3 March 2011 . It asked the question : " Do you want the Assembly now to be able to make laws on all matters in the 20 subject areas it has powers for ? " 63 @.@ 49 % of the voters voted ' yes ' , and 36 @.@ 51 % voted ' no ' . Consequently , the Assembly is now able to make laws , known as Acts of the Assembly , on all matters in the subject areas , without needing the UK Parliament 's agreement .
Wales is also a distinct UK electoral region of the European Union represented by four Members of the European Parliament .
= = = Local government = = =
For the purposes of local government , Wales has been divided into 22 council areas since 1996 . These " principal areas " are responsible for the provision of all local government services , including education , social work , environment and roads services .
Note : Wales has six cities . In addition to Cardiff , Newport and Swansea , the communities of Bangor , St Asaph and St Davids also have city status in the United Kingdom .
= = Law and order = =
By tradition , Welsh Law was compiled during an assembly held at Whitland circa 930 by Hywel Dda , king of most of Wales between 942 and his death in 950 . The ' law of Hywel Dda ' ( Welsh : Cyfraith Hywel ) , as it became known , codified the previously existing folk laws and legal customs that had evolved in Wales over centuries . Welsh Law emphasised the payment of compensation for a crime to the victim , or the victim 's kin , rather than on punishment by the ruler . Other than in the Marches , where law was imposed by the Marcher Lords , Welsh Law remained in force in Wales until the Statute of Rhuddlan in 1284 . Edward I of England annexed the Principality of Wales following the death of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd and Welsh Law was replaced for criminal cases under the Statute . Marcher Law and Welsh Law ( for civil cases ) remained in force until Henry VIII of England annexed the whole of Wales under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 – 1542 ( often referred to as the Acts of Union of 1536 and 1543 ) , after which English law applied to the whole of Wales . The Wales and Berwick Act 1746 provided that all laws that applied to England would automatically apply to Wales ( and the Anglo @-@ Scottish border town of Berwick ) unless the law explicitly stated otherwise ; this act , with regard to Wales , was repealed in 1967 . English law has been the legal system of Wales and England since 1536 , and continues to be , albeit there is now a growing body of contemporary Welsh law since devolution to Wales since 1999 .
English law is regarded as a common law system , with no major codification of the law , and legal precedents are binding as opposed to persuasive .
The court system is headed by the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom which is the highest court of appeal in the land for criminal and civil cases . The Senior Courts of England and Wales is the highest court of first instance as well as an appellate court . The three divisions are the Court of Appeal ; the High Court of Justice and the Crown Court . Minor cases are heard by the Magistrates ' Courts or the County Court . In 2007 the Wales and Cheshire Region ( known as the Wales and Cheshire Circuit before 2005 ) came to an end when Cheshire was attached to the North @-@ Western England Region . From that point Wales became a legal unit in its own right , although remains part of the single jurisdiction of England and Wales .
The Welsh Assembly has the authority to draft and approve laws outside of the UK Parliamentary system to meet the specific needs of Wales . Under powers approved by a referendum held in March 2011 , it is able to pass primary legislation known as Acts of the Assembly in relation to twenty subjects listed in the Government of Wales Act 2006 such as health and education . Through this primary legislation , the Welsh Government can then also draft more specific secondary legislation .
Wales is served by four regional police forces , Dyfed @-@ Powys Police , Gwent Police , North Wales Police and South Wales Police . Four prisons are in Wales ; all in the southern half of the country . As well as no northern provision for Welsh prisoners , Wales has no women 's prisons ; female inmates are imprisoned in England .
= = Geography and natural history = =
Wales is a generally mountainous country on the western side of central southern Great Britain . It is about 170 miles ( 270 km ) north – south and 60 miles ( 97 km ) east – west . The oft @-@ quoted ' size of Wales ' is about 20 @,@ 779 km2 ( 8 @,@ 023 sq mi ) . Wales is bordered by England to the east and by sea in all other directions : the Irish Sea to the north and west , St George 's Channel and the Celtic Sea to the southwest and the Bristol Channel to the south . Wales has about 1 @,@ 680 miles ( 2 @,@ 700 km ) of coastline ( along the mean high water mark ) , including the mainland , Anglesey and Holyhead . Over 50 islands lie off the Welsh mainland ; the largest being Anglesey , in the north @-@ west .
Much of Wales ' diverse landscape is mountainous , particularly in the north and central regions . The mountains were shaped during the last ice age , the Devensian glaciation . The highest mountains in Wales are in Snowdonia ( Eryri ) , of which five are over 1 @,@ 000 m ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) . The highest of these is Snowdon ( Yr Wyddfa ) , at 1 @,@ 085 m ( 3 @,@ 560 ft ) . The 14 Welsh mountains , or 15 if including Garnedd Uchaf – often discounted because of its low topographic prominence – over 3 @,@ 000 feet ( 910 metres ) high are known collectively as the Welsh 3000s and are located in a small area in the north @-@ west .
The highest outside the 3000s is Aran Fawddwy , at 905 metres ( 2 @,@ 969 feet ) , in the south of Snowdonia . The Brecon Beacons ( Bannau Brycheiniog ) are in the south ( highest point Pen y Fan , at 886 metres ( 2 @,@ 907 feet ) ) , and are joined by the Cambrian Mountains in Mid Wales . The highest point being Pumlumon at 752 metres ( 2 @,@ 467 feet ) .
Wales has three national parks : Snowdonia , Brecon Beacons and Pembrokeshire Coast . It has five Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty ; Anglesey , the Clwydian Range and Dee Valley , the Gower Peninsula , the Llŷn Peninsula , and the Wye Valley . The Gower Peninsula was the first area in the United Kingdom to be designated as an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty , in 1956 . Forty two percent of the coastline of south and west Wales is designated as Heritage Coast , with 13 specific designated strips of coastline maintained by Natural Resources Wales ( successor body to the Countryside Council for Wales ) . As from 2012 the coastline of Wales has 43 Blue Flag beaches and five Blue Flag marinas . Despite its heritage and award winning beaches ; the south and west coasts of Wales , along with the Irish and Cornish coasts , are frequently blasted by Atlantic westerlies / south westerlies that , over the years , have sunk and wrecked many vessels . On the night of 25 October 1859 , over 110 ships were destroyed off the coast of Wales when a hurricane blew in from the Atlantic . More than 800 lives were lost across Britain because of the storm , but the greatest tragedy was the sinking of the Royal Charter off the coast of Anglesey in which 459 people died . The number of shipwrecks around the coast of Wales reached a peak in the 19th century with over 100 vessels lost and an average loss of life of about 78 sailors per year . Wartime action caused losses near Holyhead , Milford Haven and Swansea . Because of offshore rocks and unlit islands , Anglesey and Pembrokeshire are still notorious for shipwrecks , most notably the Sea Empress oil spill in 1996 .
The first border between Wales and England was zonal , apart from around the River Wye , which was the first accepted boundary . Offa 's Dyke was supposed to form an early distinct line but this was thwarted by Gruffudd ap Llewellyn , who reclaimed swathes of land beyond the dyke . The Act of Union of 1536 formed a linear border stretching from the mouth of the Dee to the mouth of the Wye . Even after the Act of Union , many of the borders remained vague and moveable until the Welsh Sunday Closing act of 1881 , which forced local businesses to decide which country they fell within to accept either the Welsh or English law .
The Seven Wonders of Wales is a list in doggerel verse of seven geographic and cultural landmarks in Wales probably composed in the late 18th century under the influence of tourism from England . All the " wonders " are in north Wales : Snowdon ( the highest mountain ) , the Gresford bells ( the peal of bells in the medieval church of All Saints at Gresford ) , the Llangollen bridge ( built in 1347 over the River Dee ) , St Winefride 's Well ( a pilgrimage site at Holywell ) in Flintshire , the Wrexham ( Wrecsam ) steeple ( 16th @-@ century tower of St Giles ' Church , Wrexham ) , the Overton yew trees ( ancient yew trees in the churchyard of St. Mary 's at Overton @-@ on @-@ Dee ) and Pistyll Rhaeadr – a tall waterfall , at 240 ft ( 73 m ) . The wonders are part of the rhyme :
Pistyll Rhaeadr and Wrexham steeple ,
Snowdon 's mountain without its people ,
Overton yew trees , St Winefride 's Wells ,
Llangollen bridge and Gresford bells .
= = = Geology = = =
The earliest geological period of the Paleozoic era , the Cambrian , takes its name from the Cambrian Mountains , where geologists first identified Cambrian remnants . In evolutionary studies the Cambrian is the period when most major groups of complex animals appeared ( the Cambrian explosion ) . The older rocks underlying the Cambrian rocks in Wales lacked fossils which could be used to differentiate their various groups and were referred to as Pre @-@ cambrian .
In the mid @-@ 19th century , two prominent geologists , Roderick Murchison and Adam Sedgwick ( who first proposed the name of the Cambrian period ) , independently used their studies of the geology of Wales to establish certain principles of stratigraphy and palaeontology . The next two periods of the Paleozoic era , the Ordovician and Silurian , were named after ancient Celtic tribes from this area based on Murchison 's and Sedgwick 's work .
= = = Climate = = =
Wales lies within the north temperate zone . It has a changeable , maritime climate and is one of the wettest countries in Europe . Welsh weather is often cloudy , wet and windy , with warm summers and mild winters . The long summer days and short winter days result from Wales ' northerly latitudes ( between 53 ° 43 ′ N and 51 ° 38 ′ N ) . Aberystwyth , at the midpoint of the country 's west coast , has nearly 17 hours of daylight at the summer solstice . Daylight at midwinter there falls to just over seven and a half hours . The country 's wide geographic variations cause localised differences in sunshine , rainfall and temperature . Average annual coastal temperatures reach 10 @.@ 5 ° C ( 51 ° F ) and in low lying inland areas , 1 ° C ( 1 @.@ 8 ° F ) lower . It becomes cooler at higher altitudes ; annual temperatures decrease on average approximately 0 @.@ 5 ° C ( 0 @.@ 9 ° F ) each 100 metres ( 330 feet ) of altitude . Consequently , the higher parts of Snowdonia experience average annual temperatures of 5 ° C ( 41 ° F ) . Temperatures in Wales remain higher than would otherwise be expected at its latitude because of the North Atlantic Drift , a branch of the Gulf Stream . The ocean current , bringing warmer water to northerly latitudes , has a similar effect on most of north @-@ west Europe . As well as its influence on Wales ' coastal areas , air warmed by the Gulf Stream blows further inland with the prevailing winds .
At low elevations , summers tend to be warm and sunny . Average maximum temperatures range between 19 and 22 ° C ( 66 and 72 ° F ) . Winters tend to be fairly wet , but rainfall is rarely excessive and the temperature usually stays above freezing . Spring and autumn feel quite similar and the temperatures tend to stay above 14 ° C ( 57 ° F ) – also the average annual daytime temperature .
The sunniest time of year tends to be between May and August . The south @-@ western coast is the sunniest part of Wales , averaging over 1700 hours of sunshine annually . Wales ' sunniest town is Tenby , Pembrokeshire . The dullest time of year tends to be between November and January . The least sunny areas are the mountains , some parts of which average less than 1200 hours of sunshine annually . The prevailing wind is south @-@ westerly . Coastal areas are the windiest , gales occur most often during winter , on average between 15 and 30 days each year , depending on location . Inland , gales average fewer than six days annually .
Rainfall patterns show significant variation . The further west , the higher the expected rainfall ; up to 40 % more . At low elevations , rain is unpredictable at any time of year , although the showers tend to be shorter in summer . The uplands of Wales have most rain , normally more than 50 days of rain during the winter months ( December to February ) , falling to around 35 rainy days during the summer months ( June to August ) . Annual rainfall in Snowdonia averages between 3 @,@ 000 millimetres ( 120 in ) ( Blaenau Ffestiniog ) and 5 @,@ 000 millimetres ( 200 in ) ( Snowdon 's summit ) . The likelihood is that it will fall as sleet or snow when the temperature falls below 5 ° C ( 41 ° F ) , and snow tends to be lying on the ground there for an average of 30 days a year . Snow falls several times each winter in inland areas , but is relatively uncommon around the coast . Average annual rainfall in those areas can be less than 1 @,@ 000 millimetres ( 39 in ) . Met Office statistics show Swansea to be the wettest city in Great Britain , with an average annual rainfall of 1 @,@ 360 @.@ 8 millimetres ( 53 @.@ 57 in ) . This has led to the old adage " If you can see Mumbles Head it is going to rain – if you can 't , it is raining " . Cardiff is Great Britain 's fifth wettest city , with 908 millimetres ( 35 @.@ 7 in ) . Rhyl is Wales ' driest town , its average annual rainfall 640 millimetres ( 25 in ) .
Highest maximum temperature : 35 @.@ 2 ° C ( 95 ° F ) at Hawarden Bridge , Flintshire on 2 August 1990 .
Lowest minimum temperature : − 23 @.@ 3 ° C ( − 10 ° F ) at Rhayader , Radnorshire ( now Powys ) on 21 January 1940 .
Maximum number of hours of sunshine in a month : 354 @.@ 3 hours at Dale Fort , Pembrokeshire in July 1955 .
Minimum number of hours of sunshine in a month : 2 @.@ 7 hours at Llwynon , Brecknockshire in January 1962 .
Maximum rainfall in a day ( 0900 UTC – 0900 UTC ) : 211 millimetres ( 8 in ) at Rhondda , Glamorgan , on 11 November 1929 .
Wettest spot – an average of 4 @,@ 473 millimetres ( 176 in ) rain a year at Crib Goch in Snowdonia , Gwynedd ( making it also the wettest spot in the United Kingdom ) .
= = = Flora and fauna = = =
Wales ’ wildlife is typical of Britain with several distinctions . Because of its long coastline Wales hosts a variety of seabirds . The coasts and surrounding islands are home to colonies of gannets , Manx shearwater , puffins , kittiwakes , shags and razorbills . In comparison , with 60 % of Wales above the 150m contour , the country also supports a variety of upland habitat birds , including raven and ring ouzel . Birds of prey include the merlin , hen harrier and the red kite , a national symbol of Welsh wildlife . In total , more than 200 different species of bird have been seen at the RSPB reserve at Conwy , including seasonal visitors .
The larger Welsh mammals died out during the Norman period , including the brown bear , wolf and the wildcat . Today , mammals of note include shrews , voles , badgers , otters , hedgehogs and fifteen species of bat . Two species of small rodent , the yellow @-@ necked mouse and the dormouse , are of special Welsh note being found at the historically undisturbed border area . Other animals of note include , otter , stoat and weasel . The pine marten which has had the occasional sighting , has not been officially recorded since the 1950s . The polecat was nearly driven to extinction in Britain , but hung on in Wales and is now rapidly spreading . Feral goats can be found in Snowdonia .
The waters of south @-@ west Wales of Gower , Pembrokeshire and Cardigan Bay attract marine animals , including basking sharks , Atlantic grey seals , leatherback turtles , dolphins , porpoises , jellyfish , crabs and lobsters . Pembrokeshire and Ceredigion in particular are recognised as an area of international importance for bottlenose dolphins , and New Quay has the only summer residence of bottlenose dolphins in the whole of the UK . River fish of note include char , eel , salmon , shad , sparling and Arctic char , whilst the Gwyniad is unique to Wales , found only in Bala Lake . Wales is also known for its shellfish , including cockles , limpet , mussels and periwinkles . Herring , mackerel and hake are the more common of the country 's seafish .
The north facing high grounds of Snowdonia support a relict pre @-@ glacial flora including the iconic Snowdon lily – Gagea serotina – and other alpine species such as Saxifraga cespitosa , Saxifraga oppositifolia and Silene acaulis . Wales also hosts a number of plant species not found elsewhere in the UK including the spotted rock @-@ rose Tuberaria guttata on Anglesey and Draba aizoides on the Gower .
= = Economy = =
Over the last 250 years , Wales has been transformed first from a predominantly agricultural country to an industrial , and now a post @-@ industrial economy . Since the Second World War , the service sector has come to account for the majority of jobs , a feature typifying most advanced economies . Total headline Gross Value Added ( GVA ) in Wales in 2010 was £ 45 @.@ 5 billion , or £ 15 @,@ 145 per head of population ; 74 @.@ 0 per cent of the average for the UK total , the lowest GVA per head in the UK . In the three months to July 2010 , the employment rate for working @-@ age adults in Wales was 67 per cent , compared to 70 @.@ 7 per cent across the UK as a whole .
From the middle of the 19th century until the post @-@ war era , the mining and export of coal was a dominant industry . At its peak of production in 1913 , nearly 233 @,@ 000 men and women were employed in the south Wales coalfield , mining 56 million tons of coal . Cardiff was once the largest coal @-@ exporting port in the world and , for a few years before the First World War , handled a greater tonnage of cargo than either London or Liverpool . In the 1920s , over 40 % of the male Welsh population worked in heavy industry . According to Professor Phil Williams , the Great Depression " devastated Wales " , north and south , because of its " overwhelming dependence on coal and steel " . From the mid @-@ 1970s , the Welsh economy faced massive restructuring with large numbers of jobs in traditional heavy industry disappearing and being replaced eventually by new ones in light industry and in services . In the late 1970s and early 1980s , Wales was successful in attracting an above average share of foreign direct investment in the UK . However , much of the new industry was essentially of a " branch factory " ( " screwdriver factory " ) type where a manufacturing plant or call centre is located in Wales but the most highly paid jobs in the company are retained elsewhere .
Because of poor @-@ quality soil , much of Wales is unsuitable for crop @-@ growing and livestock farming has traditionally been the focus of agriculture . The Welsh landscape ( protected by three national parks ) and 45 Blue Flag beaches , as well as the unique culture of Wales , attract large numbers of tourists , who play an especially vital role in the economy of rural areas . Wales has struggled to develop or attract high value @-@ added employment in sectors such as finance and research and development , attributable in part to a comparative lack of ' economic mass ' ( i.e. population ) – Wales lacks a large metropolitan centre . The lack of high value @-@ added employment is reflected in lower economic output per head relative to other regions of the UK – in 2002 it stood at 90 % of the EU25 average and around 80 % of the UK average . In June 2008 , Wales made history by becoming the first nation in the world to be awarded Fairtrade Status .
The pound sterling is the currency used in Wales . Numerous Welsh banks issued their own banknotes in the 19th century . The last bank to do so closed in 1908 ; since then , although banks in Scotland and Northern Ireland continue to have the right to issue banknotes in their own countries , the Bank of England has a monopoly on the issue of banknotes in Wales . The Commercial Bank of Wales , established in Cardiff by Sir Julian Hodge in 1971 , was taken over by the Bank of Scotland in 1988 and absorbed into its parent company in 2002 . The Royal Mint , who issue the coinage circulated through the whole of the UK , have been based at a single site in Llantrisant since 1980 . Since decimalisation , in 1971 , at least one of the coins in UK circulation has depicted a Welsh design , e.g. the 1995 and 2000 one Pound coin ( above ) . However , Wales has not been represented on any coin minted from 2008 .
= = Transport = =
The main road artery along the south Wales coast is the M4 motorway . It also provides a link to southern England , terminating in London . The section of the motorway managed by the Welsh Government runs from the Second Severn Crossing to Pont Abraham , Carmarthenshire , connecting the cities of Newport , Cardiff and Swansea . The A55 expressway has a similar role along the north Wales coast , connecting Holyhead and Bangor with Wrexham and Flintshire . It also links to north @-@ west England , principally Chester . The main north @-@ south Wales link is the A470 , which runs from Cardiff to Llandudno .
Cardiff International Airport is the only large and international airport in Wales . Providing links to European , African and North American destinations , it is about 12 miles ( 19 km ) southwest of Cardiff city centre , in the Vale of Glamorgan . Intra @-@ Wales flights run between Anglesey ( Valley ) and Cardiff , operated by Isle of Man airline Manx2 Other internal flights operate to northern England , Scotland and Northern Ireland .
The Welsh Government manages those parts of the British railway network within Wales . Cardiff Central is Wales ' busiest railway station , with over four times as much passenger traffic as any other station in Wales . The Cardiff region has its own urban rail network . Beeching cuts in the 1960s mean that most of the remaining network is geared toward east @-@ west travel connecting with the Irish Sea ports for ferries to Ireland . Services between north and south Wales operate through the English towns of Chester and Shrewsbury along the Welsh Marches Line . All trains in Wales are diesel @-@ powered , since no lines have been electrified . However , the South Wales Main Line branch of the Great Western Main Line used by services from London Paddington to Cardiff and Swansea , is undergoing electrification .
Wales has four commercial ferry ports . Regular ferry services to Ireland operate from Holyhead , Pembroke and Fishguard . The Swansea to Cork service , cancelled in 2006 , was reinstated in March 2010 , but is again under threat of closure in 2012 .
= = Education = =
A distinct education system has developed in Wales . Formal education before the 18th century was the preserve of the elite . The first grammar schools were established in Welsh towns such as Ruthin , Brecon and Cowbridge . One of the first successful schooling systems was started by Griffith Jones , who introduced the circulating schools in the 1730s ; believed to have taught half the country 's population to read . In the 19th century , with increasing state involvement in education , Wales was forced to adopt an education system that was English in ethos even though the country was predominantly Non @-@ conformist , Welsh @-@ speaking and demographically uneven because of the economic expansion in the south . In some schools , to ensure Welsh children spoke English at school , the Welsh Not was used ; a policy seen as a hated symbol of English oppression . The " not " , a piece of wood hung round the neck by string , was given to any child overheard speaking Welsh , who would pass it to a different child if overheard speaking Welsh . At the end of the day , the wearer of the " not " would be beaten . The extent of its practice , however , is difficult to determine . State and local governmental edicts resulted in schooling in the English language which , following Brad y Llyfrau Gleision ( the Treachery of the Blue Books ) , was seen as more academic and worthwhile for children .
The University College of Wales opened in Aberystwyth in 1872 . Cardiff and Bangor followed , and the three colleges came together in 1893 to form the University of Wales . The Welsh Intermediate Education Act of 1889 created 95 secondary schools . The Welsh Department for the Board of Education followed in 1907 , which gave Wales its first significant educational devolution . A resurgence in Welsh @-@ language schools in the latter half of the 20th century at nursery and primary level saw attitudes shift towards teaching in the medium of Welsh . In schools where English is the first language , Welsh is a compulsory subject until the age of 16 . However , there has never been a Welsh @-@ language college , and in the University of Wales , at the start of the 21st century only 100 of its 5000 academic staff were teaching through the medium of Welsh . In 2006 there were 33 nursery , 1555 primary , 244 secondary comprehensive and 43 special schools with 56 independent schools in Wales . In 2004 the country had 505 @,@ 208 pupils taught by 27 @,@ 378 teachers .
= = Healthcare = =
Public healthcare in Wales is provided by NHS Wales ( GIG Cymru ) , which was originally formed as part of the NHS structure for England and Wales created by the National Health Service Act 1946 , but with powers over the NHS in Wales coming under the Secretary of State for Wales in 1969 . In turn , responsibility for NHS Wales was passed to the Welsh Assembly and Executive under devolution in 1999 . Historically , Wales was served by smaller ' cottage ' hospitals , built as voluntary institutions . As newer more expensive diagnostic techniques and treatments became available through medical advancement , much of the clinical work of the country has been concentrated in newer , larger district hospitals . In 2006 , there were seventeen district hospitals in Wales , although none situated in Powys . NHS Wales provides public healthcare in Wales and employs some 90 @,@ 000 staff , making it Wales ’ biggest employer . The Minister for Health and Social Services is the person within the Welsh Government who holds cabinet responsibilities for both health and social care in Wales .
A 2009 Welsh health survey , conducted by the Welsh Assembly , reported that 51 % of adults reported their health good or excellent , while 21 % described their health as fair or poor . The survey also recorded that 27 % of Welsh adults had a long @-@ term chronic illness , such as arthritis , asthma , diabetes and heart disease . Enquiries into health @-@ related lifestyle choices report 27 % of the adult population are smokers , 45 % admit drinking alcohol above recommended guidelines at least once a week , while 29 % undertake the recommended weekly physical activity .
= = Demography = =
The 2011 census showed Wales ' population to be 3 @,@ 063 @,@ 456 , the highest in its history . In 2011 , 27 % ( 837 @,@ 000 ) of the total population of Wales were not born in Wales , including 636 @,@ 000 people ( 21 % of the total population of Wales ) who were born in England . The main population and industrial areas are in south Wales , including the cities of Cardiff , Swansea and Newport and the nearby valleys , with another significant population in the north @-@ east around Wrexham and Flintshire .
According to the 2001 census , 96 % of the population was White British , and 2 @.@ 1 % non @-@ white ( mainly of British Asian origin ) . Most non @-@ white groups were concentrated in Cardiff , Newport and Swansea . Welsh Asian and African communities developed mainly through immigration after the Second World War . In the early 21st century , parts of Wales saw an increased number of immigrants settle from recent EU accession countries such as Poland ; though a 2007 study showed a relatively low number of employed immigrant workers from the former Eastern Bloc countries in Wales compared to other regions of the United Kingdom .
The 2001 UK census was criticised in Wales for not offering ' Welsh ' as an option to describe respondents ' national identity . Partly to address this concern , the 2011 census asked the question " How would you describe your national identity ? " . Respondents were instructed to " tick all that apply " from a list of options that included Welsh . The outcome was that 57 @.@ 5 % of Wales ' population indicated their sole national identity to be Welsh ; a further 7 @.@ 1 % indicated it to be both Welsh and British . No Welsh national identity was indicated by 34 @.@ 1 % . The proportion giving their sole national identity as British was 16 @.@ 9 % , and another 9 @.@ 4 % included British with another national identity . No British national identity was indicated by 73 @.@ 7 % . 11 @.@ 2 % indicated their sole national identity as English and another 2 @.@ 6 % included English with another national identity .
The 2011 census showed Wales to be less ethnically diverse than any region of England . Of the Wales population , 93 @.@ 2 % classed themselves as White British ( including Welsh , English , Scottish or Northern Irish ) , with 2 @.@ 4 % as " Other White " ( including Irish ) , 2 @.@ 2 % as Asian ( including Asian British ) , 1 % as Mixed , and 0 @.@ 6 % as Black ( African , Caribbean , or Black British ) . The lowest proportion of White British ( 80 @.@ 3 % ) was in Cardiff .
In 2001 , a quarter of the Welsh population were born outside Wales , mainly in England ; about 3 % were born outside the UK . The proportion of people who were born in Wales differs across the country , with the highest percentages in the south Wales valleys and the lowest in mid Wales and parts of the north @-@ east . In both Blaenau Gwent and Merthyr Tydfil , 92 % were Welsh @-@ born , compared to only 51 % and 56 % in the border counties of Flintshire and Powys . Just over 1 @.@ 75 million Americans report themselves to have Welsh ancestry , as did 440 @,@ 965 Canadians in Canada 's 2006 census .
The total fertility rate ( TFR ) in Wales was 1 @.@ 90 in 2011 , which is below the replacement rate of 2 @.@ 1 . The majority of births are to unmarried women ( 58 % of births in 2011 were outside of marriage ) . About one in 10 births ( 10 @.@ 7 percent ) in 2011 were to foreign @-@ born mothers , compared to 5 @.@ 2 % in 2001 .
A 2010 study estimated that 35 % of the Welsh population have surnames of Welsh origin ( 5 @.@ 4 % of the English and 1 @.@ 6 % of the Scottish population also bore ' Welsh ' names ) . However , many modern surnames derived from old Welsh personal names actually arose in England .
= = = Languages = = =
In his 1707 work Archaeologia Britannica Edward Lhuyd , keeper of the Ashmolean Museum , noted the similarity between the two Celtic language families : Brythonic or P – Celtic ( Breton , Cornish and Welsh ) ; and Goidelic or Q – Celtic ( Irish , Manx and Scottish Gaelic ) . He argued that the Brythonic languages originated in Gaul ( France ) , and that the Goidelic languages originated in the Iberian Peninsula . Lhuyd concluded that as the languages had been of Celtic origin , the people who spoke those languages were Celts . ( According to a more recent hypothesis , also widely embraced today , Goidelic and Brythonic languages , collectively known as Insular Celtic languages , evolved together for some time separately from Continental Celtic languages such as Gaulish and Celtiberian . ) From the 18th century , the peoples of Brittany , Cornwall , Ireland , Isle of Man , Scotland and Wales were known increasingly as Celts , and they are regarded as the modern Celtic nations today .
The Bible translations into Welsh helped to maintain the use of Welsh in daily life . The New Testament was translated by William Salesbury in 1567 followed by the complete Bible by William Morgan in 1588 .
The Welsh Language Act 1993 and the Government of Wales Act 1998 provide that the English and Welsh languages be treated on a basis of equality . English is spoken by almost all people in Wales and is the de facto main language . Code @-@ switching is common in all parts of Wales and is known by various terms , though none is recognised by professional linguists . " Wenglish " is the Welsh English language dialect . It has been influenced significantly by Welsh grammar and includes words derived from Welsh . According to John Davies , Wenglish has " been the object of far greater prejudice than anything suffered by Welsh " . Northern and western Wales retain many areas where Welsh is spoken as a first language by the majority of the population , and English learnt as a second language . The 2011 Census showed 562 @,@ 016 people , 19 @.@ 0 % of the Welsh population , were able to speak Welsh , a decrease from the 20 @.@ 8 % returned in the 2001 census . Although monoglotism in young children continues , life @-@ long monoglotism in Welsh is recognised to be a thing of the past .
Road signs in Wales are generally in both English and Welsh ; where place names differ in the two languages , both versions are used ( e.g. " Cardiff " and " Caerdydd " ) , the decision as to which is placed first being that of the local authority . During the 20th century , a number of small communities of speakers of languages other than Welsh or English , such as Bengali or Cantonese , established themselves in Wales as a result of immigration .
= = = Religion = = =
The largest religion in Wales is Christianity , with 57 @.@ 6 % of the population describing themselves as Christian in the 2011 census . The Church in Wales with 56 @,@ 000 adherents has the largest attendance of the denominations . It is a province of the Anglican Communion , and was part of the Church of England until disestablishment in 1920 under the Welsh Church Act 1914 . The first Independent Church in Wales was founded at Llanvaches in 1638 by William Wroth . The Presbyterian Church of Wales was born out of the Welsh Methodist revival in the 18th century and seceded from the Church of England in 1811 .
The second largest attending faith in Wales is Roman Catholic , with an estimated 43 @,@ 000 adherents . Non @-@ Christian religions are small in Wales , making up approximately 2 @.@ 7 % of the population . The 2011 census recorded 32 @.@ 1 % of people declaring no religion , while 7 @.@ 6 % did not reply to the question . The patron saint of Wales is Saint David ( Dewi Sant ) , with Saint David 's Day ( Dydd Gŵyl Dewi Sant ) celebrated annually on 1 March .
In 1904 , there was a religious revival ( known by some as the 1904 – 1905 Welsh Revival , or simply The 1904 Revival ) which started through the evangelism of Evan Roberts and saw large numbers of people converting to nonconformist and Anglican Christianity , sometimes whole communities . Roberts ' style of preaching became the blueprint for new religious bodies such as Pentecostalism and the Apostolic Church . The Apostolic Church holds its annual Apostolic Conference in Swansea each year , usually in August .
Islam is the largest non @-@ Christian religion in Wales , with more than 24 @,@ 000 ( 0 @.@ 8 % ) reported Muslims in the 2011 census . 2 Glynrhondda Street in Cathays , Cardiff , is accepted as the first mosque in the United Kingdom founded by Yemeni and Somali sailors on their trips between Aden and Cardiff Docks .
There are also communities of Hindus and Sikhs , mainly in the south Wales cities of Newport , Cardiff and Swansea , while the largest concentration of Buddhists is in the western rural county of Ceredigion . Judaism was the first non @-@ Christian faith to be established in Wales since Roman times , though by 2001 the community has declined to approximately 2 @,@ 000 .
= = Culture = =
Wales has a distinctive culture including its own language , customs , holidays and music .
Wales has three UNESCO World Heritage Sites : The Castles and Town walls of King Edward I in Gwynedd ; Pontcysyllte Aqueduct ; and the Blaenavon Industrial Landscape .
= = = Mythology = = =
The remnants of the native Celtic mythology of the pre @-@ Christian Britons was passed down orally , in much altered form , by the cynfeirdd ( the early poets ) . Some of their work survives in much later medieval Welsh manuscripts , known as : the Black Book of Carmarthen and the Book of Aneirin ( both 13th @-@ century ) ; the Book of Taliesin and the White Book of Rhydderch ( both 14th @-@ century ) ; and the Red Book of Hergest ( c . 1400 ) . The prose stories from the White and Red Books are known as the Mabinogion , a title given to them by their first translator , Lady Charlotte Guest , and also used by subsequent translators . Poems such as Cad Goddeu ( The Battle of the Trees ) and mnemonic list @-@ texts like the Welsh Triads and the Thirteen Treasures of the Island of Britain , also contain mythological material . These texts also include the earliest forms of the Arthurian legend and the traditional history of post @-@ Roman Britain .
Other sources of Welsh folklore include the 9th @-@ century Latin historical compilation Historia Britonum ( the History of the Britons ) and Geoffrey of Monmouth 's 12th @-@ century Latin chronicle Historia Regum Britanniae ( the History of the Kings of Britain ) , as well as later folklore , such as The Welsh Fairy Book by W. Jenkyn Thomas .
= = = Literature in Wales = = =
Wales can claim one of the oldest unbroken literary traditions in Europe . The literary tradition of Wales stretches back to the sixth century and includes Geoffrey of Monmouth and Gerald of Wales , regarded by historian John Davies as among the finest Latin authors of the Middle Ages . The earliest body of Welsh verse , by poets Taliesin and Aneirin , survive not in their original form , but in medieval versions and have undergone significant linguistic changes . Welsh poetry and native lore and learning survived the Dark Ages , through the era of the Poets of the Princes ( c . 1100 – 1280 ) and then the Poets of the Gentry ( c . 1350 – 1650 ) . The Poets of the Princes were professional poets who composed eulogies and elegies to the Welsh princes while the Poets of the Gentry were a school of poets that favoured the cywydd metre . The period is notable for producing one of Wales ' greatest poets , Dafydd ap Gwilym . After the Anglicisation of the gentry the tradition declined .
Despite the extinction of the professional poet , the integration of the native elite into a wider cultural world did bring other literary benefits . Humanists such as William Salesbury and John Davies brought Renaissance ideals from English universities when they returned to Wales . While in 1588 William Morgan became the first person to translate the Bible into Welsh , from Greek and Hebrew . From the 16th century onwards the proliferation of the ' free @-@ metre ' verse became the most important development in Welsh poetry , but from the middle of the 17th century a host of imported accentual metres from England became very popular . By the 19th century the creation of a Welsh epic , fuelled by the eisteddfod , became an obsession with Welsh @-@ language writers . The output of this period was prolific in quantity but unequal in quality . Initially the eisteddfod was askance with the religious denominations , but in time these bodies came to dominate the competitions , with the bardic themes becoming increasingly scriptural and didactic . The period is notable for the adoption by Welsh poets of bardic names , made popular by the eisteddfod movement .
Major developments in 19th @-@ century Welsh literature include Lady Charlotte Guest 's translation of the Mabinogion , one of the most important medieval Welsh prose tales of Celtic mythology , into English . 1885 saw the publication of Rhys Lewis by Daniel Owen , credited as the first novel written in the Welsh language . The 20th century experienced an important shift away from the stilted and long @-@ winded Victorian Welsh prose , with Thomas Gwynn Jones leading the way with his 1902 work Ymadawiad Arthur . The slaughter in the trenches of the First World War had a profound effect
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-@ Persian Wars tend to emphasise the success of Xerxes in breaching the formidable Greek position and the subsequent conquest of the majority of Greece . For instance , Cawkwell states that " he was successful on both land and sea , and the Great Invasion began with a brilliant success . .. Xerxes had every reason to congratulate himself " , while Lazenby describes the Greek defeat as " disastrous " .
The fame of Thermopylae is thus principally derived not from its effect on the outcome of the war but for the inspirational example it set . Thermopylae is famous because of the heroism of the doomed rearguard , who , despite facing certain death , remained at the pass . Ever since , the events of Thermopylae have been the source of effusive praise from many sources : " ... the fairest sister @-@ victories which the Sun has ever seen , yet they would never dare to compare their combined glory with the glorious defeat of King Leonidas and his men . " A second reason is the example it set of free men , fighting for their country and their freedom :
So almost immediately , contemporary Greeks saw Thermopylae as a critical moral and culture lesson . In universal terms , a small , free people had willingly outfought huge numbers of imperial subjects who advanced under the lash . More specifically , the Western idea that soldiers themselves decide where , how , and against whom they will fight was contrasted against the Eastern notion of despotism and monarchy — freedom proving the stronger idea as the more courageous fighting of the Greeks at Thermopylae , and their later victories at Salamis and Plataea attested .
While this paradigm of " free men " outfighting " slaves " can be seen as a rather sweeping over @-@ generalization ( there are plenty of counter @-@ examples ) , it is nevertheless true that many commentators have used Thermopylae to illustrate this point .
Militarily , although the battle was actually not decisive in the context of the Persian invasion , Thermopylae is also of some significance , on the basis of the first two days of fighting . The performance of the defenders is used as an example of the advantages of training , equipment , and good use of terrain as force multipliers .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Monuments = = =
There are several monuments around the battlefield of Thermopylae .
= = = = Epitaph of Simonides = = = =
A well @-@ known epigram , usually attributed to Simonides , was engraved as an epitaph on a commemorative stone placed on top of the burial mound of the Spartans at Thermopylae . It is also the hill on which the last of them died . The original stone has not survived , but in 1955 , the epitaph was engraved on a new stone . The text from Herodotus is :
Ὦ ξεῖν ' , ἀγγέλλειν Λακεδαιμονίοις ὅτι τῇδε
κείμεθα , τοῖς κείνων ῥήμασι πειθόμενοι .
Ō ksein ' , angellein Lakedaimoniois hoti tēide
keimetha , tois keinōn rhēmasi peithomenoi .
Oh stranger , tell the Lacedaemonians that
we lie here , trusting their words .
The alternative ancient reading πειθόμενοι νομίμοις for ῥήμασι πειθόμενοι substitutes " laws " or " orders " for " words . " In other words , the " orders " are not personal but refer to official and binding phrases ( the Ancient Greek term can also refer to a formal speech ) .
The form of this ancient Greek poetry is an elegiac couplet , commonly used for epitaphs . Some English renderings are given in the table below . It is also an example of Laconian brevity , a spartan style of verse that allows for varying interpretations of the meaning of the poem . Ioannis Ziogas points out that the usual English translations are far from the only interpretation possible , and indicate much about the romantic tendencies of the translators .
It was well known in ancient Greece that all the Spartans who had been sent to Thermopylae had been killed there ( with the exception of Aristodemus and Pantites ) , and the epitaph exploits the conceit that there was nobody left to bring the news of their deeds back to Sparta . Greek epitaphs often appealed to the passing reader ( always called ' stranger ' ) for sympathy , but the epitaph for the dead Spartans at Thermopylae took this convention much further than usual , asking the reader to make a personal journey to Sparta to break the news that the Spartan expeditionary force had been wiped out . The stranger is also asked to stress that the Spartans died ' fulfilling their orders ' .
The first line of the epigram was used as the title of the short story " Stranger , Bear Word to the Spartans We … " by German Nobel Prize laureate Heinrich Böll . A variant of the epigram is inscribed on the Polish Cemetery at Monte Cassino .
John Ruskin expressed the importance of this ideal to Western civilization as follows :
Also obedience in its highest form is not obedience to a constant and compulsory law , but a persuaded or voluntary yielded obedience to an issued command .... His name who leads the armies of Heaven is " Faithful and True " ... and all deeds which are done in alliance with these armies ... are essentially deeds of faith , which therefore ... is at once the source and the substance of all known deed , rightly so called ... as set forth in the last word of the noblest group of words ever , so far as I know , uttered by simple man concerning his practice , being the final testimony of the leaders of a great practical nation ... [ the epitaph in Greek ]
= = = = Leonidas monument = = = =
Additionally , there is a modern monument at the site , called the " Leonidas Monument " , in honor of the Spartan king . It features a bronze statue of Leonidas . A sign , under the statue , reads simply : " Μολὼν λαβέ " ( " Come and take them ! " — as in answer to Xerxes ' demand that the Greeks give up their weapons ) . The metope below depicts battle scenes . The two marble statues on the left and the right of the monument represent , respectively , the river Eurotas and Mount Taygetos , famous landmarks of Sparta .
= = = = Thespian monument = = = =
In 1997 , a second monument was officially unveiled by the Greek government , dedicated to the 700 Thespians who fought with the Spartans . The monument is made of marble and features a bronze statue depicting the god Eros , to whom the ancient Thespians accorded particular religious veneration . Under the statue , a sign reads " In memory of the seven hundred Thespians . "
A plate , below the statue , explains its symbolism :
The headless male figure symbolizes the anonymous sacrifice of the 700 Thespians to their country .
The outstretched chest symbolizes the struggle , the gallantry , the strength , the bravery and the courage .
The open wing symbolizes the victory , the glory , the soul , the spirit and the freedom .
The broken wing symbolizes the voluntary sacrifice and death .
The naked body symbolizes Eros , the most important god of the ancient Thespians , a god of creation , beauty and life .
The monument to the Thespians is placed beside the one to the Spartans .
= = = Associated legends = = =
Herodotus ' colorful account of the battle has provided history with many apocryphal incidents and conversations away from the main historical events . These accounts are obviously not verifiable , but they form an integral part of the legend of the battle . They often demonstrate the Laconic speech ( and wit ) of the Spartans to good effect .
For instance , Plutarch recounts in his Sayings of Spartan Women that upon his departure , Leonidas ' wife Gorgo asked what she should do if he did not return ; to which Leonidas replied , " Marry a good man and have good children . "
It is reported that , upon arriving at Thermopylae , the Persians sent a mounted scout to reconnoiter . The Greeks allowed him to come up to the camp , observe them , and depart . When the scout reported to Xerxes the size of the Greek force and that the Spartans were indulging in calisthenics and combing their long hair , Xerxes found the reports laughable . Seeking the counsel of Demaratus , an exiled Spartan king in his retinue , Xerxes was told that the Spartans were preparing for battle and that it was their custom to adorn their hair when they were about to risk their lives . Demaratus called them " the bravest men in Greece " and warned the Great King that they intended to dispute the pass . He emphasized that he had tried to warn Xerxes earlier in the campaign , but the king had refused to believe him . He added that if Xerxes ever managed to subdue the Spartans , " there is no other nation in all the world which will venture to lift a hand in their defense . "
Herodotus also describes the reception of a Persian embassy by Leonidas . The ambassador told Leonidas that Xerxes would offer him the kingship of all Greece if he joined with Xerxes . Leonidas answered : " If you had any knowledge of the noble things of life , you would refrain from coveting others ' possessions ; but for me to die for Greece is better than to be the sole ruler over the people of my race . " Then the ambassador asked him more forcefully to surrender their arms . To this Leonidas gave his famous answer : Μολὼν λαβέ ( pronounced Greek pronunciation : [ moˈlɔːn laˈbe ] ) " Come and get them . "
Such Laconic bravery doubtlessly helped to maintain morale . Herodotus writes that when Dienekes , a Spartan soldier , was informed that Persian arrows would be so numerous as " to block out the sun " , he retorted , unconcerned ; " So much the better ... then we shall fight our battle in the shade . "
After the battle , Xerxes was curious as to what the Greeks had been trying to do ( presumably because they had had so few men ) and had some Arcadian deserters interrogated in his presence . The answer was that all the other men were participating in the Olympic Games . When Xerxes asked what was the prize for the winner , the answer was " an olive @-@ wreath " . Upon hearing this , Tigranes , a Persian general , said : " Good heavens , Mardonius , what kind of men are these that you have pitted against us ? It is not for riches that they contend but for honor ! " ( Godley translation ) or otherwise " Ye Gods , Mardonius , what men have you brought us to fight against ? Men that fight not for gold , but for glory . "
= = = In popular culture = = =
The Battle of Thermopylae has remained an icon of western civilization ever since it was fought . The battle is revisited in countless adages , in literature in song , and in films , television programs and video games . The battle is discussed in many books and articles on the theory and practice of warfare . The movies The 300 Spartans ( 1962 ) and 300 ( 2007 ) were based on the events during and close to the time of the battle .
Prior to the battle , the Hellenes remembered the Dorians , an ethnic distinction to which the Spartans belonged , as the conquerors and displacers of the Ionians in the Peloponnesus . After the battle , Spartan culture became an inspiration and object of emulation , a phenomenon known as Laconophilia .
= Honda Super Cub =
The Honda Super Cub is a Honda underbone motorcycle with a four stroke single cylinder engine ranging in displacement from 49 to 109 cc ( 3 @.@ 0 to 6 @.@ 7 cu in ) .
In continuous manufacture since 1958 with production surpassing 60 million in 2008 , and 87 million in 2014 , the Super Cub is the most produced motor vehicle * in history . Variants include the C100 , C50 , C70 , C90 , C100EX and C70 Passport .
The Super Cub 's US advertising campaign , You meet the nicest people on a Honda , had a lasting impact on Honda 's image and on American attitudes to motorcycling , and is often used as a marketing case study .
= = Development = =
The idea for a new 50 @-@ cubic @-@ centimetre ( 3 @.@ 1 cu in ) motorcycle was conceived in 1956 , when Honda Motor 's Soichiro Honda and Takeo Fujisawa toured Germany and witnessed the popularity of mopeds and lightweight motorcycles . Soichiro Honda was primarily the engineering and production leader of the company , always with an eye towards winning on the racetrack , while his close partner Fujisawa was the man of finance and business , heading up sales and formulating strategies intended to dominate markets and utterly destroy Honda Motor 's competitors . Fujisawa had been thinking about a long term expansion strategy , and unlike other Japanese companies , they did not want to simply boost production to cash in on the recent economic boom in Japan . A small , high @-@ performance motorcycle was central to his plans . Upwardly mobile consumers in postwar Europe typically went from a bicycle to a clip on engine , then bought a scooter , then a bubble car , and then a small car and onwards . Fujisawa saw that a motorcycle did not fit in this pattern for the average person , and he saw an opportunity to change that . Soichiro Honda was at the time tired of listening to Fujisawa talk about his new motorcycle idea ; Honda came to Europe to win the Isle of Man TT race and wanted to think about little else .
Fujisawa and Honda visited Kreidler and Lambretta showrooms , as well as others , researching the kind of motorcycle Fujisawa had in mind . Fujisawa said the designs had " no future " and would not sell well . His concept was a two wheeler for everyman , one that would appeal to both developed and developing countries , urban and rural . The new motorcycle needed to be technologically simple to survive in places without up to date know how and access to advanced tools or reliable spare parts supplies . The common consumer complaints of noise , poor reliability , especially in the electrics , and general difficulty of use would have to be addressed . Because Honda was a large company growing larger , it needed a mass appeal product that could be produced on an enormous scale . The design had to be sorted out before production began , because it would be too costly to fix problems in the vast numbers that were to be manufactured . The scooter type nearly fitted the bill , but was too complex for developing countries to maintain , and the small wheels did poorly on badly maintained or nonexistent roads . Another of Fujusawa 's requirements was that it could be ridden with one hand while carrying a tray of soba noodles , saying to Honda , " If you can design a small motorcycle , say 50 cc with a cover to hide the engine and hoses and wires inside , I can sell it . I don 't know how many soba noodle shops there are in Japan , but I bet you that every shop will want one for deliveries . "
Once interested , Soichiro Honda began developing the Super Cub on his return to Japan . The following year Honda displayed a mockup to Fujisawa that finally matched what he had in mind , Fujisawa declaring the annual sales would be 30 @,@ 000 per month , half again as many as the entire monthly two @-@ wheeler market in Japan . His goal was to export motorcycles on a scale yet unseen in the economic disorder of postwar Japan , when most companies ' halting trade efforts were handled through foreign trading companies . Honda would have to establish its own overseas subsidiary to provide the necessary service and spare parts distribution in a large country like the United States . To this end American Honda Motor Company was founded in 1959 . In 1961 a sales network was established in Germany , then in Belgium and the UK in 1962 , and then France in 1964 .
The Honda Juno had been the first scooter to use polyester resin , or fiberglass reinforced plastic ( FRP ) , bodywork , and even though production of the Juno had stopped in 1954 as a result of Honda Motor 's financial and labor problems at the time , Fujisawa continued to encourage research in polyester resin casting techniques , and these efforts bore fruit for the Super Cub . The new motorcycle 's fairing would be polyethylene , the most widely used plastic , which reduced weight over FRP , but Honda 's supplier had never made such a large die cast before , so the die had to be provided by Honda . The Super Cub was the first motorcycle ever to use a plastic fairing . Motorcycling historian Clement Salvadori wrote that the plastic front fender and leg shields were , " perhaps the Cub 's greatest contribution ; plastic did the job just as well as metal at considerably lower cost . " The technology developed in the Isle of Man TT racing program was equally vital to the new lightweight motorcycle , making possible 3 @.@ 4 kilowatts ( 4 @.@ 5 hp ) from a 50 cc four @-@ stroke Honda engine , where the first engine the company built a decade earlier , a " fairly exact copy " of the 50 cc two stroke war @-@ surplus Tohatsu engine Honda had been selling as motorized bicycle auxiliary engine , had only a 0 @.@ 37 – 0 @.@ 75 kilowatts ( 0 @.@ 5 – 1 hp ) output . Honda 's first four stroke , the 1951 E @-@ type , had just a little more power than the Super Cub , 3 @.@ 7 kilowatts ( 5 bhp ) , with nearly triple the displacement , 146 cc ( 8 @.@ 9 cu in ) .
To make the new motorcycle , Honda built a new ¥ 10 billion factory in Suzuka , Mie to manufacture 30 @,@ 000 , and with two shifts , 50 @,@ 000 , Super Cubs per month . The factory was modeled on the Volkswagen Beetle production line in Wolfsburg , Germany . Until then , Honda 's top models had sold only 2 @,@ 000 to 3 @,@ 000 per month , and observers thought the cost of the new plant too risky an expenditure . Edward Turner of BSA went to Japan to see the motorcycle industry in September 1960 , and said that investments the size of the Suzuka plant were " extremely dangerous " because the US motorcycle market was already saturated . When completed in 1960 , the Suzuka Factory was the largest motorcycle factory in the world , and was a model for Honda 's mass production facilities of the future . The economies of scale achieved at Suzuka cut 18 % from the cost of producing each Super Cub when Suzuka could be run at full capacity , but in the short term Honda faced excess inventory problems when the new factory went into operation before the full sales and distribution network was in place .
= = Design = =
The Super Cub has been compared to the Ford Model T , Volkswagen Beetle and the Jeep as an icon of 20th century industry and transport . The C100 used a pressed steel monocoque chassis , with the horizontal engine placed below the central spine , a configuration now called the ' step through ' or ' underbone ' motorcycle . By some criteria , the type of motorcycle the Super Cub falls into is difficult to classify , landing somewhere between a scooter and a motorcycle , and sometimes it was called a moped , " step @-@ thru " , or scooterette .
A plastic fairing ran from below the handlebars and under the footpegs , protecting the rider 's legs from wind and road debris , as well as hiding the engine from view . This design was like the full enclosure of a scooter , but unlike a scooter the engine and gearbox unit was not fixed to the rear axle . This had several benefits . It moved the engine down and away from the seat , detaching the rear swingarm motion from the drivetrain for lower unsprung weight . It also made engine cooling air flow more direct , and made it possible to fit larger wheels . Placing the engine in the center of the frame , rather than close to the rear wheel , gave it proper front @-@ rear balance . The fuel tank was located under the hinged seat , which opened to reveal the fuel filler inlet . The 17 inch wheels , in comparison to the typical 10 inch wheels of a scooter , were more stable , particularly on rough roads , and psychologically made the motorcycle more familiar , having an appearance closer to a bicycle than a small @-@ wheel scooter .
The pushrod overhead valve ( OHV ) air @-@ cooled four stroke single cylinder engine had a 40 @-@ by @-@ 39 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 6 in × 1 @.@ 5 in ) bore × stroke , displacing 49 cubic centimetres ( 3 @.@ 0 cu in ) , and could produce 3 @.@ 4 kilowatts ( 4 @.@ 5 hp ) at 9 @,@ 500 rpm , for maximum speed of 69 km / h ( 43 mph ) , under favorable conditions . The low compression ratio meant the engine could consume inexpensive and commonly available low octane fuel , as well as minimizing the effort to kick start the engine , making the extra weight and expense of an electric starter an unnecessary creature comfort . Though some of the many Super Cub variations came with both kick and electric start , the majority sold well without it . Even the latest 2011 model year Japanese domestic market ( JDM ) Super Cub 50 and Super Cub 110 versions , with modern technology and conveniences like fuel injection and a fuel gauge , were not offered with an electric start option .
The sequential shifting three speed gearbox was manually shifted , but clutchless , without the need for a clutch lever control , using instead a centrifugal clutch along with a plate clutch slaved to the footchange lever to engage and disengage the gearbox from the engine . While not intuitive to learn , once the rider got used to it , the semi @-@ automatic transmission , " took the terror out of motorcycling " for novice riders . Unlike many scooter CVTs , the centrifugal clutch made it possible to push start the Super Cub , a useful advantage if the need arose .
The early Super Cubs used a 6 volt ignition magneto mounted on the flywheel , with a battery to help maintain power to the lights , while later ones were upgraded to capacitor discharge ignition ( CDI ) systems . The lubrication system did not use an oil pump or oil filter , but was a primitive splash @-@ fed system for both the crankcase and gearbox , with a non @-@ consumable screen strainer to collect debris in the engine oil . Both the front and rear brakes were drums . On both the front and rear wheels were 2 @.@ 25 " × 17 " wire spoke wheels , with full @-@ width hubs .
Honda recommended daily checks of the lights , horn , tire pressure , brakes , fuel and oil level , and a weekly check of the battery electrolyte level . The new engine break in maintenance was done at 320 kilometres ( 200 mi ) , requiring adjustment of the valve tappets and contact breaker points , and an oil change , and the rider was advised to stay under 48 kilometres per hour ( 30 mph ) for the first 800 kilometres ( 500 mi ) . Every 1 @,@ 600 kilometres ( 1 @,@ 000 mi ) the spark plug needed cleaning , and the chain adjustment checked , and every 3 @,@ 200 kilometres ( 2 @,@ 000 mi ) an oil change , breaker point check , and valve adjustment was due . At 8 @,@ 000 kilometres ( 5 @,@ 000 mi ) , major maintenance was due , requiring the removal and cleaning of the carburetor , drive chain , exhaust silencer , and wheel bearings . The rider closed a manual choke to aid in starting at cold temperatures . By the standards of the day , this was a simple motorcycle , with minimal maintenance demands , and it earned a reputation for high reliability .
= = You meet the nicest people on a Honda = =
In June 1963 in US media , Honda began the 12 @-@ year @-@ long advertising campaign " You meet the nicest people on a Honda " , created by Grey Advertising . Grey had bought the idea from a UCLA undergraduate student , who had created the concept for a class assignment . The event marked the beginning of the decline of domestic and British motorcycle brands in the US market , and the rise of Honda and the other Japanese companies . In December 1965 , Edward Turner said the sale of small Japanese motorcycles was good for BSA , by attracting new riders who would graduate to larger machines , not anticipating that the Japanese would advance over the next 5 years to directly threaten British bikes with technically sophisticated models such as the Honda CB750 , and the Kawasaki Z1 . As a case study in business and marketing , the campaign is still remembered half a century later , with one strategic management textbook saying , " Honda and the Supercub is probably the best known and most debated case in business strategy . " It was credited with having " invented the concept of lifestyle marketing . "
Specific elements of the Super Cub 's design were integral to the campaign , such as the enclosed chain that kept chain lubricant from being flung on the rider 's clothing , and the leg shield that similarly blocked road debris and hid the engine , and the convenience of the semi @-@ automatic transmission . Presenting the Super Cub as a consumer appliance not requiring mechanical aptitude and an identity change into " a motorcyclist " , or worse , " a biker " , differentiated Honda 's offering , because , " the dedication required to maintain bikes of that era limited ownership to a relatively small demographic , often regarded as young men known for their black leather jackets and snarling demeanors . "
Rather than remaining limited to trying to convince traditional downmarket male buyers to switch to Honda from other brands with the macho approach of most motorcycle advertising at the time , Honda broke new ground . The ad campaign sought to improve the image of motorcycling in general and expand the overall size of the motorcycle market by attracting new riders . In a stroke of good fortune for Honda , Brian Wilson and Mike Love composed the 1964 song " Little Honda " , extolling the joys of riding the Honda 50 , and even inviting the listener to visit their local Honda dealership , in language that sounded as if it could have been written , or at least paid for , by Honda 's advertising copywriters , yet it was not a commercial jingle . The song was released by The Hondells in 1964 , followed by the release of the original recording by The Beach Boys . In 1965 The Hondells released " You Meet the Nicest People on a Honda " , another song promoting the Super Cub , which was actually used in Honda 's TV spots , as a B side to their version of " Sea Cruise . "
The long @-@ running campaign , including the slogan , the music , and the upbeat images of respectable , middle and upper @-@ class people , particularly women , riding Hondas became closely associated with the Honda brand ever since . The image Honda created was contrasted with the one percenter " bad boy " biker and became a focal point of Japan bashing boosterism of US @-@ made Harley @-@ Davidson motorcycles .
Aside from Harley @-@ Davidson fans , the company itself had a more conflicted reaction to the successful Honda " You meet the nicest people " campaign . At first they were offended at the suggestion that Harley @-@ Davidson riders were not " nice people . " Harley @-@ Davidson had , since its founding in 1903 , scrupulously cultivated an image of staid respectability , and would not begin to tentatively embrace the " outlaw " demographic of their customer base for at least another ten years . In 1964 they denied any association with one @-@ percenter bikers , and so distanced themselves from the implications of Honda 's campaign . But they also " tried to have it both ways " , and soon joined Vespa and Yamaha in producing ads that were " suspiciously similar " to " You meet the nicest people . " Whether they were being offended by or imitating Honda , at the time Harley @-@ Davidson did not share the interpretation that Honda 's advertisements , " added to the macho Harley image . "
= = Model history = =
The Honda Super Cub debuted in 1958 , ten years after the establishment of Honda Motor Co . Ltd . The original 1952 Honda Cub F had been a clip @-@ on bicycle engine . Honda kept the name but added the prefix ' Super ' for the all @-@ new lightweight machine . The Super Cub sold poorly at first , owing mainly to the recession in Japan , and then 3 months after the 1958 launch , customer complaints began rolling in about slipping clutches . Honda salesmen and factory workers gave up holidays to repair the affected Super Cubs , visiting each customer in person . When it was imported to the US , the name was changed to Honda 50 , and later Honda Passport C70 , and C90 , because the Piper Super Cub airplane trademark had precedence . Similarly , in Britain they were only badged ' Honda 50 ' , ' Honda 90 ' etc. as the Triumph Tiger Cub preceded .
The Society of Automotive Engineers of Japan ( Japanese ) , included the 1958 Honda Super Cub C100 as one of their 240 Landmarks of Japanese Automotive Technology .
= = = Super Cub line = = =
The first Super Cub variation was the C102 , launched in April 1960 . The C102 had electric start in addition to kick starting , and battery & coil ignition instead of magneto , but was otherwise the same as the C100 .
The enlarged 86 @.@ 7 cc ( 5 @.@ 29 cu in ) OHV engine of the 1963 C200 was used on the 1965 CM90 step @-@ through . New in 1965 was a 63 cc ( 3 @.@ 8 cu in ) engine with a chain @-@ driven overhead camshaft ( OHC ) . This was used in two new models : the C65 , a step @-@ through with 4 @.@ 1 kW ( 5 @.@ 5 bhp ) , and the S65 , with a frame like the C110 / C200 and 4 @.@ 6 kW ( 6 @.@ 2 bhp ) @ 10 @,@ 000 rpm .
In 1966 the C50 appeared and remained in production through the mid 80s , becoming one of the most widespread and familiar versions of the Super Cub . Honda replaced the C100 's 40 mm × 39 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in × 1 @.@ 5 in ) 50 cc OHV engine with the 39 mm × 41 @.@ 4 mm ( 1 @.@ 54 in × 1 @.@ 63 in ) OHC alloy head and iron cylinder engine from the CS50 and C65 , which increased power from 3 @.@ 4 to 3 @.@ 6 kW ( 4 @.@ 5 to 4 @.@ 8 bhp ) . Similarly the CM90 was replaced in 1966 with the 89 @.@ 5 cc ( 5 @.@ 46 cu in ) 5 @.@ 6 kW ( 7 @.@ 5 bhp ) OHC CM91 , which a year later on 1967 , got restyled forks and headlamp like the C50 , to become the familiar C90 . Though the basic design of Cub remained unchanged , new styling and improvements included enclosed front forks . The C100 stayed in production alongside the newer versions one more year , until 1967 . After 1980 the USA C70 was called the C70 Passport .
In 1982 , for most markets , Honda fitted a new capacitor discharge ignition ( CDI ) system to replace the earlier contact points ignition , thereby helping to meet emission standards in markets such as the US . At the same time the electrical system was changed from 6 volt to 12 volt .
In 1984 , Honda released restyled versions of the Cubs on some markets , with square lamps and plastic @-@ covered handlebars and rear mudguard . On the domestic Japanese market the square style was optional , but in some places such as the UK they replaced imports of the traditionally styled round lamp Cub .
In 1986 , a larger 100 cc HA05E engine model was introduced especially for Asian markets . The newer 100 cc model was developed exclusively for Southeast Asian market , especially in Thailand , Malaysia and Vietnam , where underbones were very popular , with new features such as a telescopic front suspension to replace the older leading link suspension , and a four @-@ speed transmission to replace the older three @-@ speed transmission used in older Cub variants . The 100 cc model was initially known as the Honda Dream in Thailand and Honda EX5 in Malaysia , before being standardised as the Honda EX5 Dream in 2003 . In addition , Honda Japan began importing the made @-@ in @-@ Thailand Dream as the Super Cub C100EX in 1988 . The Japanese C100EX was later being facelifted in 1993 , while the Southeast Asian EX5 Dream retains the 1986 design until today with only minor cosmetic changes . On 2011 , the carbureted EX5 Dream was phased out in Thailand and being replaced with the fuel @-@ injected Honda Dream 110i , with the powertrain being derived from the fuel @-@ injected Honda Wave 110i .
In the late 1990s , Honda introduced their newer NF series motorcycles , known as Honda Wave series , called the Honda Innova in some markets , which use steel tube frames , front disc brake and plastic cover sets in various displacement options : 100 cc , 110 cc and 125 cc . Though not Cubs , these bikes sold consistently well particularly in European countries , where the production of Honda Cub models had been previously discontinued . However , the production of Honda Cubs in Asia , Africa and South America still continues today even though the newer Honda Wave Series and other designs have been introduced alongside the Cub .
In 2007 , Honda began installing their PGM @-@ FI fuel injection system for the Honda Cubs in the Japanese market for lower smog @-@ forming emission .
= = = Sports Cub = = =
The C110 Sports Cub debuted in October 1960 . The C110 was more like a traditional motorcycle that the rider had to straddle , not a step @-@ through . It had a different frame , with the fuel tank in the on top of the frame and in front of the seat , and the frame 's steel tube spine ran horizontally from the head tube to the seat . It also had a bit more power , increased from 3 @.@ 4 to 3 @.@ 7 kW ( 4 @.@ 5 to 5 bhp ) @ 9 @,@ 500 rpm . Sub @-@ variants of the Sports Cub were the C111 , absent the pillion seat , and C110D , also called C114 , which had a low exhaust pipe . Early versions of the Sport Cub had a 3 speed gearbox but later this was changed to 4 speed . The C102 stayed in production for six model years , through 1965 , and the C110 Sports Cub through 1966 .
In 1963 came an enlarged OHV engine of 86 @.@ 7 cc ( 5 @.@ 29 cu in ) and 4 @.@ 8 kW ( 6 @.@ 5 bhp ) . It was used first in the C200 , which had a frame like the C110 , with more upright handlebars .
The S65 's last year of production was 1967 , and the CD65 and CL65 took its place for only one year , 1968 . These had the higher @-@ revving 4 @.@ 6 kW ( 6 @.@ 2 bhp ) 63 cc ( 3 @.@ 8 cu in ) engine of the CS65 . Then the 4 @.@ 6 kW ( 6 @.@ 2 bhp ) 71 @.@ 8 cc ( 4 @.@ 38 cu in ) C70 replaced the C65 and CL65 in 1969 . It had the same peak horsepower , but at 9 @,@ 000 rpm instead of 10 @,@ 000 , and more torque , 0 @.@ 53 kg · m ( 5 @.@ 2 N · m ; 3 @.@ 8 lbf · ft ) at 7 @,@ 000 rpm instead of 0 @.@ 48 kg · m ( 4 @.@ 7 N · m ; 3 @.@ 5 lbf · ft ) at 8 @,@ 000 rpm . It was introduced in the USA , Canada and Asia at launch and in the UK in 1972 .
= = = Mini bikes = = =
In 1960 the CZ100 arrived , using the same engine in a much smaller frame with only 5 " wheels . First of the Honda Z series , the CZ100 was meant only as a short @-@ distance novelty or paddock bike , but instead found popularity in the monkey bike niche .
= = = Trail = = =
An on- and off @-@ road version of the Super Cub , what today would be classed as a dual @-@ sport motorcycle but called a trail bike at the time , the CA100T Trail 50 , came out in 1961 . Jack McCormack , the first national sales manager of American Honda Motor Company , said the Trail 50 , and even more so the later Honda CB77 , was the result of Honda 's willingness to listen to and respond customer demand . " When you talk about Japanese manufacturers , their strength ( besides the quality of their equipment ) was that they listened to the marketplace . People always suggest that it was about Japanese management , but , to be frank , I was never impressed with Japanese management . They did what no other motorcycle make did — they listened . "
In 1960 , McCormack noticed that one Honda dealer in Boise , Idaho was selling more Honda 50s than the combined total of all six dealers in Los Angeles . He found out that the Idaho dealer , Herb Uhl , † was selling the CA100s as a trail bike by adding knobby tires for off @-@ road traction and a " cheater sprocket , " that is , increasing the final drive ratio by using a larger rear sprocket with more teeth , which increased the effective torque of the rear wheel , trading off lower top speed as a result . Uhl said the advantages of light weight and the automatic clutch allowed unskilled riders to enjoy off @-@ road riding , in comparison to traditional big trail bikes that could be difficult to handle . McCormack shipped a version of Uhl 's customized CA100 to Japan and requested Honda put it into production , and by March 1961 the Trail 50 was available to US dealers . Cycle World praised the simple pleasure of trail riding on the new bike , and it was a US sales success .
= = Specifications = =
= = Current popularity = =
Sales for Super Cubs have increased in Japan with upgrades on the engine and the installation of fuel injection for Japanese domestic market models starting from 2007 , making it more powerful , more economical and cleaner . With respect to newer , plastic body underbone designs , such as the Wave , the original Cub remains popular .
Cycle World magazine 's Peter Egan and Steve Kimball entered a stock Honda C70 Passport in the 1981 Craig Vetter Fuel Economy Challenge , competing against specially designed high @-@ mileage two wheelers built by teams of engineering students , and an entry from American Honda . The course was a 65 @-@ mile ( 105 km ) loop near San Luis Obispo that had to be completed in 1 hour and 40 minutes , give or take 10 minutes , meaning an average speed of 35 mph ( 56 km / h ) . Kimball , riding the Passport , won the event through skillful and error @-@ free riding , with 198 miles per US gallon ( 1 @.@ 19 L / 100 km ; 238 mpg @-@ imp ) .
In Vietnam , Super Cubs are the predominant model of motorcycle taxi , so that " Honda " has become a genericized trademark or metonymy , equivalent to " xe ôm " referring to any motorcycle taxi . In the English speaking world as well , " Honda " was often a synonym for " motorcycle " as a result of the ubiquity of the Super Cub .
The Super Cub was included in The Guggenheim 's 1998 The Art of the Motorcycle exhibition . In 2006 , on the Discovery Channel 's The Greatest Ever series , an episode on motorcycles placed the 1958 49 cc Super Cub in first place . James May , a co @-@ presenter on the popular television series Top Gear , bought a Honda Super Cub for the 2008 Season 12 Vietnam special . Author Roland Brown wrote that , " of all the brilliant bikes Honda have built — the CB750 superbike , Mike Hailwood 's six @-@ cylinder racers , the mighty Gold Wing , you name them — the most important of all is the C100 Super Cub of 1958 . "
In 2014 , the Super Cub became the first vehicle in Japan to be granted a three @-@ dimensional trademark .
= = = Licensed models = = =
Chongqing Guangyu Motorcycle Manufacture Co , of China , known as Kamax , has a line of motorcycles based on the Super Cub Design , licensed from Honda , including the EEC Super Cub . This Super Cub ' remake ' was developed solely for the European market in cooperation with Super Motor Company . Super Motor Company which is the sole European distributor of the EEC Super Cub sells 3 different variations ; the Super 25 , the Super 50 and the Super 100 . Flyscooters imported a Yinxiang Super Cub variant to the US , under the name Fly Scout . Similarly , China Jialing Industrial Co . , Ltd. has ten models based on Honda 's Super Cub design , including the JL50Q @-@ 2 and JL90 @-@ 1 which are faithful to the original 1958 styling , as well as several more modern restylings . Lifan Group exports a version to the UK , the 97 cc ( 5 @.@ 9 cu in ) LF100 , which features telescopic forks , a four speed gearbox and a digital gear indicator .
SYM Motors of Taiwan licensed the Super Cub design as the Symba 100 , previously called the Symba 110 , which they exported to the US . While keeping the basic design , SYM increased the size of the front brake from 110 to 130 mm ( 4 @.@ 3 to 5 @.@ 1 in ) , and added an LED fuel gauge . Instead of leading link front forks , it uses telescopic forks . The Symba engine has a carbureted 101 @.@ 4 cc ( 6 @.@ 19 cu in ) single claimed to produce 6 @.@ 5 hp ( 4 @.@ 8 kW ) at 8500 rpm , with a four speed gearbox using a centrifugal clutch semi @-@ automatic transmission .
= = = EV @-@ Cub = = =
At the 2009 Tokyo Motor Show , Honda presented the EV @-@ Cub concept vehicle , an electric motorcycle patterned after the venerable Super Cub , featuring two @-@ wheel drive by means of electric motors mounted in the hubs of each of the wheels . Honda said they felt keeping the 1958 layout for their 21st century concept bike made sense because , " the human body has not changed in the past 50 years , " and , " the size , shape and position of all the Super Cub parts had a kind of necessity to them , and that the design of the Super Cub was very rational and rider @-@ centric . " The additional space created by the absence of the engine in the center of the frame and the lack of a gas tank created room for underseat helmet storage , typical of a scooter . Integrated with the new electric motorcycle was an interactive communications system , to let riders converse while riding . Several other companies , including Christini , KTM , Öhlins , and Yamaha have done development on two @-@ wheel drive motorcycles , and have found that the addition of power to the front as well as the rear wheel aids in stability , particularly in corners and in the hands of novice riders . At the time Honda hinted that they would bring the EV @-@ Cub to market in 2010 .
= Market Forces ( The Spectacular Spider @-@ Man ) =
" Market Forces " is the fourth episode of the animated television series The Spectacular Spider @-@ Man , which is based on the comic book character Spider @-@ Man , created by Stan Lee and Steve Ditko . In the episode , Spider @-@ Man is hunted by Shocker , whose suit allows him to fire intense sonic blasts .
" Market Forces " was written by Andrew Robinson and directed by Dan Fausett . It incorporated computer @-@ generated imagery in the sonic blasts used by Shocker , which mixed in with the other , traditional animation style used in the show . Shocker 's secret identity was completely changed from that of his original comic book appearance , but his design stayed close to the original costume used .
The episode originally broadcast on March 22 , 2008 , on the Kids WB ! block for the CW Network . It received generally positive reviews from television critics . IGN praised it for its imagery and storytelling , while iF Magazine said " Even the Shocker was more interesting on this show , so I continue to have high hopes for future episodes , characters , and villains . "
= = Plot summary = =
Montana and The Enforcers steal a powered suit from an armored Tri @-@ Corp truck after gassing the guards . Montana hands it to Hammerhead , who insists that Montana dons the suit to complete the " Big Man " ' s contract to kill Spider @-@ Man . The next day , Peter Parker gets across town as Spider @-@ Man , unaware that Montana and his men are watching him . He then hangs out at Harry 's apartment , discussing the upcoming Fall Formal , until he receives an e @-@ mail from J. Jonah Jameson of the Daily Bugle informing Peter that Jonah wants to purchase his photos of Spider @-@ Man . He leaves and promises to help Harry with homework later . At the Bugle building , Jonah mistakenly kicks Peter out before realizing who he is . Jonah pays him and makes him exit the building .
While heading back , Peter hears an alarm coming from a landfill and investigates . It ends up being a trap and he is attacked with sonic blasts by Montana , now wearing the suit and calling himself " Shocker " . When he is close to moving in for the kill , one of the thugs used as bait , Alex O 'Hirn , accidentally gives Spider @-@ Man time to recover . Shocker then knocks him into a machine and , satisfied , leaves via helicopter . Spider @-@ Man , however , survives but his paycheck was torn to shreds . The next day after school , where Harry is outraged with him over missing out on studying , Peter goes to replace his check at the Bugle where assistant editor Joe Robertson suggests getting a better camera . After Jonah takes a photo of Spider @-@ Man covered in garbage as Peter 's submission , Peter goes after O 'Hirn and his partner Flint Marko as Spider @-@ Man . He defeats them and tells them to inform Shocker he wants a rematch .
Peter makes it home in time for his curfew and spots Aunt May struggling with the bills , but must use the money he has to buy a new camera . When he goes to school the next day , he finds Harry is furious with him once more over forgetting their studying arrangements once more . At night , Hammerhead tells
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actic astronomy , extragalactic astronomy and cosmology . Most of the instruments are designed to be useful for a range of different research .
The WHT has been used to make many significant new discoveries . Some of the more notable include the first evidence of a supermassive black hole ( Sgr A * ) at the centre of the Milky Way ( in 1995 ) and the first optical observation of a gamma @-@ ray burst ( GRB 970228 ) ( in 1997 ) .
Since the mid @-@ 1990s the WHT has faced increasing competition from newer 8 @-@ to @-@ 10 m ( 310 @-@ to @-@ 390 in ) telescopes . Nevertheless , a wide range of research continues to be done with the telescope . In recent years ( as of 2010 ) this has included :
The SAURON project , an integral field spectrograph survey of nearby elliptical and lenticular galaxies ( 2001 – 2010 )
The first spectrum of an asteroid which subsequently hit the Earth , 2008 TC3 ( 2009 )
The first spectrum of Hanny 's Voorwerp ( 2009 )
The discovery that diffuse interstellar bands do not originate in circumstellar envelopes ( 2008 )
Confirmation that WASP @-@ 3b is an extrasolar planet ( 2008 )
High @-@ resolution spectra of the first known double supernova , SN 2006jc ( 2007 )
= = Future developments = =
The upcoming generation of extremely large telescopes ( ELTs ) will require sophisticated adaptive optics in order to be used to their full capability . Because the WHT has an advanced adaptive optics system already operating , it is receiving attention from the various ELT programs . The European Southern Observatory 's European @-@ ELT ( E @-@ ELT ) project has begun a programme to utilise the WHT as a test @-@ bed for its adaptive optics system , and will receive several nights per year for on @-@ sky testing . The project involves construction of new optical experiments at one of the Nasmyth foci , and is called CANARY . CANARY will demonstrate the multi @-@ object adaptive optics ( MOAO ) required for the EAGLE instrument on the E @-@ ELT .
The UK 's STFC ( originally the major financial contributor ) has gradually reduced its funding for the ING telescopes over a number of years . Some of this funding shortfall has been made up by other partners increasing their contributions , and some by efficiency savings and cutbacks . As a result , the shares of observing time will become UK 33 % , Netherlands 28 % , Spain 34 % and 5 % for any nationality . A new development , started in 2010 , is the development of a new wide @-@ field multi @-@ object spectroscopy facility ( WEAVE ) , being developed by a UK @-@ led consortium involving major contributions from the Netherlands , Spain , France , and Italy , which is expected to be in place by the end of 2017 . WEAVE will provide medium @-@ high resolution spectroscopy in the visible ( 360 @-@ 950 nm ) range for up to 1000 simultaneous targets over a 2 degree field of view , and is currently expected to operate through to at least 2023 .
= Salon Kitty =
Salon Kitty was a high @-@ class Berlin brothel used by the Nazi intelligence service , the Sicherheitsdienst ( SD ) , for espionage purposes during World War II .
Created in the early 1930s , the salon was taken over by SS general Reinhard Heydrich and his subordinate Walter Schellenberg in 1939 . The brothel was managed by Kitty Schmidt throughout its entire existence who was the original owner . The plan was to seduce top German dignitaries , foreign visitors as well as diplomats with alcohol and women so they would disclose secrets or express their honest opinions on Nazi @-@ related topics and individuals . Notable guests included Heydrich himself , Joseph Dietrich , Galeazzo Ciano and Joseph Goebbels . The building housing the salon was destroyed in an air raid in 1942 and the project quickly lost its importance . Salon Kitty has been the inspiration or subject to many brothels featured in films involving Nazi espionage .
= = History = =
In the 1930s , " Salon Kitty " was a high @-@ class brothel located at 11 Giesebrechtstrasse in Charlottenburg , a wealthy district of Berlin . Its usual clientele included German dignitaries , foreign diplomats , top industrialist , high @-@ ranking civil servants and senior Nazi Party members . Its madame was Katharina Zammit , better known as Kitty Schmidt , who had been running the brothel since its creation .
= = = Nazi takeover = = =
Schmidt had secretly been sending money to British banks with fleeing refugees ever since the Nazis took power in Germany in January 1933 . When she eventually tried to leave the country on 28 June 1939 , Sicherheitsdienst ( SD ) agents arrested her at the Dutch border and took her to Gestapo headquarters . Once there she was seen by Walter Schellenberg , who at that time worked in the counter @-@ intelligence department of the SD . He gave her an ultimatum : cooperate with the Nazis or be sent to a concentration camp .
The idea to use Salon Kitty for espionage purposes came from Reinhard Heydrich , a leading SS general and police chief within Nazi Germany . Instead of infiltrating the brothel , Schellenberg decided to take it over altogether . He converted the basement into a " workshop " where five operators could make transcriptions of conversations from the love @-@ making room . The nine rooms of the salon were also lavishly expanded and renovated to the highest standards of the 1930s . The idea was to entertain prominent guests with wine and women , so they would disclose secrets or talk about their real opinions to ensure their support could be relied upon .
= = = Girls of Salon Kitty = = =
For the purpose of espionage , the SS started looking for young women to work in the brothel . In a circular deemed " top secret " , Schellenberg asked administrative offices in Berlin for assistance . The requirement profile read : " Wanted are women and girls , who are intelligent , multilingual , nationalistically minded and furthermore man @-@ crazy " ( Gesucht werden Frauen und Mädchen , die intelligent , mehrsprachig , nationalistisch gesinnt und ferner mannstoll sind . ) . Berlin 's Sittenpolizei ( " vice squad " ) arrested dozens of Berlin prostitutes and selected the most beautiful and sexually attractive as potential agents to work at Salon Kitty . Among other things , they were trained to recognize military uniforms , and to glean secrets from innocuous conversation . They were not told about the microphones , but had to make a report after every encounter . The ladies all had their particular attractions and had been trained to satisfy even the discerning customers . Historian Paul Roland further notes that the women who entertained members of the Nazi elite , however , were respected ladies of Berlin 's high society who were given no allowances for their " contributions " and were nearly all married to men of good financial means .
In March 1940 , Schmidt was told to continue business as if nothing had happened , except now she had a special book of twenty additional girls she should only show to certain clients . If a customer used the phrase " I come from Rothenburg " , she was instructed to show him the book , allow him make his decision and call for the girl he had selected . The girl would then spend the night with the guest and depart later .
= = = Notable guests = = =
Salon Kitty became even more popular when selected guests in the military and diplomatic corps were told the " secret codeword " and monitors made thousands of recordings during their visits . One of the customers was Galeazzo Ciano , son @-@ in @-@ law of Italian dictator Benito Mussolini and Foreign Minister of Fascist Italy , whose forthright opinions about the Führer were not particularly positive . Another visitor , SS general Sepp Dietrich , wanted all the 20 special girls for an all @-@ night orgy , but he revealed no secrets . Additionally , propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels has been marked as a client ; he enjoyed " lesbian displays " that were otherwise considered anti @-@ social acts outside of that context . Heydrich also made a number of " inspection tours " , although the microphones were turned off on those occasions .
British agent Roger Wilson , under his cover identity as Romanian press secretary " Ljubo Kolchev " , noticed the microphone wires while there . He became a regular customer of the salon with a regular girl , and later arranged a wiretap to three cables . Now British intelligence heard some of the same conversations as the SD did .
= = = Air raid and closing = = =
As the war progressed , the clientele of Salon Kitty decreased . In July 1942 , the building was demolished during an air attack and the brothel had to be relocated . Within the year the SD decided to abandon the project and handed the salon back to Schmidt , with the threat that she would keep silent or face retaliation .
Madame Schmidt did not talk about the matter even after the war . She died in 1954 at the age of 71 without revealing the identity of any of her former employees . Total number of Gestapo recordings from the brothel was estimated by the Stasi ( East German Security Service ) to be about 25 @,@ 000 . Virtually all of the recordings have since been lost or destroyed due to their post @-@ war unimportance . According to a 2005 article in Die Tageszeitung , the brothel continued to exist after World War II under the management of Schmidt 's son and daughter . In the 1990s , it was turned into a home for asylum @-@ seekers , which was closed soon after because of local protest against the residents .
= = Media = =
The story of what happened at Salon Kitty first came to light in Walter Schellenberg 's memoirs , published in Germany in 1956 under the title The Labyrinth . Peter Norden later expanded the story in his 1970 book Salon Kitty . This book became the basis for the highly controversial 1976 film Salon Kitty , directed by Tinto Brass and starring Helmut Berger as Walter Schellenberg ( renamed Helmut Wallenberg ) and Ingrid Thulin as Kitty Schmidt ( renamed Kitty Kellermann ) .
The 1981 BBC comedy drama Private Schulz , about a German fraudster and petty criminal 's unwilling World War II service in the SS , prominently features the salon . In the first episode , Schultz has been given the job of manning a listening post in the brothel 's basement and recording the conversations picked up by the hidden microphones .
The concept of the Gestapo using a brothel full of spies to find traitors within the Nazi regime has been recycled several times in various European nazi exploitation films .
= = = Printed = = =
Craig , John ( 2005 ) . Peculiar Liaisons : In War , Espionage , and Terrorism in the Twentieth Century . Algora Publishing . ISBN 978 @-@ 0875863337 .
Frayling , Christopher ( 2005 ) . Ken Adam : The Art of Production Design . Farber & Farber . ISBN 0 @-@ 571 @-@ 23109 @-@ 8 .
Hyde , Montgomery ( 1985 ) . Crimes and Punishment . Marshall Cavendish . ISBN 978 @-@ 0863073724 .
Lepage , Jean @-@ Denis ( 2013 ) . An Illustrated Dictionary of the Third Reich . McFarland Publishing . ISBN 978 @-@ 1476603698 .
Roland , Paul ( 2014 ) . Nazi Women : The Attraction of Evil . Arcturus Publishing . ISBN 978 @-@ 1784280468 .
Stephenson , Jill ( 2014 ) . Women in Nazi Germany . Routledge Publishing . ISBN 978 @-@ 1317876083 .
= = = Online = = =
Private Schulz . British Broadcasting Corporation . Retrieved 4 May 2015 .
Huhtasaari , Hanna ( 27 August 2008 ) . " Verführen für den ' Führer ' " . Spiegel.de ( in German ) . Spiegel Online . Retrieved 4 July 2015 .
Hüttl , Tina ( 11 May 2005 ) . " Wie in ein Nazi @-@ Bordell das echte Leben einzog " ( in German ) . Die Tageszeitung . Retrieved 4 July 2015 .
= Heidi Game =
The Heidi Game or Heidi Bowl was an American Football League game played on November 17 , 1968 , between the Oakland Raiders and the visiting New York Jets . The game was notable for its finish , in which Oakland scored two touchdowns in the final minute to win the game 43 – 32 , but was named for a decision by the game 's broadcaster , NBC , to break away from its coverage of the game on the east coast to broadcast the television film Heidi , causing many viewers to miss the Raiders ' comeback .
In the late 1960s , few professional football games took longer than two and a half hours to play , and the Jets – Raiders ' three @-@ hour time slot was thought to be adequate . A high @-@ scoring contest , together with a number of injuries and penalties for the two bitter AFL rivals , caused the game to run long . NBC executives had originally ordered that Heidi begin at 7 : 00 p.m. ET , but decided to allow the game to air to its conclusion . However , as 7 p.m. approached , NBC 's switchboards were jammed by viewers phoning to inquire about the night 's schedule , preventing the planned change from being communicated . Heidi began as scheduled , preempting the final moments of the game and the two Oakland touchdowns in the eastern half of the country , to the outrage of viewers .
Response to the pre @-@ emption by viewers and other critics was negative ; the family members of several Jets players were unaware of the game 's actual conclusion , while NBC received further criticism for its poor timing in displaying the final score of the game during the Heidi movie . NBC 's president Julian Goodman formally apologized for the incident , while footage of the Raiders ' touchdowns were featured across network newscasts the next day . Reaction to the game itself was positive among Raiders fans , with critics lauding its " exciting " conclusion . Alongside the Raiders ' unexpected victory , the ejection of Jets safety Jim Hudson after an argument with an official also drew the ire of team staff , with assistant coach Walt Michaels alleging that the official had cursed at Hudson to provoke the negative reaction that got him ejected . The Jets and Raiders met again in the AFL Championship Game , with the Jets winning 27 – 23 . They later defeated the Baltimore Colts in Super Bowl III .
The Heidi Game influenced the broadcasting of football : to ensure that network personnel could communicate under similar circumstances , NBC installed special telephones ( dubbed " Heidi phones " ) , with a connection to a different telephone exchange from other network phones , while the future National Football League would contractually stipulate that all game telecasts be shown to their conclusion in the markets of the visiting team . In 1997 , the Heidi Game was voted the most memorable regular season game in pro football history .
= = Background = =
= = = Jets – Raiders rivalry = = =
When the Jets played the Raiders , it wasn 't a rivalry . It was a war .
The Jets and Raiders were founding members of the American Football League ; both teams began to play in 1960 , the Jets under the name Titans of New York . The two teams had little success in their early years , playing so poorly that both the Titans and Raiders were allowed to draft players from other AFL teams following the 1962 season . In 1967 , the Jets , under the guidance of coach Weeb Ewbank and quarterback Joe Namath , posted their first winning record at 7 – 5 – 2 . Oakland , on the other hand , won the Western Division in 1967 with a 13 – 1 mark under coach John Rauch and then the AFL Championship Game over the Houston Oilers , 40 – 7 , before falling to the Green Bay Packers in Super Bowl II . Both teams were seen as likely contenders for the 1968 AFL Championship .
The two teams did not play in the same division . However , each AFL team played all other teams in the league each year , allowing the Raiders and Jets to forge a bitter rivalry . In 1963 , Oakland general manager ( later owner ) Al Davis traded guard Dan Ficca to New York during training camp , without mentioning to Ewbank ( who was also the Jets ' general manager ) that Ficca would not be released from his military service for another six weeks . In 1966 , with less than a minute to go and the Raiders leading at the new Oakland Coliseum , 28 – 20 , Jets left tackle Winston Hill predicted to Namath in the huddle that the man he was blocking , Ben Davidson , would rush on the next play , leaving the Raiders exposed to a draw play . Namath called the draw , and handed the ball off to running back Emerson Boozer for 47 yards and a touchdown . After a Jets two @-@ point conversion , the game ended in a 28 – 28 tie , and an embittered Davidson stated , " I 'll get even . They still have to play us next year . " They did , twice . In Week 4 , the Jets defeated the Raiders at Shea Stadium , 27 – 14 ; this was the Raiders ' only regular season loss . In Week 14 , each team 's 13th game , the teams met again , in Oakland . Sportswriter Paul Zimmerman said of the second 1967 Jets @-@ Raiders game :
The 1967 game was one of the most vicious in Jet history . Namath was slugged to the turf ; he was hit late , punched in the groin . They aimed for his knees , tried to step on his hands ... And Davidson got Namath . He got him on a rollout , with a right that started somewhere between Hayward and Alameda . It knocked Namath 's helmet flying , and broke his jaw , but Namath didn 't miss a play , and he threw for 370 yards and three TD 's in that 38 – 27 loss .
Davidson had this about his play in the Oakland victory , " I don 't think my tackle broke Namath ’ s cheekbone . Not that I care … Namath says that he ’ s been beat up worse by girls . He ’ s asking for it again . " The Jets loss to the Raiders in 1967 knocked New York out of a tie for first place in their division – the AFL East was won by the Houston Oilers .
In the 1968 season , the Jets , Raiders , San Diego Chargers and Kansas City Chiefs established themselves as the leading teams . Going into Week 11 of the AFL season , each team had lost only two games ; the Chiefs , who had not yet had a bye week , had eight wins , the others seven . In an era with no wild card teams , the Raiders needed a victory over the Jets in Week 11 to avoid falling a game and a half behind the Chiefs in the AFL West – finishing second , however good their record , would end their season . The Jets , on the other hand , would clinch at least a tie for the AFL East title with a victory over the Raiders in their only regular season meeting . Depending on the results of other games , the Jets could win the division if they beat the Raiders , gaining a berth in the AFL Championship Game , the winner of which would play the NFL champion in the Super Bowl . The ill @-@ feeling of previous years was resurrected by an immense blown @-@ up photograph , posted at Raider headquarters , of Davidson smashing Namath in the head . The photographed play was said to have broken the quarterback 's jaw ( though Namath stated he had broken it on a tough piece of steak , and some claim it was Raiders defensive end Ike Lassiter who injured Namath ) . Although the poster , which had been placed by Davis , was removed before the game , word of this " intimidation through photography " reached the Jets in New York .
Namath , interviewed by reporters , stated that he liked the Raiders the least of any AFL team . In 2000 , New York Times sportswriter Dave Anderson wrote of the Jets ' preparations for the Oakland game :
When the Jets went to Oakland in 1968 , that photo on the Raiders ' wall symbolized the rivalry as well as Coach Weeb Ewbank 's distrust of Davis . Whenever a helicopter flew anywhere near a Jets practice the week before a game against the Raiders , Ewbank would look up and shake his fist . He just knew Davis had somebody spying on the Jets .
The Raiders declined to allow New York reporters to watch practices , a courtesy Ewbank extended to Oakland pressmen . Raiders assistant coach ( later head coach ) John Madden was responsible for the exchange of game films with upcoming opponents ; he sent the films to the Jets through Chicago so they would arrive a day or two late , reasoning that Davis , not he , would be blamed for the delay . Ewbank blamed Davis for heavily watering the Coliseum field to slow the Jets ' speedy receivers , a tactic the Oakland co @-@ owner credited to Madden .
= = = Game telecast = = =
NBC 's preparations for the Sunday , November 17 game at Oakland were routine . The game was to be televised to most of the country beginning at 4 : 00 p.m. Eastern Standard Time , with Curt Gowdy and Al DeRogatis announcing . NBC hoped that viewers who tuned their television channel selectors to the game would not walk over to the television and change the channel or turn off the power switch , but would watch the evening 's programming . They anticipated a good game , which would cause the audience to remain in their seats and watch the game in its entirety , " a perfect lead in for the network 's special presentation of Heidi , the Johanna Spyri children 's classic , which was scheduled to air after the game at 7 p.m. ( EST ) " . The television film was preempting Walt Disney 's Wonderful World of Color , the program normally shown by NBC on Sunday at that time . As the game started at 1 : 00 p.m. Pacific Standard Time , the western half of the country would have to wait after the game for 7 : 00 p.m. local time before seeing Heidi . Under television rules at the time , the Jets – Raiders game was blacked out within 90 miles of Oakland even though it was a sellout , leaving then @-@ NBC affiliate KRON @-@ TV ( channel 4 ) and other NBC affiliates in nearby markets unable to show the game .
Heidi was heavily promoted by NBC in television commercials and newspaper advertisements . The network hoped to gain a large audience , especially among families , whom the network anticipated would watch the entire two @-@ hour film . Individual commercials for the film could not be purchased by advertisers ; instead , the entire two @-@ hour block was sold by NBC to watch manufacturer Timex , which would air the film and have its own commercials run during the broadcast . The New York Times touted Heidi as the best TV program of the day . Under the terms of the contract between Timex and NBC , Heidi had to go to air promptly at 7 : 00 p.m. Eastern ( 6 : 00 p.m. Central ) , and could not be delayed or joined in progress for any reason . NBC was inclined to favor the movie over the game as sponsors like Timex were treated well in hopes of return business , while AFL football 's television drawing power was as yet unproven . Dom Cosentino , in his 2014 article on the Heidi Game , points out the irony that Timex , a watch company , was the sponsor ; the game would become infamous for its telecast , cut short because of time .
Steven Travers , in his history of the Raiders , noted :
That Sunday evening at 7 : 00 p.m. the family classic Heidi was scheduled . This is the well @-@ known story of a little Swiss girl who lives with her grandfather in the [ Alps ] , a staple of wholesome entertainment . In the days before cable , pay @-@ per @-@ view , VHS , DVD , TiVo , record , rewind , and 700 channels – when the choices came down to what NBC , ABC , CBS , and maybe a handful of local stations wanted to show the public , TV viewers scheduled their days around events like Heidi . It was on once a year . If one missed it , they missed it until the next year .
The nerve center for NBC was known as Broadcast Operations Control ( BOC ) . Dick Cline , the network BOC supervisor for sports telecasts , prepared the series of network orders which would result in the game running as scheduled , followed by Heidi . Cline had no reason to believe that the game would run over three hours ; no professional football game presented by NBC ever had . However , other NBC executives stressed that Heidi must start as scheduled . NBC president Julian Goodman told his executives before the weekend that the well @-@ sponsored , well @-@ promoted film must start on time . NBC Sports executive producer Don " Scotty " Connal took care to tell the game producer , Don Ellis , that Heidi must start at 7 : 00 in the East , over Ellis ' objection that he had been trained never to leave a game in progress . Connal told Ellis that NBC had sold the time , and was obligated to switch to the film .
NBC ran three BOCs , in Burbank , California , Chicago , and New York City , with the last the largest . Cline was stationed at the New York BOC for the game . In the era before satellite transmission , programming was transmitted by coaxial cable line , with the cooperation of the telephone company . For this game , the Burbank BOC was to receive the feed from Oakland , insert commercials and network announcements , and send the modified feed via telephone wire to a switching station west of Chicago near the Mississippi River . An engineer was stationed there to activate the Oakland feed into the entire network when the game began , to cut it on instruction and then to return to his base . He had been told to expect at 6 : 58 : 20 Eastern Time a network announcement for Heidi , after which he was to cut the feed from Burbank , and the Heidi feed from New York would begin . This placed Burbank in effective control of whether the engineer would cut the feed , since he would act upon hearing the announcement .
Connal , Cline 's boss , was available in case of trouble , watching from his home in Connecticut . His superior , NBC Sports vice president Chet Simmons , who alternated weekends with Connal as on @-@ call in the event of difficulties , was also watching from his Manhattan home . NBC president Goodman and NBC Sports head Carl Lindemann also turned on the game , which was expected to be exciting , in their New York area homes . The Buffalo Bills – San Diego Chargers game , shown as the first of a network doubleheader , was running long in its 2 ½ -hour time slot , and NBC unhesitatingly cut its ending to go to the Jets and Raiders .
= = Gameday events = =
= = = The game = = =
On the opening kickoff , the Jets were penalized for a personal foul against the Raiders . The Jets took an early 6 – 0 lead on 44 @-@ yard and 18 @-@ yard field goals made by kicker Jim Turner . The Raiders , led by quarterback Daryle Lamonica , who had been battling recent back and knee injuries , scored the game 's first touchdown , taking a 7 – 6 lead on a 22 @-@ yard pass to receiver Warren Wells towards the end of the first quarter . The Raiders added to their lead when Lamonica threw a 48 @-@ yard pass to tight end Billy Cannon at the beginning of the second quarter .
However , the Jets cut into Oakland 's lead when Namath drove the offense 73 yards down field and ran the ball in for a 1 @-@ yard touchdown with five seconds remaining in the first half . The Jets lined up as if to kick the extra point , but holder and backup quarterback Babe Parilli tried to complete a two @-@ point conversion pass , which fell incomplete . The Raiders led the Jets 14 – 12 at halftime .
Approximately five minutes into the third quarter , Namath forged another Jets drive , following an interception by safety Jim Hudson , that ended with halfback Bill Mathis scoring a 4 @-@ yard touchdown behind blocking guard Dave Herman to give New York a 19 – 14 lead . The Raiders responded with an 80 @-@ yard drive that saw running back Charlie Smith score his first touchdown of the game on a 3 @-@ yard pass from Lamonica . The Raiders took a 22 – 19 lead on a two @-@ point conversion with Lamonica completing the attempt to receiver Hewritt Dixon . During this drive , Hudson was ejected from the game after being called for a face mask penalty followed by a dispute with an official . As he left the field , he gave the jeering crowd the finger . The penalties caused the ball to be placed at the Jets ' 3 @-@ yard line , and Smith scored for Oakland one play later .
The fourth quarter began with Smith fumbling the football with Oakland in scoring position . New York defensive end Gerry Philbin recovered the football at the Jets ' 3 @-@ yard line setting up a 97 @-@ yard drive , consisting entirely of two Namath passes to Don Maynard , who was covered by Raiders ' rookie cornerback George Atkinson . The 50 @-@ yard touchdown pass followed a 47 @-@ yard throw , and gave the Jets a 26 – 22 lead . Turner added another field goal to the Jets ' total , giving them a 29 – 22 lead . The Raiders promptly responded with Lamonica orchestrating an 88 @-@ yard drive that ended with a 22 @-@ yard pass to receiver Fred Biletnikoff with less than four minutes remaining in the game , tying the contest .
Turner made a 26 @-@ yard field goal to break the tie and give the Jets a three @-@ point lead with a little over a minute remaining in the game . Turner kicked the ball off to the Raiders ' Smith , who took the kick out of the end zone and to Oakland 's own 22 @-@ yard line . Lamonica completed to Smith for an apparent touchdown , but the play was called back due to a penalty , causing New York cornerback Johnny Sample to say to Lamonica , " Nice try , Lamonica . Better luck next year . " On first down , Smith caught a 20 @-@ yard reception from Lamonica , while a 15 @-@ yard penalty was assessed against the Jets when a player grabbed Smith 's facemask , moving the ball to the Jets ' 43 @-@ yard line . On the ensuing play , Lamonica threw another pass to Smith who outpaced Jets safety Mike D 'Amato , who replaced the ejected Jim Hudson , for a 43 @-@ yard touchdown . Kicker George Blanda made the extra point attempt which gave the Raiders a 36 – 32 lead .
With 42 seconds remaining , the Jets still had a chance to score ; however , on the kickoff , New York return man Earl Christy fumbled the ball at the Jets ' 12 @-@ yard line when he was tackled by Raiders linebacker Bill Budness . Oakland reserve running back Preston Ridlehuber picked up the fumbled ball and ran into the end zone , which with another Blanda extra point gave the Raiders a 43 – 32 lead , deflating any hopes of the Jets coming back to win the contest . Ridlehuber could not remember whether AFL rules permitted advancing a fumbled kickoff return ( they did ) , so tried to make it appear he was entering the end zone with the same motion he gathered in the ball . Oakland kicked off to New York again , but it could do little with the ball in the final seconds , and the game ended .
= = = Decision to leave the game for Heidi = = =
The two starting quarterbacks combined for 71 dropped passes , with the clock stopping on each incompletion , and the officials called 19 penalties , leading to more clock stoppages . Each team used all six of its allocated timeouts , and the many scores led to additional commercial breaks . At halftime , Connal called Cline , and without urgency discussed the fact that the game seemed to be running longer than expected .
As the fourth quarter began , it was 6 : 20 EST , and NBC executives began to realize the game might not end by 7 : 00 . NBC Sports vice president Chet Simmons recalled :
They kept promoting Heidi , kept promoting Heidi . I kept looking at my watch , and I said to myself , there 's no way to me that Heidi 's going to make this at seven o 'clock . Julian Goodman , the president of the company , told us going into the weekend that Heidi had to start on time ... I looked at my watch , looked at another table clock , looked at the game , and thought , no way is this going to happen .
Connal , watching the game from his home in Old Greenwich , Connecticut , also noticed the fourth quarter was running " terribly slow " . At 6 : 45 , he called Cline again , and both men agreed the game would not end on time . Both supported running the end of the game , but given Goodman 's instructions , his permission was required . Connal agreed to call NBC Sports president Lindemann , and that he and Lindemann would then speak to Goodman . After promising Cline a return call , Connal reached Lindemann by telephone . Lindemann agreed that the end of the game should be broadcast , and both men began trying to reach Goodman . Lindemann was successful in reaching Goodman , and asked the network president , " What about the instruction to broadcast operations control that Heidi had to go on at 7 : 00 ET , no matter what ? " Goodman replied , " That 's crazy . It 's a terrible idea . " Lindemann then set up a three @-@ way conversation with himself , Goodman and NBC Television president Don Durgin . After several minutes of discussion , Durgin agreed to delay the start of Heidi until after the game was completed . Sportswriter Kyle Garlett , in his history of sports gaffes , noted , " And even though earlier executives had told [ Cline ] to make sure he started Heidi on time , those same executives changed their minds late in the game . "
Cline , watching the clock nervously , attempted to call Connal back , only to find both lines busy . He waited as long as he could , then made one final , unsuccessful attempt . Unknown to Cline , Connal was talking to Goodman , who had agreed to " slide the network " , that is , start Heidi as soon as Curt Gowdy signed off from the game . Connal called the game producer , Ellis , in Oakland , to tell him the news , then called the BOC supervisor in Burbank – who , not knowing Connal , refused his order , and insisted on speaking with Goodman directly . As Goodman had disconnected to allow Connal to call Oakland , this could not be done .
Beginning about 6 : 45 , many members of the public began calling NBC network and affiliate switchboards . Some demanded the game be shown to its conclusion ; others wanted to know if Heidi would start on time . These calls jammed the switchboards , and even blew repeated fuses in them , preventing the executives from getting through to each other to resolve the situation . NBC protocol required an operations order from Connal , to countermand the midweek written orders , but Cline received no call from the increasingly desperate Connal , who was frustrated by the switchboard issues . Without such an order , and not knowing of Goodman 's approval , Cline made the decision that Heidi would start on time . The television audience saw Smith return Turner 's kickoff out of the end zone to the Oakland 22 @-@ yard line with 1 : 01 remaining . Burbank BOC played the closing football theme and gave the word cue , to the outraged shock of Ellis and Connal , and the connection was irretrievably broken . Although the western United States continued to view the game , the eastern half of the nation instead saw a little girl on a Swiss mountain and was unaware that Oakland was in the course of scoring two touchdowns to win the game .
Oakland Tribune reporter Bob Valli reported on the Heidi Game : " Television missed one of football 's most exciting and exhausting minutes of emotion . In that minute , Oakland fans saw despair turn to delirium . "
= = Reaction and aftermath = =
= = = Viewer reaction = = =
On realizing that NBC was switching away from the game , Goodman said to Lindemann by phone , " Where the hell has our football game gone ? " During the station break which began with the network announcement , Goodman called a BOC phone to which only he knew the number and which was not part of NBC 's CIrcle @-@ 7 exchange ( which blew a fuse 26 times in an hour ) . When Cline answered it , Goodman ordered him to go back to the game . Although Cline knew there was no way to reconnect the feed , he promised to do the best he could . By the time the game ended at 7 : 07 , thousands of viewers were calling the network to complain about missing the end of the football game . Others called newspapers , television stations , even the New York City Police Department , both to seek the final score , and simply to vent . Humorist Art Buchwald wrote " Men who wouldn 't get out of their chairs in an earthquake rushed to the phone to scream obscenities [ at the network ] . " As people learned of the outcome , some became upset because Ridlehuber 's touchdown meant the Raiders had won by more than the point spread of 71 ⁄ 2 , and bets thought to be won were now lost . In Oakland , Gowdy and DeRogatis left the broadcast booth to tell Ellis that the final two minutes were the most exciting they had ever seen . Ellis replied , " It 's too bad America didn 't see it . " Realizing that the original call had been lost , Ellis had the two sportscasters re @-@ create their descriptions of the two Raider touchdowns on tape .
In an attempt to inform the audience of the outcome of the game , NBC flashed the final score across the screen . It did so during a scene in the film just as Heidi 's paralyzed friend , Clara , was taking her first , slow steps . According to sportswriter Jack Clary , " The football fans were indignant when they saw what they had missed . The Heidi audience was peeved at having an ambulatory football score intrude on one of the story 's more touching moments . Short of pre @-@ empting Heidi for a skin flick , NBC could not have managed to alienate more viewers that evening . "
At 8 : 30 , Goodman issued a statement apologizing for the incident , and stating that he had missed the ending of the game " as much as anybody " . He stated that it was " a forgivable error committed by humans who were concerned about children expecting to see Heidi " . The following morning , Cline was called into a meeting with his bosses . He was told that if he had done anything other than what he did , NBC would have been at the mercy of Timex and Cline would have been fired . The network turned the fiasco into an advantage by subsequent self @-@ mockery , promoting the following week 's Jets game telecast with an advertisement showing Namath with Heidi on his shoulders , and running another ad with testimonials about Heidi , the last : " I didn 't get a chance to see it , but I hear it was great " , signed by Namath . Other networks joined in : on the CBS Evening News the following Monday night ( November 18 ) , Harry Reasoner announced the " result " of the game : " Heidi married the goat @-@ herder " . That same evening , NBC 's own Huntley @-@ Brinkley Report aired the tape of the game 's final minute , complete with the re @-@ created Gowdy / DeRogatis commentary . On the ABC Evening News , anchor Frank Reynolds read excerpts from Heidi while clips of the Raiders ' two touchdowns were shown as cut @-@ ins .
= = = Ramifications = = =
To prevent similar occurrences happening in future game telecasts , a special " Heidi phone " , a hotline connected to a different exchange and unaffected by switchboard meltdowns , was installed in BOC . The network quickly changed its procedures to allow games to finish before other programming begins , which is now standard practice . Three weeks after the Heidi Game , NBC aired a special presentation of Pinocchio . In the promotional newspaper advertisement for the film , Pinocchio himself assured football fans that they would view the entire game before the film and that he would sooner cut off his nose than " have them cut off " the action . On December 15 , the nationally televised game between the Raiders and Chargers ran over its allotted time slot . NBC started The New Adventures of Huckleberry Finn at 7 : 08 Eastern Time , and announced that all network programming that evening would be started eight minutes late . " I can 't remember when we 've done anything like this before , " stated an NBC executive . " It 's very unusual . "
In subsequent television contracts , the merged NFL required language which obligated the networks to show games to completion in the road team 's television market . On November 23 , 1975 , NBC planned to air the heavily promoted children 's film Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory at 7 : 00 p.m. Eastern , right after a game between the Raiders and Washington Redskins . When the game went into overtime , NBC stayed with it for almost 45 minutes and then joined the Wonka film in progress , prompting angry calls from parents .
Cline stated in 1989 , " I wonder if this Heidi thing will ever die ... maybe now that it 's past 20 years people will stop asking me about it . " The Heidi Game , in 1997 , was voted among the ten most memorable games in pro football history , and the most memorable regular season contest . In 2005 , TV Guide designated the Heidi Game at # 6 on its list of the " 100 Most Unexpected TV Moments " in history . Interviewed by the magazine , Jennifer Edwards , title star of Heidi , commented : " My gravestone is gonna say , ' She was a great moment in sports . ' "
Cline summed up the events of the Heidi Game :
Everything had to be perfect . It was just a series of events that fit together . The game ran late , there was a lot of scoring ; there were some injuries that stopped play . And if the Jets had won , there would not have been the to @-@ do that was made . But the way they lost fanned the fires .
= = = Game aftermath = = =
The Jets were enraged by the outcome of the game , for reasons unrelated to the television problems , of which they were initially unaware . Feeling that Hudson 's disqualification was unjustified ( his replacement , D 'Amato , was beaten for the winning touchdown ) , assistant coach Walt Michaels chased after the officials , and he and team doctor James Nicholas banged on the door of their dressing room , complaining bitterly . Ewbank mentioned the officiating in his postgame press conference . When told of Michaels ' actions , the head coach ordered , " Get him out of there , it can only cost him money . " Oakland coach Rauch told reporters , " There were so many turning points which kept putting both teams back in the game , it 's impossible to discuss them all . "
Ewbank learned of the television problems in the locker room when he received a telephone call from his wife congratulating him on a Jets victory – Lucy Ewbank assumed the fact that the end of the game was not shown meant New York had won . Her husband profanely informed her of the game result . She was not the only Jets relative deceived – cornerback Johnny Sample flew back east after the game on personal business , and when his father picked him up at Philadelphia International Airport , he congratulated his son on a Jets triumph .
Michaels accused Al Davis of getting the officials to inspect Turner 's kicking shoes before a field goal attempt to see if they contained illegal metal plates , and called the Oakland team official " a man who has never contributed anything to football " , to which Davis responded , " It 's utterly ridiculous , unbelievable . It seems the Jets always lose to us because of penalties . But I like them and don 't want any feud in case we visit New York December 29 [ if both teams qualify for the AFL Championship Game ] " . The Jets left their white road uniforms in Oakland to be laundered and sent to them in San Diego , where they were to play their next game . The uniforms were not seen again once the team removed them in the Oakland locker room , and Jets management hastily ordered the green home uniforms , as well as the white uniforms the team had worn in the preseason , to be shipped from New York .
While in California , Michaels complained by phone to Mel Hein , AFL supervisor of officials , stating that an official had cursed at Hudson , provoking a response which led to Hudson 's ejection . Jets officials also showed excerpts from the game films to the sportswriters from the New York papers who were assigned to cover the team . Zimmerman , who wrote for the New York Post , later stated , " I never saw such ferocity on a football field in my life " and remembered that the films showed Oakland defensive lineman Dan Birdwell punch Namath in the groin , causing him to remain on the ground for several minutes , though he did not have to leave the game . Birdwell 's action was not penalized by the game officials . In early December , football Commissioner Pete Rozelle fined the Jets $ 2 @,@ 000 , Michaels $ 150 , Hudson $ 200 ( including a mandatory $ 50 fine for being ejected from the game ) , and Jets player John Elliott , also disqualified , $ 50 ; he had hit Oakland center Jim Otto . Rozelle criticized Ewbank and Michaels for their " extreme bad manners " while criticizing the officials and cited the Jets ' screening of the game excerpts as a factor contributing to the team 's fine . To avoid adverse fan reaction , the AFL reassigned field judge Frank Kirkland , whom Hudson had accused of using foul language , from the December 1 Jets game against the Miami Dolphins at Shea Stadium , to another game .
The Jets defeated San Diego , 37 – 15 , and clinched the AFL East four days later when the second @-@ place Oilers lost to the Chiefs in a Thanksgiving Day game . The Raiders finished tied for the AFL West title with Kansas City ; they then defeated the Chiefs in a tie @-@ breaking playoff game . This set up a December 29 rematch between the Jets and Raiders in the AFL Championship .
The Jets hosted the Raiders at Shea Stadium on a windy December afternoon to determine who would play in Super Bowl III against the NFL champions , who proved to be the Baltimore Colts . The Jets defeated the Raiders , 27 – 23 . Two weeks later , the Jets defeated the Colts in the Super Bowl . According to sportswriter Doyle Dietz , in the Jets ' upset victory ( the Colts were favored by as many as 19 ½ points ) , " the American Football League came of age " . Madden later stated that the Jets ' Super Bowl upset " was great for the history of the game , but a part of me has always felt that should have been [ the Raiders ] who were the first AFL team to do it ... [ Super Bowl III ] changed pro football . But I will always believe we would have beaten the Colts , too . "
In 1988 , Namath and Madden , by then both television analysts , were interviewed for the 20th anniversary of the Heidi Game . According to Madden , the Oakland victory in the Heidi Game " was kind of the start of the Raiders being a great team . One of the things we were doing was getting these fantastic come @-@ from @-@ behind things ... We didn 't even know about the Heidi thing until we read about it the next day . " Namath noted , " When I remember that game , it brings to mind the revenge factor we had against them going into the championship game . We paid them back then , " to which Madden chuckled , " He 's full of crap . "
= = Box score = =
= = = Other sources = = =
Dave Anderson ( December 10 , 2000 ) . " Sports of The Times ; In A.F.L. Days , Jets @-@ Raiders Was a Rivalry " . The New York Times . Retrieved August 18 , 2011 .
" Jets shoot down Oakland , 27 – 14 " . The Modesto Bee . Associated Press . October 8 , 1967 @.@ p . 1 , Sports section . Retrieved August 21 , 2011 – via Google News .
" Huck Finn , etc . , yield to grid " . St. Petersburg Times . Associated Press . December 16 , 1968 @.@ p . 1 – C. Retrieved September 18 , 2011 – via Google News .
" Raiders recall Heidi win when last they met Jets " . The Spokesman @-@ Review . Associated Press . December 25 , 1968 @.@ p . 15 . Retrieved August 21 , 2011 .
" Oilers plan no change in offense " . Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette . Associated Press . December 30 , 1967 . Retrieved September 18 , 2011 – via Google News .
Larry Fox ( December 3 , 1968 ) . " Rozelle fines Jets $ 2 @,@ 000 " . New York Daily News .
" Hot and cold streaks on the line " . The New York Times ( The New York Times Company ) . November 16 , 1968 . Retrieved September 5 , 2011 . ( subscription required )
" Oakland jinx hits Jets : Even uniforms are lost " . The New York Times ( The New York Times Company ) . November 23 , 1968 . Retrieved August 20 , 2011 . ( subscription required )
Joe Schuster ( March 1993 ) . " Great Games : Jets vs. Raiders , 1968 " . Sport ( Macfadden Publications ) : 22 – 23 .
Rachel Shuster ( November 17 , 1988 ) . " Twenty years later , NBC 's Heidi game remembered " . USA Today ( Gannett Company ) .
" Timeline – Raiders Historical Highlights " . Oakland Raiders . Archived from the original on August 21 , 2011 . Retrieved August 17 , 2011 .
Bob Valli ( November 16 , 1967 ) . " Not like ' 67 : Jets Winging " . The Oakland Tribune. pp. 13 – 18 .
Bob Valli ( November 18 , 1968 ) . " That clutch Raiders win " . The Oakland Tribune. pp. 33 , 39 .
" Oakland stops Houston , 40 – 7 " . The Altus Times @-@ Democrat . United Press International . January 1 , 1968 @.@ p . 3 . Retrieved August 21 , 2011 – via Google News .
George Usher ( November 19 , 1968 ) . " Bitter Oakland taste still choking Michaels " . Newsday .
George Usher ( December 4 , 1968 ) . " Jets ' letter provokes 2 @,@ 000 guesses " . Newsday .
William N. Wallace ( August 25 , 1968 ) . " Rams , Raiders Powerful ; Rams and Raiders Lead Pro Teams " . The New York Times ( The New York Times Company ) . p . S1 . Retrieved August 20 , 2011 . ( subscription required )
Paul Zimmerman ( August 13 , 1976 ) . " Heidi , Ben , Warren and memories " . Pro ! ( Oakland ed . ) ( NFL Properties ) .
= Back from Vacation =
" Back from Vacation " is the twelfth episode of the third season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's 40th episode overall . It first aired on January 4 , 2007 , on NBC , and was the first episode to air after the December holiday hiatus . " Back from Vacation " was the first script written by Justin Spitzer for the series . Julian Farino served as the episode director .
The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania , branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In this episode , Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) returns from his vacation in Jamaica and has a luau in the warehouse to celebrate . It is revealed that he went to Jamaica with Jan Levinson ( Melora Hardin ) when a racy photograph of him and Jan is circulated . Meanwhile , Karen Filippelli ( Rashida Jones ) and Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) have an argument over Karen 's living situation , leading to Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) offering him advice .
According to Nielsen Media Research , the episode was watched by an estimated 8 @.@ 80 million viewers . Among the 18 – 49 demographic , it earned a 4 @.@ 3 / 11 ratings share and helped NBC finish in first place for the night . " Back from Vacation " received generally positive reviews from critics , with Carell 's performance receiving positive attention in particular .
= = Synopsis = =
Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) returns from his Jamaican vacation rejuvenated , and directs the Party Planning Committee to throw a luau @-@ themed party in the warehouse to accompany the annual inventory . When Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) notices Jan Levinson ( Melora Hardin ) in the margins of a photo from Michael 's vacation , he admits to the documentary crew that he and Jan went to Jamaica together .
Michael attempts to send another vacation photograph to Todd Packer ( David Koechner ) as proof of the trip , but mistakenly chooses " Packaging " instead of " Packer " from the address menu , sending the photograph to the entire shipping warehouse , including Darryl Philbin ( Craig Robinson ) , the warehouse supervisor . The photo is quickly forwarded throughout the office and beyond . Michael enlists Dwight Schrute 's ( Rainn Wilson ) assistance in preventing its spread , but these efforts are largely ineffective .
Karen Filippelli ( Rashida Jones ) has been upset with Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) because he expressed objections to the prospect of Karen moving into an apartment two blocks from his own . Pam convinces Jim that he is being unreasonable , and Jim accepts her advice and apologizes to Karen . Pam tells the documentary crew that she was glad to help Jim , but Dwight walks in on her crying in private . He awkwardly attempts to console her , although he misunderstands : " So , you 're PMSing pretty bad , huh ? "
During the luau / inventory , Jan arrives at the office to speak with Michael in private . Michael is terrified that Jan is there to confront him over the widely spread photo , but she appears to be unaware of it , instead confessing her attraction to him against all reason .
= = Production = =
" Back from Vacation " was written by Justin Spitzer , a staff writer who joined The Office in its third season . The episode was his first script for the series . Spitzer found Jan 's final scene with Michael – in which he expects she will yell at him for their circulated picture but instead informs him they are staying together – especially tricky to write . Spitzer was unsure how to craft the scene , and eventually requested advice from the other series ' writers . They decided that Jan would give a " psychobabble " response to Michael . Sitting on a panel of television writers at Northwestern University , Spitzer briefly described her reasoning , " Jan ’ s nuts . She has some bad psychiatrist giving her bad advice . " He praised the benefits of a " good writers room , " in which " scenes go to this place you never could have gone to alone . "
" Back from Vacation " was directed by Julian Farino , who later was responsible for directing " The Deposition " , a fourth season episode that featured some of the ramifications of Michael 's circulated picture . Recurring actors Creed Bratton , Ed Helms , Rashida Jones , Craig Robinson , and David Koechner appeared as guest stars in " Back from Vacation " .
The season three DVD contains a number of deleted scenes , such as Michael arriving from Jamaica at the airport , wearing warm @-@ weather clothes , Dwight , Meredith , Angela and Kevin separately reacting to the news that Michael took Jan to Jamaica , and Jan maintaining the ruse that she was in Scottsdale while talking to a coworker at Corporate , who is viewing the photo on his computer . Additional scenes include Dwight complaining about Jim 's pranks while Michael was on vacation , Roy helping Ryan with inventory , Andy challenging Dwight to a box @-@ stacking race , and Meredith climbing on a shelf , which falls and traps her .
= = Reception = =
" Back from Vacation " first aired on January 4 , 2007 in the United States on NBC . It was the first episode of the season to air after the end of the December holiday break . According to Nielsen Media Research , an estimated 8 @.@ 80 million viewers watched the episode . It earned a 4 @.@ 3 / 11 ratings share among adults aged 18 to 49 , meaning that it was seen by 4 @.@ 3 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 11 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of broadcast . The Office and its lead @-@ in show , My Name Is Earl , helped NBC finish in first place for the night in that demographic .
The episode attracted generally positive reviews from critics . Brian Zoromski of IGN rated " Back from Vacation " 9 @.@ 7 / 10 , an indication of an " amazing " episode . Stated highlights included the opening sequence , Carell 's performance , and Pam 's storyline with Jim and Karen . Zoromski concluded in his review that " with so much attention to detail , realistic character reactions , and very few completely over @-@ the @-@ top comedy moments , ' Back from Vacation ' is one of the best Office episodes yet this season . We 're very glad they 're back . " AOL TV 's Michael Sciannamea expressed surprise that Jan accompanied Michael on his vacation and immediately wanted to discover more about their relationship . He was also intrigued with Dwight 's attempt to cheer up Pam , until the PMS joke when he thought it " would have been very interesting if Dwight had been a real comfort to her and offered his friendship . " Sciannamea concluded that " this was just a terrific episode . Well written , well acted , and had you begging for more at the end . What more can you ask for ? "
Writing for Entertainment Weekly , Abby West focused on Carell 's acting , explaining that " the way that Michael 's desire to boast and his healthy fear of offending Jan played out on Steve Carell 's face was fantastic . From his braggadocio on the phone with Todd Packer ( Packer ! ) to his death march up the stairs to face Jan , it was a thing of beauty . " BuddyTV 's Oscar Dahl believed that " Back from Vacation " was " one of the two or three best of the season " , opining that " simplicity " was the key to the series ' success . Dahl continued , " Each episode 's premise can be entirely mundane and inconsequential . It will still mine laughs from the situation at hand . We also had some nice development in the Jim @-@ Pam @-@ Karen triangle , with Pam giving Jim relationship advice , then bawling her eyes out afterwards . Maybe the best scene in the episode saw Dwight comfort her . " Television Without Pity graded the episode with an A.
= Ika Hügel @-@ Marshall =
Erika " Ika " Hügel @-@ Marshall ( born 13 March 1947 ) is an Afro @-@ German author and activist . She helped found the organization ADEFRA and the Afro @-@ Deutsch movement . Her autobiography , Daheim unterwegs ( published as Invisible Woman in English ) , discusses racism in Germany and her search for a family identity . She has been influenced by and has praised the work of her friend , American activist Audre Lorde .
Hügel @-@ Marshall was born to a German mother and African @-@ American father , whom she did not meet until she was 46 . She experienced severe racism as a child , especially during her time in an orphanage . She studied well and helped to modernise a children 's home in Frankfurt am Main . In the 1980s she helped establish the Afro @-@ Deutsch movement and became interested in Lorde 's work . Daheim unterwegs was published in 1998 and has been described as highlighting issues within German racism . She has since given talks and readings , based on the autobiography , at universities and festivals .
= = Biography = =
= = = Childhood = = =
Erika Hügel @-@ Marshall was born on 13 March 1947 , the child of a Bavarian woman and an African @-@ American soldier , Eddie Marshall , who had returned to the US before her birth . Her parents had met just after the end of World War II , after a relaxation of laws forbidding military personnel from interacting with civilians . According to her , black soldiers treated native German children well , distributing food and clothing , but her parents generally met in secret due to racist remarks from others . In November 1946 her father returned to the US after an illness . By that time , both of them knew that her mother was pregnant , but she did not know he was leaving until after he was already gone . A year after Ika 's birth , her mother married a former officer in Hitler 's Sturmabteilung ( SA ) , a paramilitary wing of the Nazi party , and a half @-@ sister was born the following year . Her mother and grandmother loved her and treated her like any other child , despite social disapproval . She was close to her half @-@ sister , but her step @-@ father was distant toward her .
Despite her recollections of a pleasant early childhood , Hügel @-@ Marshall was singled out for her skin colour . Growing up , she faced constant racism and was referred to by the local community as a Negermischling ; Mischling was the term used by the Nazis to designate " mixed " children ( with a Jewish and a non @-@ Jewish parent ) . In 1952 , when she was ready to start school , her mother was forced by social services to send her to the orphanage God 's Little Cabin Children 's Home . She lived there for the rest of her childhood , despite promises that it was only temporary , that she would only be there for six weeks . At the home , she endured mental and physical abuse from both adults and children . This included being shouted at to stop crying for her mother , being force @-@ fed her own vomit , and undergoing an exorcism , during which she was blindfolded and forced to repeat such phrases as " Satan , I cast you out " and " Lord Jesus , purify my black soul . " She was allowed to go home for summer vacations ; she never told her family about her bad experiences at the children 's home .
Hügel @-@ Marshall performed well at school , often finishing top of the class , and taught herself to swim , but was still patronised by the nuns teaching her , who said " we never expected much from you " . Teachers told her she would never amount to anything : she would be promiscuous , have children out of wedlock , become an alcoholic , and do no better than find a job in childcare . She begged to go to a school where she could get higher education and become a teacher , but instead she was transferred to a boarding school where she was taught how to work with young children . After two years of training she was unable to find employment , although her white roommate immediately found a position .
= = = Adulthood = = =
Hügel @-@ Marshall continued to study and achieved a licence in child education and welfare . She then found work in a children 's home in Frankfurt am Main , where she worked for twelve years . The home reminded her of the degrading orphanage she had been sent to and seemed more like a detention center than a school . Working with the other teachers , and over the opposition of the school 's management , she was able to make substantial changes and to modernise it during her time there . While working there , she completed a degree in social work and pedagogy .
In Frankfurt she met and married a white German man named Alexander . Her family and his attended the wedding , but several incidents illustrated once again how German society treated her as " invisible " . When she and Alexander went to get their marriage license , the registrar greeted Alexander , wrote down his name , and then asked " Where is the bride ? " As they were descending the courthouse steps after their wedding , a passerby offered wedding congratulations to the maid of honor . She ignored the incidents even though " I am troubled by this continual need to point out to others that it is I who am getting married . " After six years she and Alexander divorced .
Hügel @-@ Marshall became active in the women 's rights movement while in Frankfurt . But even among her feminist activist colleagues she felt isolated , because she was the only black woman there . She had never met another black German , and from her years in the children 's home she had learned to think of blacks ( including herself ) as inferior and immoral . Years later she commented that " the most disastrous thing I learned at the home was self @-@ hatred . " In 1986 , she attended a meeting of Afro @-@ Germans ; she was 39 years old and it was the first time she had ever seen " a black face that wasn 't my own . " She was empowered by the sense of community and became an activist for Afro @-@ Germans , studying their history and asserting their legitimacy in a society that still assumed that all Germans must be white .
In 1965 she attempted to find her father , and wrote him a letter explaining her situation , but the letter was returned marked " insufficient address " . She never gave up the hope
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. As described in the book , television announcer Bill Kurtis gave the keynote address and told a joke : " What 's the hardest part about having AIDS ? Trying to convince your wife that you 're Haitian . " Shilts responded to the joke by saying that it " says everything about how the media had dealt with AIDS . Bill Kurtis felt that he could go in front of a journalists ' group in San Francisco and make AIDS jokes . First of all , he could assume that nobody there would be gay and , if they were gay , they wouldn 't talk about it and that nobody would take offense at that . To me , that summed up the whole problem of dealing with AIDS in the media . Obviously , the reason I covered AIDS from the start was that , to me , it was never something that happened to those other people . "
After publication of the book , Shilts explained his use of the title : " And the Band Played On is simply a snappier way of saying ' business as usual ' . Everyone responded with an ordinary pace to an extraordinary situation . "
= = Summary = =
Shilts focuses on several organizations and communities that were either hit hardest by AIDS — and were given the " Sisyphean " task of finding the cause of the disease — or begging the government for money to fund research and provide social services to people who were dying . He often uses an omniscient point of view to portray individuals ' thoughts and feelings .
= = = Gay community = = =
AIDS in the United States first struck gay men and IV drug users in Los Angeles , New York City , and San Francisco due to unsafe sexual and drug @-@ taking practices . Shilts ' sources in the gay community tried to remember the last time everyone they knew was healthy , which was the U.S. Bicentennial celebration in 1976 , when sailors came from all over the world to New York . Some of them carried sexually transmitted diseases and rare tropical fevers . A marked difference in these cities arose in two phases of consciousness in the gay community : " Before " in 1980 , and " After " by 1985 . " Before " , according to Shilts , was characterized by a care @-@ free innocence , preceding the period when gay men were aware of a deadly infectious disease . " After " signified the realization that gay men knew most or all of their friends were infected with AIDS , and the syndrome became pervasive throughout the media .
In San Francisco , particularly in the Castro District , gay community politicians such as Bill Kraus and Cleve Jones found a new direction in gay rights when so many men came down with strange illnesses in 1980 . The San Francisco Department of Public Health began tracing the disease , linked it to certain sexual practices , and made recommendations — stop having sex — to gay men to avoid getting sick , a directive that defied the chief reason why many gay men had migrated to the Castro , and for what gay rights activists in San Francisco had fought for years . Kraus and Jones often found themselves fighting a two @-@ fronted battle : against city politicians who would rather not deal with a disease that affected such an undesirable population as gay men , and the gay men themselves , who refused to listen to doomsday projections and continued their unsafe behavior .
In New York City , men like Larry Kramer and Paul Popham , who had previously shown no desire for leadership , were forced by bureaucratic apathy into forming the Gay Men 's Health Crisis to raise money for medical research and to provide social services for scores of gay men who began getting sick with opportunistic infections . Shilts describes the desperate actions of the group to get recognition by Mayor Ed Koch and assistance from the city 's Public Health Department to provide social services and preventive education about AIDS and unsafe sex .
In these cities , however , the sizable gay communities in most instances were responsible for raising the most money for research , providing the money for and subsequently the social services for the dying , and educating themselves and other high @-@ risk groups . Larry Kramer would go on to form AIDS Coalition to Unleash Power ( ACT @-@ UP ) , a political activist organization that forced government and media to pay attention to AIDS . Cleve Jones formed the NAMES Project that created the AIDS Memorial Quilt , the largest folk art display in the world .
= = = Medical community = = =
Doctors were the first to deal with the toll that AIDS would take in the United States . Some — like Marcus Conant , James Curran , Arye Rubenstein , Michael S. Gottlieb , and Mathilde Krim — would also realize their professional life 's courses in dealing with patient after patient who showed up in their offices with baffling illnesses , most notably lymphadenopathy , pneumocystis carinii pneumonia , Kaposi 's Sarcoma , toxoplasmosis , cytomegalovirus , cryptosporidia , and other opportunistic infections that caused death by a grisly combination of ailments overtaxing a nonexistent immune system . With no information on how the disease was spread , hospital staff were often reluctant to handle AIDS patients , and Shilts reported that some medical personnel refused to treat them at all .
Shilts praised the Public Health Department of San Francisco 's handling of the new communicable disease as they tracked down people who were sick and linked them to other people who had symptoms , although some of them were living in different parts of the country . He criticized the New York City Public Health Department for doing very little , specifically when Public Health Director David Sencer refused to call AIDS an emergency and stated that the Public Health Department need not do anything because the gay community was handling it sufficiently .
Around the same time gay men were getting sick in the U.S. , doctors in Paris , France , were receiving patients who were African or who had lived in Africa with the same symptoms as Americans . Parisian researchers Jean @-@ Claude Chermann , Françoise Barre , Luc Montagnier , and doctor Willy Rozenbaum began taking biopsies of HIV @-@ infected lymph nodes and discovered a new retrovirus . As a scientific necessity to compare it to the American version of HIV , French doctors representing the Pasteur Institute sent a colleague to the National Cancer Institute , where Robert Gallo was also working on the virus . The colleague switched the samples , Shilts reported , because of a grudge he had against the Pasteur Institute . Instead of Gallo comparing his samples with the French samples , he found the very same retrovirus as the French sample , putting back any new results in AIDS research for at least a year .
Departmental ego and pride , according to Shilts , also confounded research as the Centers for Disease Control and the National Cancer Institutes battled over funding and who might get credit for medical discoveries that were to come from the isolation of HIV , blood tests to find HIV , or any possible vaccine . Once AIDS became known as a " gay disease " there was particular difficulty for many doctors in different specialties to get other medical professionals to acknowledge that AIDS could be transmitted to people who were not gay , such as infants born from drug @-@ using mothers , children and adults who had hemophilia ( and later , their wives ) , Haitians , and people who had received blood transfusions .
The discovery of AIDS in the nation 's blood supply and subsequent lack of response by the blood banking leadership occurred as early as 1982 , yet not until 1985 , when AIDS antibody testing was approved by the Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) , did blood bank industry leaders acknowledge that HIV could be transmitted through blood transfusions . Shilts ' coverage revealed the feeling among blood bank industry leaders that screening donors for hepatitis alone might offend the donors , and that the cost of screening all the blood donations provided across the country every year was too high to be feasible .
= = = Political and governmental agencies = = =
The Centers for Disease Control ( CDC ) , the agency responsible for tracking down and reporting all communicable diseases in the U.S. , faced governmental apathy in the face of mounting crisis . Shilts reported how CDC epidemiologists forged ahead blindly after being denied funding for researching the disease repeatedly . Shilts expressed particular frustration describing instances of the CDC fighting with itself over how much time and attention was being paid to AIDS issues .
Although Reagan Administration officials like Health and Human Services Secretary Margaret Heckler and Assistant Secretary Edward Brandt spoke publicly about the epidemic , calling it in 1983 its " Number One Health Priority " no extra funding was given to the Centers for Disease Control or the National Institutes of Health for research . What the U.S. Congress pushed through was highly politicized and embattled , and a fraction of what was spent on similar public health problems .
Shilts made comparisons to the government 's disparate reaction to the Chicago Tylenol murders , and the recent emergence of Legionnaire 's Disease in 1977 . In October 1982 , seven people died after ingesting cyanide @-@ laden Tylenol capsules . The New York Times wrote a front @-@ page story about the Tylenol scare every day in October , and produced 33 more stories about the issue after that . More than 100 law enforcement agents , and 1 @,@ 100 Food and Drug Administration employees worked on the case . Johnson & Johnson disclosed they spent $ 100 million attempting to uncover who had tampered with the bottles . In October 1982 , 634 people were reported having AIDS , and of those , 260 had died . The New York Times wrote three stories in 1981 and three more stories in 1982 about AIDS , none on the front page . The Tylenol Crisis was a criminal act of product @-@ tampering ; Legionnaire 's Disease was a public health emergency . Twenty @-@ nine members of the American Legion died in 1976 at a convention in Philadelphia . The National Institute of Health spent $ 34 @,@ 841 per death of Legionnaire 's Disease . In contrast , the NIH spent $ 3 @,@ 225 in 1981 and about $ 8 @,@ 991 in 1982 for each person who died of AIDS .
Shilts accused Ronald Reagan of neglecting to address AIDS to the American people until 1987 — calling his behavior " ritualistic silence " — even after Reagan called friend Rock Hudson to tell him to get well . After Hudson 's death and in the face of increasing public anxiety , Reagan directed Surgeon General C. Everett Koop to provide a report on the epidemic . Though Koop was a political conservative , his report was nevertheless clear about what causes AIDS and what people and the U.S. government should do to stop it , including sex and AIDS education provided for all people .
On a civic level , the closure of gay bathhouses in San Francisco became a bitter political fight in the gay community . Activists put pressure on the San Francisco Public Health director to educate people about how AIDS is transmitted , and demanded he close bathhouses as a matter of public health .
= = = News media = = =
Shilts was assigned to AIDS full @-@ time at The San Francisco Chronicle in 1982 . It was from this unique vantage point that he repeatedly criticized the U.S. news media for ignoring the medical crisis because it did not affect people who mattered , only gays and drug addicts . Shilts noted most newspapers would print stories about AIDS only when it affected heterosexuals , sometimes taking particular interest in stories about AIDS in prostitutes . AIDS was not reported in the Wall Street Journal until it involved heterosexuals . Many stories called AIDS a " gay plague " or " homosexual disease " in articles that pointed to it showing up in new populations , like hemophiliacs or people who had received blood transfusions . Shilts recounted the irony of a reporter commenting on how little was reported about the disease , then linking it once more to rarer instances of transmission to non @-@ drug @-@ using heterosexuals . On the other end of the extreme , a general phobia of AIDS was exacerbated by the news media who erroneously reported that AIDS could be contracted by household contact , without checking any facts in their stories , which prompted mass hysteria across the United States .
= = Critical reception = =
The book became a commercial success , contrary to Shilts ' own expectations . It remained on the New York Times Bestseller List for five weeks , was translated into seven languages , nominated for a National Book Award , and made Shilts an " AIDS celebrity " . In Rolling Stone , Shilts is compared to great American writers whose careers were made by the circumstances surrounding them , such as Thomas Paine in the American Revolution , Edward R. Murrow during the Blitz , and David Halberstam during the Vietnam War . Writer Jon Katz explains , " No other mainstream journalist has sounded the alarm so frantically , caught the dimensions of the AIDS tragedy so poignantly or focused so much attention on government delay , the nitpickings of research funding and institutional intrigue " . In the American Journal of Public Health , Howard Merkel characterizes And the Band Played On as the first volume of the historiography of AIDS . Because the content expanded into law and science , reviews were published not only in literary sources but legal and medical journals as well .
= = = Literary = = =
Literary reviews of the work were generally positive , with reviewers commenting on the hypnotic and thriller @-@ like qualities of the book . Shilts ' investigative and journalistic endeavors were praised , and reviewers seemed genuinely moved by the personal stories of the major players . And the Band Played On won the Stonewall Book Award for 1988 . It earned the 10th spot on " 100 Lesbian and Gay Books That Changed Our Lives " , compiled by the Lambda Book Report . In 1999 , The New York City Public Library topped its list of " 21 New Classics for the 21st Century " with And the Band Played On . Two years after it was published however , Shilts remained " fundamentally disappointed " when a radical response to the AIDS crisis did not materialize , despite the reaction to his book .
In a 1988 book review , Jack Geiger of The New York Times commented that the detail in Shilts ' work was too confusing , being told " in five simultaneous but disjointed chronologies , making them all less coherent " , and notes that Shilts neglected to dedicate as much detail to black and Hispanic intravenous drug users , their partners and their children as to gay men . Geiger also expressed doubts that a swifter response by the government would have stemmed the spread of AIDS as quickly as Shilts was implying . Woodrow Myers from the Los Angeles Times was frustrated by Shilts not asking the right questions : " Shilts fails to probe the broader questions and stops where far too many of us stop : We don 't ask why the Department of Defense and the entitlements like Social Security are getting all the money when the homosexuals and the IV drug abusers with AIDS and the multiple sclerosis patients are not . " The Gay Community News in Boston also criticized the book 's implications that a diagnosis of HIV indicated that death was sure and imminent . Richard Rouilard , editor of The Advocate in 1992 criticized Shilts for being out of touch with the contemporary style of activism and its sexual overtones .
= = = Science and law = = =
Shilts ' book has been used as a standard by the lay press when reviewing books chronicling subsequent medical crises including breast cancer , chronic fatigue syndrome , Agent Orange , and continued response to AIDS . However , the academic and scientific communities have been somewhat more critical . Howard Merkel , in the American Journal of Public Health , notes Shilts ' tendency to assign blame , writing " A requirement of the journalist , and certainly the historian , however , is to explain human society rather than to point fingers " . Jon Katz in Rolling Stone refutes this by stating " [ Shilts ] fused strong belief with the gathering of factual information and the marshaling of arguments , the way the founders of the modern press did . In doing so , he has exposed the notion of objectivity as bankrupt , ineffective , even lethal " .
Although Sandra Panem in the journal Science praised Shilts ' efforts and the attention the book brought to AIDS , she criticized his simplistic interpretation of science and the ways research is fostered and accomplished in the U.S. Panem furthermore believes Shilts gives appropriate weight to the issue of homophobia hampering attention on the disease , but remarks that even if AIDS had struck a more socially acceptable group of people , similar delays and confusion would have slowed medical progress .
Wendy Parmet , a professor at Northeastern University Law School , highlights the greatest strengths of And the Band Played On to be " the pain and courage of individual confronted with AIDS " and how it " eloquently portrays the human side of the crisis " and believes the blame others criticized to be justified ; but Parmet considers his technique of assigning an omniscient point of view a weakness , suggesting that it blurs the lines between fact and fiction . In Contemporary Sociology , Peter Manning and Terry Stein also call Shilts ' narrative method into question , and ask why , for a syndrome that affects people beyond race , class , and sexual orientation , that Shilts focuses so narrowly on AIDS as it is related to homosexuality . The writers , however , were mostly impressed with the book , calling it an " informative , often brilliant , overview of the emergent meanings of the AIDS epidemic " .
Shilts is often quoted as claiming that Ronald Reagan neglected to mention AIDS publicly until 1987 . However , Reagan briefly mentioned AIDS research in questions and answers during a news conference on September 17 , 1985 .
= = = Gaëtan Dugas as " Patient Zero " = = =
The book includes extensive discussion of Gaëtan Dugas , a Canadian flight attendant who died in 1984 . Dugas was labeled Patient Zero of AIDS , because he was linked directly or indirectly with 40 of the first 248 reported cases of AIDS in the U.S. , and after he was told of his ability to infect others , defiantly continued to have unprotected sex . Many book reviews concentrated their material on Dugas , or led their assessment of the book with discussion of his behavior . Some reviewers interpreted Shilts ' naming Dugas " Patient Zero " to mean that Dugas brought AIDS to North America ; the National Review called Dugas the " Columbus of AIDS " and in their review of And the Band Played On states , " [ Dugas ] picked up the disease in Europe through sexual contact with Africans . Traveling on his airline @-@ employee privileges , he spread it here from coast to coast . " Shilts never stated this in the book , instead writing , " Whether Gaëtan Dugas actually was the person who brought AIDS to North America remains a question of debate and is ultimately unanswerable ... there 's no doubt that Gaëtan played a key role in spreading the new virus from one end of the United States to the other . " Time titled its review of And the Band Played On " The Appalling Saga of Patient Zero " , erroneously restating the claim that Dugas had brought AIDS to the continent . Even a press release by St. Martin 's Press made the connection between Dugas and the introduction of AIDS to the Western World in its title , but not its text .
When the book was released , Dugas ' story became a controversial subject in the Canadian media . Shilts claimed that " the Canadian press went crazy over the story " and that " Canadians ... saw it as an offense to their nationhood . " The original study identifying Dugas as the index case had been completed by William Darrow , but it was called into question by University of California San Francisco epidemiologist Andrew Moss . Moss wrote in a letter to the editor of The New York Review of Books , " There is very little evidence that Gaetan was ' patient zero ' for the US or for California , " while also stating that Shilts did not overstress Dugas ' lack of personal responsibility . Sandra Panem in Science uses Shilts ' approach toward Dugas ' behavior as an example of his " glib " treatment of the science involved in the epidemic . Author Douglas Crimp suggests that Shilts ' representation of Dugas as " murderously irresponsible " is in actuality " Shilts ' homophobic nightmare of himself " , and that Dugas is offered as a " scapegoat for his heterosexual colleagues , in order to prove that [ Shilts ] , like them , is horrified by such creatures . " Many years later , in the 2000s , it was shown , by tracing the roots of the virus , that it had spread from Africa to Haiti , and then to the U.S. in the mid 1960s , before Dugas would have been very sexually active , if at all , and before he was working as a flight attendant .
= = After publication = =
While Shilts was writing the book he was tested for HIV but insisted his doctor not tell him the results until the book was finished so it would not affect his journalistic integrity . On the day he sent the final manuscript to the publisher , he learned he was HIV @-@ positive . He also revealed that he received abuse from gays for the articles he wrote for the San Francisco Chronicle supporting the bathhouse closures , as well as for And the Band Played On , saying it was common for him to be spat upon in the Castro District . He was openly booed when he attended the premiere of The Times of Harvey Milk — based on his book The Mayor of Castro Street — at the Castro Theatre . Footage he had shot as a television reporter was included in the film , but during the construction of the documentary he was so controversial that the film 's editors removed him from footage showing him with Milk . Following the publication of And the Band Played On , however , he was " worshiped " by many in the gay community for writing the book , but also seen as someone who pandered to publicity .
Shilts declared while promoting the book in Australia in 1988 that AIDS in the western world could be eradicated , and by 1994 , " AIDS could be as manageable as diabetes " . However , in reference to Africa , Shilts noted , " At this point it 's inconceivable that there will be an AIDS @-@ free world in Central Africa , as we 're looking at a death rate on the scale of the Holocaust . " Shilts gave an interview in 1991 where he noticed , " the stellar AIDS reporters in the early years ... the people who did the best job — and the reporters who wanted to cover AIDS but their male editors wouldn 't let them — tended to be women " , and made a connection that if more women were allowed to write about the epidemic , media coverage would have been vastly different .
Randy Shilts died from complications of AIDS in 1994 . Upon his death he was eulogized by Cleve Jones , who said " Randy 's contribution was so crucial . He broke through society 's denial and was absolutely critical to communicating the reality of AIDS . " Larry Kramer said of him , " He single @-@ handedly probably did more to educate the world about AIDS than any single person . "
= = Film = =
And the Band Played On was used as the basis for a 1993 Emmy @-@ winning HBO movie of the same name . It was produced by Aaron Spelling , directed by Roger Spottiswoode , and starred Matthew Modine as epidemiologist Don Francis and Richard Masur as Dr. William Darrow at the Centers for Disease Control . Alan Alda portrayed controversial viral researcher Robert Gallo , and many other stars appeared in supporting and cameo roles , who agreed to appear in the film for union @-@ scale pay . The film was released the same year as Philadelphia and Angels in America , which prompted one reviewer to note it a triumph and a loss : 12 years after the epidemic had begun , such works of art were necessary still to draw attention to it . Reviews of the film were mixed , claiming that it was a noble try , but failed to be comprehensive enough to cover all the intricacies of the response to AIDS . However , And the Band Played On , along with other well @-@ received films at the time , was noted for raising the standards of HBO @-@ produced films .
= Drunk on Love ( Rihanna song ) =
" Drunk on Love " is a song by Barbadian recording artist Rihanna , from her sixth studio album Talk That Talk ( 2011 ) . The song was written by Ester Dean , Traci Hale , Mikkel S. Eriksen and Tor Erik Hermansen of StarGate and Baria Qureshi , Romy Croft , Oliver Sim and Jamie Smith of The xx , with production helmed by StarGate . A power ballad , " Drunk on Love " samples the melody of The xx 's song " Intro " , which was included on their debut album xx . Instrumentation consists of " a storm of drums " and " clattering synths . " The song garnered mixed reviews from music critics , as they were divided on the song 's composition as well as Rihanna 's vocal performance . Upon the release of Talk That Talk , the song charted at number 55 on the South Korea Gaon International Chart and number 153 on the UK Singles Chart .
= = Recording and production = =
" Drunk on Love " was written by Ester Dean , Traci Hale , Mikkel S. Eriksen and Tor Erik Hermansen of StarGate and Baria Qureshi , Romy Croft , Oliver Sim and Jamie Smith of The xx . Production of the song was helmed by StarGate . Rihanna recorded the song at several recording studios around the world during her Loud Tour ( 2011 ) , including Roc the Mic Studios , New York City , New York ; Westlake Recording Studios , Los Angeles , California and The Hide Out Studios , London , United Kingdom . It was recorded by Eriksen , Miles Walker and Mike Anderson . Vocal producer Kuk Harrell carried out the vocal production and vocal recording ; Marcos Tovar was also involved with the vocal recording . Alejandro Barajas served as the assistant vocal producer . " Drunk on Love " was mixed by Phil Tan and assisted by Daniella Rivera , while Eriksen and Hermansen provided instrumentation .
= = Composition and lyrics = =
" Drunk on Love " has been described as " trancey " and Europop @-@ influenced power ballad . The song last for a duration of three minutes and 32 seconds . Instrumentation consists of " a storm of drums " and " clattering synths . " Katherine St. Asaph for Popdust described the song 's percussion as " huge . " The song samples the melody of The xx 's song " Intro " , which was included on their debut album xx . Robert Copsey for Digital Spy noted that Rihanna describes herself as someone who wants to be loved in the lyric " I just wanna be in love " as she sings about being a " hopeless romantic " . He also described the lyric " I wear my heart on my sleeve / Always let love take the lead " as Talk That Talk 's " most thoughtful " line . St. Asaph described the lyric " I love the way you taste on my lips when we kiss " as " PG @-@ 13 at best , " and wrote that it is not possible to be " lovelorn " as well as filthy at the same time .
According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com , " Drunk on Love " is written in the key of A minor ( recorded in G ♯ minor ) with a moderate pop tempo of 100 beats per minute . The song follows a progression Am − F − Am − F , and Rihanna 's vocals span from A3 to E5 .
= = Critical reception = =
" Drunk on Love " garnered mixed reviews from music critics . Sam Lansky for MTV Buzzworthy was complimentary of song , writing that only Rihanna is able to include an xx sample and sing love metaphors and make it sound " fresh . " He praised Rihanna 's vocal performance , calling it one of her best to date . Lansky also noted that Rihanna is " emotionally charged " when she sings the chorus . A reviewer for Sputnikmusic compared the song to one of Rihanna 's previous songs from her fifth studio album , Loud , " What 's My Name ? " , writing " ' Drunk On Love ' is reminiscent of Loud 's best song , ' What 's My Name , ' with Rihanna singing ' I love it , I crave it ' with serious conviction and confident , powerful vocals . " Jason Lipshutz for Billboard described the song 's production as " dynamic " and that Rihanna displays her " full range . " He continued to write that it would be a good decision to release " Drunk on Love " as a single .
Meena Rupani of DesiHits was complimentary of the song 's club appeal , but did not feel that the song was a standout or memorable track . Katherine St. Asaph for Popdust had mixed opinions of the song . As part of her introduction , she praised its composition and inclusion of The xx 's sample of " Intro " and described the song as being " heavy " and " slightly emo . " St. Asaph was complimentary of its melodramatic style , and added that " The xx sample does most of the heavy drifting here , but it 's well @-@ used – notice how the vocals of the original become backing vocals for Rihanna with almost no adulteration . " However , she was critical of how the song 's composition builds , writing that instead of starting quietly and building to its " bombast " , it starts somewhere between quiet and loud and ends past [ sic ] its " bombast " . As a sidenote , St. Asaph noted that Rihanna does not in fact sound drunk on the song , but wrote that it does not affect the outcome . Lindsay Zoladz of Pitchfork Media was critical of the song , labeling the chorus as " weak " and Rihanna 's vocal performance as too " bombast " for the xx 's " laid @-@ back " sample .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Recorded at Roc the Mic Studios , New York City ; New York ; Westlake Recording Studios , Los Angeles , California ; The Hide Out Studios , London , United Kingdom .
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Talk That Talk , Def Jam Recordings , SRP Records .
= = Charts = =
Upon the release of Talk That Talk , " Drunk on Love " debuted and peaked on the South Korea Gaon International Chart at number 55 on November 26 , 2011 , with sales of 7 @,@ 727 digital downloads . It also debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number 153 in the chart issue December 3 , 2011 . On August 12 , 2012 , " Drunk on Love " debuted on the UK R & B Chart at number 23 .
= Mewtwo =
Mewtwo ( Japanese : ミュウツー , Hepburn : Myūtsū ) is a fictional creature from Nintendo and Game Freak 's Pokémon media franchise . Created by Ken Sugimori , it first appeared in the video games Pokémon Red and Blue and their sequels , and later appeared in various merchandise , spinoff titles , as well as animation adaptations of the franchise . Masachika Ichimura voiced the franchise 's original Mewtwo character in Japanese , and the creature 's younger self is voiced by Fujiko Takimoto in the Sound Picture Box : Mewtwo 's Origin CD drama and Showtaro Morikubo in the anime adaptation . In English , Jay Goede voiced Mewtwo in Mewtwo Strikes Back and the Pokémon Live ! musical . For the former production , he was credited under the pseudonym " Philip Bartlett " . Dan Green provided the voice in Mewtwo Returns . Actress Reiko Takashima voices a separate Mewtwo character in the prequel special Mewtwo : Prologue to Awakening and the film ExtremeSpeed Genesect : Mewtwo Awakens ; this second Mewtwo is voiced by actress Miriam Pultro in the English dub .
In the video games , the player can fight and capture Mewtwo to pit it against other Pokémon . The player first learns of Mewtwo late in Pokémon Red and Blue by reading research documents left in a ruined laboratory on Cinnabar Island . The documents reveal that a solitary scientist spent years genetically engineering a descendant of the Pokémon Mew . Mewtwo eventually escaped after proving too strong to contain .
Regarded as one of the series ' strongest Pokémon , it changed the way players approached the games by forcing them to find ways to counteract those using Mewtwo . Studies found the character popular with older male children , which contrasted with its counterpart Mew . Reactions to the creature 's first anime portrayal have been divided , as reviewers such as Daily Record cited it as a cliché villain , while others such as Animerica and Sight & Sound praised the character 's depth .
= = Design and characteristics = =
Japanese video game designer Ken Sugimori designed Mewtwo for the first generation of Pocket Monsters games , Red and Green , known outside Japan as Pokémon Red and Blue . Its name , which means the " second of Mew " , derives from its existence as a genetic duplicate of the original Mew . Until the first Pokémon movie was released in the United States , Mewtwo was rarely referred to as a " clone " in Japanese sources . Kubo Masakazu , executive producer of Mewtwo Strikes Back , explained that they " intentionally avoid using the term ' kuron ' [ clone ] … because the word has a frightening feel " . Despite being Mew 's descendant , Mewtwo directly precedes Mew in the game 's numerical Pokémon index owing to the latter 's secret inclusion by Game Freak programmer Shigeki Morimoto . During an interview , Pokémon Company president Tsunekazu Ishihara stated that Mewtwo was expected to be popular with North American audiences , citing their preference for strong , powerful characters .
Its build is very different compared to Mew 's , appearing as a large bipedal feline , with a white body , pronounced purple tail and stomach , feline head , and a mass of flesh connecting the center of its back to its head behind its neck . Its appearance has been likened to " an oversized cross of cat , squirrel and kangaroo " . In the original games , Mewtwo is intended to be " the strongest Pokémon ever " . It is psychic , uses telekinesis for flight and telepathy to speak . When fighting , it uses its abilities to shield itself or throw opponents to compensate for its lack of speed . Otherwise , it conserves its energy until needed . It can regenerate as well , and is able to quickly recover from near @-@ fatal injuries . Mewtwo stands 6 feet 7 inches ( 201 cm ) tall .
As a character in the games , Mewtwo seldom has spoken dialogue , but when it does it is presented as vicious and primarily interested in proving its own strength . The franchise 's non @-@ video game media , particularly the anime , has expanded upon the character , giving Mewtwo a male voice and , while aware of why it was created , actively questioning its own existence .
= = Appearances = =
= = = In video games = = =
In Pokémon Red and Blue , the player learns of Mewtwo 's existence by reading research notes left in the ruined " Pokémon Mansion " on Cinnabar Island . The notes say that the island 's scientists discovered a new Pokémon in a Guyana jungle , that they christened it Mew , and that it later gave birth to a creature they called Mewtwo ; the game 's Pokédex entry states that Mewtwo was " created by a scientist after years of horrific gene splicing and DNA engineering experiments " . Mewtwo proved too mighty to control , destroying the laboratory and escaping . The player is later given an opportunity to capture Mewtwo in the Cerulean Cave ( called the ' Unknown Dungeon ' in the original games ) , which is accessible only after defeating the game 's final bosses , the Elite Four and Blue ; in the remake titles Pokémon FireRed and LeafGreen this prerequisite was expanded , requiring the player to explore more thoroughly and record information on sixty Pokémon species before access to the cave would be granted . Mewtwo is catchable in Pokémon HeartGold and SoulSilver in the same location as before after defeating all of the gym leaders in Kanto . The character was the focus of a promotion and downloadable content giveaway for Pokémon Black and White . Mewtwo appears in Pokémon X and Y after completing the main story and is one of several Pokémon that is able to use the new Mega Evolution mechanic , becoming either Mega Mewtwo X or Mega Mewtwo Y.
Since its debut , Mewtwo has appeared in other Nintendo games . In Pokémon Stadium and Pokémon Pinball , Mewtwo appears as a final boss after all competitions have been completed . In Pokémon Puzzle League , Mewtwo serves not only as the final opponent , but also as the main antagonist responsible for the game 's events . Other games , such as Super Smash Bros. Melee and the Pokémon Mystery Dungeon series have featured Mewtwo as an unlockable player character that must be defeated before it may be used , while games such as Pokémon Snap have featured the character in cameos , appearing once certain conditions have been met . For all appearances in which the character has spoken dialogue , Mewtwo is voiced by Masachika Ichimura , with the exception of Pokémon Puzzle League , where it is voiced by Philip Bartlett . After failing to make a playable appearance in Super Smash Bros. Brawl , Mewtwo became available as a DLC character in Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U on April 28 , 2015 , though it was made available to Club Nintendo members who registered both versions on April 15 , 2015 . In 3DS / Wii U , its Final Smash involves becoming Mega Mewtwo Y and using Psystrike . A new form of Mewtwo , Shadow Mewtwo , appears as a boss character in Pokkén Tournament , becoming Mega Mewtwo X as its special attack . The traditional Mewtwo appears as a playable character in the Wii U version as well .
= = = In anime and related media = = =
Mewtwo is featured in the 1998 animated film Pokémon : The First Movie as the main antagonist , in which it is shown to be the creation of the criminal organization Team Rocket . After Mewtwo destroys the laboratory where it was born , Team Rocket 's leader , Giovanni , convinces it he can help it control its powers . He instead uses Mewtwo as a weapon . After escaping Giovanni , Mewtwo questions its reason for existence and declares revenge on its creators . To this end , it lures several Pokémon trainers , among them movie protagonist Ash Ketchum , to its island in order to clone their Pokémon . Once it does so , Mewtwo forces the originals to battle the clones in an effort to determine which set is superior , while Mewtwo faces its own original , Mew . Ash sacrifices himself to stop the fighting , though he is later revived . Mewtwo , Mew , and the clones then leave to find a sanctuary , striking memory of the events from those gathered . In localizing the film for English @-@ language audiences , Mewtwo 's personality became more arrogant and megalomaniacal ; localization director Norman Grossfield ruled the changes necessary , as he believed American audiences needed a " clearly evil " rather than ambiguous villain . In the film , Mewtwo is voiced by Philip Bartlett in English , and by Ichimura in Japanese . In this film , Mewtwo displayed unique abilities and powers unseen in other Pokémon , such as blocking all Pokémon moves in his arena when the clones face off against the originals .
In September 1999 , Nintendo published Sound Picture Box Mewtwo , which included The Birth of Mewtwo : Pokémon Radio Drama , a CD drama that expands upon Mewtwo 's origins . Created by scientist Dr. Fuji , Mewtwo is one of several cloning attempts , which also include a clone of Fuji 's deceased daughter . The young Mewtwo befriends her , communicating telepathically ; however the cloning process proves unstable , and she dies . To save the traumatized Mewtwo , Fuji erases its memories and puts it under sedation until its body finishes developing , leading to the events of the film . The CD drama was later adapted into a short anime , and was included with Japanese home releases and broadcasts of Mewtwo Strikes Back and later in North America in December 2001 as part of Mewtwo Returns . Mewtwo as a child is voiced in Japanese by Fujiko Takimoto for the CD drama and Showtaro Morikubo for the anime , while in the English localization the voice actor is uncredited .
In December 2000 , the film was followed by a sequel , Pokémon : Mewtwo Returns , which was broadcast on Japanese television in December 2000 and released worldwide on home video and DVD in 2001 . Voiced by Dan Green in English with Ichimura reprising the role in Japanese , Mewtwo and the clones have since found peace in another region . However , Giovanni , whose memories were left intact after the first film , locates and pursues Mewtwo . Assisted by Ash and his companions , Mewtwo comes to terms with its existence and defeats Giovanni , removing any memory of itself from his and his soldiers ' minds , while leaving the others unaffected . As everyone departs , Mewtwo sets out on its own .
Mewtwo also appears in the musical Pokémon Live ! , a live action adaptation of the anime set after Pokémon : The First Movie , and is portrayed by Marton Fulop . In it , Mewtwo faces a robotic replica of itself , MechaMew2 , created by Giovanni and able to learn any attacks used against it . However , after learning compassion from Mewtwo , the machine rebels and self @-@ destructs . The 2006 television special Pokémon : The Mastermind of Mirage Pokémon features a hologram version of Mewtwo , created and controlled by the story 's antagonist Dr. Yung . With help from a hologram Mew , Ash and his companions destroy the Mewtwo hologram and defeat Yung .
Another Mewtwo appears in the anime special Mewtwo : Prologue to Awakening and the film Genesect and the Legend Awakened , voiced by the actress Reiko Takashima , to protect Ash , Iris , Cilan , and Eric from the rampaging Genesect army . This Mewtwo is able to Mega Evolve into Mega Mewtwo Y , referred to in the film as Mewtwo 's " Awakened Form " ( 覚醒した姿 , Kakusei @-@ shita Sugata ) .
A Mewtwo , which was created by Mr. Fuji , appears in the anime miniseries Pokémon Origins , which is generally based on the plot of the video games Pokémon FireRed and LeafGreen . As such , Red goes to Cerulean Cave , and uses the Mega Evolution mechanic introduced in Pokémon X and Y to Mega Evolve his Charizard for the fight with Mewtwo , whom Red captures .
= = = In printed adaptations = = =
Mewtwo has appeared as a central character in several books related to the Pokémon franchise , including novelizations of Mewtwo Strikes Back and Mewtwo Returns , both of which closely follow the events of the films . In December 1999 , Viz Media published the children 's picture book I 'm Not Pikachu ! : Pokémon Tales Movie Special , which featured children taking on traits of the characters from the film , including Mewtwo . In May 2001 , Viz released a second children 's book , Mewtwo 's Watching You ! , which featured a shy Mewtwo interestedly watching other Pokémon play .
In the manga series Pokémon Adventures , Team Rocket creates Mewtwo , but some of his DNA is placed inside of the Gym leader Blaine . Because of the DNA that they share , the two are unable to be separated for very long without becoming ill . Later , another Pokémon , Entei is able to break the bond between the two by removing the DNA in Blaine 's arm , at which point Mewtwo leaves . It eventually helps the main character of the series , Red , fight against Team Rocket leader Giovanni and his Deoxys .
In 1998 , Toshihiro Ono was asked to write a story detailing Mewtwo 's origin to coincide with the release of Mewtwo Strikes Back . The 52 @-@ page comic , presented in the form of a flashback , was replaced midway by the " The Birth of Mewtwo " animated short , resulting in little connection between Ono 's work and the film . Regardless , it saw print as a side story for Pokémon : The Electric Tale of Pikachu in the July 1998 issue of CoroCoro Comic . In it , Mewtwo 's creator Dr. Fuji takes on the role of a coach for the fully developed Pokémon , while his employer , Team Rocket , tests its abilities . Learning of a plan to mass @-@ produce it as a weapon , Fuji approaches Mewtwo and tells it to destroy the lab and Fuji himself . Mewtwo refuses , stating it cannot harm the doctor , who it regards as its father . Once captured by Team Rocket , Fuji tells Mewtwo that he is honored by the statement , and is then killed . Angered by his death , Mewtwo destroys the lab and escapes . In the present , Mewtwo cries in its sleep as it dreams of the events .
= = Reception and legacy = =
In the games , Mewtwo is consistently noted as being one of the strongest opponents , and has been described in Pokémon Red and Blue as being " the best Pokémon in the game " , as well as " one of the rarest — and hardest to catch " . Because of the character 's multiple strengths and few weaknesses , it changed how players approached playing against each other , causing players to either develop strategies solely to defeat an opposing Mewtwo , or prohibit its use when battling other players . IGN 's staff bemoaned its exclusion from Super Smash Bros. Brawl . A poll by IGN on whether the character was missed by others in Brawl shared a similar sentiment , though they also described it as one of Super Smash Bros. Melee 's weakest characters . Professional Super Smash Bros. player Jason " Mew2King " Zimmerman takes his handle from Mewtwo , although he uses other characters in competition . Authors Tracey West and Katherine Noll called Mewtwo the fifth best Legendary Pokémon and the sixth best Pokémon overall .
The book Pikachu 's Global Adventure : The Rise and Fall of Pokémon noted Mewtwo as popular with older male children who tend to be drawn to " tough or scary " characters ; Mew in contrast was described as a polar opposite , a character popular with young girls who tend to be drawn to " cute " characters . Others books , such as Media and the Make @-@ believe Worlds of Children , have noted a similar comparison , citing Mewtwo as " more aggressive @-@ looking " compared to Mew and emphasizing the importance of the contrast for children . The book Gaming Cultures and Place in Asia @-@ Pacific compares Sugimori 's design of Mewtwo to that of Japanese tokusatsu films , namely monster films like the 1954 Godzilla in creating " monstrous yet familiar silhouettes from the past renewed agency in the form of eyes and expressions which cut through the viewer " .
In reception to extended media for the Pokémon franchise , Mewtwo has been likened to Frankenstein 's monster as a being born from artificial means and discontent with the fact . Theology Secretary for the Church of England Anne Richards described Mewtwo as representing a " parable about the pointlessness of force " , and praised the character for displaying the Christian value of redemption . Other reactions have been mixed . While it has been cited as a " complex and compelling villain " by some critics , its goal of world domination was received as a trait shared by " … every anime villain … " , and likened to a James Bond villain by Daily Record . However , Animerica praised Mewtwo as a character with " philosophical depth " as well as for serving as " an adversary of almost infinite power and genuine malice " that the anime series had been lacking . Ken Hollings of Sight & Sound described Mewtwo as " brooding , articulate and vengeful where the other Pokémon remain bright blobs of wordless energy " , and " Like a troubled elder brother , Mewtwo represents an older order of experience . " Anime Classics Zettai ! : 100 Must @-@ See Japanese Animation Masterpieces praised the character as the best villain of the Pokémon film series , and one of Mewtwo Strikes Back 's strongest elements . The Los Angeles Times cited its behavior as a point of humor in relation to its appearance as a " decidedly feline character . "
Mewtwo 's image is utilized for merchandise related to the Pokémon franchise , which includes toys , children 's toothbrushes , and a playing piece for a Pokémon @-@ themed version of Monopoly . Several action figures have been made , such as a posable figure by Hasbro in 2006 that included accessories to recreate its " Hyper Beam " and " Light Screen " attacks , and a six @-@ inch @-@ tall " talking " figurine by Jakks Pacific as part of a series to commemorate the anime 's Battle Frontier story arc . Items marketed for adults featuring Mewtwo have also been sold and distributed by Nintendo , such as T @-@ shirts . The island nation of Niue released a one @-@ dollar coin featuring the character as part of a commemorative promotion for the Pokémon franchise , with Mewtwo on one side and the nation 's coat of arms on the other . Mewtwo also appears on the port side of All Nippon Airways 's Pocket Monsters Boeing 747 jumbo jet , alongside Mew .
= Cosima Wagner =
Cosima Wagner ( born Francesca Gaetana Cosima Liszt ; 24 December 1837 – 1 April 1930 ) was the illegitimate daughter of the Hungarian pianist and composer Franz Liszt and Marie d 'Agoult . She became the second wife of the German composer Richard Wagner , and with him founded the Bayreuth Festival as a showcase for his stage works ; after his death she devoted the rest of her life to the promotion of his music and philosophy . Commentators have recognised Cosima as the principal inspiration for Wagner 's later works , particularly Parsifal .
In 1857 , after a childhood largely spent under the care of her grandmother and with governesses , Cosima married the conductor Hans von Bülow . Although the marriage produced two children , it was largely a loveless union , and in 1863 Cosima began a relationship with Wagner , who was 24 years her senior . She married him in 1870 ; after his death in 1883 she directed the Bayreuth Festival for more than 20 years , increasing its repertoire to form the Bayreuth canon of ten operas and establishing the festival as a major event in the world of musical theatre .
During her directorship , Cosima opposed theatrical innovations and adhered closely to Wagner 's original productions of his works , an approach continued by her successors long after her retirement in 1907 . She shared Wagner 's convictions of German cultural and racial superiority , and under her influence , Bayreuth became increasingly identified with antisemitism . This was a defining feature of Bayreuth for decades , into the Nazi era which closely followed her death in 1930 . Thus , although she is widely perceived as the saviour of the festival , her legacy remains controversial .
= = Family background and early childhood = =
In January 1833 the 21 @-@ year @-@ old Hungarian pianist and composer Franz Liszt met Marie d 'Agoult , a Parisian socialite six years his senior . Marie 's antecedents were mixed ; her German mother , from a prominent Frankfurt banking family , had married a French nobleman , the Comte de Flavigny . Marie had been married since 1827 to Charles , Comte d 'Agoult , and had borne him two daughters , but the union had become sterile . Drawn together by their mutual intellectual interests , Marie and Liszt embarked on a passionate relationship . In March 1835 the couple fled Paris for Switzerland ; ignoring the scandal they left in their wake , they settled in Geneva where , on 18 December , Marie gave birth to a daughter , Blandine @-@ Rachel .
In the following two years Liszt and Marie travelled widely in pursuit of his career as a concert pianist . Late in 1837 , when Marie was heavily pregnant with their second child , the couple were at Como in Italy . Here , on 24 December in a lakeside hotel in Bellagio , a second daughter was born . They named her Francesca Gaetana Cosima , the unusual third name being derived from St Cosmas , a patron saint of physicians and apothecaries ; it was as " Cosima " that the child became known . With her sister she was left in the care of wet nurses ( a common practice at the time ) , while Liszt and Marie continued to travel in Europe . Their third child and only son , Daniel , was born on 9 May 1839 in Venice .
In 1839 , while Liszt continued his travels , Marie took the social risk of returning to Paris with her daughters . Her hopes of recovering her status in the city were dented when her influential mother , Madame de Flavigny , refused to acknowledge the children ; Marie would not be accepted socially while her daughters were clearly in evidence . Liszt 's solution was to remove the girls from Marie and place them with his mother , Anna Liszt , in her Paris home while Daniel remained with nurses in Venice . By this means , both Marie and Liszt could continue their independent lives . Relations between the couple cooled , and by 1841 they were seeing little of each other ; it is likely that both engaged in other affairs . By 1845 the breach between them was such that they were communicating only through third parties . Liszt forbade contact between mother and daughters ; Marie accused him of attempting to steal " the fruits of a mother 's womb " , while Liszt insisted on his sole right to decide the children 's future . Marie threatened to fight him " like a lioness " , but soon gave up the struggle , perhaps valuing the preservation of her social status above her duties as a mother . Though they were living in the same city , she did not see either of her daughters for five years , until 1850 .
= = Schooling and adolescence = =
Cosima and Blandine remained with Anna Liszt until 1850 , joined eventually by Daniel . Cosima 's biographer George Marek describes Anna as " a simple , uneducated , unworldly but warmhearted woman ... for the first time [ the girls ] experienced what it was to be touched by love " . Of the sisters , Blandine was evidently the prettier ; Cosima , with her long nose and wide mouth was described as an " ugly duckling " . Although Liszt 's relations with his children were formal and distant , he provided for them liberally , and ensured that they were well educated . Both girls were sent to Madame Bernard 's , an exclusive boarding school , while Daniel was prepared for the prestigious Lycée Bonaparte .
In 1847 Liszt met Princess Carolyne zu Sayn @-@ Wittgenstein , the estranged wife of a Russian prince . By the autumn of 1848 she and Liszt had become lovers , and their relationship lasted for the remainder of his life . She quickly assumed responsibility for the management of Liszt 's life , including the upbringing of his daughters . Early in 1850 Liszt had been disturbed to learn that Blandine and Cosima were seeing their mother again ; his response , guided by the princess , was to remove them from their school and place them into the full @-@ time care of Carolyne 's old governess , the 72 @-@ year @-@ old Madame Patersi de Fossombroni . Liszt 's instructions were clear — Madame Patersi was to control every aspect of the girls ' lives : " She alone is to decide what is to be permitted them and what forbidden " .
Blandine and Cosima were subjected to the Patersi curriculum for four years . Cosima 's biographer Olive Hilmes likens the regime to that used for breaking in horses , though Marek describes it as exacting but ultimately beneficial to Cosima : " Above all , Patersi taught her how a ' noble lady ' must behave , how to alight from a carriage , how to enter a drawing room , how to greet a duchess as against a commoner ... and how not to betray herself when she was hurt " . On 10 October 1853 Liszt arrived at the Patersi apartment , his first visit to his daughters since 1845 . With him were two fellow @-@ composers : Hector Berlioz and Richard Wagner . Carolyne 's daughter Marie , who was present , described Cosima 's appearance as " in the worst phase of adolescence , tall and angular , sallow ... the image of her father . Only her long golden hair , of unusual sheen , was beautiful " . After a family meal , Wagner read to the group from his text for the final act of what was to become Götterdämmerung . Cosima seems to have made little impression on him ; in his memoirs he merely recorded that both girls were very shy .
= = Marriage to Hans von Bülow = =
As his daughters approached womanhood , Liszt felt that a change in their lives was called for and in 1855 he arranged ( over their mother 's bitter protests ) for them to move to Berlin . Here they were placed in the care of Franziska von Bülow , whose son Hans was Liszt 's most outstanding pupil ; he would take charge of the girls ' musical education while Frau von Bülow supervised their general and moral welfare . Hans von Bülow , born in 1830 , had abandoned his legal education after hearing Liszt conduct the premiere of Wagner 's Lohengrin at Weimar in August 1850 , and had decided to dedicate his life to music . After a brief spell conducting in small opera houses , Bülow studied with Liszt , who was convinced that he would become a great concert pianist . Bülow was quickly impressed by Cosima 's own skill as a pianist , in which he saw the stamp of her father , and the pair developed romantic feelings for each other . Liszt approved the match , and the marriage took place at St. Hedwig 's Cathedral , Berlin , on 18 August 1857 . During their honeymoon , along with Liszt they visited Wagner at his home near Zurich . This visit was repeated the following year , when Cosima , on taking her leave , shocked Wagner with an emotional demonstration : " [ S ] he fell at my feet , covered my hands with tears and kisses ... I pondered the mystery , without being able to solve it " .
Cosima , a Parisian by upbringing , found it hard to adjust to life in Berlin , which was then a more provincial city than Paris . Her attempts to mix with local society , according to Marie zu Sayn @-@ Wittgenstein , were handicapped by " [ h ] er exaggerated self @-@ esteem and innate causticity " , which alienated the men and women in her circle . At least initially , Cosima took an interest in her husband 's career , encouraging him to extend his activities into composition . On one occasion she provided him with a scenario she had written for an opera based on the story of Merlin , court magician to King Arthur . However , nothing came of this project . Bülow 's crowded professional schedule left Cosima alone for long periods , during which she worked for the French @-@ language magazine Revue germanique as a translator and contributor . In December 1859 she was saddened by the death of her brother Daniel , at the age of twenty , after a long wasting illness . Cosima 's first child , a daughter born on 12 October 1860 , was named Daniela in Daniel 's memory . A further , unexpected blow for Cosima fell in September 1862 , when her sister Blandine , who had shared much of her upbringing , died in childbirth — she had been married to Émile Ollivier , a Parisian lawyer , since October 1857 . Cosima 's second daughter , born in March 1863 , was named Blandina Elisabeth Veronica .
Bülow was committed to Wagner 's music ; in 1858 he had undertaken the preparation of a vocal score for Tristan und Isolde , and by 1862 he was making a fair copy of Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg . A social relationship developed , and during the summer of 1862 the Bülows stayed with Wagner at the composer 's home at Biebrich . Wagner records that Cosima became " transfigured " by his rendering of " Wotan 's Farewell " from Die Walküre . In October 1862 , just after Blandine 's death , Wagner and Bülow shared conducting duties at a concert in Leipzig ; Wagner records that , during a rehearsal , " I felt utterly transported by the sight of Cosima ... she appeared to me as if stepping from another world " . In these years Wagner 's emotional life was in disarray . He was still married to his first wife , Minna Planer ( she was to die in 1866 ) , and was involved in several extramarital relationships . On 28 November 1863 Wagner visited Berlin ; while Bülow was rehearsing a concert , Wagner and Cosima took a long cab ride through Berlin and declared their feelings for each other : " with tears and sobs " , Wagner later wrote , " we sealed our confession to belong to each other alone " .
= = With Wagner = =
= = = Munich and Tribschen = = =
In 1864 Wagner 's financial position was transformed by his new patron , the 18 @-@ year @-@ old King Ludwig II of Bavaria , who paid off the composer 's debts and awarded him a generous annual stipend . Ludwig also provided Wagner with a lakeside retreat at Lake Starnberg , and a grand house in Munich . At Wagner 's instigation , von Bülow accepted a post as Ludwig 's " royal pianist " ; he and Cosima moved to Munich , and took a house conveniently close to Wagner 's , ostensibly so that Cosima could work as the composer 's secretary . From 29 June 1864 Cosima spent more than a week alone with Wagner at Lake Starnberg , before von Bülow joined them on 7 July . According to Wagner 's housekeeper , Anna Mrazek , " it was easy to tell that something was going on between Frau Cosima and Richard Wagner " . Mrazek said that later in the visit von Bülow found his wife in Wagner 's bedroom , but nevertheless made no demands for an explanation , either from Wagner or from his wife . Nine months after this visit , on 10 April 1865 , Cosima gave birth to a daughter , Isolde . Such was von Bülow 's devotion to Wagner that he accepted the child as his own , and registered her as " the legitimate daughter " of Hans and Cosima von Bülow . Wagner attended the Catholic baptism on 24 April . On 10 June 1865 , at the Munich Hofoper , von Bülow conducted the premiere of Wagner 's Tristan und Isolde .
Wagner 's role at Ludwig 's court became controversial ; in particular , Ludwig 's habit of referring Wagner 's policy ideas to his ministers alarmed the court . When Wagner demanded the sacking both of Ludwig 's cabinet secretary and of his prime minister , there was a public outcry , and in December 1865 Ludwig reluctantly told Wagner to leave Bavaria . The king did not , however , withdraw his patronage or financial support . After a few months ' wandering , in March 1866 Wagner arrived in Geneva , where Cosima joined him . They travelled together to Lucerne where they found a large lakeside house , the Villa Tribschen . Wagner made immediate arrangements to rent the house , at the king 's expense , and by 15 April was installed in his new home .
Immediately upon signing the lease , Wagner invited the von Bülows and their children to stay with him . They spent the summer there , returning briefly to Munich before von Bülow left for Basel while Cosima went back to Tribschen . By now von Bülow understood his wife 's relationship with Wagner ; he wrote to a friend that " since February 1865 I was in absolutely no doubt about the extremely peculiar nature of the situation " . Wagner , anxious to avoid associating Cosima in a public scandal , deceived Ludwig into issuing a statement in June 1866 which declared the unbroken sanctity of the von Bülows ' marriage , and promised retribution for those daring to suggest otherwise . By this time Cosima was pregnant with her second child by Wagner ; a daughter , Eva , was born at Tribschen on 17 February 1867 . Through all this , von Bülow retained his devotion to Wagner 's music . He had been appointed music director of the Munich Hofoper , and threw himself into the preparations for the premiere of Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg . This took place on 21 June 1868 under his baton , and was a great success . Shortly afterwards , Cosima rejoined Wagner at Tribschen ; Wagner explained to the king that she could not bear the insults to which she was continually subjected in Munich , and wished to escape from the world .
In October 1868 Cosima asked her husband for a divorce , to which he would not initially agree . To sceptical enquirers he explained her absence from the von Bülow family home by a supposed visit to her half @-@ sister in Versailles . In June 1869 , immediately after the birth of her and Wagner 's third and final child , Siegfried , Cosima wrote to von Bülow in what she called a " final attempt at an understanding " . His reply was conciliatory ; he wrote : " You have preferred to consecrate the treasures of your heart and mind to a higher being : far from censuring you for this step , I approve of it " . Legal
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theory has a counterpart in the other theory . For example , a single particle in the gravitational theory might correspond to some collection of particles in the boundary theory . In addition , the predictions in the two theories are quantitatively identical so that if two particles have a 40 percent chance of colliding in the gravitational theory , then the corresponding collections in the boundary theory would also have a 40 percent chance of colliding .
Notice that the boundary of anti @-@ de Sitter space has fewer dimensions than anti @-@ de Sitter space itself . For instance , in the three @-@ dimensional example illustrated above , the boundary is a two @-@ dimensional surface . The AdS / CFT correspondence is often described as a " holographic duality " because this relationship between the two theories is similar to the relationship between a three @-@ dimensional object and its image as a hologram . Although a hologram is two @-@ dimensional , it encodes information about all three dimensions of the object it represents . In the same way , theories which are related by the AdS / CFT correspondence are conjectured to be exactly equivalent , despite living in different numbers of dimensions . The conformal field theory is like a hologram which captures information about the higher @-@ dimensional quantum gravity theory .
= = = Examples of the correspondence = = =
Following Maldacena 's insight in 1997 , theorists have discovered many different realizations of the AdS / CFT correspondence . These relate various conformal field theories to compactifications of string theory and M @-@ theory in various numbers of dimensions . The theories involved are generally not viable models of the real world , but they have certain features , such as their particle content or high degree of symmetry , which make them useful for solving problems in quantum field theory and quantum gravity .
The most famous example of the AdS / CFT correspondence states that type IIB string theory on the product space <formula> is equivalent to N = 4 supersymmetric Yang – Mills theory on the four @-@ dimensional boundary . In this example , the spacetime on which the gravitational theory lives is effectively five @-@ dimensional ( hence the notation <formula> ) , and there are five additional " compact " dimensions ( encoded by the <formula> factor ) . In the real world , spacetime is four @-@ dimensional , at least macroscopically , so this version of the correspondence does not provide a realistic model of gravity . Likewise , the dual theory is not a viable model of any real @-@ world system as it assumes a large amount of supersymmetry . Nevertheless , as explained below , this boundary theory shares some features in common with quantum chromodynamics , the fundamental theory of the strong force . It describes particles similar to the gluons of quantum chromodynamics together with certain fermions . As a result , it has found applications in nuclear physics , particularly in the study of the quark – gluon plasma .
Another realization of the correspondence states that M @-@ theory on <formula> is equivalent to the so @-@ called ( 2 @,@ 0 ) -theory in six dimensions . In this example , the spacetime of the gravitational theory is effectively seven @-@ dimensional . The existence of the ( 2 @,@ 0 ) -theory that appears on one side of the duality is predicted by the classification of superconformal field theories . It is still poorly understood because it is a quantum mechanical theory without a classical limit . Despite the inherent difficulty in studying this theory , it is considered to be an interesting object for a variety of reasons , both physical and mathematical .
Yet another realization of the correspondence states that M @-@ theory on <formula> is equivalent to the ABJM superconformal field theory in three dimensions . Here the gravitational theory has four noncompact dimensions , so this version of the correspondence provides a somewhat more realistic description of gravity .
= = Applications to quantum gravity = =
= = = A non @-@ perturbative formulation of string theory = = =
In quantum field theory , one typically computes the probabilities of various physical events using the techniques of perturbation theory . Developed by Richard Feynman and others in the first half of the twentieth century , perturbative quantum field theory uses special diagrams called Feynman diagrams to organize computations . One imagines that these diagrams depict the paths of point @-@ like particles and their interactions . Although this formalism is extremely useful for making predictions , these predictions are only possible when the strength of the interactions , the coupling constant , is small enough to reliably describe the theory as being close to a theory without interactions .
The starting point for string theory is the idea that the point @-@ like particles of quantum field theory can also be modeled as one @-@ dimensional objects called strings . The interaction of strings is most straightforwardly defined by generalizing the perturbation theory used in ordinary quantum field theory . At the level of Feynman diagrams , this means replacing the one @-@ dimensional diagram representing the path of a point particle by a two @-@ dimensional surface representing the motion of a string . Unlike in quantum field theory , string theory does not yet have a full non @-@ perturbative definition , so many of the theoretical questions that physicists would like to answer remain out of reach .
The problem of developing a non @-@ perturbative formulation of string theory was one of the original motivations for studying the AdS / CFT correspondence . As explained above , the correspondence provides several examples of quantum field theories which are equivalent to string theory on anti @-@ de Sitter space . One can alternatively view this correspondence as providing a definition of string theory in the special case where the gravitational field is asymptotically anti @-@ de Sitter ( that is , when the gravitational field resembles that of anti @-@ de Sitter space at spatial infinity ) . Physically interesting quantities in string theory are defined in terms of quantities in the dual quantum field theory .
= = = Black hole information paradox = = =
In 1975 , Stephen Hawking published a calculation which suggested that black holes are not completely black but emit a dim radiation due to quantum effects near the event horizon . At first , Hawking 's result posed a problem for theorists because it suggested that black holes destroy information . More precisely , Hawking 's calculation seemed to conflict with one of the basic postulates of quantum mechanics , which states that physical systems evolve in time according to the Schrödinger equation . This property is usually referred to as unitarity of time evolution . The apparent contradiction between Hawking 's calculation and the unitarity postulate of quantum mechanics came to be known as the black hole information paradox .
The AdS / CFT correspondence resolves the black hole information paradox , at least to some extent , because it shows how a black hole can evolve in a manner consistent with quantum mechanics in some contexts . Indeed , one can consider black holes in the context of the AdS / CFT correspondence , and any such black hole corresponds to a configuration of particles on the boundary of anti @-@ de Sitter space . These particles obey the usual rules of quantum mechanics and in particular evolve in a unitary fashion , so the black hole must also evolve in a unitary fashion , respecting the principles of quantum mechanics . In 2005 , Hawking announced that the paradox had been settled in favor of information conservation by the AdS / CFT correspondence , and he suggested a concrete mechanism by which black holes might preserve information .
= = Applications to quantum field theory = =
= = = Nuclear physics = = =
One physical system which has been studied using the AdS / CFT correspondence is the quark – gluon plasma , an exotic state of matter produced in particle accelerators . This state of matter arises for brief instants when heavy ions such as gold or lead nuclei are collided at high energies . Such collisions cause the quarks that make up atomic nuclei to deconfine at temperatures of approximately two trillion kelvins , conditions similar to those present at around <formula> seconds after the Big Bang .
The physics of the quark – gluon plasma is governed by quantum chromodynamics , but this theory is mathematically intractable in problems involving the quark – gluon plasma . In an article appearing in 2005 , Đàm Thanh Sơn and his collaborators showed that the AdS / CFT correspondence could be used to understand some aspects of the quark – gluon plasma by describing it in the language of string theory . By applying the AdS / CFT correspondence , Sơn and his collaborators were able to describe the quark gluon plasma in terms of black holes in five @-@ dimensional spacetime . The calculation showed that the ratio of two quantities associated with the quark – gluon plasma , the shear viscosity <formula> and volume density of entropy <formula> , should be approximately equal to a certain universal constant :
<formula>
where <formula> denotes the reduced Planck 's constant and <formula> is Boltzmann 's constant . In addition , the authors conjectured that this universal constant provides a lower bound for <formula> in a large class of systems . In 2008 , the predicted value of this ratio for the quark – gluon plasma was confirmed at the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider at Brookhaven National Laboratory .
Another important property of the quark – gluon plasma is that very high energy quarks moving through the plasma are stopped or " quenched " after traveling only a few femtometers . This phenomenon is characterized by a number <formula> called the jet quenching parameter , which relates the energy loss of such a quark to the squared distance traveled through the plasma . Calculations based on the AdS / CFT correspondence have allowed theorists to estimate <formula> , and the results agree roughly with the measured value of this parameter , suggesting that the AdS / CFT correspondence will be useful for developing a deeper understanding of this phenomenon .
= = = Condensed matter physics = = =
Over the decades , experimental condensed matter physicists have discovered a number of exotic states of matter , including superconductors and superfluids . These states are described using the formalism of quantum field theory , but some phenomena are difficult to explain using standard field theoretic techniques . Some condensed matter theorists including Subir Sachdev hope that the AdS / CFT correspondence will make it possible to describe these systems in the language of string theory and learn more about their behavior .
So far some success has been achieved in using string theory methods to describe the transition of a superfluid to an insulator . A superfluid is a system of electrically neutral atoms that flows without any friction . Such systems are often produced in the laboratory using liquid helium , but recently experimentalists have developed new ways of producing artificial superfluids by pouring trillions of cold atoms into a lattice of criss @-@ crossing lasers . These atoms initially behave as a superfluid , but as experimentalists increase the intensity of the lasers , they become less mobile and then suddenly transition to an insulating state . During the transition , the atoms behave in an unusual way . For example , the atoms slow to a halt at a rate that depends on the temperature and on Planck 's constant , the fundamental parameter of quantum mechanics , which does not enter into the description of the other phases . This behavior has recently been understood by considering a dual description where properties of the fluid are described in terms of a higher dimensional black hole .
= = = Criticism = = =
With many physicists turning towards string @-@ based methods to attack problems in nuclear and condensed matter physics , some theorists working in these areas have expressed doubts about whether the AdS / CFT correspondence can provide the tools needed to realistically model real @-@ world systems . In a talk at the Quark Matter conference in 2006 , Larry McLerran pointed out that the N = 4 super Yang – Mills theory that appears in the AdS / CFT correspondence differs significantly from quantum chromodynamics , making it difficult to apply these methods to nuclear physics . According to McLerran ,
<formula> supersymmetric Yang – Mills is not QCD ... It has no mass scale and is conformally invariant . It has no confinement and no running coupling constant . It is supersymmetric . It has no chiral symmetry breaking or mass generation . It has six scalar and fermions in the adjoint representation ... It may be possible to correct some or all of the above problems , or , for various physical problems , some of the objections may not be relevant . As yet there is not consensus nor compelling arguments for the conjectured fixes or phenomena which would insure that the <formula> supersymmetric Yang Mills results would reliably reflect QCD .
In a letter to Physics Today , Nobel laureate Philip W. Anderson voiced similar concerns about applications of AdS / CFT to condensed matter physics , stating
As a very general problem with the AdS / CFT approach in condensed @-@ matter theory , we can point to those telltale initials " CFT " — conformal field theory . Condensed @-@ matter problems are , in general , neither relativistic nor conformal . Near a quantum critical point , both time and space may be scaling , but even there we still have a preferred coordinate system and , usually , a lattice . There is some evidence of other linear @-@ T phases to the left of the strange metal about which they are welcome to speculate , but again in this case the condensed @-@ matter problem is overdetermined by experimental facts .
= = History and development = =
= = = String theory and nuclear physics = = =
The discovery of the AdS / CFT correspondence in late 1997 was the culmination of a long history of efforts to relate string theory to nuclear physics . In fact , string theory was originally developed during the late 1960s and early 1970s as a theory of hadrons , the subatomic particles like the proton and neutron that are held together by the strong nuclear force . The idea was that each of these particles could be viewed as a different oscillation mode of a string . In the late 1960s , experimentalists had found that hadrons fall into families called Regge trajectories with squared energy proportional to angular momentum , and theorists showed that this relationship emerges naturally from the physics of a rotating relativistic string .
On the other hand , attempts to model hadrons as strings faced serious problems . One problem was that string theory includes a massless spin @-@ 2 particle whereas no such particle appears in the physics of hadrons . Such a particle would mediate a force with the properties of gravity . In 1974 , Joel Scherk and John Schwarz suggested that string theory was therefore not a theory of nuclear physics as many theorists had thought but instead a theory of quantum gravity . At the same time , it was realized that hadrons are actually made of quarks , and the string theory approach was abandoned in favor of quantum chromodynamics .
In quantum chromodynamics , quarks have a kind of charge that comes in three varieties called colors . In a paper from 1974 , Gerard ' t Hooft studied the relationship between string theory and nuclear physics from another point of view by considering theories similar to quantum chromodynamics , where the number of colors is some arbitrary number <formula> , rather than three . In this article , ' t Hooft considered a certain limit where <formula> tends to infinity and argued that in this limit certain calculations in quantum field theory resemble calculations in string theory .
= = = Black holes and holography = = =
In 1975 , Stephen Hawking published a calculation which suggested that black holes are not completely black but emit a dim radiation due to quantum effects near the event horizon . This work extended previous results of Jacob Bekenstein who had suggested that black holes have a well defined entropy . At first , Hawking 's result appeared to contradict one of the main postulates of quantum mechanics , namely the unitarity of time evolution . Intuitively , the unitarity postulate says that quantum mechanical systems do not destroy information as they evolve from one state to another . For this reason , the apparent contradiction came to be known as the black hole information paradox .
Later , in 1993 , Gerard ' t Hooft wrote a speculative paper on quantum gravity in which he revisited Hawking 's work on black hole thermodynamics , concluding that the total number of degrees of freedom in a region of spacetime surrounding a black hole is proportional to the surface area of the horizon . This idea was promoted by Leonard Susskind and is now known as the holographic principle . The holographic principle and its realization in string theory through the AdS / CFT correspondence have helped elucidate the mysteries of black holes suggested by Hawking 's work and are believed to provide a resolution of the black hole information paradox . In 2004 , Hawking conceded that black holes do not violate quantum mechanics , and he suggested a concrete mechanism by which they might preserve information .
= = = Maldacena 's paper = = =
In late 1997 , Juan Maldacena published a landmark paper that initiated the study of AdS / CFT . According to Alexander Markovich Polyakov , " [ Maldacena 's ] work opened the flood gates . " The conjecture immediately excited great interest in the string theory community and was considered in articles by Steven Gubser , Igor Klebanov and Polyakov , and by Edward Witten . These papers made Maldacena 's conjecture more precise and showed that the conformal field theory appearing in the correspondence lives on the boundary of anti @-@ de Sitter space .
One special case of Maldacena 's proposal says that N = 4 super Yang – Mills theory , a gauge theory similar in some ways to quantum chromodynamics , is equivalent to string theory in five @-@ dimensional anti @-@ de Sitter space . This result helped clarify the earlier work of ' t Hooft on the relationship between string theory and quantum chromodynamics , taking string theory back to its roots as a theory of nuclear physics . Maldacena 's results also provided a concrete realization of the holographic principle with important implications for quantum gravity and black hole physics . By the year 2015 , Maldacena 's paper had become the most highly cited paper in high energy physics with over 10 @,@ 000 citations . These subsequent articles have provided considerable evidence that the correspondence is correct , although so far it has not been rigorously proved .
= = = AdS / CFT finds applications = = =
In 1999 , after taking a job at Columbia University , nuclear physicist Đàm Thanh Sơn paid a visit to Andrei Starinets , a friend from Sơn 's undergraduate days who happened to be doing a Ph.D. in string theory at New York University . Although the two men had no intention of collaborating , Sơn soon realized that the AdS / CFT calculations Starinets was doing could shed light on some aspects of the quark – gluon plasma , an exotic state of matter produced when heavy ions are collided at high energies . In collaboration with Starinets and Pavel Kovtun , Sơn was able to use the AdS / CFT correspondence to calculate a key parameter of the plasma . As Sơn later recalled , " We turned the calculation on its head to give us a prediction for the value of the shear viscosity of a plasma ... A friend of mine in nuclear physics joked that ours was the first useful paper to come out of string theory . "
Today physicists continue to look for applications of the AdS / CFT correspondence in quantum field theory . In addition to the applications to nuclear physics advocated by Đàm Thanh Sơn and his collaborators , condensed matter physicists such as Subir Sachdev have used string theory methods to understand some aspects of condensed matter physics . A notable result in this direction was the description , via the AdS / CFT correspondence , of the transition of a superfluid to an insulator . Another emerging subject is the fluid / gravity correspondence , which uses the AdS / CFT correspondence to translate problems in fluid dynamics into problems in general relativity .
= = Generalizations = =
= = = Three @-@ dimensional gravity = = =
In order to better understand the quantum aspects of gravity in our four @-@ dimensional universe , some physicists have considered a lower @-@ dimensional mathematical model in which spacetime has only two spatial dimensions and one time dimension . In this setting , the mathematics describing the gravitational field simplifies drastically , and one can study quantum gravity using familiar methods from quantum field theory , eliminating the need for string theory or other more radical approaches to quantum gravity in four dimensions .
Beginning with the work of J. D. Brown and Marc Henneaux in 1986 , physicists have noticed that quantum gravity in a three @-@ dimensional spacetime is closely related to two @-@ dimensional conformal field theory . In 1995 , Henneaux and his coworkers explored this relationship in more detail , suggesting that three @-@ dimensional gravity in anti @-@ de Sitter space is equivalent to the conformal field theory known as Liouville field theory . Another conjecture formulated by Edward Witten states that three @-@ dimensional gravity in anti @-@ de Sitter space is equivalent to a conformal field theory with monster group symmetry . These conjectures provide examples of the AdS / CFT correspondence that do not require the full apparatus of string or M @-@ theory .
= = = dS / CFT correspondence = = =
Unlike our universe , which is now known to be expanding at an accelerating rate , anti @-@ de Sitter space is neither expanding nor contracting . Instead it looks the same at all times . In more technical language , one says that anti @-@ de Sitter space corresponds to a universe with negative cosmological constant , whereas the real universe has a small positive cosmological constant .
Although the properties of gravity at short distances should be somewhat independent of the value of the cosmological constant , it is desirable to have a version of the AdS / CFT correspondence for positive cosmological constant . In 2001 , Andrew Strominger introduced a version of the duality called the dS / CFT correspondence . This duality involves a model of spacetime called de Sitter space with a positive cosmological constant . Such a duality is interesting from the point of view of cosmology since many cosmologists believe that the very early universe was close to being de Sitter space . Our universe may also resemble de Sitter space in the distant future .
= = = Kerr / CFT correspondence = = =
Although the AdS / CFT correspondence is often useful for studying the properties of black holes , most of the black holes considered in the context of AdS / CFT are physically unrealistic . Indeed , as explained above , most versions of the AdS / CFT correspondence involve higher @-@ dimensional models of spacetime with unphysical supersymmetry .
In 2009 , Monica Guica , Thomas Hartman , Wei Song , and Andrew Strominger showed that the ideas of AdS / CFT could nevertheless be used to understand certain astrophysical black holes . More precisely , their results apply to black holes that are approximated by extremal Kerr black holes , which have the largest possible angular momentum compatible with a given mass . They showed that such black holes have an equivalent description in terms of conformal field theory . The Kerr / CFT correspondence was later extended to black holes with lower angular momentum .
= = = Higher spin gauge theories = = =
The AdS / CFT correspondence is closely related to another duality conjectured by Igor Klebanov and Alexander Markovich Polyakov in 2002 . This duality states that certain " higher spin gauge theories " on anti @-@ de Sitter space are equivalent to conformal field theories with O ( N ) symmetry . Here the theory in the bulk is a type of gauge theory describing particles of arbitrarily high spin . It is similar to string theory , where the excited modes of vibrating strings correspond to particles with higher spin , and it may help to better understand the string theoretic versions of AdS / CFT and possibly even prove the correspondence . In 2010 , Simone Giombi and Xi Yin obtained further evidence for this duality by computing quantities called three @-@ point functions .
= Enta da Stage =
Enta da Stage is the debut album of American East Coast hip hop group Black Moon , released on October 19 , 1993 through Nervous Records . The album was produced by DJ Evil Dee and Mr. Walt of Da Beatminerz . Enta da Stage features the debut of underground hip hop duo Smif @-@ N @-@ Wessun , as well as appearances from Havoc of Mobb Deep and Dru Ha , the co @-@ founder of Duck Down Records .
Despite being critically acclaimed and having two singles that charted on the Billboard Hot 100 ( " Who Got da Props ? " and " I Got Cha Opin " ) , the album sold poorly , and is often overlooked in favor of subsequent East Coast albums such as Enter the Wu @-@ Tang ( 36 Chambers ) , Illmatic , Liquid Swords , Ready to Die , Only Built 4 Cuban Linx ... , and The Infamous . Nonetheless , Enta da Stage preceded those releases and served as a precursor to the resurgence of the New York hip hop scene in the mid @-@ 1990s .
= = Background = =
The roots of Black Moon go back to Brooklyn 's Bushwick High School , where 5 ft and DJ Evil Dee met and formed a group called Unique Image . The two later met Buckshot in the Brownsville section of Brooklyn , and formed a friendship based on similar musical aspirations . The newly formed group recruited Evil Dee 's older brother Mr. Walt , and began recording the pre @-@ production of their debut album at the Dewgarde Crib of Hits at Mr. Walt 's house . Their first group release was their 1992 single " Who Got da Props ? " , which is now hailed as a classic hip hop single . Black Moon signed to Nervous Records in 1992 , based on the strength of the debut single , which peaked at number 86 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in early 1993 . Buckshot soon formed a close relationship with Nervous employee Drew Friedman , later known as Dru Ha . The two formed a management company named " Duck Down Management " , and oversaw the release of Enta da Stage as co @-@ executive producers . The group finished recording Enta da Stage at New York City 's D & D Studios between late 1992 and early 1993 , and prepared it for a late 1993 release date .
= = Music = =
Much of the acclaim the album received was due to the performance of lead MC Buckshot , who originally went by the name Buckshot Shorty . Ten of the fourteen tracks on the album are Buckshot solo tracks , and he appears on every song but " Son Get Wrec " . Buck , who was eighteen at the time of the recording , was a young man trying to establish himself and his crew in the hip hop world . In a 2005 interview with MVRemix.com , Buckshot described a day in his life while recording his debut :
Enta da Stage was really rough for me . It was a really rough era . A lot of people don 't know what I went through personally . I think I had just turned eighteen and I had the pressure of running a management company as an eighteen year old shorter than 5 ' 6 . I had that problem of people taking my company and my representation seriously . So a day in the life around the Enta da Stage era was based on constant struggle and lettin ' people know you respect Duck Down management as a real management company and not just as some little cute thing that Buckshot is doing . Nah , for real , we 're management type deal . I was battling keeping Smif @-@ n @-@ Wessun in a good deal , I was battling trying to get Heltah Skeltah a good deal . I was battling trying to bring my record company into existence , so it was a really hard time .
= = = Lyrics = = =
The mindstate described in the above interview rules the content on the album , as the lyrics are loaded with violent narratives and braggadocio and little else , as Buckshot and 5 ft try to solidify their status in rap . Allmusic 's Chris Witt stated that " Emcees Buckshot and 5ft Accelerator attack their verses with an aggressive nihilism not heard since Kool G Rap 's peak . " 5 ft , originally known as 5FT Accelerator , appears on three tracks here , and his lyrical content does not differ from that of Buckshot 's . Unlike later work by New York City peers like Nas , the lyrical content found here does not peer deeply into social issues or provide much substance . Allmusic 's album review stated that " Theirs is a grim reality , filled with guns , weed and violence . Buckshot displays none of the usual gangster remorse , he is a willful public menace . "
Buckshot was praised not only for his lyricism , but also for his lyrical delivery and breath control , with his flow and dramatic , conversational vocal tones being seen as original and entertaining . In a 2005 interview with AllHipHop.com , hip hop producer 9th Wonder stated that Buckshot 's style strongly influenced his current sound , and that the singles " Who Got da Props ? " and " How Many MC 's ... " changed his life .
The album features an original style of choruses , which are now known as " Black Moon hooks " , in which they gather a large number of people in the booth to simultaneously yell the lyrics . These vocals were provided by a number of artists , including Smif @-@ n @-@ Wessun , Mr. Walt , Mobb Deep 's Havoc and the trio themselves . " Niguz Talk Shit " , " Who Got da Props ? " , " Ack Like U Want It " , " Buck Em Down " , " Black Smif @-@ n @-@ Wessun " , " Son Get Wrec " , " Make Munne " and " U da Man " all feature " Black Moon hooks " .
= = = Production = = =
DJ Evil Dee and Mr. Walt of Da Beatminerz , who produced the album , put their samplers to use here , lacing the album with their signature basement sound , filled with hard drums , grimy horn arrangements and deep basslines . In the album 's liner notes , DJ Evil Dee stated : " This album was done on blunted terms . Anyone who is offended by the contents of the album , FUCK YOU . Nuff said . " Allmusic describes the dark production : " The Beatminerz production crew craft subterranean beats to match Buckshot 's mayhem . The tracks are dark , layered with muted jazz samples , and seemingly bottomless . " A few of the samples used here were later recreated by a number of hip hop artists in the 1990s . The single " Buck Em Down " features a sample from Donald Byrd 's " Wind Parade " , a sample which was later re @-@ used for Organized Konfusion 's 1994 concept track " Stray Bullet " . " How Many MC 's ... " features a sample from Grover Washington , Jr . ' s " Hydra " , which was used for earlier hip hop tracks like EPMD 's " Underground " . The iconic " Who Got Da Props " heavily utilizes a looped sample from Ronnie Laws 's jazz classic " Tidal Wave " , which was featured in several hip @-@ hop and R & B tracks , including Usher 's " Think Of You " from his self @-@ titled 1994 album . Evil Dee and Walt take a portion of the sample and craft it into a different loop .
An Enta da Stage review on OhWord.com praises the production work , stating " Though the album 's success is largely attributable to Buckshot 's performance , one cannot ignore the phenomenal production from the Beatminerz . They took the already dark sound of The Low End Theory and one @-@ upped it , filtering out almost all treble and using spare , hardcore drum samples . The compositions of Mr. Walt and Evil Dee are also cleverly structured , propelling Buckshot 's raps directly into the listener 's psyche . " ... " The crackle of scratched vinyl pervades the album , contributing to the feel of warmth and timelessness . Thanks to the Beatminerz , there is something inviting about Enta da Stage , despite its confrontational lyrics . "
= = Singles = =
Enta da Stage featured four singles and music videos , including their debut " Who Got da Props ? " . In mid @-@ 1993 , the " How Many MC 's ... " single was released ; it became popular in the underground rap circuit , but was not able to find success with mainstream audiences , barely breaking into the Top 50 on the Hot Rap Singles chart . The third single from the album was a remix of " I Got Cha Opin " , which utilized a smooth jazz sample , courtesy of Barry White 's " Playing Your Game Baby " . The remix featured a new chorus and all @-@ new verses to go along with the new production . The single became the group 's second Billboard Hot 100 hit in 1994 , peaking at number 93 . The last single , " Buck Em Down " , was released in mid @-@ 1994 , with the music video featuring the remixed version . Both original and remixed versions featured sampled portions from Donald Byrd 's " Wind Parade " and similar lyrics , with the remix featuring a different vocal delivery and edited lyrics .
The album spawned additional remixes . Along with " Buck Em Down " and " I Got Cha Opin " , the tracks " Ack like U Want It " , " Son Get Wrec " , " Shit Iz Real " , " How Many MC 's ... " and " U da Man " all featured remixes , which were later included on Black Moon 's Diggin ' in dah Vaults compilation .
= = Reception = =
Enta da Stage has received generally favorable reviews from most music critics and publications . Allmusic gave the album 4 ½ stars out of 5 , while The Source gave it 4 out of 5 Mics . In 1998 , the album was selected as one of The Source 's 100 Best Rap Albums , and former Source magazine writer Cheo H. Coker stated in their November 1993 issue :
Enta da Stage is a stunning debut that does not disappoint by any stretch of the imagination . The only term that adequately describes Black Moon 's smooth combination of funky jazz rhythms and ferocious vocals is ' elegant madness . ' It 's nice to see that there are still shining spots of originality to be found in a genre that 's becoming increasingly overrun by bogus bandwagon jumpers just out to make a quick buck . Make this jammie a priority .
Though praised for its originality and production , Enta da Stage has also seen criticism for its monotony and lack of lyrical substance . Rolling Stone magazine gave the album a 3 @-@ star rating , and criticized the release for " ignorance " , and claimed that the release failed to capitalize on its promise , stating that " They leave blank the ultimate canvas – the self . " In naming it the fourth greatest album on About.com 's list of the Best Rap Albums of 1993 , columnist Henry Adaso wrote of the album favorably , stating " Unlike most hip @-@ hop albums of its era , Enta Da Stage eschewed confrontational raps and opted for brooding , electrifying brand of hip @-@ hop . "
= = Influence = =
Though not as widely heralded as similar groundbreaking East Coast albums such as Nas ' Illmatic , The Notorious B.I.G. ' s Ready to Die , Wu @-@ Tang Clan 's Enter the Wu @-@ Tang ( 36 Chambers ) , Onyx 's Bacdafucup and Mobb Deep 's The Infamous , Enta da Stage was critically acclaimed on a similar level . Though all of the albums mentioned above were able to reach at least Gold status , Enta da Stage , released before all of these albums , has not sold nearly as well , selling just over 350 @,@ 000 copies in the U.S. as of June 2006 . Allmusic described the importance of the album : " It set the tone for much of the hip hop to follow . Biggie Smalls suicidal thoughts and Noreaga 's boisterous thuggery both have their roots here . The album marked a turning point in hip hop . " Enta da Stage has also been described as " Era defining " , and was one of the pioneering releases during the return of New York City 's street hip hop resurgence of the mid 1990s , after the West Coast 's reign of the early 1990s . Enta da Stage is still prominent among hip hop artists today , such as lyrics from " How Many MC 's ... " being used as a hook for Jedi Mind Trick 's song " Speech Cobras " .
The album also served as the introduction of the supergroup Boot Camp Clik . The collective was a prominent underground rap group in the 1990s – also producing the acclaimed Smif @-@ n @-@ Wessun 's Dah Shinin ' , Heltah Skeltah 's Nocturnal , and O.G.C. ' s Da Storm . Enta da Stage heralded the debut of Da Beatminerz . After producing here , and on other Boot Camp albums Dah Shinin ' , Nocturnal and Da Storm , Mr. Walt and Evil Dee went on to expand their sounds , and produce for popular artists like Afu @-@ Ra , Big Daddy Kane , Craig G , De La Soul , Dilated Peoples , Eminem , Flipmode Squad , Jean Grae , KRS @-@ One , M.O.P. , Naughty by Nature , O.C. and Black Star . The album is extensively broken down track @-@ by @-@ track by Buckshot , DJ Evil Dee , and Mr. Walt of Da Beatminerz in Brian Coleman 's book Check the Technique ( 2007 ) .
= = Track listing = =
Track listing and producer information is taken from the CD .
" Ack Like U Want It " was not on the cassette or the vinyl release .
" Slave " was not on the vinyl release .
= = Personnel = =
= = Chart history = =
Album
Singles
= House ( 1977 film ) =
House ( ハウス , Hausu ) is a 1977 Japanese horror film directed and produced by Nobuhiko Obayashi . The film stars mostly amateur actors with only Kimiko Ikegami and Yōko Minamida having any notable previous acting experience . The film is about a schoolgirl traveling with her six classmates to her ailing aunt 's country home , where they come face to face with supernatural events as the girls are , one by one , devoured by the home .
The film company Toho approached Obayashi with the suggestion to make a film like Jaws . Influenced by ideas from his daughter Chigumi , Obayashi developed ideas for a script that was written by Chiho Katsura . After the script was green @-@ lit , the film was put on hold for two years as no director at Toho wanted to direct it . Obayashi promoted the film during this time period until the studio allowed him to direct it himself . The film was a box office hit in Japan but received negative reviews from critics . House received a wide release in 2009 and 2010 in North America , where it received more favorable reviews .
= = Plot = =
In Japan , a young girl nicknamed Gorgeous ( Kimiko Ikegami ) has plans for a summer vacation with her father ( Saho Sasazawa ) who had been in Italy scoring film music . Her father returns home and surprises Gorgeous by announcing she has a new stepmother , Ryoko Ema ( Haruko Wanibuchi ) . This upsets Gorgeous as her mother had died years earlier . Gorgeous goes to her bedroom and writes a letter to her aunt asking if she could come visit her this summer instead . Gorgeous ' aunt replies and allows her to come visit . Gorgeous invites her six friends , Prof ( Ai Matsubara ) , Melody ( Eriko Tanaka ) , Kung Fu ( Miki Jinbo ) , Mac ( Mieko Sato ) , Sweet ( Masayo Miyako ) and Fantasy ( Kumiko Oba ) to come along with her . On arriving at the aunt 's house , the girls are greeted by Gorgeous ' aunt ( Yōko Minamida ) to whom they present a watermelon .
After a tour of the home , the girls leave the watermelon in a well to keep it refrigerated . Mac later goes to retrieve the watermelon and does not return . When Fantasy goes to retrieve the watermelon from the well , she finds Mac 's head , which flies in the air and bites Fantasy 's buttocks before she escapes . The other girls also begin to encounter other supernatural traps throughout the house . The aunt disappears after entering the broken refrigerator , and the girls are attacked or possessed by a series of items in the house , such as Gorgeous becoming possessed after using her aunt 's mirror and Sweet disappearing after being attacked by mattresses . These attacks cause the girls to try to escape the house . As soon as Gorgeous walks out the door , the rest of the girls find themselves locked in . The girls try to find the aunt to unlock the door but only find Mac 's severed hand in a jar . Melody begins to play the piano to keep the girl 's spirits up as the girls hear Gorgeous singing upstairs . As Prof and Kung Fu go to investigate , Melody 's fingers are bitten off by the piano , and it ultimately eats her whole .
Upstairs in the house , Kung Fu and Prof find Gorgeous wearing a bridal gown , who then reveals her aunt 's diary to them . Kung Fu follows Gorgeous as she leaves the room , only to find Sweet 's body trapped in a grandfather clock . Panic @-@ driven , the remaining girls barricade the upper part of the house while Prof , Fantasy and Kung Fu read the aunt 's diary . They are interrupted by the giant @-@ sized head of Gorgeous . Gorgeous reveals that her aunt died many years ago waiting for her fiancée to return from World War II and that her spirit remains , eating unmarried girls who arrive at her home . The three girls are then attacked by household items . Prof shouts to Kung Fu to attack the aunt 's cat , Blanche . As Kung Fu lunges into a flying kick , she is eaten by a possessed light fixture . Kung Fu 's legs manage to escape and attack the painting of Blanche on the wall . The attacked Blanche portrait spurts blood , causing the room to flood . Prof tries to read the diary to solve the problem , but is pulled under the blood by a monster jar . Fantasy sees Gorgeous in the bridal gown and paddles towards her . Gorgeous appears as her aunt in the reflection in the blood and then cradles Fantasy . In the morning , Ryoko arrives at the house and finds Gorgeous in a classic kimono . Gorgeous tells Ryoko that her friends will wake up soon and that they will be hungry . She then shakes hands with Ryoko and burns her away to nothing .
= = Cast = =
Kimiko Ikegami as Gorgeous
Miki Jinbo as Kung Fu
Ai Matubara as Prof
Kumiko Oba as Fantasy
Mieko Sato as Mac
Eriko Tanaka as Melody
Masayo Miyako as Sweet
Yōko Minamida as Auntie
Kiyohiko Ozaki as Keisuke Tôgô
Saho Sasazawa as Father
Haruko Wanibuchi as Ryoko Ema
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Following the success of the American film Jaws , a proposition came from the Toho film studio for Nobuhiko Obayashi to develop a similar script . To find inspiration for the story , Obayashi discussed ideas with his pre @-@ teen daughter Chigumi Obayashi . Nobuhiko sought her ideas , believing that adults " only think about things they understand ... everything stays on that boring human level " while " children can come up with things that can 't be explained " . Several of Chigumi 's ideas were included in House such as a reflection in a mirror attacking the viewer , a watermelon being pulled out of a well appearing like a human head , and a house that eats girls . Other themes Chigumi suggested drew upon her own childhood fears . These fears included a pile of futons falling on her that felt like a monster attacking her , a large loud clock at her grandparents home , and getting her fingers caught in between her piano keys . Nobuhiko shared these story ideas with screenwriter Chiho Katsura . These ideas reminded Katsura of a short story by Walter de la Mare about an old woman who is visited by her granddaughters who then puts them in a trunk .
Obayashi incorporated themes of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki into the script . Obayashi was born in Hiroshima and lost all his childhood friends from these bombings . Obayashi applied these themes with the plot element of a woman 's ghost waiting for her lover 's return from World War II . The woman 's bitterness about the war turns her into an evil spirit that devours the girls who were unaffected by the bombings . Obayashi and Katsura had worked previously on a script titled Hanagatami before being assigned to House , which made the screenwriting process easy for both of them . Obayashi titled the script House as he felt that a foreign title for a Japanese film would be " taboo " .
= = = Pre @-@ production = = =
The script for House was green @-@ lit shortly after being presented to Toho . No directors at Toho were interested in directing the film as they felt it would end their career . Obayashi proposed that he would direct it but was turned down as he was not a staff member at Toho . House did not start filming until two years after the script 's completion . Toho allowed Obayashi to announce that film was green @-@ lit and began promoting the film by passing out business cards which advertised the film . In the 1960s , Obayashi created a short film titled Emotion that was popular at Japanese universities and event halls . Fans of his television commercial and film work helped him promote House before it was even in production . Products based on House that were released included manga , a novelization of the script and a radio drama . The soundtrack for the film was created and released before the film was made . Asei Kobayashi , who worked with Obayashi on his television commercials , contributed the piano pieces for the film 's soundtrack . Kobayashi felt that younger people should contribute to the film 's soundtrack and suggested Mickie Yoshino and his band Godiego should contribute songs based on Yoshino 's piano pieces .
The majority of the cast of House were not established actors and were people Obayashi worked with on his commercials and independent films . During the two @-@ year waiting period to start filming House , Obayashi created several commercials and began casting the seven girls from models who were in his commercials . The most experienced members of the main cast were Kimiko Ikegami and Yōko Minamida . Obayashi was friends with Minamida who he filmed in commercials for Calpis . Ikegami was mostly working television and theater at the time and worried that taking the role of the older woman would have a negative effect on the roles she would be subsequently offered , but still agreed to play the part . The country music singer Kiyohiko Ozaki , who plays Mr. Togo in the film , was cast because he was friends with Obayashi through their shared hobby of horseback riding . Other roles were filled by members of the crew and their families ; for example , Nobuhiko Obayashi 's daughter Chigumi plays the little girl , and the film 's production designer plays the shoe maker .
= = = Filming = = =
Obayashi recalled that his producer told him that Toho was tired of losing money on comprehensible films and were ready to let Obayashi direct the House script , which they felt was incomprehensible . Toho officially green @-@ lit the film 's production after the success of the radio drama based on House . Obayashi received special permission to direct the film despite not being a member of the Toho staff .
House was filmed on one of Toho 's largest sets , where Obayashi shot the film without a storyboard over a period of about two months . Obayashi described the attitude on the set as very upbeat as he often skipped , sang and played quiz games with the younger actresses on the set . Despite having fun on the set , members of the Toho crew felt the film was nonsense . Obayashi found the acting of the seven girls to be poor while trying to direct them verbally . He began playing the film 's soundtrack on set , which changed the way the girls were acting in the film as they got into the spirit of the music . Actress Kimiko Ikegami was uncomfortable about a nude scene in the film . To make her more comfortable , Yoko Minamida also took off her clothes . After Obayashi saw Minamida nude , he included a nude scene for her in the film which was not in the original script .
Obayashi already had experience with special effects from his work on television commercials . Obayashi and the cameraman oversaw the special effects for the film . Obayashi desired the special effects to look unrealistic , as if a child created them . For the scene in which Ai Matsubara 's character vanishes under the blood , Obayashi had her suspended nude , pouring buckets of blue paint on her to create a blue @-@ screen chroma key effect where the blue colored parts of her body would deteriorate on camera . The outcome of a lot of these effects would be unknown until the film was completed . Obayashi stated that sometimes the effects did not turn out how he originally envisioned them .
= = Release = =
House was released on July 30 , 1977 in Japan . It was originally released as a double feature with the romance film Pure Hearts in Mud . Toho did not expect House to be successful , but the film became a great hit . The film became specifically popular with a youth audience . House was never shown in the United States until the distribution rights were bought by Janus Films to be released as part of their Eclipse line of DVDs . Eclipse was originally conceived as a possible sub @-@ label for cult films for the company . Janus soon began getting requests for theatrical screenings of the film . Janus initiated a small tour of theatrical showings , including two sold @-@ out shows at the 2009 New York Asian Film Festival . In January 2010 , House began being shown theatrically across North America .
House was released by the Masters of Cinema label in the United Kingdom on DVD . Bonus features on the disc included interviews with the cast and crew and the theatrical trailer . House was released by The Criterion Collection on DVD and Blu @-@ ray Disc on October 26 , 2010 . Bonus features on the disc included a making @-@ of feature with interviews with the crew , Obayashi 's short film Emotion ( 1966 ) , and an appreciation video featuring director Ti West .
= = Reception = =
The film did not receive many reviews in Japan on its initial release . The general reception among Japanese critics who did review the film was negative . Nobuhiko Obayashi won the Blue Ribbon Award for Best New Director in 1978 for House , and , on House 's theatrical screenings across North America , the film began to receive generally favorable reviews . House was The New York Times critics pick stating that " Mr. Obayashi has created a true fever dream of a film , one in which the young female imagination – that of his daughter , Gorgeous or both – yields memorable results . " The Seattle Times gave House three out of four stars , stating that what the film " lacks in technical wizardry it more than makes up for in playful ingenuity , injecting cheesy effects into outrageously stylized set pieces . " Slant Magazine gave the film three stars out of four , calling it " equal parts brilliant , baffling , ridiculous , and unwatchable . " The New York Post gave the film three and a half stars out of four praising the film 's originality , comparing it to the work of directors Dario Argento and Guy Maddin. indieWire included House in their list of " Haunted House films worth discussing " calling it " the cheeriest , most infectious blood bath in cinematic history . " In 2009 , the Japanese film magazine Kinema Junpo placed House on at number 160 on their list of top 200 Japanese films .
The Austin Chronicle gave House a mixed review , saying that " there 's surprisingly little to recommend House as a film . But as an experience , well , that 's a whole other story . " The Village Voice gave the film a mixed review , saying that " Contemporary Japanese pop culture makes the hophead nonsense of House look quaint by comparison ... though it plays like a retarded hybrid of Rocky Horror and Whispering Corridors , it is , moment to moment , its own kind of movie hijinks . " The Boston Globe gave the film two stars out of four , opining that films by Sam Raimi and Peter Jackson had attempted similar styled films with better success .
= Broke ( The Office ) =
" Broke " is the 25th episode of the fifth season of the television series The Office , and the 97th overall episode of the series . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on April 23 , 2009 . In this episode , Michael learns his paper company is broke , and tries to keep this fact a secret when Dunder Mifflin offers to buy out the Michael Scott Paper Company since the company has stolen most of Dunder Mifflin Scranton 's clients .
The episode was written by Charlie Grandy and directed by Steve Carell , marking his directorial debut . " Broke " was the last of a six @-@ episode arc involving Michael quitting to start the Michael Scott Paper Company ; it was also the last of six episodes to prominently feature Idris Elba as Dunder Mifflin V.P. Charles Miner . According to Nielsen ratings , it was watched by 7 @.@ 21 million viewers , and received the season 's lowest rating in the 18 – 49 age group during its regular timeslot to that point in the season .
= = Plot = =
Michael ( Steve Carell ) , Pam ( Jenna Fischer ) and Ryan ( B. J. Novak ) make early morning paper deliveries in a used van . The van has Korean writing on it which translates to " Hallelujah Church of Scranton . " This routine , in addition to their regular duties at the Michael Scott Paper Company , takes such a toll on the group that they decide to look into hiring a delivery person . They are told by their accountant that because of
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rice or noodles , with a soup and okazu — dishes made from fish , vegetable , tofu and the like – to add flavor to the staple food . In the early modern era ingredients such as red meats that had previously not been widely used in Japan were introduced . Japanese cuisine is known for its emphasis on seasonality of food , quality of ingredients and presentation . Japanese cuisine offers a vast array of regional specialties that use traditional recipes and local ingredients . The Michelin Guide has awarded restaurants in Japan more Michelin stars than the rest of the world combined .
= = = Sports = = =
Traditionally , sumo is considered Japan 's national sport . Japanese martial arts such as judo , karate and kendo are also widely practiced and enjoyed by spectators in the country . After the Meiji Restoration , many Western sports were introduced in Japan and began to spread through the education system . Japan hosted the Summer Olympics in Tokyo in 1964 . Japan has hosted the Winter Olympics twice : Sapporo in 1972 and Nagano in 1998 . Tokyo will host the 2020 Summer Olympics , making Tokyo the first Asian city to host the Olympics twice . Japan is the most successful Asian Rugby Union country , winning the Asian Five Nations a record 6 times and winning the newly formed IRB Pacific Nations Cup in 2011 . Japan will host the 2019 IRB Rugby World Cup .
Baseball is currently the most popular spectator sport in the country . Japan 's top professional league , now known as Nippon Professional Baseball , was established in 1936 . Since the establishment of the Japan Professional Football League in 1992 , association football has also gained a wide following . Japan was a venue of the Intercontinental Cup from 1981 to 2004 and co @-@ hosted the 2002 FIFA World Cup with South Korea . Japan has one of the most successful football teams in Asia , winning the Asian Cup four times . Also , Japan recently won the FIFA Women 's World Cup in 2011 . Golf is also popular in Japan , as are forms of auto racing like the Super GT series and Formula Nippon . The country has produced one NBA player , Yuta Tabuse .
= Cristina Yang =
Cristina Yang , M.D. , Ph.D. , is a fictional character from the medical drama television series Grey 's Anatomy , which airs on the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) in the United States . The character was created by series producer Shonda Rhimes , and is portrayed by actress Sandra Oh . Introduced as a surgical intern at the fictional Seattle Grace Hospital , Yang worked her way up to resident level , eventually becoming a cardiothoracic surgical fellow , while her relationships with colleagues Meredith Grey ( Ellen Pompeo ) , George O 'Malley ( T. R. Knight ) , Izzie Stevens ( Katherine Heigl ) , and Alex Karev ( Justin Chambers ) formed a focal point of the series . Yang earlier in the series got engaged to Preston Burke ( Isaiah Washington ) , in the past had a relationship with renowned surgeon and mentor Colin Marlow , and wed but later divorced Owen Hunt ( Kevin McKidd ) .
Oh originally auditioned for the role of Miranda Bailey , although Chandra Wilson was ultimately cast in the part . Oh has received generally positive reviews for her portrayal , with Mark Perigard of the Boston Herald considering her friendship with Meredith to be " the secret core of Grey 's " . Oh has also garnered numerous awards and nominations for her role as Yang , including Golden Globe and Screen Actors Guild Award wins in 2006 . She was additionally nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series each year , from 2005 to 2009 . Characterizing the character , ABC noted her competitiveness , ambition , and intelligence as her main traits , while her aggressive , and tactless attitude was highlighted as her main weakness . In May 2012 , E ! Online reported that Oh had signed on for two more years , along with her fellow cast members . Oh left the show after season 10 and her character Cristina Yang was written out as a main cast member .
= = Storylines = =
Cristina Yang is introduced as a fellow surgical intern to Meredith Grey ( Ellen Pompeo ) , Izzie Stevens ( Katherine Heigl ) , George O 'Malley ( T.R. Knight ) , and Alex Karev ( Justin Chambers ) ; the five of them working under Miranda Bailey ( Chandra Wilson ) . An atheistic competitive intern of Korean @-@ American ancestry , she first desired to become a doctor after a childhood car accident which killed her father . Yang also suffers from dyslexia , and was raised in Beverly Hills , California by her mother and supportive , Jewish stepfather . She has BA from Smith , an MD from Stanford and a PhD from UC Berkeley . While her emotional pragmatism , competitive perfectionism , and logical nature lead many to view her as a cutthroat " robot " , Cristina hits it off with Meredith on their first day and the pair soon become best friends and each other 's " person " , sharing the same " dark and twisty " sense of humor . She has on @-@ again , off @-@ again sexual encounters with chief of cardiothoracic surgery Preston Burke ( Isaiah Washington ) as an intern that lead her to being pregnant . Yang schedules an abortion without telling him about the pregnancy due to Burke 's behavior towards their lack of relationship status . However , Yang experiences an ectopic pregnancy and Burke discovers the pregnancy after Yang collapses from a burst fallopian tube . Burke and Yang begin a relationship in the aftermath of her miscarriage . After Burke is shot in the arm and develops a hand tremor , Yang helps him cover it up by developing a covert partnership wherein she performs all of his surgeries . Yang initially denies involvement during a confrontation , but then confesses everything to Richard Webber ( James Pickens , Jr . ) , the chief of surgery . Yang 's actions jeopardize Burke 's chances of becoming chief , which he sees as a huge betrayal . After a short breakup , Yang breaks the silence and Burke proposes marriage , which Yang accepts after eight days of hesitation .
Yang is pressured into elaborate wedding plans despite her reluctance . On their wedding day , Yang has a moment of panic , and Burke calls off the wedding , leaving Yang at the altar . Yang went on her honeymoon to Hawaii with Meredith to recover , returning to discover that Burke has disappeared from her life and transferred to a different hospital . Burke is replaced by Erica Hahn ( Brooke Smith ) , who immediately dislikes Yang for her affairs with Marlow and Burke , refusing to let her scrub in on cardiac surgeries . Eventually , Callie Torres ( Sara Ramirez ) moves in with Yang , and she still tries to earn Hahn 's approval . Hahn reveals that she dislikes Yang because she reminds her of an early version of herself and continues to cut Yang out of cardio surgeries and neglects to teach her . Yang first begins to doubt the purpose of remaining in her place at Seattle Grace when the program falls to twelfth on a list of the best teaching hospitals , and Burke wins the Harper @-@ Avery award without mentioning her at all , despite her saving his career . Yang tells the Chief that her current existence in the hospital is " unbearable " and that she has been turned into a ghost .
Yang meets Owen Hunt ( Kevin McKidd ) , an army trauma surgeon , when he patches her up from being stabbed in the stomach by a falling icicle . The pair are immediately attracted to each other and share a brief kiss . After Owen Hunt is honorably discharged , he is hired as Seattle Grace 's chief of trauma surgery and he and Yang begin a flirtation . Yang grows emotionally when she decides to support Meredith in her relationship with Derek Shepherd ( Patrick Dempsey ) , despite her logical misgivings about their staying power and begins to be more emotionally open towards Hunt . However , Hunt has repressed memories of his time in Iraq and Post Traumatic Stress Disorder ( PTSD ) , which causes Hunt to behave erratically , and attack and strangle her while asleep . Yang ends their relationship as she is afraid of sleeping next to him .
Christina is unanimously chosen by the attending surgeons to be the first resident to perform a solo surgery due to her excellent skills . However , Yang is disciplined for not reporting the irresponsible behavior of the new interns , and must assign her surgery to another as her punishment . Meredith and Christina have a major falling out when Yang feels Grey failed to stand up for her during the intern scandal , allowing Yang to take the blame , and after Yang chooses Karev as her replacement for the solo surgery over Meredith . The friends eventually reconcile . When Izzie Stevens discovers her life @-@ threatening cancer , Yang is the one she confides in over her other friends due to Yang 's ability to remain emotionally distant . Yang saves Izzie 's life by coming up with a treatment plan and forcing Izzie to tell their friends of her diagnosis .
Hunt begins seeing a therapist , and Yang confesses her love for him . The pair begin a tentative relationship , hampered by Hunt 's therapeutic progress and his hot and cold professional behavior , wherein he frequently ignores or penalizes Yang to avoid the appearance of favoritism . With no new head of cardio to teach her and Hunt ignoring her , Yang attempts to find a new specialty in the face of a hospital merger and potential layoffs . None of the other specialties appeal to her and , after managing to anger the heads of several departments who ban her from their rotations , Yang becomes depressed with her lack of surgeries and wonders if it would be best for herself if she is laid off from Seattle Grace in order to find a new program with a cardio @-@ thoracic specialist who could teach her . Yang eventually breaks down and cries to Meredith , confessing that she has not touched a heart in surgery in months and that she misses Burke , not for the relationship , but because of what she could learn from him . As a result , Hunt asks an ex @-@ colleague from the Army , Teddy Altman ( Kim Raver ) , to become the chief of cardio @-@ thoracic surgery as a " gift " for Yang . Altman is insulted by this , and considers leaving , but Yang convinces Altman to stay by telling her that Yang would willingly give up on Hunt if it would mean Altman would teach her . Altman turns down her request and agrees to teach Yang , but Yang eventually decides to end her relationship with Hunt anyway after Hunt is unable to choose whom of the two women he loves .
When Meredith 's husband , Derek Shepherd ( Patrick Dempsey ) is shot by a deceased patient 's angry husband during a mass @-@ shooting rampage , Yang is the one who operates on him at gunpoint and saves his life by fooling the shooter into believing Derek is dead . She also rekindles her relationship with Hunt after he is injured by the same shooter . Following the attack on the hospital , the two decide to get married , but Yang refuses to return to work as a surgeon , being traumatized from the pressure of having to save her best friend 's husband and happiness under threat of being shot . Yang later returns to work , but collapses as a result of a stress disorder . Shepherd forces her through her issues by making her perform the same surgery she did on him to a cadaver , and after a push from Altman , she advocates the life of a lung transplant patient . However , Yang then blames Meredith for her trauma and quits her job at the hospital , stating that even though she could be a surgeon she no longer wants to . She takes a temporary bartending job at the Emerald City Bar , much to the shock of her colleagues . Shepherd unintentionally helps her to get back to work by talking to her during her housewarming party and taking her on a fishing trip where she feels other emotions besides fear .
Yang decides to go for the position of Chief Resident , but her hopes are brought to a halt when Hunt is in charge of choosing and wishes to avoid the appearance of favoritism . The position of Chief Resident is eventually given to April Kepner ( Sarah Drew ) . Later , Yang discovers she is pregnant with Hunt 's child , and decides to get an abortion . Though Hunt accompanies her to the abortion , he is extremely angry with her decision . Yang then operates on Henry Burton ( Scott Foley ) , Altman 's husband , unknown of his identity . When the surgery fails and he dies , Yang is guilt stricken upon learning of her patient 's identity . She and Hunt distance themselves from each other as they keep fighting over the abortion , despite attending marriage counselling . Their marriage comes into serious trouble when Hunt has a one @-@ night stand with a patient 's friend , leaving Yang heartbroken . She decides to move on , unsure of her future with him .
As the end of the fifth year of residency is near , the surgical residents , including Yang , prepare for their medical boards for the different fellowships they plan on joining . After she passes her exams , Yang reconciles with Hunt and tells him she is leaving Seattle for the Mayo Clinic , Minnesota . Afterward , Yang , Meredith , Shepherd , Arizona Robbins ( Jessica Capshaw ) , Mark Sloan ( Eric Dane ) , and Lexie Grey ( Chyler Leigh ) are involved in an aviation accident while on the way to Boise , Idaho to perform surgery on conjoined twins . Lexie tragically dies , leaving the other surgeons alone , with no sign of help on the way . Following their rescue , Yang , traumatized , suffers from brief reactive psychosis which provokes violent outbursts and makes her unresponsive . She becomes a cardiothoracic surgical fellow and goes , as planned , to the Mayo Clinic , but has difficulties adapting to her new colleagues ' way of working . As a result of her PTSD , she is unable to get on a plane to return to Seattle to say her final goodbye to Sloan who is dying . While in Minnesota , Yang develops a friendship with fellow cardio surgeon Craig Thomas ( William Daniels ) . She mainly teases him with comments regarding his old age . She also begins an affair with the head of surgery Dr. Parker ( Steven Culp ) who has issues with Thomas . After Thomas dies from a heart attack , Yang returns to Seattle Grace for good .
Initially things are fraught between her and Owen . She is confused as to why he hired her back as it seems he doesn 't want her there . She finds out ( by chance ) that he actually pushed for her to be back , causing her to see things in a new light . She finally admits to Meredith that she wants Owen back . She is about to tell Owen that she wants him back , when Owen asks her for a divorce . Taken aback , Cristina agrees , but later finds out that the potential conflict of interest regarding the plane crash lawsuit was a key motive behind Owen 's request and confronts him . Owen tells her that he ' feels responsible ' and was worried as he thought she was dead . After the confrontation , Cristina thinks things over and goes to see him before Bailey 's wedding , finally admitting to him that she wants to try again , which leads the two to having sex . They sign the divorce papers afterwards and kiss , hinting that things are not over between them . In the aftermath of the plane accident , the hospital is sued and eventually found guilty of negligence . The surviving doctors , including Yang , must receive $ 15 million of compensation each , which leads the hospital to a near bankruptcy as the insurers refuse to pay . Yang , Callie Torres ( Sara Ramirez ) , and the other surviving doctors buy the hospital with the help of the Harper @-@ Avery Foundation to prevent it from closing , and each become members of the new directing board . After buying the hospital , Yang realizes that she was made for the O.R. and breaks up with Owen because he still wants kids .
After breaking up with Owen , Cristina continues to excel at surgery and tries to keep her distance from Owen . They have sex shortly after they break up but decide it is better to just start seeing other people . Although supportive of Meredith 's choice to become a mother , Cristina points out the fact that it has hurt Meredith 's career and clinical judgement . This causes a wedge in their friendship . After seeing Owen with a new girlfriend , Cristina complains to Alex that her work suffers when she 's not getting laid . When Dr. Shane Ross , a second @-@ year resident , stands up to Meredith for her , Cristina gives Shane a kiss . Later , she begins sleeping with him . Cristina is informed that she could be considered for the Harper Avery award from her 3 @-@ D printing of a conduit for baby Nathan even though she was not confident it would be a success initially .
While working on her heart trial Cristina continues to sleep with Owen and eventually helps him set up online dating . However , she realizes that all he wants is her . Cristina weighs the pros and cons of staying with Owen by looking at two very different outcomes ; one where she is married , has Owen 's kids and lets Shane take over her research and presents him with the Harper Avery , and one where Cristina and Owen have a ' no @-@ strings @-@ attached ' relationship with each other but Owen wants more and eventually ruins himself .
Cristina is nominated for the Harper Avery award and is a strong candidate however is passed over due to her relationship with the Harper @-@ Avery Foundation that co @-@ owns the hospital . Cristina goes to speak at a hospital in Zurich , Switzerland , orchestrated by Preston Burke who built his own hospital following his winning of the Harper Avery . He offers Cristina his job as the head of the hospital so that he can spend more time with his wife and kids .
Cristina accepts the offer and interviews candidates for her replacement position at the hospital , including Maggie Pierce .
At the end of season 10 she says goodbye to her fellow co @-@ workers she has come to know and love including Owen and Meredith . Cristina and Meredith share special moments together reminiscing about all the horrors they went through and dancing it out one last time . Cristina leaves for Zurich with surgical intern Shane Ross , who chooses to leave in order to study under her abroad .
= = Development = =
= = = Casting and creation = = =
On the creation of Yang , Shonda Rhimes said the character contained " a little bit of [ her ] personality " . Speaking with talk show host Oprah Winfrey , Rhimes said : " Cristina was second , simply because she 's the kind of woman I know really well , and I like her . There 's something interesting about a person who is that driven , a little bit emotionally disconnected but still a caring , sweet , and smart individual you could be friends with . " Sandra Oh , initially auditioned for the character of Bailey , adding : " Thank God I did not get that part " , explaining the show would not be the same without fellow cast member , Wilson . Discussing casting Oh as Yang , Rhimes said : " She brought this energy that felt very fresh . From the beginning , I 've been shaping Cristina around Sandra a little bit . One of my favorite things to do is take as much of her dialogue out of a scene as possible because she does so much nonverbally . Then I just watch what she manages to do without having a word to say . "
The character of Yang was not originally supposed to be of Asian descent . Oh said her character was " a pert little blonde and the thing is the woman who runs the show , Shonda Rhimes , is a black woman , which makes a big [ expletive ] difference . " In 2009 , when asked why Oh signed on for Grey 's Anatomy , Oh said : " I 'm very proud of this show and I think it came along at the right time for me . It 's a changing time on television because five or ten years ago you wouldn 't have a major network show where half of the cast were not white . " Oh 's original contract with the show expired after season eight , however , E ! Online reported in May 2012 , that Oh , as well as all original cast members , have signed on for two more years .
= = = Characterization = = =
The American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) characterized Yang as " competitive " , " ambitious " , and " intelligent " , while also noting her weaknesses : " bossy " , " aggressive " , and " tactless " . Oh said of her character : " I 've always tried to play Cristina with a tremendous amount of focus and ambition — which is the reality for a female surgeon . I mean , in real life there aren 't many of them . But the ones you encounter are at the very top of their game . You have to have a kind of ascetic personality to survive . " James Pickens , Jr. who portrays Dr. Webber said : " That character itself set a bar in terms of how we look at millennial women : independent yet vulnerable , seriously competitive yet caring . " Rhimes referred to Yang 's relationship with Burke by the portmanteau " Burktina " , citing " Losing My Religion " as one of her favorite episodes featuring them because it shows their evolution from the beginning of the second season to its end .
Rhimes commented , " [ We see ] her struggle to suppress all of her humanity in pursuit of perfection . And in my mind , what we realize is that she is not cold . She is terrified . Scared that if she lets her emotions out , they will overtake her and she will be hurt . And you can ’ t hate her . Because it 's so incredibly human and understandable . " Yang 's friendship with Meredith has been looked upon as " sisterhood " , and Yang has repeatedly referred to the former as " her person " . This led to the two being dubbed " the twisted sisters " . At the conclusion of season three , the duo went on a " honeymoon " together , and Rhimes called it her favorite detail of the finale .
New York magazine wrote of the character : " There 's probably no woman on TV right now more single @-@ mindedly dedicated to her career than Cristina . It has long been her defining characteristic . If it occasionally makes her into a caricature , it has also unquestionably established that she would have an abortion in this circumstance . " Talking about Yang 's abortion in the eighth season , Rhimes explained she intended Yang to have an abortion already in the second season but changed it with an ectopic pregnancy at the suggestion of one of her writers because " that was so much more interesting , story @-@ wise " . As for the abortion in the eighth season , Rhimes commented : " I really wanted Cristina Yang to stay true to who Cristina Yang is . And I feel like that is a character who has never really wanted to be a mother . The idea that this woman would have a child that she did not want and resented for ruining her career and resented Owen for making her have [ it ] would have been hideous . [ The abortion ] made sense for the character . "
Discussing his onscreen relationship with Yang , McKidd said : " It 's not going to be easy for them . What I read when I read the season premiere , and this is just my take on it , is that it was very much two very analytical people , Owen and Cristina . They 're very similar in a way , I think , as people . Two analytical people see each other over a crowded ER room and their eyes meet . " On the topic of Yang 's triumphs and challenges in the eighth season , Oh said : " It has been an extremely challenging year that has had a lot of ups and downs , both challenging and exhilarating . We would shoot all our scenes for a day or two straight , and that was extremely challenging because emotionally and physically it becomes really exhausting . "
Oh said of Yang 's expressions of emotions during season eight : " You see her express her emotions with only two people : her best friend Meredith and her husband Owen . To see someone being pulled apart so intensely , which honestly most everyone goes through in their life in some ways , if you 're lucky you 're completely pulled apart and then you have to pull yourself together , which hopefully will be the exploration within hopefully the next season . " Although the characters ' marriage is tested , McKidd reported to The Hollywood Reporter : " I think they 're meant for each other . I hold out faith in Cristina and Owen , even though they go to the darkest places out of all the couples on the show . It 's going to get worse but it 's going to get better soon . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Reviews = = =
The character was well received by the critics at the time of its inception and as the series went on the reviews became increasingly positive and Cristina went on the become an iconic character not just for Grey 's but for television itself . Kelli Catana of The Huffington Post named Yang " the best damn character " of the series . Yang appeared in Comcast 's list of TV 's Most Intriguing Characters , with the website commenting that she is " an engaging yet comedic factor for the prime @-@ time soap Grey 's Anatomy . " Philadelphia Magazine included Yang in its list of the " 10 Best Doctors on Television " . However , the same periodical listed her as one of " The 12 Most Annoying Women on TV " . Mark Perigard of the Boston Herald considers her friendship with Meredith to be " the secret core of Grey 's and perhaps creator Shonda Rhimes ' greatest contribution to prime time . " The Huffington Post 's writer Kelli Catana agreed , saying : " the Meredith / Yang relationship is probably the most true friendship on network television . " Their friendship was listed in AOL TV 's " Top 20 : TV 's Best BFFs " and in Entertainment Weekly 's " 30 Best TV Bromances / Gal Pals " . Yahoo ! Voices also put Yang on their list of " The Most Loyal TV Best Friends of All Time " . Television Without Pity writer Lauren Shotwell claimed Yang is " the only one of these five [ residents ] that regularly acts like an actual doctor " .
Yang 's relationship with Burke was positively received ; it was considered as " one of the most interesting relationships on the show " . Similarly , The Orange County Register wrote that their romance became " one of the most touching and funny attractions of Grey 's Anatomy . " Christopher Monfette of IGN was critical of their wedding planning in the third season , saying : " The will @-@ they 's and won 't @-@ they 's fly and fall like hobbled pigeons until the season finale when the show solves both its personal and professional problems in the most obvious and least compelling of ways . " UGO.com placed their break @-@ up on its list of the most horrible TV breakups . In 2009 , Monfette said of Yang 's relationship with Owen : " [ Hunt 's ] interactions with Cristina were perfectly balanced for optimum drama , never together and never apart for so long that the back @-@ and @-@ forth became frustrating . Viewers could clearly see a softening of the typically hard @-@ edged Cristina , a pleasant change for what had become something of a one @-@ note character . "
Jennifer Armstrong of Entertainment Weekly also praised the pairing , especially in " Elevator Love Letter " , saying : " As good as they 've been at amping up the romance crackling between Owen and Cristina , Kevin McKidd and Sandra Oh brought the Emmy consideration tonight from scene 1 . " She also added : " I loved seeing Cristina at least try to stand by her man . " Of Yang and Owen 's wedding , Armstrong said : " Glad we made a clean disposal of the Teddy @-@ Owen @-@ Cristina love triangle , though , when he quipped to Teddy , " I heard there 's a guy , " and she said she was happy for him . " She also praised Owen 's proposal scene , giving it an " A " . Later , she praised their marriage , saying : " I am absolutely loving the stronger @-@ than @-@ ever lady @-@ bond between these two this season . Is it because they 're both married now ? Just growing up ? Whatever , it 's the opposite of Blair and Serena 's annoyingly fickle frenemy status on Gossip Girl , and I can ’ t get enough . "
New York Magazine praised the abortion storyline , saying that the show " was brave enough to do what almost no other series will : show this one particular , totally legal medical procedure on TV " and that the abortion was " the only plausible resolution " for Yang 's pregnancy . Tanner Stransky , also of Entertainment Weekly , said of Yang 's actions after Owen 's affair : " It alternately seems silly and not silly , when you really think about it . " Robert Bianco of USA Today praised Yang 's storylines in the eighth season , saying : " Their stories are effectively tied into that of a patient whose ability to move forward is complicated by a complex response to a hideous past . " HitFix writer Liane Bonin Starr applauded Yang 's brief departure from Seattle Grace to Mayo Clinic in the ninth season , which was " interesting " as " it showed us a new side of her -- and after so many seasons , that was some welcome insight . "
The relation between Meredith and Cristina has been acclaimed and been a highlight of the show . Mark Perigard of the Boston Herald considered the friendship to be " the secret core of Grey 's " . Aisha Harris of Slate called their relation The Best Female Friendship on TV adding that " With those two characters , showrunner Shonda Rhimes and her team of writers created one of the most nuanced and realistic portrayals of female friendship on television . " Samantha Highfill of Entertainment Weekly called Cristina and Meredith the best female friends on TV because " they don ’ t try to be " . There ’ s nothing fake about them , which is a rarity in how female friends are portrayed on television . She further went on to call them ' soulmates ' , " And even though they ’ d never dare get sappy enough to say it , they ’ re soul mates . Margaret Lyons of Vulture ( magazine ) called the friendship " dream BFF relationship . " and the primary focus of the show , " One of the series ' calling cards has been its depiction of female friendship and particularly the primacy that friendship enjoyed over romantic relationships . "
E ! at the time of Sandra Oh 's exit wrote , " In Grey 's Anatomy 's 10 @-@ year history , the doctor duo has been through a lot together : weddings , deaths , plane crashes , bomb threats , shooting , you name it , they 've lived ( and danced ) through it . " and added , " And with the three words , " You 're my person . " Cristina Yang and Meredith Grey solidified their status as the small screen 's best best friends ever . "
= = = Awards = = =
Oh has received numerous awards and nominations for her portrayal of Yang . In 2005 , she was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series , which she was nominated for every year until 2009 . Also in 2005 , she was nominated for Best Supporting Actress – Series , Miniseries or Television Film at the 10th Satellite Awards . The next year , the cast won the Satellite Award for Best Cast – Television Series . In 2006 , Oh won the award for Best Supporting Actress – Series , Miniseries or Television Film at the 63rd Golden Globe Awards . In 2006 , the cast was nominated for the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series , which they won in 2007 , and were nominated for again the following year . Also at the 12th Screen Actors Guild Awards , Oh won the award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Drama Series . In 2010 , Oh was nominated for Outstanding Actress in a Drama Series at the 41st NAACP Image Awards , which she was nominated for again in 2012 , and in 2011 , she was nominated for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series at the 42nd NAACP Image Awards . In 2011 , Oh was nominated for Favorite TV Drama Actress and Favorite TV Doctor at the 37th People 's Choice Awards an award she was nominated again for three years later at the 40th People 's Choice Awards and also the subsequent year at the 41st People 's Choice Awards . She was also nominated alongside Pompeo for the Favorite TV Gal Pals category .
= Mango Yellow =
Mango Yellow ( Portuguese : Amarelo Manga ) is a 2002 Brazilian drama film directed by Cláudio Assis . It stars Matheus Nachtergaele , Jonas Bloch , Dira Paes , Chico Díaz , and Leona Cavalli as working @-@ class people who engage in amorous and social encounters , with most of the action taking place in a hotel and a bar . The directorial debut of Assis , the film was partially inspired by his previous short film Texas Hotel . It was filmed on a low budget in the suburbs of Pernambuco .
Mango Yellow received several awards at various film festivals , both in Brazil and abroad , including Festival de Brasília and the Berlin Film Festival . The film was generally praised by domestic reviewers for its characters , soundtrack , cinematography , and depictions of Brazil , while English @-@ speaking critics were more mixed in their response .
= = Plot = =
The film opens with Lígia , a barmaid who is fed up with her grueling routine and who is forced to routinely turn down the sexual propositions of the bar 's customers . One of the men who hits on Lígia is Isaac , a necrophiliac who enjoys sodomizing corpses and drinking their blood . He lives at the Texas Hotel , where Dunga , a gay man , works as a handyman . Dunga is attracted to Wellington , a butcher who delivers meat to the hotel . Wellington , however , is married to Kika , a woman who is proud to be an evangelical Christian . However , Wellington cheats on his wife with a woman named Dayse . Dayse tires of being Wellington 's mistress and tells Dunga about the relationship .
Dunga anonymously reveals to Kika that her husband is cheating on her , thinking that if he can destroy their marriage , then he and Wellington can become lovers . Kika finds Wellington and Dayse together , attacks them , and then leaves for good . Wellington goes to the Texas Hotel to seek solace . Dunga wants to take Wellington up to his room , but Wellington is put off by the funeral of the recently deceased owner of the hotel . Meanwhile , Isaac is thrown out of the bar after trying to forcibly grab Lígia . He is then seen driving his car and when he meets Kika , he takes her to his apartment and they have sex . As the film concludes , Lígia is shown again complaining about her routine . This is followed by a montage of everyday city life , ending with Kika deciding to dye her hair the same shade that made Isaac so attracted to Lígia .
= = Cast = =
= = Themes = =
Writing for The New York Times , Stephen Holden interpreted the film 's message as follows : " This is how the lower half lives in Brazil , and by extension , humanity at its most basic , getting along without the rose @-@ colored protections that affluence affords . " As it deals with these kinds of themes , the film was labeled as " violent " . In response , Assis said that he " films life as it is " . Jose Solis of PopMatters declared that " despite its sorrowful appearance , the film is a celebration of life " . Assis tried to contrast the violence depicted by the Hollywood action films with the " small violences " which people face everyday , making it " poetic and violent at the same time " . Bloch 's character shooting corpses represents " a harmless , symbolic addiction " in the same way other aspects of the film " come from it , this violence within us " .
Writing in The New Yorker , Michael Sragow said that " The human content ... is the stuff of art @-@ house exploitation . " IstoÉ Gente 's Domingas Person wrote that the phrase " the human being is stomach and sex " , which is said by the priest in the film , is an apt summary of the film 's " spirit " . Writing in Diário de Pernambuco , Luciana Veras declared that the film " talk [ s ] about the excluded [ people ] who also crave the same as the characters in the [ tele ] novela [ s ] , from Hollywood films or French novels : love and happiness " . Assis criticized the fact that several directors like to " glamorize poverty , " and as such , he characterized his characters to show the people 's vice . José Geraldo Couto of Folha de S. Paulo wrote that the film shows that " the miserable are not dear waiting for the mercy of others , but are full of life , willing to kill or die to fulfill their desires and instincts " . Deborah Young of Variety opined that the mango yellow color represents both " the jaundiced shade of their broken dreams " and their sense " of nonconformity and feeling alive . "
= = Background and production = =
Prior to Mango Yellow , Cláudio Assis worked as a production director on the 1996 film Perfumed Ball and as director on three short films . One of them , Texas Hotel , served as an inspiration to Mango Yellow ; Alessandro Giannini of O Estado de S. Paulo said Texas Hotel is " a kind of ' privileged test ' of Mango Yellow " , while TV Guide 's Ken Fox described Mango Yellow as an " expanded version " of Hotel Texas . Couto wrote that the " gratuitous series of aberrations " presented in Texas Hotel was turned into an " articulate narrative and full of meaning " .
The production cost was R $ 450 @,@ 000 . Assis was happy with this , noting that Brazilian films cost an average of R $ 3 million at the time . The filming took place in the suburbs of the cities of Recife and Olinda , both in the state of Pernambuco . It was shot with 35 mm cameras brought from São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro , and filming took place in five weeks between September and October 2001 .
One of the first ideas Assis had for the film was to show the mons pubis of a waitress he knew . Though he was unsure how to include this element , the yellow @-@ colored pubic hair matched the book Tempo Amarelo ( " Yellow Time " ) , by sociologist Renato Carneiro Campos . The title of the film was borrowed from the book , in which the author describes the " rotten teeth of children , the color of poverty in the country " . Assis wanted to create a film to show " the face of the Brazilian people . We are from the Third World and we need to look at ourselves " .
= = Release = =
Mango Yellow 's premiere was held at the Festival do Rio on October 4 , 2002 , while it was released on domestic theaters on August 15 , 2003 . Despite receiving praise by film critics , it was moderately received by Brazilian audiences . Mango Yellow grossed R $ 769 @,@ 750 , with a viewership of 129 @,@ 021 people in the sixteen Brazilian theaters in which it was shown , representing the twelfth largest audience for a domestic film in 2003 .
= = = Accolades = = =
At the 35th Festival de Brasília , Mango Yellow was selected as Best Film by the official jury , the popular jury , and critics alike ; it also received the awards for Best Cinematography , Best Editing , Best Cast , and Best Actor ( Díaz ) . Assis won the award for Best Debut Film at the 25th Havana Film Festival , where the film also won the award for Best Cinematography . It also won for Best Cinematography at the Seventh Brazilian Film Festival of Miami . Mango Yellow won in every feature film category at the 13th Cine Ceará — Best Film , Best Director , Best Cinematography , Best Screenplay , Best Art Direction , Best Original Score , Best Actor ( for Nachtergaele ) , and Best Actress ( for Paes ) — and also received a special prize for its costume design . Although nominated in 13 categories at the 2004 Grande Prêmio do Cinema Brasileiro , it only won for Best Cinematography . At the 53rd Berlin International Film Festival , it won the award for Best Film in the Forum section , and received the Grand Prix at the 15th Toulouse Latin America Film Festival . It was also nominated for the Ariel Award for Best Ibero @-@ American Film .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The film received generally positive reviews in Brazil . The characters , the actor performances , and the soundtrack were praised by Person and Veras , with Veras noting that the film 's characterizations avoided stereotypes . The film 's cinematography was praised by Person and Veras as well as by Marcelo Hessel from Omelete and Alcino Leite Netto from Folha de S. Paulo , with Netto appreciating that the imagery was neither " decorative " nor " spare " , but a part of the film . The film 's depiction of real life in Brazil was praised by Hessel and Veras , with both of them commenting that City of God is " cosmeticized " if compared to Mango Yellow , and the Hessel stating that Mango Yellow is " a testimony of documentary and sociological value " . Cinepop critic Andrea Don declared it a film that viewers would either love or hate , concluding that " you will not leave the cinema 's room the same as you entered " .
Mango Yellow received mixed reviews from English @-@ speaking reviewers . On review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes , the film has a 60 % rating based on five reviews , with an average score of 5 @.@ 6 / 10 . On Metacritic , which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 based on reviews from critics , the film has a score of 40 ( indicating " mixed or average reviews " ) based on five reviews . A The Village Voice reviewer described the characters as " babbling caricatures " and the film as a " shallow Brazilian trifle " . Young called Nachtergaele a " standout " as " He embodies the film 's savage over @-@ the @-@ topness without flattening out as some of the other characters do . " Although praising its cinematography , Keith Phipps of The A.V. Club said it is " a film that has nothing to say " . Sragow , Young , and Fox also praised Carvalho 's work ; Fox said it is " [ t ] awdry stuff ... but it 's glorious to look at " . In Sragow 's opinion , the penultimate scene — the montage — " boasts an eloquence that eclipses everything else in the movie " . Holden found the characters to be " robust , full @-@ dimensional people " and praised the film 's " surreal flavor " . Solis praised it , saying " the real pleasure " in the film is that Assis " doesn 't recur to exploitation to make these people memorable " .
= = = Home media = = =
The film was released on DVD in Brazil by Califórnia Filmes in 2004 , while in the United States it was released by First Run Features in partnership with Global Film Initiative on the " Global Lens 2004 / 2003 " series in 2005 , and on the " The Best of Global Lens : Brazil " in 2011 .
= Star Ocean ( video game ) =
Star Ocean ( スターオーシャン , Sutā Ōshan ) is an action role @-@ playing video game developed by tri @-@ Ace and published by Enix for the Super Famicom . The first game in the Star Ocean series , it was released only in Japan in July 1996 , and was the first game developed by tri @-@ Ace , consisting of staff that had previously left Wolf Team due to being unhappy with the development process for Tales of Phantasia with Namco in 1995 . The game required a special compression chip in its cartridge to compress and store all of the game 's data due to possessing graphics that pushed the limits of the aging Super Famicom . Additionally , the game had voice acting for the game 's intro and voice clips that played during the game 's battle gameplay , a rarity for games on the system .
The story involves three friends who , while searching for the cure to a new disease , come into contact with a space @-@ faring federation that is locked in a war with another galactic power . Using advanced technologies and time travel , the group attempts to uncover the cause of the war and to find a cure for their planet . The game was never released outside Japan in this form , due to Enix closing its American branch shortly before the game was finished , and Nintendo 's focus on supporting the then @-@ upcoming Nintendo 64 video game console . However , the game was later remade by Tose for the PlayStation Portable under the title Star Ocean : First Departure , and released in English @-@ speaking regions in North America , Europe , and Australia in October 2008 . The game was the start of the entire Star Ocean series , featuring five games , two remakes , and a manga comic .
= = Gameplay = =
Star Ocean is a role @-@ playing video game that is played from a top @-@ down perspective . The player navigates a character throughout the game world , exploring towns and dungeons and interacting with non @-@ player characters . Unlike the original game , the PlayStation Portable remake includes a world map for the player to navigate .
= = = Party = = =
In progressing through the game , the player is able to recruit up to eight additional characters to travel alongside the protagonist ; some recruitments happen automatically , while others only happen depending on the previous actions and options taken by the player . Though only 8 characters can be recruited in a playthrough , ten characters are available to be recruited , and as a result not all characters can be recruited in one playthrough of the game . Certain characters cannot be recruited unless the players party is a specific size , or the players has made specific story decisions . In First Departure , players have the option of recruiting characters they did not previously have the option of adding to their party .
= = = Battle = = =
When players move their party in the game 's dungeons and paths , random battles occur . Combat is done in a 3D isometric point of view . Unlike games in the Final Fantasy or Dragon Quest series , the battles are not turn based , but play out in real time . Players also do not directly control all of their characters actions , but instead chose battle strategies beforehand for all but one of their characters who then move and attack their closest enemy automatically . Added to First Departure was a combo attack system where special attacks stack to become more powerful . Players can equip characters with four special abilities with " ranged " and " distance " slots , whereas the remake reduced that number to two . Up to four characters can participate in battles , but the player is only able to control one character at a time , leaving the others to be controlled by the computer 's artificial intelligence . The player can switch which character is being controlled in battle . All characters have a standard " attack " option , in which the character 's equipped item is used to attack whichever enemy the player has locked on to . Additionally , special techniques called Symbology can be used as well , which have the potential to deal more damage , but cost MP ( Mental Points ) , of which each character has a finite amount . Special attacks are assigned before combat begins .
= = = Customization = = =
Special Points ( abbreviated " SP " in game ) are also rewarded from battles , and are used to customize the character 's abilities . For instance , allotting SP to the cooking ability grants or improves a given character 's ability to make consumable foods out of raw materials in order to heal characters from damage taken in battles . Item creation can allow for characters to be able to create weapons and equipment that are stronger than those available to be bought in stores and towns . Individual items have a 20 item limit .
= = = Affection system = = =
Star Ocean has a game mechanic called " Private Actions " that plays a role in character development . While entirely optional , they often reveal additional backstory of particular characters or have other varying effects on gameplay . Upon arriving in a town , the player can opt to have all the characters in the party to temporarily split up and go their separate ways within the limitations of the town . The player retains
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00 was numbered ) , the Highland Creek to Oshawa expressway and Highway 2S were designated Controlled @-@ Access Highway No 401 , a move scorned by one critic because of the lack of thought into the numbered name . Construction was completed for several sections of the Toronto Bypass ; between Highway 400 and Dufferin Street in August , west to Weston Road in September , east to Bathurst Street in October and finally to Yonge Street in December . Extensions east and west began in 1953 ; the eastern extension to Bayview Avenue would open in April 1955 , the western extension was delayed by the damage caused by Hurricane Hazel on October 15 , 1954 , which nearly destroyed the new bridge over the Humber River . The reconstruction would take until July 8 , 1955 , and the highway was opened between Weston and Highway 27 in September 1955 .
The entire bypass , including the widening of Highway 27 into an expressway south of Highway 401 , was completed in August 1956 . Upon its opening , the bypass was described by one reporter as " a motorist 's dream " providing " some of the most soothing scenery in the Metropolitan area " . The reporter continued , with regard to the eastern section through Scarborough , that it " winds smoothly through pastures across streams and rivers , and beside green thickets . It seems a long way from the big city . " By 1959 however , the bypass was a lineup of cars , as 85 @,@ 000 drivers crowded the roadway , designed to handle a maximum of 48 @,@ 000 vehicles , on a daily basis . Motorists found the new road to be a convenient way of travelling across Toronto ; this convenience helped influence the suburban shift in the city and continues to be a driving force of urban sprawl today .
Meanwhile , beyond Toronto , the highway was being built in a patchwork fashion , focusing on congested areas first . Construction west from Highway 27 began in late 1954 , as did the Kingston Bypass in Eastern Ontario . Work began to connect the latter with the Scenic Highway in 1955 . After the 1954 New York State Thruway opened from Buffalo to New York City , Michigan officials encouraged Ontario to bypass Highway 3 as the most direct path from Detroit to Buffalo . By 1956 , construction had begun on a segment between Highway 4 in London and Highway 2 in Woodstock , as well as on the section between Windsor and Tilbury .
In 1958 , a section bypassing Morrisburg was opened to accommodate traffic displaced from a portion of Highway 2 through The Lost Villages of the Saint Lawrence Seaway . Highway 2 would ultimately be reopened on a new alignment which followed the CN rail right @-@ of @-@ way .
By the end of 1960 , the Toronto section of the highway was extended both eastwards and westwards : first , to the east between Newcastle and Port Hope on June 30 , then later to the west between Highway 25 in Milton and Highway 8 south of Kitchener on November 17 . By mid @-@ 1961 , the section between Brighton and Marysville had opened . The gap to the east , from Highway 28 in Port Hope to Highway 30 in Brighton was opened on July 20 , 1961 .
The gap between Woodstock and Kitchener was completed on November 9 , 1961 , while the gap between Tilbury and London was completed two lanes at a time ; the northbound lanes on October 22 , 1963 , the southbound on July 20 , 1965 . The gap between Marysville and Kingston was opened by 1962 . The final sections , from west of Cornwall to Lancaster , were opened between 1962 and 1964 ; two lanes opened to Lancaster on September 11 , 1962 , but the other two were not completed until July 31 , 1964 . The last segment , to the Ontario – Quebec border , was opened on November 10 , 1964 . Finally , on October 11 , 1968 , the Thousand Islands Bypass opened . This final piece was commemorated with a plaque to signify the completion of Highway 401 .
In Toronto , engineers and surveyors were examining the four @-@ lane bypass , while planners set about designing a way to handle the commuter highway . In 1963 , transportation minister Charles MacNaughton announced the widening of Highway 401 in Toronto from four to a minimum of 12 lanes between Islington Avenue and Markham Road . The design was taken from the Dan Ryan Expressway in Chicago , which was widened into a similar configuration around the same time . Construction began immediately . While the plan initially called for construction to end in 1967 , it continued for nearly a decade . At least four lanes were always open during the large reconstruction project , which included complex new interchanges at Highway 27 , Highway 400 , the planned Spadina Expressway and the Don Valley Parkway . The system was completed in 1972 , along with the Highway 27 ( renamed Highway 427 ) bypass between the QEW and Pearson Airport . Most of the interchanges in Toronto were reconstructed as partial cloverleafs and a continuous lighting system was installed .
On January 11 , 1965 , at the dinner celebration of Sir John A. Macdonald 's 150th birthday , John Robarts designated Highway 401 the Macdonald – Cartier Freeway to honour Macdonald and George @-@ Étienne Cartier , two of Canada 's Fathers of Confederation . Unlike other names later applied to the highway , the Macdonald – Cartier Freeway designation covers the entire length of Highway 401 . Signs designating the freeway and shields with the letters ' M @-@ C ' were installed , but these had been removed by 1997 . In 2003 , 38 years after Robarts ' naming of the highway , a Member of Provincial Parliament attempted to get the Macdonald @-@ Cartier Freeway highway name enshrined into law ; the bill only passed first reading and was not enacted .
In the 1970s , Highway 401 was widened to six lanes in Durham , but otherwise saw little improvement . The 1980s saw more sections widened , as well as a new collector @-@ express system between Highway 403 / 410 and Highway 427 completed in mid @-@ 1985 . Plans were made to extend the eastern system from Neilson Road to Brock Road in Pickering in the late 1980s , but took over a decade to reach fruition by 2000 . This was followed shortly thereafter by the widening of the highway through Ajax and a new interchange at Pickering Beach Road ( renamed Salem Road ) and Stevenson Road .
The 1990s also saw the first step in widening the highway to six lanes from Toronto to London . A project in the mid @-@ 1990s brought the highway up to a minimum of six lanes between Highway 8 in Kitchener and Highway 35 / 115 in Newcastle . Other projects prepared sections for eventual widening .
In 1993 , the stretch of Highway 401 eastbound near Milton and westbound near Whitby had chevrons painted in each lane in an effort to reduce tailgating , a concept borrowed from France and Britain . Signs advised motorists to keep at least two chevrons apart , in essence warning them not to follow too closely . Some of these chevrons remain intact in the westbound lanes in Whitby , though the signs stating their use have since been removed .
Beginning in 1998 , several projects were initiated on Highway 401 within Toronto . These included the addition of one lane through the Highway 427 interchange in 2005 , as well as the resurfacing of the pavement through the city .
= = = Advantage I @-@ 75 = = =
Between June 1990 and 1998 , Highway 401 and Interstate 75 were used for a pilot project named Advantage I @-@ 75 to test the reliability and versatility of an automated tracking system for transport trucks . Termed MACS for Mainline Automated Clearance System , it would allow a truck to travel from Florida to Ontario without a second inspection . MACS was initially tested out at two truck inspection stations in Kentucky , with transponders installed in 220 trucks . Exact time , date , location , weight and axle data were logged as a truck approached an equipped station . Following initial tests , MACS was deployed at every inspection station along I @-@ 75 from Miami to Detroit and along Highway 401 from Windsor to Belleville in 1994 . The project demonstrated the effectiveness of electronic systems in enforcing freight restrictions without delaying vehicles , while alleviating security fears that such systems could be easily compromised . The concept has since been applied to many parts of Canada , including Highway 407 's electronic tolling system .
= = = " Carnage Alley " = = =
The section of Highway 401 between Windsor and London has often been referred to as Carnage Alley , in reference to the numerous crashes that have occurred throughout its history . The term became more commonplace following several deadly pileups during the 1990s . The narrow and open grass median was an ineffective obstacle in preventing cross @-@ median collisions . The soft shoulders consisted of gravel with a sharp slope which was blamed for facilitating vehicle rollovers . The nature of that section of highway , described as largely a straight road with a featureless agricultural landscape , was said to make drivers feel less involved and lose focus on the road . In winter , the area between Woodstock and Chatham is also subject to sudden snow squalls from lake @-@ effect snow . Several collisions have resulted from motorists deviating from their lane and losing control of their vehicles .
Various other names , including The Killer Highway circulated for a time , but Carnage Alley became predominant following an 87 @-@ vehicle pile @-@ up on September 3 , 1999 ( the start of Labour Day weekend ) , the worst in Canadian history , that resulted in eight deaths and 45 injured individuals .
Only a few days prior , then @-@ Transportation Minister David Turnbull had deemed the highway " pleasant " to drive . On the morning of September 3 , the local weather station reported clear conditions due to a malfunction , while a thick layer of fog rolled onto the highway . Dozens of vehicles including several semi @-@ trailers quickly crashed into each other shortly after 8 a.m. , one following another in the dense fog , and the accumulating wreckage caught traffic traveling in the opposite direction . Immediately following the crash , the MTO installed paved shoulders with rumble strips and funded additional police to patrol the highway , a move criticized as being insufficient .
Beginning in 2004 , 46 km ( 29 mi ) of the highway was widened from four asphalt lanes to six concrete lanes , paved shoulders were added , a concrete Ontario Tall Wall median was installed , which was the solution that the Canadian Automobile Association promoted in 1999 . Interchanges were improved and signage was upgraded as part of a five @-@ phase project to improve Highway 401 from Highway 3 in Windsor to Essex County Road 42 ( formerly Highway 2 ) on the western edge of Tilbury .
= = = Highway of Heroes = = =
On August 24 , 2007 , the MTO announced that the stretch of Highway 401 between Glen Miller Road in Trenton and the intersection of the Don Valley Parkway and Highway 404 in Toronto would bear the additional name Highway of Heroes ( French : Autoroute des héros ) , in honour of Canadian soldiers who have died , though Highway 401 in its entirety remains designated as the Macdonald – Cartier Freeway . This length of the highway is often travelled by a convoy of vehicles carrying a fallen soldier 's body , with his or her family , from CFB Trenton to the coroner 's office at the Centre for Forensic Sciences in Toronto . Since 2002 , when the first fallen Canadian soldiers were repatriated from Afghanistan , crowds have lined the overpasses to pay their respects as convoys pass .
The origin of the name can be traced to an article in the Toronto Sun on June 23 , 2007 , by columnist Joe Warmington , in which he interviewed Northumberland photographer Pete Fisher . Fisher , along with Bob Jenkins , an emergency dispatcher , were responsible for organizing the first bridge salutes following the loss of four soldiers on April 18 , 2002 . Warmington described the gathering of crowds on overpasses to welcome fallen soldiers as a " highway of heroes phenomena " . This led a Cramahe Township volunteer firefighter to contact Fisher on July 10 about starting a petition , leading Fisher to publish an article which was posted to the Northumberland Today website . The online article eventually caught the attention of London resident Jay Forbes . Forbes began a petition , which received over 20 @,@ 000 signatures before being brought to the Minister of Transportation on August 22 . Following the announcement on August 24 , the provincial government and MTO set out to design new signs . The signs were erected and unveiled on September 7 , and include a smaller reassurance marker ( shield ) , as well as a larger billboard version .
= = = Safety concerns and highway improvements = = =
On August 10 , 2008 , following a series of explosions at a propane facility in Toronto , Highway 401 was closed between Highway 400 and Highway 404 as a precautionary measure , the largest closure of the highway in its history . The highway remained closed until 8 p.m. , though several exits near the blast remained closed thereafter .
Between 2006 and 2008 , Highway 401 was widened from four to six lanes between Highway 402 and Wellington Road in London . This included replacing the original Wellington Road overpass . In Oshawa , Exit 416 ( Park Road ) was replaced by a new interchange at Exit 415 ( Stevenson Road ) . The contract , which began September 7 , 2005 , included the interchange and the resurfacing of 23 @.@ 4 km ( 14 @.@ 5 mi ) of the highway between Oshawa and Highway 35 / Highway 115 . The westbound ramps were opened in mid @-@ September 2007 and the eastbound ramps in mid @-@ 2009 . The resurfacing was completed mid @-@ 2010 .
In November 2010 , the widening of Highway 401 from four to six lanes between Woodstock and Kitchener was completed after many years of planning and construction . The project included the installation of a tall @-@ wall median barrier , straightening curves and adding additional interchanges on the freeway , allowing it to be easily vacated in an emergency event .
= = = Rt. Hon. Herb Gray Parkway = = =
In 2004 , a joint announcement by the federal government of the United States and Government of Canada confirmed that a new border crossing would be constructed between Detroit and Windsor . The Detroit River International Crossing ( DRIC ) was formed as a bi @-@ national committee to manage the project . The MTO took advantage of this opportunity to extend Highway 401 to the Canada – US border and began an environmental impact assessment on the entire project in late 2005 . The City of Windsor also hired New York traffic consultant Sam Schwartz to design a parkway to the border . Schwartz 's proposal would eventually inspire the DRIC 's own design , but his route was not chosen , with the DRIC opting instead to take a northern route . On February 8 , 2008 , the MTO announced that it had begun purchasing property south of the E.C. Row Expressway , upsetting many area residents who had purchased properties in the years prior .
On March 3 , 2008 , the Michigan Department of Transportation and the MTO ( in partnership with Transport Canada , the Federal Highway Administration of the United States and the Detroit River International Crossing group ) completed a joint assessment on the soils along the Detroit River and determined that they could indeed support the weight of a new bridge ; the stability of the underlying soil and clay and the impact of the nearby Windsor Salt Mine had caused concern for all parties involved in the project .
Despite protest from area residents , as well as a dismissed lawsuit from Ambassador Bridge owner Matty Moroun , it was announced on May 1 , 2008 , that a preferred route had been selected and that the new route would be named the Windsor – Essex Parkway . The new parkway is below @-@ grade and has six through @-@ lanes . It follows ( but does not replace ) Talbot Road and Huron Church Road from a new interchange at the former end of Highway 401 to the E. C. Row Expressway , where it runs concurrently westward for 2 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) . From there , it turns northwest and follows a new alignment to the border . Initial construction of a noise barrier from North Talbot Road to Howard Avenue began in March 2010 ; full construction began on August 19 , 2011 .
On November 28 , 2012 , the Ministry of Transportation announced that a Federal Order in Council was passed to change the name of the parkway to the Right Honourable Herb Gray Parkway , after the long @-@ time Windsor MP . In early 2015 , it was announced that the parkway would open to traffic between Highway 3 and Labelle Street ( near the E. C. Row Expressway ) in the spring ; an 8 @-@ kilometre ( 5 mi ) section was opened to traffic on June 28 , extending Highway 401 as far west as the E. C. Row Expressway . It was the first new segment of the highway to be opened since the Thousand Islands Bypass in 1968 . The stretch to Ojibway Parkway was opened on November 21 , completing the parkway as far as the planned bridge approach and border plaza . Construction of the Gordie Howe International Bridge is set to begin in 2015 for completion in 2019 – 20 .
= = Future = =
In 2007 Minister of Transportation Donna Cansfield commented that the MTO intends to widen all of the remaining four @-@ lane sections to a minimum of six . With no dates set for construction or completion , this is a tentative announcement for the long @-@ term future .
= = = Southwestern Ontario = = =
In Southwestern Ontario , several improvements are under way to provide six lanes on Highway 401 from Windsor to Toronto , in response to the Carnage Alley pile @-@ up in 1999 . West of Manning Road , the highway has been widened in anticipation of the Windsor – Essex Parkway . Between Tilbury and Highway 402 , the highway remains four lanes wide with a grass median . The widening and upgrading of this section is in the planning stages , with construction possibly beginning in 2017 and lasting for several years . Several interchanges are slated to be upgraded as part of this construction .
Within the London area , traffic volumes are expected to increase considerably , leading to poor highway conditions . The province has put in place an extensive plan to widen and reconstruct the London corridor between 2006 and 2021 . This included building a new interchange with Wonderland Road which opened in November 2015 to help improve access to Highway 401 westbound from the city 's southwest end and involved replacing the Westminster Drive overpass to allow the highway to be widened . The Westminster Drive overpass was demolished on July 5 , 2014 . This project will coincide with reconstructing the outdated cloverleaf interchange at Colonel Talbot Road and widening Highway 401 from four to six lanes between Highway 4 and Highway 402 . These projects start in 2017 . The MTO is also planning on widening Highway 401 from six to eight lanes through part of the London corridor .
Long @-@ term plans call for Highway 401 in the Waterloo region to be widened to eight to ten lanes as well . Work began on June 8 , 2015 to widen the highway from six to ten lanes between Highway 8 and Hespeler Road in Cambridge . The interchange between Highway 401 and Highway 8 ( King Street ) is to be reconstructed to make it free @-@ flowing for all directions of travel .
= = = Central Ontario = = =
In its 2007 plan for southern Ontario , the MTO announced long @-@ term plans to create high @-@ occupancy vehicle ( HOV ) lanes from Mississauga Road west to Milton ; these plans have since been expanded in scope to as far west as Hespeler Road in Cambridge .
Construction recently completed widening Highway 401 to a collector @-@ express system from Highway 403 and Highway 410 west to Hurontario Street , a distance of 2 @.@ 8 km ( 1 @.@ 7 mi ) . Plans have been unveiled to lengthen the Mavis Road overpass and add ramps to the 401 / 403 / 410 interchange to prepare for the ' ultimate widening ' of Highway 401 between the Credit River and Highway 410 .
Within Toronto , some projects have been completed during overnight construction projects , including the widening and rehabilitation of the Hogg 's Hollow bridge , the replacement of the original gantries throughout the collector @-@ express system , and reconstructing the Highway 401 / 400 interchange .
Current expansion plans in Durham include the construction of two new freeways north from Highway 401 . Highway 412 is directly east of Lakeridge Road , while Highway 418 will lie to the east of Courtice Road . Alongside the extension of Highway 407 , Highway 401 is being widened to 12 lanes , forming an extension to the current collector @-@ express system , from its current end at Brock Road in Pickering to Brock Street in Whitby . In addition , a partial interchange is being constructed at Lakeridge Road , with westbound entrance and eastbound exit ramps . In order to accommodate the ramps for Highway 412 , the highway is being shifted north at the interchange , currently under construction . Long @-@ term plans also call for HOV lanes to run from Brock Road to Harmony Road , though no planning has commenced . However , there has been an environmental assessment on widening highway 401 , extending the collector @-@ express system east towards Salem Road in Ajax and to 10 lanes from Brock Street in Whitby , to Courtice Road in the Clarington township . The assessment was completed in March 2015 .
All the original World War II era overpasses dating back in the 1940s and 1950s built between Whitby and Oshawa will gradually be replaced with new overpasses as part of modern highway safety standards and to allow highway widening sometime in the future .
= = = Eastern Ontario = = =
East of Durham , the MTO is planning to widen parts of Highway 401 to six lanes . Preliminary work includes the widening of the bridge over the Trent River in Trenton , as well as the realignment of some roads alongside the highway . By 2012 , the highway was widened to six lanes for 9 km ( 5 @.@ 6 mi ) through Kingston between exits 611 and 619 .
= = Services = =
Highway 401 features 19 service centres controlled by the MTO . These service centres were announced in 1961 following public outcry over the lack of rest stops . They provide a place to park , rest , eat and refuel 24 hours a day .
The centres were originally leased to and operated by several major gasoline distributors ; however , those companies have chosen not to renew their leases as the terms end . In response , the MTO put the operation of the full network of service centres out for tender , resulting in a 50 @-@ year lease with Host Kilmer Service Centres , a joint venture between hospitality company HMSHost ( a subsidiary of Autogrill ) and Larry Tanenbaum 's investment company Kilmer van Nostrand , which operates the rest areas under the ONroute brand .
Seventeen of the centres along Highway 401 have been reconstructed entirely . Two centres that were rebuilt in the late 1990s , specifically Newcastle and Ingersoll , will not be redeveloped at this time . Work on 15 of the 17 service centres to be reconstructed began in late 2009 or early 2010 . The new service centres , opening in phases beginning in July 2010 , feature a Canadian Tire gas station , an HMSHost @-@ operated convenience store known as " The Market " , as well as fast food brands such as Tim Hortons , A & W , Pizza Pizza , Extreme Pita , KFC , Taco Bell , Big Smoke Burger and Burger King .
= = Exit list = =
The following table lists the major junctions along Highway 401 , as noted by the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario .
= Metal corset =
Metal corsets ( also known as iron corsets ) are a type of historical corset or bodice made entirely out of metal , usually iron or steel . The metal corset was popularly claimed to have been introduced to France by Catherine de ' Medici in the 16th century , although this is now considered a myth . The idea that such garments were worn for fashionable purposes is debatable , with fashion historians now regarding such claims sceptically . Many of the original metal bodices that have survived are now believed to have been intended for medical purposes as orthopaedic support garments and back braces . Such garments were described by the French army surgeon Ambroise Paré in the sixteenth century as a remedy for the " crookednesse of the Bodie . "
Some of the more extreme examples of metal corsets that have survived are now generally thought to be later reproductions designed to appeal to fetishists , rather than garments intended for fashionable wear .
Metal medical corsets were still being made in the twentieth century , whilst , since the late 20th century , fashion designers such as Alexander McQueen and Issey Miyake have made contemporary metal bodices and corsets from wire and aluminium coils .
= = Origins = =
Early fashion historians and writers have often attributed the introduction of fashionable corset @-@ wearing to Catherine de ' Medici , who is said to have brought metal corsets to France from Italy in the 16th century . The fashion historian Valerie Steele noted that after 19th @-@ century writers catering to audiences for tightlacing and sexual fetishism played up the sadomasochistic idea of a " cruel , tortuous fashion " enforced by a dominant queen who demanded unrealistically small waists from her subjects , this mythical royal connection captured public imagination and became part of fashion mythology .
It is now widely believed that authentic metal corsets were intended as a form of orthopaedic brace to address spinal issues such as scoliosis . The 16th @-@ century French army surgeon Ambroise Paré described metal corsets as intended " to amend the crookednesse of the Bodie , " recommending that the iron should be perforated in order to make the garments lighter , and that they be made to fit and padded for comfort . Paré criticised the concept of corsetry as a waist @-@ training device , warning that such a practice risked deforming the figure .
= = 16th and 17th centuries = =
A steel corset in the Stibbert Museum , Florence , Italy , is dated to the mid @-@ 16th century , and thought to be similar to the metal stays recorded as having been made by a corazzaio mastro ( master armour @-@ maker ) for Eleanor of Toledo and delivered to her on 28 February 1549 . However , as Eleanor 's wardrobe records do not list any boned or stiffened corsets , it is thought that her steel bodice was designed for medical or therapeutic reasons rather than worn as a fashionable garment .
Although surviving metal bodices are usually dated to the late 16th and early 17th century , Steele has stated that some of the more extreme and elaborate examples are fakes created from the 19th century onwards to cater to fetishistic " fantasies about women imprisoned in metal corsets . " For example , Herbert Norris claimed in Tudor Costume and Fashion ( 1938 ) that a misbehaving wife would be locked into a metal corset by her husband until she promised to behave . One such iron corset , with a 14 @-@ inch waist , was acquired by the FIT Museum as dating from 1580 – 1600 , but is now considered to be a forgery from the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries . Steele noted suspicious similarities between this corset and an illustration first published in 1868 in The Corset and the Crinoline , a " fetishistic " book claiming to offer a historical overview of fashion , and draws parallels between such corsets and fake medieval chastity belts . Harold Koda , curator of the Costume Institute , states that the excessive , mechanically @-@ produced regularity of the garment 's structure is evidence for its being a 19th @-@ century fabrication . Koda 's take on the significant percentage of extant nineteenth century metal corsets made in emulation of purported sixteenth @-@ century models is that they were created to cater to a specialist market , perhaps for inclusion in collector 's cabinets .
The fashion historians C. Willett Cunnington and his wife Phillis also stated firmly that surviving " iron bodies , " when not medical garments , were usually " fanciful ' reproductions ' " with no proof of their having genuinely been worn . Despite the explicit scepticism of fashion historians such as Steele and the Cunningtons , scholars outside the field of dress history sometimes treat these corsets as legitimate fashion garments . The anthropologist Marianne Thesander concluded that because such bodices fit the fashionable silhouette of their alleged period , they were probably authentic , and served the same purpose as other corsets .
= = 18th and 19th century = =
In Fashion and Fetishism , David Kunzle noted that in Peter Rondeau 's 1739 French @-@ German dictionary , the French term corps de fer is explained in German as " Schnürburst , mit kleinen eisernen blechen , für übel gewachsenes Frauenzimmer " ( A bodice , with small iron plates , for badly @-@ grown ( i.e. , deformed ) girls ) . He reads this as implying that the iron plates would have been part of a fabric corset , rather than an all @-@ metal garment .
Kunzle has noted the absence of literary evidence for showing that metal corsets were also worn for fashion purposes . He has suggested that surviving metal garments , if not specifically medical in purpose , might have served the same masochistically gratifying purpose as the deliberately uncomfortable , tortuous hair shirt , combining a fashionable silhouette with penance , and as such , might have been worn in convents . To support his " pure speculation " , Kunzle cites a 1871 newspaper report from The Times reporting that during the Paris Commune , the National Guard found two iron corsets , a rack , and other instruments in the Convent of the White Nuns in Picpus . The claim by the Mother Superior that the instruments were for orthopaedic purposes was dismissed at the time as " a superficial falsehood . "
Metal corsets for medical purposes continued to be used in the 18th and early 19th century , although equivalent garments made from canvas were increasingly used in their place . In 1894 , A.M. Phelps of the American Orthopaedic Association recommended an aluminium corset coated with waterproof enamel for sufferers of Pott disease or curvature of the spine . Made from a cast of the patient 's body , the advantages of such a garment were that aluminium was lightweight , durable , thin enough to be worn beneath clothing , and could be worn while bathing . Such corsets were still being recommended in the early 20th century as cheaper and more durable in the longer run than plaster moulds , although their initial expense was greater .
= = 20th and 21st centuries = =
Since the 20th century , actual metal corsets have occasionally been made for contemporary wear , although such instances are rare . Steele notes that alongside a 1930s metal corset made for and worn by a fetish corsetiere called Cayne , the late 20th- and early 21st @-@ century tight @-@ lacer Cathie Jung had a silver corset @-@ cover made to wear over her actual laced corset . Between 1933 and 1940 Mrs. Cayne advertised a booklet describing her 14 @-@ inch waistline and offered other services in the Illustrated Sporting and Dramatic News .
As a medical garment , metal corsets endured well into the 20th century . The Mexican painter Frida Kahlo was a notable wearer of such medical corsets , following ongoing problems as a result of a serious road crash she experienced as a teenager . By 1944 , Kahlo 's doctors had recommended that she wear a steel corset instead of the plaster ones she had mainly worn since the accident ; and Kahlo , whose paintings were heavily autobiographical , used the new corset as the basis for one of her best known self @-@ portraits , The Broken Column . In the painting , Kahlo portrays herself weeping with agony , her torso split open revealing that her spine is a crumbling Ionic column , and her damaged body held together by the steel corset . A form of metal corset or orthopaedic brace used in the second half of the 20th century is called a Harris brace after its inventor , R.I. Harris . Harris braces are designed to immobilise the waist whilst healing , and are made with two bendable metal bands worn above and below the waist , and connected with rigid metal supports .
20th and 21st century designers have sometimes offered metal corsets and bodices as part of their presentations , including Alexander McQueen , Issey Miyake , and Thierry Mugler . One of McQueen 's most famous pieces was a 1999 aluminium corset , called the Coiled Corset , created in collaboration with the jeweller Shaun Leane and the artist Kees van der Graaf . Built around a cast of the model Laura Morgan 's torso , the garment had a 15 @-@ inch waist and was composed of 97 stacked coils , which had to be screwed together onto Morgan 's body . The Coiled Corset was inspired by the neck rings worn by Ndebele women , extended to encase the wearer 's torso . In 2001 , the corset formed part of a live presentation at the Victoria and Albert Museum showcasing McQueen and Leane 's collaborations . Corsets and bustiers can also be made using wire , such as a 1983 aluminium wire bustier by Miyake which was cuffed around the torso over a feathered garment , offering a pun on the theme of birdcages .
= = In museums = =
Metal corsets are found in a number of museum collections around the world . Some museums , including the Museo Stibbert , and the Kyoto Costume Institute in Japan , present their metal bodices as fashionable late 16th @-@ century garments . The Victoria and Albert Museum in London describes their iron corset ( formerly owned by the painter Talbot Hughes ) as dating from the 18th century and likely intended for orthopaedic purposes . Others , such as the iron corset in the Fashion Institute of Technology , are presented as fakes .
= Geastrum triplex =
Geastrum triplex is an inedible fungus which is found in the detritus and leaf litter of hardwood forests in many parts of the world . It is commonly known as the collared earthstar , the saucered earthstar , or the triple earthstar — and less commonly by the alternative species name Geastrum indicum . It is the largest member of the genus Geastrum ( or earthstar fungi ) and expanded mature specimens can reach a tip @-@ to @-@ tip length of up to 12 centimeters ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) .
Immature fruit bodies are spherical — somewhat resembling puffballs with pointed beaks — and are partially or completely buried in the ground . As the fungus matures , the outer layer of tissue ( the exoperidium ) splits into four to eight pointed segments that spread outwards and downwards , lifting and exposing the spherical inner spore sac . The spore sac contains the gleba , a mass of spores and fertile mycelial tissue that when young is white and firm , but ages to become brown and powdery . Often , a layer of the exoperidium splits around the perimeter of the spore sac so that it appears to rest in a collar or saucer . Atop the spore sac is a small pointed beak , the peristome , which has a small hole from which spores may be released .
The species is widespread and can be found in Asia , Australasia , Europe , and both North and South America . The fungus has a history of use in the traditional medicines of native North America and China . Fruit bodies have been analyzed chemically to determine their lipid content , and various chemical derivatives of the fungal sterol ergosterol have been identified .
= = Taxonomy and classification = =
The species was first described scientifically , by German botanist Franz Wilhelm Junghuhn , as Geaster triplex in 1840 . The earlier genus name Geaster , introduced by Italian botanist Pier Antonio Micheli in 1727 in Nova Plantarum Genera , is considered an orthographical variant of Geastrum . Junghuhn , who was living in Indonesia and extensively surveyed its fungal flora , discovered the type specimen on Mount Panggerangi on the island Java , at an elevation between 3 @,@ 000 to 5 @,@ 000 feet ( 910 to 1 @,@ 520 m ) . Today , the type specimen is kept at the National Herbarium of the Netherlands in Leiden . The morphological feature used by Junghuhn to differentiate G. triplex from other similar earthstars was the collar @-@ like structure of the inner layer of the exoperidium . American mycologist Curtis Gates Lloyd would later erroneously suggest that the species was a " giant form " of Geastrum saccatum .
Several authors have regarded Geastrum indicum as the correct name for G. triplex . This is because G. indicum — a species described by Johann Friedrich Klotzsch in 1832 as Cycloderma indicum and then moved to Geastrum by Stephan Rauschert in 1959 — may be the same species as Geastrum triplex . If it is in fact the same species , the first published name ( i.e. , G. indicum ) has nomenclatorial priority according to the rules of the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature . More recently , several authors argue that G. indicum should be rejected as a nomen dubium and G. triplex maintained as the correct name for the species .
Stellan Sunhede 's 1989 monograph of European species of Geastrum follows V. J. Staněk 's concept for the infrageneric ( below the level of genus ) placement of Geastrum , and places G. triplex with species that do not incorporate and encrust forest debris ( section Basimyceliata ) . G. triplex is further categorized in subsection Laevistomata , which includes species with a fibrillose peristome — that is , made of parallel , thin , thread @-@ like filaments . Within subsection Laevistomata it is in stirps Triplex , due to its delimited ( with a distinct restricting edge ) or irregularly torn peristome .
The specific epithet triplex means " threefold " , and refers to the three @-@ layered peridium . Geastrum triplex has acquired several vernacular names , including the collared earthstar , the saucered earthstar , and the triple earthstar .
= = Description = =
Like all mushrooms , the fruit body of Geastrum triplex is the visible part of a larger organism . Hidden from sight are masses of nearly invisible fungal threads called mycelium , which form the active feeding and growing structures of the fungus . The fruit body — created when environmental conditions such as temperature , moisture , and nutrient availability are optimal — is designed to produce and disseminate spores . Geastrum triplex has the largest fruit body of the earthstar mushrooms . The immature fruit body is typically 1 to 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 to 2 @.@ 0 in ) in diameter , and up to 8 to 9 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 to 3 @.@ 5 in ) broad ( Roody gives a larger value here , up to 11 @.@ 5 cm ) after the rays have spread out . It is composed of a roughly spherical to egg @-@ shaped structure , the endoperidium , topped by an opening , the ostiole , covered by fragments of tissue that form a small pointed beak ( a peristome ) . The endoperidium is typically lacking any sort of stem ( it is sessile ) grayish @-@ brown to " wood brown " when young but light yellow @-@ brown in dried , unopened specimens . The outer tissue layer , the exoperidium , develops splits which radiate from the apex and form between four and eight rays that separate from the endoperidium . The latter 's thin and papery envelope surrounds a mass of spores and fertile tissue known as the gleba . The central part of the gleba contains a pseudocolumella ( a columella not attached to the stalk ) , that is typically cylindrical or club @-@ shaped , and extends up from the base . Because of the variability in columella persistence , size , structure and shape within the genus , its value for identification is limited .
The exoperidium 's rays are 2 to 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 to 1 @.@ 6 in ) long and up to 4 mm ( 3 / 16 in ) thick . The outer surface of the rays ( the lower surface , after expansion ) and unopened specimens have a rough texture . In several Geastrum species , dirt and debris adhere to the underside , this is not the case in G. triplex . The inner fleshy layers ( upper surface ) of these rays are near " wood brown " in color when dried , and have a layer of surface tissue that cracks into patches . There is a great deal of variation , however , to the extent in which the upper surface tissue of the rays crack : this tissue layer may also remain closely attached as a sheet over the unsegmented part of the outer wall with the part adhering to the rays variously cracked and sometimes finally peeling off in places .
In G. triplex , the bases of the rays usually break around the perimeter of the endoperidium to form a saucerlike platform or receptacle in which the endoperidium rests . However , not all specimens form this receptacle , leading to possible confusion with other Geastrum species . Curtis Gates Lloyd claimed that in tropical regions , with an abundance of high temperatures and humidity , the fungus expands rapidly , which is more conducive to the fleshy layer breaking away to form a receptacle ; in more temperate areas this effect would not be as pronounced and " usually does not occur at all " .
The endoperidium is 1 to 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 to 1 @.@ 2 in ) in diameter by 0 @.@ 9 to 2 @.@ 0 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 to 0 @.@ 8 in ) high , sessile , and a dull grayish @-@ brown . The peristome is made of rad
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by the next day it was located in the eastern portion of a large area of disturbed weather ; the western portion of the system later developed into Tropical Storm Olivia . The eastern system developed organized convection near its center , and developed into Tropical Depression Fifteen @-@ E at 0000 UTC on October 9 , about 765 mi ( 1235 km ) southwest of the southern tip of the Baja California Peninsula .
Upon first becoming a tropical cyclone , the depression was moving north @-@ northwestward , around the western periphery of a weak ridge ; the first forecast advisory by the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) forecast the depression to gradually intensify before weakening and crossing the Baja California Peninsula . Located over warm water temperatures , the system developed an area of organized , deep convection near the center ; with satellite intensity estimates of tropical storm force using the Dvorak technique , the NHC upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Norman about 12 hours after it first formed . Strengthening continued , and Norman attained peak winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) early on October 10 . At the time , it was officially forecast to strengthen further and continue northeastward . However , some hurricane prediction models anticipated quick weakening and a sharp turn to the southeast . Shortly after peaking in intensity , southwesterly wind shear increased , which led to a decrease in convection coverage . At the same time , a trough extending from California southward caused Norman to stall and turn to the east . The convection rapidly became separated from the center ; by late on October 10 , the center was located about 115 miles ( 185 km ) from the nearest thunderstorms . By then , it had weakened to tropical depression status , and early on October 11 Norman degenerated into a remnant low about 530 miles ( 855 km ) southwest of Cabo San Lucas , Mexico .
The remnants of Norman continued to the east , and later to the east @-@ southeast as it interacted with a tropical disturbance off the coast of Mexico . Initially , re @-@ development of Norman was not expected , as the disturbance was instead given the possibility for further development . On October 13 , the NHC noted that the remnants of Norman were merging with the disturbance to its east ; during the interaction , convection redeveloped and organized around the remnant low of Norman , and early on October 15 it reformed into a tropical depression , near the coast of southwestern Mexico . With warm waters and favorable upper @-@ level conditions , Norman was predicted to re @-@ attain tropical storm status before moving ashore . However , the center quickly became less @-@ organized , turning northward and northwestward within the larger tropical disturbance . Late on October 15 , it is estimated Tropical Depression Norman dissipated 23 miles ( 37 km ) south and offshore of Manzanillo , Colima , although satellite imagery suggested the center may have dissipated inland .
= = Preparations and impact = =
When Norman redeveloped into a tropical cyclone , the government of Mexico issued a tropical storm warning from Lázaro Cárdenas to Cabo Corrientes .
The storm brought heavy rainfall to southwestern Mexico , peaking at 6 @.@ 35 inches ( 161 mm ) in La Villita , Michoacán . Flooding from four days of rainfall caused officials to close schools in and around Acapulco . The rainfall resulted in downed trees and mudslides . About 150 homes became flooded , resulting in military personnel to assist in evacuating the flooded houses . In total , 20 homes were destroyed , and 20 villages were left without power . A transport vehicle carrying 15 people was swept away by a flooded stream , resulting in one injury ; the truck was later rescued by police workers . About 300 hectares ( 740 acres ) of crop fields sustained damage ; however , little crop damage was reported , as the storm occurred after harvesting had ended . Across Mexico , the storm affected about 500 @,@ 000 people , and initially there were two people missing ; however , a subsequent report indicated there were no casualties associated with the storm .
= Rhodocene =
Rhodocene , formally known as bis ( η5 @-@ cyclopentadienyl ) rhodium ( II ) , is a chemical compound with the formula [ Rh ( C5H5 ) 2 ] . Each molecule contains an atom of rhodium bound between two planar aromatic systems of five carbon atoms known as cyclopentadienyl rings in a sandwich arrangement . It is an organometallic compound as it has ( haptic ) covalent rhodium – carbon bonds . The [ Rh ( C5H5 ) 2 ] radical is found above 150 ° C or when trapped by cooling to liquid nitrogen temperatures ( − 196 ° C ) . At room temperature , pairs of these radicals join via their cyclopentadienyl rings to form a dimer , a yellow solid .
The history of organometallic chemistry includes the 19th @-@ century discoveries of Zeise 's salt and nickel tetracarbonyl . These compounds posed a challenge to chemists as the compounds did not fit with existing chemical bonding models . A further challenge arose with the discovery of ferrocene , the iron analogue of rhodocene and the first of the class of compounds now known as metallocenes . Ferrocene was found to be unusually chemically stable , as were analogous chemical structures including rhodocenium , the unipositive cation of rhodocene and its cobalt and iridium counterparts . The study of organometallic species including these ultimately led to the development of new bonding models that explained their formation and stability . Work on sandwich compounds , including the rhodocenium @-@ rhodocene system , earned Geoffrey Wilkinson and Ernst Otto Fischer the 1973 Nobel Prize for Chemistry .
Owing to their stability and relative ease of preparation , rhodocenium salts are the usual starting material for preparing rhodocene and substituted rhodocenes , all of which are unstable . The original synthesis used a cyclopentadienyl anion and tris ( acetylacetonato ) rhodium ( III ) ; numerous other approaches have since been reported , including gas @-@ phase redox transmetalation and using half @-@ sandwich precursors . Octaphenylrhodocene ( a derivative with eight phenyl groups attached ) was the first substituted rhodocene to be isolated at room temperature , though it decomposes rapidly in air . X @-@ ray crystallography confirmed that octaphenylrhodocene has a sandwich structure with a staggered conformation . Unlike cobaltocene , which has become a useful one @-@ electron reducing agent in research , no rhodocene derivative yet discovered is stable enough for such applications .
Biomedical researchers have examined the applications of rhodium compounds and their derivatives in medicine and reported one potential application for a rhodocene derivative as a radiopharmaceutical to treat small cancers . Rhodocene derivatives are used to synthesise linked metallocenes so that metal – metal interactions can be studied ; potential applications of these derivatives include molecular electronics and research into the mechanisms of catalysis . The value of rhodocenes tends to be in the insights they provide into the bonding and dynamics of novel chemical systems , rather than their applications .
= = History = =
Discoveries in organometallic chemistry have led to important insights into chemical bonding . Zeise 's salt , K [ PtCl3 ( C2H4 ) ] · H2O , was reported in 1831 and Mond 's discovery of Ni ( CO ) 4 occurred in 1888 . Each contained a bond between a metal centre and small molecule , ethylene in the case of Zeise 's salt and carbon monoxide in the case of nickel tetracarbonyl . The space @-@ filling model of the anion of Zeise 's salt ( image at left ) shows direct bonding between the platinum metal centre ( shown in blue ) and the carbon atoms ( shown in black ) of the ethylene ligand ; such metal – carbon bonds are the defining characteristic of organometallic species . Bonding models were unable to explain the nature of such metal – alkene bonds until the Dewar @-@ Chatt @-@ Duncanson model was proposed in the 1950s . The original formulation covered only metal – alkene bonds but the model was expanded over time to cover systems like metal carbonyls ( including [ Ni ( CO ) 4 ] ) where π backbonding is important .
Ferrocene , [ Fe ( C5H5 ) 2 ] , was first synthesised in 1951 during an attempt to prepare the fulvalene ( C10H8 ) by oxidative dimerization of cyclopentadiene ; the resultant product was found to have molecular formula C10H10Fe and reported to exhibit " remarkable stability " . The discovery sparked substantial interest in the field of organometallic chemistry , in part because the structure proposed by Pauson and Kealy ( shown at right ) was inconsistent with then @-@ existing bonding models and did not explain its unexpected stability . Consequently , the initial challenge was to definitively determine the structure of ferrocene in the hope that its bonding and properties would then be understood . The sandwich structure was deduced and reported independently by three groups in 1952 : Robert Burns Woodward and Geoffrey Wilkinson investigated the reactivity in order to determine the structure and demonstrated that ferrocene undergoes similar reactions to a typical aromatic molecule ( such as benzene ) , Ernst Otto Fischer deduced the sandwich structure and also began synthesising other metallocenes including cobaltocene ; Eiland and Pepinsky provided X @-@ ray crystallographic confirmation of the sandwich structure . Applying valence bond theory to ferrocene by considering an Fe2 + centre and two cyclopentadienide anions ( C5H5 − ) , which are known to be aromatic according to Hückel 's rule and hence highly stable , allowed correct prediction of the geometry of the molecule . Once molecular orbital theory was successfully applied , the reasons for ferrocene 's remarkable stability became clear .
The properties of cobaltocene reported by Wilkinson and Fischer demonstrated that the unipositive cobalticinium cation [ Co ( C5H5 ) 2 ] + exhibited stability similar to that of ferrocene itself . This observation is not unexpected given that the cobalticinium cation and ferrocene are isoelectronic , although the bonding was not understood at the time . Nevertheless , the observation led Wilkinson and F. Albert Cotton to attempt the synthesis of rhodocenium and iridocenium salts . They reported the synthesis of numerous rhodocenium salts , including those containing the tribromide ( [ Rh ( C5H5 ) 2 ] Br3 ) , perchlorate ( [ Rh ( C5H5 ) 2 ] ClO4 ) , and reineckate ( [ Rh ( C5H5 ) 2 ] [ Cr ( NCS ) 4 ( NH3 ) 2 ] · H2O ) anions , and found that the addition of dipicrylamine produced a compound of composition [ Rh ( C5H5 ) 2 ] [ N ( C6H2N3O6 ) 2 ] . In each case , the rhodocenium cation was found to possess high stability . Wilkinson and Fischer went on to share the 1973 Nobel Prize for Chemistry " for their pioneering work , performed independently , on the chemistry of the organometallic , so called sandwich compounds " .
The stability of metallocenes can be directly compared by looking at the reduction potentials of the one @-@ electron reduction of the unipositive cation . The following data are presented relative to the saturated calomel electrode ( SCE ) in acetonitrile :
[ Fe ( C5H5 ) 2 ] + / [ Fe ( C5H5 ) 2 ] + 0 @.@ 38 V
[ Co ( C5H5 ) 2 ] + / [ Co ( C5H5 ) 2 ] − 0 @.@ 94 V
[ Rh ( C5H5 ) 2 ] + / [ Rh ( C5H5 ) 2 ] − 1 @.@ 41 V
These data clearly indicate the stability of neutral ferrocene and the cobaltocenium and rhodocenium cations . Rhodocene is ca . 500 mV more reducing than cobaltocene , indicating that it is more readily oxidised and hence less stable . An earlier polarographic investigation of rhodocenium perchlorate at neutral pH showed a cathodic wave peak at − 1 @.@ 53 V ( versus SCE ) at the dropping mercury electrode , corresponding to the formation rhodocene in solution , but the researchers were unable to isolate the neutral product from solution . In the same study , attempts to detect iridocene by exposing iridocenium salts to oxidising conditions were unsuccessful even at elevated pH . These data are consistent with rhodocene being highly unstable and may indicate that iridocene is even more unstable still .
= = Speciation = =
The 18 @-@ electron rule is the equivalent of the octet rule in main group chemistry and provides a useful guide for predicting the stability of organometallic compounds . It predicts that organometallic species " in which the sum of the metal valence electrons plus the electrons donated by the ligand groups total 18 are likely to be stable . " This helps to explain the unusually high stability observed for ferrocene and for the cobalticinium and rhodocenium cations – all three species have analogous geometries and are isoelectronic 18 @-@ valence electron structures . The instability of rhodocene and cobaltocene are also understandable in terms of the 18 @-@ electron rule , in that both are 19 @-@ valence electron structures ; this explains early difficulties in isolating rhodocene from rhodocenium solutions . The chemistry of rhodocene is dominated by the drive to attain an 18 @-@ electron configuration .
Rhodocene exists as [ Rh ( C5H5 ) 2 ] , a paramagnetic 19 @-@ valence electron radical monomer only at or below − 196 ° C ( liquid nitrogen temperatures ) or above 150 ° C in the gas phase . It is this monomeric form that displays the typical staggered metallocene sandwich structure . At room temperature ( 25 ° C ) , the lifetime of the monomeric form in acetonitrile is less than two seconds ; and rhodocene forms [ Rh ( C5H5 ) 2 ] 2 , a diamagnetic 18 @-@ valence electron bridged dimeric ansa @-@ metallocene structure . Electron spin resonance ( ESR ) , nuclear magnetic resonance ( NMR ) and infrared spectroscopic ( IR ) measurements point to the presence of an equilibrium interconverting the monomeric and dimeric forms . ESR evidence confirms that the monomer possesses a high order axis of symmetry ( Cn , n > 2 ) with a mirror plane ( σ ) perpendicular to it as symmetry elements ; this experimentally demonstrates that the monomer does possess the typical sandwich structure of a metallocene although the interpretation of the ESR data has been questioned . The decomposition pathway of the monomer has also been studied by mass spectrometry . The dimerisation is a redox process ; the dimer is a rhodium ( I ) species and the monomer has a rhodium ( II ) centre . Rhodium typically occupies oxidation states + I or + III in its stable compounds .
This dimerisation process has the overall effect of decreasing the electron count around the rhodium centre from 19 to 18 . This occurs because the oxidative coupling of the two cyclopentadienyl ligands produces a new ligand with lower hapticity and which donates fewer electrons to the metal centre . The term hapticity is used to indicate the " number of carbon ( or other ) atoms through which [ a ligand ] binds ( n ) " to a metal centre and is symbolised as ηn . For example , the ethylene ligand in Zeise 's salt is bound to the platinum centre through both carbon atoms , and it hence formally has the formula K [ PtCl3 ( η2 @-@ C2H4 ) ] · H2O . The carbonyl ligands in nickel tetracarbonyl are each bound through only a carbon atom and are hence described as monohapto ligands , but η1 @-@ notations are typically omitted in formulae . The cyclopentadienyl ligands in many metallocene and half @-@ sandwich compounds are pentahapto ligands , hence the formula [ Rh ( η5 @-@ C5H5 ) 2 ] for the rhodocene monomer . In the rhodocene dimer , the coupled cyclopentadienyl ligands are 4 @-@ electron tetrahapto donors to each rhodium ( I ) metal centre , in contrast to the 6 @-@ electron pentahapto cyclopentadienyl donors . The increased stability of the 18 @-@ valence electron rhodium ( I ) dimer species as compared to the 19 @-@ valence electron rhodium ( II ) monomer likely explains why the monomer is only detected under extreme conditions .
Cotton and Wilkinson demonstrated that the 18 @-@ valence electron rhodium ( III ) rhodocenium cation [ Rh ( η5 @-@ C5H5 ) 2 ] + can be reduced in aqueous solution to the monomeric form ; they were unable to isolate the neutral product as not only can it dimerise , the rhodium ( II ) radical monomer can also spontaneously form the mixed @-@ hapticity stable rhodium ( I ) species [ ( η5 @-@ C5H5 ) Rh ( η4 @-@ C5H6 ) ] . The differences between rhodocene and this derivative are found in two areas : ( 1 ) One of the bound cyclopentadienyl ligands has formally gained a hydrogen atom to become cyclopentadiene , which remains bound to the metal centre but now as a 4 @-@ electron η4- donor . ( 2 ) The rhodium ( II ) metal centre has been reduced to rhodium ( I ) . These two changes make the derivative an 18 @-@ valence electron species . Fischer and colleagues hypothesised that the formation of this rhodocene derivative might occur in separate protonation and reduction steps , but published no evidence to support this suggestion . ( η4 @-@ Cyclopentadiene ) ( η5 @-@ cyclopentadienyl ) rhodium ( I ) , the resulting compound , is an unusual organometallic complex in that it has both a cyclopentadienyl anion and cyclopentadiene itself as ligands . It has been shown that this compound can also be prepared by sodium borohydride reduction of a rhodocenium solution in aqueous ethanol ; the researchers who made this discovery characterised the product as biscyclopentadienylrhodium hydride .
Fischer and co @-@ workers also studied the chemistry of iridocene , the third transition series analogue of rhodocene and cobaltocene , finding the chemistry of rhodocene and iridocene are generally similar . The synthesis of numerous iridocenium salts including the tribromide and hexafluorophosphate have been described . Just as with rhodocene , iridocene dimerises at room temperature but a monomer form can be detected at low temperatures and in gas phase and IR , NMR , and ESR measurements indicate a chemical equilibrium is present and confirm the sandwich structure of the iridocene monomer . The complex [ ( η5 @-@ C5H5 ) Ir ( η4 @-@ C5H6 ) ] , the analogue of rhodocene derivative reported by Fischer , has also been studied and demonstrates properties consistent with a greater degree of π @-@ backbonding in iridium ( I ) systems than is found in the analogous cobalt ( I ) or rhodium ( I ) cases .
= = Synthesis = =
Rhodocenium salts were first reported within two years of the discovery of ferrocene . These salts were prepared by reacting the carbanion Grignard reagent cyclopentadienylmagnesium bromide ( C5H5MgBr ) with tris ( acetylacetonato ) rhodium ( III ) ( Rh ( acac ) 3 ) . More recently , gas @-@ phase rhodocenium cations have been generated by a redox transmetalation reaction of rhodium ( I ) ions with ferrocene or nickelocene .
Rh + + [ ( η5 @-@ C5H5 ) 2M ] → M + [ ( η5 @-@ C5H5 ) 2Rh ] + M = Ni or Fe
Modern microwave synthetic methods have also been reported . Rhodocenium hexafluorophosphate forms after reaction of cyclopentadiene and rhodium ( III ) chloride hydrate in methanol following work @-@ up with methanolic ammonium hexafluorophosphate ; the reaction yield exceeds 60 % with only 30 seconds of exposure to microwave radiation .
RhCl3.xH2O + 2 C5H6 + NH4PF6 → [ ( η5 @-@ C5H5 ) 2Rh ] PF6 + 2 HCl + NH4Cl + xH2O
Rhodocene itself is then formed by reduction of rhodocenium salts with molten sodium . If a rhodocenium containing melt is treated with sodium or potassium metals and then sublimed onto a liquid nitrogen @-@ cooled cold finger , a black polycrystalline material results . Warming this material to room temperature produces a yellow solid which has been confirmed as the rhodocene dimer . A similar method can be used to prepare the iridocene dimer .
= = Substituted rhodocenes and rhodocenium salts = =
= = = The [ ( η5 @-@ C5tBu3H2 ) Rh ( η5 @-@ C5H5 ) ] + cation = = =
Novel approaches to synthesising substituted cyclopentadienyl complexes have been developed using substituted vinylcyclopropene starting materials . Ring @-@ enlarging vinylcyclopropane rearrangement reactions to produce cyclopentenes are well known and serve as precedent for vinylcyclopropenes rearranging to cyclopentadienes . The [ ( η5 @-@ C5tBu3H2 ) Rh ( η5 @-@ C5H5 ) ] + cation has been generated by a reaction sequence beginning with addition of the chlorobisethylenerhodium ( I ) dimer , [ ( η2 @-@ C2H4 ) 2Rh ( μ @-@ Cl ) ] 2 , to 1 @,@ 2 @,@ 3 @-@ tri @-@ tert @-@ butyl @-@ 3 @-@ vinyl @-@ 1 @-@ cyclopropene followed by reaction with thallium cyclopentadienide :
The 18 @-@ valence electron rhodium ( III ) pentadienediyl species generated by this reaction demonstrates again the instability of the rhodocene moiety , in that it can be refluxed in toluene for months without 1 @,@ 2 @,@ 3 @-@ tri @-@ tert @-@ butylrhodocene forming but in oxidising conditions the 1 @,@ 2 @,@ 3 @-@ tri @-@ tert @-@ butylrhodocenium cation forms rapidly . Cyclic voltammetry has been used to investigate this and similar processes in detail . The mechanism of the reaction has been shown to involve a loss of one electron from the pentadienediyl ligand followed by a fast rearrangement ( with loss of a hydrogen atom ) to form the 1 @,@ 2 @,@ 3 @-@ tri @-@ tert @-@ butylrhodocenium cation . Both the tetrafluoroborate and hexafluorophosphate salts of this cation have been structurally characterised by X @-@ ray crystallography .
[ ( η5 @-@ C5tBu3H2 ) Rh ( η5 @-@ C5H5 ) ] BF4 forms a colourless centrosymmetric monoclinic crystal belonging to the P21 / c space group , and with a density of 1 @.@ 486 g cm − 3 . Looking at the ORTEP diagram of the structure of the cation ( at right ) , it is evident that it possesses the typical geometry expected of a rhodocene or rhodocenium cation . The two cyclopentadienyl rings are close to parallel ( the centroid – Rh – centroid angle is 177 @.@ 2 ° ) and the rhodium centre is slightly closer to the substituted cyclopentadienyl ring ( Rh – centroid distances are 1 @.@ 819 Å and 1 @.@ 795 Å ) , an observation attributed to the greater inductive effect of the tert @-@ butyl groups on the substituted ligand . The ORTEP diagram shows that the cation adopts an eclipsed conformation in the solid state . The crystal structure of the hexafluorophosphate salt shows three crystallographically independent cations , one eclipsed , one staggered , and one which is rotationally disordered . This suggests that the conformation adopted is dependent on the anion present and also that the energy barrier to rotation is low – in ferrocene , the rotational energy barrier is known to be ~ 5 kJ mol − 1 in both solution and gas phase .
The diagram above shows the rhodium – carbon ( in red , inside pentagons on the left ) and carbon – carbon ( in blue , outside pentagons on the left ) bond distances for both ligands , along with the bond angles ( in green , inside pentagons on the right ) within each cyclopentadienyl ring . The atom labels used are the same as those shown in the crystal structure above . Within the unsubstituted cyclopentadienyl ligand , the carbon – carbon bond lengths vary between 1 @.@ 35 Å and 1 @.@ 40 Å and the internal bond angles vary between 107 ° and 109 ° . For comparison , the internal angle at each vertex of a regular pentagon is 108 ° . The rhodium – carbon bond lengths vary between 2 @.@ 16 Å and 2 @.@ 18 Å . These results are consistent with η5 @-@ coordination of the ligand to the metal centre . In the case of the substituted cyclopentadienyl ligand , there is somewhat greater variation : carbon – carbon bond lengths vary between 1 @.@ 39 Å and 1 @.@ 48 Å , the internal bond angles vary between 106 ° and 111 ° , and the rhodium – carbon bond lengths vary between 2 @.@ 14 Å and 2 @.@ 20 Å . The greater variation in the substituted ligand is attributed to the distortions necessary to relieve the steric strain imposed by neighbouring tert @-@ butyl substituents ; despite these variations , the data demonstrate that the substituted cyclopentadienyl is also η5 @-@ coordinated .
The stability of metallocenes changes with ring substitution . Comparing the reduction potentials of the cobaltocenium and decamethylcobaltocenium cations shows that the decamethyl species is ca . 600 mV more reducing than its parent metallocene , a situation also observed in the ferrocene and rhodocene systems . The following data are presented relative to the ferrocenium / ferrocene redox couple :
The differences in reduction potentials is attributed in the cobaltocenium system to the inductive effect of the alkyl groups , further stabilising the 18 @-@ valence electron species . A similar effect is seen in the rhodocenium data shown above , again consistent with inductive effects . In the substituted iridocenium system , cyclic voltammetry investigations shows irreversible reductions at temperatures as low as − 60 ° C ; by comparison , the reduction of the corresponding rhodocenes is quasi @-@ reversible at room temperature and fully reversible at − 35 ° C. The irreversibility of the substituted iridocenium reductions is attributed to the extremely rapid dimerisation of the resulting 19 @-@ valence electron species , which further illustrates that iridocenes are less stable than their corresponding rhodocenes .
= = = Penta @-@ substituted cyclopentadienyl ligands = = =
The body of knowledge concerning compounds with penta @-@ substituted cyclopentadienyl ligands is extensive , with organometallic complexes of the pentamethylcyclopentadienyl and pentaphenylcyclopentadienyl ligands being well @-@ known . Substitutions on the cyclopentadienyl rings of rhodocenes and rhodocenium salts produce compounds of higher stability as they allow for the increased delocalisation of positive charge or electron density and also provide steric hindrance against other species approaching the metal centre . Various mono- and di @-@ substituted rhodocenium species are known , but substantial stabilisation is not achieved without greater substitutions . Known highly substituted rhodocenium salts include decamethylrhodocenium hexafluorophosphate [ ( η5 @-@ C5Me5 ) 2Rh ] PF6 , decaisopropylrhodocenium hexafluorophosphate [ ( η5 @-@ C5iPr5 ) 2Rh ] PF6 , and octaphenylrhodocenium hexafluorophosphate [ ( η5 @-@ C5Ph4H ) 2Rh ] PF6 . Decamethylrhodocenium tetrafluoroborate can be synthesised from the tris ( acetone ) complex [ ( η5 @-@ C5Me5 ) Rh ( Me2CO ) 3 ] ( BF4 ) 2 by reaction with pentamethylcyclopentadiene , and the analogous iridium synthesis is also known . Decaisopropylrhodicnium hexafluorophosphate was synthesised in 1 @,@ 2 @-@ dimethoxyethane ( solvent ) in an unusual one @-@ pot synthesis that involves the formation of 20 carbon – carbon bonds :
In a similar reaction , pentaisopropylrhodocenium hexafluorophosphate [ ( η5 @-@ C5iPr5 ) Rh ( η5 @-@ C5H5 ) ] PF6 can be synthesised from pentamethylrhodocenium hexafluorophosphate [ ( η5 @-@ C5Me5 ) Rh ( η5 @-@ C5H5 ) ] PF6 in 80 % yield . These reactions demonstrate that the acidity of the methyl hydrogens in a pentamethylcyclopentadienyl complex can be considerably increased by the presence of the metal centre . Mechanistically , the reaction proceeds with potassium hydroxide deprotonating a methyl group and the resulting carbanion undergoing nucleophilic substitution with methyl iodide to form a new carbon – carbon bond .
The compounds pentaphenylrhodocenium tetrafluoroborate [ ( η5 @-@ C5Ph5 ) Rh ( η5 @-@ C5H5 ) ] BF4 , and pentamethylpentaphenylrhodocenium tetrafluoroborate [ ( η5 @-@ C5Ph5 ) Rh ( η5 @-@ C5Me5 ) ] BF4 have also been reported . They demonstrate that rhodium sandwich compounds can be prepared from half @-@ sandwich precursors . For example , in an approach broadly similar to the tris ( acetone ) synthesis of decamethylrhodocenium tetrafluoroborate , pentaphenylrhodocenium tetrafluoroborate has been synthesised from the tris ( acetonitrile ) salt [ ( η5 @-@ C5Ph5 ) Rh ( CH3CN ) 3 ] ( BF4 ) 2 by reaction with sodium cyclopentadienide :
[ ( η5 @-@ C5Ph5 ) Rh ( MeCN ) 3 ] ( BF4 ) 2 + NaC5H5 → [ ( η5 @-@ C5Ph5 ) Rh ( η5 @-@ C5H5 ) ] BF4 + NaBF4 + 3 MeCN
Octaphenylrhodocene , [ ( η5 @-@ C5Ph4H ) 2Rh ] , is the first rhodocene derivative to be isolated at room temperature . Its olive green crystals decompose rapidly in solution , and within minutes in air , demonstrating a dramatically greater air sensitivity than the analogous cobalt complex , although it is significantly more stable than rhodocene itself . This difference is attributed to the relatively lower stability of the rhodium ( II ) state as compared to the cobalt ( II ) state . The reduction potential for the [ ( η5 @-@ C5Ph4H ) 2Rh ] + cation ( measured in dimethylformamide relative the ferrocenium / ferrocene couple ) is − 1 @.@ 44 V , consistent with the greater thermodynamic stabilisation of the rhodocene by the C5HPh4 ligand compared with the C5H5 or C5Me5 ligands . Cobaltocene is a useful one @-@ electron reducing agent in the research laboratory as it is soluble in non @-@ polar organic solvents , and its redox couple is sufficiently well behaved that it may be used as an internal standard in cyclic voltammetry . No substituted rhodocene yet prepared has demonstrated sufficient stability to be used in a similar way .
The synthesis of octaphenylrhodocene proceeds in three steps , with a diglyme reflux followed by workup with hexafluorophosphoric acid , then a sodium amalgam reduction in tetrahydrofuran :
Rh ( acac ) 3 + 2 KC5Ph4H → [ ( η5 @-@ C5Ph4H ) 2Rh ] + + 2 K + + 3 acac −
[ ( η5 @-@ C5Ph4H ) 2Rh ] + + 3 acac − + 3 HPF6 → [ ( η5 @-@ C5Ph4H ) 2Rh ] PF6 + 3 Hacac + 2 PF6 −
[ ( η5 @-@ C5Ph4H ) 2Rh ] PF6 + Na / Hg → [ ( η5 @-@ C5Ph4H ) 2Rh ] + NaPF6
The crystal structure of octaphenylrhodocene shows a staggered conformation ( similar to that of ferrocene , and in contrast to the eclipsed conformation of ruthenocene ) . The rhodium – centroid distance is 1 @.@ 904 Å and the rhodium – carbon bond lengths average 2 @.@ 26 Å ; the carbon – carbon bond lengths average 1 @.@ 44 Å . These distances are all similar to those found in the 1 @,@ 2 @,@ 3 @-@ tri @-@ tert @-@ butylrhodocenium cation described above , with the one difference that the effective size of the rhodium centre appears larger , an observation consistent with the expanded ionic radius of rhodium ( II ) compared with rhodium ( III ) .
= = Applications = =
= = = Biomedical use of a derivative = = =
There has been extensive research into metallopharmaceuticals , including discussion of rhodium compounds in medicine . A substantial body of research has examined using metallocene derivatives of ruthenium and iron as metallopharmaceuticals . One area of such research has utilised metallocenes in place of the fluorophenyl group in haloperidol , which is a pharmaceutical classified as a typical antipsychotic . The ferrocenyl – haloperidol compound investigated has structure ( C5H5 ) Fe ( C5H4 ) – C ( = O ) – ( CH2 ) 3 – N ( CH2CH2 ) 2C ( OH ) – C6H4Cl and can be converted to the ruthenium analog via a transmetalation reaction . Using the radioactive isotope 103Ru produces a ruthenocenyl – haloperidol radiopharmaceutical with a high affinity for lung but not brain tissue in mice and rats . Beta @-@ decay of 103Ru produces the metastable isotope 103mRh in a rhodocenyl – haloperidol compound . This compound , like other rhodocene derivatives , has an unstable 19 @-@ valence electron configuration and rapidly oxidises to the expected cationic rhodocenium – haloperidol species . The separation of the ruthenocenyl – haloperidol and the rhodocenium – haloperidol species and the distributions of each amongst bodily organs has been studied . 103mRh has a half @-@ life of 56 min and emits a gamma ray of energy 39 @.@ 8 keV , so the gamma @-@ decay of the rhodium isotope should follow soon after the beta @-@ decay of the ruthenium isotope . Beta- and gamma @-@ emitting radionuclides used medically include 131I , 59Fe , and 47Ca , and 103mRh has been proposed for use in radiotherapy for small tumours .
= = = Metal – metal interactions in linked metallocenes = = =
The original motivation for research investigations of the rhodocene system was to understand the nature of and bonding within the metallocene class of compounds . In more recent times , interest has been rekindled by the desire to explore and apply the metal – metal interactions that occur when metallocene systems are linked . Potential applications for such systems include molecular electronics , semi @-@ conducting ( and possibly ferromagnetic ) metallocene polymers ( an example of a molecular wire ) , and exploring the threshold between heterogeneous and homogeneous catalysis . Examples of known bimetallocenes and termetallocenes that possess the rhodocenyl moiety include the hexafluorophosphate salts of rhodocenylferrocene , 1 @,@ 1 ' -dirhodocenylferrocene , and 1 @-@ cobaltocenyl @-@ 1 ' -rhodocenylferrocene , each shown at right . Linked metallocenes can also be formed by introducing several metallocenyl substituents onto a single cyclopentadienyl ligand .
Structural studies of termetallocene systems have shown they typically adopt an " eclipsed double transoid " " crankshaft " geometry . Taking as an example the 1 @-@ cobaltocenyl @-@ 1 ' -rhodocenylferrocene cation shown above , this means that the cobaltocenyl and rhodocenyl moieties are eclipsed , and thus carbon atoms 1 and 1 ' on the central ferrocene core are as close to vertically aligned as is possible given the staggered conformation of the cyclopentadienyl rings within each metallocene unit . Viewed from side @-@ on , this means termetallocenes resemble the down – up – down pattern of a crankshaft . The synthesis of this termetallocene involves the combining of rhodocenium and cobaltocenium solutions with 1 @,@ 1 ' -dilithioferrocene . This produces an uncharged intermediate with linked cyclopentadienyl – cyclopentadiene ligands whose bonding resembles that found in the rhodocene dimer . These ligands then react with the triphenylmethyl carbocation to generate the termetallocene salt , [ ( η5 @-@ C5H5 ) Rh ( μ @-@ η5 : η5 @-@ C5H4 – C5H4 ) Fe ( μ @-@ η5 : η5 @-@ C5H4 – C5H4 ) Co ( η5 @-@ C5H5 ) ] ( PF6 ) 2 . This synthetic pathway is illustrated below :
= = = Rhodocenium @-@ containing polymers = = =
The first rhodocenium @-@ containing side @-@ chain polymers were prepared through controlled polymerization techniques such as reversible addition − fragmentation chain @-@ transfer polymerization ( RAFT ) and ring @-@ opening metathesis polymerisation ( ROMP ) .
= Crash Holly =
Michael John " Mike " Lockwood ( August 25 , 1971 – November 6 , 2003 ) was an American professional wrestler . He was best known for his appearances with the World Wrestling Federation / World Wrestling Entertainment from 1999 to 2003 under the ring names Crash Holly or simply Crash .
Lockwood debuted in 1989 and spent a decade wrestling on the independent circuit before joining the World Wrestling Federation in 1999 as Crash Holly . He formed a tag team with his kayfabe cousin Hardcore Holly , with whom he won the WWF World Tag Team Championship . The Holly Cousins was expanded into a stable with the addition of Molly Holly in 2000 . During his WWF / WWE career , Lockwood held the WWF / WWE Hardcore Championship on 22 occasions , with many of his reigns coming during a period when the title was defended " 24 / 7 " . After being released from WWE in June 2003 , Lockwood joined NWA Total Nonstop Action as Mad Mikey , where he remained until his death later that year .
In addition to his 22 reigns as WWF / WWE Hardcore Champion and single reign as WWF World Tag Team Champion , Lockwood was a one @-@ time WWF European Champion , and one @-@ time WWF Light Heavyweight Champion .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = Early career ( 1989 @-@ 1999 ) = = =
Lockwood debuted in 1989 , as Johnny Pearson in Bay Area Wrestling , where he wrestled until 1994 . He dislocated his shoulder about five times , and took 18 months off to recover . He then wrestled on the independent circuit as " Irish " Erin O 'Grady . In 1996 , he joined All Pro Wrestling ( APW ) , where he became known as " The Leprechaun " Erin O 'Grady and had several matches with Vic Grimes .
After viewing a tape of a match between O 'Grady and Michael Modest , Extreme Championship Wrestling ( ECW ) wrestler Taz referred Lockwood to ECW owner , Paul Heyman . Erin O 'Grady lost four untelevised matches in November 1997 , including a dark match at November to Remember .
O 'Grady wrestled Grimes in a try @-@ out match for the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) on January 20 , 1998 , and both were signed to contracts . They were sent to Power Pro Wrestling , the WWF 's developmental promotion , to train . Here , they won the PPW Tag Team Championship together and O 'Grady won the PPW Young Guns Championship .
WWF Talent Coordinator Bruce Prichard sent Lockwood to Mexico , to prepare him for the style of the WWF 's lucha libre show , WWF Super Astros . He wrestled in Monterrey for three months , under a mask , as The Green Ghost ( a play on the word " gringo " ) .
= = = World Wrestling Federation / Entertainment ( 1999 @-@ 2003 ) = = =
Lockwood debuted as Crash Holly , the storyline cousin of Bob " Hardcore " Holly , on the August 16 , 1999 episode of Raw is War They became known as The Holly Cousins . Their relationship was a strained one , and Hardcore frequently threatened Crash . When they took the gimmick of claiming to be " super heavyweights " , over 400 lb each , Crash would carry a scale to ringside to " weigh in " before matches .
Crash made his pay @-@ per @-@ view debut at SummerSlam in August , where The Holly Cousins wrestled in a Tag Team Turmoil match , won by the Acolytes Protection Agency .
On October 17 , at No Mercy , The Holly Cousins defeated The New Age Outlaws by disqualification . The next night on Raw is War , they defeated The Rock ' n ' Sock Connection for the Tag Team Championship . They held the title until the November 4 SmackDown ! , when they lost it to Mankind and his new partner , Al Snow .
In early 2000 , Crash Holly joined the hardcore division . On the February 24 episode of SmackDown ! , he defeated Test to begin his first of 2
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2 Hardcore Championship reigns . He decreed that he must defend the championship twenty four hours a day , seven days a week , which later became known as the " 24 / 7 Rule " . This meant that the title was permanently contested , not just in sanctioned matches , and could change hands anywhere , anytime anyone pinned the champion , so long as a WWF referee counted the fall . Holly was frequently attacked by other wrestlers in unlikely locations , including an airport , a funhouse , a circus , and his hotel room . Though he was often pinned , he usually immediately regained the title . His most common tactic was to sneak a pin , often after the champion had been beaten down by someone else , and quickly run backstage , away from possible challengers . This turned him into a crowd favorite and earned him the nickname " The Houdini of Hardcore " . He frequently defended the championship against non @-@ wrestlers , including referees and road agents , like Gerald Brisco and Pat Patterson . He had a long feud with The Mean Street Posse ( Pete Gas , Rodney and Joey Abs ) over the title . He even lost , and quickly regained , the title against one of the Godfather 's hos . At Rebellion , Crash defeated William Regal to win the WWF European Championship . He re @-@ lost the title to Regal two days later .
In late 2000 , another of Crash 's storyline cousins , Molly Holly , was introduced . In 2001 , The Holly Cousins feuded with The Dudley Boyz . In the course of this feud , Molly began a romantic relationship with Spike Dudley , leading to internal disputes within each family , as well as a Romeo and Juliet @-@ style angle between the six of them .
On the March 18 , 2001 episode of Heat , Crash defeated Dean Malenko to win the Light Heavyweight Championship . He defended it on two episodes of Heat , against Funaki and Grandmaster Sexay , before dropping it to the debuting Jerry Lynn on the April 29 episode . In May 2001 , Holly and Hardcore briefly reunited as a lower card team .
When the WWF was renamed World Wrestling Entertainment and divided into two Raw and SmackDown brands , Holly was assigned to the Raw roster , where he had little success . He jumped ship to SmackDown ! on the September 2 , 2002 episode of Raw during a match with Jeff Hardy . Earlier , Raw General Manager Eric Bischoff was informed that a Raw wrestler would leave to reunite with a relative on SmackDown ! , and ordered a beatdown on Hardy , who he wrongly suspected of planning to join his brother , Matt Hardy .
In his first SmackDown ! match , on September 5 , he defeated The Hurricane . He then feuded with Cruiserweight Champion Jamie Noble . On the October 3 SmackDown ! , Noble defeated Holly to retain the title .
On the December 19 SmackDown ! , Holly teamed with Bill DeMott to defeat Noble and Nunzio . After the match , DeMott turned on Holly and attacked him . This led to a match on the next SmackDown ! , which DeMott won .
After being sidelined for four months , Holly returned on the April 24 , 2003 episode of SmackDown ! . He soon joined Matt Hardy and Shannon Moore in the Mattitude Followers ( abbreviated " MF 'er " ) stable . As Crash was Moore 's alleged apprentice , Hardy also referred to him as a " Moore @-@ on " . His last several matches with the company were tag matches with Moore , as well as house show matches against newcomer Orlando Jordan .
On June 30 , 2003 , Lockwood was released from WWE .
= = = NWA Total Nonstop Action and independent circuit ( 2003 ) = = =
Lockwood signed a contract with NWA Total Non @-@ Stop Action ( later known as Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ) in July 2003 and debuted as Mad Mikey on July 23 , accepting an open challenge from Elix Skipper and losing the match . Mad Mikey was angry at many things , on which he elaborated in promos . He wrestled on nine NWA @-@ TNA weekly PPVs , lastly on October 1 .
He briefly wrestled for Pro Wrestling Iron in Hayward , California . In late 2003 , Mad Mikey and Rory Fox defeated Quiten Lee and The Human Time Bomb for the Heartland Wrestling Association in what turned out to be Lockwood 's final match .
= = Personal life = =
Lockwood was born in Anaheim , California , and raised in Pacifica , California , where he graduated from Terra Nova High School . He became interested in professional wrestling in the eighth grade , inspired by Brady Boone . While training as a wrestler and working on the independent circuit , he worked a second job at Safeway .
Lockwood met his wife , N 'keigh Wheeler , when she escorted Mark Henry to the ring at Unforgiven 1999 , in Charlotte , North Carolina . They married on New Year 's Eve , 1999 . In 2002 , he opened " Crash Holly 's School of Professional Wrestling " in Salisbury , North Carolina , where N 'keigh grew up .
= = = Death = = =
Lockwood died on November 6 , 2003 , at his friend and fellow wrestler Stevie Richards ' house in Florida . He was found partially clothed with a pool of vomit around his face . Empty bottles of the prescription drug Carisoprodol and a partially consumed bottle of alcohol were found nearby . He had recently received divorce papers from his wife . His death , caused by choking on his own vomit , was officially ruled a suicide . He was buried in China Grove in Rowan County , North Carolina .
In August 2005 , Nora Greenwald , who performed alongside Lockwood as Molly Holly , released an autobiographical DVD titled " Nora Greenwald : Shootin ' the Shi Crap " , and a portion of the profits from the sale of the DVD went to Lockwood 's daughter 's education fund . In March 2005 , the New Breed Wrestling Association held the " Mike Lockwood Memorial Tournament " , which was won by Michael Modest . At ECW One Night Stand in 2005 , Lockwood was one of the deceased former ECW wrestlers honored in a video package .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
As Mad Mikey
CST – Crash Stole This ( Lifting double underhook DDT ) – parodied from Stevie Richards
As Crash Holly
Crash Course ( Over the shoulder back to belly piledriver )
Crash Landing / Bottom Feeder ( Belly to back inverted mat slam )
Corner springboard bulldog
Flowing DDT
As Erin O 'Grady
Hop Splash ( Dives off the top rope before landing on his feet and performing a standing splash )
Irishcanrana ( Hurricanrana ) – Independent circuit ; used as a signature move in WWF / E
Signature moves
Dropkick
Preschool ( Bottom rope arm twist ropewalk chop ) – TNA ; parodied from The Undertaker
Roll @-@ up
Running one @-@ handed bulldog
Tornado DDT
Nicknames
" Elroy "
" The Houdini of Hardcore "
" Irish "
" The Leprechaun "
" The Super @-@ Heavyweight "
Entrance music
" Slow Death " by Zack Tempest
" System Clash " by Jim Johnston ( While along with Matt Hardy )
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
All Pro Wrestling
APW Junior Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
International Wrestling Association
IWA Hardcore Championship ( 1 time )
IWA World Junior Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
Mid @-@ Eastern Wrestling Federation
MEWF Cruiserweight Championship ( 1 time )
Power Pro Wrestling
PPW Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Vic Grimes
PPW Young Guns Championship ( 1 time )
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
PWI ranked him # 36 in the PWI 500 in 2000
Supreme Pro Wrestling
SPW Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Hook Bomberry
World Wrestling Federation / World Wrestling Entertainment
WWF European Championship ( 1 time )
WWF / E Hardcore Championship ( 22 times )
WWF Light Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
WWF Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Hardcore Holly
= Elbridge Gerry =
Elbridge Thomas Gerry ( / ˈɛlbrɪdʒ ˈɡɛri / ; July 17 , 1744 ( O.S. July 6 , 1744 ) – November 23 , 1814 ) was an American statesman and diplomat . As a Democratic @-@ Republican he was selected as the fifth Vice President of the United States ( 1813 – 14 ) , serving under James Madison . He is known best for being the namesake of gerrymandering , a process by which electoral districts are drawn with the aim of aiding the party in power , although its initial " g " has softened to / dʒ / from the hard / ɡ / of his name .
Born into a wealthy merchant family , Gerry vocally opposed British colonial policy in the 1760s , and was active in the early stages of organizing the resistance in the American Revolutionary War . Elected to the Second Continental Congress , Gerry signed both the Declaration of Independence and the Articles of Confederation . He was one of three men who attended the Constitutional Convention in 1787 but refused to sign the United States Constitution because it did not then include a Bill of Rights . After its ratification he was elected to the inaugural United States Congress , where he was actively involved in drafting and passage of the Bill of Rights as an advocate of individual and state liberties .
Gerry was at first opposed to the idea of political parties , and cultivated enduring friendships on both sides of the political divide between Federalists and Democratic @-@ Republicans . He was a member of a diplomatic delegation to France that was treated poorly in the XYZ Affair , in which Federalists held him responsible for the breakdown in negotiations . Gerry thereafter became a Democratic @-@ Republican , running unsuccessfully for Governor of Massachusetts several times before winning the office in 1810 . During his second term , the legislature approved new state senate districts that led to the coining of the word " gerrymander " ; he lost the next election , although the state senate remained Republican . Chosen by Madison as his vice presidential candidate in 1812 , Gerry was elected , but died a year and a half into his term . He is the only signer of the Declaration of Independence who is buried in Washington , D.C.
= = Early life = =
Elbridge Gerry was born on July 17 , 1744 , in Marblehead , Massachusetts . His father , Thomas Gerry , was a merchant operating ships out of Marblehead , and his mother , Elizabeth ( Greenleaf ) Gerry , was the daughter of a successful Boston merchant . Gerry 's first name came from John Elbridge , one of his mother 's ancestors . Gerry 's parents had eleven children in all , although only five survived to adulthood . Of these , Elbridge was the third . He was first educated by private tutors , and entered Harvard College shortly before turning fourteen . After receiving a B.A. in 1762 and an M.A. in 1765 , he entered his father 's merchant business . By the 1770s the Gerrys numbered among the wealthiest Massachusetts merchants , with trading connections in Spain , the West Indies , and along the North American coast . Gerry 's father , who had migrated from England in 1730 , was active in local politics and had a leading role in the local militia .
= = Early political career = =
Gerry was from an early time a vocal opponent of Parliamentary efforts to tax the colonies after the French and Indian War ended in 1763 . In 1770 he sat on a Marblehead committee that sought to enforce importation bans on taxed British goods . He frequently communicated with other Massachusetts opponents of British policy , including Samuel Adams , John Adams , Mercy Otis Warren , and others .
In May 1772 he won election to the General Court of the Province of Massachusetts Bay ( its legislative assembly ) . There he worked closely with Samuel Adams to advance colonial opposition to Parliamentary colonial policies . He was responsible for establishing Marblehead 's committee of correspondence , one of the first to be set up after that of Boston . However , an incident of mob action prompted him to resign from the committee the next year . Gerry and other prominent Marbleheaders had established a hospital for performing smallpox inoculations on Cat Island ; because the means of transmission of the disease were not known at the time , fears amongst the local population led to protests which escalated into violence that wrecked the facilities and threatened the proprietors ' other properties .
Gerry reentered politics after the Boston Port Act closed that city 's port in 1774 , and Marblehead became a port to which relief supplies from other colonies could be delivered . As one of the town 's leading merchants and Patriots , Gerry played a major role in ensuring the storage and delivery of supplies from Marblehead to Boston , interrupting those activities only to care for his dying father . He was elected as a representative to the First Continental Congress in September 1774 , but refused , still grieving the loss of his father .
= = Congress and Revolution = =
Gerry was elected to the provincial assembly , which reconstituted itself as the Massachusetts Provincial Congress after Governor Thomas Gage dissolved the body in October 1774 . He was assigned to its committee of safety , responsible for assuring that the province 's limited supplies of weapons and gunpowder remained out of British Army hands . His actions were partly responsible for the storage of weapons and ammunition in Concord ; these stores were the target of the British raiding expedition that sparked the start of the American Revolutionary War with the Battles of Lexington and Concord in April 1775 . ( Gerry was staying at an inn at Menotomy , now Arlington , when the British marched through on the night of April 18 . ) During the Siege of Boston that followed , Gerry continued to take a leading role in supplying the nascent Continental Army , something he would continue to do as the war progressed . He leveraged business contacts in France and Spain to acquire not just munitions , but supplies of all types , and was involved in the transfer of financial subsidies from Spain to Congress . He sent ships to ports all along the American coast , and dabbled in financing privateering operations .
Unlike some merchants , there is no evidence that Gerry profiteered from this activity ( he spoke out against it , and in favor of price controls ) , although his war @-@ related merchant activities notably increased the family 's wealth . His gains were tempered to some extent by the precipitous decline in the value of paper currencies , which he held in large quantities and speculated in .
Gerry served in the Second Continental Congress from February 1776 to 1780 , when matters of the ongoing war occupied the body 's attention . He was influential in convincing a number of delegates to support passage of the United States Declaration of Independence in the debates held during the summer of 1776 ; John Adams wrote of him , " If every Man here was a Gerry , the Liberties of America would be safe against the Gates of Earth and Hell . " He was implicated as a member of the so @-@ called " Conway Cabal " , a group of Congressmen and military officers who were dissatisfied with the performance of General George Washington during the 1777 military campaign . However , Gerry took Pennsylvania leader Thomas Mifflin , one of Washington 's critics , to task early in the episode , and specifically denied knowledge of any sort of conspiracy against Washington in February 1778 .
Gerry 's political philosophy was one of limited central government , and he regularly advocated for the maintenance of civilian control of the military . He held these positions fairly consistently throughout his political career ( wavering principally on the need for stronger central government in the wake of the 1786 – 87 Shays 's Rebellion ) and was well known for his personal integrity . In later years he was against the idea of political parties , remaining somewhat distant from the developing Federalist and Democratic @-@ Republican parties until later in his career . It was not until 1800 that he would formally associate with the Democratic @-@ Republicans in opposition to what he saw as attempts by the Federalists to centralize too much power in the national government . In 1780 he resigned from the Continental Congress over the issue , and refused offers from the state legislature to return to the Congress . He also refused appointment to the state senate , claiming he would be more effective in the state 's lower chamber , and also refused appointment as a county judge , comparing the offer by Governor John Hancock to those made by royally appointed governors to benefit their political allies . He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1781 .
Gerry was convinced to rejoin the Confederation Congress in 1783 , when the state legislature agreed to support his call for needed reforms . He served in that body until September 1785 , during which time it met in New York City . The following year he married Ann Thompson , the daughter of a wealthy New York merchant who was twenty years his junior ; his best man was his good friend James Monroe . The couple had ten children between 1787 and 1801 , straining Ann 's health .
The war made Gerry sufficiently wealthy that when it ended he sold off his merchant interests , and began investing in land . In 1787 he purchased the Cambridge , Massachusetts estate of the last royal lieutenant governor of Massachusetts , Thomas Oliver , which had been confiscated by the state . This 100 @-@ acre ( 40 ha ) property , known as Elmwood , became the family home for the rest of Gerry 's life . He continued to own property in Marblehead , and bought a number of properties in other Massachusetts communities . He also owned shares in the Ohio Company , prompting some political opponents to characterize him as an owner of vast tracts of western lands .
= = Constitutional Convention = =
Gerry played a major role in the U.S. Constitutional Convention , held in Philadelphia during the summer of 1787 . In its deliberations he consistently advocated for a strong delineation between state and federal government powers , with state legislatures shaping the membership of federal government positions . Gerry 's opposition to popular election of representatives was rooted in part by the events of Shays 's Rebellion , a populist uprising in western Massachusetts in the year preceding the convention . Despite this position , he also sought to maintain individual liberties by providing checks on government power that might abuse or limit those freedoms . He supported the idea that the Senate composition should not be determined by population ; the view that it should instead be composed of equal numbers of members for each state prevailed in the Connecticut Compromise . The compromise was adopted on a narrow vote in which the Massachusetts delegation was divided , Gerry and Caleb Strong voting in favor . Gerry further proposed that senators of a state , rather than casting a single vote on behalf of the state , instead vote as individuals . Gerry was also vocal in opposing the Three @-@ Fifths Compromise , which counted slaves as 3 / 5 of a person for the purposes of apportionment in the House of Representatives and gave southern states a decided advantage .
= = = Advocating indirect elections = = =
Because of his fear of demagoguery and belief the people of the United States could be easily misled , Gerry also advocated indirect elections . Although he was unsuccessful in obtaining them for the lower house of Congress , Gerry did obtain such indirect elections for the U.S. Senate , whose members were to be elected by the state legislatures . Gerry also advanced numerous proposals for indirect elections of the President of the United States , most of them involving limiting the right to vote to the state governors and electors .
= = = Voting against proposed constitution = = =
Gerry was also unhappy about the lack of expression of any sort of individual liberties in the proposed constitution , and generally opposed proposals that strengthened the central government . He was one of only three delegates who voted against the proposed constitution in the convention ( the others were George Mason and Edmund Randolph ) , citing a concern about the convention 's lack of authority to enact such major changes to the nation 's system of government , and to the constitution 's lack of " federal features " .
= = = State ratification ; Bill of Rights = = =
During the ratification debates that took place in the states following the convention , Gerry continued his opposition , publishing a widely circulated letter documenting his objections to the proposed constitution . In this document he cited the lack of a Bill of Rights as his primary objection , but also expressed qualified approval of the constitution , indicating that he would accept it with some amendment . Strong pro @-@ Constitution forces attacked him in the press , comparing him unfavorably to the Shaysites . Henry Jackson was particularly vicious : " [ Gerry has ] done more injury to this country by that infamous Letter than he will be able to make atonement in his whole life " , and Oliver Ellsworth , a convention delegate from Connecticut , charged him with deliberately courting the Shays faction . One consequence of the furor over his letter was that he was not selected as a delegate to the Massachusetts ratifying convention , although he was later invited to attend by the convention 's leadership . The convention leadership was dominated by Federalists , and Gerry was not given any formal opportunity to speak ; he left the convention after a shouting match with convention chair Francis Dana . The state ratified the constitution by a vote of 187 to 168 . The debate had the result of estranging Gerry from a number of previously friendly politicians , including chairman Dana and Rufus King .
= = United States House of Representatives = =
Anti @-@ Federalist forces nominated Gerry for governor in 1788 , but he was predictably defeated by the popular incumbent John Hancock . Following ratification , Gerry recanted his opposition to the Constitution , noting that a number of state ratifying conventions had called for amendments that he supported . He was nominated by friends ( over his own opposition to the idea ) for a seat in inaugural House of Representatives , where he then served two terms .
In June 1789 Gerry proposed that Congress consider all of the proposed constitutional amendments that various state ratifying conventions had called for ( notably those of Rhode Island and North Carolina , which had at the time still not ratified the constitution ) . In the debate that followed , he led opposition to some of the proposals , arguing that they did not go far enough in ensuring individual liberties . He successfully lobbied for inclusion of freedom of assembly in the First Amendment , and was a leading architect of the Fourth Amendment protections against search and seizure . He sought unsuccessfully to insert the word " expressly " into the Tenth Amendment , which might have more significantly limited the federal government 's power . He was successful in efforts to severely limit the federal government 's ability to control state militias . In tandem , with this protection , he had once argued against the idea of the federal government controlling a large standing army , comparing it – most memorably and mischievously – to a standing penis : " An excellent assurance of domestic tranquility , but a dangerous temptation to foreign adventure . "
Gerry vigorously supported Alexander Hamilton 's reports on public credit , including the assumption at full value of state debts , and supported Hamilton 's new Bank of the United States , positions consistent with earlier calls he had made for economic centralization . Although he speculated in depreciated Continental bills of credit ( the IOUs at issue ) , there is no evidence he participated in large @-@ scale speculation that attended the debate when it took place in 1790 , and he became a major investor in the new bank . He used the floor of the House to speak out against aristocratic and monarchical tendencies he saw as threats to republican ideals , and generally opposed laws and their provisions that he perceived as limiting individual and state liberties . He opposed any attempt to give officers of the executive significant powers , specifically opposing establishment of the Treasury Department because its head might gain more power than the President . He opposed measures that strengthened the Presidency ( such as the ability to fire cabinet officers ) , seeking instead to give the legislature more power over appointments .
Gerry did not stand for re @-@ election in 1792 , returning home to raise his children and care for his sickly wife . He agreed to serve as a presidential elector for John Adams in the 1796 election . During Adams ' term in office , Gerry maintained good relations with both Adams and Vice President Thomas Jefferson , hoping that the divided executive might lead to less friction . His hopes were not realized : the split between Federalists ( Adams ) and Democratic @-@ Republicans ( Jefferson ) widened .
= = XYZ Affair = =
President Adams appointed Gerry to be a member of a special diplomatic commission sent to Republican France in 1797 . Tensions had risen between the two nations after the 1796 ratification of the Jay Treaty , made between the US and Great Britain . It was seen by French leaders as signs of an Anglo @-@ American alliance , and France had consequently stepped up seizures of American ships . Adams chose Gerry , over his cabinet 's opposition ( on political grounds that Gerry was insufficiently Federalist ) , because of their long @-@ standing relationship ; Adams described Gerry as one of the " two most impartial men in America " ( Adams himself being the other ) .
Gerry joined co @-@ commissioners Charles Cotesworth Pinckney and John Marshall in France in October 1797 and met briefly with Foreign Minister Talleyrand . Some days after that meeting , the delegation was approached by three French agents ( at first identified as " X " , " Y " , and " Z " in published papers , leading the controversy to be called the " XYZ Affair " ) who demanded substantial bribes from the commissioners before negotiations could continue . The commissioners refused , and sought unsuccessfully to engage Talleyrand in formal negotiations . Believing Gerry to be the most approachable of the commissioners , Talleyrand successively froze first Pinckney and then Marshall out of the informal negotiations , and they left France in April 1798 . Gerry , who sought to leave with them , stayed behind because Talleyrand threatened war if he left . Gerry refused to make any significant negotiations afterward and left Paris in August . By then dispatches describing the commission 's reception had been published in the United States , raising calls for war . The undeclared naval Quasi @-@ War ( 1798 – 1800 ) followed . Federalists , notably Secretary of State Timothy Pickering , accused Gerry of supporting the French and abetting the breakdown of the talks , while Adams and Republicans such as Thomas Jefferson supported him . The negative press damaged Gerry 's reputation , and he was burned in effigy by protestors in front of his home . He was only later vindicated , when his correspondence with Talleyrand was published . In response to the Federalist attacks on him , and because of his perception that the Federalist @-@ led military buildup threatened republican values , Gerry formally joined the Democratic @-@ Republican Party in early 1800 , standing for election as Governor of Massachusetts .
= = Governor of Massachusetts = =
For four years Gerry unsuccessfully sought the governorship of Massachusetts . His opponent in these races , Caleb Strong , was a popular moderate Federalist , whose party dominated the state 's politics despite a national shift toward the Republicans . In 1803 Republicans in the state were divided , and Gerry only had regional support of the party . He decided not to run in 1804 , returning to semi @-@ retirement and to deal with a personal financial crisis . His brother Samuel Russell had mismanaged his own business affairs , and Gerry had propped him up by guaranteeing a loan that was due . The matter ultimately ruined Gerry 's finances for his remaining years .
Republican James Sullivan won the governor 's seat from Strong in 1807 , but his successor was unable to hold the seat in the 1809 election , which went to Federalist Christopher Gore . Gerry stood for election again in 1810 against Gore , and won a narrow victory . Republicans cast Gore as an ostentatious British @-@ loving Tory who wanted to restore the monarchy ( his parents had remained Loyal during the Revolution ) , and Gerry as a patriotic American , while Federalists described Gerry as a " French partizan " and Gore as an honest man devoted to ridding the government of foreign influence . A temporary lessening in the threat of war with Britain aided Gerry . The two battled again in 1811 , with Gerry once again victorious in a highly acrimonious campaign .
Gerry 's first year as governor was less controversial than his second , because the Federalists controlled the state senate . He preached moderation in the political discourse , noting that it was important that the nation present a unified front in its dealings with foreign powers . In his second term , with full Republican control of the legislature , he became notably more partisan , purging much of the state government of Federalist appointees . The legislature also enacted " reforms " of the court system that resulted in an increase in the number of judicial appointments , which Gerry filled with Republican partisans . Infighting within the party and a shortage of qualified candidates , however , played against Gerry , and the Federalists scored points by complaining vocally about the partisan nature of the reforms .
Other legislation passed during Gerry 's second year included a bill broadening the membership of Harvard 's Board of Overseers to diversify its religious membership , and another that liberalized religious taxes . The Harvard bill had significant political slant because the recent split between orthodox Congregationalists and Unitarians also divided the state to some extent along party lines , and Federalist Unitarians had recently gained control over the Harvard board .
In 1812 the state adopted new constitutionally mandated electoral district boundaries . The Republican @-@ controlled legislature had created district boundaries designed to enhance their party 's control over state and national offices , leading to some oddly shaped legislative districts . Although Gerry was unhappy about the highly partisan districting ( according to his son @-@ in @-@ law , he thought it " highly disagreeable " ) , he signed the legislation . The shape of one of the state senate districts in Essex County resembled a salamander , leading a local Federalist newspaper to print a political cartoon calling it a " Gerry @-@ mander " . Ever since , the creation of such districts has been called gerrymandering . Gerry also engaged in partisan investigations of potential libel against him by elements of the Federalist press , further damaging his popularity with moderates . The redistricting controversy , along with the libel investigation and the impending War of 1812 , contributed to Gerry 's defeat in 1812 ( once again at the hands of Caleb Strong , whom the Federalists had brought out of retirement ) . The gerrymandering of the state senate was a notable success in the 1812 election : the body was thoroughly dominated by Republicans , even though the house and the governor 's seat went to Federalists by substantial margins .
= = Vice Presidency and death = =
Gerry 's financial difficulties prompted him to ask President James Madison for a federal position after his loss in the 1812 election ( which was held early in the year ) . He was chosen by the Democratic @-@ Republican party congress to be Madison 's vice presidential running mate in the 1812 presidential election , although the nomination was first offered to John Langdon . He was viewed as a relatively safe choice who would attract Northern votes but not pose a threat to James Monroe , who was thought likely to succeed Madison . Madison easily won reelection , and Gerry took the oath of office at Elmwood in March 1813 . At that time the office of vice president was largely a sinecure ; Gerry 's duties included advancing the administration 's agenda in Congress and dispensing patronage positions in New England . Gerry 's actions in support of the War of 1812 had a partisan edge : he expressed concerns over a possible Federalist seizure of Fort Adams ( as Boston 's Fort Independence was then known ) as a prelude to Anglo @-@ Federalist cooperation , and sought the arrest of printers of Federalist newspapers .
On November 23 , 1814 , he fell seriously ill while visiting Joseph Nourse of the treasury department , and died not long after returning to his home in the Seven Buildings . He is buried in the Congressional Cemetery in Washington , D. C. , with a memorial by John Frazee . He is the only signer of the Declaration buried in the nation 's capital . The estate he left his wife and children was rich in land and poor in cash ; he had managed to repay his brother 's debts with his pay as vice president .
= = Legacy = =
Gerry is generally remembered for the use of his name in the word gerrymander , for his refusal to sign the United States Constitution , and for his role in the XYZ Affair . His path through the politics of the age has been difficult to characterize ; early biographers , including his son @-@ in @-@ law James T. Austin and Samuel Eliot Morison , struggled to explain his apparent changes in position . Biographer George Athan Billias posits that Gerry was a consistent advocate and practitioner of republicanism as it was originally envisioned , and that his role in the Constitutional Convention had a significant impact on the document it eventually produced .
Gerry had ten children , of which seven survived into adulthood : Gerry 's son , James Thompson Gerry , commanded the USS Albany ( 1846 ) , a United States Navy war sloop , which went down with all hands in 1854 .
Catharine ( 1787 – 1850 )
Eliza ( 1791 – 1882 )
Ann ( 1791 – 1883 )
Elbridge , Jr . ( 1793 – 1867 )
Thomas Russell ( 1794 – 1848 )
Helen Maria ( 1796 – 1864 )
James Thompson Gerry ( 1797 – 1854 ) left West Point upon his father 's death and was Commander of the war @-@ sloop USS Albany ( 1846 ) ; the sloop disappeared with all hands 28 or 29 September 1854 near the West Indies .
Gerry 's grandson , Elbridge Gerry ( 1813 – 1886 ) , was a member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Maine. and another grandson Elbridge Thomas Gerry became a distinguished lawyer and philanthropist in New York . His great @-@ grandson , Peter G. Gerry ( 1879 – 1957 ) , was a member of the U.S. House of Representatives and a United States Senator from Rhode Island .
Gerry is depicted in John Trumbull 's Declaration of Independence . The painting was reproduced on the reverse of the two @-@ dollar bill beginning in 1976 .
The upstate New York town of Elbridge is believed to have been named in his honor , as is the western New York town of Gerry , in Chautauqua County . The town of Phillipston , Massachusetts was originally incorporated in 1786 under the name Gerry in his honor , but was changed to its present name after the town submitted a petition in 1812 , citing Democratic @-@ Republican support for the War of 1812 .
Gerry 's Landing Road in Cambridge , Massachusetts is located near the Eliot Bridge not far from Elmwood . During the 19th century , the area was known as Gerry 's Landing ( formerly known as Sir Richard 's Landing ) , and was used by a Gerry relative for a short time as a landing and storehouse . The supposed house of his birth , the Elbridge Gerry House ( it is uncertain whether he was born in the house currently standing on the site or an earlier structure ) stands in Marblehead , and that town 's Elbridge Gerry School is named in his honor .
= No. 1 Operational Training Unit RAAF =
No. 1 Operational Training Unit ( No. 1 OTU ) was an operational conversion unit of the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) during World War II . Formed in December 1941 at Nhill , Victoria , it relocated to Bairnsdale in mid @-@ 1942 , and then to East Sale the following year . No. 1 OTU 's primary role was to train aircrew for multi @-@ engined aircraft operations . At its peak of activity in August 1944 , it was operating over 130 aircraft , the most numerous being Bristol Beauforts . Its aircraft and personnel also conducted transport missions in New Guinea and maritime patrols in southern Australian waters . Following the end of hostilities , the unit was disbanded in December 1945 .
= = History = =
During World War II , the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) established several operational training units to convert recently graduated pilots from advanced trainers to combat aircraft , and to add fighting ability to the flying skills they had already learned . No. 1 Operational Training Unit ( No. 1 OTU ) was formed at Nhill , Victoria , on 8 December 1941 , under the control of Southern Area Command . Its inaugural commanding officer was Wing Commander A.I.G. Carr . The unit 's purpose was to train pilots , air observers and wireless air gunners for multi @-@ engine aircraft operations . The first courses commenced on 22 December . After preliminary training , pilots went through a six @-@ week conversion to Lockheed Hudsons and Bristol Beauforts , while observers and gunners underwent instruction on Airspeed Oxfords and Avro Ansons . Their training included bombing , gunnery , navigation , evasive action , ship recognition and maritime reconnaissance .
Nhill was always meant to be a temporary location for No. 1 OTU , whose home was to be East Sale , also in Victoria . As accommodation at East Sale would not be available until October 1942 , the school 's 1 @,@ 630 personnel were relocated to Bairnsdale in June and July . The base 's living quarters , recreational buildings and 88 tents could not fully accommodate this influx , so the RAAF rented hotels in Bairnsdale for 320 airmen . On 10 December 1942 , No. 1 OTU Detached Flight , consisting of 15 Hudsons and 108 personnel including air and maintenance crews , was sent to North @-@ Eastern Area Command to help fulfill urgent transport requirements in New Guinea . This force joined a military Douglas DC @-@ 2 and eleven civil aircraft pressed into service to form RAAF Special Transport Flight , which operated out of Wards Airfield from 14 December 1942 to 11 January 1943 . The Hudsons flew 645 sorties , carrying some 1 @,@ 100 troops and almost 800 tons of equipment . Two of the Hudsons were lost , one to enemy action and one to friendly fire , and several were damaged .
By April 1943 , No. 1 OTU 's complement had grown to 2 @,@ 411 personnel . Over a four @-@ day period beginning 20 April , the unit relocated to East Sale , utilising 110 tenders in 535 trips along the Princes Highway . Its fleet of aircraft included 55 Beauforts , 35 Oxfords , 25 Hudsons , 14 Fairey Battles and one de Havilland Tiger Moth . Training courses commenced at the new base the day after the move was completed . One of the students on the first course at East Sale was future Prime Minister Gough Whitlam . Group Captain Bill Garing served as commanding officer from August 1943 to February 1944 . He set an Australian record on 19 January 1944 , when he landed a Tiger Moth atop the 5 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 500 m ) Mount Wellington , to retrieve an injured stockman . Garing also took measures to
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allay concerns among crews regarding the Australian @-@ built Beaufort , which appeared to have a mysterious fault that caused many fatalities . By the time No. 1 OCU moved to East Sale , it had suffered 47 accidents involving Beauforts . Garing organised an aerobatic display by a Beaufort for the benefit of students , and an open day at the base on 16 October 1943 ; he also ordered extensive ground testing on the aircraft . Accidents continued to occur , however , and it was ultimately through the efforts of Wing Commander Charles Learmonth immediately prior to his death in a Beaufort off the Western Australian coast that the nature of the problem was recognised and overcome .
As well as maintaining its training program , No. 1 OTU was required to periodically release instructors , students and aircraft for maritime patrols to protect Australian shipping lanes . In April 1943 , six Hudsons were attached to No. 32 Squadron at Camden , New South Wales , for convoy escort and anti @-@ submarine duties . A year later , four Beauforts were deployed to Mount Gambier , South Australia , to carry out a two @-@ day escort for the Dutch transport ship Van Ruys . Beauforts from No. 1 OTU were also ordered to locate and destroy the German U @-@ Boat U @-@ 862 , which had shelled the Greek tanker Illosis off Kingston , South Australia , on 9 December 1944 . Although the submarine was not sunk , it was apparently frightened off by the presence of the Beauforts and aircraft from other RAAF units in the vicinity . No. 1 OTU 's intensive training regime included night flying , so that it operated almost round the clock . Flying effort reached a peak in August 1944 , when 132 aircraft made 2 @,@ 479 flights , instructing 221 students . The unit had by this time logged over 100 @,@ 000 flying hours . It trained a total of 2 @,@ 150 aircrew on Beauforts during the war , and suffered 147 aircraft accidents on instructional and operational fights in Australia and New Guinea , resulting in the loss of 131 aircrew killed or missing . Post @-@ war demobilisation saw the disbandment of all the RAAF 's operational training units ; No. 1 OTU was dissolved in December 1945 .
= A Hero 's Song =
A Hero 's Song ( Czech : Píseň bohatýrská ) , Op. 111 , B. 199 , also called Heroic Song for Orchestra , is a symphonic poem for orchestra composed by Antonín Dvořák between August 4 and October 25 , 1897 . It was premiered in Vienna in on December 4 , 1898 , with Gustav Mahler conducting the Vienna Philharmonic , and was later published in Berlin in 1899 . Unlike Dvořák 's other symphonic poems , this work is not based upon a specific text , and it may have been intended to be autobiographical . The piece is mostly energetic and triumphant , but it includes a slower section containing a funeral march . A typical performance lasts approximately 22 minutes .
= = Instrumentation = =
The symphonic poem is scored for an orchestra of two flutes , two oboes , two clarinets , two bassoons , four horns , two trumpets , three trombones , one tuba , timpani , bass drum , cymbals , triangle and strings . The piece 's instrumentation is significant because it lacks harp , unusual percussion , and nonstandard woodwinds – a simpler orchestra than most of Dvořák 's other orchestral works . This is because the piece does not attempt to convey a story , but merely portrays two contrasting moods : despair ( during the lacrimosa section ) and triumph .
= = History = =
A Hero 's Song was Dvořák 's last orchestral work and the final of his five symphonic poems , the others being The Water Goblin , The Noon Witch , The Golden Spinning Wheel , and The Wild Dove ( Opp . 107 – 110 ) . It is also the last instance of him writing purely instrumental music , as he dedicated himself to vocal and operatic works after its completion . He began working on the piece on August 4 , 1897 , immediately after revising the third act of his opera The Jacobin . The work was completed in three months , during which time Dvořák lived at his summer residence in his hometown of Příbram , and spent time at his chateau of the patron Josef Hlávka in Lužany . The piece was completed on October 25 of the same year , and was published in 1899 by Fritz Simrock in Berlin . The symphonic poem coincidentally anticipated Richard Strauss 's similar tone poem Ein Heldenleben ( A Hero 's Life ) , which was composed a year later . In fact , Dvořák originally intended to title the piece A Hero 's Life , a name which had been suggested to him by his pupil Vítězslav Novák .
The work was premiered by the Vienna Philharmonic on December 4 , 1898 , conducted by Gustav Mahler , a friend and supporter of Dvořák . Mahler wrote to Dvořák before the premiere , " I have just received your second work ' The Hero 's Song ' and , as with [ The Wild Dove ] , am quite enchanted with it . " Dvořák was present at the premier and had planned to conduct it himself with the Berlin Philharmonic on November 14 , 1899 , but cancelled his plans due to a sudden nervous breakdown – in Dvořák 's words , " I was so indisposed that I had to leave Berlin with my wife without even seeing Simrock . " The piece had been performed the previous day , conducted by Arthur Nikisch . It was also performed in London , Hamburg , Boston and Leipzig in October and November 1899 . Dvořák was finally able to personally conduct the piece in Budapest in December of that year .
= = Content = =
Dvořák often adapted Bohemian folklore for his compositions , and his previous four symphonic poems were based on actual poems by the Czech poet Karel Jaromír Erben , especially Erben 's collection of ballads Kytice . A Hero 's Song broke away from this pattern of programmatic symphonic works , as Dvořák did not specify a specific accompanying text , and he only roughly outlined its plot in a later letter . The lack of a fixed programme has been hypothesized as a reason for its relative neglect when compared to Dvořák 's other symphonic works . It has also been suggested that the work was intended to be autobiographical , an unusual approach for Dvořák . This was Dvořák 's only symphonic poem that pursued Franz Liszt 's idealized view of the genre , as Dvořák 's other four works were based on eerie subjects not appropriate to Liszt 's conception .
A Hero 's Song is musically structured like a four @-@ movement symphony , beginning with an allegro con fuoco , transitioning to a slow poco adagio lacrimosa , then including a scherzo and concluding with a coda . The piece is based on a short , energetic theme in B @-@ flat minor played in the violas , cellos , and basses at the start of the piece . This theme is featured in various forms throughout the first section . Following this , a slow section is marked by quiet music which symbolizes the hero 's grief . It includes a funeral march , a musical form Dvořák also used in his Requiem , Stabat Mater , and Piano Quintet No. 2 . The hero recovers from his grief as the mood of the music gradually brightens and goes into B @-@ flat major , leading into the dance @-@ like scherzo . Finally , the triumph of the hero is represented by the victorious coda . The piece has a run time of approximately 22 minutes .
Although it is much less popular than Dvořák 's other symphonic poems , A Hero 's Song has been described as " an uninhibited outpouring of joyous energy " and " musically as rich as its siblings written one year earlier " , while its lacrimosa section is " full of sadness and longing . " Its character has been described as " a variation on Beethoven 's style , " Mahler 's slight influence has been noted in the funeral march , and the ending has been compared to the patriotic music of Edward Elgar .
= George S. Patton =
George Smith Patton Jr . ( November 11 , 1885 – December 21 , 1945 ) was a senior officer of the United States Army , who commanded the U.S. Seventh Army in the Mediterranean and European Theaters of World War II , but is best known for his leadership of the U.S. Third Army in France and Germany following the Allied invasion of Normandy in June 1944 .
Born in 1885 to a family with an extensive military background ( with members serving in the United States Army and Confederate States Army ) , Patton attended the Virginia Military Institute , and later the U.S. Military Academy at West Point . He participated in the 1912 Olympic Modern Pentathlon , where he placed fifth . After the Olympics Patton studied in France with M. L ’ Adjutant Clery , reputed to be the finest Fencing Master in Europe . Patton also designed the M1913 Cavalry Saber , more commonly known as the “ Patton Sword . ” The War Department ordered 20 @,@ 000 of them in 1913 . Later the same year Patton was assigned as a student and “ Master of the Sword , ” the top instructor in a new course in swordsmanship , at the Mounted Service School in Fort Riley , Kansas . It was here he wrote “ Saber Exercise 1914 , ” using easy @-@ to @-@ follow steps accompanied by detailed illustrations . The following year he wrote a more informal guide , “ Diary of the Instructor in Swordsmanship , ” at the request of his students who wanted more detailed training guidance . Patton first saw combat during the Pancho Villa Expedition in 1916 , taking part in America 's first military action using motor vehicles . He later joined the newly formed United States Tank Corps of the American Expeditionary Forces and saw action in World War I , commanding the U.S. tank school in France before being wounded while leading tanks into combat near the end of the war . In the interwar period , Patton remained a central figure in the development of armored warfare doctrine in the U.S. Army , serving in numerous staff positions throughout the country . Rising through the ranks , he commanded the U.S. 2nd Armored Division at the time of the U.S. entry into World War II .
Patton led U.S. troops into the Mediterranean theater with an invasion of Casablanca during Operation Torch in 1942 , where he later established himself as an effective commander through his rapid rehabilitation of the demoralized U.S. II Corps . He commanded the U.S. Seventh Army during the Allied invasion of Sicily , where he was the first Allied commander to reach Messina . There he was embroiled in controversy after he slapped two shell @-@ shocked soldiers under his command , and was temporarily removed from battlefield command for other duties such as participating in Operation Fortitude 's disinformation campaign for Operation Overlord . Patton returned to command the Third Army following the invasion of Normandy in 1944 , where he led a highly successful , rapid armored drive across France . He led the relief of beleaguered American troops at Bastogne during the Battle of the Bulge , and advanced his army into Nazi Germany by the end of the war .
After the war , Patton became the military governor of Bavaria , but he was relieved of this post because of his statements on denazification . He commanded the U.S. Fifteenth Army for slightly more than two months . Patton died in Germany on December 21 , 1945 , as a result of injuries from an automobile accident there twelve days earlier .
Patton 's colorful image , hard @-@ driving personality and success as a commander were at times overshadowed by his controversial public statements , including private racist and antisemitic remarks . His philosophy of leading from the front and his ability to inspire troops with vulgarity @-@ ridden speeches , such as a famous address to the Third Army , attracted favorable attention . His strong emphasis on rapid and aggressive offensive action proved effective . While Allied leaders held sharply differing opinions on Patton , he was regarded highly by his opponents in the German High Command . A popular , award @-@ winning biographical film released in 1970 helped transform Patton into an American folk hero .
= = Early life and education = =
Patton was born on November 11 , 1885 , in San Gabriel , California , to George Smith Patton Sr. and his wife Ruth Wilson . Patton had a younger sister , Anne . The family was of Irish , Scots @-@ Irish , English , and Welsh ancestry . His great grandmother came from an aristocratic Welsh family , descended from many Welsh lords of Glamorgan , which had an extensive military background . Patton 's ancestry was far more than genealogy to him . It included his heroes and role models ; he communed with them in times of crisis , emulated them , and sensed that they beckoned him to his destiny . His imagination blended past and present ; he believed he had former lives as a soldier and took pride in deep mystical ties with his warrior ancestors .
Though not directly descended from George Washington , Patton traced some of his English colonial roots to George Washington 's great @-@ grandfather . He was also descended from England 's King Edward I ( aka " Longshanks " ) through Edward 's son Edmund of Woodstock , 1st Earl of Kent . Family belief held the Pattons were descended from no less than sixteen barons who had signed the Magna Carta .
The first Patton in America was born Robert Patton in Ayr , Ayrshire , Scotland , and emigrated to Culpeper , Virginia from Glasgow , Scotland in either 1769 or 1770 . George Patton also descended from Hugh Mercer , who had been killed in the Battle of Princeton during the American Revolution . Patton 's paternal grandfather was Colonel George Smith Patton , who commanded the Confederate 22nd Virginia Infantry under Jubal Early in the Civil War and was killed in the Third Battle of Winchester , while his great uncle Colonel Waller T. Patton was killed while leading the Confederate 7th Virginia Infantry in Pickett 's Charge during the Battle of Gettysburg .
Patton 's father graduated from the Virginia Military Institute ( VMI ) , became a lawyer and later the district attorney of Los Angeles County . Patton 's maternal grandfather was Benjamin Davis Wilson , who had been Mayor of Los Angeles and a successful merchant . The family was prosperous , and George Patton spent his childhood on the family 's 2 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 810 ha ) estate .
As a child , Patton had difficulty learning to read and write , but eventually overcame this and was known in his adult life to be an avid reader . He was tutored from home until the age of eleven , when he was enrolled in Stephen Clark 's School for Boys , a private school in Pasadena , for six years . Patton was described as an intelligent boy and was widely read on classical military history , particularly the exploits of Hannibal , Scipio Africanus , Julius Caesar , Joan of Arc , and Napoleon Bonaparte , as well as family friend John Singleton Mosby , who frequently stopped by the Patton family home when George S. Patton was a child . He was also a devoted horseback rider . During a family summer trip to Catalina Island in 1902 , Patton met Beatrice Banning Ayer , the daughter of Boston industrialist Frederick Ayer . The two wed on May 26 , 1910 in Beverly Farms , Massachusetts . They had three children , Beatrice Smith ( born March 1911 ) , Ruth Ellen ( born February 1915 ) , and George Patton IV ( born December 1923 ) .
Patton never seriously considered a career other than the military . At the age of seventeen he wrote a letter to Senator Thomas R. Bard , seeking an appointment to the United States Military Academy . Bard required Patton to complete an entrance exam . Fearing a poor performance , Patton and his father applied to several universities with Reserve Officer 's Training Corps programs . Patton was accepted to Princeton University but eventually decided on the Virginia Military Institute . He attended VMI from 1903 to 1904 and struggled with reading and writing but performed exceptionally in uniform and appearance inspection as well as military drill , earning the admiration of fellow cadets and the respect of upperclassmen . While at VMI , Patton became a member of the Kappa Alpha Order fraternity . On March 3 , 1904 , after Patton continued letter @-@ writing and good performance in the entrance exam , Bard recommended him for West Point .
In his plebe year at West Point , Patton adjusted easily to the routine . Still , his academic performance was so poor that he was forced to repeat his first year after failing mathematics . Studying throughout his summer break , Patton returned and showed substantial academic improvement . For the remainder of his career at the academy , Patton excelled at military drills though his academic performance remained average . He was cadet sergeant major his junior year , and cadet adjutant his senior year . He also joined the football team but injured his arm and ceased playing on several occasions , instead trying out for the Sword Team and track and field , quickly becoming one of the best swordsmen at the academy . Patton graduated from the academy ranked 46 out of 103 . He graduated from West Point on June 11 , 1909 and was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the cavalry .
= = Junior officer = =
Patton 's first posting was with the 15th Cavalry at Fort Sheridan , Illinois , where he established himself as a hard @-@ driving leader who impressed superiors with his dedication . In late 1911 , Patton was transferred to Fort Myer , Virginia , where many of the Army 's senior leaders were stationed . Befriending Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson , Patton served as his aide at social functions on top of his regular duties as quartermaster for his troop .
= = = 1912 Olympics = = =
For his skill with running and fencing , Patton was selected as the Army 's entry for the first @-@ ever modern pentathlon for the 1912 Olympic Games in Stockholm , Sweden . Of 42 competitors , Patton placed twenty @-@ first on the pistol range , seventh in swimming , fourth in fencing , sixth in the equestrian competition , and third in the footrace , finishing fifth overall and the first non @-@ Swede . There was some controversy concerning his performance in the pistol shooting competition , where he used a .38 caliber pistol while most of the other competitors chose .22 caliber firearms . He claimed that the holes in the paper from his early shots were so large that some of his later bullets passed through them , but the judges decided he missed the target completely once . Modern competitions on this level frequently now employ a moving background to specifically track multiple shots through the same hole . If his assertion was correct , Patton would likely have won an Olympic medal in the event . The judges ' ruling was upheld . Patton 's only comment on the matter was :
The high spirit of sportsmanship and generosity manifested throughout speaks volumes for the character of the officers of the present day . There was not a single incident of a protest or any unsportsmanlike quibbling or fighting for points which I may say , marred some of the other civilian competitions at the Olympic Games . Each man did his best and took what fortune sent them like a true soldier , and at the end we all felt more like good friends and comrades than rivals in a severe competition , yet this spirit of friendship in no manner detracted from the zeal with which all strove for success .
= = = Sword design = = =
Following the 1912 Olympics , Patton traveled to Saumur , France , where he learned fencing techniques from Adjutant Charles Cléry , a French " master of arms " and instructor of fencing at the cavalry school there . Bringing these lessons back to Fort Meyer , Patton redesigned saber combat doctrine for the U.S. cavalry , favoring thrusting attacks over the standard slashing maneuver and designing a new sword for such attacks . He was temporarily assigned to the Office of the Army Chief of Staff , and in 1913 , the first 20 @,@ 000 of the Model 1913 Cavalry Saber — popularly known as the " Patton sword " — were ordered . Patton then returned to Saumur to learn advanced techniques before bringing his skills to the Mounted Service School at Fort Riley , Kansas , where he would be both a student and a fencing instructor . He was the first Army officer to be designated " Master of the Sword , " a title denoting the school 's top instructor in swordsmanship . Arriving in September 1913 , he taught fencing to other cavalry officers , many of whom were senior to him in rank . Patton graduated from this school in June 1915 . He was originally intended to return to the 15th Cavalry , which was bound for the Philippines . Fearing this assignment would dead @-@ end his career , Patton traveled to Washington , D.C. during 11 days of leave and convinced influential friends to arrange a reassignment for him to the 8th Cavalry at Fort Bliss , Texas , anticipating that instability in Mexico might boil over into a full @-@ scale civil war . In the meantime , Patton was selected to participate in the 1916 Summer Olympics , but those Games were cancelled due to World War I.
= = Pancho Villa Expedition = =
In 1915 Patton was assigned to border patrol duty with A Company of the 8th Cavalry , based in Sierra Blanca . During his time in this rough border town , Patton took to wearing his M1911 Colt .45 in his belt rather than a holster . This firearm discharged one night in a saloon , so he swapped it for an ivory @-@ handled Colt Single Action Army revolver , a weapon that would later become an icon of Patton 's image . He transferred to Fort Leonard Wood , Missouri , for a brief time later in 1915 .
In March 1916 Mexican forces loyal to Pancho Villa crossed into New Mexico and raided the border town of Columbus . The violence in Columbus killed several Americans . In response , the U.S. launched a punitive expedition into Mexico against Villa . Chagrined to discover that his unit would not participate , Patton appealed to expedition commander John J. Pershing , and was named his personal aide for the expedition . This meant Patton would have some role in organizing the effort , and his eagerness and dedication to the task impressed Pershing . Patton modeled much of his leadership style after Pershing , who favored strong , decisive actions and commanding from the front . As an aide , Patton oversaw the logistics of Pershing 's transportation and acted as his personal courier .
In mid @-@ April , Patton asked Pershing for the opportunity to command troops , and was attached to Troop C of the 13th Cavalry to assist in the manhunt for Villa and his subordinates . His initial combat experience came on May 14 , 1916 in what would become the first motorized attack in the history of U.S. warfare . A force under his command of ten soldiers and two civilian guides with the 6th Infantry in three Dodge touring cars surprised three of Villa 's men during a foraging expedition , killing Julio Cárdenas and two of his guards . It was not clear if Patton personally killed any of the men , but he was known to have wounded all three . The incident garnered Patton both Pershing 's good favor and widespread media attention as a " bandit killer . " Shortly after , he was promoted to first lieutenant while a part of the 10th Cavalry on May 23 , 1916 . Patton remained in Mexico until the end of the year . President Woodrow Wilson forbade the expedition from conducting aggressive patrols deeper into Mexico , so it remained encamped for much of that time . In October Patton briefly retired to California after being burned by an exploding gas lamp . He returned from the expedition permanently in February 1917 .
= = World War I = =
After the Villa Expedition , Patton was detailed to Front Royal , Virginia , to oversee horse procurement for the Army , but Pershing intervened on his behalf . After the U.S. entered World War I , and Pershing was named commander of the American Expeditionary Forces ( AEF ) , Patton requested to join his staff . Patton was promoted to captain on May 15 , 1917 and left for Europe , among the 180 men of Pershing 's advance party which departed May 28 and arrived in Liverpool on 8 June . Taken as Pershing 's personal aide , Patton oversaw the training of American troops in Paris until September , then moved to Chaumont and assigned as a post adjutant , commanding the headquarters company overseeing the base . Patton was dissatisfied with the post and began to take an interest in tanks , as Pershing sought to give him command of an infantry battalion . While in a hospital for jaundice , Patton met Colonel Fox Conner , who encouraged him to work with tanks over infantry .
On November 10 , 1917 Patton was assigned to establish the AEF Light Tank School . He left Paris and reported to the French Army 's tank training school at Champlieu near Orrouy , where he drove a Renault FT light tank . On November 20 , the British launched an offensive towards the important rail center of Cambrai , using an unprecedented number of tanks . At the conclusion of his tour on December 1 , Patton went to Albert , 30 miles ( 48 km ) from Cambrai , to be briefed on the results of this attack by the chief of staff of the British Tank Corps , Colonel J. F. C. Fuller . On the way back to Paris , he visited the Renault factory to observe the tanks being manufactured . Patton was promoted to major on January 26 , 1918 . He received the first ten tanks on March 23 , 1918 at the Tank School at Langres , Haute @-@ Marne département . The only soldier with tank @-@ driving experience , Patton personally backed seven of the tanks off the train . In the post , Patton trained tank crews to operate in support of infantry , and promoted its acceptance among reluctant infantry officers . He was promoted to lieutenant colonel on April 3 , 1918 , and attended the Army General Staff College in Langres .
In August 1918 , he was placed in charge of the U.S. 1st Provisional Tank Brigade ( re @-@ designated the 304th Tank Brigade on November 6 , 1918 ) . Patton 's Light Tank Brigade was part of Colonel Samuel Rockenbach 's Tank Corps , part of the First United States Army . Personally overseeing the logistics of the tanks in their first combat use by U.S. forces , and reconnoitering the target area for their first attack himself , Patton ordered that no U.S. tank be surrendered . Patton commanded American @-@ crewed Renault FT tanks at the Battle of Saint @-@ Mihiel , leading the tanks from the front for much of their attack , which began on September 12 . He walked in front of the tanks into the German @-@ held village of Essey , and rode on top of a tank during the attack into Pannes , seeking to inspire his men .
Patton 's brigade was then moved to support U.S. I Corps in the Meuse @-@ Argonne Offensive on September 26 . He personally led a troop of tanks through thick fog as they advanced 5 miles ( 8 km ) into German lines . Around 09 : 00 , Patton was wounded while leading six men and a tank in an attack on German machine guns near the town of Cheppy . His orderly , Private First Class Joe Angelo , saved Patton , for which he was later awarded the Distinguished Service Cross . Patton commanded the battle from a shell hole for another hour before being evacuated . He stopped at a rear command post to submit his report before heading to a hospital . Sereno E. Brett , commander of the U.S. 326th Tank Battalion , took command of the brigade in Patton 's absence . Patton wrote in a letter to his wife : " The bullet went into the front of my left leg and came out just at the crack of my bottom about two inches to the left of my rectum . It was fired at about 50 m so made a hole about the size of a [ silver ] dollar where it came out . "
While recuperating from his wound , Patton was promoted to colonel in the Tank Corps of the U.S. National Army on October 17 . He returned to duty on October 28 but saw no further action before hostilities ended with the armistice of November 11 , 1918 . For his actions in Cheppy , Patton received the Distinguished Service Cross . For his leadership of the brigade and tank school , he was awarded the Distinguished Service Medal . He was also awarded the Purple Heart for his combat wounds after the decoration was created in 1932 .
= = Inter @-@ war years = =
Patton left France for New York City on March 2 , 1919 . After the war he was assigned to Camp Meade , Maryland , and reverted to his permanent rank of captain on June 30 , 1920 , though he was promoted to major again the next day . Patton was given temporary duty in Washington D.C. that year to serve on a committee writing a manual on tank operations . During this time he developed a belief that tanks should be used not as infantry support , but rather as an independent fighting force . Patton supported the M1919 tank design created by J. Walter Christie , a project which was shelved due to financial considerations . While on duty in Washington , D.C. , in 1919 , Patton met Dwight D. Eisenhower , who would play an enormous role in Patton 's future career . During and following Patton 's assignment in Hawaii , he and Eisenhower corresponded frequently . Patton sent Eisenhower notes and assistance to help him graduate from the General Staff College . With Christie , Eisenhower , and a handful of other officers , Patton pushed for more development of armored warfare in the interwar era . These thoughts resonated with Secretary of War Dwight Davis , but the limited military budget and prevalence of already @-@ established Infantry and Cavalry branches meant the U.S. would not develop its armored corps much until 1940 .
On September 30 , 1920 he relinquished command of the 304th Tank Brigade and was reassigned to Fort Myer as commander of 3rd Squadron , 3rd Cavalry . Patton , loathing duty as a peacetime staff officer , spent much time writing technical papers and giving speeches on his combat experiences at the General Staff College . In July 1921 Patton became a member of the American Legion Tank Corps Post No. 19 . From 1922 to mid @-@ 1923 he attended the Field Officer 's Course at the Cavalry School at Fort Riley , then he attended the Command and General Staff College from mid @-@ 1923 to mid @-@ 1924 , graduating 25th out of 248 . In August 1923 , Patton saved several children from drowning when they fell off a yacht during a boating trip off Salem , Massachusetts . He was awarded the Silver Lifesaving Medal for this action . He was temporarily appointed to the General Staff Corps in Boston , Massachusetts , before being reassigned as G @-@ 1 and G @-@ 2 of the Hawaiian Division at Schofield Barracks in Honolulu in March 1925 .
Patton was made G @-@ 3 of the Hawaiian Division for several months , before being transferred in May 1927 to the Office of the Chief of Cavalry in Washington , D.C. , where he began to develop the concepts of mechanized warfare . A short @-@ lived experiment to merge infantry , cavalry and artillery into a combined arms force was cancelled after U.S. Congress removed funding . Patton left this office in 1931 , returned to Massachusetts and attended the Army War College , becoming a " Distinguished Graduate " in June 1932 .
In July 1932 , Patton was executive officer of the 3rd Cavalry , which was ordered to Washington by Army Chief of Staff General Douglas MacArthur . Patton took command of the 600 troops of the 3rd Cavalry , and on July 28 , MacArthur ordered Patton 's troops to advance on protesting veterans known as the " Bonus Army " with tear gas and bayonets . Patton was dissatisfied with MacArthur 's conduct , as he recognized the legitimacy of the veterans ' complaints and had himself earlier refused to issue the order to employ armed force to disperse the veterans . Patton later stated that , though he found the duty " most distasteful " , he also felt that putting the marchers down prevented an insurrection and saved lives and property . He personally led the 3rd Cavalry down Pennsylvania Avenue , dispersing the protesters . Patton also encountered his former orderly as one of the marchers and forcibly ordered him away , fearing such a meeting might make the headlines .
Patton was promoted to lieutenant colonel in the regular Army on March 1 , 1934 , and was transferred to the Hawaiian Division in early 1935 to serve as G @-@ 2 . Patton followed the growing hostility and conquest aspirations , of the militant Japanese leadership . He wrote a plan to intern the Japanese living in the islands in the event of an attack , as a result of the atrocities carried out by Japanese on the Chinese in the Sino @-@ Japanese war . In 1937 , he wrote a paper with the title " Surprise " which predicted , with what D 'Este termed " chilling accuracy , " a surprise attack by the Japanese on Hawaii . Depressed at the lack of prospects for new conflict , Patton took to drinking heavily and began a brief affair with his 21 @-@ year @-@ old niece by marriage , Jean Gordon .
Patton continued playing polo and sailing in this time . After sailing back to Los Angeles for extended leave in 1937 , he was kicked by a horse and fractured his leg . Patton developed phlebitis from the injury , which nearly killed him . The incident almost forced Patton out of active service , but a six @-@ month administrative assignment in the Academic Department at the Cavalry School at Fort Riley helped him to recover . Patton was promoted to colonel on July 24 , 1938 and given command of the 5th Cavalry at Fort Clark , Texas , for six months , a post he relished , but he was reassigned to Fort Myer again in December as commander of the 3rd Cavalry . There , he met Army Chief of Staff George C. Marshall , who was so impressed with him that Marshall considered Patton a prime candidate for promotion to general . In peacetime , though , he would remain a colonel to remain eligible to command a regiment .
= = World War II = =
Following the invasion of Poland and the outbreak of World War II in Europe in 1939 , the U.S. military entered a period of mobilization , and Patton sought to build up the power of U.S. armored forces . During maneuvers the Third United States Army conducted in 1940 , Patton served as an umpire , where he met Adna R. Chaffee Jr. and the two formulated recommendations to develop an armored force . Chaffee was named commander of this force , and created the U.S. 1st Armored Division and U.S. 2nd Armored Division as well as the first combined arms doctrine . He named Patton commander of the 2nd Armored Brigade , 2nd Armored Division . The division was one of few organized as a heavy formation with a large number of tanks , and Patton was in charge of its training . Patton was promoted to brigadier general on October 2 , made acting division commander in November , and on April 4 , 1941 was promoted again to major general and made division commander of the 2nd Armored Division . As Chaffee stepped down from command of the U.S. I Armored Corps , Patton became the most prominent figure in U.S. armor doctrine . In December 1940 , he staged a high @-@ profile mass exercise in which 1 @,@ 000 tanks and vehicles were driven from Columbus , Georgia , to Panama City , Florida , and back . He repeated the exercise with his entire division of 1 @,@ 300 vehicles the next month . Patton earned a pilot 's license and , during these maneuvers , observed the movements of his vehicles from the air to find ways to deploy them effectively in combat . His exploits earned him a spot on the cover of Life Magazine .
Patton led the division during the Tennessee Maneuvers in June 1941 , and was lauded for his leadership , executing 48 hours ' worth of planned objectives in only nine . During the September Louisiana Maneuvers , his division was part of the losing Red Army in Phase I , but in Phase II was assigned to the Blue Army . His division executed a 400 @-@ mile ( 640 km ) end run around the Red Army and " captured " Shreveport , Louisiana . During the October – November Carolina Maneuvers , Patton 's division captured Hugh Drum , commander of the opposing army . On January 15 , 1942 he was given command of I Armored Corps , and the next month established the Desert Training Center in the Imperial Valley to run training exercises . He commenced these exercises in late 1941 and continued them into the summer of 1942 . Patton chose a 10 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 40 km2 ) expanse of desert area about 50 miles ( 80 km ) southeast of Palm Springs . From his first days as a commander , Patton strongly emphasized the need for armored forces to stay in constant contact with opposing forces . His instinctive preference for offensive movement was typified by an answer Patton gave to war correspondents in a 1944 press conference . In response to a question on whether the Third Army 's rapid offensive across France should be slowed to reduce the number of U.S. casualties , Patton replied , " Whenever you slow anything down , you waste human lives . " It was around this time that a reporter , after hearing a speech where Patton said that it took " blood and brains " to win in combat , began calling him " blood and guts . " The nickname would follow him for the rest of his life . Soldiers under his command at were known at times quipped , " our blood , his guts " . Nonetheless , he was known to be admired widely by the men under his charge . Patton was also known simply as " The Old Man " among his troops .
= = = North African Campaign = = =
Under Eisenhower , Patton was assigned to help plan the invasion of French North Africa as part of Operation Torch in the summer of 1942 . Patton commanded the Western Task Force , consisting of 33 @,@ 000 men in 100 ships , in landings centered on Casablanca , Morocco . The landings , which took place on November 8 , 1942 , were opposed by Vichy French forces , but Patton 's men quickly gained a beachhead and pushed through fierce resistance . Casablanca fell on November 11 and Patton negotiated an armistice with French General Charles Noguès . The Sultan of Morocco was so impressed that he presented Patton with the Order of Ouissam Alaouite , with the citation " Les Lions dans leurs tanières tremblent en le voyant approcher " ( The lions in their dens tremble at his approach ) . Patton oversaw the conversion of Casablanca into a military port and hosted the Casablanca Conference in January 1943 .
On March 6 , 1943 , following the defeat of the U.S. II Corps by the German Afrika Korps at the Battle of Kasserine Pass , Patton replaced Major General Lloyd Fredendall as commander of the II Corps and was promoted to lieutenant general . Soon thereafter , he had Omar Bradley reassigned to his corps as its deputy commander . With orders to take the battered and demoralized formation into action in 10 days ' time , Patton immediately introduced sweeping changes , ordering all soldiers to wear clean , pressed and complete uniforms , establishing rigorous schedules , and requiring strict adherence to military protocol . He continuously moved throughout the command talking with men , seeking to shape them into effective soldiers . He pushed them hard , and sought to reward them well for their accomplishments . His uncompromising leadership style is evidenced by his orders for an attack on a hill position near Gafsa which are reported to have ended " I expect to see such casualties among officers , particularly staff officers , as will convince me that a serious effort has been made to capture this objective . "
Patton 's training was effective , and on March 17 , the U.S. 1st Infantry Division took Gafsa , winning the Battle of El Guettar , and pushing a German and Italian armored force back twice . In the meantime , on April 5 , he removed Major General Orlando Ward , the commander of the 1st Armored Division , after its lackluster performance at Maknassy against numerically inferior German forces . Advancing on Gabès , Patton 's corps pressured the Mareth Line . During this time , he reported to British Army commander Harold Alexander , and came into conflict with Air Vice Marshal Arthur Coningham about the lack of close air support being provided for his troops . When Coningham dispatched three officers to Patton 's headquarters to persuade him that the British were providing ample air support , they came under German air attack mid @-@ meeting , and part of the ceiling of Patton 's office collapsed around them . Speaking later of the German pilots who had struck , Patton remarked , " if I could find the sons of bitches who flew those planes , I 'd mail each of them a medal . " By the time his force reached Gabès , the Germans had abandoned it . He then relinquished command of II Corps to Bradley , and returned to the I Armored Corps in Casablanca to help plan Operation Husky . Fearing U.S. troops would be sidelined , he convinced British commanders to allow them to continue fighting through to the end of the Tunisia Campaign before leaving on this new assignment .
= = = Sicily Campaign = = =
For Operation Husky , the invasion of Sicily , Patton was to command the Seventh United States Army , dubbed the Western Task Force , in landings at Gela , Scoglitti and Licata to support landings by Bernard Montgomery 's British Eighth Army . Patton 's I Armored Corps was officially redesignated the Seventh Army just before his force of 90 @,@ 000 landed before dawn on D @-@ Day , July 10 , 1943 , on beaches near the town of Licata . The armada was hampered by wind and weather , but despite this the three U.S. infantry divisions involved , the 3rd , 1st , and 45th , secured their respective beaches . They then repulsed counterattacks at Gela , where Patton personally led his troops against German reinforcements from the Hermann Göring Division .
Initially ordered to protect the British forces ' left flank , Patton was granted permission by Alexander to take Palermo after Montgomery 's forces became bogged down on the road to Messina . As part of a provisional corps under Major General Geoffrey Keyes , the 3rd Infantry Division under Major General Lucian Truscott covered 100 miles ( 160 km ) in 72 hours , arriving at Palermo on July 21 . He then set his sights on Messina . He sought an amphibious assault , but it was delayed by lack of landing craft , and his troops did not land at Santo Stefano until August 8 , by which time the Germans and Italians had already evacuated the bulk of their troops to mainland Italy . He ordered more landings on August 10 by the 3rd Infantry Division , which took heavy casualties but pushed the German forces back , and hastened the advance on Messina . A third landing was completed on August 16 , and by 22 :
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00 that day Messina fell to his forces . By the end of the battle , the 200 @,@ 000 @-@ man Seventh Army had suffered 7 @,@ 500 casualties , and killed or captured 113 @,@ 000 Axis troops and destroyed 3 @,@ 500 vehicles . Still , 40 @,@ 000 German and 70 @,@ 000 Italian troops escaped to Italy with 10 @,@ 000 vehicles .
Patton 's conduct in this campaign met with several controversies . When Alexander sent a transmission on July 19 limiting Patton 's attack on Messina , his chief of staff , Brigadier General Hobart R. Gay , claimed the message was " lost in transmission " until Messina had fallen . On July 22 he shot and killed a pair of mules that had stopped while pulling a cart across a bridge . The cart was blocking the way of a U.S. armored column which was under attack from German aircraft . When their Sicilian owner protested , Patton attacked him with a walking stick and pushed the two mules off of the bridge . When informed of the massacre of Italian prisoners at Biscari by troops under his command , Patton wrote in his diary , " I told Bradley that it was probably an exaggeration , but in any case to tell the officer to certify that the dead men were snipers or had attempted to escape or something , as it would make a stink in the press and also would make the civilians mad . Anyhow , they are dead , so nothing can be done about it . " Bradley refused Patton 's suggestions . Patton later changed his mind . After he learned that the 45th Division 's Inspector General found " no provocation on the part of the prisoners . . . . They had been slaughtered " Patton is reported to have said : " Try the bastards " . Patton also came into frequent disagreements with Terry de la Mesa Allen Sr. and Theodore Roosevelt Jr. and acquiesced to their relief by Bradley .
= = = Slapping incidents and aftermath = = =
Two high @-@ profile incidents of Patton striking subordinates during the Sicily campaign attracted national controversy following the end of the campaign . On August 3 , 1943 , Patton slapped and verbally abused Private Charles H. Kuhl at an evacuation hospital in Nicosia after he had been found to suffer from " battle fatigue " . On August 10 , Patton slapped Private Paul G. Bennett under similar circumstances . Ordering both soldiers back to the front lines , Patton railed against cowardice and issued orders to his commanders to discipline any soldier making similar complaints .
Word of the incident reached Eisenhower , who privately reprimanded Patton and insisted he apologize . Patton apologized to both soldiers individually , as well as to doctors who witnessed the incidents , and later to all of the soldiers under his command in several speeches . Eisenhower suppressed the incident in the media , but in November journalist Drew Pearson revealed it on his radio program . Criticism of Patton in the United States was harsh , and included members of Congress and former generals , Pershing among them . The views of the general public remained mixed on the matter , and eventually Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson stated that Patton must be retained as a commander because of the need for his " aggressive , winning leadership in the bitter battles which are to come before final victory . "
Patton did not command a force in combat for 11 months . In September , Bradley , who was Patton 's junior in both rank and experience , was selected to command the First United States Army forming in England to prepare for Operation Overlord . This decision had been made before the slapping incidents were made public , but Patton blamed them for his being denied the command . Eisenhower felt the invasion of Europe was too important to risk any uncertainty , and the slapping incidents had been an example of Patton 's inability to exercise discipline and self @-@ control . While Eisenhower and Marshall both considered Patton to be a skilled combat commander , they felt Bradley was less impulsive or prone to making mistakes . On January 26 , 1944 Patton was formally given command of the Third United States Army in England , a newly arrived unit , and assigned to prepare its inexperienced soldiers for combat in Europe . This duty kept Patton busy in early 1944 preparing for the pending invasion .
= = = Phantom Army = = =
The German High Command had more respect for Patton than for any other Allied commander and considered him central to any plan to invade Europe from the United Kingdom . Because of this , Patton was made a prominent figure in the deception operation , Fortitude , in early 1944 . The Allies fed German spies a steady stream of false intelligence that Patton had been named commander of the First United States Army Group ( FUSAG ) and was preparing this command for an invasion of Pas de Calais . The FUSAG command was in reality an intricately constructed " phantom " army of decoys , props , and fake signals traffic based around Dover to mislead German aircraft and to make Axis leaders believe a large force was massing there to mask the real location of the invasion in Normandy . Patton was ordered to keep a low profile to deceive the Germans into thinking he was in Dover throughout early 1944 , when he was actually training the Third Army . As a result of Operation Fortitude , the German 15th Army remained at Pas de Calais to defend against Patton 's supposed attack . This formation held its position even after the invasion of Normandy on June 6 , 1944 . Patton flew into France a month later and returned to combat duty .
= = = Normandy breakout offensive = = =
Sailing to Normandy throughout July , Patton 's Third Army formed on the extreme right ( west ) of the Allied land forces . Patton 's Third Army became operational at noon on August 1 , 1944 , under Bradley 's Twelfth United States Army Group . The Third Army simultaneously attacked west into Brittany , south , east toward the Seine , and north , assisting in trapping several hundred thousand German soldiers in the Falaise Pocket between Falaise and Argentan .
Patton 's strategy with his army favored speed and aggressive offensive action , though his forces saw less opposition than did the other three Allied field armies in the initial weeks of its advance . The Third Army typically employed forward scout units to determine enemy strength and positions . Self @-@ propelled artillery moved with the spearhead units and was sited well forward , ready to engage protected German positions with indirect fire . Light aircraft such as the Piper L @-@ 4 Cub served as artillery spotters and provided airborne reconnaissance . Once located , the armored infantry would attack using tanks as infantry support . Other armored units would then break through enemy lines and exploit any subsequent breach , constantly pressuring withdrawing German forces to prevent them from regrouping and reforming a cohesive defensive line . The U.S. armor advanced using reconnaissance by fire , and the .50 caliber M2 Browning heavy machine gun proved effective in this role , often flushing out and killing German panzerfaust teams waiting in ambush as well as breaking up German infantry assaults against the armored infantry .
The speed of the advance forced Patton 's units to rely heavily on air reconnaissance and tactical air support . The Third Army had by far more military intelligence ( G @-@ 2 ) officers at headquarters specifically designated to coordinate air strikes than any other army . Its attached close air support group was XIX Tactical Air Command , commanded by Brigadier General Otto P. Weyland . Developed originally by General Elwood Quesada of IX Tactical Air Command for the First Army in Operation Cobra , the technique of " armored column cover " , in which close air support was directed by an air traffic controller in one of the attacking tanks , was used extensively by the Third Army . Each column was protected by a standing patrol of three to four P @-@ 47 and P @-@ 51 fighter @-@ bombers as a combat air patrol ( CAP ) .
In its advance from Avranches to Argentan , the Third Army traversed 60 miles ( 97 km ) in just two weeks . Patton 's force was supplemented by Ultra intelligence for which he was briefed daily by his G @-@ 2 , Colonel Oscar W. Koch , who apprised him of German counterattacks , and where to concentrate his forces . Equally important to the advance of Third Army columns in northern France was the rapid advance of the supply echelons . Third Army logistics were overseen by Colonel Walter J. Muller , Patton 's G @-@ 4 , who emphasized flexibility , improvisation , and adaptation for Third Army supply echelons so forward units could rapidly exploit a breakthrough . Patton 's rapid drive to Lorraine demonstrated his keen appreciation for the technological advantages of the U.S. Army . The major U.S. and Allied advantages were in mobility and air superiority . The U.S. Army had a greater number of trucks , more reliable tanks , and better radio communications , which all contributed to a superior ability to operate at a rapid offensive pace .
= = = Lorraine Campaign = = =
Patton 's offensive came to a halt on August 31 , 1944 , as the Third Army ran out of fuel near the Moselle River , just outside Metz . Patton expected that the theater commander would keep fuel and supplies flowing to support successful advances , but Eisenhower favored a " broad front " approach to the ground @-@ war effort , believing that a single thrust would have to drop off flank protection , and would quickly lose its punch . Still within the constraints of a very large effort overall , Eisenhower gave Montgomery and his Twenty First Army Group a higher priority for supplies for Operation Market Garden . Combined with other demands on the limited resource pool , this resulted in the Third Army exhausting its fuel supplies . Patton believed his forces were close enough to the Siegfried Line that he remarked to Bradley that with 400 @,@ 000 gallons of gasoline he could be in Germany within two days . In late September , a large German Panzer counterattack sent expressly to stop the advance of Patton 's Third Army was defeated by the U.S. 4th Armored Division at the Battle of Arracourt . Despite the victory , the Third Army stayed in place as a result of Eisenhower 's order . The German commanders believed this was because their counterattack had been successful .
The halt of the Third Army during the month of September was enough to allow the Germans to strengthen the fortress of Metz . In October and November , the Third Army was mired in a near @-@ stalemate with the Germans during the Battle of Metz , with heavy casualties on both sides . An attempt by Patton to seize Fort Driant just south of Metz was defeated . By mid @-@ November , however , Metz had fallen to the Americans . Patton 's decisions in taking this city were criticized . German commanders interviewed after the war noted he could have bypassed the city and moved north to Luxembourg where he would have been able to cut off the German Seventh Army . The German commander of Metz , General Hermann Balck , also noted that a more direct attack would have resulted in a more decisive Allied victory in the city . Historian Carlo D 'Este later wrote that the Lorraine Campaign was one of Patton 's least successful , faulting him for not deploying his divisions more aggressively and decisively . With supplies low and priority given to Montgomery until the port of Antwerp could be opened , Patton remained frustrated at the lack of progress of his forces . From November 8 to December 15 , his army advanced no more than 40 miles ( 64 km ) .
= = = Battle of the Bulge = = =
In December 1944 , the German army , under the command of German Field Marshal Gerd von Rundstedt , launched a last @-@ ditch offensive across Belgium , Luxembourg , and northeastern France . On December 16 , 1944 , it massed 29 divisions totaling 250 @,@ 000 men at a weak point in the Allied lines , and during the early stages of the ensuing Battle of the Bulge , made significant headway towards the Meuse River during the worst winter Europe had seen in years . Eisenhower called a meeting of all senior Allied commanders on the Western Front to a headquarters near Verdun on the morning of December 19 to plan strategy and a response to the German assault .
At the time , Patton 's Third Army was engaged in heavy fighting near Saarbrücken . Guessing the intent of the Allied command meeting , Patton ordered his staff to make three separate operational contingency orders to disengage elements of the Third Army from its present position and begin offensive operations toward several objectives in the area of the bulge occupied by German forces . At the Supreme Command conference , Eisenhower led the meeting , which was attended by Patton , Bradley , General Jacob Devers , Major General Kenneth Strong , Deputy Supreme Commander Air Chief Marshal Arthur Tedder , and a large number of staff officers . When Eisenhower asked Patton how long it would take him to disengage six divisions of his Third Army and commence a counterattack north to relieve the U.S. 101st Airborne Division which had been trapped at Bastogne , Patton replied , " As soon as you 're through with me . " Patton then clarified that he had already worked up an operational order for a counterattack by three full divisions on December 21 , then only 48 hours away . Eisenhower was incredulous : " Don 't be fatuous , George . If you try to go that early you won 't have all three divisions ready and you 'll go piecemeal . " Patton replied that his staff already had a contingency operations order ready to go . Still unconvinced , Eisenhower ordered Patton to attack the morning of December 22 , using at least three divisions .
Patton left the conference room , phoned his command , and uttered two words : " Play ball . " This code phrase initiated a prearranged operational order with Patton 's staff , mobilizing three divisions – the 4th Armored Division , the U.S. 80th Infantry Division , and the U.S. 26th Infantry Division – from the Third Army and moving them north toward Bastogne . In all , Patton would reposition six full divisions , U.S. III Corps and U.S. XII Corps , from their positions on the Saar River front along a line stretching from Bastogne to Diekirch and to Echternach . Within a few days , more than 133 @,@ 000 Third Army vehicles were re @-@ routed into an offensive that covered an average distance of over 11 miles ( 18 km ) per vehicle , followed by support echelons carrying 62 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 61 @,@ 000 long tons ; 68 @,@ 000 short tons ) of supplies .
On December 21 Patton met with Bradley to review the impending advance , starting the meeting by remarking , " Brad , this time the Kraut 's stuck his head in the meat grinder , and I 've got hold of the handle . " Patton then argued that his Third Army should attack toward Koblenz , cutting off the bulge at the base and trap the entirety of the German armies involved in the offensive . After briefly considering this , Bradley vetoed this proposal , as he was less concerned about killing large numbers of Germans than he was in arranging for the relief of Bastogne before it was overrun . Desiring good weather for his advance , which would permit close ground support by U.S. Army Air Forces tactical aircraft , Patton ordered the Third Army chaplain , Colonel James Hugh O 'Neill , to compose a suitable prayer : " Almighty and most merciful Father , we humbly beseech Thee , of Thy great goodness , to restrain these immoderate rains with which we have had to contend . Grant us fair weather for Battle . Graciously hearken to us as soldiers who call upon Thee that , armed with Thy power , we may advance from victory to victory and crush the oppression and wickedness of our enemies , and establish Thy justice among men and nations . Amen . " When the weather cleared soon after , Patton awarded O 'Neill a Bronze Star Medal on the spot .
On December 26 , 1944 , the first spearhead units of the Third Army 's 4th Armored Division reached Bastogne , opening a corridor for relief and resupply of the besieged forces . Patton 's ability to disengage six divisions from front line combat during the middle of winter , then wheel north to relieve Bastogne was one of his most remarkable achievements during the war . He later wrote that the relief of Bastogne was " the most brilliant operation we have thus far performed , and it is in my opinion the outstanding achievement of the war . This is my biggest battle . "
= = = Advance into Germany = = =
By February , the Germans were in full retreat . On February 23 , 1945 , the U.S. 94th Infantry Division crossed the Saar and established a vital bridgehead at Serrig through which Patton pushed units into the Saarland . Patton had insisted upon an immediate crossing of the Saar River against the advice of his officers . Historians such as Charles Whiting have criticized this strategy as unnecessarily aggressive .
Once again , however , Patton found other commands given priority on gasoline and supplies . To obtain these , Third Army ordnance units passed themselves off as First Army personnel and in one incident they secured thousands of gallons of gasoline from a First Army dump . Between January 29 and March 22 , the Third Army took Trier , Coblenz , Bingen , Worms , Mainz , Kaiserslautern , and Ludwigshafen , killing or wounding 99 @,@ 000 and capturing 140 @,@ 112 German soldiers , which represented virtually all of the remnants of the German First and Seventh Armies . An example of Patton 's sarcastic wit was broadcast when he received orders to by @-@ pass Trier , as it had been decided that four divisions would be needed to capture it . When the message arrived , Trier had already fallen . Patton rather caustically replied : " Have taken Trier with two divisions . Do you want me to give it back ? "
The Third Army began crossing the Rhine River after constructing a pontoon bridge on March 22 , and he slipped a division across the river that evening . Patton later boasted he had urinated into the river as he crossed .
On March 26 , 1945 , Patton sent Task Force Baum , consisting of 314 men , 16 tanks , and assorted other vehicles , 50 miles ( 80 km ) behind German lines to liberate a prisoner of war camp , OFLAG XIII @-@ B near Hammelburg . Patton knew that one of the inmates was his son @-@ in @-@ law , Lieutenant Colonel John K. Waters . The raid was a failure , and only 35 men made it back ; the rest were either killed or captured , and all 57 vehicles were lost . Another prisoner liberated from the Oflag was Lt. Donald Prell who was recaptured and was sent to a POW camp south of Nuremberg . Patton reported this attempt to liberate Oflag XIII @-@ B as the only mistake he made during World War II . When Eisenhower learned of the secret mission , he was furious . Patton later said he felt the correct decision would have been to send a Combat Command , a force about three times larger .
By April , resistance against the Third Army was tapering off , and the forces ' main efforts turned to managing some 400 @,@ 000 German prisoners of war . On April 14 , 1945 Patton was promoted to general , a promotion long advocated by Stimson in recognition of Patton 's battle accomplishments during 1944 . Later that month , Patton , Bradley and Eisenhower toured the Merkers salt mine as well as the Ohrdruf concentration camp , and seeing the conditions of the camp firsthand caused Patton great disgust . Third Army was ordered toward Bavaria and Czechoslovakia , anticipating a last stand by Nazi German forces there . He was reportedly appalled to learn the Red Army would take Berlin , feeling the Soviet Union was a threat to the U.S. Patton 's army advanced to Pilsen , but was stopped by Eisenhower from reaching Prague before V @-@ E Day on May 8 and the end of the war in Europe .
In its advance from the Rhine to the Elbe , Patton 's Third Army , which numbered between 250 @,@ 000 and 300 @,@ 000 men at any given time , captured 32 @,@ 763 square miles ( 84 @,@ 860 km2 ) of German territory . Its losses were 2 @,@ 102 killed , 7 @,@ 954 wounded , and 1 @,@ 591 missing . German losses in the fighting against the Third Army totaled 20 @,@ 100 killed , 47 @,@ 700 wounded , and 653 @,@ 140 captured .
Between becoming operational in Normandy on August 1 , 1944 and the end of hostilities on May 9 , 1945 , the Third Army was in continuous combat for 281 days . In that time , it crossed 24 major rivers and captured 81 @,@ 500 square miles ( 211 @,@ 000 km2 ) of territory , including more than 12 @,@ 000 cities and towns . The Third Army claimed to have killed , wounded , or captured 1 @,@ 811 @,@ 388 German soldiers , six times its strength in personnel . Fuller 's review of Third Army records differs only in the number of enemy killed and wounded , stating that between August 1 , 1944 and May 9 , 1945 , 47 @,@ 500 of the enemy were killed , 115 @,@ 700 wounded , and 1 @,@ 280 @,@ 688 captured , for a total of 1 @,@ 443 @,@ 888 .
= = Post @-@ war = =
After World War II , Patton expressed anti @-@ Semitism and treated Jews badly in the former concentration camps – called displaced persons camps after the war - which he ran for the United States . According to The New York Times , Patton wrote into his journal that people believe " the Displaced Person is a human being , which he is not , and this applies particularly to the Jews who are lower than animals . ... "
Patton asked for a command in the Pacific Theater of Operations , begging Marshall to bring him to that war in any way possible , and Marshall said he would be able to do so only if the Chinese secured a major port for his entry , an unlikely scenario . In mid @-@ May , Patton flew to Paris , then London for rest . On June 7 , he arrived in Bedford , Massachusetts , for extended leave with his family , and was greeted by thousands of spectators . Patton then drove to Hatch Memorial Shell and spoke to some 20 @,@ 000 , including a crowd of 400 wounded Third Army veterans . In this speech he aroused some controversy among the Gold Star Mothers when he stated that a man who dies in battle is " frequently a fool " , adding that the wounded are heroes . Patton spent time in Boston before visiting and speaking in Denver and visiting Los Angeles , where he spoke to a crowd of 100 @,@ 000 at the Memorial Coliseum . Patton made a final stop in Washington before returning to Europe in July to serve in the occupation forces .
Patton was appointed military governor of Bavaria , where he led the Third Army in denazification efforts . Patton was particularly upset when learning of the end of the war against Japan , writing in his diary , " Yet another war has come to an end , and with it my usefulness to the world . " Unhappy with his position and depressed by his belief that he would never fight in another war , Patton 's behavior and statements became increasingly erratic . Various explanations beyond his disappointments have been proposed for Patton 's behavior at this point . Carlo D 'Este wrote that " it seems virtually inevitable ... that Patton experienced some type of brain damage from too many head injuries " from a lifetime of numerous auto- and horse @-@ related accidents , especially one suffered while playing polo in 1936 .
Patton 's niece Jean Gordon appeared again ; they spent some time together in London in 1944 , and again in Bavaria in 1945 . Gordon actually loved a young married captain who left her despondent when he went home to his wife in September 1945 . Patton repeatedly boasted of his sexual success with this young woman but his biographers are skeptical . Hirshson says the relationship was casual . Showalter believes that Patton , under severe physical and psychological stress , made up claims of sexual conquest to prove his virility . D 'Este agrees , saying , " His behavior suggests that in both 1936 [ in Hawaii ] and 1944 – 45 , the presence of the young and attractive Jean was a means of assuaging the anxieties of a middle @-@ aged man troubled over his virility and a fear of aging . "
Patton attracted controversy as military governor when it was noted that several former Nazi Party members continued to hold political posts in the region . When responding to the press about the subject , Patton repeatedly compared Nazis to Democrats and Republicans in noting that most of the people with experience in infrastructure management had been compelled to join the party in the war , causing negative press stateside and angering Eisenhower . On September 28 , 1945 , after a heated exchange with Eisenhower over his statements , Patton was relieved of his military governorship . He was relieved of command of the Third Army on 7 October , and in a somber change of command ceremony , Patton concluded his farewell remarks , " All good things must come to an end . The best thing that has ever happened to me thus far is the honor and privilege of having commanded the Third Army . "
Patton 's final assignment was to command the Fifteenth United States Army , based in Bad Nauheim . The Fifteenth Army at this point consisted only of a small headquarters staff tasked to compile a history of the war in Europe . Patton had accepted the post because of his love of history , but quickly lost interest in the duty . He began traveling , visiting Paris , Rennes , Chartres , Brussels , Metz , Reims , Luxembourg , and Verdun , as well as Stockholm , where he reunited with other athletes from the 1912 Olympics . Patton decided he would leave his post at the Fifteenth Army and not return to Europe once he left on December 10 for Christmas leave . He intended to discuss with his wife whether he would continue in a stateside post or retire .
= = = Accident and death = = =
On December 8 , 1945 , Patton 's chief of staff , Major General Hobart Gay , invited him on a pheasant hunting trip near Speyer to lift his spirits . At 11 : 45 on December 9 , Patton and Gay were riding in Patton 's 1938 Cadillac Model 75 staff car driven by Private First Class Horace L. Woodring when they stopped at a railroad intersection in Mannheim @-@ Käfertal to allow a train to pass . Patton , observing derelict cars along the side of the road , spoke as the car crossed the railroad track , " How awful war is . Think of the waste . " Woodring glanced away from the road when a 2 ½ ton GMC truck driven by Technical Sergeant Robert L. Thompson , who was en route to a quartermaster depot , suddenly made a left turn in front of the car . Woodring slammed on the brakes and turned sharply to the left , colliding with the truck at a low speed .
Woodring , Thompson and Gay were only slightly injured in the crash , but Patton had not been able to brace in time and hit his head on the glass partition in the back seat of the car . He began bleeding from a gash to the head and complained to Gay and Woodring that he was paralyzed and was having trouble breathing . Taken to a hospital in Heidelberg , Patton was discovered to have a compression fracture and dislocation of the cervical third and fourth vertebrae , resulting in a broken neck and cervical spinal cord injury that rendered him paralyzed from the neck down . He spent most of the next 12 days in spinal traction to decrease spinal pressure . All non @-@ medical visitors , except for Patton 's wife , who had flown from the U.S. , were forbidden . Patton , who had been told he had no chance to ever again ride a horse or resume normal life , at one point commented , " This is a hell of a way to die . " He died in his sleep of pulmonary edema and congestive heart failure at about 18 : 00 on December 21 , 1945 . Patton was buried at the Luxembourg American Cemetery and Memorial in the Hamm district of Luxembourg City , alongside wartime casualties of the Third Army , per his request to " be buried with [ his ] men . "
= = Legacy = =
Patton 's colorful personality , hard @-@ driving leadership style and success as a commander , combined with his frequent political missteps , produced a mixed and often contradictory image . Patton 's great oratory skill is seen as integral to his ability to inspire troops under his command . Historian Terry Brighton concluded that Patton was " arrogant , publicity @-@ seeking and personally flawed , but ... among the greatest generals of the war . " Still , Patton 's impact on armored warfare and leadership were substantial , with the U.S. Army adopting many of Patton 's aggressive strategies for its training programs following his death . Many military officers claim inspiration from his legacy . The first American tank designed after the war became the M46 Patton .
Several actors have portrayed Patton on screen , the most famous being George C. Scott in the 1970 film Patton . Scott 's iconic depiction of Patton , particularly of his famous speech to the Third Army , earned him an Academy Award , and was instrumental in bringing Patton into popular culture as a folk hero . He would reprise the role in 1986 in the made @-@ for @-@ television film The Last Days of Patton . Other actors who have portrayed Patton include Stephen McNally in the 1957 episode " The Patton Prayer " of the ABC religion anthology series , Crossroads , John Larch in the 1963 film Miracle of the White Stallions , Kirk Douglas in the 1966 film Is Paris Burning ? , George Kennedy in the 1978 film Brass Target , Darren McGavin in the 1979 miniseries Ike , Robert Prentiss in the 1988 film Pancho Barnes , Mitchell Ryan in the 1989 film Double Exposure : The Story of Margaret Bourke @-@ White , Lawrence Dobkin in a 1989 episode of the miniseries War and Remembrance , Edward Asner in the 1997 film The Long Way Home , Gerald McRaney in the 2004 miniseries Ike : Countdown to D @-@ Day , Dan Higgins in a 2006 episode of the miniseries Man , Moment , Machine , and Kelsey Grammer in the 2008 film An American Carol .
= = = Image = = =
Patton deliberately cultivated a flashy , distinctive image in the belief that this would inspire his troops . He carried an ivory @-@ gripped , engraved , silver @-@ plated Colt Single Action Army .45 revolver on his right hip , and frequently wore an ivory @-@ gripped Smith & Wesson Model 27 .357 Magnum on his left hip . He was usually seen wearing a highly polished helmet , riding pants , and high cavalry boots . Likewise , Patton cultivated a stern expression he called his " war face . " He was known to oversee training maneuvers from atop a tank painted red , white and blue . His jeep bore oversized rank placards on the front and back , as well as a klaxon horn which would loudly announce his approach from afar . He proposed a new uniform for the emerging Tank Corps , featuring polished buttons , a gold helmet , and thick , dark padded suits ; the proposal was derided in the media as " the Green Hornet , " and was rejected by the Army .
Historian Alan Axelrod wrote that " for Patton , leadership was never simply about making plans and giving orders , it was about transforming oneself into a symbol . " Patton intentionally expressed a conspicuous desire for glory , atypical of the officer corps of the day which emphasized blending in with troops on the battlefield . He was an admirer of Admiral Horatio Nelson for his actions in leading the Battle of Trafalgar in a full dress uniform . Patton had a preoccupation with bravery , wearing his rank insignia conspicuously in combat , and at one point during World War I rode atop a tank into a German @-@ controlled village seeking to inspire courage in his men .
Patton was a staunch fatalist , and believed in reincarnation . He believed that he may have been a military leader killed in action in Napoleon 's army in a previous life , or a Roman legionary .
Patton developed an ability to deliver charismatic speeches , in part because he had trouble with reading . He used profanity heavily in his speech , which generally was enjoyed by troops under his command but offended other generals , including Bradley . The most famous of his speeches were a series he delivered to the Third Army prior to Operation Overlord . When speaking , he was known for his bluntness and witticism ; he once said , " The two most dangerous weapons the Germans have are our own armored halftrack and jeep . The halftrack because the boys in it go all heroic , thinking they are in a tank . The jeep because we have so many God @-@ awful drivers . " During the Battle of the Bulge , he famously remarked that the Allies should " let the sons @-@ of @-@ bitches [ Germans ] go all the way to Paris , then we 'll cut them off and round them up . " He also suggested facetiously that his Third Army could " drive the British back into the sea for another Dunkirk . "
As media scrutiny on Patton increased , his bluntness stirred a number of controversies . These began in North Africa when some reporters worried that he was becoming too close to former Vichy officials with Axis sympathies . His public image was more seriously damaged after word of the slapping incidents broke . Another controversy occurred prior to Operation Overlord when Patton spoke at a British welcoming club at Knutsford England and said , in part , " since it is the evident destiny of the British and Americans , and of course , the Russians , to rule the world , the better we know each other , the better job we will do . " The next day news accounts misquoted Patton by leaving off the Russians . On a visit home after the war he again made headlines when he attempted to honor several wounded veterans in a speech by calling them " the real heroes " of the war , unintentionally offending the families of soldiers who had been killed in action . His final media blowup occurred in September , 1945 , when goaded by reporters about Denazification , he said " Denazification would be like removing all the Republicans and all the Democrats who were in office , who had held office or were quasi Democrats or Republicans and that would take some time . " This caused Eisenhower to relieve Patton from command of the Third Army .
As a leader , Patton was known to be highly critical , correcting subordinates mercilessly for the slightest infractions , but also being quick to praise their accomplishments . While he garnered a reputation as a general who was both impatient and impulsive and had little tolerance for officers who had failed to succeed , he fired only one general during World War II , Orlando Ward , and only after two warnings , whereas Bradley sacked numerous generals during the war . Patton reportedly had the utmost respect for the men serving in his command , particularly the wounded Many of his directives showed special trouble to care for the enlisted men under his command , and he was well known for arranging extra supplies for battlefield soldiers , including blankets and extra socks , galoshes , and other items normally in short supply at the front .
Patton views on race were complicated and often negative . This may have been cultivated from his privileged upbringing and family roots in the southern United States . Privately he wrote of black soldiers : " Individually they were good soldiers , but I expressed my belief at the time , and have never found the necessity of changing it , that a colored soldier cannot think fast enough to fight in armor . " However , he also stated that performance was more important than race or religious affiliation : " I don 't give a damn who the man is . He can be a nigger or a Jew , but if he has the stuff and does his duty , he can have anything I 've got . By God ! I love him . " Addressing 761st Tank Battalion Patton also said , " Men , you are the first Negro tankers ever to fight in the American Army . I would never have asked for you if you weren 't good . I have nothing but the best in my army . I don 't care what color you are , so long as you go up there and kill those Kraut sonsabitches ! Everyone has their eyes on you and is expecting great things from you . Most of all , your race is looking forward to you . Don 't let them down and , damn you , don 't let me down ! " Likewise , Patton called heavily on the black troops under his command . Historian Hugh Cole notes that Patton was the first to integrate black and white soldiers into rifle companies .
After reading the Koran and observing North Africans , he wrote to his wife , " Just finished reading the Koran – a good book and interesting . " Patton had a keen eye for native customs and methods and wrote knowingly of local architecture ; he once rated the progress of word @-@ of @-@ mouth rumor in Arab country at 40 – 60 miles ( 64 – 97 km ) a day . In spite of his regard for the Koran , he concluded , " To me it seems certain that the fatalistic teachings of Mohammad and the utter degradation of women is the outstanding cause for the arrested development of the Arab ... Here , I think , is a text for some eloquent sermon on the virtues of Christianity . " Patton was impressed with the Soviet Union but was disdainful of Russians as " drunks " with " no regard for human life . " Later in life he also began to express growing feelings of antisemitism and anticommunism , as a result of his frequent controversies in the press .
= = = As viewed by Allied and Axis leaders = = =
On February 1 , 1945 , Eisenhower wrote a memo ranking the military capabilities of his subordinate American generals in Europe . Bradley and Army Air Force General Carl Spaatz shared the number one position , while Walter Bedell Smith was ranked number two , and Patton number three . Eisenhower revealed his reasoning in a 1946 review of the book Patton and his Third Army : " George Patton was the most brilliant commander of an army in the open field that our or any other service produced . But his army was part of a whole organization and his operations part of a great campaign . " Eisenhower believed that other generals such as Bradley should be given the credit for planning the successful Allied campaigns across Europe in which Patton was merely " a brilliant executor " .
Notwithstanding Eisenhower 's estimation of Patton 's abilities as a strategic planner , his overall view of Patton 's military value in achieving Allied victory in Europe can best be seen in Eisenhower 's refusal to even consider sending Patton home after the slapping incidents of 1943 , after which he privately remarked , " Patton is indispensable to the war effort – one of the guarantors of our victory . " As Assistant Secretary of War John J. McCloy told Eisenhower : " Lincoln 's remark after they got after Grant comes to mind when I think of Patton – ' I can 't spare this man , he fights ' . " After Patton 's death , Eisenhower would write his own tribute : " He was one of those men born to be a soldier , an ideal combat leader ... It is no exaggeration to say that Patton 's name struck terror at the hearts of the enemy . "
Carlo D 'Este insisted that Bradley disliked Patton both personally and professionally , but Bradley biographer Jim DeFelice noted that the evidence indicates otherwise . President Franklin D. Roosevelt appeared to greatly esteem Patton and his abilities , stating " he is our greatest fighting general , and sheer joy . " On the other hand , Roosevelt 's successor , Harry S. Truman , appears to have taken an instant dislike to Patton , at one point comparing both him and Douglas MacArthur to George Armstrong Custer .
For the most part , British commanders did not hold Patton in high regard . Field Marshal Alan Brooke noted in January 1943 that " I had heard of him , but I must confess that his swashbuckling personality exceeded my expectation . I did not form any high opinion of him , nor had I any reason to alter this view at any later date . A dashing , courageous , wild and unbalanced leader , good for operations requiring thrust and push but at a loss in any operation requiring skill and judgment . " One possible exception was Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery . Although the latter 's rivalry with Patton was well known , Montgomery appears to have admired Patton 's ability to command troops in the field , if not his strategic judgment . Other Allied commanders were more impressed , the Free French in particular . General Henri Giraud was incredulous when he heard of Patton 's dismissal by Eisenhower in late 1945 , and invited him to Paris to be decorated by President Charles de Gaulle at a state banquet . At the banquet , President de Gaulle gave a speech placing Patton 's achievements alongside those of Napoleon . Soviet leader Joseph Stalin was apparently an admirer , stating that the Red Army could neither have planned nor executed Patton 's rapid armored advance across France .
While Allied leaders expressed mixed feelings on Patton 's capabilities , the German High Command was noted to have more respect for him than for any other Allied commander after 1943 . Adolf Hitler reportedly called him " that crazy cowboy general . " Many German field commanders were generous in their praise of Patton 's leadership following the war , and many of its highest commanders also held his abilities in high regard .
Erwin Rommel credited Patton with executing " the most astonishing achievement in mobile warfare . " Generaloberst Alfred Jodl , chief of staff of the German Army , stated that Patton " was the American Guderian . He was very bold and preferred large movements . He took big risks and won big successes . " Generalfeldmarschall Albert Kesselring noted that " Patton had developed tank warfare into an art , and understood how to handle tanks brilliantly in the field . I feel compelled , therefore , to compare him with Generalfeldmarschall Rommel , who likewise had mastered the art of tank warfare . Both of them had a kind of second sight in regard to this type of warfare . " Referring to the escape of the Afrika Korps after the Battle of El Alamein , Fritz Bayerlein opined that " I do not think that General Patton would let us get away so easily . " In an interview conducted for Stars and Stripes just after his capture , Field Marshal Gerd von Rundstedt stated simply of Patton , " He is your best . "
= Beautiful ( MercyMe song ) =
" Beautiful " is a song by contemporary Christian music band MercyMe . Written and composed by MercyMe , Dan Muckala , and Brown Bannister , the song was written for the daughters of the band 's members . The song 's lyrics revolve around self @-@ worth and the love of God . " Beautiful " was released on September 17 , 2010 as the second single from MercyMe 's 2010 album The Generous Mr. Lovewell .
" Beautiful " received generally mixed to positive reviews from critics and attained success on Christian radio , peaking at the top spot on Billboard magazine 's Christian Songs , Christian AC Indicator , Christian AC Monitored , and Soft AC / Inspo charts . " Beautiful " ranked at number 7 on the 2011 year @-@ end Christian Songs chart , as well as at number 10 on the 2011 year @-@ end Hot Christian AC chart .
= = Background and composition = =
" Beautiful " was written and composed by the members of MercyMe , Dan Muckala , and Brown Bannister . " Beautiful " was written for the daughters of MercyMe 's band members . Lead singer Bart Millard , in an interview with Kevin Davis of New Release Tuesday , stated that " We [ MercyMe ] wrote the song with our daughters in mind . The band has 15 kids among all of us ... Satan targets our girls from a materialistic way , telling them how to act and how to look , what to eat and not to eat " , also commenting that " I try to tell my kids all the time that they are perfect and I know my daughters need to get their confidence in themselves from me . The way they want to be treated by men needs to come from me " .
" Beautiful " is a ballad with a length of four minutes and twenty @-@ one seconds . It is set in the key of G major and has a moderate tempo of 69 beats per minute , with a vocal range spanning from D4 @-@ B5 . Lyrically , the song is about self @-@ worth and the love of God , specifically aimed at young women and daughters . However , the song also has a broader theme ; Millard noted in an interview that that " All of us have felt unlovable at some point . At times , I feel worthless . I have an argument with a friend , all that I ’ ve come to like about myself is suddenly falling apart . Who can love me if I don ’ t even like myself ? It ’ s hard to drag ourselves out of this way of thinking . We are taught to live according to these expectations . We think we need approval and accomplishment to validate our lives . But what does God tell us ? He says , “ You ’ re beautiful . You are made for so much more than all of this . ” He loves us , even in our failings " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Critical reception to " Beautiful " was generally mixed to positive . Andy Argyrakis of Today 's Christian Music commented on his review of The Generous Mr. Lovewell that " Of course , there 's the token ballad or two , including " Beautiful " and " Won 't You Be My Love , " both of which are sure to further MercyMe 's radio domination , while providing a soothing and tender touch to the plugged in periods " . Kevin Davis of Christian Music Review opined that " Having three young daughters , I ’ m extremely moved by the passion behind the lyrics speaking of how the world says we are never good enough , yet Christ saw something beautiful in us worth dying for " . Jesus Freak Hideout reviewer Roger Gelwicks was less positive , commenting that the song ( along with an album cut , " Free " ) " lack [ s ] anything to be held onto musically , and they do tend to drag on for too long and therefore bore the listener " .
= = = Chart performance = = =
" Beautiful " debuted at number 42 for the chart week of October 2 , 2010 on the Billboard Christian Songs chart . The song advanced to number 22 in its second chart week , and to number 15 in its sixth chart week . The song advanced to number 10 the next week , and spent four weeks at number 9 ( from weeks eight to eleven ) before dropping back to number 10 in its twelfth chart week . " Beautiful " dropped to number 16 for the chart week of January 8 , 2011 ( its fifteenth week on the chart ) , but advanced to number 6 the following week and spent two consecutive weeks at that spot . Starting with the chart week of February 18 , 2011 , the song spent four consecutive weeks at number 2 before advancing to the top spot in its twenty @-@ fifth chart week . " Beautiful " held the top spot for one week ( the chart week of March 19 , 2011 ) before dropping to number 5 . The song spent fourteen more weeks on the chart before dropping out , having spent a total of forty weeks on the Christian Songs chart .
" Beautiful " also peaked at the top spot on the Christian AC Indicator , Christian AC Monitored , and Soft AC / INSPO charts . " Beautiful " ranked at number 45 on Billboard magazine 's 2010 year @-@ end Christian Songs chart ; it also ranked at number 7 on the 2011 year @-@ end Christian Songs chart , number 10 on the year @-@ end Hot Christian AC chart , and number 27 on the year @-@ end Christian Digital Songs chart .
= = Other uses = =
" Beautiful " was included on the compilation album WOW Hits 2012 .
= = Music video = =
A music video was released for " Beautiful " . The video features the band performing the song in a live concert setting .
= = Charts = =
= = = Weekly charts = = =
= = = Year @-@ end charts = = =
= = = Chart procession and succession = = =
= Scaly @-@ breasted munia =
The scaly @-@ breasted munia or spotted munia ( Lonchura punctulata ) , known in the pet trade as nutmeg mannikin or spice finch , is a sparrow @-@ sized estrildid finch native to tropical Asia . A species of the genus Lonchura , it was formally described and named by Carl Linnaeus in 1758 . Its name is based on the distinct scale @-@ like feather markings on the breast and belly . The adult is brown above and has a dark conical bill . The species has 11 subspecies across their range and differ slightly in size and colour .
This munia eats mainly grass seeds apart from berries and small insects . They forage in flocks and communicate with soft calls and whistles . The species is highly social and may sometimes roost with other species of munias . This species is found in tropical plains and grasslands . Breeding pairs construct dome @-@ shaped nests using grass or bamboo leaves .
The species is endemic to Asia and occurs from India and Sri Lanka east to Indonesia and the Philippines . It has been introduced into many other parts of the world and feral populations have established in Puerto Rico and Hispaniola as well as parts of Australia and the United States of America . The bird is listed as of Least Concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) .
= = Taxonomy = =
The scaly @-@ breasted munia was one of the many bird species originally described by Carl Linnaeus in the 1758 10th edition of his Systema Naturae , where it was given the binomial name of Loxia punctulata . Sykes assigned it to the genus Lonchura in the combination Lonchura punctulata in 1823 .
= = = Subspecies = = =
Over its range the scaly @-@ breasted munia has been assigned to 11 generally accepted subspecies . These include the nominate form found in the plains of South Asia , including Pakistan , India , Nepal , Bangladesh and Sri Lanka . The name lineoventer was formerly used for the Indian population . Other populations include subundulata from the eastern Himalayas , yunnanensis of southern China , topela of Thailand , cabanisi of the Philippines and fretensis of Singapor and Sumatra . Island populations include nisoria ( Java , Bali , Lombok , Sumbawa ) , particeps ( Sulawesi ) , baweana ( Bawean Island ) , sumbae ( Sumba ) , blasii ( Flores , Timor and Tanimbar ) and holmesi ( Southeast Borneo ) .
L. p. punctulata ( Linnaeus , 1758 ) – Its range includes northern Pakistan , India ( except northeast ) , Nepal terai and Sri Lanka .
L. p. subundulata ( Godwin @-@ Austen , 1874 ) – Its range includes Bhutan , Bangladesh , northeast India ( Assam ) and west Myanmar .
L. p. yunnanensis ( Parkes , 1958 ) – Its range includes southern China ( southeast Xizang , south Sichuan , Yunnan ) and north – northeast Myanmar .
L. p. topela ( Swinhoe , 1863 ) – Its range includes southern Myanmar , Thailand , southeast China , Hainan Islands , Taiwan , Laos , Cambodia and Vietnam .
L. p. cabanisi ( Sharpe , 1890 ) – Its range includes Philippines ( Luzon , Mindoro , Calauit , Palawan , Panay , Negros , Cebu , Mindanao ) and northern Borneo ( coastal west Sabah and Brunei ) .
L. p. fretensis ( Kloss , 1931 ) – Its range includes south Malay Peninsula , Singapore , Sumatra and Nias Islands .
L. p. nisoria ( Temminck , 1830 ) – Its range includes southern Borneo ( western & southern Kalimantan ) , Java , Bali , and western Lesser Sundas ( Lombok , Sumbawa ) .
L. p. particeps ( Riley , 1920 ) – Its range includes Sulawesi .
L. p. baweana ( Hoogerwerf , 1963 ) – Its range includes Bawean Islands , off northeast Java .
L. p. sumbae ( Mayr , 1944 ) – Its range includes Sumba , in western Lesser Sundas .
L. p. blasii ( Stresemann , 1912 ) – Its range includes central & eastern Lesser Sundas ( Flores East to Timor and Tanimbar Islands ) .
L. p. holmesi ( Restall , 1992 ) – Its range includes southeastern Borneo
= = Description = =
The scaly @-@ breasted munia is about 11 – 12 centimetres ( 4 @.@ 3 – 4 @.@ 7 in ) long and weighs 12 – 16 grams ( 0 @.@ 026 – 0 @.@ 035 lb ) . The adult has a stubby dark bill typical of grain eating birds , brown upperparts and a dark brown head . The underparts are white with dark scale markings . The sexes are similar , although males have darker markings on the underside and a darker throat than females .
Immature birds have pale brown upperparts , lack the dark head found in adults , and have uniform buff underparts that can be confused with juveniles of other munia species such as the tricoloured munia ( Lonchura malacca ) across the Asian and island populations and the black @-@ throated munia ( Lonchura kelaarti ) in parts of India or Sri Lanka . Populations within their wide distribution range show variations in plumage color and size .
Along with other Estrildines , these species are thought to have originated in Asia . The species been introduced to other parts of the world due to its popularity as a cage bird and populations have established in the wild .
= = Behavior and ecology = =
= = = Sociality = = =
Scaly @-@ breasted munias form flocks of as many as 100 birds . Individuals communicate with calls that include a short whistle , variations of kitty @-@ kitty @-@ kitty , and a sharp chipping alarm note . They sometimes flick their tails and wings vertically or horizontally while hopping about . The tail flicking motion may have evolved from a locomotory intention movement . The exaggerated version of the tail flicking movement may have undergone ritualization . As a social signal , tail flicking in several other species acts as a signal indicating the intent to fly and helps keep flocks together .
When roosting communally , scaly @-@ breasted munia sit side @-@ by @-@ side in close contact with each other . The outermost bird often jostles towards the center . Birds in a flock sometimes preen each other , with the soliciting bird usually showing its chin . Allopreening is usually limited to the face and neck . The scaly @-@ breasted munia is rarely hostile but birds will sometimes quarrel without any ritualized posturing .
= = = Breeding = = =
The breeding season is during the summer rainy season ( mainly June to August in India ) but can vary . Laboratory studies have found that long day illumination and high humidity trigger gonadal growth . The song of the male is very soft but complex and variable , audible only at close range . This song described as a jingle consists of a series of high notes followed by a croaky rattle and ending in a slurred whistle . When singing the male sits in what is called the slope posture — erect with the head feathers raised .
There are two types of slope posture , a pre @-@ copulatory one and an ordinary one . The pre @-@ copulatory behavior of scaly @-@ breasted munia includes a sequence of actions . The first involves either the male or female playing with nest @-@ material . As soon as a bird has arranged the nest material in its bill , it begins to fly around in a zig @-@ zag path . Once a bird lands close to its partner , the male bends towards the female and wipes its bill . The male then sings with movements of the body . The female invites mounting with tail quivering .
The nest is a large domed structure loosely woven from blades of grass , bamboo or other leaves with a side entrance and is placed in a tree or under the eaves of a house . A study in southern India found the preferred nesting trees to be Toddalia asiatica , Gymnosporia montana and Acacia chundra , especially short and bushy ones in areas with low canopy cover . The nest opening is located to face downwind of the most frequent wind direction . In northern India , they preferred isolated Acacia nilotica in non @-@ urban areas but used Thuja orientalis and Polyalthia longifolia in urban gardens .
Scaly @-@ breasted munia clutch usually contain 4 to 6 eggs , but can contain up to 10 . Both sexes build the nest and incubate the eggs , which hatch in 10 to 16 days . Juveniles typically fledge in three weeks . Both sexes may reach sexual maturity as early as 7 months after birth in captivity . In the wild , however , since maturation may be impacted by variable daylight and humidity , both sexes can take between 12 and 18 months to reach sexual maturity depending on the time of year . Scaly @-@ breasted munias have a typical life expectancy of 6 to 8 years .
= = Food and foraging = =
The scaly @-@ breasted munia feeds mainly on seeds but also eats small berries such as those of Lantana . Although the bill is suited for crushing small grains , they do not show lateral movements of the lower mandible which help European greenfinches in dehusking seeds . Like some other munias , they may also feed on algae , a rich protein source , prior to the breeding season .
The ease of maintaining these birds in captivity has made them popular for studying behavior and physiology . Feeding behavior can be predicted by the optimal foraging theory , where animals minimize time and energy spent to maximize food intake . This theory has been tested by studying the strategies used by scaly @-@ breasted munias to increase their feeding efficacy .
= = = Flock size tradeoffs = = =
Studies on foraging have examined the effect of group size in reducing time spent on predator vigilance , thereby increasing feeding efficiency . According to the " many @-@ eyes " hypothesis , a reduction in the individual time spent on vigilance against threats in larger groups allows for more time to be spent on searching for food and feeding . Vigilance is greatest among solitary individuals and reduces as the group size increases to about four . The birds collect seeds more quickly in larger groups , reflecting decrease in individual vigilance , a decrease in handling time , and an increase in both search speed and focus when foraging .
Individuals may also take advantage of group foraging by " joining " members that have found food . The options to seek food or to join others that have discovered food involves information sharing and has been studied through what are termed " producer @-@ scrounger models " . A cost associated with group foraging is increased resource competition , which in turn may reduce anti @-@ predatory vigilance due to the intensity of foraging . Some studies show that increased competition results in a decreased feeding rate .
= = = Foraging models = = =
When foraging , scaly @-@ breasted munia can search as individuals or search for others that have found food and join them . The economic consequences of the decision to join others has been modeled in two ways : the producer @-@ scrounger model and the information sharing model . These models are based on hypotheses that differ in the degree of compatibility that is assumed between the two food and joining opportunity search modes .
The information sharing model assumes that individuals search concurrently for finding and joining opportunities while the producer @-@ scrounger model assumes that the search modes are mutually exclusive . Hopping with the head facing up and downward are observed to be statistically associated with the frequencies of a bird 's joining and finding , respectively . When the expected stable frequency of the scrounger tactic was altered by changing the availability of seeds , the relative frequency of hopping with the head up changed accordingly . When the seed distribution made the scrounger tactic unprofitable , the frequency of hopping with the head up diminished and appears to support the predictions of the producer @-@ scrounger model .
Studies show that scaly @-@ breasted munias tend to adopt the scrounger tactic when food is more clumped and when the group size increases . When most foragers adopt scrounging , the time taken to discover new food patches is greater .
= = = Vigilance = = =
Most social foragers must search for food while also avoiding predators . It has been suggested that individuals that play scrounger could also , by virtue of their head position , be alert for predators and hence contribute to antipredatory vigilance . If the scrounger tactic is compatible with antipredatory vigilance , then an increase in antipredatory vigilance should lead to the detection of more joining opportunities , and hence more joining . When stationary , the head @-@ up tactic has been shown to be associated with antipredatory vigilance . However scanning while hopping does not aid in vigilance and it is thought that the scrounger tactic is incompatible with antipredatory vigilance in the scaly @-@ breasted munia .
= = = Specialized foraging = = =
Scaly @-@ breasted munias have variable competitive behaviors that allow them to exploit scarce resources . There are two foraging alternatives : producers that make the food available and scroungers that steal food found by the producers . Studies show that these choices lead to a stable equilibrium within a group . When individuals are free to choose between producer and scrounger , frequency dependent selection results in a stable mixture of both behaviors where each receives similar payoff . Studies indicate that if most of the population consists of producers , then scrounging behavior is favored by natural selection because there is plenty of food to steal . On the other hand , if most birds exhibit scrounging then the competition for stealing is so great that producing is favored .
Three hypotheses might account for consistent foraging specializations across individuals : food source variation , phenotypic differences , and frequency dependent @-@ choice . The food source variation hypothesis predicts that individuals will specialize when the use of two skills is more costly than specialist foraging . The phenotypic differences hypothesis proposes that individuals differ in their ability to use each foraging skill and stably specialize on the most profitable one . The pattern of specialization is expected to be stable although the number of individuals that use a given skill depends on the phenotypic composition of the flock . The frequency dependent choice hypothesis also proposes that individuals specialize on the most profitable skill , but the profitability of each alternative decreases as the number of phenotypically identical foragers gradually specialize on each skill when initially given two equally profitable alternatives . At equilibrium , individual payoffs should be independent of the pattern of specialization . Individuals in flocks adjusted their use of the two skills and two birds in each flock specialized on a different skill resulting in a variant of both the food source variation hypothesis and frequency dependent choice hypothesis .
Aviary experiments conducted with captive flocks of scaly @-@ breasted munia have tested whether producers and scroungers reach the predicted stable equilibrium frequency ( see Evolutionarily stable strategy ) when individuals are free to choose either behavior . The numbers choosing either producers and scrounger strategies have been shown to converge on stable frequencies while demonstrating that variation in tactics arise through frequency dependent pay @-@ offs from the choice of different feeding strategies .
Furthermore , foraging birds may feed actively on the substrate or pick grains dropped on the ground and these strategies may be chosen according to the situation . Early departures occur more often when expected searching time decreases and when competition intensity increases . Competition intensity is expected to increase when more scroungers are present or when patches are smaller .
= = = Prey crypsis = = =
Since producers search for food and scroungers wait for opportunities to join , prey crypsis imposes a producer specific cost that shifts the producer scrounger equilibria towards more scrounging . Prey crypsis resulted in increased latency to eat the seed and increased number of detection errors . Moreover , the presence of a competitor negatively affected foraging efficiency under cyptic backgrounds . The foraging efficiency of individuals that had previously foraged with a competitor on cryptic seeds remained low even after the competitor had been removed . Thus , the costs of foraging on cryptic prey may be greater for social foragers than for solitary foragers .
= = = Resource defence = = =
Recent models of economic defence in a group @-@ foraging context predict that the frequency of aggressive interactions should decline as resource density increases . Studies with scaly @-@ breasted munia show that the intensity of aggressive encounters was highest when patch location was signaled , and the effect of changing resource density depended on whether patch location was signaled or not . Signaling patch location was equivalent to making the resources more spatially predictable . Changing patch density had no effect on the number of aggressive encounters when the location of food was not signaled . When food location was signaled , increasing patch density resulted in the predicted decrease in the number of aggressive encounters .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Scaly @-@ breasted munias are found in a range of habitas but are usually close to water and grassland . In India , they are especially common in paddy fields where they are considered a minor pest on account of their feeding on grain . They are found mainly on the plains , but can be observed in the foothills of the Himalayas , in which they may be present at altitudes near 2 @,@ 500 m ( 1 @.@ 6 mi ) , and in the Nilgiris , where they are found at altitudes up to 2 @,@ 100 m ( 6 @,@ 900 ft ) during the summer . In Pakistan , they are restricted to a narrow region from Swat in the west to Lahore , avoiding the desert zone , and then occurring again in India east of an area between Ludhiana and Mount Abu . The species has also been observed in Kashmir , though this is rare .
Outside their native range , escaped birds frequently establish themselves in areas with a suitable climate and can then colonize new areas nearby . Escaped cage @-@ birds established in the wild and such populations have been recorded in the West Indies ( Puerto Rico since 1971 ) , Hawaii ( since 1883 ) , Australia , Japan and southern United States mainly in Florida and California . In Oahu , Hawaii , they compete for habitats with the tricolored munia and tend to be rare where this competitor is present .
= = Status and conservation = =
Lonchura punctulata is an abundant species and classified as " Least Concern " by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) . The species occupies an extremely large range , and its population , while still unquantified , is large and stable . The scaly @-@ breasted munia is not globally threatened and is common to very common throughout most of its range . However , some populations , such as those in the Lesser Sunda Islands are scarce .
In many areas it is regarded as an agricultural pest , feeding in large flocks on cultivated cereals such as rice . In Southeast Asia , the scaly @-@ breasted munia
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Campylobacter are common . Transmission may occur due to eating improperly prepared foods , drinking contaminated water , or through close contact with an individual who is infected . Testing to confirm the diagnosis is typically not needed .
Prevention includes hand washing with soap , drinking clean water , proper disposal of human waste , and breastfeeding babies instead of using formula . The rotavirus vaccine is recommended in children . Treatment involves getting enough fluids . For mild or moderate cases , this can typically be achieved by drinking oral rehydration solution ( a combination of water , salts , and sugar ) . In those who are breast fed , continued breastfeeding is recommended . For more severe cases , intravenous fluids may be needed . Fluids may also be given by a nasogastric tube . Zinc supplementation is recommended in children . Antibiotics are generally not needed .
It is estimated that three to five billion cases of gastroenteritis resulting in 1 @.@ 4 million deaths occur globally each year . Children and those in the developing world are most commonly affected . As of 2011 , in those below age five , there were about 1 @.@ 7 billion cases resulting in 0 @.@ 7 million deaths . In the developing world children less than two years of age frequently get six or more infections a year . It is less common in adults , partly due to the development of immunity .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
Gastroenteritis typically involves both diarrhea and vomiting , or less commonly , presents with only one or the other . Abdominal cramping may also be present . Signs and symptoms usually begin 12 – 72 hours after contracting the infectious agent . If due to a viral agent , the condition usually resolves within one week . Some viral causes may also be associated with fever , fatigue , headache , and muscle pain . If the stool is bloody , the cause is less likely to be viral and more likely to be bacterial . Some bacterial infections may be associated with severe abdominal pain and may persist for several weeks .
Children infected with rotavirus usually make a full recovery within three to eight days . However , in poor countries treatment for severe infections is often out of reach and persistent diarrhea is common . Dehydration is a common complication of diarrhea , and a child with a significant degree of dehydration may have a prolonged capillary refill , poor skin turgor , and abnormal breathing . Repeat infections are typically seen in areas with poor sanitation , and malnutrition , stunted growth , and long @-@ term cognitive delays can result .
Reactive arthritis occurs in 1 % of people following infections with Campylobacter species , and Guillain @-@ Barre syndrome occurs in 0 @.@ 1 % . Hemolytic uremic syndrome ( HUS ) may occur due to infection with Shiga toxin @-@ producing Escherichia coli or Shigella species , causing low platelet counts , poor kidney function , and low red blood cell count ( due to their breakdown ) . Children are more predisposed to getting HUS than adults . Some viral infections may produce benign infantile seizures .
= = Cause = =
Viruses ( particularly rotavirus ) and the bacteria Escherichia coli and Campylobacter species are the primary causes of gastroenteritis . There are , however , many other infectious agents that can cause this syndrome . Non @-@ infectious causes are seen on occasion , but they are less likely than a viral or bacterial cause . Risk of infection is higher in children due to their lack of immunity and relatively poor hygiene .
= = = Viral = = =
Rotavirus , norovirus , adenovirus , and astrovirus are known to cause viral gastroenteritis . Rotavirus is the most common cause of gastroenteritis in children , and produces similar rates in both the developed and developing world . Viruses cause about 70 % of episodes of infectious diarrhea in the pediatric age group . Rotavirus is a less common cause in adults due to acquired immunity . Norovirus is the cause in about 18 % of all cases .
Norovirus is the leading cause of gastroenteritis among adults in America , causing greater than 90 % of outbreaks . These localized epidemics typically occur when groups of people spend time in close physical proximity to each other , such as on cruise ships , in hospitals , or in restaurants . People may remain infectious even after their diarrhea has ended . Norovirus is the cause of about 10 % of cases in children .
= = = Bacterial = = =
In the developed world Campylobacter jejuni is the primary cause of bacterial gastroenteritis , with half of these cases associated with exposure to poultry . In children , bacteria are the cause in about 15 % of cases , with the most common types being Escherichia coli , Salmonella , Shigella , and Campylobacter species . If food becomes contaminated with bacteria and remains at room temperature for a period of several hours , the bacteria multiply and increase the risk of infection in those who consume the food . Some foods commonly associated with illness include raw or undercooked meat , poultry , seafood , and eggs ; raw sprouts ; unpasteurized milk and soft cheeses ; and fruit and vegetable juices . In the developing world , especially sub @-@ Saharan Africa and Asia , cholera is a common cause of gastroenteritis . This infection is usually transmitted by contaminated water or food .
Toxigenic Clostridium difficile is an important cause of diarrhea that occurs more often in the elderly . Infants can carry these bacteria without developing symptoms . It is a common cause of diarrhea in those who are hospitalized and is frequently associated with antibiotic use . Staphylococcus aureus infectious diarrhea may also occur in those who have used antibiotics . Acute " traveler 's diarrhea " is usually a type of bacterial gastroenteritis , while the persistent form is usually parasitic . Acid @-@ suppressing medication appears to increase the risk of significant infection after exposure to a number of organisms , including Clostridium difficile , Salmonella , and Campylobacter species . The risk is greater in those taking proton pump inhibitors than with H2 antagonists .
= = = Parasitic = = =
A number of protozoa can cause gastroenteritis – most commonly Giardia lamblia – but Entamoeba histolytica , Cryptosporidium spp . , and other species have also been implicated . As a group , these agents comprise about 10 % of cases in children . Giardia occurs more commonly in the developing world , but this etiologic agent causes this type of illness to some degree nearly everywhere . It occurs more commonly in persons who have traveled to areas with high prevalence , children who attend day care , men who have sex with men , and following disasters .
= = = Transmission = = =
Transmission may occur via consumption of contaminated water , or when people share personal objects . In places with wet and dry seasons , water quality typically worsens during the wet season , and this correlates with the time of outbreaks . In areas of the world with four seasons , infections are more common in the winter . Bottle @-@ feeding of babies with improperly sanitized bottles is a significant cause on a global scale . Transmission rates are also related to poor hygiene , especially among children , in crowded households , and in those with pre @-@ existing poor nutritional status . After developing tolerance , adults may carry certain organisms without exhibiting signs or symptoms , and thus act as natural reservoirs of contagion . While some agents ( such as Shigella ) only occur in primates , others may occur in a wide variety of animals ( such as Giardia ) .
= = = Non @-@ infectious = = =
There are a number of non @-@ infectious causes of inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract . Some of the more common include medications ( like NSAIDs ) , certain foods such as lactose ( in those who are intolerant ) , and gluten ( in those with celiac disease ) . Crohn 's disease is also a non @-@ infectious source of ( often severe ) gastroenteritis . Disease secondary to toxins may also occur . Some food @-@ related conditions associated with nausea , vomiting , and diarrhea include : ciguatera poisoning due to consumption of contaminated predatory fish , scombroid associated with the consumption of certain types of spoiled fish , tetrodotoxin poisoning from the consumption of puffer fish among others , and botulism typically due to improperly preserved food .
In the United States , rates of emergency department use for noninfectious gastroenteritis dropped 30 % from 2006 until 2011 . Of the twenty most common conditions seen in the emergency department , rates of noninfectious gastroenteritis had the largest decrease in visits in that time period .
= = Pathophysiology = =
Gastroenteritis is defined as vomiting or diarrhea due to infection of the small or large bowel . The changes in the small bowel are typically noninflammatory , while the ones in the large bowel are inflammatory . The number of pathogens required to cause an infection varies from as few as one ( for Cryptosporidium ) to as many as 108 ( for Vibrio cholerae ) .
= = Diagnosis = =
Gastroenteritis is typically diagnosed clinically , based on a person 's signs and symptoms . Determining the exact cause is usually not needed as it does not alter management of the condition . However , stool cultures should be performed in those with blood in the stool , those who might have been exposed to food poisoning , and those who have recently traveled to the developing world . Diagnostic testing may also be done for surveillance . As hypoglycemia occurs in approximately 10 % of infants and young children , measuring serum glucose in this population is recommended . Electrolytes and kidney function should also be checked when there is a concern about severe dehydration .
= = = Dehydration = = =
A determination of whether or not the person has dehydration is an important part of the assessment , with dehydration typically divided into mild ( 3 – 5 % ) , moderate ( 6 – 9 % ) , and severe ( ≥ 10 % ) cases . In children , the most accurate signs of moderate or severe dehydration are a prolonged capillary refill , poor skin turgor , and abnormal breathing . Other useful findings ( when used in combination ) include sunken eyes , decreased activity , a lack of tears , and a dry mouth . A normal urinary output and oral fluid intake is reassuring . Laboratory testing is of little clinical benefit in determining the degree of dehydration . Thus the use of urine testing or ultrasounds is generally not needed .
= = = Differential diagnosis = = =
Other potential causes of signs and symptoms that mimic those seen in gastroenteritis that need to be ruled out include appendicitis , volvulus , inflammatory bowel disease , urinary tract infections , and diabetes mellitus . Pancreatic insufficiency , short bowel syndrome , Whipple 's disease , coeliac disease , and laxative abuse should also be considered . The differential diagnosis can be complicated somewhat if the person exhibits only vomiting or diarrhea ( rather than both ) .
Appendicitis may present with vomiting , abdominal pain , and a small amount of diarrhea in up to 33 % of cases . This is in contrast to the large amount of diarrhea that is typical of gastroenteritis . Infections of the lungs or urinary tract in children may also cause vomiting or diarrhea . Classical diabetic ketoacidosis ( DKA ) presents with abdominal pain , nausea , and vomiting , but without diarrhea . One study found that 17 % of children with DKA were initially diagnosed as having gastroenteritis .
= = Prevention = =
= = = Lifestyle = = =
A supply of easily accessible uncontaminated water and good sanitation practices are important for reducing rates of infection and clinically significant gastroenteritis . Personal measures ( such as hand washing with soap ) have been found to decrease rates of gastroenteritis in both the developing and developed world by as much as 30 % . Alcohol @-@ based gels may also be effective . Breastfeeding is important , especially in places with poor hygiene , as is improvement of hygiene generally . Breast milk reduces both the frequency of infections and their duration . Avoiding contaminated food or drink should also be effective .
= = = Vaccination = = =
Due to both its effectiveness and safety , in 2009 the World Health Organization recommended that the rotavirus vaccine be offered to all children globally . Two commercial rotavirus vaccines exist and several more are in development . In Africa and Asia these vaccines reduced severe disease among infants and countries that have put in place national immunization programs have seen a decline in the rates and severity of disease . This vaccine may also prevent illness in non @-@ vaccinated children by reducing the number of circulating infections . Since 2000 , the implementation of a rotavirus vaccination program in the United States has substantially decreased the number of cases of diarrhea by as much as 80 percent . The first dose of vaccine should be given to infants between 6 and 15 weeks of age . The oral cholera vaccine has been found to be 50 – 60 % effective over 2 years .
= = Management = =
Gastroenteritis is usually an acute and self @-@ limiting disease that does not require medication . The preferred treatment in those with mild to moderate dehydration is oral rehydration therapy ( ORT ) . Metoclopramide and / or ondansetron , however , may be helpful in some children , and butylscopolamine is useful in treating abdominal pain .
= = = Rehydration = = =
The primary treatment of gastroenteritis in both children and adults is rehydration . This is preferably achieved by drinking rehydration solution , although intravenous delivery may be required if there is a decreased level of consciousness or if dehydration is severe . Drinking replacement therapy products made with complex carbohydrates ( i.e. those made from wheat or rice ) may be superior to those based on simple sugars . Drinks especially high in simple sugars , such as soft drinks and fruit juices , are not recommended in children under 5 years of age as they may increase diarrhea . Plain water may be used if more specific ORT preparations are unavailable or the person is not willing to drink them . A nasogastric tube can be used in young children to administer fluids if warranted . In those who require intravenous fluids , one to four hours ' worth is often sufficient .
= = = Dietary = = =
It is recommended that breast @-@ fed infants continue to be nursed in the usual fashion , and that formula @-@ fed infants continue their formula immediately after rehydration with ORT . Lactose @-@ free or lactose @-@ reduced formulas usually are not necessary . Children should continue their usual diet during episodes of diarrhea with the exception that foods high in simple sugars should be avoided . The BRAT diet ( bananas , rice , applesauce , toast and tea ) is no longer recommended , as it contains insufficient nutrients and has no benefit over normal feeding . Some probiotics have been shown to be beneficial in reducing both the duration of illness and the frequency of stools . They may also be useful in preventing and treating antibiotic associated diarrhea . Fermented milk products ( such as yogurt ) are similarly beneficial . Zinc supplementation appears to be effective in both treating and preventing diarrhea among children in the developing world .
= = = Antiemetics = = =
Antiemetic medications may be helpful for treating vomiting in children . Ondansetron has some utility , with a single dose being associated with less need for intravenous fluids , fewer hospitalizations , and decreased vomiting . Metoclopramide might also be helpful . However , the use of ondansetron might possibly be linked to an increased rate of return to hospital in children . The intravenous preparation of ondansetron may be given orally if clinical judgment warrants . Dimenhydrinate , while reducing vomiting , does not appear to have a significant clinical benefit .
= = = Antibiotics = = =
Antibiotics are not usually used for gastroenteritis , although they are sometimes recommended if symptoms are particularly severe or if a susceptible bacterial cause is isolated or suspected . If antibiotics are to be employed , a macrolide ( such as azithromycin ) is preferred over a fluoroquinolone due to higher rates of resistance to the latter . Pseudomembranous colitis , usually caused by antibiotic use , is managed by discontinuing the causative agent and treating it with either metronidazole or vancomycin . Bacteria and protozoans that are amenable to treatment include Shigella Salmonella typhi , and Giardia species . In those with Giardia species or Entamoeba histolytica , tinidazole treatment is recommended and superior to metronidazole . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) recommends the use of antibiotics in young children who have both bloody diarrhea and fever .
= = = Antimotility agents = = =
Antimotility medication has a theoretical risk of causing complications , and although clinical experience has shown this to be unlikely , these drugs are discouraged in people with bloody diarrhea or diarrhea that is complicated by fever . Loperamide , an opioid analogue , is commonly used for the symptomatic treatment of diarrhea . Loperamide is not recommended in children , however , as it may cross the immature blood – brain barrier and cause toxicity . Bismuth subsalicylate , an insoluble complex of trivalent bismuth and salicylate , can be used in mild to moderate cases , but salicylate toxicity is theoretically possible .
= = Epidemiology = =
It is estimated that three to five billion cases of gastroenteritis resulting in 1 @.@ 4 million deaths occur globally on an annual basis . Children and those in the developing world are most commonly affected . As of 2011 , in those less than five , there were about 1 @.@ 7 billion cases resulting in 0 @.@ 7 million deaths , with most of these occurring in the world 's poorest nations . More than 450 @,@ 000 of these fatalities are due to rotavirus in children under 5 years of age . Cholera causes about three to five million cases of disease and kills approximately 100 @,@ 000 people yearly . In the developing world , children less than two years of age frequently get six or more infections a year that result in significant gastroenteritis . It is less common in adults , partly due to the development of acquired immunity .
In 1980 , gastroenteritis from all causes caused 4 @.@ 6 million deaths in children , with the majority occurring in the developing world . Death rates were reduced significantly ( to approximately 1 @.@ 5 million deaths annually ) by the year 2000 , largely due to the introduction and widespread use of oral rehydration therapy . In the US , infections causing gastroenteritis are the second most common infection ( after the common cold ) , and they result in between 200 and 375 million cases of acute diarrhea and approximately ten thousand deaths annually , with 150 to 300 of these deaths in children less than five years of age .
= = History = =
The first usage of " gastroenteritis " was in 1825 . Before this time it was commonly known as typhoid fever or " cholera morbus " , among others , or less specifically as " griping of the guts " , " surfeit " , " flux " , " colic " , " bowel complaint " , or any one of a number of other archaic names for acute diarrhea . Cholera morbus is a historical term that was used to refer to gastroenteritis rather than specifically cholera .
= = Society and culture = =
Gastroenteritis is associated with many colloquial names , including " Montezuma 's revenge " , " Delhi belly " , " la turista " , and " back door sprint " , among others . It has played a role in many military campaigns and is believed to be the origin of the term " no guts no glory " .
Gastroenteritis is the main reason for 3 @.@ 7 million visits to physicians a year in the United States and 3 million visits in France . In the United States gastroenteritis as a whole is believed to result in costs of 23 billion USD per year with that due to rotavirus alone resulting in estimated costs of 1 billion USD a year .
= = Research = =
There are a number of vaccines against gastroenteritis in development . For example , vaccines against Shigella and enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli ( ETEC ) , two of the leading bacterial causes of gastroenteritis worldwide .
= = Other animals = =
Many of the same agents cause gastroenteritis in cats and dogs as in humans . The most common organisms are Campylobacter , Clostridium difficile , Clostridium perfringens , and Salmonella . A large number of toxic plants may also cause symptoms .
Some agents are more specific to a certain species . Transmissible gastroenteritis coronavirus ( TGEV ) occurs in pigs resulting in vomiting , diarrhea , and dehydration . It is believed to be introduced to pigs by wild birds and there is no specific treatment available . It is not transmissible to humans .
= Djungarian hamster =
The Djungarian hamster ( Phodopus sungorus ) , also known as the Siberian hamster , Siberian dwarf hamster or Russian winter white dwarf hamster , is one of three species of hamster in the genus Phodopus . It is ball @-@ shaped and typically half the size of the Syrian hamster , and therefore called a dwarf hamster along with all Phodopus species . Features of the Djungarian hamster include a typically thick , dark grey dorsal stripe and furry feet . As winter approaches and the days shorten , the Djungarian hamster 's dark fur is almost entirely replaced with white fur . In captivity , this does not always happen . In the wild , they originate from Dzungaria , the wheat fields of Kazakhstan , the meadows of Mongolia , Siberia , and the birch stands of Manchuria .
Djungarian hamsters are common as pets in Europe and North America , and exhibit greater variance in their coats than those found in the wild . They reproduce often — more so than Syrian hamsters — and , as they have no fixed breeding season , can continue to produce large amounts of offspring all year round . Young pups will act aggressively to one another ; whilst breeding females may show similar aggression to males .
= = Physical description = =
The coat of the Djungarian hamster is less woolly than that of the Campbell 's dwarf hamster , and apart from the normal colouring , they can be coloured sapphire , sapphire pearl , or normal pearl . The head length of the Djungarian hamster is 70 to 90 millimetres in length , the length of the tail is five to 15 millimetres , and the hind legs are 11 to 15 millimetres . The body weight changes dramatically throughout the year . It is at its lowest during the winter months . In males , the body weight ranges from 19 grams ( 0 @.@ 67 oz ) to 45 grams ( 1 @.@ 6 oz ) , and in females , 19 grams ( 0 @.@ 67 oz ) to 36 grams ( 1 @.@ 3 oz ) . In human care , they are slightly heavier . The average lifespan of the Djungarian hamster is one to three years of age in captivity , though they can live longer . In the wild , they are known to live as little as one year .
In summer , the fur of the Djungarian hamster on the back changes from ash @-@ grey to dark brown , or sometimes pale brown with a tint . The face changes to grey or brown , while the mouth area , the whisker area and the ears are slightly brighter . The outer ears and the eyes have black edges . The rest of the head is dark brown or black . From the head to the tail runs a black @-@ brown dorsal stripe . The throat , belly , tail and limbs are white . The ears are grey with a pinkish tint with scattered black hairs . The hairs on the underside are completely white . The bright coat the bottom extends to the shoulders , flanks and hips in three arches upward . It is distinguished from the darker fur on the top of the existing black @-@ brown hair , three curved line .
Apart from the typical colouration , Djungarian hamsters can also be coloured pearl , sapphire , sapphire pearl and marbled . Other colorations are available , but these are strongly suspected to appear only in hybrid crossings with Campbell Dwarf hamsters . Some of these colorations are mandarin , blue , argente , yellow blue fawn , camel , brown , cream , merle and umbrous .
In the winter , the fur is more dense . They sometimes have a grey tint on their head . More than ten percent of the hamsters kept in the first winter develop the summer coat . In the second winter , only a few change into the winter coat and winter colour is less pronounced . The moulting in the winter fur starts in October or November and is completed in December , while the summer coat begins in January or February and is completed in March or early April . The ears are grey with a pinkish tint . Moulting both run jobs on the head and the back of the spine to the sides , the legs and the underside . The hairs grow longer in the summer , to about ten millimetres long .
The pigmentation of hair is controlled by the hormone prolactin and colour genetics . Day length must be less than fourteen hours to initiate the change to winter coat . The change to the winter coat can be triggered in the summer by the short day lengths . The change occurs back to the summer coat in the autumn , when the length of the days change again . At internal temperatures hamsters in captivity start later with the changes . The winter colour is less pronounced in them . The eyes of the Djungarian hamster are black , unless it is albino in which case they are red .
= = In the wild = =
In the wild , the Djungarian hamster 's fur changes colour in the winter . This adaptation helps them to evade predators in the snow @-@ covered steppes of winter . The Djungarian hamster digs tunnels one metre deep leading to ground burrows where they can sleep , raise their young and hide from predators . The weasel is one of the Djungarian hamsters main predators . Most of these burrows have six entrances . In the summer time , the burrows are lined with moss . To keep the burrow warm in the winter , the Djungarian hamster closes all but one entrance and lines the burrows with animal fur or wool that it finds . The temperature inside the burrow is usually 16 @.@ 7 ° C ( 62 @.@ 1 ° F ) . Djungarian hamsters sometimes live in the semi @-@ deserts in Central Asia . They also live in the dry steppes and wheat or alfalfa fields as well as on small fields in the forests of the region around Minusinsk . The fur on the Djungarian hamster 's feet protect the feet from the cold ground from in the cold climates in the wild . The population density is highly varied . In 1968 , the first four examples of the Djungarian hamster were caught in Western Siberia and brought to the Max Planck Institute in Germany .
= = = Systematics = = =
The Djungarian hamster is a species of Phodopus . The Campbell 's Dwarf Hamster is named as a separate species within the Phodopus sungorus species with respect to subspecies . Other subspecies are not distinguished . The Djungarian hamster was described by Peter Simon Pallas in 1773 as a mouse . The species name sungorus derives from the Dsungaria . In 1778 , Pallas renamed the Djungarian hamster to mouse songarus . Ned Hollister ordered the Djungarian hamster in 1912 to the genus Phodopus . A. I. Argiropulo , in 1933 , changed the name to priority sungorus and united the Djungarian hamster as a subspecies of Phodopus sungorus sungorus with the Campbell 's Dwarf Hamster .
= = Pet ownership = =
Djungarian hamsters are often found on the pet market in Europe and North America . Care of the Djungarian hamster is similar to all other species of Phodopus . Djungarian hamsters , along with most rodents , are prone to tumours . They can also receive injury in the cheek pouch by sharp objects damaging the fragile inner lining . Other health problems include bite wounds , broken teeth , constipation , dehydration , dental malocclusion , diarrhea and ear problems . The Djungarian hamster is easy to tame . In addition to natural colourings in the wild , ( " ruddy " or " agouti " ) Djungarian hamsters in captivity come in a variety of different colors .
= = Breeding = =
Djungarian hamsters reproduce at a faster rate than Syrian hamsters . Phodopus are able to become pregnant again on the same day that they have given birth . This can all happen within a thirty @-@ six @-@ day period . This is done as a survival strategy to produce large numbers of offspring in a short period of time . This places tremendous demands on the mother . Research suggests biparental care in Campbell 's hamsters ( Phodopus campbelli ) but not in Djungarian hamsters ( Phodopus sungorus ) . Frequent fighting can occur between the pups and as soon as they are weaned from their mother , they are separated from their mother . They should not be separated from their mother before three weeks of age . Most Djungarian hamster dwarf hamsters grow to 3 to 4 " long . Djungarian hamsters breed all year round as there is no specific breeding season .
During the breeding time , the Djungarian hamster may become aggressive . After mating , the female may want to attack the male to protect her babies . The male will usually hide in holes or caves to escape from the vicious bite of the female Djungarian hamster . The Djungarian hamster 's estrous cycle lasts four days , this means every four days , the female may accept the male back to breed again . This usually occurs when the darkness of the evening sets in . If a male and female Djungarian hamster are not housed together from a young age , it is difficult to tell if the female is willing to breed with the male .
= = = Hybrids = = =
Of the five species kept commonly as pets , only the Campbell 's dwarf hamster and Djungarian hamsters are able to interbreed and produce live offspring or hybrids . Although hybrids make suitable pets , the breeding of hybrids and cloning can cause health and reproduction problems . In addition , the widespread breeding and distribution of hybrids could threaten the existence of both pure species and subspecies of the ecosystem , resulting in only mongrels . Hybridizing causes each litter to become smaller and the young begin to form congenital problems .
= Bill Spivey =
William Edwin " Bill " Spivey ( March 19 , 1929 – May 8 , 1995 ) was an American basketball player . A 7 ft 0 in ( 2 @.@ 13 m ) center , he played college basketball for the National Collegiate Athletic Association 's ( NCAA ) Kentucky Wildcats from 1949 to 1951 . After his high school career , Spivey was recruited to the University of Kentucky . During his time with the Wildcats , he led the team to the 1951 NCAA Tournament championship , and was voted Most Outstanding Player of the event . When a point shaving scandal was revealed that year , Spivey was accused of being involved , which he denied . He left the Wildcats in December 1951 , and the university banned him from the squad in March 1952 .
After he testified before a grand jury in New York , he was indicted on perjury charges . Although Spivey was not convicted when the case went to trial in 1953 , he was prevented from competing in the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) afterward . Spivey instead played professionally for various minor league teams . In 10 Eastern Basketball League ( EBL ) seasons , his teams won three championships . Spivey retired in 1968 and became a businessman , working in sales and operating restaurants . Upset by the accusations against him in the early 1950s , he was reclusive in his final years .
= = Early life = =
William Edwin Spivey was born in Lakeland , Florida , and had moved to Columbus , Georgia , by 1944 , at which time he was 6 ft 9 in ( 2 @.@ 06 m ) . After taking up basketball , he played for his high school 's team and had 18 points in his first half of game action . The following year , he moved to Warner Robins , Georgia , which did not have a basketball team before he arrived . The principal of Warner Robins ' high school created a team , however , once Spivey came . During one of his high school seasons , he was forced to play without shoes — since none of the school 's shoes fit him — and wear three pairs of socks . Spivey had over 1 @,@ 800 points in his three @-@ year high school career .
= = College career = =
= = = Recruitment = = =
Several universities wanted to give Spivey a basketball scholarship in 1948 . The University of Kentucky first became aware of Spivey when a Georgia newspaper publisher phoned Fred Wachs , whom writer Earl Cox called " the most powerful man in Lexington " ; according to Cox , Wachs " ran the University of Kentucky " . After hearing of Spivey from the publisher , who indicated a desire to have him attend the university , Wachs notified Kentucky 's men 's basketball coach , Adolph Rupp , who elected to have a scout watch Spivey play . Following positive feedback from the scout , Rupp gave Spivey an invitation to a camp held at Alumni Gymnasium , where he would try out against other leading high school seniors . He received a scholarship on the camp 's first day , one of two players to do so .
= = = 1948 – 49 to 1949 – 50 = = =
Even though he offered a scholarship to the seven @-@ foot Spivey , Rupp was concerned about his weight , which was between 160 and 165 pounds . Rupp told him that he would play only if he added 40 pounds ( 18 kg ) , and Spivey bulked up to 200 pounds ( 91 kg ) during the summer of 1948 . At the time , first @-@ year players were not allowed to compete on varsity teams . Therefore , Spivey spent his first year at Kentucky on a freshman team , while the varsity team won its second consecutive NCAA Basketball Championship in 1949 . The two teams practiced against each other , and varsity team member Ralph Beard later said that Spivey outplayed the Wildcats ' All @-@ American center , Alex Groza . The U.S. Olympic team , which had six Wildcats players on it , practiced in Lexington , and Spivey gained knowledge and skills from team members Groza , Vince Boryla and Bob Kurland . Spivey also competed in games against other freshman teams , including one against Xavier in which he posted 31 points . In 15 games , he averaged about 20 points per game .
In the 1949 – 50 season , the Wildcats lost several of the leading players from their championship @-@ winning teams to graduation , including Beard and Groza . In response , Rupp made Spivey the focal point of the team , and the team exceeded expectations . In a February 18 , 1950 game against Georgia Tech , which the Wildcats won 97 – 62 , Spivey broke the team record for points in a game with 40 , two more than Groza scored in a game the previous season . That record has since been broken , but his 42 field goal attempts remain a school record as of 2010 . Spivey tied another of Groza 's point @-@ scoring records on March 5 with a 37 @-@ point performance in a Southeastern Conference ( SEC ) Men 's Basketball Tournament game . Kentucky won over Tennessee 95 – 58 to win the SEC Tournament for the seventh consecutive season . Kentucky ended the regular season with a 25 – 4 record , and Spivey averaged 19 @.@ 4 points a game . Despite the Wildcats ' record and SEC title , the NCAA Tournament selection committee did not give the team a berth in the 1950 tournament . Kentucky did gain a berth to the National Invitation Tournament , but was eliminated in the quarterfinals by City College of New York ( CCNY ) , 89 – 50 . In that game , Spivey was forced to the bench for the final nine minutes of the first half after accumulating four personal fouls . At the end of the season , Spivey was named to the All @-@ SEC team , and the Associated Press selected him for its 1950 All @-@ American third team .
= = = 1950 – 51 = = =
Spivey set another school record in a February 13 , 1951 , game , gathering 31 rebounds . As of 2010 , he remains tied for the team record with Bob Burrow , who had the same number of rebounds in a 1955 game . For the season , Spivey again averaged more than 19 points per game , and he added 17 @.@ 2 rebounds per game . His point total led the SEC , and his 479 regular season points were the third @-@ most in league history at the time . The Wildcats had a 28 – 2 record during the regular season , and entered the postseason as the top @-@ ranked team in the country . One of those losses came in the SEC Tournament against Vanderbilt , but it did not affect the team 's prospects for an NCAA Tournament berth because the SEC had decided to send its regular season champion to the newly expanded 16 @-@ team tournament . Kentucky advanced to the Tournament 's Final Four , where Spivey had 28 points and 16 rebounds in a 76 – 74 win over Illinois . The Wildcats then faced Kansas State in the NCAA championship game . Despite falling behind early in the contest , they took the lead in the second half and pulled away to win 68 – 58 . Spivey played an important role in the victory , scoring 22 points and pulling down 21 rebounds . Rupp said after the game that " Spivey made the difference after he went to work . " For his performance in the Final Four , Spivey was named the event 's Most Outstanding Player . He was later selected to the 1951 All @-@ American team , as well as the All @-@ SEC team for the second straight season .
= = Implication in gambling scandal = =
The CCNY Point Shaving Scandal was revealed in 1951 . A series of college basketball players had conspired with gamblers to shave points to ensure that their teams lost against the point spread . According to Manhattan District Attorney Frank Hogan , 32 players were involved in point shaving or match fixing , and 86 games were affected . That figure included three ex @-@ Kentucky players : Dale Barnstable , Beard , and Groza , who engaged in point shaving during a 1949 National Invitation Tournament game . Having been sidelined in the early part of the 1951 – 52 season after knee surgery , Spivey gave up his eligibility to play for the Wildcats on December 24 , 1951 . He denied rumors that he was involved in the scandal , calling them " false and malicious " .
Spivey intended to return to the Wildcats once the situation was resolved , which Kentucky 's athletic association expected before reinstatement . On February 16 , 1952 , he and the association 's directors agreed to have him testify before a grand jury in New York . After Spivey 's grand jury appearance later in February , however , the university banned him permanently on March 2 . In its statement , Kentucky 's athletic board said evidence pointed to him fixing games during the 1950 Sugar Bowl Tournament . Gambler Jack West was charged with bribing two Wildcats players , Spivey and Walter Hirsch , to engage in point shaving during one of the tournament 's games , and eventually pleaded guilty . In his grand jury testimony , Spivey denied receiving $ 1 @,@ 000 to shave points in games from December 1950 to January 1951 , or talking about doing so with gamblers . In April , the grand jury indicted him on charges of perjury for lying under oath during his testimony , claiming he had done so on seven occasions .
= = = Trial = = =
On June 9 , Spivey was arrested in New York , and was released pending a trial , which started in January 1953 . Hirsch testified that Spivey asked to be included as a point shaver , and was upset that the payment for his role in shaving during the 1950 Sugar Bowl game was less than he anticipated . This , however , contradicted his original grand jury testimony , which had no mention of Spivey 's involvement . Hirsch also told the grand jury that Spivey and West , the ringleader , had not met . West declined to testify , leading to criminal contempt charges against him . Spivey again denied taking part in the scandal , stating that he had turned down a different gambler on two occasions . According to him , ex @-@ teammate Jim Line mentioned his name to the grand jury ; Spivey said he learned this from Line . The trial lasted for 13 days before the case went to a jury . By a 9 – 3 margin , the majority of jurors supported acquittal for Spivey , and the hung jury caused a mistrial . The grand jury eventually dropped the charges against Spivey .
= = Professional career = =
Although Spivey was not found guilty in the scandal , he found himself blackballed from the NBA after league president Maurice Podoloff banned all 32 players involved in the CCNY scandal for life . The Cincinnati Royals later tried to sign Spivey , but Podoloff refused to approve the contract . Spivey filed a lawsuit against the NBA and Podoloff in 1960 , seeking more than $ 800 @,@ 000 in damages . Afterward , he claimed that his rights under the Sherman Antitrust Act had been violated and sued the league in federal court , dropping his initial case . In response , Podoloff offered to settle with Spivey for $ 10 @,@ 000 , which he accepted . According to sportswriter Jim Murray , Spivey felt that he had no choice but to accept because the court schedule was so full that even if he had won his case , he would have been too old to be a viable NBA prospect in any case . Future Kentucky coach Joe B. Hall said that " most people feel [ Spivey ] would have been one of the top five centers of all @-@ time had he had the chance to mature in the NBA . " Instead , Spivey spent his professional career playing for numerous minor league and barnstorming teams .
In October 1952 , Spivey played in two games for the American Basketball League 's Elmira Colonels , scoring 21 and 32 points in the contests . That season , he also was a member of the Detroit Vagabonds barnstorming team . For the next three seasons , he spent time with three teams connected to the Harlem Globetrotters exhibition team : the Boston Whirlwinds , the House of David , and the Washington Generals . In one game with the Whirlwinds , Spivey got into a fight with Globetrotters player Bobby " Showboat " Hall . For the 1955 – 56 and 1956 – 57 seasons , Spivey played for another barnstorming team , the New York Olympians , later renamed the Kentucky Colonels .
Beginning with the 1957 – 58 season , Spivey spent 10 of his remaining 12 professional seasons in the EBL . The first two of those EBL seasons were spent with the Wilkes @-@ Barre Barons , and Spivey led the team to consecutive league championships . On April 20 , 1958 , he scored 62 points in the title @-@ clinching game against the Easton Madisons , setting an EBL playoff record . In 1958 – 59 , he became the first player in league history with a 1 @,@ 000 @-@ point season , and had 64 points in a March 1959 game . Along with his play in the EBL , Spivey reached an agreement to join the Ansonia Norwoods of the semi @-@ professional Connecticut Basketball Association ( CBA ) in 1958 . Over two years with the Norwoods , his points @-@ per @-@ game average exceeded 30 @.@ 0 . Spivey moved to the Baltimore Bullets for the 1959 – 60 season , and played two seasons for the club . In Spivey 's first season with the Bullets , he had 36 @.@ 3 points per game , the highest average of his EBL career . Outside EBL competition , he received an opportunity to play opposite leading NBA center Wilt Chamberlain in a 1960 exhibition game , held in Milford , Connecticut , against the CBA 's Milford Chiefs . Spivey had a 30 @-@ point , 23 @-@ rebound performance ; his statistics were comparable to those of Chamberlain , who recorded a 31 @-@ point , 27 @-@ rebound game .
The Bullets won the league championship in 1960 – 61 , after which Spivey played two seasons in a different American Basketball League , with the Los Angeles Jets and Long Beach – Hawaii Chiefs . Spivey was named to the 1961 – 62 All @-@ ABL Second Team after averaging 22 @.@ 7 points per game and 11 @.@ 2 rebounds per game with the Chiefs ; his total of 1 @,@ 773 points was second behind Connie Hawkins . In the 1962 – 63 season , which was shortened when the league suspended operations , he had an average of 22 @.@ 5 points per game in 24 games with Long Beach . In ABL history , Spivey was third in points scored and fourth in rebounds .
Spivey returned to the EBL in 1963 to join the Scranton Miners , for whom he played five seasons . His highest scoring average for the Miners came in the 1964 – 65 season , when he had 27 @.@ 0 points per game . In 1967 – 68 , his final professional season , Spivey went back to the Barons . Playing for about $ 200 in salary per contest , he had 10 @.@ 4 points per game . On February 11 , 1968 , Spivey participated in his final professional game . Taking advantage of a loophole in the NBA 's rules , he took part in an all @-@ star game in Baltimore featuring former Baltimore Bullets players before a Bullets – San Diego Rockets game . Spivey led both teams by scoring 12 points , but his team lost by one point . One day later he retired , saying " It really meant something for me to finish off my career with a game like that . " By the end of his career , Spivey 's physical condition had declined ; Lou Tsioropoulos , who had played with him at Kentucky , said , " He was just completely disabled . He could barely walk . "
= = Later life = =
After retiring from basketball , Spivey became a businessman , and moved back to Kentucky . The majority of his jobs involved sales ; these included the selling of building materials and insurance . He also helped to develop real estate and owned restaurants , including a Lexington @-@ based eatery , Bill Spivey 's Restaurant and Lounge . For a time he was the state 's deputy insurance commissioner . Spivey ran in the primary election for Lieutenant Governor of Kentucky in 1983 as a Democrat , but came in last in the seven @-@ person race .
Spivey made his final public appearance in 1991 , at a reunion of the 1951 Kentucky Wildcats team in Lexington . Writer Greg Doyel says that " he was a recluse " at the time . According to his wife , Audrey Spivey , " He never got over [ his accusation in the 1951 college basketball scandal ] . Bill could not let that go . He was just devastated . " Then living in Daytona Beach , Florida , he was later hurt in an automobile accident , which aggravated a lower @-@ back injury . Spivey 's son , Cashton , said that " He never made a full recovery from that . It affected his posture , and he had chronic pain from that . " In a post @-@ accident bone grafting operation , a piece of equipment became lodged in Spivey 's lower back ; according to Cashton , he won a small amount from the hospital in a lawsuit .
Spivey moved to Quepos , Costa Rica , around 1993 , after vacationing there with a friend six months before . Audrey did not come with him , although the couple did not separate legally . On May 8 , 1995 , he was found dead of natural causes at the age of 66 . Spivey received two notable honors posthumously : his jersey number , 77 , was retired by the University of Kentucky in January 2000 , and the Kentucky Sports Hall of Fame inducted him in September 2004 .
= Because of You ( Kelly Clarkson song ) =
" Because of You " is a song recorded by American pop singer Kelly Clarkson for her second studio album , Breakaway ( 2004 ) . It was written by Clarkson along with its producers David Hodges and Ben Moody . It was released on August 16 , 2005 by RCA Records , as the third single from Breakaway . Clarkson originally wrote " Because of You " when she was 16 years old to cope with the emotional distress caused by her parents ' divorce . She wanted the song to be included on her debut studio album , Thankful ( 2003 ) , but her record label rejected the song . She then polished the song with Hodges and Moody before successfully convincing her label to include it on Breakaway .
Lyrically , " Because of You " explores the pain of a deteriorating relationship with her father . Critics noted that the lyrics are Clarkson 's ode to her father . The song begins with a piano @-@ led melody and as it launches into the chorus , the sound of a roaring guitar becomes apparent . " Because of You " received positive reviews from music critics , who complimented its expressive lyrics , creative arrangement and Clarkson 's vocal prowess . It became one of Clarkson 's most successful singles around the world ; in the United States , it peaked at number seven on the Billboard Hot 100 and sold over 1 @.@ 5 million digital downloads . It was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . Internationally , " Because of You " topped the charts in the Netherlands , Denmark and Switzerland as well as reaching the top ten in Australia , Austria , Canada , Germany , Belgium , Hungary , Ireland , and the United Kingdom .
The song 's accompanying music video was directed by Vadim Perelman . Clarkson wrote the treatment for the video herself in order to reflect the pain that she felt due to her parents ' divorce . The video 's plot centers on Clarkson engaging in a heated argument with her husband in front of her child before realizing that she was repeating her parents ' mistake . It won in the category for Best Female Video at the 2006 MTV Video Music Awards . " Because of You " was performed live at numerous venues , including the My December Tour ( 2007 ) as well as the All I Ever Wanted Tour ( 2009 ) . It was covered by several artists including Ronan Parke , who was a runner @-@ up in the fifth series of Britain 's Got Talent , and added to the international soundtrack of Brazilian soap opera Belíssima . In 2007 , the song was recorded by Reba McEntire as a duet with Clarkson , which was released as a lead single for McEntire 's twenty @-@ fourth studio album Reba : Duets . " Piece by Piece " , the title track from Clarkson 's seventh studio album , serves as the canonical sequel to " Because of You " .
= = Background and writing = =
" Because of You " was written by Clarkson , David Hodges and Ben Moody while the production was handled by Hodges and Moody . They also wrote and produced another track , titled " Addicted " , that appeared in Clarkson 's album Breakaway ( 2004 ) . Clarkson originally wrote " Because of You " when she was 16 years old as a means of coping with the emotional distress caused by the divorce of her parents . She wrote the lyrics of the song in less than 25 minutes .
In an interview with The Guardian , Clarkson said that she wanted to include the song in her first album , Thankful ( 2003 ) , but she was laughed at . Then , she took the initiative to polish the song by sending a tape to Moody and worked with Hodges as her songwriting partner . Clarkson explained , " Hearing the Evanescence album , you can obviously tell that David and Ben have a real passion for music and that big kind of background . And I have a big voice and I like the music to match it , so it was a real dream team . "
According to Moody , he was very impressed with Clarkson and the song itself , saying " She had these ideas already in place for songs ; all I really had to do was build music around them and develop them . It was quite easy . " Clarkson also admitted that " Because of You " is the most depressing song she has ever written . Despite the revelation , she told Entertainment Weekly in August 2011 that she wanted to be remembered for the song because she had to work hard to get it on Breakaway ( 2004 ) when everyone was against it . She added , " I think I ’ m most proud of that song – just getting it on an album because no one liked it until it hit no . 1 worldwide and everybody was on board . "
= = Composition = =
" Because of You " is a piano ballad with a length of three minutes and 39 seconds . It is set in common time and has a moderate tempo of 69 beats per minute . It is composed in the key of F minor , and then modulated to the key of G minor , with Clarkson 's vocal range spanning over two octaves from Ab3 to Eb5 . Tony Heywood of MusicOMH noted that the song 's piano arrangement is reminiscent of Tori Amos . Lyrically , " Because of You " is a fiery ode to Clarkson 's father , and begins with Clarkson singing " oohs " over a somber piano which creates a " wintry tone . " As the song launches into the chorus , the roaring guitar is evident , and the lyrics , " Because of you I never stray too far from the sidewalk / Because of you I learned to play on the safe side so I don ’ t get hurt , " were deemed as " touching " by Dave Donelly of Sputnikmusic .
= = Critical reception = =
" Because of You " received universal critical acclaim . Film Laureate of Blogcritics considered " Because of You " and " Where Is Your Heart " as his two favorite songs from Breakaway , writing " [ Clarkson ] commands these two songs like a seasoned pro and directs herself in her songs the way Steven Spielberg said Barbra Streisand directs herself in her songs as if she 's directing an actor in a movie . " Dave Donnelly of Sputnikmusic compared the song to Evanescence 's " My Immortal " ( 2003 ) . ( Note that two of the songwriters and producers of " My Immortal " were also involved in this track . ) He added that Clarkson managed to take the piano @-@ driven song in a different direction with a " stormy , hard blues vocal ... avoiding the typical raised @-@ key final chorus cliché along the way " . Christa L. Titus of Billboard lauded the song for its absence of schmaltz factor , " only a potent , pained , grown @-@ up anthem of gross betrayal and loss . " She concluded her review , writing " it is time for Clarkson to return to No. 1 on the Billboard Hot 100 ; she has certainly become the most consistent hope for top 40 staple status . " Critics also lauded Clarkson 's vocal prowess in the song . Pam Avoledo of Blogcritics thought that vocally , the song is Clarkson 's " shining " moment . Tony Heywood of MusicOMH noted that in the song , Clarkson 's voice is " full of vulnerability , ache and wounded pride . " In May 15 , 2007 , the song was listed as one of the recipients of BMI Pop Awards . At the 24th ASCAP Pop Music Awards , the song was honoured with the Most Performed Songs award . On July 2008 , BBC News reported that according to Performing Right Society , " Because of You " was the second most played song in the United Kingdom over the last five years , following Daniel Powter 's " Bad Day " ( 2005 ) . On March 5 , 2013 , Billboard , ranked the song # 7 in its list of Top 100 American Idol Hits of All Time .
= = Chart performance = =
" Because of You " entered the Billboard Hot 100 at number 99 on the week ending September 3 , 2005 . On November 19 , 2005 , the song peaked at number seven and became her sixth single to reach the top @-@ ten . It also topped the Pop Songs chart on the week ending October 29 , 2005 . It became the seventh best selling single of the 2000s decade on the Pop Songs chart complied by Billboard . On January 31 , 2008 , " Because of You " was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . As of March 2013 , the song has sold 1 @,@ 803 @,@ 000 digital copies in the United States . In Canada , " Because of You " debuted at number 60 on the Canadian Hot 100 on the week ending July 14 , 2007 . Two weeks later , the song jumped to a new peak at number 36 and stayed in the position for two weeks . It was certified gold by Music Canada on December 4 , 2007 for shipments over 40 @,@ 000 units . The single also appeared and peaked on the UK Singles Chart at number seven on the week ending December 4 , 2005 . As of April 2016 , the song sold over 430 @,@ 000 copies in the United Kingdom .
In Australia , the song debuted and peaked at number four on the issue dated December 5 , 2005 . It was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipments over 35 @,@ 000 units . The song became the 58th best @-@ selling single in Australia in 2006 . In New Zealand , " Because of You " debuted on New Zealand Singles Chart at number 37 on the week ending December 5 , 2005 , and peaked at number 19 two weeks later . On the week ending March 20 , 2006 , " Because of You " debuted at number eight on the German Singles Chart . Three weeks later , it peaked at number four and stayed in the position for three consecutive weeks . The song was certified gold by The Federal Association of Music Industry for shipments over 150 @,@ 000 copies . In Europe , " Because of You " received a commercial success . The song topped the charts in the Netherlands and Switzerland , and reached the top five in Austria , Belgium ( Flanders ) , Ireland and Norway .
= = Music video = =
= = = Development = = =
The accompanying music video for " Because of You " was directed by Vadim Perelman and was produced by Rhonda Vernet . Clarkson wrote the treatment for the video herself in order to reflect the pain that she felt due to her parents ' divorce . Nevertheless , Clarkson also allowed Perelman to take control of the production of the video . According to Perelman , he wanted to create a disconnection to show " that this kind of dysfunctional family can exist anywhere . " In an interview with MTV News , Clarkson confessed that the video is sad , rationalizing , " It 's a sad song , so the video obviously has to follow that . But it ends really happy and everything and the family , my family , ends up breaking the cycle of my parents . " Since the music video deals specifically with her parents ' divorce , Clarkson had to seek for her parents ' permission . She explained ,
" It 's very close to home [ for me ] . I OK 'd it with my family and everything because they think it 's important , because we 're obviously very different now than we were when we were younger . And it 's important for people to see that raw kind of emotion that happens in life . It sucks sometimes , so it 's important to see that I think . And that 's what we 're portraying in the video . "
In the video , the younger version of Clarkson is played by Kennedy Nöel , the daughter of her musical director , Jason Halbert . The video premiered on October 3 , 2005 , on Total Request Live .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The video starts at the Clarksons ' household . There , she and her husband are engaged in a heated argument and he threatens to smash down a picture of the family at one point . Time freezes still and her husband becomes immobile ; Clarkson , however , is immune to this . Looking around her house , she sees her younger self . Hand in hand , the younger and older versions of Clarkson relive her troubled childhood as various painful memories are seen such as the younger Clarkson making a picture for her father who tosses it into the sink while talking on the phone and Clarkson 's mother making an unappreciated dinner for her father as she puts the father 's dinner into the bin . These events drive her mother to the point of taking pills before closing the door in the younger Clarkson 's face so that she doesn 't see her starting to cry . The breaking point is finally seen when Clarkson 's parents have a physical fight and throw objects at each other . Soon after , Clarkson 's father packs his bags and leaves despite the younger Clarkson 's pleas for him to stay . The older Clarkson runs back in time to the present and instead of fighting with her husband , they make up . They then see that their daughter in the video had seen them fight , and they embrace her and each other . Throughout the music video , Clarkson is shown singing on the front porch , her mother 's bed and a room full of mirrors , reflecting an image of her younger self . Note that Kelly is holding Kennedy 's hand in the scene where the childhood memories are revealed .
= = = Reception and accolades = = =
Elizabeth Black of VH1 ranked the music video at number four in her list of " Five Emotive Music Video Performances . " She reasoned , " Kelly Clarkson practically sobs her way through this hurt and angry expression of the pain that the narrator ’ s father has caused her through his absence and lack of love . " The music video won the category of Best Female Video at the 2006 MTV Video Music Awards . This marks the second time Clarkson has won the same category two years in a row ; her first win in the category was at the 2005 MTV Video Music Awards for the music video of " Since U Been Gone . " The music video was also nominated in the category of Viewer 's Choice Award , but lost to Fall Out Boy 's " Dance , Dance " ( 2005 ) . At the 2006 MuchMusic Video Awards , the music video won the category of People 's Choice : Favourite International Artist . The video was also nominated at the 2006 MTV Australia Video Music Awards in the category of Best Pop Video , but lost to Ashlee Simpson 's " Boyfriend " ( 2005 ) . According to Jocelyn Vena of MTV , the video for " Because of You " was referenced in Taylor Swift 's music video for " Mine " ( 2010 ) , writing " When Swift 's character remembers the fights her parents used to have , her memories mirror Clarkson 's attempts to exorcise the demons of her past to find love in her future . "
= = Live performances = =
Clarkson performed " Because of You " at the 48th Grammy Awards which took place on February 8 , 2006 , at the Staples Center in Los Angeles , California . Donning a red dress and singing from beside a grand piano , her performance in that event garnered positive reviews from critics . Elysa Gardner of USA Today lauded Clarkson 's performance and ranked it as one of the three best performances , writing , " The pre @-@ performance clip of a girlish @-@ looking Clarkson emphasized how little Kelly has matured . The girl most likely to escape the American Idol stigma was in fine , creamy voice , and kept the Mariah @-@ esque riffing to a minimum . " Robert Lloyd of Los Angeles Times considered Clarkson 's performance as one of the highlights in the event and described her performance as a " thin @-@ skinned rendition [ ... ] in which her whole being seemed involved . " Yahoo ! Music praised Clarkson 's rendition of the song , calling it " perfectly fine " despite the saying that it was " a little reminiscent of those many mediocre , superficial ballads trotted out on ' Idol . ' " On August 21 , 2007 , Clarkson performed " Because of You " and " Never Again " ( 2007 ) on the fifth season of Canadian Idol .
" Because of You " was performed at the My December Tour ( 2007 ) . Clarkson 's performance of the song was accompanied only by Wurlitzer organ that earned her a prolonged ovation when she sent her voice soaring into the rafters . While touring at Beacon Theatre , New York City , Clarkson performed the song using only one keyboard , which was deemed by Donna Freydkin of USA Today as the most memorable moment of the event . She also performed the song using only a keyboard as an instrument during her tour at Massey Hall , Toronto . " Because of You " was also performed at the All I Ever Wanted Tour ( 2009 ) . Clarkson 's performance of the song during the tour in the Hammerstein Ballroom , New York City , was given a positive review by Jim Cantiello of MTV . He explained that Clarkson 's powerful rendition " literally stopped the show [ ... ] for almost 30 seconds because the audience erupted in such wild applause . " Caryn Ganz of Rolling Stone noted that Clarkson sang the song to pay homage to Reba McEntire who was in the audience .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Recorded by Dan Certa at NRG Recording Studios , North Hollywood , California
Personnel
Source :
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= = Cover versions = =
Lisa Tucker covered the song on the fifth season of American Idol in 2006 . However , her performance was met with negative reviews from the judges and she was consequently eliminated from the show . On June 4 , 2011 , Britain 's Got Talent contestant , Ronan Parke covered " Because of You " in the finale of the fifth series of the show . His performance garnered standing ovation from the audience as well as the four judges . Parke also recorded the song and included it in his debut album , Ronan Parke . In an interview with Digital Spy , Parke stated that it was really challenging to record " Because of You . " He added , " I asked the producer if we could leave out some of the big notes . We left them until the end and I was actually a bit scared by the noise that came out of me - I didn 't know I could sound that loud ! " " Because of You " was also covered by Kim Bo Kyung , who was a contestant in South Korean singing competition show , Superstar K2 . Her performance received positive response from the judges and was considered as one of the highlights in the show even though she failed to advance into the Top 11 . Following her elimination , she recorded the studio version of " Because of You " which was released as a digital download by Sony Music Entertainment due to an overwhelming demand . She also received a personal video message from Clarkson who gave her words of advice and support . The song also was covered by Orange Caramel , a South Korean girl group , on Christmas Day for MBC 's special programme , " ICON " . Besides these cover versions , " Because of You " was also included in international soundtrack to Brazilian soap opera Belíssima .
= = Reba McEntire and Kelly Clarkson version = =
In 2007 , Clarkson re @-@ recorded " Because of You " as a duet with American country singer Reba McEntire . The song was released as a single on May 15 , 2007 , as the lead single for McEntire 's album , Reba : Duets . The duet garnered mixed reviews from critics who felt that even though McEntire 's singing was pleasant , she brought nothing new to the song . At the 50th Grammy Awards , McEntire and Clarkson received a nomination for Best Vocal Country Collaboration for the song . In the United States , " Because of You " became McEntire 's seventh song to peak at number two at Hot Country Songs . It also became Clarkson 's first song to appear on the chart . The music video was directed by Roman White which depicts McEntire and Clarkson as two retro Hollywood lounge singers . The plot centers on Clarkson 's relationship with her abusive partner which is witnessed by McEntire . The song was performed live by the two singers in various venues , notably at the 42nd Annual Academy of Country Music Awards and during their 2 Worlds 2 Voices Tour .
= = = Background and composition = = =
According to McEntire , Clarkson was the first singer to pair up with her for the album Reba : Duets ( 2007 ) . She also claimed that " Because of You " was not the original song to be included in the album ; it was another song that she recorded with Clarkson , titled " A Lot Like You . " McEntire explained that it was Narvel , her husband , who convinced her to go back in the studio and record " Because of You " after he heard both McEntire and Clarkson rehearsing the song . She expressed , " Narvel saw it . That wasn 't one of the songs we had talked about recording – matter of fact , Kelly and I had already recorded a song , ' A Lot Like You , ' for the duet project , and he said , ' You 've got to do this one together , ' so we did . " Musically , the song is different from the original version . Thom Jhurek of Allmusic described the duet version as " a big , overblown power ballad " which incorporates " guitars compressed to the breaking point , sweeping strings , and enormous crashing cymbals . " The use of violin was also incorporated into the duet , giving it a melodramatic quality that was deemed " unnecessary " by Nancy Dunham of Blogcritics . The song was officially sent to radio stations on May 15 , 2007 , as the lead single from the album . It was added to country radio playlists on May 28 , 2007 .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The song received mixed reviews from critics . Lana Cooper of PopMatters loved the duet and deemed it as " the most unique track on the album . " She also felt that McEntire and Clarkson complemented each other in the song , writing " The double @-@ feature cover of Clarkson ’ s hit showcases two women with exceptional and distinctive voices playing to one another ’ s strengths . " The same opinion was echoed by Nancy Dunham of Blogcritics who believed that " the two use just the right amount of vocal passion to make the ardent lyrics come alive , but stay out of the cheese zone . " Scott Sexton of About.com lauded the duet version of the song , writing " As of now anything Reba touches turns to gold , but with this hit alone she has a great shot at platinum . " Kevin John Coyne of Country Universe praised McEntire 's beautiful singing although he said that she did not bring " anything new " to the song . He also added that the song " had the potential to be reworked into an interesting mother / daughter confrontation " but he was disappointed because McEntire did not change the viewpoints of the song . He graded the production of the song as " C- " , writing " The end result is the song doesn ’ t make any sense , and is just confusing to listen to . " Thom Jurek of Allmusic criticized the instrumentation of the song , saying " This could have been a Meat Loaf reject from Bat Out of Hell II . " Gayle Thompson of The Boot ranked " Because of You
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to an intersection with Route 45 . At this point , US 40 turns to the northeast to run concurrent on Route 45 and enters Woodstown , where it becomes West Avenue and passes residences before reaching the downtown area . Here , Route 45 splits from US 40 by heading north on Main Street and US 40 continues to the east as East Avenue , passing more developed areas . The route crosses from Woodstown into Pilesgrove Township again , where it turns east @-@ southeast as Harding Highway and heads back into a mix of fields and woods amid homes . About 0 @.@ 17 mi ( 0 @.@ 27 km ) after entering Upper Pittsgrove Township , the road crosses CR 581 . In the community of Pole Tavern further to the east , US 40 encounters Route 77 , CR 604 , and CR 635 at the Pole Tavern Circle . Past Pole Tavern , the road passes more farm fields before coming to Elmer , where it becomes Chestnut Street . In Elmer , the route passes homes and makes a turn to the northeast onto Front Street . Upon leaving Elmer , US 40 becomes Harding Highway again and forms the border of Upper Pittsgrove Township to the north and Pittsgrove Township to the south , passing through forested areas among development . The route crosses CR 553 before passing through the community of Porchtown .
= = = Gloucester County = = =
After Porchtown , US 40 crosses into Franklin Township in Gloucester County , turning southeast and running through more woods . It comes to a cloverleaf interchange with Route 55 , where US 40 is briefly a four @-@ lane divided highway . Past Route 55 , the route continues past Malaga Lake and comes to the community of Malaga . In Malaga , the route heads into a business district and intersects Route 47 , turning to the northeast to run concurrent on a three @-@ lane road with a center left @-@ turn lane through inhabited areas . After passing over a Conrail Shared Assets Operations railroad line , US 40 and Route 47 split . Route 47 heads north and US 40 turns south and continues parallel to the railroad tracks . The road makes a turn to the east @-@ southeast , leaving Malaga and returning to areas of farmland and trees . The road briefly runs along the northern border of Newfield before coming to a crossroads with CR 555 . After passing near the Vineland @-@ Downstown Airport , US 40 intersects CR 557 and forms a concurrency with that route .
= = = Atlantic County = = =
Immediately after CR 557 joins US 40 , the road enters Buena , Atlantic County and continues southeast into inhabited areas . After running through the commercial center of town , the road comes to the southern terminus of Route 54 and the eastern end of CR 619 in a business area located on the outskirts . At this point , it enters Buena Vista Township , and CR 557 splits form US 40 by heading to the southeast on Buena @-@ Tuckahoe Road . From this point , US 40 becomes concurrent with CR 557 Truck and enters dense woodland containing homes and businesses as well as occasional farms . The road reaches the residential community of Richland , where it encounters the eastern terminus of CR 540 and CR 622 and crosses a Conrail Shared Assets Operations railroad line . Upon leaving Richland , the route crosses into Hamilton Township , where it runs through Mizpah before heading back into forested areas and a few residential sectors . US 40 intersects the eastern terminus of CR 552 , briefly becoming a divided highway before turning east into denser inhabited areas . The highway intersects CR 559 Truck / CR 606 , at which point it becomes concurrent with CR 559 Truck . The route meets Route 50 , where CR 557 Truck splits to the south . Route 50 joins US 40 before the road crosses the Great Egg Harbor River . Upon crossing the river , the road enters Mays Landing and turns north into the downtown area . CR 559 Truck splits southbound to follow CR 617 to the east . A short distance later , the road meets CR 559 and US 40 splits from Route 50 by turning east onto that route . This intersection marks the beginning of CR 559 Truck northbound . The road passes more development before CR 559 splits from the road by heading southeast . US 40 heads east out of Mays Landing , where it continues through woodland and increasing residential development . The road widens into four lanes as it comes to US 322 ( Black Horse Pike ) near the Hamilton Mall . At this point , US 40 forms a concurrency with US 322 , which lasts for the remainder of the route .
The two routes continue to the southeast through business areas , meeting CR 575 and a ramp to the Atlantic City Expressway . CR 575 turns east to follow US 40 / US 322 . The road enters Egg Harbor Township , and CR 575 splits from US 40 / US 322 by turning to the south . The route passes more wooded residential and commercial areas , as well as the Storybook Land amusement park , before intersecting CR 563 . US 40 / US 322 forms a concurrency with that route and passes through a business district that includes the Harbor Square shopping center . CR 563 splits from the road by continuing southeast and the Black Horse Pike heads east interchange with the Garden State Parkway . The only direct ramp present is between the Black Horse Pike westbound and the Garden State Parkway northbound ; all other movements are provided by CR 563 . Past here , US 40 / US 322 continues east past more businesses , crossing CR 651 before entering Pleasantville . In Pleasantville , the road crosses US 9 , where the name changes to Verona Avenue . Upon crossing CR 585 , the Black Horse Pike continues past residences as an undivided road , crossing back into Egg Harbor Township . The road passes more businesses , closely paralleling the Atlantic City Expressway before entering Atlantic City . Here , the name becomes Albany Avenue and it comes to a pair of ramps that provide access to and from the Black Horse Pike eastbound and the Atlantic City Expressway westbound . US 40 / US 322 enters marshland , crossing the Great Thorofare onto Great Island before passing over the Beach Thorofare . Past this bridge , the road passes between businesses to the west and the closed Bader Field airport and the abandoned Bernie Robbins Stadium to the east . US 40 / US 322 crosses the Inside Thorofare on a drawbridge and continues as a county maintained road to its end at Atlantic Avenue and Pacific Avenue , one block from the boardwalk . Through New Jersey , US 40 serves as a main road connecting Atlantic City with points south along Interstate 95 , such as Baltimore and Washington , D.C.
= = History = =
The portion of US 40 that overlaps US 322 follows the Black Horse Pike , a turnpike established in 1855 that was to run from Camden to Atlantic City via Blackwoodtown . In 1923 , pre @-@ 1927 Route 18S was created along the current alignment of US 40 east of the Route 48 intersection , running from Penns Grove to Atlantic City . When the U.S. Highway System was established in 1926 , the alignment of US 40 in New Jersey ran from Penns Grove , where a ferry carried the route across the Delaware River to Wilmington , Delaware , east to Atlantic City along pre @-@ 1927 Route 18S . In the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering that occurred a year later , pre @-@ 1927 Route 18S was replaced by Route 48 . In 1936 , US 322 was also signed concurrent with US 40 on the Black Horse Pike . The portion of US 40 / US 322 that existed in Atlantic City was legislated as Route 55 in 1938 . Also by 1938 , US 40 was moved to a ferry that ran across the Delaware River between Pennsville and New Castle , Delaware , following current Route 49 , local roads , and CR 551 to travel between the ferry and Route 48 . Following the completion of the Delaware Memorial Bridge and the New Jersey Turnpike in 1951 , US 40 was moved to the new bridge and routed to follow a small portion of the New Jersey Turnpike and Wiley Road to the current eastern terminus of Route 48 . In the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering , which eliminated concurrencies between U.S. highways and state routes , Route 48 was removed from the portion of US 40 east of its current eastern terminus and the Route 55 designation was dropped entirely .
In the 1980s , Congressman William J. Hughes proposed a freeway along the US 40 corridor in order to alleviate increased traffic along that route following the legalization of gambling in Atlantic City . This freeway , which was to be maintained by the New Jersey Expressway Authority , was to run from the Delaware Memorial Bridge east to Atlantic City . The NJDOT determined that the traffic volume on US 40 did not justify the construction of a freeway along the corridor . The Cardiff Circle along US 40 / US 322 at CR 563 and CR 608 in Egg Harbor Township was eliminated in a $ 3 @.@ 7 million project completed in 2002 .
In 2013 , the road was one of three that tied for the # 1 ranking on the Tri @-@ State Transportation Campaign 's list of the top ten most dangerous roads for pedestrians in New Jersey , New York and Connecticut . The route , along with U.S. Route 130 ( Burlington Pike ) in Burlington County and U.S. Route 1 in Middlesex County , were so ranked due to the nine pedestrian deaths that occurred on each of those roads from 2009 to 2011 .
= = Major intersections = =
= Mr.Mr. ( EP ) =
Mr.Mr. is the fourth extended play ( EP ) by South Korean girl group Girls ' Generation . The EP consists of six tracks and and it incorporates electropop and R & B @-@ pop music genres . It was released for digital download by S.M. Entertainment and KT Music on February 24 , 2014 . The CD and digital version were released in Hong Kong on the same day , and was made available for purchase on February 27 in South Korea . To promote the album , Girls ' Generation appeared on several South Korean music programs including Music Bank and Inkigayo . The title track was released as a single .
Mr.Mr. received positive reviews from music critics – AllMusic 's Heather Phares praised the album as showcasing the group 's musical strengths , while Billboard 's Jeff Benjamin positively viewed the EP as a more " impressive " release compared to the group 's previous album I Got a Boy ( 2013 ) . The EP peaked atop the Gaon Album Chart and became the best @-@ selling album by a girl group of 2014 in South Korea , as well as the fifth best @-@ selling album overall . It also entered the Japanese Oricon chart at number 11 and the US Billboard 200 at number 110 .
= = Songs = =
Mr.Mr. is composed of six songs , which feature " dazzling " electropop and R & B @-@ pop genres . According to member Seohyun , the EP incorporates " exciting " R & B sounds with " cool , simple " melodies . The opening track , " Mr.Mr. " , was composed by The Underdogs , who have worked with several American recording artists such as Beyoncé , Justin Timberlake , and Britney Spears . It has been described as an R & B @-@ pop song infused with electropop . It also incorporates a hip hop beat and EDM @-@ inspired buildups . The second song , " Goodbye , " is a pop @-@ rock track that is instrumented by snare drums and hi @-@ hats . " Europa " ( Korean : 유로파 ) , meanwhile , draws from retro late @-@ 1980s Europop and disco @-@ pop genres .
" Wait a Minute " was described as a " bouncy " jazz @-@ pop track with " beautiful [ harmonizations ] " , and " Back Hug " ( Korean : 백허그 ) features a " simple , snappy " R & B production . The EP concludes with " Soul " – an uptempo Korean version of the group 's first original Chinese recording , " Find Your Soul " , released in 2013 . The original version was used as the theme song on commercials for the Korean MMORPG video game , Blade & Soul , in Chinese @-@ language markets across Asia .
= = Release and promotion = =
Mr.Mr. was released for digital download worldwide on February 24 , 2014 , under S.M. Entertainment and KT Music , while the physical version was made available in South Korea on February 27 , 2014 by the same labels . The title track served as the EP 's lead single and it was released to South Korean mainstream radio on February 25 , 2014 .
To promote the EP , Girls ' Generation appeared on several South Korean music programs , the first being Mnet 's M Countdown , where they performed " Mr.Mr. " and " Wait a Minute " live on March 6 , 2014 . The group also appeared on KBS 's Music Bank , MBC 's Show ! Music Core and SBS 's Inkigayo on March 7 , 8 and 9 , 2014 , respectively . On Show ! Music Core , the group performed " Mr.Mr. " and " Wait a Minute " , while on Music Bank , they performed the title track and " Back Hug " .
= = Reception = =
Upon its release , Mr.Mr received positive reviews from music critics . Heather Phares from AllMusic labelled the EP " a set of songs that offers something for every kind of Girls ' Generation and expands their musical reach . " Phares further praised the EP for helping the group to be an outstanding case of Korean popular music . Writing for Billboard , Jeff Benjamin named the six songs of the EP " strong " and called it a more " impressive effort " compared to the group 's 2013 album I Got a Boy . He also deemed the tracklist " a tight bundle of songs that still see the group dipping and experimenting into new sonic territory , but possibly more focused than ever . " Benjamin also wrote an article for Fuse , on which he complimented the album 's musical styles as " short , sweet , but strong . " On the other hand , Kim Do @-@ heon from online magazine IZM compared the EP to the group 's 2011 album The Boys for its " balance of musical competence and appeal to mass popularity " , but found the songs to be inadequate . He concluded that the group needed to " [ set ] a clear direction for the future " after the " mistake " of I Got a Boy , and Mr.Mr was not the answer .
= = = Commericial performance = = =
Mr.Mr. was a commercial success domestically . It claimed the top spot on the South Korean Gaon Album Chart on the chart issue dated February 23 – March 1 , 2014 . It remained on the peak position for one further week , beating 2NE1 's Crush . Mr.Mr. came second on the Gaon Monthly Album Chart of February , selling 87 @,@ 824 physical copies , only behind B.A.P 's First Sensibility , which sold over 91 @,@ 000 units . The following month , it topped the Gaon Monthly Album Chart with sales of 70 @,@ 295 copies . It was placed at number 47 on the Gaon Monthly Album Chart of April with a further 1 @,@ 125 units sold . Overall , Mr.Mr. was the fifth highest @-@ selling physical album and the best @-@ selling album by a girl group of 2014 in South Korea with total sales figures of 163 @,@ 209 copies .
Mr.Mr. debuted at number 110 on the US Billboard 200 chart , selling 3 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . By doing so , the EP became Girls ' Generation 's highest @-@ charting release on the Billboard 200 following subgroup TTS 's Twinkle , which charted at number 126 in 2012 . Mr.Mr. also peaked at number one on the Heatseekers Albums , number three on the World Albums , and number 23 on the Independent Albums charts . In Japan , it peaked at number eleven on the Oricon Albums Chart .
The six songs from the EP debuted on the South Korean Gaon Digital Chart : " Mr.Mr. " ( number one ) , " Goodbye " ( number ten ) , " Wait a Minute " ( number 18 ) , " Back Hug " ( number 24 ) , " Europa " ( number 25 ) , and " Soul " ( number 33 ) .
= = Track listing = =
Credits adapted from Mr.Mr. liner notes
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from Mr.Mr. liner notes
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= Buckton Castle =
Buckton Castle is a medieval ringwork near Carrbrook , Stalybridge , England . It is listed as a Scheduled Ancient Monument due to its proximity to the Buckton Vale Quarry . The castle is oval , with a stone curtain wall 3 metres ( 10 ft ) wide , surrounded by a ditch 10 metres ( 33 ft ) wide and 6 metres ( 20 ft ) deep . Buckton Castle was probably constructed for William de Neville in the late 12th century ; it was lying derelict by 1360 . The small number of finds retrieved during archaeological investigation of the site indicates that Buckton Castle may not have been completed .
In the 16th century , the site was used as a beacon for the Pilgrimage of Grace . During the 18th century , the castle was of interest to treasure hunters following rumours of the presence of buried treasure . It was used as an anti @-@ aircraft decoy site in the Second World War . The castle is overgrown with heather and peat , and there are no above @-@ ground ruins . Since 1996 , the University of Manchester Archaeological Unit has been involved in excavations to maintain the site and reveal more information on its origins and purpose .
= = Location = =
Buckton Castle lies 340 metres ( 1 @,@ 120 ft ) above sea level on Buckton Hill , a steep sandstone ridge ( grid reference SD98920162 ) . To the south is the valley of the Carr Brook , and to the west is the valley of the River Tame . Buckton Vale Quarry is close to the east of the castle . Stalybridge is about 4 kilometres ( 2 mi ) south @-@ east of the site . The castle 's positioning may have been to allow its garrison to guard the Tame Valley ; both castle and valley were in the medieval manor of Tintwistle . A manor was a division of land and administered by a Lord of the Manor or his representative ; in the case of Tintwistle , it was part of the larger lordship of Longdendale .
= = History = =
Buckton Castle was probably built in the late 12th century by William de Neville , Lord of Longdendale , although it is possible that it was constructed for the Earls of Chester before Longdendale was given to de Neville . A late 12th @-@ century date would make it contemporary with other castles in Greater Manchester such as Dunham , Manchester , Stockport , and Ullerwood . It is common for castles to be built first in timber and then rebuilt in stone , but Buckton was a stone structure from the start . It is likely that it was the centre of the lordship of Longdendale , as it is the only castle within its boundaries ; however , a dearth of artefacts from the site suggests that construction may never have been completed .
The earliest documented evidence dating the castle was in 1360 , when an estate survey recorded that " there is one ruined castle called Buckeden and of no value " ; At the time , the lordship of Longdendale was the property of Edward , the Black Prince , and the castle lay derelict . That the castle had fallen out of use by this period is consistent with the use of other castles in the Greater Manchester area ; by the 13th century , apart from at Dunham Castle , there was no indication of activity in castles in Greater Manchester . During the 16th century , the site was used as a beacon during the Pilgrimage of Grace .
The castle has been the subject of antiquarian studies since the 18th century , and was originally thought to have been the location of an Iron Age hill fort . The interior of the castle has been damaged by the random insertion of trenches by treasure hunters since the early 18th century . Quarrying in the nearby Buckton Vale Quarry threatened to encroach onto the site and led to the castle 's protection as a Scheduled Ancient Monument on 9 July 1924 . It is the oldest ruined building in the Tame Valley . During the Second World War the castle was used as an anti @-@ aircraft decoy until 1943 , when it was felt to be no longer necessary .
Excavations at the site have been undertaken by the University of Manchester Archaeological Unit ( UMAU ) on behalf of Tameside Metropolitan Borough Council since 1996 . The work was partly funded by a £ 300 @,@ 000 grant from Tameside Council . Initial excavations were to repair some of the holes made by treasure hunters and included test @-@ pits , but in 2007 the unit began more extensive work to investigate the site and determine its use and a date for its construction . The final season of the excavation will be completed in 2009 . Trenches have revealed that the castle had a stone wall and a gateway with a tower , but no internal buildings have been discovered . The first dating evidence was found in 2008 , underneath the collapsed gateway ; it consisted of some animal bones and shards of locally produced pottery from the 12th – 13th centuries . Today , the site is overgrown with heather and peat .
= = Layout = =
Buckton Castle is a ringwork castle , which is a roughly circular area enclosed by defences such as a ditch ; a ringwork is similar to a bailey from a motte and bailey castle . The castle is oval , measuring 35 metres ( 115 ft ) across the minor axis and 45 metres ( 148 ft ) along the major . It is surrounded by a 10 @-@ metre ( 33 ft ) wide and 6 @-@ metre ( 20 ft ) deep ditch dug into the sandstone . The entrance to the ringwork is to the northwest of the site . Near the entrance are the possible remains of a stone tower . On the south @-@ facing side of the site are the remains of a stone curtain wall 3 metres ( 10 ft ) thick . Excavations in 1996 by the University of Manchester Archaeological Unit have shown that what was thought to be the bailey was in fact of recent origin – probably part of the anti @-@ aircraft decoy – and did not date back to the medieval period . The north @-@ west gateway was protected by a stone tower 5 by 4 metres ( 16 by 13 ft ) , with 1 @.@ 2 @-@ metre ( 3 @.@ 9 ft ) thick walls ; the wall thickness suggests the tower was probably two storeys high .
The interior of the castle is artificially raised 1 @.@ 5 metres ( 5 ft ) above ground level . Ringworks were an uncommon form of fortification in medieval England , with the majority of castles being motte @-@ and @-@ baileys , as demonstrated by the fact that Buckton Castle was one of only three ringworks in the historic counties of Cheshire and Lancashire . Buckton may be a ringwork because the local soil was too thin to build a motte . According to a 1360 survey of property in Longdendale , Buckton Castle may have had a hall and a chapel . In the 18th century , antiquarian Thomas Percival recorded a well within the castle , and walls of buildings inside the castle still standing to a height of 2 metres ( 7 ft ) . However , these features were no longer obvious when George Ormerod wrote about the castle in 1817 , and have not been discovered by archaeological excavations .
= Ringerike Line =
The Ringerike Line ( Norwegian : Ringeriksbanen or Ringeriksbana ) is a proposed 40 @-@ kilometre ( 25 mi ) extension of the Bergen Line from Hønefoss to Sandvika , Norway . It would reduce travel from Oslo to Bergen by 60 kilometres ( 37 mi ) and 50 minutes . Currently trains from the Bergen Line to Oslo must run via Drammen on the Randsfjord Line and the Drammen Line , or via Roa on the Roa – Hønefoss Line and the Gjøvik Line .
The project was presented as part of the original proposal of the Bergen Line when approved by Parliament in 1894 , but due to the narrow gauge on the Drammen Line at the time , a temporary solution via Roa was chosen instead . Later proposals have been launched , and parliament has voted over it in 1954 , 1978 , 1984 and 1992 ; only the last being passed , but not followed up by funding , and the Norwegian National Rail Administration has not allocated any date to start construction ; detailed plans have however been produced .
= = Route = =
The line would branch off from the Asker Line just west of Sandvika Station , and continue mostly in tunnel to Hønefoss Station , with an intermediate station at Sundvollen . While only single track , sufficient passing loops every six to eight kilometers , each at 750 metres ( 2 @,@ 460 ft ) , would be built allowing 600 metres ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ) long freight trains . Capacity would be eight trains per hour operating at 200 kilometres per hour ( 120 mph ) permitting both freight and passenger trains through 22 @.@ 5 tonne axle load and maximum 1 @.@ 2 % gradient ; electrification would be at the Norwegian standard 15 kV 16 2 ⁄ 3 Hz AC . In 2002 a route over Åsa was preferred to a route over Kroksund by parliament ; despite less passenger potential for local traffic and NOK 700 million more expensive , this would give a smaller environmental impact . Travel time for the quickest trains from Hønefoss to Oslo would be 30 minutes , compared to 60 minutes by bus or 95 minutes by current trains .
The Norwegian National Rail Administration has proposed a number of upgrades to the Bergen Line that would allow total travel time between the termini to reduce to four and a half hours . The Ringerike Line is seen as the hallmark of this attempt , that was first launched by the director of NSB in 1954 ; sixty years later travel time remains at six and a half hours . The project is estimated to cost NOK 7 billion , of which NOK 4 billion would be for the line .
Prior to 1989 there were four local trains in each direction from Oslo to Hønefoss ; followed by on rush hour service each , but this single service has since been terminated ; mainly due to quicker travel times by coaches . The Ringerike Line would allow the Oslo Commuter Rail once again to serve Ringerike ; other places served usually have one hourly service , with additional services in rush hour . Reducing travel time from Hønefoss to Oslo to 30 minutes would probably cause larger population growth in Ringerike .
= = History = =
Initial proposals for the Bergens Line route went from Hønefoss via Sandvika to Oslo Vestbanestasjon ( Oslo V ) , but the proposal met technical and political restrictions . At the time Norway had two rail gauges : 1 @,@ 435 mm ( 4 ft 8 1 ⁄ 2 in ) standard gauge and narrow gauge 3 ft 6 in ( 1 @,@ 067 mm ) . The former was taking predominance over the latter , with among others the Voss Line , the initial stage of the Bergen Line from Bergen to Voss , being converted from narrow to standard gauge . Drammenbanen , that connected Sandvika to Oslo , was narrow gauge , as was most of the rest of the western network , including the Vestfold Line ; hundreds of kilometers of railway would have to be converted .
On the other side of Oslo , the North Line ( now named the Gjøvik Line ) was being built as standard gauge ; it was considered the new mainline northwards , and was to be connected to the mainline through Gudbrandsdalen . By building a branch line from Roa to Hønefoss , the Bergens Line could be connected to Nordbanen , allowing standard gauge trackage all the way to Oslo Østbanestasjon ( Oslo Ø ) . This also gave another advantage , as Oslo Ø was seen as superior to Oslo V ; the latter only served limited commuter routes west of town while Oslo Ø was the main station for long @-@ distance trains to Trondheim , as well as Gothenburg and Stockholm in Sweden , with whom Norway was in a union with at the time . Only by terminating at Oslo Ø would direct transfer to trains to other parts of the country be possible .
When parliament passed the building of the Bergen Line in 1894 , the Roa – Hønefoss branch line was made part of the plans ; but the line was given a separate name indicating that the Bergen Line would continue from Hønefoss to Oslo in a more direct route . But after the finish of the Bergen Line , other important mainline routes , in particular the Dovre Line , Sørland Line and Nordland Line , combined with the effort to convert narrow gauge line , took precedence . Ideas for the additional construction of the Ringerike Line were pressed by commercial interests in Ringerike in both 1890 and 1906 , but failed both times .
In 1955 the Bergen businessperson Fritz Rieber launched an idea for the shortening of Bergensbanen ; the Ulriken Tunnel through the Bergen mountains , electrification from Voss to Bergen , and the construction of the Ringerike Line . Private financing would be provided through a dedicated limited company taking a surcharge on tickets , equal to the reduction in fare induced by the shorter line ; within twenty years the debt would be covered . Passed by parliament in 1955 , a year later they had changed their minds and only the investments around Bergen were supported ; removing the support for Ringerike . Prime Minister Trygve Bratteli commented that private debt financing would have to compete with the debt taken up by the government on other railway projects , since politicians had to see the national economy as a whole , and that private financing would not allow more lines to be built . The cost was estimated at NOK 100 million .
New proposals were debated in parliament in 1978 , and again in 1984 , but failing to be passed . The final decision to build the line was taken in 1992 as part of a political swap between the Labour Party and the Socialist Left Party ; the Labour Party would support the line if the Socialist Left Party would support building European route E16 via the Lærdal Tunnel and Valdres , instead of via Hol or Eidfjord . Initially the agreement involved the completion of the Ringerike Line in 1997 , but as of 2008 no date or funding has been set . Director of the Rail Administration , Steinar Killi , stated in 2008 that the period 2010 @-@ 19 would be a natural time for completion , but only if more overall funding for railway infrastructure is provided . As either an alternative or supplement to the line , expansion of European Road E16 from Sandvika to Hønefoss has been proposed . It would involve increasing from two to four lanes on the first 17 kilometres ( 11 mi ) from Bjørum to Hvervenmoen , estimating to cost NOK 3 @.@ 5 billion ; local politicians have suggested toll road financing .
The Ministry of Transport and Communications started an evaluation of the Ringerike Line , carried out by the National Rail Administration , in 2006 . The first edition was completed in 2009 , but was found to be insufficient , resulting in the process being restarted . A new report was published in June 2011 . In September 2012 , the ministry concluded that also the second report was insufficient and that it would be discarded . There were two main concerns with the report . Firstly , it was based on a single @-@ track line which would not be built to the standards of high @-@ speed rail . The ministry stated that all new railway plans in Norway were to have double track and be optimized for high @-@ speed rail . Secondly , the report had a simplified economic analysis which was not sufficient to be used for political evaluation . The result of the discard was that the planning of E16 was no longer tied to the planning of the railway .
= Master of Puppets =
Master of Puppets is the third studio album by American heavy metal band Metallica , released on March 3 , 1986 by Elektra Records . Recorded at the Sweet Silence Studios with producer Flemming Rasmussen , it was the first Metallica album released on a major label . Master of Puppets was the band 's last album to feature bassist Cliff Burton , who died in a bus crash in Sweden during the album 's promotional tour . The album peaked at number 29 on the Billboard 200 and became the first thrash metal album to be certified platinum . It was certified 6 × platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) in 2003 for shipping six million copies in the United States . The album was eventually certified 6 × platinum by Music Canada and gold by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) .
Master of Puppets was released to critical acclaim and has been included in several publications ' best album lists . Its driving , virtuosic music and angry , political lyrics drew praise from critics outside the metal community . The album is considered the band 's strongest effort of the period and is one of the most influential heavy metal albums . Critics credit it for consolidating the American thrash metal scene with its atmospheric and meticulously performed songs . Many bands from all genres of heavy metal have covered the album 's songs , including tribute albums . Master of Puppets was deemed " culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant " enough for preservation in the National Recording Registry by the United States Library of Congress in 2016 . Only 450 recordings have earned this distinction , with Master of Puppets being the first metal selection .
The cover was designed by Metallica and Peter Mensch and painted by Don Brautigam . It depicts a cemetery field of white crosses tethered to strings , manipulated by a pair of hands in a blood @-@ red sky . Instead of releasing a single or video in the US to promote Master of Puppets , Metallica embarked on a five @-@ month American tour in support of Ozzy Osbourne . The European leg was canceled after Burton 's death in September 1986 , and the band returned home to audition a new bassist . Metallica honored the album 's 20th anniversary on the Escape from the Studio ' 06 tour , by playing it in its entirety .
= = Background and recording = =
Metallica 's 1983 debut Kill ' Em All laid the foundation for thrash metal with its aggressive musicianship and vitriolic lyricism . The album revitalized the American underground scene , and records by contemporaries followed in similar manner . The band 's second album Ride the Lightning extended the limits of the genre with its more sophisticated songwriting and improved production . The album caught the attention of Elektra Records representative Michael Alago , who signed the group to an eight @-@ album deal in the fall of 1984 , halfway through the album 's promotional tour . Elektra reissued Ride the Lightning on November 19 , and the band began touring larger venues and festivals throughout 1985 . After parting with manager Jon Zazula , Metallica hired Q Prime executives Cliff Burnstein and Peter Mensch . During the summer , the band played the Monsters of Rock festival at Castle Donington , alongside Bon Jovi and Ratt in front of 70 @,@ 000 fans . Metallica was motivated to make an album that would impress critics and fans , and began writing new material in mid @-@ 1985 . Drummer Lars Ulrich and frontman James Hetfield were the main songwriters on the album , already titled Master of Puppets . The two developed ideas at a garage in El Cerrito , California , before inviting bassist Cliff Burton and guitarist Kirk Hammett for rehearsals . Hetfield and Ulrich described the songwriting process as starting with " guitar riffs , assembled and reassembled until they start to sound like a song " . After that , the band came up with a song title and topic , and Hetfield wrote lyrics to match the title . Master of Puppets was Metallica 's first album not to feature songwriting contributions from former lead guitarist Dave Mustaine . Mustaine claimed he had co @-@ written " Leper Messiah " , based on an old song called " The Hills Ran Red " . The band denied this , though admitting that a section incorporated ideas of Mustaine 's .
The band was not satisfied with the acoustics of the American studios they considered , and decided to record in Ulrich 's native Denmark . Ulrich took drum lessons , and Hammett worked with Joe Satriani to learn how to record more efficiently . Ulrich was in talks with Geddy Lee to produce the album , but the collaboration never materialized because of different schedules . Metallica recorded the album with producer Flemming Rasmussen at Sweet Silence Studios in Copenhagen , Denmark , from September 1 to December 27 , 1985 . The writing of all the songs except " Orion " and " The Thing That Should Not Be " was completed before the band 's arrival in Copenhagen . Rasmussen stated that the band brought well @-@ prepared demos of the songs , and only slight changes were made to the compositions in the studio . The recording took longer than the previous album because Metallica had developed a sense of perfectionism and had higher ambitions for this one . Metallica eschewed the slick production and synthesizers of contemporary hard rock and heavy metal albums by Bon Jovi , Iron Maiden , and Judas Priest . Despite a reputation for drinking , the band stayed dry on recording days . Hammett recalled that the group was " just making another album " at the time and " had no idea that the record would have such a range of influence that it went on to have " . He also said that the group was " definitely peaking " at the time and that the album had " the sound of a band really gelling , really learning how to work well together " .
Rasmussen and Metallica did not manage to complete the mixtapes as planned . Instead , the master tapes were sent in January 1986 to Michael Wagener , who finished the album 's mixing . The cover was designed by Metallica and Peter Mensch and painted by Don Brautigam . It depicts a cemetery field of white crosses tethered to strings , manipulated by a pair of hands in a blood @-@ red sky . Ulrich explained that the artwork summarized the lyrical content of the album — people being subconsciously manipulated . The original artwork was sold at Rockefeller Plaza , New York City for $ 28 @,@ 000 in 2008 . The band mocked the warning stickers promoted by the PMRC with a facetious Parental Advisory label on the cover : " The only track you probably won 't want to play is ' Damage , Inc . ' due to the multiple use of the infamous ' F ' word . Otherwise , there aren 't any ' shits ' , ' fucks ' , ' pisses ' , ' cunts ' , ' motherfuckers ' , or ' cocksuckers ' anywhere on this record " . The album was recorded with the following equipment : Hammett 's guitars were a black 1974 Gibson Flying V , a black Jackson Randy Rhoads , and a black Fernandes Stratocaster nicknamed " Edna " ; Hetfield used a Jackson King V played through a Mesa Boogie Mark C + amplifier modified as a pre @-@ amp ; Burton played an Aria Pro II SB1000 through Mesa Boogie amplifier heads and cabinets ; Ulrich played Tama drum equipment , and borrowed a rare S.L.P. Black Brass from Def Leppard drummer Rick Allen , who had lost his arm in a car accident .
= = Music and lyrics = =
Master of Puppets features dynamic music and thick arrangements . Metallica delivered a more refined approach and performance compared to the previous two albums , with multilayered songs and technical dexterity . This album and its predecessor Ride
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36 beats per minute mid @-@ tempo riffing of the verses culminates in a descending chromatic riff in the chorus ; it increases to a galloping 184 beats per minute for the middle section that climaxes in a distorted scream of " Lie ! " . The title derives from the lyrics to the David Bowie song " Ziggy Stardust " . " Orion " is a multipart instrumental highlighting Burton 's bass playing . It opens with a fade @-@ in bass section , heavily processed to resemble an orchestra . It continues with mid @-@ tempo riffing , followed by a bass solo at half . The tempo accelerates during the latter part , and ends with music fading out . Burton arranged the middle section , which features its moody bass line and multipart guitar harmonies . " Damage , Inc . " rants about senseless violence and reprisal at an unspecified target . It starts with a series of reversed bass chords based on the chorale prelude of Bach 's " Come , Sweet Death " . The song then jumps into a rapid rhythm with a pedal @-@ point riff in E that Hammett says was influenced by Deep Purple .
= = Reception = =
Master of Puppets received widespread critical acclaim from music critics . Editor Tom King said Metallica was at an " incredible song @-@ writing peak " during the recording sessions , partially because Burton contributed to the songwriting . The album was hailed as a masterpiece by critics outside of the heavy metal audience and cited by some as the genre 's greatest album . In a contemporary review , Tim Holmes of Rolling Stone asserted that the band had redefined heavy metal with the technical skill and subtlety showcased on the album , which he described as " the sound of global paranoia " . Kerrang ! wrote that Master of Puppets " finally put Metallica into the big leagues where they belong " . By contrast , Spin magazine 's Judge I @-@ Rankin was disappointed with the album and said , although the production is exceptional and Metallica 's experimentation is commendable , it eschews the less " intellectual " approach of Kill ' Em All for a MDC @-@ inspired direction that is inconsistent .
In a retrospective review , AllMusic 's Steve Huey viewed Master of Puppets as Metallica 's best album and remarked that , although it was not as unexpected as Ride the Lightning , Master of Puppets is a more musically and thematically consistent album . Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune said the songs were the band 's most intense at that point , despite veering towards " the progressive tendency of Rush . " Adrien Begrand of PopMatters praised the production as " a metal version of Phil Spector 's Wall of Sound " and felt none of Metallica 's subsequent albums could match its passionate and intense musical quality . BBC Music 's Eamonn Stack called the album " hard , fast , rock with substance " and likened the songs to stories of " biblical proportions " . In a less enthusiastic review , Robert Christgau said the band 's energy and political motivations are respectable , but believed they evoke clichéd images of " revolutionary heroes " who are " male chauvinists too inexperienced to know better " .
Released on March 3 , 1986 , the album had a 72 @-@ week run on the Billboard 200 album charts and earned the band its first gold certification . The album debuted on March 29 , 1986 , at number 128 and peaked at number 29 on the Billboard 200 chart . Billboard reported that the album sold 300 @,@ 000 copies in its first three weeks . Despite virtually no radio airplay and no music videos , the album sold more than 500 @,@ 000 copies in its first year . In 2003 , Master of Puppets was certified 6 × platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , having shipped six million copies in the United States . Between the beginning of the Nielsen SoundScan era in 1991 and 2009 , the album sold 5 @,@ 050 @,@ 000 copies . The album was less successful on an international level , entering the top 40 on the German and Swiss album charts in its inaugural year . In 2004 , it peaked within the top 10 in Finland and into the top 15 in Sweden . In 2008 , the album reached the top 40 on the Australian and Norwegian album charts . Master of Puppets received 6 × platinum certification from Music Canada and a golden award from the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) for shipments of 600 @,@ 000 and 100 @,@ 000 copies , respectively .
= = Accolades and legacy = =
Master of Puppets has appeared in several publications ' best album lists . It was ranked number 167 on Rolling Stone 's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time . Time included the album in its list of the 100 best albums of all time . According to the magazine 's Josh Tyrangiel , Master of Puppets reinforced the velocity of playing in heavy metal and diminished some of its clichés . Slant Magazine placed the album at number 90 on its list of the best albums of the 1980s , saying Master of Puppets is not only Metallica 's best recording , but also their most sincere . The album is featured in Robert Dimery 's book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die . IGN named Master of Puppets the best heavy metal album of all time . The website stated it was Metallica 's best because it " built upon and perfected everything they had experimented with prior " and that " all the pieces come together in glorious cohesion " . Music journalist Martin Popoff also ranked it the best heavy metal album . The album was voted the fourth greatest guitar album of all time by Guitar World in 2006 , and the title track ranked number 61 on the magazine 's list of the 100 greatest guitar solos . Total Guitar ranked the main riff of the title track at number 7 among the top 20 guitar riffs . The April 2006 edition of Kerrang ! was dedicated to the album and gave away readers the cover album Master of Puppets : Remastered .
Master of Puppets became thrash metal 's first platinum album and by the early 1990s thrash metal successfully challenged and redefined the mainstream of heavy metal . Metallica and a few other bands headlined arena concerts and appeared regularly on MTV , although radio play remained incommensurate with their popularity . Master of Puppets is widely accepted as the genre 's most accomplished album , and paved the way for subsequent development . The album , in the words of writer Christopher Knowles , " ripped Metallica away from the underground and put them atop the metal mountain " . David Hayter from Guitar Planet recognized the album as one of the most influential records ever made and a benchmark by which other metal albums should be judged . MTV 's Kyle Anderson had similar thoughts , saying that 25 years after its release the album remained a " stone cold classic " . Carlos Ramirez from Noisecreep believes that Master of Puppets stands as one of the most representative albums of its genre .
1986 is seen as a pinnacle year for thrash metal in which the genre broke out of the underground thanks to albums such as Megadeth 's Peace Sells ... but Who 's Buying ? and Slayer 's Reign in Blood . Anthrax released Among the Living the following year , and by the end of 1987 these bands , alongside Metallica , were being called the " Big Four " of thrash metal . Master of Puppets frequently tops critic and fan polls of favorite thrash metal albums — the most frequent rival is Slayer 's Reign in Blood , also released in 1986 and also considered that band 's peak . The rivalry partially stemmed from a contrast in approaches on the two albums , between the sophistication of Master of Puppets and the velocity of Reign in Blood . Histories of the band tend to position Ride the Lightning , Master of Puppets , and ... And Justice for All as a trilogy over the course of which the band 's music progressively matured and became more sophisticated . In 2016 , the album was deemed " culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant " by the Library of Congress and was selected for preservation in the National Recording Registry .
= = Touring = =
Metallica opted for extensive touring instead of releasing a single or video to promote the album . Metallica spent March to August 1986 touring as the opening act for Ozzy Osbourne in the United States , the first tour Metallica played to arena @-@ sized audiences . The group used to play Black Sabbath riffs during sound checks , which Osbourne perceived as a mockery toward him . Referring to that occasion , Ulrich stated that Metallica was honored to play with Osbourne , who treated the band well on the tour . Metallica was noted by the media for its excessive drinking habit while touring and earned the nickname " Alcoholica " . The band members occasionally wore satirical T @-@ shirts reading " Alcoholica / Drank ' Em All " . The band usually played a 45 @-@ minute set often followed by an encore . According to Ulrich , the audiences in bigger cities were already familiar with Metallica 's music , unlike in the smaller towns they 've visited . " In the B @-@ markets , people really don 't know what we 're all about . But after 45 or 50 minutes we can tell we 've won them over . And fans who come to hear Ozzy go home liking Metallica . " Metallica won over Osbourne 's fans and slowly began to establish a mainstream following .
The tour , however , was notable for several incidents . Hetfield broke his wrist in a mid @-@ tour skateboarding accident , and his guitar technician John Marshall played rhythm guitar on several dates . The European leg of the Damage , Inc . Tour commenced in September , with Anthrax as the supporting band . After the September 26 performance in Stockholm , the band 's bus rolled over on a stretch of icy road the following morning . Burton was thrown through a window and killed instantly . The driver maintained that he hit a patch of black ice , but Hetfield disputed that . The driver was charged with manslaughter but was not convicted . The band returned to San Francisco and hired Flotsam and Jetsam bassist Jason Newsted to replace Burton . Many of the songs that appeared on the band 's next album , ... And Justice for All , were composed while Burton was still alive .
= = = Live performances = = =
All of the songs have been performed live and some became permanent setlist features . Four tracks were featured on the nine @-@ song setlist for the album 's promotional tour : " Battery " as opener , " Master of Puppets " , " Welcome Home ( Sanitarium ) " , and " Damage , Inc . " The title track , which was issued as a single in France , became a live staple and the most played Metallica song . When played live , the crowd fills in some of the vocal parts while the group performs the instrumentals . Loudwire 's Chad Childers characterized the band 's performance as " furious " and the song as the set 's highlight . Rolling Stone described the live performance as " a classic in all its eight @-@ minute glory " . While filming its 3D movie Metallica : Through the Never ( 2013 ) at the Rogers Arena in Vancouver , crosses were rising from the stage during the song , reminiscent of the album 's cover art .
" Welcome Home ( Sanitarium ) " is the second @-@ most performed song from the album . The live performance is often accompanied by lasers , pyrotechnical effects and film screens . " Battery " is usually played at the beginning of the setlist or during the encore , accompanied by lasers and flame plumes . " Disposable Heroes " is featured in the video album Orgullo , Pasión , y Gloria : Tres Noches en la Ciudad de México ( 2009 ) filmed in Mexico City , in which the song was played on the second of three nights at the Foro Sol . " Orion " is the least @-@ performed song from the album . Its first live performance was during the Escape from the Studio ' 06 tour , when the band performed the album in its entirety , honoring the 20th anniversary of its release . The band performed the album in the middle of the set . " Battery " , " Welcome Home ( Sanitarium ) " , " Damage , Inc . " and the full @-@ length " Master of Puppets " were revived for the band 's concerts in 1998 and 1999 , after having been retired for a number of years .
= = Track listing = =
All lyrics written by James Hetfield .
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = = Metallica = = =
James Hetfield – lead vocals , rhythm guitar , co @-@ lead guitar on " Master of Puppets " and " Orion "
Kirk Hammett – lead guitar
Cliff Burton – bass , backing vocals
Lars Ulrich – drums
= = = Production = = =
Flemming Rasmussen – producer , engineer
Metallica – producers , cover concept
Andy Wroblewski – assistant engineer
Michael Wagener – mixing
Mark Wilzcak – assistant mixing engineer
Mike Gillies – mixing of digital reissue bonus tracks
George Marino – mastering , remastering on 1995 reissue
Michael Alago – A & R executive
= = = Packaging = = =
Peter Mensch – cover concept
Don Brautigam – cover illustration
Ross Halfin ; Rich Likong ; Rob Ellsi – photography
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= William Hely =
Air Vice Marshal William Lloyd ( Bill ) Hely , CB , CBE , AFC ( 24 August 1909 – 20 May 1970 ) was a senior commander in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) . He graduated from the Royal Military College , Duntroon , in 1930 before transferring to the RAAF as a cadet pilot . Hely came to public attention in 1936 – 37 , first when he crashed on a survey flight in the Northern Territory , and later when he undertook two successful missions to locate missing aircraft in the same vicinity . His rescue efforts earned him the Air Force Cross . After occupying staff positions during the early years of World War II , Hely was appointed Officer Commanding No. 72 Wing in Dutch New Guinea in May 1944 . Later that year he formed No. 84 ( Army Cooperation ) Wing , commanding it during the Bougainville Campaign until the end of the Pacific War .
Hely spent the immediate post @-@ war period on the staff of RAAF Headquarters , Melbourne . From 1951 to 1953 he served as Air Officer Commanding ( AOC ) Western Area Command in Perth , after which he was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire . He was Deputy Chief of the Air Staff from 1953 to 1956 , AOC Training Command from 1956 to 1957 , and Head of the Australian Joint Services Staff in Washington , D.C. from 1957 to 1960 . He then served as Air Member for Personnel ( AMP ) for six years , his tenure coinciding with a significant increase in manpower to meet commitments in South East Asia and the demands of a major re @-@ equipment program . Having been promoted acting air vice marshal in 1953 ( substantive in 1956 ) , he was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath in 1964 for his service as AMP . He retired from the Air Force in 1966 and made his home in Canberra , where he died in 1970 at the age of sixty .
= = Early career = =
The third child of Prosper Frederick Hely , a storekeeper , and his wife Alice ( née Lloyd ) , William Lloyd ( Bill ) Hely was born on 24 August 1909 at Wellington , New South Wales . He was educated to Intermediate Certificate level at Mudgee , Wollongong and Rozelle Public Schools , and at Fort Street High School , Petersham . Leaving school in 1926 , he worked as a clerk and studied accountancy in his spare time . On 16 February 1927 , Hely entered the Royal Military College , Duntroon , as one of four cadets sponsored that year by the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) , which did not yet have its own officer training college . He graduated as a lieutenant on 9 December 1930 , and the following day enlisted in the RAAF . As well as the four graduates the Air Force had enrolled in 1927 , budgetary constraints imposed during the Great Depression necessitated the transfer from Duntroon to Point Cook of eight other RAAF @-@ sponsored cadets midway through their four @-@ year course , including Alister Murdoch , Bill Garing and Douglas Candy . Initially ranked pilot officer , Hely commenced his flying training course at RAAF Point Cook , Victoria , on 15 January 1931 , graduating on 10 December . His early postings as a pilot in 1932 and 1933 were to RAAF Station Richmond , New South Wales , and RAAF Station Laverton , Victoria . Qualifying in aerial photography , he served at Point Cook from 1933 to 1936 . He was then transferred to No. 3 Squadron at Richmond , receiving promotion to flight lieutenant .
In April 1936 , Hely took command of No. 3 Squadron 's North Australia Survey Flight , one of two such flights formed by the Air Force that month to carry out photographic surveys . Flying a twin @-@ engined de Havilland Dragon Rapide ( serial number A3 @-@ 2 ) , Hely departed Richmond on 11 April for Port Hedland , which was to be the flight 's base for its initial survey work in Western Australia . Over the Northern Territory , between Newcastle Waters and Wave Hill , he became lost , ran out of fuel , and had to crash land . He and his crew of two were found by RAAF search aircraft ten days later , on 22 April . The Argus had reported that " grave fears " were held for their safety , but they were largely uninjured , Hely having suffered cuts and abrasions to his head and leg . The aircraft was badly damaged and had to be transported back to Richmond in pieces . In February 1937 , Hely took part in the search for a missing Stinson airliner that was eventually found in the McPherson Range , Queensland , five of its seven passengers and crew dead .
For its 1937 aerial survey program , the RAAF formed the Communications and Survey Flight under No. 1 Aircraft Depot 's Recruit Training Squadron at Laverton on 3 May . The flight was divided into Western and Eastern Air Detachments , the former under Hely . Flying a Tugan Gannet , Hely 's first task became searching for survey director Sir Herbert Gepp , whose Rapide ( A3 @-@ 2 , the same one Hely crash landed the previous year ) had gone missing on an inspection flight in the Northern Territory between Tennant Creek and Tanimi . Hely located the downed Rapide on 23 May , guiding in a ground party that was able to clear a makeshift runway and allow Gepp and his team to take off and resume their journey . On 25 September , Hely was again diverted from survey work to search for a lost plane , this time the de Havilland Gipsy Moth of flying doctor Clyde Fenton , who had gone missing north @-@ east of Newcastle Waters . Hely , once more piloting Rapide A3 @-@ 2 , found the Moth three days later and landed to rescue the lost doctor . Fenton was subsequently quoted as saying " I have only the highest praise for the efficient manner in which Hely conducted a difficult search and the skilful way in which he located me and picked me up " . The rescue efforts made Hely one of the RAAF 's best @-@ known public figures . Completing his posting to the survey flight , he served as adjutant at Laverton in 1938 . He was awarded the Air Force Cross on 9 June for " zeal and initiative in searching for Sir Herbert Gepp 's party and later for Dr. Fenton when lost in Central Australia " . On 29 November 1938 , he married secretary Jean McDonald at St Aidan 's Anglican Church in Launceston , Tasmania ; the couple would have two daughters . Hely spent the following year in Britain , attending the Royal Air Force Staff College , Andover , and was promoted to squadron leader in September .
= = World War II = =
At the outbreak of World War II , Hely was attached to the operations room at RAF Coastal Command . On his return to Australia in January 1940 , he was appointed Staff Officer Plans at RAAF Headquarters , Melbourne . In October , he joined the Deputy Chief of the Air Staff , Air Vice Marshal Bill Bostock , as a delegate to a defence conference in Singapore . The Australian contingent found the local forces ill @-@ prepared for an attack by the Japanese and recommended significant increases in air capability , both in Australia and the Pacific Islands , to meet the threat . Hely was promoted to temporary wing commander the following January , and was the ranking Air Force delegate at a series of staff talks in Batavia and Singapore regarding the defence of the Dutch East Indies . He became Director of Operations at RAAF Headquarters in August . His promotion to acting group captain was announced on 17 February 1942 . Two days later , the Japanese bombed Darwin , Northern Territory ; Hely circulated a memo early the next month to all commands on the lessons learnt from the raid . He was posted to Darwin in May to join North @-@ Western Area headquarters as senior air staff officer , and was granted the temporary rank of group captain in January 1943 . Hely returned to RAAF Headquarters in March to become Director of Air Staff Plans .
In May 1944 , Hely assumed command of No. 72 Wing at Merauke , Dutch New Guinea , succeeding Group Captain Allan Walters . Comprising fighter and dive @-@ bomber squadrons , the wing had been established to undertake air defence and patrol tasks in and around western New Guinea . Hely departed Merauke in September 1944 to establish an army cooperation formation , No. 84 Wing , in Cairns , Queensland . It was one of two such wings formed by the RAAF in the South West Pacific Theatre late in World War II . They were , as described by the official history of the RAAF in the Pacific , " essentially non @-@ offensive in character " , responsible for reconnaissance , artillery spotting , supply drops to ground forces , spraying DDT to combat malaria , and guiding close support aircraft to their objectives . The wing could also carry out its own strikes on " targets of opportunity " . No. 84 Wing comprised No. 5 ( Tactical Reconnaissance ) Squadron , No. 17 Air Observation Post Flight , No. 10 Communication Unit ( subsequently renamed No. 10 Local Air Supply Unit ) , and No. 39 Operational Base Unit . It deployed to Torokina in October to support Australian troops during the Bougainville Campaign . No. 5 Squadron , equipped with CAC Boomerangs and Wirraways , was assigned to mark targets for F4U Corsairs of the Royal New Zealand Air Force . Between December 1944 and January 1945 , the wing lost one Auster , one Wirraway , and one Boomerang on operations . Despite shortages of pilots and equipment , Hely 's formation was generally able to keep pace with the army 's requirements . By the end of June 1945 , it had flown over 4 @,@ 000 sorties .
= = Post @-@ war career = =
Hely relinquished command of No. 84 Wing on 12 August 1945 and returned to RAAF Headquarters in October . He was by this time among a coterie of officers at group captain level , including Val Hancock , Alister Murdoch and Bill Garing , earmarked by the Australian Air Board for leadership roles in the post @-@ war RAAF , which was to shrink rapidly with demobilisation . At RAAF Headquarters , Hely was appointed Deputy Director of Operations , in which capacity he served on a committee to investigate proposals for an officer training college , later established as RAAF College , Point Cook . Along with Hely , all officers associated with the proposal 's examination were former Duntroon students , including the Deputy Chief of the Air Staff , Air Commodore Frank Bladin , the Director of Postings , Group Captain Murdoch , and the Director of Training , Group Captain Paddy Heffernan . Another Duntroon graduate , Air Commodore Hancock , became the college 's first commandant . Hely was appointed Director of Organisation and Staff Duties in 1946 . That November , he became Director of Postings . The following year , he took up the position of Director of Personal Services , before departing for Britain in December 1948 to study at the Imperial Defence College , London .
Returning to Melbourne , Hely served as deputy to the Air Member for Personnel from January 1950 . He became an aide @-@ de @-@ camp to King George VI in June 1951 . In September , he was appointed Officer Commanding Western Area , Perth , taking up his new post in mid @-@ October . He was promoted to acting air commodore in July 1952 , becoming Air Officer Commanding ( AOC ) Western Area . His rank was made permanent in September , and the same month he was appointed aide @-@ de @-@ camp to Queen Elizabeth II . Among Hely 's duties as AOC Western Area was coordinating air support for the British atomic test on Montebello in October 1952 , including supply and observation flights by Dakotas of No. 86 ( Transport ) Wing . He was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( CBE ) in the Queen 's Coronation Honours promulgated on 1 June 1953 , for his war service and his work during the Montebello test . In August , he was named Deputy Chief of the Air Staff ( DCAS ) , with the acting rank of air vice marshal , effective from October ; he replaced Air Vice Marshal Hancock . Between October 1953 and February 1954 , the RAAF underwent major organisational change , as it transitioned from a geographically based command @-@ and @-@ control system to one based on function , resulting in the establishment of Home ( operational ) , Training , and Maintenance Commands . At the same time , RAAF Headquarters in Melbourne was absorbed by the Department of Air in Canberra . Hely was acting Air Member for Personnel from 3 January to 7 March 1955 , between the terms of Air Vice Marshals Val Hancock and Fred Scherger . On 24 January 1956 , he became AOC Training Command , taking over from Air Vice Marshal Murdoch . He was succeeded as DCAS by Air Vice Marshal Douglas Candy . Hely 's rank of air vice marshal became substantive on 5 September . In January 1957 , Point Cook retired its last de Havilland Tiger Moth trainers , signalling the end of the biplane era in the RAAF . That May , Hely was seconded to the Department of Defence and posted to Washington , D.C. , to head up the Australian Joint Services Staff . He was succeeded as AOC Training Command by Air Vice Marshal Ian McLachlan .
Hely became Air Member for Personnel ( AMP ) on 28 March 1960 , taking over from the acting AMP , Air Commodore Frank Headlam . Responsible for the Personnel Branch of the RAAF , the position of AMP occupied a seat on the Air Board , the service 's controlling body that comprised its senior officers and was chaired by the Chief of the Air Staff ( CAS ) . The Air Force expanded greatly during Hely 's term as AMP , owing to Australia 's increasing commitment to the security of South East Asia , and the most significant rearmament program the RAAF had undertaken outside of World War II . Its permanent establishment increased from a steady 15 @,@ 000 or so in the 1950s to over 18 @,@ 000 by 1966 . Hely himself initiated a scheme to attract staff from the Royal Air Force , which was suffering cutbacks , by opening a recruitment office in London and taking advantage of the Australian government 's assisted passage scheme to import trained personnel and their families . He was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath ( CB ) in the 1964 New Year Honours for his " tactful and careful handling of personnel matters " , and for having " done much to improve the manning level of the Air Force " . As AMP , Hely put forward proposals to increase the number of diploma @-@ qualified engineering and equipment officers in the Air Force . He was also closely involved in deliberations concerning the balance of academic and military studies at the RAAF Academy ( previously RAAF College ) , the outcome of which is considered to have left the course biased towards pure science , rather than its applications to air power .
= = Retirement = =
Hely retired on 24 August 1966 , after almost forty years in the military . He was succeeded the following day as AMP by Air Vice Marshal Candy . In retirement , Hely was active in the Canberra branch of the Air Force Association . He died of cancer in Canberra on 20 May 1970 . Survived by his wife and children , he was accorded an Air Force funeral at St John the Baptist Church and cremated at Norwood Park Crematorium , Gungahlin . The official mourning party included Chairman of the Chiefs of Staff Committee ( CCOSC ) General Sir John Wilton , former CCOSC Air Chief Marshal Sir Frederick Scherger , Secretary of Defence Sir Arthur Tange , CAS Air Marshal Colin Hannah , former CAS Air Marshal Sir Alister Murdoch , Vice Admiral Sir Victor Smith , Air Vice Marshal Brian Eaton , and Group Captain John Waddy . The guns at Duntroon were fired in salute as the cortege left the church .
= Carrot soup =
Carrot soup ( referred to in French as Potage de Crécy , Potage Crécy , Potage à la Crécy , Purée à la Crécy and Crème à la Crécy ) is a soup prepared with carrot as a primary ingredient . It may be prepared as a cream- or broth @-@ style soup . Additional vegetables , root vegetables and various other ingredients may be used in its preparation . It may be served hot or cold , and several recipes exist .
Carrot soup has been described as a " classic " dish in French cuisine . The soup was eaten by King Edward VII every year on 26 August to commemorate the 1346 Battle of Crécy .
= = Overview = =
Carrot soup may be prepared as a cream @-@ style soup and as a broth @-@ style soup . Vegetable stock or chicken stock may be used as ingredients in both styles of soup . Other vegetables may be used in the dish , including root vegetables , the latter of which may include garlic onion , shallot , potato , turnip and others . Carrot juice and orange juice may be used in its preparation , and some versions are prepared using puréed carrot . After cooking , the dish may be run through a sieve to strain it . The carrots used may be peeled or unpeeled , and the use of peeled carrots can lend to increased smoothness in puréed versions of the dish . Those prepared with puréed carrot may have a thick consistency while also being smooth in texture . The soup 's color can vary based upon the coloration of the carrots used . Young carrots tend to make the soup sweeter and imbue it with a bright orange coloration , while older , larger carrots provide less sweetness and may imbue a yellow coloration . The use of old , cracked carrots that have a woody texture in their interior can produce a soup of inferior quality .
Several ingredient variations exist in carrot soup preparations . Some carrot soups are prepared using coconut milk , coconut water , coconut cream , coconut butter or coconut pieces . Some versions include ginger as an ingredient , and some include curry . Green carrot leaves ( greens ) from the top of carrots may be used as an ingredient in the dish . Chopped mint leaves are used in some versions . It may be served hot or chilled . Salt and pepper may be used to season the dish , and nutmeg is sometimes used as a seasoning . It is sometimes topped with yogurt , a yogurt sauce , crème fraîche , sour cream , and other ingredients .
The zest of orange may be used as a garnish , as an ingredient within the dish itself , and in both ways . Additional garnishes can include dill , carrot leaves , grated , minced or diced carrot , chives , other fresh , chopped herbs , croutons , and toast squares , among others . Carrot soup can be prepared as a vegan food , and can also be prepared as a bisque .
Carrot soup may contain a significant amount of nitrite .
Carrot soups
= = In French cuisine = =
Carrot soup ( Potage de Crécy , Potage Crécy , et al . ) is a dish in French cuisine , and has been described as a " classic " and " famous " dish in the country 's cuisine . Potage is a variety of soups that have a thick consistency . Potage Crécy is named after Crécy @-@ en @-@ Ponthieu , a commune in Northern France that has been purported to produce carrots with the best flavor within the country .
In French cuisine , Crécy soup is typically prepared with rice , which may also be served as a side dish . Rice may be used as an ingredient to thicken the dish , and barley has also been used .
= = History = =
Although the modern sweet orange carrot was not developed until the 16th century , in the Low Countries , it has been represented as a tradition , and it was once customary for English people to eat Crécy soup annually on 26 August in commemoration of the anniversary of the Battle of Crécy , which occurred in Crécy , France on that date in 1346 .
Crécy soup was eaten annually by King Edward VII , King of the United Kingdom between 1901 and 1910 , on the battle 's anniversary day , in honour of his ancestor , Edward , the Black Prince , who led the battle . It has also been suggested that the soup was served to triumphant English soldiers after the battle concluded , using carrots from Crécy .
= Wishology =
Wishology is a trilogy of television specials and the ninth special of the animated television series The Fairly OddParents . The first part of the trilogy , " The Big Beginning " , originally aired on the cable network Nickelodeon in the United States on May 1 , 2009 ; the second part , " The Exciting Middle Part " , aired on May 2 ; and the last of the three parts , " The Final Ending " , aired on May 3 . The trilogy was written by Kevin Sullivan , Scott Fellows , and Butch Hartman , and was directed by Gary Conrad . According to Nielsen ratings , the first and third parts of the trilogy were viewed by 4 million people , while its second part garnered 3 @.@ 6 million viewers . Critical reviewers displayed mixed reactions to how three @-@ dimensional objects interact via computer animation with the series ' usual two @-@ dimensional artwork in the trilogy . Composer Guy Moon , who has worked throughout the series , won an Annie Award for his music in the first part of the trilogy in 2010 .
Wishology Wishology centers on the show 's main character , 10 @-@ year @-@ old Timmy Turner , his fairy godparents Cosmo and Wanda , and his baby fairy godbrother Poof , all of whom grant Timmy 's wishes . Robots known as Eliminators appear in Timmy 's hometown , Dimmsdale , to destroy the " chosen one " , Timmy himself . Jorgen von Strangle , a non @-@ floating fairy general who uses an oversized wand , takes him to the Cave of Destiny , a cave that contains prophecies for the " chosen one " . The cave is located in Fairy World , a place that sits on a cloud in space and is connected to Earth by a rainbow bridge . Jorgen explains a legend inscribed on the cave wall about the ancient fairy warriors who fought Eliminators and their master , a giant black hole called The Darkness . To defeat The Darkness and Eliminators , Timmy must retrieve and use three special wands : the fire wand , the wind wand , and the ice wand .
In addition to the main cast , the trilogy features guest performances , most notably , Gene Simmons and Paul Stanley from the rock band Kiss , who serve as protectors of the white wand . Patrick Warburton provides his voice for the agents of the Military Extraterrestrial Research Facility ( abbreviated M.E.R.F. ) , and Brendan Fraser voices Turbo Thunder , a warrior who believes he is the true chosen one . In addition to its cultural references to various media , Wishology contains parodies of fantasy and science fiction films : The Matrix , The Lord of the Rings , Harry Potter , The Terminator , Men in Black , and Star Wars .
= = Plot = =
= = = " The Big Beginning " = = =
Timmy makes a wish to star in his own movie trilogy ( In parodies of The Matrix , Lord of the Rings , and Harry Potter ) . He is interrupted by Jorgen , who takes his fairy godparents away and sends Timmy home . When he gets there , Timmy 's parents and school friends don 't remember him , and an Eliminator appears after Timmy calls out his own name . In an alley , the Eliminator projects a space vortex through its mouth to inhale Timmy . Jorgen saves him , and the two arrive at Fairy World . Meanwhile , the fairies are hidden as gumballs inside a truck stop bar by Jorgen . After being blown into a bubble from a kid 's mouth , Cosmo takes Wanda and Poof with him as he floats away . The rest of the fairies use Cosmo 's method as their escape plan .
At the Cave of Destiny , Jorgen explains to Timmy the cave prophecy , where in ancient times fairy warriors , represented by stars in space , fought and eliminated The Darkness with light . The ancient fairies also hid a powerful white wand , which is to be found and possessed by the chosen one , Timmy Turner . As stars in space disappear and The Darkness approaches , Timmy arrives back on Earth and tracks his godparents down in Las Vegas , where the Middle @-@ Aged Rock Festival ( M.A.R.F. ) is held . The M.A.R.F. features the rock band Kiss , who reveal to Timmy that they are the galactic protectors of the white wand , which is their star @-@ shaped guitar . The Darkness and Eliminators arrive at the venue , and the fairies arrive to defeat Eliminators while Timmy defeats The Darkness with a rock solo performance on the white wand . A celebration follows at Fairy World , where Turbo Thunder , the person who was supposed to be the chosen one , appears and takes the white wand from Timmy .
= = = " The Exciting Middle Part " = = =
Eliminators and The Darkness invade Yugopotamia — a planet that is home to squid @-@ like aliens called Yugopotamians — and steal " fake @-@ i @-@ fiers " , belts that allow users to transform into anyone else . Yugopotamian prince Mark Chang goes to Earth . Meanwhile in Fairyworld , Timmy and Cosmo are watching Timmy Turners Chosen One movie . Then Poof get interested and copies what Timmy is doing on the big screen and when Wanda turns off the TV , Poof gets angry and kicks her across the room . Then Timmy calls the front office for a bunch of stuff . When Cosmo eats a cocktail weenie , and Poof hits him too and Wanda gets him super angry so he kicks her again harder . Mark arrives and notifies Timmy that The Darkness is back , and the group discovers that there is a second part to the cave prophecy : Timmy must find the second wand , located at the Blue Moon . Timmy and Mark teleport back to Dimmsdale , only to discover Timmy 's parents and friends are now Eliminators in disguise . Because his real parents and friends have been kidnapped by Eliminators , Timmy seeks help from people who hate him : Mr. Crocker , Dark Laser , and Vicky . Setting their differences aside , everyone cooperates and boards Dark Laser 's death pod and depart into space . During their rest stop at planet Frigidarium , the aliens inside the cantina are Eliminators who send Timmy 's enemies to the Abracatraz Prison in Fairy World . Turbo Thunder saves Timmy and Mark from the corrupting planet , and the three eventually arrive at the Blue Moon , where the rock guardian grants Timmy the second wand .
Meanwhile , Eliminators incarcerate the fairies at the Abracatraz Prison and put Timmy 's friends and family in the same cell with Timmy 's godparents and Jorgen . After Poof frees the group and locates the wands , Jorgen takes everyone to the Blue Moon . Timmy 's friends , enemies , family , and the fairies defeat Eliminators with a combined magical attack and have a reunion with Timmy , which is interrupted when The Darkness tries to inhale him . The second wand produces no effect , and Timmy realizes he has no other choice , so he sacrifices himself into The Darkness , after sharing a kiss with his long @-@ term crush Trixie , leaving the others to mourn .
= = = " The Final Ending " = = =
Timmy wakes up in what looks like his bedroom ; in reality he is still inside The Darkness , and the world is merely an illusion to him . Timmy 's fairy godparents and Jorgen come to rescue him , and they exit The Darkness successfully . Back on Earth , the Lead Eliminator uses Jorgen 's wand to poof Timmy 's friends and family away into The Darkness . Military Extraterrestrial Research Facility ( M.E.R.F. ) agents launch an array of military weapons at the Eliminator , but he absorbs the ordnance and turns into a more powerful version , the Destructinator . He surrounds the Earth with a steel casing , which transforms the M.E.R.F. agents into his henchmen . They plant explosives inside Earth and give the Destructinator a detonation remote .
Timmy and his fairies return to the Blue Moon via M.E.R.F. ' s escape pod to retrieve the second wand . A weakened Turbo Thunder reveals the second wand only opens underneath a secret cave , which contains magical wands and the final part of the cave prophecy : to find the ice wand . The group returns to Fairy World with the wands to free the imprisoned fairies before everyone heads back to Earth . The fairies arrive and use their magic to remove the Earth 's metal casing . Timmy heads into space with the Destructinator following him ; the Destructinator attacks him , which sends him back down to the Earth , at its north polar region . After Timmy tricks the Destructinator into inhaling the explosives , he reveals that he stole the detonator remote from him back in space and uses it to obliterate him .
A polar bear — the guardian of the ice wand — raises the ice wand from beneath the ocean . The fairies add an ice wand to each planet of the Solar System . Along with the white wand at Fairy World , the ice wands create a celestial smile that projects its light into The Darkness . The smile transforms it into a bright sun , The Kindness , and Timmy concludes The Darkness was only looking for a friend . The group returns to Dimmsdale , where an Eliminator , dubbed a ' Hug 'inator by Cosmo , crashes in front of them and spews out everyone who had been sucked in . Everyone parties in Fairy World and celebrates the chosen one 's accomplishment .
= = Production = =
Series creator and executive producer Butch Hartman wrote Wishology , along with head writer and executive producer Scott Fellows and writer Kevin Sullivan , who joined the series beginning its fifth season . Gary Conrad , who has directed several episodes of the series since its second season , served as the director for Wishology . Composer Guy Moon , who has worked on the music for The Fairly OddParents since its inception , composed the music . Like the entire series , Wishology was produced in hand @-@ drawn animation mixed with computer animation by Frederator and Billionfold Studios for Nickelodeon . The production of the trilogy required 18 months to complete , according to Toon Zone 's interview with Hartman .
Initial plans were to broadcast Wishology on Nickelodeon for three consecutive Fridays starting on May 1 , 2009 . In the end , Nickelodeon decided to show the specials from 8 : 00 to 9 : 00 pm , Friday to Sunday , May 1 – 3 and was advertised as " Wishology Weekend . " Wishology was also released on DVD , containing all three parts , on June 3 , 2011 .
= = = Casting = = =
The cast of Wishology includes all of the main characters of The Fairly Oddparents . Timmy Turner and Poof are voiced by Tara Strong . Cosmo , Jorgen von Strangle , and Timmy 's dad Mr. Turner , are voiced by Daran Norris . Wanda and Timmy 's mom Mrs. Turner , are voiced by Susanne Blakeslee . Grey DeLisle voices Timmy 's babysitter , Vicky , and Dionne Quan voices Trixie Tang . Jason Marsden and Gary Leroi Gray provide voice roles for Timmy 's friends Chester McBadbat and A.J. , respectively . Timmy 's school teacher , Mr. Denzel Crocker , who has an obsession with proving that fairies are real , is voiced by Carlos Alazraqui .
The rock band Kiss made a guest appearance in the trilogy . The band plays the role of the galactic guardians of the white wand in " The Big Beginning " , and makes a cameo appearance in " The Final Ending " . However , only two of the band 's four members — Gene Simmons and Paul Stanley — provided voice roles of their Kiss personas , " The Demon " and " The Starchild " , respectively . Hartman and Fellows pitched the idea of a rock band in the storyline , where the band guards the white wand that Timmy seeks . The writers originally did not intend to feature Kiss in Wishology . Rather , they initially planned to create the rock band " Smooch " , with its members with heart @-@ shaped make @-@ up on their faces , as an allusion to the original Kiss band . Nevertheless , they asked and received permission from Gene Simmons to feature Kiss , drawn as animated two @-@ dimensional figures to blend in with the series ' customary appearance . Wishology features a performance of the Kiss song " Rock and Roll All Nite " , which is played towards the end of " The Big Beginning " , during a concert party at Fairy World .
In addition to the regular cast and Kiss , Wishology features other guest performances . Actor Gary Sturgis guest stars as the Lead Eliminator . Actor Patrick Warburton guest stars as the M.E.R.F. agents , and Brendan Fraser guest stars as Turbo Thunder . Recurring voice actors Jim Ward and Kevin Michael Richardson reprise their roles as Dimmsdale news reporter Chet Ubetcha and space villain Dark Laser , respectively .
= = Cultural references = =
At the beginning of the first episode , Wishology includes references from three recent films : The Matrix , The Lord of the Rings , and Harry Potter . In Timmy 's first trilogy wish , Timmy — under his alias Teo — is dressed as Neo from The Matrix , while his school teacher , Mr. Crocker , is dressed as Neo 's antagonist , Agent Smith . Timmy dodges Mr. Crocker 's lasers in a style similar to that seen in The Matrix . After doing so , he jumps off a building and lands on , and crushes , a Volkswagen New Beetle . In his second trilogy wish , the group arrives at Middle @-@ earth . Timmy is dressed as Frodo ; Wanda and Poof are dressed as Hobbits ; and Cosmo takes the appearance of Gollum . In the third , Harry Potter @-@ themed trilogy wish , where everyone is in a Quidditch match , Timmy is dressed as the film 's main character , Harry Potter , and Poof takes the form of a quidditch snitch .
Throughout Timmy 's travel in space with Mark and Timmy 's enemies in " The Exciting Middle Part " and during the beginning of " The Final Ending " , Wishology focuses its media references on George Lucas ' film series Star Wars . On their way to Planet Frigidarium in " The Exciting Middle Part " , the group dresses up as the main characters of Star Wars : Timmy is dressed as Luke Skywalker , Mark as R2 @-@ D2 , Crocker as Chewbacca , and Vicky as Princess Leia . Inside the cantina , Crocker clears his throat in a way that sounds like Chewbacca 's voice . All the aliens inside resemble other characters from Star Wars . The opening sequence of " The Final Ending " features text that briefly recaps the conclusion of the previous part of the Wishology story in the style of the Star Wars opening crawl .
Wishology contains a number of other cultural references . In " The Big Beginning " , when he grabs a muffin before he leaves his house , Timmy accidentally chooses but then rejects the Fairy @-@ versary muffin , the magic muffin used in the first The Fairly OddParents television film Abra @-@ Catastrophe ! . During Jorgen 's and Timmy 's journey throughout Fairy World to find the Cave of Destiny , Jorgen swings through the trees in a manner similar to Tarzan . The Lead Eliminator 's attire of a black coat and sunglasses is similar to those worn by The Terminator . The weapons M.E.R.F. agents use while fighting Timmy are similar to those used by the Men in Black . At Dimmsdale , when he tries to figure out the chosen one riddle in order to find the white wand , Timmy is chased down by the police for allegedly becoming a quarter thief and smashing a statue at the Dimmsdale museum . To remain undetected , he uses a Mona Lisa painting to disguise his face , and one of the cops make note of his " Renaissance smile " . Towards the end of Timmy 's rock solo performance at the M.A.R.F. , Gene Simmons notes Timmy 's long tongue when Timmy licks the guitar , a tribute to Simmons ' own long tongue .
At the beginning of " The Exciting Middle Part " , while Eliminators destroy Yugopotamia , Timmy is in Fairy World in front of fairy game geeks . He plays The Chosen One Video Game , which utilizes a white wand guitar controller that imitates the actual white wand , like a Guitar Hero controller that imitates a real guitar . When Mark 's space pod plunges into the Earth and destroys an Eliminator disguised as Mark , the Eliminator 's feet curl up in a way reminiscent of the Wicked Witch of the East from the Wizard of Oz . At the site of the Abracatraz Prison where the kidnapped fairies are held hostage , its front gate contains an inscription that reads " Abandon
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.m. on May 10 , 1911 .
= = Aftermath = =
After capturing the town , Madero and his revolutionary movement achieved a new kind of credibility , both within Mexico and in the US . Some American journalists crossed the border in order to congratulate Madero personally , and reported back to American readers on the quick and efficient way that order within the city had been reestablished .
= = = Fall of Díaz = = =
The outcome of the battle changed the perception of the rebel movement in Mexico . Before Madero 's victory many believed that the rebel forces would scatter as soon as they were confronted by federal troops . The fall of Juárez proved that notion wrong and revealed the real strength of the rebel forces .
The immediate effect of the rebels ' success helped convince Porfirio Díaz to agree to the revolutionaries ' demand for his resignation . Prompted by Limantour , two days after the end of the battle Díaz signed the Treaty of Ciudad Juárez with Madero , and ten days after the battle he resigned and went into exile in France . This ended the first stage of the Mexican Revolution , and at the same time made it clear that even well @-@ garrisoned troops were not invulnerable to guerrilla armies .
= = = Dissension among the victors = = =
A more indirect consequence arose from the disagreements that occurred between Madero and his generals Villa and Orozco . The tensions began during the battle and continued afterward . In addition to the insubordination that the two leaders showed Madero while the fighting was still ongoing , they also clashed with him afterwards over payments to their soldiers and over the appointment of Venustiano Carranza as Madero 's defence minister . Carranza was a civilian who had joined the revolution at the last minute , and for these reasons was despised by Orozco .
However , the immediate cause for the outbreak of the conflict among the rebels was the fate of federal Gen. Juan N. Navarro who had defended Ciudad Juárez . Both Villa and Orozco wanted him executed for his earlier killing of rebel prisoners taken by his forces . Madero opposed it , despite the fact that a court @-@ martial of federal officers who committed war crimes was one of the main points of his manifesto . Orozco and Villa went to confront Madero , a tense situation arose and ( according to Villa and other witnesses ) Orozco drew his pistol on Madero . Eventually Madero escaped the predicament by appealing directly to Villa 's and Orozco 's troops and the two generals had to relent . Madero escorted Navarro personally across the US border to El Paso . Likewise , Carranza kept his post while Orozco in particular nursed a grudge . However , Madero did withdraw gold from the local bank and distributed it to the troops in accordance with the generals ' wishes .
The motivations of the three in the infighting are not completely clear . According to Friedrich Katz , Madero , in refusing to let Navarro be killed , was motivated not only by his personal humanism but also by a need to assert his civilian authority over military leaders . It also seems that Villa was mostly concerned with taking care of his soldiers and his personal hatred for Navarro , since it was his soldiers — known as Villistas — who Navarro had earlier ordered to be bayoneted . Years later , after he fell out with Orozco , Villa wrote in his memoirs that the whole episode was a set @-@ up by Orozco , who had been paid 50 @,@ 000 pesos by Díaz 's agents to get him to kill Madero . While Katz and other scholars consider this assessment extreme , it is possible that Orozco , who believed he should be the rightful leader of the revolution , was trying to provoke Villa into killing Madero . That way Madero would be out of the way , Villa would be discredited among the intellectual revolutionary circles as a common bandit and Orozco could claim the mantle of leadership . In the end , however , Villa kept his cool , Madero convinced common soldiers to support him and Orozco did not have the nerve to go through with it .
= = = Later developments resulting from the battle = = =
Orozco remained unsatisfied with the political positions he was offered in the Madero government . He became even more angry when Madero asked him to fight Zapata in central Mexico . As a result , in March 1912--less than a year after the battle of Ciudad Juárez--Orozco formally declared himself in rebellion against Madero . He subsequently supported Victoriano Huerta in his coup d 'état against Madero . After Huerta 's fall Orozco went into exile in the US and was eventually killed by Texas Rangers while trying to make his way back into Mexico to start another revolt .
Villa remained loyal to Madero ( and even fought for him against Orozco ) and contributed greatly to the fall of Huerta . However , he broke with Carranza and lost the struggle for the control of the revolution to Carranza 's Gen. Álvaro Obregón .
= 1907 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1907 Atlantic hurricane season was at one point the only Atlantic hurricane season that did not feature a hurricane . With only five tropical storms having formed , it was a relatively inactive season ; of those that did , three made landfall , of which all occurred on the shoreline of the Gulf Coast of the United States . The first storm of the season formed on June 24 , while the final dissipated on November 12 . Damage from the storms were minimal , and no deaths were reported . Due to the lack of modern technology , including satellite imagery , information is often sparse , and four additional systems could have formed during the season . A documentation for four possible storms during the season exists , although it has not been proven that these systems were fully tropical .
= = Background = =
Prior to the advent of modern tropical cyclone tracking technology , notably satellite imagery , many hurricanes that did not affect land directly went unnoticed , and storms that did affect land were not recognized until their onslaught . As a result , information on older hurricane seasons was often incomplete . Modern @-@ day efforts have been made and are still ongoing to reconstruct the tracks of known hurricanes and to identify initially undetected storms . In many cases , the only evidence that a hurricane existed was reports from ships in its path , and judging by the direction of winds experienced by ships , and their location in relation to the storm , it is possible to roughly pinpoint the storm 's center of circulation for a given point in time . This is the manner in which all of the five known storms in the 1907 season were identified by hurricane expert José Fernández @-@ Partagás 's reanalysis of hurricane seasons between 1851 and 1910 . Partagás also extended the known tracks of three other hurricanes previously identified by scholars . The information Partagás and his colleague uncovered was largely adopted by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 's Atlantic hurricane reanalysis in their updates to the Atlantic hurricane database ( HURDAT ) , with some slight adjustments . HURDAT is the official source for such hurricane data as track and intensity , although due to a sparsity of available records at the time the storms existed , listings on some storms are incomplete .
The season was one of only two Atlantic seasons without a storm of hurricane intensity ( winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) or higher ) , the other being the 1914 season . In addition , the maximum winds recorded from the first tropical storm were also the highest of the season ; it also broke the record for the weakest " most intense " storm on record for an Atlantic hurricane season . Reanalysis also indicated that four additional systems could have developed during the season . No deaths occurred during the season and damage was minimal .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Storm One = = =
The first identified tropical storm of the season is listed in the Atlantic hurricane database as having formed on June 24 , positioned in the western Caribbean Sea ; the estimate for this location was based on ship reports , although the information was insufficient to guarantee an accurate position . It initially meandered west @-@ northwestward , though began to turn northwest during the latter half of following day . Late on June 26 , it passed between the Yucatán Peninsula and Cuba , and subsequently entered the Gulf of Mexico shortly thereafter . The tropical storm continued to slowly intensify , and started to make sharp curve towards the northeast on June 28 .
The storm traveled east @-@ northeastward paralleling the Gulf Coast of the United States , and eventually made landfall on the Florida panhandle early on June 29 . It weakened slightly as it traversed inland , and entered the Atlantic Ocean just offshore Georgia during the morning . At this point , the storm attained its peak intensity of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) , though it transitioned into an extratropical cyclone within the six hours that followed . Late during the day , the extratropical storm reached New Jersey , and entered Maine on June 30 . The 2003 reanalysis made only minor adjustments to the storm 's intensity and track created by Partagás and Diaz , which included moving the point of landfall westward and increasing windspeeds on June 29 based on readings received in Jacksonville , Florida .
= = = Tropical Storm Two = = =
Based on information from historical weather maps , it appeared that eastward @-@ moving lower @-@ atmospheric flow was present between September 16 and 17 , though a closed circulation did not appear to be present . On September 18 , the system developed into tropical depression between the Bahamas and Florida while it moved west @-@ northwestward . After swiftly crossing the southern portion of the state , it strengthened into a tropical storm on September 19 over the southeastern Gulf of Mexico , and attained its peak intensity of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) early during September 20 . It began turning north on September 21 , and made landfall on the Mississippi coast on September 22 . The storm weakened as it moved inland , and curved east @-@ northeast later during that day , only to transition into an extratropical cyclone shortly thereafter . The storm lost extratropical characteristics over Virginia on September 23 . As there were no reports of strong winds near the point of landfall , Partagás had doubt as to whether or not this storm was a tropical storm , as the most intense winds were recorded when the system was classified as extratropical .
= = = Tropical Storm Three = = =
The system that would eventually develop into a tropical storm was first noted by a ship north @-@ northwest of Veracruz on September 23 . It was recognized as a tropical storm on September 27 while was located above the Bay of Campeche , and moved northeastward , and slowly accelerated as it intensified . By September 28 , it was moving east @-@ northeastward at 24 mph ( 38 km / h ) , and simultaneously attained its peak intensity of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . At this point , it remained just offshore the Florida panhandle , and moved inland shortly thereafter on September 29 . It plowed through northern Florida and southeastern Georgia while maintaining its intensity and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone off the coast of North Carolina on September 29 . The remnants of the storm merged with a cold front the following day while situated south of New York .
Storm warnings were issued on September 28 for the shorelines of Louisiana and Mississippi , but the states did not receive strong winds . The maximum gust from the storm was 46 mph ( 74 km / h ) , which was recorded at Pensacola , Florida .
= = = Tropical Storm Four = = =
The fourth tropical storm of the season was first detected by a ship on October 17 southwest of Bermuda ; in the HURDAT database , this date was considered to be the formation date , although the entire lifespan of the storm is unknown due to a lack of data on the system itself . It initially moved east @-@ northeastward , though later began to turn northeastward on October 18 . The storm curved slightly towards the east @-@ northeast on October 19 , and became extratropical later that day before its dissipation on October 20 . The storm maintained its peak winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) for most of its lifetime .
= = = Tropical Storm Five = = =
The final tropical storm of the season was previously unidentified until reanalysis by Partagás . It formed on November 6 while moving south @-@ southwestward , though took a sharp turn towards the west @-@ southwestward on November 7 . The following day , it took another sharp turn , this time towards the north @-@ northwest , while it had winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) , which were the maximum estimated winds for the storm . It continued on this path until November 11 , when it turned once more , this time towards the north @-@ northeast . It evolved into an extratropical cyclone the following day . The storm was considered to be a tropical storm based on reports of unusually warm waters near 70 ° F ( 21 ° C ) which were accompanied by strong winds .
= Briarcliff College =
Briarcliff College was a women 's college in Briarcliff Manor , New York . The school was founded in 1903 at the Briarcliff Lodge . After Walter W. Law donated land for the college , it ran at its location on Elm Road in Briarcliff until 1977 , closing due to low enrollment and financial problems . In the same year , its campus was purchased by Pace University , which now operates it as part of its Pleasantville campus .
= = History = =
Mrs. Dow 's School for Girls was founded in 1903 at the Briarcliff Lodge ; two years later , Walter W. Law gave Mary Elizabeth Dow 35 acres ( 14 ha ) and built the Châteauesque Dow Hall ( Harold Van Buren Magonigle was its architect ) . Dow retired in 1919 and Edith Cooper Hartmann began running the school with a two @-@ year postgraduate course ; the school became a junior college in 1933 . Briarcliff remained a junior college until 1957 , shortly before the presidency of Charles E. Adkins and when it began awarding four @-@ year bachelor 's degrees . The school library , which had 5 @,@ 500 volumes in 1942 , expanded to about 20 @,@ 000 in 1960 . By the time of its closing , it had about 300 students .
The school prospered from 1942 to 1961 under President Clara Tead , who had a number of accomplished trustees , including Carl Carmer , Norman Cousins , Barrett Clark , Thomas K. Finletter , William Zorach , and Lyman Bryson . Tead 's husband Ordway Tead served as chairman of the board of trustees . The school gradually improved its academic scope and standing , and was registered with the State Education Department and accredited by the Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools in 1944 . In 1951 , the Board of Regents authorized the college to grant Associate of Arts and Associate of Applied Science degrees . The following year , the Army Map Service selected the college as the only one in the country for professional training in cartography .
In 1944 , Shelton House , a building across Elm Road , was purchased as a dormitory , and a classroom and office wing was dedicated in 1951 . In 1955 , after Howard Deering Johnson joined the board of trustees , the dormitory Howard Johnson Hall was built . From 1963 , Briarcliff College rapidly expanded , constructing two dormitories , the fine arts and humanities building , the Woodward Science Building , and a 600 @-@ seat dining hall . In 1964 , the college began offering the Bachelor of Arts and of Sciences degrees . The Center for Hudson Valley Archaeology was opened in 1964 . Enrollment at the college jumped from around 300 to over 500 from 1960 to 1964 ; by 1967 , enrollment was at 623 , with 240 freshmen . During the Vietnam War , students protested US involvement , and Adkins and trustees resigned ; James E. Stewart became president . In 1969 , twelve students , led by student president Edie Cullen , stole the college mimeograph machines and gave nine demands to the college . The next day , around 50 students participated in a 48 @-@ hour sit @-@ in at Dow Hall . Josiah Bunting III became president in 1973 and Pace University and New York Medical College of Valhalla began leasing campus buildings . The college had 350 students in 1977 , and students enjoyed half @-@ empty dormitory buildings .
With the growing popularity of coeducation in the 1970s , Briarcliff found itself struggling to survive . President Josiah Bunting III leaving for Hampden @-@ Sydney College in spring 1977 contributed to the problems the college was having . Rather than continue to struggle , the college 's trustees voted to sell the campus to Pace University , a New York City @-@ based institution . Rather than merge Briarcliff with Pace , the trustees attempted to reach a collaboration agreement with Bennett College , a junior women 's college in nearby Millbrook which was also struggling with low enrollment . The plan did not work , however , and Briarcliff College was sold to Pace in April 1977 for $ 5 @.@ 2 million ( $ 20 @.@ 3 million in 2015 ) after both Briarcliff and Bennett entered bankruptcy .
In 1988 , the Hastings Center moved to Tead Hall , the school 's library ; the organization later moved to the town of Garrison .
The original Mrs. Dow 's School building remains as the co @-@ ed residence hall Dow Hall at Pace University . Residents of Briarcliff Manor were initially pleased to have another educational institution at the site , although Pace illegally turned its 188 @-@ spot parking lot into an 800 @-@ spot one , and allowed an extensive number of cars to be parked on the neighboring streets . The village and school eventually reached a compromise .
Pace operates the site as part of its Pleasantville campus , centered on Choate House . The site currently has nine buildings with a combined 330 @,@ 308 square feet ( 30 @,@ 686 @.@ 6 m2 ) , with sizes from 13 @,@ 041 to 111 @,@ 915 square feet . The buildings are used for offices , student housing , dining , recreation and education . The campus ' 37 acres ( 0 @.@ 1 km2 ) also includes tennis courts and ball fields . The Pleasantville site is about 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) away from the Briarcliff College site . In an effort to consolidate Pace University 's Westchester campuses into a single location , Pace University put the site up for sale in 2015 .
= = Notable people = =
= = = Presidents = = =
= = = Students = = =
= = = Teachers = = =
= No. 73 Wing RAAF =
No. 73 Wing was a Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) wing of World War II . It was formed in February 1943 at Port Moresby , Papua New Guinea , as part of No. 9 Operational Group . The wing initially comprised three attack squadrons flying CAC Wirraways , Douglas Bostons , and Bristol Beaufighters , with which it took part in the New Guinea campaign until mid @-@ year . It was then reorganised with three fighter squadrons operating P @-@ 40 Kittyhawks and Supermarine Spitfires ; in this form it saw action in the New Britain and Admiralty Islands campaigns through 1943 – 44 . The wing was disbanded at Los Negros in August 1944 , and by the beginning of 1945 its squadrons had been absorbed into other RAAF wings under No. 10 Operational Group ( later the Australian First Tactical Air Force ) .
= = History = =
= = = New Guinea campaign = = =
Formed in February 1943 , No. 73 Wing consisted of No. 4 Squadron ( flying CAC Wirraways ) , No. 22 Squadron ( Douglas Bostons ) and No. 30 Squadron ( Bristol Beaufighters ) . Based at Port Moresby , Papua New Guinea , the wing was under the control of No. 9 Operational Group , the RAAF 's " premier fighting unit " in the South West Pacific Area ( SWPA ) , whose purpose was to act as a mobile strike force in support of advancing Allied troops .
In March 1943 , No. 73 Wing 's units participated in the Battle of the Bismarck Sea , " the decisive aerial engagement " in the SWPA according to General Douglas MacArthur , that resulted in twelve ships from a Japanese convoy being sunk . During this engagement , some of No. 22 Squadron 's Bostons struck Lae airfield to prevent Japanese fighters taking off to intercept Allied bombers , while others took part in the actual assault on the convoy ; No. 30 Squadron 's Beaufighters launched " withering " low @-@ level cannon and machine @-@ gun attacks on the Japanese ships to suppress anti @-@ aircraft fire prior to bombing runs by USAAF B @-@ 25 Mitchells . Flight Lieutenant Bill Newton , one of the Boston pilots who attacked Lae , was awarded a posthumous Victoria Cross for pressing home bombing missions against Salamaua later that month , in spite of severe damage to his aircraft .
Having earlier been led by Wing Commander Blake Pelly , by June 1943 No. 73 Wing was under the command of Group Captain Ian McLachlan . That month , McLachlan established his headquarters at Goodenough Island , where the wing was reorganised as a fighter formation consisting of No. 76 Squadron ( flying P @-@ 40 Kittyhawks ) , No. 77 Squadron ( Kittyhawks ) and No. 79 Squadron ( Supermarine Spitfires ) . As well as providing local air defence , and fighter escort for Australian bombers , the Kittyhawks were themselves armed with incendiary and general @-@ purpose bombs so that they could engage in ground @-@ attack missions , a practice that had already been employed by Commonwealth forces in the Mediterranean and Middle East Theatre .
In August 1943 , the wing transferred to Kiriwina , while No. 9 Group 's other combat formation , No. 71 Wing , took over responsibility for Goodenough . Transport delays meant that No. 77 Squadron remained at Goodenough , however , and its place in No. 73 Wing at Kiriwina was taken by No. 78 Squadron , which arrived from Australia in November , also equipped with Kittyhawks .
= = = New Britain and Admiralty Islands campaigns = = =
Wing Commander Gordon Steege assumed command of No. 73 Wing in October 1943 . Minimal offensive air activity by the Japanese meant that No. 79 Squadron 's Spitfires saw relatively little action , while in contrast the wing 's P @-@ 40s with their ground attack capability were " fully engaged " . As part of the build @-@ up to the Battle of Arawe in December , the Kittyhawks launched a series of attacks on the Gasmata airfield and fuel dumps ; on the day of the Allied landings , as No. 76 Squadron Kittyhawks patrolled above the beaches , the Spitfires remained at Kiriwina in case of strikes by Japanese raiders , though none came . In January 1944 , the wing 's Spitfires and Kittyhawks accompanied Beauforts on the two largest raids mounted by the RAAF to that time , each involving over 70 aircraft attacking enemy camps and depots at Lindenhafen , New Britain .
As part of No. 9 Group 's contribution to the Admiralty Islands campaign , No. 73 Wing took up garrison duties at Los Negros commencing in March 1944 . Its complement of combat squadrons was again Nos. 76 , 77 and 79 Squadrons , supported by No. 49 Operational Base Unit , No. 114 Mobile Fighter Sector , No. 27 Air Stores Park and No. 26 Medical Clearing Station , among other ancillaries , with total ground staff numbering approximately 900 . The fighters ' primary duty was providing air cover for Allied shipping ; they also carried out bomber escort , ground attack and anti @-@ shipping missions in the region . In mid @-@ April , the wing escorted the largest Allied convoy in the South @-@ West Pacific to that date , 80 ships carrying 30 @,@ 000 personnel , from Finschhafen to Aitape . Completing its garrison work in the Admiralties that June , No. 73 Wing was disbanded at Los Negros on 29 August 1944 . Its combat units were all eventually transferred to other formations under No. 10 Operational Group ( later renamed the Australian First Tactical Air Force ) . Nos. 76 and 77 Squadrons joined another Kittyhawk unit , No. 82 Squadron , at No. 81 Wing on Noemfoor under Steege 's command , while No. 79 Squadron was withdrawn to Darwin in November to re @-@ equip with new Spitfires before joining No. 80 Wing and returning to the Pacific at Morotai in March 1945 .
= Alicia Sacramone =
Alicia Marie Quinn ( née Sacramone ) ( / əˈliːʃə ˌsækrəˈmoʊni / ; born December 3 , 1987 ) is a retired American artistic gymnast .
Sacramone began gymnastics at the age of eight , started competing in the elite ranks in 2002 and joined the U.S. national team in 2003 . At US National Championships from 2004 to 2008 , she won twelve medals , including four golds on vault and two golds on floor exercise . At World Championships from 2005 to 2007 , she won seven medals , including a floor exercise gold in 2005 and a team gold in 2007 . At the 2008 Beijing Olympics , she won a team silver medal . In 2010 , Sacramone made a comeback by winning the National Championship on Vault . Later in 2010 at the World Championships in Rotterdam , Netherlands , she won the World Title on Vault as well . Her gold gave her a total of nine medals overall , joining Shannon Miller and Nastia Liukin as the U.S. athletes with the most medals at the gymnastics world championships until the US team won gold in the team finals at the 2011 World Championships . Though she was injured and could not compete , she still received a medal as an official member of the U.S. team , earning her tenth World medal , making her the second most decorated U.S. gymnast in the history of the World Championships and second to Simone Biles , who won 14 World medals .
Sacramone has become noteworthy for supportive leadership of her teammates as well as outspoken remarks in interviews .
= = Personal life = =
Sacramone was born on December 3 , 1987 in Boston , Massachusetts to parents Fred , an orthodontist , and Gail Sacramone , a hairstylist and salon owner . She is of Italian descent . Sacramone has an older brother , Jonathan . She graduated from Winchester High School in 2006 . She announced her engagement to NFL quarterback Brady Quinn in August 2013 and they married in March 2014 . On February 10 , 2016 , Sacramone announced she and her husband are expecting their first child together , due in August .
= = Early career = =
Sacramone began studying dance at the age of five and started training gymnastics three years later , at age eight , in 1996 . She began her gymnastics career with Romanian coaches Mihai and Silvia Brestyan at Gymnastics and More club and continued to train with them after they opened their own training facility in Ashland . The Brestyans continue to serve as Sacramone 's coaches for the rest of her career .
= = Senior career = =
= = = 2003 – 04 = = =
Sacramone 's results improved immensely in 2003 , when she placed 14th in the all @-@ around and won a bronze medal on the Floor and place 4th on Vault at the 2003 U.S. Nationals , earning a spot on the U.S. National gymnastics team . She also participated in her first international competition in 2003 , the Cup in France , where she placed fourth on the floor exercise and ninth on vault .
In 2004 , Sacramone earned a spot on the US team for the Pacific Alliance Championships in Hawaii . She contributed several scores to help the team to a gold medal finish and won the individual vault title . Her strong performances caught the attention of the media , who began to consider her a legitimate contender for the American team at the 2004 Olympics in Athens .
However , at the 2004 U.S. Nationals , an error @-@ filled performance dashed Sacramone 's hopes of an Olympic berth . Although she tied with Mohini Bhardwaj for the silver medal on the vault , she finished in 19th place overall and did not qualify to the Olympic Trials . She also suffered an injury to her back and required time off to recover . Sacramone continued competing in late 2004 as a member of the U.S. national team , and was assigned to several international meets , including the Pan American Individual Event Championships , where she won the vault and floor exercise titles . At the World Cup Finals in Birmingham , England , Sacramone attracted media attention again when she upset reigning Olympic vault champion Monica Roşu to take first place on the event .
= = = 2005 – 2006 = = =
At the 2005 U.S. National Championships , Sacramone won the individual titles on floor and vault , scoring a 9 @.@ 9 on the latter event , and placed third on the balance beam and fourth in the all @-@ around . She was named to the American team with Nastia Liukin and Chellsie Memmel for the 2005 World Championships in Melbourne , Australia , where she won a gold medal on floor and placed third on the vault . She also defended her World Cup vault title successfully in 2005 , winning the event at both the World Cup qualifier in Ghent and the finals in Paris .
Sacramone continued to compete for the U.S. team in 2006 , participating in the 2006 World Championships in Aarhus , where she won a silver medal with the American squad and an individual silver on the vault . She defended her vault and floor titles at that year 's U.S. Nationals .
In September 2006 , Sacramone enrolled in Brown University and joined the school 's gymnastics team . During the 2006 – 2007 season , she juggled a full NCAA competition schedule with her elite training at Brestyan 's . She was the first female American gymnast since Kelly Garrison in the late 1980s to combine full @-@ time university studies and NCAA competition with elite gymnastics .
During Sacramone 's first year with the Brown Bears , she broke the school 's records for the highest scores in the all @-@ around , vault and floor exercise . She was named ECAC Rookie of the Year and swept the Ivy League Classic , becoming the first gymnast to win all five events and posting the highest all @-@ around total ever recorded at the competition . She qualified as an individual on the floor exercise for the NCAA National Championships , the second Brown gymnast ever to do so , but did not advance beyond the preliminary round .
= = = 2007 = = =
At the 2007 U.S. National Championships , Sacramone competed on three events , choosing to skip the uneven bars . She defended her title on the vault , placed second on the floor exercise and third on the balance beam . Following Nationals , Sacramone was named to the American team for the World Championships in Stuttgart , Germany .
During the qualifying round at the World Championships , Sacramone performed well , qualifying for event finals in floor and vault and contributing to the top qualifying position of the American team . Sacramone also posted a score on beam that would have been high enough to qualify her to the beam event final . However , due to the FIG rule only allowing two athletes per country to participate in each event final , and due to the fact that team mates Nastia Liukin and Shawn Johnson qualified ahead of her with higher scores , Sacramone was unable to compete for a beam medal . For the team final , Sacramone competed on vault , beam , and floor , earning 15 @.@ 750 , 15 @.@ 600 and 15 @.@ 325 respectively . When the American team faltered after a difficult beam rotation , in which two gymnasts made major errors , Sacramone gathered the team for a pep talk to refocus them for floor . The American team earned 184 @.@ 400 points overall which was good enough to secure the gold medal ahead of the Chinese and Romanians .
In event finals , Sacramone received a bronze medal for her vault performance and a silver on floor behind teammate Shawn Johnson . She was visibly upset by her performances , and fought back tears after floor and during the flower and medal ceremonies .
Both the Brestyans and the U.S. National Team Coordinator , Marta Karolyi , suggested that Sacramone forgo NCAA competition during the 2007 – 2008 season to concentrate on her preparations for the 2008 Beijing Olympics . In September 2007 , Sacramone announced that she was " turning pro " and signed with an agent , forfeiting her remaining NCAA eligibility .
= = = 2008 pre @-@ Olympics = = =
In the 2007 – 2008 academic year , Sacramone continued to work with the Brown Bears gymnastics team as a volunteer assistant coach . She remained a student at Brown , concentrated in sociology , but took the spring 2008 semester off to prepare for the Olympics .
Sacramone competed well at the 2008 U.S. National Championships in Boston and the Olympic Trials in Philadelphia . On July 19 , she was named to the 2008 Olympic Team for Beijing .
= = = 2008 Summer Olympics = = =
At the Olympics , Sacramone performed on three events in both the qualifying and team final rounds of competition . In the team final , Sacramone posted a 15 @.@ 675 score on vault but fell on both floor ( 14 @.@ 125 ) and beam ( 15 @.@ 1 ) , incurring 1 @.@ 70 points in deductions .
In the day following the Olympic team finals , Sacramone was largely blamed for the American team 's silver medal placement , and was the subject of negative commentary in media reports . Sacramone herself took responsibility for the results , noting , " It 's kinda hard not to blame myself . " However , analysts in the gymnastics community , including University of Georgia head coach Suzanne Yoculan , former Olympian John Roethlisberger and International Gymnast editor Paul Ziert , noted that the American team started the competition at a difficult point deficit to the Chinese and that mathematically , Sacramone could not have been personally or exclusively responsible for the U.S. team 's results . Sacramone also received support from the American team . In one interview , teammate Bridget Sloan stated , " We 've all made mistakes . It 's just really hard to see her go and leave these Olympics knowing that she thinks it 's her fault . It is definitely not and we 've all been encouraging her very much . "
Individually , Sacramone placed third overall on vault in the preliminary round of competition and qualified to the individual event final on that event . In the vault final , Sacramone placed fourth behind Hong Un Jong , Oksana Chusovitina and Cheng Fei ( somewhat controversially , since Cheng fell on her second vault ) . She also placed fourth overall on beam in preliminaries behind Li Shanshan of China and teammates Nastia Liukin and Shawn Johnson , but did not advance to the eight @-@ person event finals due to the " two per country " rule .
= = = 2008 temporary retirement = = =
In interviews , Sacramone alluded to retiring after the 2008 Beijing Olympics . She confirmed her retirement in February 2009 during an interview at a Boston Bruins game .
= = = 2009 – 2010 return to training and competition = = =
On August 6 , 2009 , Sacramone announced her return to training for elite competition . Her return was slowed , however , after having shoulder surgery earlier that year .
On July 24 , 2010 , Sacramone competed in the CoverGirl Classic . She placed first in both beam and vault , not competing on floor or bars . Her return to competitive form was judged dramatically successful by meet commentators and she was named USA Today 's " Athlete of the Week " .
Sacramone competed in the U.S. National Championships in August , performing only vault and balance beam . She placed first on vault ( her fifth national title on that apparatus ) and second on balance beam . She was also named Sportsperson of the Year .
At the World Championships in October , Sacramone won a gold medal on the vault and a silver medal in the team competition . That gave her nine world medals , and tied her with Shannon Miller and Nastia Liukin for the most world medals by an American female gymnast at that time .
= = = 2011 = = =
Early in 2011 , she signed a deal with Under Armour to supply her with competitive apparel for domestic competitions .
In July 2011 , Sacramone added floor exercise to her competitive repertoire at the CoverGirl Classic in Chicago , Illinois . Competing on three events , Sacramone won gold on vault , tied for gold on beam with Jordyn Wieber of Michigan , and won the bronze on floor ( 13 @.@ 9 ) .
At August 's 2011 Nationals in St. Paul , Minnesota , Sacramone won the balance beam title with a two @-@ night score of 30 @.@ 1 . She placed second to McKayla Maroney on vault ( 30 @.@ 6 ) , and she tied with Hallie Mossett for eighth place on floor exercise ( 27 @.@ 35 ) .
After participating in two selection camps at the Karolyi Ranch in New Waverly , Texas , Quinn was named to the 2011 U.S. women 's world championships gymnastics team .
While training at the World Championships in Tokyo , Sacramone sustained a tear of her Achilles tendon . She returned to the U.S. immediately for surgery on the tear . However , the U.S. team retained her name on the roster , and she was given a gold medal , in spite have not having competed .
= = = 2012 = = =
Sacramone qualified for the 2012 Visa National Championships . She placed first on vault and third on balance beam . At the Olympic Trials , Sacramone placed second on both vault and balance beam , but was not named to the Olympic team . “ I leave this sport with no regrets " posted Sacramone on her Twitter feed shortly after the Olympic Team was selected , suggesting that she is likely to retire .
= = Other activities = =
In June 2008 , Sacramone and her team mates Shawn Johnson and Nastia Liukin became the first female athletes ever to be signed as CoverGirl spokesmodels . Sacramone is also a member of Team 24 Fitness and serves as a spokeswoman for the fitness company . In 2009 , she also appeared in a Gatorade commercial that spoofed Monty Python and the Holy Grail as " Alicia , The Girl Who Made Horse Trotting Noises . "
During the summer of 2009 , Sacramone briefly stayed in Los Angeles , California and she designed for Tank Farm , a men 's fashion company . She has discussed her intent to return to college in the media , but announced in August 2009 that she was not intending to return to Brown University . In an interview with Inside Gymnastics Magazine , she stated , " I plan to continue school [ but ] I ’ m looking into transferring somewhere in Boston , ” she explains . “ Brown is a great school and I loved it , but it was just not the best atmosphere for me ; maybe a little too liberal . It was a great two years and I learned a lot about myself and from the professors and coaches there . I ’ m looking at Boston University , Boston College and Harvard . I want to weigh my options before I make an ultimate decision , but I would love to transfer to Harvard . I think that would be pretty much ideal . "
Quinn appeared nude in ESPN 's 2011 " Body Issue " and talked about how her body had evolved throughout her elite career and the changes in her self @-@ perception .
On December 15 , 2015 , it was announced that Sacramone had been inducted as a 2016 class of the USA Gymnastics Hall of Fame .
= = Competitive history = =
= = Floor music = =
2002 : " Jazz Machine " – Black Machine
2003 – 2004 : " Explosive " by Bond ( band )
2005 : " Que Locura " by Christian Reyes
2006 – 2008 : " Santa Maria ( Del Buen Ayre ) " by the Gotan Project
2011 : 300 Violin Orchestra by Jorge Quintero and " Heart of Courage " by Two Steps from Hell
= Heinrich Himmler =
Heinrich Luitpold Himmler ( German : [ ˈhaɪnʁɪç ˈluˑɪtˌpɔlt ˈhɪmlɐ ] ; 7 October 1900 – 23 May 1945 ) was Reichsführer of the Schutzstaffel ( Protection Squadron ; SS ) , and a leading member of the Nazi Party ( NSDAP ) of Nazi Germany . Nazi leader Adolf Hitler briefly appointed him a military commander and later Commander of the Replacement ( Home ) Army and General Plenipotentiary for the administration of the entire Third Reich ( Generalbevollmächtigter für die Verwaltung ) . Himmler was one of the most powerful men in Nazi Germany and one of the people most directly responsible for the Holocaust .
As a member of a reserve battalion during World War I , Himmler did not see active service . He studied agronomy in college , and joined the Nazi Party in 1923 and the SS in 1925 . In 1929 , he was appointed Reichsführer @-@ SS by Hitler . Over the next 16 years , he developed the SS from a mere 290 @-@ man battalion into a million @-@ strong paramilitary group , and , following Hitler 's orders , set up and controlled the Nazi concentration camps . He was known to have good organisational skills and for selecting highly competent subordinates , such as Reinhard Heydrich in 1931 . From 1943 onwards , he was both Chief of German Police and Minister of the Interior , overseeing all internal and external police and security forces , including the Gestapo ( Secret State Police ) . Himmler had a lifelong interest in occultism , interpreting Germanic neopagan and Völkisch beliefs to promote the racial policy of Nazi Germany , and incorporating esoteric symbolism and rituals into the SS .
On Hitler 's behalf , Himmler formed the Einsatzgruppen and built extermination camps . As facilitator and overseer of the concentration camps , Himmler directed the killing of some six million Jews , between 200 @,@ 000 and 500 @,@ 000 Romani people , and other victims ; the total number of civilians killed by the regime is estimated at eleven to fourteen million people . Most of them were Polish and Soviet citizens .
Late in World War II , Hitler charged Himmler with the command of the Army Group Upper Rhine and the Army Group Vistula ; he failed to achieve his assigned objectives and Hitler replaced him in these posts . Realising that the war was lost , he attempted to open peace talks with the western Allies without Hitler 's knowledge shortly before the war ended . Hearing of this , Hitler dismissed him from all his posts in April 1945 and ordered his arrest . Himmler attempted to go into hiding , but was detained and then arrested by British forces once his identity became known . While in British custody , he committed suicide on 23 May 1945 .
= = Early life = =
Heinrich Luitpold Himmler was born in Munich on 7 October 1900 into a conservative middle @-@ class Roman Catholic family . His father was Gebhard Himmler ( 17 May 1865 – 29 October 1936 ) , a teacher , and his mother was Anna Maria Himmler ( née Heyder ; 16 January 1866 – 10 September 1941 ) ,
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a devout Roman Catholic . Heinrich had two brothers , Gebhard Ludwig ( 29 July 1898 – 1982 ) and Ernst Hermann ( 23 December 1905 – 2 May 1945 ) .
Himmler 's first name , Heinrich , was that of his godfather , Prince Heinrich of Bavaria , a member of the royal family of Bavaria , who had been tutored by Gebhard Himmler . He attended a grammar school in Landshut , where his father was deputy principal . While he did well in his schoolwork , he struggled in athletics . He had poor health , suffering from lifelong stomach complaints and other ailments . In his youth he trained daily with weights and exercised to become stronger . Other boys at the school later remembered him as studious and awkward in social situations .
Himmler 's diary , which he kept intermittently from the age of ten , shows that he took a keen interest in current events , dueling , and " the serious discussion of religion and sex " . In 1915 , he began training with the Landshut Cadet Corps . His father used his connections with the royal family to get Himmler accepted as an officer candidate , and he enlisted with the reserve battalion of the 11th Bavarian Regiment in December 1917 . His brother , Gebhard , served on the western front and saw combat , receiving the Iron Cross and eventually being promoted to lieutenant . In November 1918 , while Himmler was still in training , the war ended with Germany 's defeat , denying him the opportunity to become an officer or see combat . After his discharge on 18 December , he returned to Landshut .
After the war , Himmler completed his grammar @-@ school education . From 1919 to 1922 , he studied agronomy at the Munich Technische Hochschule ( now Technical University Munich ) following a brief apprenticeship on a farm and a subsequent illness .
Although many regulations that discriminated against non @-@ Christians — including Jews and other minority groups — had been eliminated during the unification of Germany in 1871 , antisemitism continued to exist and thrive in Germany and other parts of Europe . Himmler was antisemitic by the time he went to university , but not exceptionally so ; students at his school would avoid their Jewish classmates . He remained a devoted Catholic while a student , and spent most of his leisure time with members of his fencing fraternity , the " League of Apollo " , the president of which was Jewish . Himmler maintained a polite demeanor with him and with other Jewish members of the fraternity , in spite of his growing antisemitism . During his second year at university , Himmler redoubled his attempts to pursue a military career . Although he was not successful , he was able to extend his involvement in the paramilitary scene in Munich . It was at this time that he first met Ernst Röhm , an early member of the Nazi Party and co @-@ founder of the Sturmabteilung ( " Storm Battalion " ; SA ) . Himmler admired Röhm because he was a decorated combat soldier , and at his suggestion Himmler joined his antisemitic nationalist group , the Bund Reichskriegsflagge ( Imperial War Flag Society ) .
In 1922 , Himmler became more interested in the " Jewish question " , with his diary entries containing an increasing number of antisemitic remarks and recording a number of discussions about Jews with his classmates . His reading lists , as recorded in his diary , were dominated by antisemitic pamphlets , German myths , and occult tracts . After the murder of Foreign Minister Walther Rathenau on 24 June , Himmler 's political views veered towards the radical right , and he took part in demonstrations against the Treaty of Versailles . Hyperinflation was raging , and his parents could no longer afford to educate all three sons . Disappointed by his failure to make a career in the military and his parents ' inability to finance his doctoral studies , he was forced to take a low @-@ paying office job after obtaining his agricultural diploma . He remained in this position until September 1923 .
= = = Nazi activist = = =
Himmler joined the Nazi Party ( NSDAP ) in August 1923 ; his Party number was 14 @,@ 303 . As a member of Röhm 's paramilitary unit , Himmler was involved in the Beer Hall Putsch — an unsuccessful attempt by Hitler and the NSDAP to seize power in Munich . This event would set Himmler on a life of politics . He was questioned by the police about his role in the putsch , but was not charged because of insufficient evidence . However , he lost his job , was unable to find employment as an agronomist , and had to move in with his parents in Munich . Frustrated by these failures , he became ever more irritable , aggressive , and opinionated , alienating both friends and family members .
In 1923 – 24 , Himmler , while searching for a world view , came to abandon Catholicism and focused on the occult and in antisemitism . Germanic mythology , reinforced by occult ideas , became a religion for him . Himmler found the NSDAP appealing because its political positions agreed with his own views . Initially , he was not swept up by Hitler 's charisma or the cult of Führer worship . As he learned more about Hitler through his reading , he began to regard him as a useful face of the party , and he later admired and even worshipped him . To consolidate and advance his own position in the NSDAP , Himmler took advantage of the disarray in the party following Hitler 's arrest in the wake of the Beer Hall Putsch . From mid @-@ 1924 he worked under Gregor Strasser as a party secretary and propaganda assistant . Travelling all over Bavaria agitating for the party , he gave speeches and distributed literature . Placed in charge of the party office in Lower Bavaria by Strasser from late 1924 , he was responsible for integrating the area 's membership with the NSDAP under Hitler when the party was re @-@ founded in February 1925 .
That same year , he joined the Schutzstaffel ( SS ) as an SS @-@ Führer ( SS @-@ Leader ) ; his SS number was 168 . The SS , initially part of the much larger SA , was formed in 1923 for Hitler 's personal protection , and was re @-@ formed in 1925 as an elite unit of the SA . Himmler 's first leadership position in the SS was that of SS @-@ Gauführer ( district leader ) in Lower Bavaria from 1926 . Strasser appointed Himmler deputy propaganda chief in January 1927 . As was typical in the NSDAP , he had considerable freedom of action in his post , which increased over time . He began to collect statistics on the number of Jews , Freemasons , and enemies of the party , and following his strong need for control , he developed an elaborate bureaucracy . In September 1927 , Himmler told Hitler of his vision to transform the SS into a loyal , powerful , racially pure elite unit . Convinced that Himmler was the man for the job , Hitler appointed him Deputy Reichsführer @-@ SS , with the rank of SS @-@ Oberführer .
Around this time , Himmler joined the Artaman League , a Völkisch youth group . There he met Rudolf Höss , who was later commandant of Auschwitz concentration camp , and Walther Darré , whose book , The Peasantry as the Life Source of the Nordic Race , caught Hitler 's attention , leading to his later appointment as Reich Minister of Food and Agriculture . Darré was a firm believer in the superiority of the Nordic race , and his philosophy was a major influence on Himmler .
= = Rise in the SS = =
Upon the resignation of SS commander Erhard Heiden in January 1929 , Himmler assumed the position of Reichsführer @-@ SS with Hitler 's approval ; he still carried out his duties at propaganda headquarters . One of his first responsibilities was to organise SS participants at the Nuremberg Rally that September . Over the next year , Himmler grew the SS from a force of about 290 men to about 3 @,@ 000 . By 1930 Himmler had persuaded Hitler to run the SS as a separate organisation , although it was officially still subordinate to the SA .
To gain political power , the NSDAP took advantage of the economic downturn during the Great Depression . The coalition government of the Weimar Republic was unable to improve the economy , so many voters turned to the political extreme , which included the NSDAP . Hitler used populist rhetoric , including blaming scapegoats — particularly the Jews — for the economic hardships . In the 1932 election , the Nazis won 37 @.@ 3 percent of the vote and 230 seats in the Reichstag . Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany by President Paul von Hindenburg on 30 January 1933 , heading a short @-@ lived coalition of his Nazis and the German National People 's Party . The new cabinet initially included only three members of the NSDAP : Hitler , Hermann Göring as minister without portfolio and Minister of the Interior for Prussia , and Wilhelm Frick as Reich Interior Minister . Less than a month later , the Reichstag building was set on fire . Hitler took advantage of this event , forcing von Hindenburg to sign the Reichstag Fire Decree , which suspended basic rights and allowed detention without trial . The Enabling Act , passed by the Reichstag in 1933 , gave the Cabinet — in practice , Hitler — full legislative powers , and the country became a de facto dictatorship . On 1 August 1934 , Hitler 's cabinet passed a law which stipulated that upon von Hindenburg 's death , the office of president would be abolished and its powers merged with those of the chancellor . Von Hindenburg died the next morning , and Hitler became both head of state and head of government under the title Führer und Reichskanzler ( leader and chancellor ) .
The Nazi Party 's rise to power provided Himmler and the SS an unfettered opportunity to thrive . By 1933 , the SS numbered 52 @,@ 000 members . Strict membership requirements ensured that all members were of Hitler 's Aryan Herrenvolk ( " Aryan master race " ) . Applicants were vetted for Nordic qualities — in Himmler 's words , " like a nursery gardener trying to reproduce a good old strain which has been adulterated and debased ; we started from the principles of plant selection and then proceeded quite unashamedly to weed out the men whom we did not think we could use for the build @-@ up of the SS . " Few dared mention that by his own standards , Himmler did not meet his own ideals .
Himmler 's organised , bookish intellect served him well as he began setting up different SS departments . In 1931 he appointed Reinhard Heydrich chief of the new Ic Service ( intelligence service ) , which was renamed the Sicherheitsdienst ( SD : Security Service ) in 1932 . He later officially appointed Heydrich his deputy . The two men had a good working relationship and a mutual respect . In 1933 , they began to remove the SS from SA control . Along with Interior Minister Frick , they hoped to create a unified German police force . In March 1933 , Reich Governor of Bavaria Franz Ritter von Epp appointed Himmler chief of the Munich Police . Himmler appointed Heydrich commander of Department IV , the political police . That same year , Hitler promoted Himmler to the rank of SS @-@ Obergruppenführer , equal in rank to the senior SA commanders . Thereafter , Himmler and Heydrich took over the political police of state after state ; soon only Prussia was controlled by Göring .
Himmler further established the SS Race and Settlement Main Office ( Rasse- und Siedlungshauptamt or RuSHA ) . He appointed Darré as its first chief , with the rank of SS @-@ Gruppenführer . The department implemented racial policies and monitored the " racial integrity " of the SS membership . SS men were carefully vetted for their racial background . On 31 December 1931 , Himmler introduced the " marriage order " , which required SS men wishing to marry to produce family trees proving that both families were of Aryan descent to 1800 . If any non @-@ Aryan forebears were found in either family tree during the racial investigation , the person concerned was excluded from the SS . Each man was issued a Sippenbuch , a genealogical record detailing his genetic history . Himmler expected that each SS marriage should produce at least four children , thus creating a pool of genetically superior prospective SS members . The programme had disappointing results ; less than 40 per cent of SS men married and each produced only about one child .
In March 1933 , less than three months after the Nazis seized power , Himmler set up the first official concentration camp at Dachau . Hitler had stated that he did not want it to be just another prison or detention camp . Himmler appointed Theodor Eicke , a convicted felon and ardent Nazi , to run the camp in June 1933 . Eicke devised a system that was used as a model for future camps throughout Germany . Its features included isolation of victims from the outside world , elaborate roll calls and work details , the use of force and executions to extract obedience , and a strict disciplinary code for the guards . Uniforms were issued for prisoners and guards alike ; the guards ' uniforms had a special Totenkopf ( death 's head ) insignia on their collars . By the end of 1934 , Himmler took control of the camps under the aegis of the SS , creating a separate division , the SS @-@ Totenkopfverbände .
Initially the camps housed political opponents ; over time , undesirable members of German society — criminals , vagrants , deviants — were placed in the camps as well . A Hitler decree issued in December 1937 allowed for the incarceration of anyone deemed by the regime to be an undesirable member of society . This included Jews , Gypsies , communists , and those persons of any other cultural , racial , political , or religious affiliation deemed by the Nazis to be Untermensch ( sub @-@ human ) . Thus , the camps became a mechanism for social and racial engineering . By the outbreak of World War II in autumn 1939 , there were six camps housing some 27 @,@ 000 inmates . Death tolls were high .
= = = Consolidation of power = = =
In early 1934 , Hitler and other Nazi leaders became concerned that Röhm was planning a coup d 'état . Röhm had socialist and populist views , and believed that the real revolution had not yet begun . He felt that the SA — now numbering some three million men , far dwarfing the army — should become the sole arms @-@ bearing corps of the state , and that the army should be absorbed into the SA under his leadership . Röhm lobbied Hitler to appoint him Minister of Defence , a position held by conservative General Werner von Blomberg .
Göring had created a Prussian secret police force , the Geheime Staatspolizei or Gestapo in 1933 , and appointed Rudolf Diels as its head . Göring , concerned that Diels was not ruthless enough to use the Gestapo effectively to counteract the power of the SA , handed over its control to Himmler on 20 April 1934 . Also on that date , Hitler appointed Himmler chief of all German police outside Prussia . This was a radical departure from long @-@ standing German practice that law enforcement was a state and local matter . Heydrich , named chief of the Gestapo by Himmler on 22 April 1934 , also continued as head of the SD .
Hitler decided on 21 June that Röhm and the SA leadership had to be eliminated . He sent Göring to Berlin on 29 June , to meet with Himmler and Heydrich to plan the action . Hitler took charge in Munich , where Röhm was arrested ; he gave Röhm the choice to commit suicide or be shot . When Röhm refused to kill himself , he was shot dead by two SS officers . Between 85 and 200 members of the SA leadership and other political adversaries , including Gregor Strasser , were killed between 30 June and 2 July 1934 in these actions , known as the Night of the Long Knives . With the SA thus neutralised , the SS became an independent organisation answerable only to Hitler on 20 July 1934 . Himmler 's title of Reichsführer @-@ SS became the highest formal SS rank , equivalent to a field marshal in the army . The SA was converted into a sports and training organisation .
On 15 September 1935 , Hitler presented two laws — known as the Nuremberg Laws — to the Reichstag . The laws banned marriage between non @-@ Jewish and Jewish Germans and forbade the employment of non @-@ Jewish women under the age of 45 in Jewish households . The laws also deprived so @-@ called " non @-@ Aryans " of the benefits of German citizenship . These laws were among the first race @-@ based measures instituted by the Third Reich .
Himmler and Heydrich wanted to extend the power of the SS ; thus , they urged Hitler to form a national police force overseen by the SS , to guard Nazi Germany against its many enemies at the time — real and imagined . Interior Minister Frick also wanted a national police force , but one controlled by him , with Kurt Daluege as his police chief . Hitler left it to Himmler and Heydrich to work out the arrangements with Frick . Himmler and Heydrich had greater bargaining power , as they were allied with Frick 's old enemy , Göring . Heydrich drew up a set of proposals and Himmler sent him to meet with Frick . An angry Frick then consulted with Hitler , who told him to agree to the proposals . Frick acquiesced , and on 17 June 1936 Hitler decreed the unification of all police forces in the Reich , and named Himmler Chief of German Police . In this role , Himmler was still nominally subordinate to Frick . In practice , however , the police was now effectively a division of the SS , and hence independent of Frick 's control . This move gave Himmler operational control over Germany 's entire detective force . He also gained authority over all of Germany 's uniformed law enforcement agencies , which were amalgamated into the new Ordnungspolizei ( Orpo : " order police " ) , which became a branch of the SS under Daluege .
Shortly thereafter , Himmler created the Kriminalpolizei ( Kripo : criminal police ) as the umbrella organisation for all criminal investigation agencies in Germany . The Kripo was merged with the Gestapo into the Sicherheitspolizei ( SiPo : security police ) , under Heydrich 's command . In September 1939 , following the outbreak of World War II , Himmler formed the SS @-@ Reichssicherheitshauptamt ( RSHA : Reich Main Security Office ) to bring the SiPo ( which included the Gestapo and Kripo ) and the SD together under one umbrella . He again placed Heydrich in command .
Under Himmler 's leadership , the SS developed its own military branch , the SS @-@ Verfügungstruppe ( SS @-@ VT ) , which later evolved into the Waffen @-@ SS . Nominally under the authority of Himmler , the Waffen @-@ SS developed a fully militarised structure of command and operations . It grew from three regiments to over 38 divisions during World War II , serving alongside the Heer ( army ) , but never being formally part of it .
In addition to his military ambitions , Himmler established the beginnings of a parallel economy under the umbrella of the SS . To this end , administrator Oswald Pohl set up the Deutsche Wirtschaftsbetriebe ( German Economic Enterprise ) in 1940 . Under the auspices of the SS Economy and Administration Head Office , this holding company owned housing corporations , factories , and publishing houses . Pohl was unscrupulous and quickly exploited the companies for personal gain . In contrast , Himmler was honest in matters of money and business .
In 1938 , as part of his preparations for war , Hitler ended the German alliance with China , and entered into an agreement with the more modern Japan . That same year , Austria was unified with Nazi Germany in the Anschluss , and the Munich Agreement gave Nazi Germany control over the Sudetenland , part of Czechoslovakia . Hitler 's primary motivations for war included obtaining additional Lebensraum ( " living space " ) for the Germanic peoples , who were considered racially superior according to Nazi ideology . A second goal was the elimination of those considered racially inferior , particularly the Jews and Slavs , from territories controlled by the Reich . From 1933 to 1938 , hundreds of thousands of Jews emigrated to the United States , Palestine , Great Britain , and other countries . Some converted to Christianity .
= = = Anti @-@ church struggle = = =
Himmler saw a main task of the SS to be that of " acting as the vanguard in overcoming Christianity and restoring a ' Germanic ' way of living " as part of preparations for the coming conflict between " humans and subhumans " . Himmler biographer Peter Longerich wrote that , while the Nazi movement as a whole launched itself against Jews and Communists , " by linking de @-@ Christianisation with re @-@ Germanization , Himmler had provided the SS with a goal and purpose all of its own . " Himmler was vehemently opposed to Christian sexual morality and the " principle of Christian mercy " , both of which he saw as dangerous obstacles to his planned battle with " subhumans " . In 1937 , Himmler declared :
We live in an era of the ultimate conflict with Christianity . It is part of the mission of the SS to give the German people in the next half century the non @-@ Christian ideological foundations on which to lead and shape their lives . This task does not consist solely in overcoming an ideological opponent but must be accompanied at every step by a positive impetus : in this case that means the reconstruction of the German heritage in the widest and most comprehensive sense .
= = World War II = =
When Hitler and his army chiefs asked for a pretext for the invasion of Poland in 1939 , Himmler , Heydrich , and Heinrich Müller masterminded and carried out a false flag project code @-@ named Operation Himmler . German soldiers dressed in Polish uniforms undertook border skirmishes that deceptively suggested Polish aggression against Germany . The incidents were then used in Nazi propaganda to justify the invasion of Poland , the opening event of World War II . At the beginning of the war against Poland , Hitler authorised the killing of Polish civilians , including Jews and ethnic Poles . The Einsatzgruppen ( SS task forces ) had been originally formed by Heydrich to secure government papers and offices in areas taken over by Germany before World War II . Authorised by Hitler and under the direction of Himmler and Heydrich , the Einsatzgruppen units — now repurposed as death squads — followed the Heer ( army ) into Poland , and by the end of 1939 they had murdered some 65 @,@ 000 intellectuals and other civilians . Militias and Heer units also took part in these killings . Under Himmler 's orders via the RSHA , these squads were also tasked with rounding up Jews and others for placement in ghettos and concentration camps .
Germany subsequently invaded Denmark and Norway , the Netherlands , and France , and began bombing Great Britain in preparation for an invasion . On 21 June 1941 , the day before invasion of the Soviet Union , Himmler commissioned the preparation of the Generalplan Ost ( General Plan for the East ) ; the plan was finalised in July 1942 . It called for the Baltic States , Poland , western Ukraine , and Byelorussia to be conquered and resettled by ten million German citizens . The current residents — some 31 million people — would be expelled further east , starved , or used for forced labour . The plan would have extended the border of Germany a thousand kilometres to the east ( 620 miles ) . Himmler expected that it would take twenty to thirty years to complete the plan , at a cost of 67 billion Reichsmarks . Himmler stated openly : " It is a question of existence , thus it will be a racial struggle of pitiless severity , in the course of which 20 to 30 million Slavs and Jews will perish through military actions and crises of food supply . "
Himmler declared that the war in the east was a pan @-@ European crusade to defend the traditional values of old Europe from the " Godless Bolshevik hordes " . Constantly struggling with the Wehrmacht for recruits , Himmler solved this problem through the creation of Waffen @-@ SS units composed of Germanic folk groups taken from the Balkans and eastern Europe . Equally vital were recruits from among the Germanic considered peoples from northern and western Europe in the Netherlands , Norway , Belgium , Denmark and Finland . Spain and Italy also provided men for Waffen @-@ SS units . Among western countries , the number of volunteers varied from a high of 25 @,@ 000 from the Netherlands to 300 each from Sweden and Switzerland . From the east , the highest number of men came from Lithuania ( 50 @,@ 000 ) and the lowest from Bulgaria ( 600 ) . After 1943 most men from the east were conscripts . The performance of the eastern Waffen @-@ SS units was , as a whole , sub @-@ standard .
In late 1941 , Hitler named Heydrich as Deputy Reich Protector of the newly established Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia . Heydrich began to racially classify the Czechs , deporting many to concentration camps . Members of a swelling resistance were shot , earning Heydrich the nickname " the Butcher of Prague " . This appointment strengthened the collaboration between Himmler and Heydrich , and Himmler was proud to have SS control over a state . Despite having direct access to Hitler , Heydrich 's loyalty to Himmler remained firm .
With Hitler 's approval , Himmler re @-@ established the Einsatzgruppen in the lead @-@ up to the planned invasion of the Soviet Union . In March 1941 , Hitler addressed his army leaders , detailing his intention to smash the Soviet Empire and destroy the Bolshevik intelligentsia and leadership . His special directive , the " Guidelines in Special Spheres re Directive No. 21 ( Operation Barbarossa ) " , read : " In the operations area of the army , the Reichsführer @-@ SS has been given special tasks on the orders of the Führer , in order to prepare the political administration . These tasks arise from the forthcoming final struggle of two opposing political systems . Within the framework of these tasks , the Reichsführer @-@ SS acts independently and on his own responsibility . " Hitler thus intended to prevent internal friction like that occurring earlier in Poland in 1939 , when several German Army generals had attempted to bring Einsatzgruppen leaders to trial for the murders they had committed .
Following the army into the Soviet Union , the Einsatzgruppen rounded up and killed Jews and others deemed undesirable by the Nazi state . Hitler was sent frequent reports . In addition , 2 @.@ 8 million Soviet prisoners of war died of starvation , mistreatment or executions in just eight months of 1941 – 42 . As many as 500 @,@ 000 Soviet prisoners of war died or were executed in Nazi concentration camps over the course of the war ; most of them were shot or gassed . By early 1941 , following Himmler 's orders , ten concentration camps had been constructed in which inmates were subjected to forced labour . Jews from all over Germany and the occupied territories were deported to the camps or confined to ghettos . As the Germans were pushed back from Moscow in December 1941 , signalling that the invasion of the Soviet Union had failed , Hitler and other Nazi officials realised that mass deportations to the east would no longer be possible . As a result , instead of deportation , many Jews in Europe were destined for death .
= = The Holocaust = =
Nazi racial policies , including the notion that people who were racially inferior had no right to live , date back to the earliest days of the party ; Hitler discusses this in Mein Kampf . Somewhere around the time of the German declaration of war on the United States in December 1941 , Hitler finally resolved that the Jews of Europe were to be " exterminated " . Heydrich arranged a meeting , held on 20 January 1942 at Wannsee , a suburb of Berlin . Attended by top Nazi officials , it was used to outline the plans for the " final solution to the Jewish question " . Heydrich detailed how those Jews able to work would be worked to death ; those unable to work would be killed outright . Heydrich calculated the number of Jews to be killed at 11 million , and told the attendees that Hitler had placed Himmler in charge of the plan .
In June 1942 , Heydrich was assassinated in Prague in an operation led by Jozef Gabčík and Jan Kubiš , members of Czechoslovakia 's army @-@ in @-@ exile who had been trained by the British Special Operations Executive . During the two funeral services , Himmler — the chief mourner — took charge of Heydrich 's two young sons , and he gave the eulogy in Berlin . On 9 June , after discussions with Himmler and Karl Hermann Frank , Hitler ordered brutal reprisals for Heydrich 's death . Over 13 @,@ 000 people were arrested , and the village of Lidice was razed to the ground ; its male inhabitants and all adults in the village of Ležáky were murdered . At least 1 @,@ 300 people were executed by firing squads . Himmler took over leadership of the RSHA and stepped up the pace of the killing of Jews in Aktion Reinhard ( Operation Reinhard ) , named in Heydrich 's honour . He ordered the Aktion Reinhard camps — the first extermination camps — to be constructed at Bełżec , Sobibór , and Treblinka .
Initially the victims were killed with gas vans or by firing squad , but these methods proved impracticable for an operation of this scale . In August 1941 , Himmler attended the shooting of 100 Jews at Minsk . Nauseated and shaken by the experience , he was concerned about the impact such actions would have on the mental health of his SS men . He decided that alternate methods of killing should be found . On his orders , by early 1942 the camp at Auschwitz had been greatly expanded , including the addition of gas chambers , where victims were killed using the pesticide Zyklon B. By the end of the war , at least 5 @.@ 5 million Jews had been killed by the Nazi regime ; most estimates range closer to six million . Himmler visited the camp at Sobibór in early 1943 , by which time 250 @,@ 000 people had been killed at that location alone . After witnessing a gassing , he gave 28 people promotions , and ordered the operation of the camp to be wound down . In a revolt that October , prisoners killed most of the guards and SS personnel , and 300 prisoners escaped . Two hundred managed to get away ; some joined partisan units operating in the area . The remainder were killed . The camp was dismantled by December 1943 .
Himmler was a main architect of the Holocaust , using his deep belief in the racist Nazi ideology to justify the murder of millions of victims . The Nazis planned to kill Polish intellectuals and restrict non @-@ Germans in the General Government and conquered territories to a fourth @-@ grade education . The Nazis wanted to breed a master race of racially pure Nordic Aryans in Germany . As an agronomist and farmer Himmler was acquainted with the principles of selective breeding , which he proposed to apply to humans . He believed that he could engineer the German populace , for example , through eugenics , to be Nordic in appearance within several decades of the end of the war .
= = = Posen speech = = =
On 4 October 1943 , during a secret meeting with top SS officials in the city of Poznań ( Posen ) , and on 6 October 1943 , in a speech to the party elite — the Gau and Reich leaders — Himmler referred explicitly to the " extermination " ( German : Ausrottung ) of the Jewish people . A translated excerpt from the speech of 4 October reads :
I also want to refer here very frankly to a very difficult matter . We can now very openly talk about this among ourselves , and yet we will never discuss this publicly . Just as we did not hesitate on 30 June 1934 , to perform our duty as ordered and put comrades who had failed up against the wall and execute them , we also never spoke about it , nor will we ever speak about it . Let us thank God that we had within us enough self @-@ evident fortitude never to discuss it among us , and we never talked about it . Every one of us was horrified , and yet every one clearly understood that we would do it next time , when the order is given and when it becomes necessary .
I am now referring to the evacuation of the Jews , to the extermination of the Jewish People . This is something that is easily said : ' The Jewish People will be exterminated ' , says every party member , ' this is very obvious , it is in our program — elimination of the Jews , extermination , a small matter . ' And then they turn up , the upstanding 80 million Germans , and each one has his decent Jew . They say the others are all swines , but this particular one is a splendid Jew . But none has observed it , endured it . Most of you here know what it means when 100 corpses lie next to each other , when there are 500 or when there are 1 @,@ 000 . To have endured this and at the same time to have remained a decent person — with exceptions due to human weaknesses — has made us tough , and is a glorious chapter that has not and will not be spoken of . Because we know how difficult it would be for us if we still had Jews as secret saboteurs , agitators and rabble @-@ rousers in every city , what with the bombings , with the burden and with the hardships of the war . If the Jews were still part of the German nation , we would most likely arrive now at the state we were at in 1916 and ' 17 ...
Hitler 's motivation for authorising Himmler 's speeches was to ensure that all party leaders were made aware of these plans and actions . Thus , it would be impossible for them to later deny knowledge of the killings . Because the Allies had indicated that they were going to pursue criminal charges for German war crimes , Hitler tried to gain the loyalty and silence of his subordinates by making them all parties to the planned genocide .
= = = Germanization = = =
As Reich Commissioner for the Consolidation of German Nationhood ( RKFDV ) with the incorporated VoMi Himmler was deeply involved in the Germanization program for the East , particularly Poland . As laid out in the General Plan for the East , the aim was to enslave , expel or exterminate the native population and to make Lebensraum ( " living space " ) for Volksdeutsche ( ethnic Germans ) . He continued his plans to colonise the east , even when many Germans were reluctant to relocate there , and despite negative effects on the war effort .
Himmler 's racial groupings began with the Volksliste , the classification of people deemed of German blood . These included Germans who had collaborated with Germany before the war , but also those who considered themselves German but had been neutral ; those who were partially " Polonized " but " Germanizable " ; and Germans who were of Polish nationality . Himmler ordered that those who refused to be classified as ethnic Germans should be deported to concentration camps , have their children taken away , or be assigned to forced labour . Himmler 's belief that " it is in the nature of German blood to resist " led to his conclusion that Balts or Slavs who resisted Germanization were racially superior to more compliant ones . He declared that no drop of German blood would be lost or left behind to mingle with an " alien race " .
The plan also included the kidnapping of Eastern European children by Nazi Germany . Himmler urged :
Obviously in such a mixture of peoples , there will always be some racially good types . Therefore , I think that it is our duty to take their children with us , to remove them from their environment , if necessary by robbing , or stealing them . Either we win over any good blood that we can use for ourselves and give it a place in our people , ... or we destroy that blood .
The " racially valuable " children were to be removed from all contact with Poles , and raised as Germans , with German names . Himmler declared , " We have faith above all in this our own blood , which has flowed into a foreign nationality through the vicissitudes of German history . We are convinced that our own philosophy and ideals will reverberate in the spirit of these children who racially belong to us . " The children were to be adopted by German families . Children who passed muster at first but were later rejected were taken to a ghetto in Łódź , where most of them eventually died .
By January 1943 , Himmler reported that 629 @,@ 000 ethnic Germans had been resettled ; however , most resettled Germans did not live in the envisioned small farms , but in temporary camps or quarters in towns . Half a million residents of the annexed Polish territories , as well as from Slovenia , Alsace , Lorraine , and Luxembourg were deported to the General Government or sent to Germany as slave labour . Himmler instructed that the German nation should view all foreign workers brought to Germany as a danger to their German blood . In accordance with German racial laws , sexual relations between Germans and foreigners were forbidden as Rassenschande ( race defilement ) .
= = 20 July plot = =
On 20 July 1944 , a group of German army officers led by Claus von Stauffenberg and including some of the highest @-@ ranked members of the German armed forces attempted to assassinate Hitler , but failed to do so . The next day , Himmler formed a special commission that arrested over 5 @,@ 000 suspected and known opponents of the regime . Hitler ordered brutal reprisals that resulted in the execution of more than 4 @,@ 900 people . Though Himmler was embarrassed by his failure to uncover the plot , it led to an increase in his powers and authority .
General Friedrich Fromm , commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Reserve ( or Replacement ) Army ( Ersatzheer ) and Stauffenberg 's immediate superior , was one of those implicated in the conspiracy . Hitler removed Fromm from his post and named Himmler as his successor . Since the Reserve Army consisted of two million men , Himmler hoped to draw on these reserves to fill posts within the Waffen @-@ SS . He appointed Hans Jüttner , director of the SS Leadership Main Office , as his deputy , and began to fill top Reserve Army posts with SS men . By November 1944 Himmler had merged the army officer recruitment department with that of the Waffen @-@ SS and had successfully lobbied for an increase in the quotas for recruits to the SS .
By this time , Hitler had appointed Himmler as Minister of the Interior and Plenipotentiary General for Administration ( Generalbevollmächtigter für die Verwaltung ) . In August 1944 Hitler authorised him to restructure the organisation and administration of the Waffen @-@ SS , the army , and the police services . As head of the Reserve Army , Himmler was now responsible for prisoners of war . He was also in charge of the Wehrmacht penal system , and controlled the development of Wehrmacht armaments until January 1945 .
= = Military commander = =
On 6 June 1944 the Western Allied armies landed in northern France during Operation Overlord . In response , Army Group Upper Rhine ( Heeresgruppe Oberrhein ) group was formed to engage the advancing US 7th Army ( under command of General Alexander Patch ) and French 1st Army ( led by General Jean de Lattre de Tassigny ) in the Alsace region along the west bank of the Rhine . In late 1944 , Hitler appointed Himmler commander @-@ in @-@ chief of Army Group Upper Rhine .
On 26 September 1944 Hitler ordered Himmler to create special army units , the Volkssturm ( " People 's Storm " or " People 's Army " ) . All males aged sixteen to sixty were eligible for conscription into this militia , over the protests of Armaments Minister Albert Speer , who noted that irreplaceable skilled workers were being removed from armaments production . Hitler confidently believed six million men could be raised , and the new units would " initiate a people 's war against the invader " . These hopes were wildly optimistic . In October 1944 , children as young as fourteen were being enlisted . Because of severe shortages in weapons and equipment and lack of training , members of the Volkssturm were poorly prepared for combat , and about 175 @,@ 000 of them lost their lives in the final months of the war .
On 1 January 1945 Hitler and his generals launched Operation North Wind ( Unternehmen Nordwind ) . The goal was to break through the lines of the US 7th Army and French 1st Army to support the southern thrust in the Ardennes offensive , the final major German offensive of the war . After limited initial gains by the Germans , the Americans halted the offensive . By 25 January , Operation North Wind had officially ended .
On 25 January 1945 , in spite of Himmler 's lack of military experience , Hitler appointed him as commander of the hastily formed Army Group Vistula ( Heeresgruppe Weichsel ) to halt the Soviet Red Army 's Vistula – Oder Offensive into Pomerania . Panzer general Heinz Guderian considered Himmler 's appointment " idiocy " and regarded the officers Himmler chose to organize the defense as " uniformly incapable of performing their allotted tasks " . Knowing that Himmler would need all the help he could get , Guderian appointed General Walther Wenck , an experienced staff officer , as his chief of staff . Himmler established his command centre at Schneidemühl , using his special train , Sonderzug Steiermark , as his headquarters . The train had only one telephone line , inadequate maps , and no signal detachment or radios with which to establish communication and relay military orders . Himmler seldom left the train , only worked about four hours per day , and insisted on a daily massage before commencing work and a lengthy nap after lunch . Operation Solstice , an attack from Pomerania against the northern flank of Marshal Georgy Zhukov 's 1st Belarusian Front , was launched on 16 February 1945 , but could make little headway against Pavel Alexeyevich Belov 's 61st Army and Semyon Bogdanov 's 2nd Guards Tank Army . Zhukov responded by redirecting two Soviet tank armies against the German forces . Within five days , tanks of the Red Army had reached the Baltic , trapping the German forces , who sought to escape by sea . Himmler was unable to devise any viable plans for completion of his military objectives . Under pressure from Hitler over the worsening military situation , Himmler became anxious and unable to give him coherent reports .
Hitler was unwilling to admit that his choice of commander had been inadequate . After an intense argument with Guderian , who insisted on a change of command of the Army Group Vistula , Hitler assigned Wenck to Himmler 's headquarters to take over command of a limited counter @-@ offensive ; Hitler then observed that it was not possible for him to move the troops needed for Guderian 's planned double pincer attack from neighbouring regions . When the counter @-@ attack failed to stop the Soviet advance , Hitler held Himmler personally liable and accused him of not following orders . Himmler 's tenure as a military commander ended on 20 March , when Hitler replaced him with General Gotthard Heinrici as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of Army Group Vistula . By this time Himmler , who had been under the care of his doctor since 18 February , had fled to a sanatorium at Hohenlychen . Hitler sent Guderian on a forced medical leave of absence , and he reassigned his post as chief of staff to Hans Krebs on 29 March . Himmler 's failure and Hitler 's response marked a serious deterioration in the relationship between the two men . By that time , the inner circle of people which Hitler trusted was rapidly shrinking .
= = = Peace negotiations = = =
In early 1945 , the German war effort was on the verge of collapse and Himmler 's relationship with Hitler had deteriorated . Himmler considered independently negotiating a peace settlement . His masseur , Felix Kersten , who had moved to Sweden , acted as an intermediary in negotiations with Count Folke Bernadotte , head of the Swedish Red Cross . Letters were exchanged between the two men , and direct meetings were arranged by Walter Schellenberg of the RSHA .
Himmler and Hitler met for the last time on 20 April 1945 — Hitler 's birthday — in Berlin , and Himmler swore total loyalty to Hitler . At a military briefing on that day , Hitler stated that he would not be leaving Berlin , in spite of Soviet advances . Along with Göring , Himmler quickly left the city after the briefing . On 21 April , Himmler met with Norbert Masur , a Swedish representative of the World Jewish Congress , to discuss the release of Jewish concentration camp inmates . As a result of these negotiations , about 20 @,@ 000 people were released in the White Buses operation . During the negotiations , Himmler falsely claimed that the crematoria had been built to deal with the dead from a typhus epidemic . He also claimed very high survival rates for the camps at Auschwitz and Bergen @-@ Belsen , even as these sites were liberated and it became obvious that his figures were false .
Two days later , Himmler met directly with Bernadotte at the Swedish consulate in Lübeck . Representing himself as the provisional leader of Germany , he claimed that Hitler would be dead within the next few days . Hoping that the British and Americans would fight the Soviets alongside the remains of the Wehrmacht , Himmler asked Bernadotte to inform General Dwight Eisenhower that Germany wished to surrender to the West . Bernadotte asked Himmler to put his proposal in writing , and Himmler obliged .
However , Göring sent a telegram a few hours earlier , asking permission to take over the leadership of the Reich — an act that Hitler , under the prodding of Martin Bormann , interpreted as a demand to step down or face a coup . On 27 April Himmler 's SS representative at Hitler 's HQ in Berlin , Hermann Fegelein , was caught in civilian clothes preparing to desert ; he was arrested and brought back to the Führerbunker . On the evening of 28 April , the BBC broadcast a Reuters news report about Himmler 's attempted negotiations with the western Allies . Hitler , who had long believed Himmler was second only to Joseph Goebbels in loyalty — calling Himmler " der treue Heinrich " ( the loyal Heinrich ) — flew into a rage about this apparent betrayal . Hitler told those who were still with him in the bunker complex that Himmler 's act was the worst treachery he had ever known and ordered his arrest . Fegelein was court @-@ martialed and shot .
By this time , the Soviets had advanced to the Potsdamerplatz , only 300 m ( 330 yd ) from the Reich Chancellery , and were preparing to storm the Chancellery . This report , combined with Himmler 's treachery , prompted Hitler to write his last will and testament . In the testament , completed on 29 April — one day prior to his suicide — Hitler declared both Himmler and Göring to be traitors . He stripped Himmler of all of his party and state offices and expelled him from the Nazi Party .
Hitler named Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz as his successor . Himmler met Dönitz in Flensburg and offered himself as second @-@ in @-@ command . He maintained that he was entitled to a position in Dönitz ' interim government as Reichsführer @-@ SS , believing the SS would be in a good position to restore and maintain order after the war . Dönitz repeatedly rejected Himmler 's overtures , and initiated peace negotiations with the Allies . He wrote a letter on 6 May — two days before the German Instrument of Surrender — formally dismissing Himmler from all his posts .
= = Capture and suicide = =
Rejected by his former comrades and hunted by the Allies , Himmler attempted to go into hiding . He had not made extensive preparations for this , but he had equipped himself with a forged paybook under the name of Sergeant Heinrich Hitzinger . With a small band of companions , he headed south on 11 May to Friedrichskoog , without a final destination in mind . They continued on to Neuhaus , where the group split up . On May 21 , Himmler and two aides were stopped and detained at a checkpoint set up by former Soviet POWs . Over the following two days , he was moved around to several camps and was brought to the British 31st Civilian Interrogation Camp near Lüneburg , on 23 May .
The duty officer , Captain Thomas Selvester , began a routine interrogation . Himmler admitted who he was , and Selvester had the prisoner searched . Himmler was taken to the headquarters of the Second British Army in Lüneburg , where Doctor Wells conducted a medical exam on him . The doctor attempted to examine the inside of Himmler 's mouth , but the prisoner was reluctant to open it and jerked his head away . Himmler then bit into a hidden cyanide pill and collapsed onto the floor . He was dead within 15 minutes . Shortly afterward , Himmler 's body was buried in an unmarked grave near Lüneburg . The grave 's location remains unknown .
= = Mysticism and symbolism = =
Himmler was interested in mysticism and the occult from an early age . He tied this interest into his racist philosophy , looking for proof of Aryan and Nordic racial superiority from ancient times . He promoted a cult of ancestor worship , particularly among members of the SS , as a way to keep the race pure and provide immortality to the nation .
Viewing the SS as an " order " along the lines of the Teutonic Knights , he had them take over the Church of the Teutonic Order in Vienna in 1939 . He began the process of replacing Christianity with a new moral code that rejected humanitarianism and challenged the Christian concept of marriage . The Ahnenerbe , a research society founded by Himmler in 1935 , conducted research all over the globe to look for proof of the superiority and ancient origins of the Germanic race .
All regalia and uniforms of Nazi Germany , particularly those of the SS , used symbolism in their design . The stylized lightning bolt logo of the SS was chosen in 1932 . The logo is a pair of runes from a set of 18 Armanen runes created by Guido von List in 1906 . The ancient Sowilō rune originally symbolized the sun , but was renamed as " Sig " ( victory ) in List 's iconography . Himmler modified a variety of existing customs to emphasise the elitism and central role of the SS ; an SS naming ceremony was to replace baptism , marriage ceremonies were to be altered , a separate SS funeral ceremony was to be held in addition to Christian ceremonies , and SS @-@ centric celebrations of the summer and winter solstice were instituted . The Totenkopf ( death 's head ) symbol , used by German military units for hundreds of years , had been chosen for the SS by Schreck . Himmler placed particular importance on the death 's @-@ head rings ; they were never to be sold , and were to be returned to him upon the death of the owner . He interpreted the deaths @-@ head symbol to mean solidarity to the cause and a commitment unto death .
= = Relationship with Hitler = =
As second in command of the SS and then Reichsführer @-@ SS , Himmler was in regular contact with Hitler to arrange for SS men as bodyguards ; Himmler was not involved with Nazi Party policy @-@ making decisions in the years leading up to the seizure of power . From the late 1930s , the SS was independent of the control of other state agencies or government departments , and he reported only to Hitler .
Hitler 's leadership style was to give contradictory orders to subordinates and to place them into positions where their duties and responsibilities overlapped with those of others . In this way , Hitler fostered distrust , competition , and infighting among his subordinates to consolidate and maximise his own power . His cabinet never met after 1938 , and he discouraged his ministers from meeting independently . Hitler typically did not issue written orders , but gave them orally at meetings or in phone conversations ; he also had Bormann convey orders . Bormann used his position to control the flow of information and access to Hitler , earning him enemies , including Himmler .
Hitler promoted and practised the Führerprinzip . The principle required absolute obedience of all subordinates to their superiors ; thus Hitler viewed the government structure as a pyramid , with himself — the infallible leader — at the apex . Accordingly , Himmler placed himself in a position of subservience to Hitler , and was unconditionally obedient to him . However , he — like other top Nazi officials — had aspirations to one day succeed Hitler as leader of the Reich . Himmler considered Speer to be an especially dangerous rival , both in the Reich administration and as a potential successor to Hitler . Speer refused to accept Himmler 's offer of the high rank of SS @-@ Oberst @-@ Gruppenführer , as he felt to do so would put him in Himmler 's debt and obligate him to allow Himmler a say in armaments production .
Hitler called Himmler 's mystical and pseudoreligious interests " nonsense " . Himmler was not a member of Hitler 's inner circle ; the two men were not very close , and rarely saw each other socially . Himmler socialised almost exclusively with other members of the SS . His unconditional loyalty and efforts to please Hitler earned him the nickname of der treue Heinrich ( " the faithful Heinrich " ) . In the last days of the war , when it became clear that Hitler planned to die in Berlin , Himmler left his long @-@ time superior to try to save himself .
= = Marriage and family = =
Himmler met his future wife , Margarete Boden , in 1927 . Seven years his senior , she was a nurse who shared his interest in herbal medicine and homoeopathy , and was part owner of a small private clinic . They were married in July 1928 , and their only child , Gudrun , was born on 8 August 1929 . The couple were also foster parents to a boy named Gerhard von Ahe , son of an SS officer who had died before the war . Margarete sold her share of the clinic and used the proceeds to buy a plot of land in Waldtrudering , near Munich , where they erected a prefabricated house . Himmler was constantly away on party business , so his wife took charge of their efforts — mostly unsuccessful — to raise livestock for sale . They also owned a dog , Töhle . After the Nazis seized power the family moved first to Möhlstrasse in Munich , and in 1934 to Lake Tegern , where they bought a house . Himmler also later obtained a large house in the Berlin suburb of Dahlem , free of charge , as an official residence . The couple saw little of each other as Himmler became totally absorbed by work . The relationship was strained . The couple did unite for social functions ; they were frequent guests at the Heydrich home . Margarete saw it as her duty to invite the wives of the senior SS leaders over for afternoon coffee and tea on Wednesday afternoons .
Hedwig Potthast , Himmler 's young secretary starting in 1936 , became his mistress by 1939 . She left her job in 1941 . He arranged accommodations for her , first in Mecklenburg and later at Berchtesgaden . He fathered two children with her : a son , Helge ( born 15 February 1942 ) and a daughter , Nanette Dorothea ( born 20 July 1944 at Berchtesgaden ) . Margarete , by then living in Gmund with her daughter , learned of the relationship sometime in 1941 ; she and Himmler were already separated , and she decided to tolerate the relationship for the sake of her daughter . Working as a nurse for the German Red Cross during the war , Margarete was appointed supervisor in Military District III ( Berlin @-@ Brandenburg ) . Himmler was close to his first daughter , Gudrun , whom he nicknamed Püppi ( " dolly " ) ; he phoned her every few days and visited as often as he could .
Margarete 's diaries reveal that Gerhard had to leave the National Political Educational Institute in Berlin because of poor results . At the age of 16 he joined the SS in Brno and shortly afterwards went " into battle " , He was captured by the Russians but later returned to Germany and lived in North Germany .
Hedwig and Margarete both remained loyal to Himmler . Writing to Gebhard in February 1945 , Margarete said , " How wonderful that he has been called to great tasks and is equal to them . The whole of Germany is looking to him . " Hedwig expressed similar sentiments in a letter to Himmler in January . Margarete and Gudrun left Gmund as Allied troops advanced into the area . They were arrested by American troops in Bolzano , Italy , and held in various internment camps in Italy , France , and Germany . They were brought to Nuremberg to testify at the trials and were released in November 1946 . Gudrun emerged from the experience embittered by her alleged mistreatment and has remained devoted to her father 's memory .
= = Historical assessment = =
Albert Speer said that though Himmler seemed pedantic and insignificant on the surface , he was a good decision maker , had a talent for selecting highly competent staff , and successfully inserted the SS into every aspect of daily life . Historian Peter Longerich observes that Himmler 's ability to consolidate his ever @-@ increasing powers and responsibilities into a coherent system under the auspices of the SS led him to become one of the most powerful men in the Third Reich .
Historian Wolfgang Sauer says that " although he was pedantic , dogmatic , and dull , Himmler emerged under Hitler as second in actual power . His strength lay in a combination of unusual shrewdness , burning ambition , and servile loyalty to Hitler . " Historian Peter Padfield opined that " Himmler ... appeared the most powerful man under Hitler . It is impossible to say whether he was in practice , and meaningless to ask , since he was never prepared to use his power directly to change the course of events ... "
Historian John Toland relates a story by Günter Syrup , a subordinate of Heydrich . Heydrich showed him a picture of Himmler and said , " The top half is the teacher but the lower half is the sadist . " Historian Adrian Weale comments that Himmler and the SS followed Hitler 's policies , without question or ethical considerations . Himmler accepted Hitler and Nazi ideology , and saw the SS as a chivalric Teutonic order of new Germans . Himmler adopted the doctrine of Auftragstaktik ( " mission command " ) , whereby orders were given as broad directives , with authority delegated downward to the appropriate level to carry them out in a timely and efficient manner . Weale states that the SS ideology gave the men a doctrinal framework , and the mission command tactics allowed the junior officers leeway to act on their own initiative to obtain the desired results .
According to British war cabinet minutes released in 2006 , Winston Churchill advocated Himmler 's assassination . In response to Himmler 's attempts to open peace overtures with the Allies in 1945 through Count Bernadotte , Churchill enquired if they should negotiate with Himmler and " bump him off later " . " Quite entitled to do so " , said Churchill . This suggestion met with some support from the British Home Office .
In 2008 the German news magazine Der Spiegel described Himmler as one of the most brutal mass murderers in history , and the architect of the Holocaust .
= = = Explanatory notes = = =
= = = = Printed = = = =
= Battle of Sant Esteve d 'en Bas =
The Battle of Sant Esteve d 'en Bas took place on 10 March 1695 in the Catalan front of the War of the Grand Alliance . It was fought between a column of French regular infantry under Brigadier Urbain Le Clerc de Juigné , governor of the nearby French @-@ occupied Castellfollit de la Roca , and 16 companies of Catalan miquelets and several armed peasants at the orders of Ramon de Sala i Saçala , the veguer of the town of Vic . Juigné 's force was in a punitive expedition to burn the village of Sant Esteve d 'en Bas , whose inhabitants had refused to pay war contributions to the French army , when it was attacked by the Catalan militia and nearly destroyed in two separate engagements .
The first and more bloody fight took place at the wood of Malatosquera and the bridge of Sant Roc , where the French lost 500 men killed or wounded . Defeated , Juigné and his remaining troops fled to Olot , where they entrenched themselves in a convent . The Catalans forced the French to surrender by setting the building on fire . At the slight cost of 7 men killed and 5 wounded , the miquelets and peasants under Sala i Saçala killed 260 French soldiers and took 826 prisoners . Juigné was among the first . This French defeat was followed , just a month later , by the blockade by Spanish troops , miquelets and armed peasants , of the French garrisons of Castellfollit and Hostalric , which the French command decided to demolish and evacuate on July under the impossibility of keeping both positions .
= = Background = =
Catalonia was one of the main fronts of the Nine Years ' War . However , lack of means and poor relations with the peasantry due to the Revolt of the Barretinas marked for the Spanish Viceroy of Catalonia , the Duke of Villahermosa , the early stage of the conflict . In 1689 the Admiral of Castile , Juan Gaspar Enríquez de Cabrera , said to the Spanish Council of State that " the best relief that Catalonia can have are the outer capabilities , what would be done from Flanders , from Milan and from Navarre " . The French army under the Duke of Noailles , however , was also short of resources , and attrition warfare prevailed on the first four years of the war . In 1694 , Louis XIV committed more resources to his army in Catalonia , and Noailles managed to break the Spanish defenses , defeating the Spanish army at the battle of Torroella , on the banks of the Ter river , and seizing the ports of Roses , Palamós and Cadaqués , and the important city of Girona .
In 1695 the French command found that the inhabitants of the areas occupied by the French army were reluctant to pay war contributions and started to oppose an organized and growingly successful resistance . During the winter of 1694 @-@ 1695 , the inhabitants of Calella repelled a punishment force of 800 or 1 @,@ 000 French soldiers from the Blanes garrison and killed between 60 or 100 of them . French troops were also harassed by Catalan militia forces , the miquelets , who laid ambushes to Noailles ' forces from woods and heights . One of the most effective leaders of the miquelets was Captain Ramon de Sala i Saçala , the veguer of Vic , who achieved two victories over the French during the winter : on late December he overran a convoy on way to Hostalric , killing 25 French soldiers and taking 25 prisoners , and on 24 February he defeated a company of French dragoons at Navata , killing 7 of them and taking 28 prisoners and 32 horses .
One of the villages that refused to pay the French was Sant Esteve d 'en Bas . Despite a French party looted the place in punishment , the villagers still refused to obey . A force of 700 soldiers was dispatched on 28 December to arrest the aldermen , but they found the village abandoned and sacked it again , taking with them two priests as hostages . In March 1695 , as the locals were still rebellious , Monsieur de Saint @-@ Sylvestre , the French governor of Girona , ordered Brigadier Juigné , commander of the garrison of Castellfollit , to punish the village for the third time in command of 1 @,@ 300 chosen men from his own garrison and those of Figueres , Banyoles and Besalú . These troops were taken from the German Alsace regiment , the Swiss Manuel and Schellenberg regiments , and the French Royal @-@ Artillery regiment . Philippe de Courcillon , a famous French diarist , labeled them as " of the best troops of that country " .
= = Battle = =
The French force left Castellfollit 9 March on the evening , passed at some distance from Olot and spent the night at the palanca de Cudella , a ford on the Fluvià river . At dawn , some peasants and miquelets discovered them and sent a warning to Sant Esteve d 'en Bas . Women and children sought shelter in the surrounding mountains , while
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, the guru and his wife blessed him . Veda then explained to Uttanka the significance of the sights he had seen in Nagaloka . The two women engaged in weaving were Dhata and Vidhata ; they were creating the world and all its creatures . The threads were day and night . The wheel with twelve spokes was the year with 360 days . The six boys were the seasons . The giant and bullock were Indra and his elephant Airavata . Its dung was amrita ( elixir of life ) , which kept Uttanka alive in Nagaloka . The rider and horse in Nagaloka were Indra and the fire @-@ god Agni . Veda also explained to Uttanka that his friend , Indra , had helped him during his journey .
After handing over the earrings and taking leave of his guru , Uttanka went to Hastinapur , the kingdom of King Janamejaya . He resolved to teach a lesson to Takshaka who had caused him trouble . He informed Janamejaya that it was Takshaka who had killed his father Parikshit and advised Janamejaya to perform a snake sacrifice to exterminate the serpents . Uttanka was one of the rishis who participated in the Sarpa Satra yagna initiated by the king . Sarpa Satra was meant to draw all serpents to the sacrificial fire to certain death by the chanting of mantras . After the serpents started falling into the sacrificial fire , Takshaka was not to be found anywhere . Uttanka then recited the mantras with great vigour to draw Takshaka to the fire . In mortal fear , Taskshaka took shelter with Indra and got himself tied to the throne of Indra for protection . Uttanka , who realised that Takshaka had taken refuge with Indra , intensified his mantras to ensure that not only Takshaka but also Indra along with his throne were drawn to the fire . Indra freed the snake from the throne and escaped . However , when Takshaka was about to drop to death into the sacrificial fire , Astika , a young boy well versed in scriptures , son of the sage Jaratkaru intervened with Janamejaya . Astika ensured that the Sarpa Satra was stopped and the life of Takshaka was saved .
= = = Ashvamedhika Parva = = =
In the Ashvamedhika Parva the tale is narrated with some variation . Uttanka is described as a brahmin who belonged to the Bhrigu race that lived in a hermitage in the Maru desert . Uttanka was the disciple of the sage Gautama , whom he served for a hundred years . Uttanka was very dear to Gautama , who did not let him go even after Uttanka had completed his education . Uttanka grew old over time . One day Uttanka collapsed while carrying a huge bundle of firewood . Gautama 's daughter cried looking at the sight . When called by his guru , Uttanka accosted Gautama , and with tears in his eyes asked him why he alone had been retained in the hermitage when thousands of other disciples had been discharged after training . Gautama restored Uttanka 's youth , gave his daughter in marriage to Uttanka and then permitted him to leave .
Uttanka wanted to give the sage his gurudakshina . The guru told him to meet his wife Ahalya and inquire as to her wish . Ahalya suggested that he bring her the divine earrings of Madayanti , King Mitrasaha Saudasa 's wife , as gurudakshina . The king had turned into a cannibalistic rakshasa by a curse and was known as Kalmashapada . Uttanka met Kalmashapada , who approached Uttanka to eat him , but Uttanka stopped him and explained that he was duty @-@ bound to get Madayanti 's earrings as gurudakshina and that he , Uttanka , would return to Kalmashapada after fulfilling his obligation . Kalmashapada agreed and directed him to his wife , who refused to part with her earrings until Uttanka brought some token from Kalmashapada as proof of his consent . Upon returning from Kalmashapada with a token , Madayanti gave him the earrings . The queen warned Uttanka that her earrings were coveted by Nagas , Yakshas , rakshasas and the gods , who would try to steal them . Uttanka was therefore advised not to allow the earrings to touch the ground to prevent the snakes from taking possession of them .
On the way back to the ashram , Uttanka had tied the earrings in a deerskin . While travelling , he stopped and climbed a tree to pluck some fruit for his refreshment . He tied the deerskin to a branch , but the deerskin became untied and the earrings fell on the ground . A snake immediately got hold of the earrings and vanished into an ant @-@ hill . In grief , Uttanka fell from the tree . For 35 days , he dug the ant @-@ hill with a stick to get the snake out and retrieve the earrings . The earth began to shake due to the repeated strikes . At that time , Indra – riding his chariot – saw Uttanka 's futile efforts . As in the Adi Parva , Indra used his Vajra to enable Uttanka to enter the beautiful Nagaloka . There , Uttanka saw a horse with the " tail which had black and white hair , a copper @-@ coloured muzzle , and eye of the same colour that seemed to flame forth in splendor " . The horse told Uttanka to blow from behind , as in the Adi Parva version . The horse was the fire god Agni who was the guru of Gautama , who had offered his help to retrieve the earrings . When Uttanka followed the directive of the horse , flames and smoke emerged from every pore of the horse and choked the dwellings of the snakes . Thus choked , the serpents , headed by Vasuki came out , worshipped Uttanka and surrendered the earrings and asked that they be pardoned . When Uttanka returned to the hermitage of Gautama to give the earrings to Ahalya , he narrated the sequence of events that occurred in procuring the earrings .
= = Meeting Krishna = =
The Ashvamedhika Parva narrates Uttanka 's meeting with the god Krishna . As Krishna was returning to his kingdom Dwarka , he noticed the wandering ascetic Uttanka . Uttanka met Krishna and asked for news . Krishna told about the devastation in the Kurukshetra War . Uttanka was agitated and was about to curse Krishna for not bringing about a compromise between the warring cousins Pandavas and Kauravas . Krishna explained the necessity of war for restoration of dharma and revealed his Vishvarupa form to Uttanka . The sage bowed to Krishna . Krishna told Uttanka to ask for a boon . Uttanka asked Krishna to grant him the boon of finding water whenever he was thirsty . Krishna granted the boon to Uttanka . Uttanka was the only other person other than Arjuna and Bhishma to get a divine vision of Krishna .
Wandering in the desert , the sage became thirsty and , hoping to get water , thought of Krishna , but instead , he found a naked Chandala ( an outcaste untouchable ) urinating and asking him to drink the urine . The Chandala was covered in mud and surrounded by filthy dogs . The Chandala repeatedly requested Uttanka to drink his urine . But when Uttanka refused , the Chandala disappeared . Then when Krishna appeared on the scene Uttanka complained that it was improper of him to send a Chandala to quench the thirst of a Brahmin . Krishna explained that he had requested Indra to give him amrita , but Indra was not willing to give it to mortals . Finally , Indra had relented and had told Krishna that he would offer Uttanka the amrita as a Chandala , provided the sage did not refuse it . Krishna had agreed to Indra 's condition . Krishna then informed Uttanka that his refusal to accept amrita from the Chandala was improper . However , Krishna promised to keep his boon of providing water to the sage . He then blessed Uttanka that rain clouds would appear at his bidding and bring rain showers in the desert . These clouds appear rarely , and in the desert rain clouds are still known as Uttanka ’ s clouds ( Uttanka Megha ) .
In another version of this event , it is said that , to test Uttanka , Krishna once appeared before him disguised as an untouchable hunter and offered him water which was polluted with urine . Uttanka rejected the offer as it was being offered by the hunter , an untouchable . This displeased Krishna who then appeared before Uttanka in his true form .
= = Other legends = =
The Vana Parva book of the Mahabharata narrates that an asura ( demon ) named Dhundhu lived under the sands of the desert of Ujjalaka , in Marudhanva . Dhundu terrorized the whole world . Upset by Dhundu 's action , Uttanka – whose ashram was in Ujjalaka – performed tapas ( austerities ) dedicated to Vishnu . Pleased , Vishnu told Uttanka that the Ikshvaku king Kulavalashva would slay the demon . The sage went to the king 's palace and recounted Vishnu 's prophecy . Kuvalasva and his sons went to the forest and killed the demon . As a result , Kulavalashva became known as Dhundhumara , the slayer of Dhundhu .
The Naradiya Purana narrates that Uttanka lived in an ashram in Ujjalaka . In his old age , he left for a pilgrimage and travelled to various temples . Once , the sage saw a hunter named Gulika stealing the golden plates of the temple of Vishnu at Sauvira . Gulika tried to kill the sage . Then Uttanka informed Gulika that the sin of murder would be to live through many births to expiate his sin . Hearing this the hunter was penitent and fell dead . Uttanka then sprinkled water from the holy Ganges on the hunter 's corpse , which restored Gulika who then attained Vaikuntha , the abode of Vishnu . As advised by Vishnu , Uttanka went to Badari , performed tapas and attained Vaikuntha himself .
= Nilsson Sings Newman =
Nilsson Sings Newman is an album of Randy Newman compositions sung by Harry Nilsson , with Newman on piano . The record was not a great commercial success , but it was critically praised , and helped Newman gain notice . It won a 1970 " Record of the Year " award from Stereo Review magazine , and remains a fan favorite .
Recorded over six weeks in 1969 , the album showcases Nilsson 's voice multi @-@ tracked in layers of tone and harmony . Its arrangements are otherwise spare and graceful . The LP record cover art is by Dean Torrence .
Re @-@ released on compact disc in 1995 , followed by a 30th anniversary CD in 2000 , the album has been called a studio masterpiece , and " the best exposition of the ballad in rock . "
= = Background = =
In 1969 , Nilsson 's album Harry ended with one of Newman 's songs : " Simon Smith and the Amazing Dancing Bear " . Years later , Nilsson told Paul Zollo that he was in awe of Newman writing so many songs , ones he thought were better than his own .
In 1968 , Ricky Nelson released his concept album Perspective , a move to expand his musical horizons . The album included songs by Newman , Nilsson and others woven together to tell the story of the interactions of a famous family ; author Kevin Courrier writes that this album may have been part of the inspiration for Nilsson Sings Newman .
= = Recording = =
On August 20 , 1969 , Nilsson and Newman began to record the album . After basic tracks were laid down , Nilsson spent six weeks overdubbing his voice to create layers and harmonies , line by line . As many as 118 overdubs were laid down for a single song .
Nilsson often reminds the listener that he is listening to the recording of a studio album . Nilsson 's voice in the control room is heard on several songs , instructing the recording engineer to add more echo or remove a voice . On the album 's final song " So Long Dad " , amid a multi @-@ Nilsson chorus of voices , Nilsson softly asks for " more first voice . " Louder , he counters himself by saying " actually I need more current voice . Forget the one that 's saying ' more first voice . ' "
Besides piano , other instruments were sometimes used in the studio , including bass drum , tambourine and various electronic keyboards . On the song " Cowboy " , Nilsson used electronic harpsichord to bring in a different concluding theme , quoting John Barry 's theme from the film Midnight Cowboy , an inside joke that referenced Fred Neil 's " Everybody 's Talkin ' " from the same film , a major success for Nilsson earlier that year .
Newman was , according to Nilsson , " tired of the album when we were finished making it . " " For him it was just doing piano and voice ... over and over . " Nilsson explained " once I got the take down , I knew what I was going to do with it later . He didn 't . " Newman said of his experience that he " was honored that a writer with Harry 's talent would choose to do an album of someone else 's songs . " Newman continued , " he was such a great singer , a virtuoso singer , really , and he could do so many things as a vocalist that I couldn 't do — like hold a note . "
A number of alternate takes and songs were recorded but left off the 1970 album . Two such songs were " Snow " and " Linda " . Newman wrote one song specifically for the album : " Caroline " , a straightforward love song .
= = Release and response = =
In February 1970 , the album was released by RCA Records . The cover art was completed by Dean Torrence , known for his teaming with Jan Berry to create the rock and roll duo Jan and Dean . Since Berry 's near @-@ fatal auto accident in 1966 , Torrence had become a graphic artist ; his sepia tone scene depicted Nilsson driving an old American car through the countryside with Newman in the back seat . The car is a 1938 Graham @-@ Paige four @-@ door sedan , rusty but working .
The audio equipment and record review magazine Stereo Review named Nilsson Sings Newman their album of the year . Even so , the album did not sell well , possibly because of the " idiosyncratic quality " of its ballads and the paucity of reviews . Newman said in an interview how he personally went to assess the sales of the album at a record store in Los Angeles . He asked a clerk ( who did not recognize him ) " do you have any Nilsson albums ? " and the clerk guided him through each one , describing its sales and whether he recommended it . He came to Nilsson Sings Newman and said , " this is the one that nearly finished him off . " In one of the few reviews , the weekly magazine Cue in New York praised the artistry saying that " Nilsson was dealing with material as powerful as his own , but was free to concentrate entirely on his gifts as a performer . " Cue said that this album was free of the " overwhelmingly complex " personal expressions that came earlier from " Nilsson singing Nilsson , and Newman singing Newman " .
In April 1970 , Newman released his second album , 12 Songs , a collection featuring spare arrangements with simple instrumental parts underneath Newman 's vocals , Ry Cooder providing an economical backdrop of slide guitar . The song " Mama Told Me Not to Come " , written four years earlier for Eric Burdon , was delivered in stripped @-@ down form , and helped Newman establish himself as a composer of note . Newman appeared in solo engagements beginning in June 1970 on an NBC TV special hosted by Liza Minnelli . " Mama Told Me Not to Come " yielded a # 1 chart topper for Three Dog Night in July 1970 . Newman 's career was in high gear .
Nilsson 's next recording project was the soundtrack for a children 's fantasy film he conceived , titled The Point ! , finished in 1971 . His next popular release was Nilsson Schmilsson with its hit single " Without You " composed earlier by Badfinger .
= = Legacy = =
In 1993 , Newman prepared to record an entire album of Nilsson songs , a returning of the favor 25 years later . Newman had never before recorded a Nilsson song . After Nilsson 's death in January 1994 , the intended homage became a memorial , titled For The Love of Harry : Everybody Sings Nilsson . To leave room for participation by other artists , Newman sang only one song , " Remember ( Christmas ) " , a sad and dreamy tune which opened the album . Newman said , " I just hope Harry knew how great he was . He was always putting himself down , making fun of himself . "
Nilsson Sings Newman was re @-@ released as a CD in 1995 . In 2000 , the 30th anniversary release was padded with five additional tracks . One was " Snow " , unreleased in 1970 for lack of room on the LP , and four were alternate versions of songs that were on the original album . In 2000 , Ben Wener of The Orange County Register wrote that " Newman 's sly , dramatically structured impressionistic pop was ideally suited for Nilsson 's theatrical tone ... It 's not so much that Nilsson 's takes are better than Newman 's ... just refreshingly different — less wicked and vicious , more melancholy . "
Artists who have expressed a fondness for the album include Rufus Wainwright , Ron Sexsmith , Jellyfish , Adrian Belew and Shane Tutmarc . The exhaustive All Music Guide says of Nilsson Sings Newman that it is " a subtle , graceful masterpiece where the pleasure is in the grace notes , small gestures , and in @-@ jokes . " Once a listener has acquired a taste for Newman 's idiosyncratic songs , " this is as sweet as honey . "
= = Track listing = =
All music and lyrics by Randy Newman .
" Vine St. " – 2 : 50
" Love Story " – 3 : 39
" Yellow Man " – 2 : 16
" Caroline " – 2 : 05
" Cowboy " – 2 : 48
" The Beehive State " – 2 : 04
" I 'll Be Home " – 2 : 35
" Living Without You " – 2 : 35
" Dayton , Ohio 1903 " – 1 : 50
" So Long Dad " – 2 : 35
BMG 's 2000 CD re @-@ issue contains the following bonus tracks :
" Snow " – 2 : 29
" Love Story " ( alternate take ) – 3 : 24
" Cowboy " ( alternate take ) – 2 : 22
" I 'll Be Home " ( alternate take ) – 2 : 41
" Living Without You " ( alternate take ) – 2 : 40
= = Personnel = =
Harry Nilsson – vocals , additional instruments
Randy Newman – piano , electronic keyboards
= 1947 Sydney hailstorm =
The 1947 Sydney hailstorm was a natural disaster which struck Sydney , Australia , on 1 January 1947 . The storm cell developed on the morning of New Year 's Day , a public holiday in Australia , over the Blue Mountains , hitting the city and dissipating east of Bondi in the mid @-@ afternoon . At the time , it was the most severe storm to strike the city since recorded observations began in 1792 .
The high humidity , temperatures and weather patterns of Sydney increased the strength of the storm . The cost of damages from the storm were , at the time , approximately GB £ 750 @,@ 000 ( US $ 3 million ) ; this is the equivalent of around A $ 45 million in modern figures . The supercell dropped hailstones larger than 8 centimetres ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) in diameter , with the most significant damage occurring in the central business district and eastern suburbs of Sydney .
The event caused around 1000 injuries , with between 200 and 350 people requiring hospitalisation or other medical attention , predominantly caused by broken glass shards . The majority of severe injuries reported were suffered by people on Sydney 's beaches , where many were without shelter . The size of the hailstones were the largest seen in Sydney for 52 years , until the 1999 Sydney hailstorm caused A $ 1 @.@ 7 billion in insured damage in becoming the costliest natural disaster in Australian history .
= = Conditions and climatology = =
During the spring and summer , conditions along the east coast of Australia are highly conducive for the formation of hailstorms . The variation of air temperature in the atmosphere ; with warm and humid air close to the ground and colder air above it causes instability , and the cold upper atmosphere temperatures allow the precipitation to fall in solid form as hailstones . Since records began in 1791 , hailstorms in the month of January form approximately 13 % of the total number of hailstorms in the Sydney metropolitan area , and over 15 % of all events with ' large hail ' .
Hailstorms have a history of significant damage in Australia . Since records on insured losses began in 1967 , four hailstorms — Sydney in 1986 , 1990 and 1999 , as well as Brisbane in 1985 — have featured on the top ten list of most insured damages caused by a single Australian natural disaster . Hailstorms caused more than 30 % of all insured damages inflicted as a result of natural disasters in Australia during this period , and around three quarters of all hailstorm damage has occurred in New South Wales .
The conditions on New Year 's Day , 1947 were meteorologically sound for the formation of a storm . The day was hot and humid , with the maximum temperature recorded during the day being 32 @.@ 7 ° C ( 90 @.@ 9 ° F ) and humidity reaching 73 % . Many Sydneysiders travelled to the beaches along the coastline to benefit from the afternoon sea breeze . The general weather pattern for Sydney in summer is movement from the west to the east — from over the Blue Mountains to across the city and into the Tasman Sea .
= = Progression of the storm = =
Developing from the Blue Mountains to the south @-@ west of Sydney in the morning of 1 January 1947 , the storm cell was first identified at 10 : 00 am by weather observers at Mascot . The formation of storms in this region is not unusual , especially given the hot and humid conditions at ground level which causes atmospheric instability . However , the Bureau of Meteorology reported that the formation of the storm was different from most others , describing how " the underpart of the cloud was mottled and serrated or curtained , rather than mammilated , and looked angry black , while false cirrus tufts were discernible at the top " .
The storm cell dropped hailstones the size of billiard balls across the south @-@ western suburbs of Sydney . It moved directly over Liverpool at 2 : 25 pm , heading in a north @-@ east direction before slowly bending its path and travelling almost due east as it passed over the southern part of the central business district . " Large explosion @-@ like sounds " , presumed to be thunder by the Bureau , were heard around the Sydney Harbour Bridge . The sounds were described by the Bureau — who were based at Observatory Hill , next to the southwest pylon of the Bridge , in 1947 — as a " terrific noise " akin to " several trains ... passing over [ the Bridge ] " .
The storm intensified as it cut through the suburbs , and eventually unleashed its full power across the eastern suburbs of Sydney . The suburbs most seriously affected were Surry Hills , south of the central district , as well as Bondi and Rose Bay in the Waverley region which were struck at around 2 : 40 pm . The hailstorm pelted beach @-@ goers , particularly at Bondi Beach , and the situation was described by a Second World War veteran as " though [ he ] was back in the firing line overseas " . The hail in the coastal regions was described as being of similar size to a cricket ball .
= = Aftermath = =
The most damage was caused when the storm was its most intense , over the eastern suburbs of the city . According to the Bureau of Meteorology , over 5000 roofs were damaged in Waverley by the lumps of hail which weighed up to 1 @.@ 8 kg ( 4 @.@ 0 lb ) . No official cost total exists for the amount of damage caused by the 1947 hailstorm , however a Reuters article published in New York Times on 2 January estimated preliminary damage to be worth around US $ 3 million , equivalent to GB £ 750 @,@ 000 . This is approximately equal to A $ 45 million in modern figures , placing it well below the costliest natural disasters in Australian history ; this , given the severity of the storm cell , is attributable mainly to the relative inexpensiveness of buildings and other items of the era . More definite historical accounts exist for damage caused to certain buildings . The historic skylight which runs through the centre of the main Central railway station building was smashed , and the shards reportedly fell in sizes up to 26 cm2 ( 4 sq in ) on around 100 waiting passengers .
Convertible cars , in fashion at the time of the storm , also sustained severe damage , mainly punctures to the soft @-@ top roofs , and trams that ran through the eastern suburbs at the time also suffered damage . According to veteran meteorologist Richard Whitaker , " Sydney was staggered by the enormity of the incident , as there had not been even a remotely similar storm in living memory " . The problems were exacerbated due to a lack of building materials available for use in repair work , a result of the Second World War which had concluded only 18 months prior . This contributed to the delays which resulted in houses still covered with only temporary tarpaulins several years later .
Most of the approximately 1000 injuries were caused by the hailstones directly striking people or from flying debris , with the latter mainly from shattered windows . Of these , between 200 and 350 people required hospitalisation or other medical attention , however figures vary between different sources . The storm struck during the afternoon of a public holiday — New Year 's Day — which produced hot and humid conditions , and the beaches in the eastern suburbs were significantly populated . The beach @-@ goers were exposed to the large hail when the storm cell reached the coastline , and according to the front page report in The Sydney Morning Herald the following day , " [ f ] or nearly three hours , ambulance wagons travelled from the eastern suburbs beaches with the injured " . The 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) hailstones which fell during the 1947 event were not matched in Sydney for 52 years , until the 1999 hailstorm , which caused A $ 1 @.@ 7 billion in insured damage — the costliest natural disaster in Australian history .
= Little Butte Creek =
Little Butte Creek is a 17 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 27 km ) tributary of the Rogue River in the U.S. state of Oregon . Its drainage basin consists of approximately 354 square miles ( 917 km2 ) of Jackson County and another 19 square miles ( 49 km2 ) of Klamath County . Its two forks , the North Fork and the South Fork , both begin high in the Cascade Range near Mount McLoughlin and Brown Mountain . They both flow generally west until they meet near Lake Creek . The main stem continues west , flowing through the communities of Brownsboro , Eagle Point , and White City , before finally emptying into the Rogue River about 3 miles ( 5 km ) southwest of Eagle Point .
Little Butte Creek 's watershed was originally settled by the Takelma , and possibly the Shasta tribes of Native Americans . In the Rogue River Wars of the 1850s , most of the Native Americans were either killed or forced onto Indian reservations . Early settlers named Little Butte Creek and nearby Big Butte Creek after their proximity to Mount McLoughlin , which was known as Snowy Butte . In the late 19th century , the watershed was primarily used for agriculture and lumber production . The city of Eagle Point was incorporated in 1911 , and remains the only incorporated town within the watershed 's boundaries .
Large amounts of water are diverted from Little Butte Creek for irrigation , water storage , and power generation . Canal systems deliver the water to nearby Howard Prairie Lake and the Klamath River watershed , Agate Lake , and the Rogue Valley .
Despite being moderately polluted , the creek is one of the best salmon @-@ producing tributaries of the Rogue River . Coho and Chinook salmon migrate upstream each year ; however , several dams hinder their progress . A fish ladder was built in 2005 to help fish swim past a dam constructed in Eagle Point in the 1880s , but was destroyed by flooding just three months later . It was rebuilt in 2008 . Restoration of a 1 @.@ 3 @-@ mile ( 2 @.@ 1 km ) artificially straightened section of the creek in the Denman Wildlife Area was completed in 2011 .
= = Course = =
Little Butte Creek begins in the Cascade Range near Mount McLoughlin and Brown Mountain . It flows generally west over approximately 17 miles ( 27 km ) to its confluence with the Rogue River . There are two main forks of Little Butte Creek : the North Fork and the South Fork . The South Fork 's headwaters are at 5 @,@ 713 feet ( 1 @,@ 741 m ) above sea level , while the North Fork 's headwaters are considerably lower at 4 @,@ 638 feet ( 1 @,@ 414 m ) . They meet each other at 1 @,@ 647 feet ( 502 @.@ 0 m ) , creating the main stem itself . Little Butte Creek 's mouth is at 1 @,@ 204 feet ( 367 @.@ 0 m ) above sea level , giving the creek an overall gradient of approximately 25 feet per mile ( 4 @.@ 7 m / km ) .
The north fork begins at Fish Lake , near Mount McLoughlin . It flows west , collecting only minor tributaries , before merging with the south fork . The south fork 's headwaters are just south of the 7 @,@ 311 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 2 @,@ 228 m ) Brown Mountain . The Pacific Crest Trail passes through this area . It flows west , receiving Beaver Dam Creek and Dead Indian Creek on the left bank . Beaver Dam Creek drains approximately 28 square miles ( 73 km2 ) , and Dead Indian Creek has a watershed of about 22 square miles ( 57 km2 ) . The Dead Indian Soda Springs are on Dead Indian Creek , about a mile south of its confluence with the south fork . The south fork then turns northwest , collecting water from Lost Creek on the left , near the Lost Creek Bridge , built in 1919 . Lost Creek drains about 17 square miles ( 44 km2 ) .
Just after the two forks merge about 15 miles ( 24 km ) northeast of Medford , Little Butte Creek receives Lake Creek on the left bank , flowing through the community of the same name at river mile ( RM ) 17 or river kilometer ( RK ) 27 . Lake Creek drains 15 square miles ( 39 km2 ) . The main stem is crossed by South Fork Little Butte Creek Road in Lake Creek . Water is diverted here into the Joint System Canal for storage in Agate Lake and to provide irrigation for the Medford region . A few miles west , the creek receives Salt Creek and Lick Creek on the right bank , which have watersheds of 17 and 16 square miles ( 44 and 41 km2 ) , respectively . Oregon Route 140 crosses the creek at RM 10 ( RK 16 ) .
The creek turns southwest , flowing through Eagle Point . Four bridges span the stream in Eagle Point : East Main Street , Loto Street , and the Antelope Creek Bridge near RM 5 ( RK 8 ) , and Oregon Route 62 at RM 4 ( RK 6 ) . Near RM 3 ( RK 5 ) , Little Butte Creek receives Antelope Creek on the left . Antelope Creek is its largest tributary , draining 58 square miles ( 150 km2 ) . Agate Lake on Dry Creek is in the Antelope Creek watershed . At RM 1 @.@ 5 ( RK 2 @.@ 4 ) the creek is crossed by Agate Road . It then flows into the Rogue River 132 miles ( 212 km ) from its mouth at the Pacific Ocean . Little Butte Creek 's mouth is in the Denman Wildlife Area , approximately 3 miles ( 5 km ) southwest of Eagle Point , and about a mile southeast of Upper Table Rock .
= = = Discharge = = =
The United States Geological Survey monitored the flow of Little Butte Creek at seven different stream gauges : two on the south fork , three on the north fork , and two on the main stem . The first opened in 1908 at the newly constructed Fish Lake Dam on the north fork , while the last opened in 1927 near the Big Elk Ranger Station on the south fork . By 1989 , all seven were closed . The data recorded by the lowermost gauges of both forks and the main stem are listed below .
= = Watershed = =
Little Butte Creek drains approximately 373 square miles ( 966 km2 ) of southern Oregon . Elevations range from 1 @,@ 204 feet ( 367 @.@ 0 m ) at the mouth of the creek to 9 @,@ 495 feet ( 2 @,@ 894 m ) at the summit of Mount McLoughlin , with an average of 3 @,@ 496 feet ( 1 @,@ 066 m ) . Forest accounts for about 65 percent of the total area of the watershed , while 32 percent is farmland . The remaining three percent is within the Eagle Point city limits . Forty @-@ eight percent of the watershed is federally owned , 50 percent is privately owned , and Eagle Point accounts for the remaining two percent . Over 10 @,@ 000 people live within the watershed 's boundaries .
The region experiences a Mediterranean climate . Temperatures average from 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) in the summer to 20 ° F ( − 6 @.@ 7 ° C ) in the winter . The average precipitation in the area ranges from 19 inches ( 480 mm ) in the lower regions to over 50 inches ( 1 @,@ 300 mm ) in the upper reaches . July through October are the driest months , while December through April are the wettest . Thirty @-@ four percent of the surface runoff in the watershed is collected from rain , 31 percent from rain on snow , and 35 percent from snowmelt .
The two main geologic regions in the Little Butte Creek watershed are the High Cascades and the western Cascades . The western Cascades make up the western two thirds of the watershed , generally below 4 @,@ 800 feet ( 1 @,@ 500 m ) in elevation . Steep , rugged canyons are common in this region . The lower stretches of the watershed contain soils such as decomposed lavas , clay , and gravel . The High Cascades compose the eastern third of the watershed , including volcanoes such as Brown Mountain and Mount McLoughlin , and lava plateaus . In some places , streams descend over 300 feet per mile ( 60 m / km ) . Nearby watersheds include two Rogue River tributaries — Big Butte Creek to the north and Bear Creek to the south — and small Klamath River tributaries to the east .
As of 2003 , there were 581 water rights recorded in the watershed , with 394 of them related to irrigation . Four hundred sixty @-@ six water diversions were also recorded . In the summer , many streams are over @-@ appropriated , leading to frequent water shortages along the lower portion of the creek .
= = Flora and fauna = =
The flora in the Little Butte Creek watershed is predominately temperate coniferous forest , which makes up approximately 65 percent of the total area . The lower regions are covered with chaparral , and the upper regions by fir forests . The chaparral region is inhabited by oaks such as garry oak and California black oak , with an understory of buckbrush and manzanita . Coast douglas @-@ fir , sugar pine , ponderosa pine , California incense @-@ cedar , and white fir are the most common trees found in the mixed coniferous forest . Shasta red fir , white fir , and the noble fir grow in the higher elevations of the watershed . Mountain hemlock , lodgepole pine , Sitka mountain @-@ ash , and squashberry also grow in this region . Chinquapin can be found around Fish Lake . The most common species of plants above 6 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) near the tree line on Mount McLoughlin and Brown Mountain include whitebark pine , mountain hemlock , Coast Range subalpine fir , heather , and mountain heather .
Many species of birds have been spotted in the Little Butte Creek region . Twenty @-@ two species are known to breed in the chaparral region , including several species of wrens , blackbirds , and sparrows . The mixed coniferous forest is home to white @-@ headed woodpeckers , pygmy nuthatches , green @-@ tailed towhees , northern pygmy @-@ owls , Vaux 's swifts , winter wrens , and MacGillivray 's warblers . The American coot has also been spotted in several places along the creek . Williamson 's sapsuckers , black @-@ backed woodpeckers , gray jays , and hermit warblers frequent the higher elevations . The near @-@ threatened olive @-@ sided flycatcher and Cassin 's finch also live in this area . Eurasian three @-@ toed woodpeckers and Clark 's nutcrackers have been spotted near the tree line . The endangered Townsend 's big @-@ eared bat is known to live in the watershed .
Little Butte Creek is known to be one of the best salmon producing tributaries of the Rogue River , and is also one of only a few streams in the Upper Rogue watershed to support salmon populations . The most common anadromous fish inhabiting the creek include chinook and coho salmon , and sea @-@ run cutthroat trout . The Southern Oregon / Northern California Coast Coho Salmon Evolutionary Significant Unit is listed as threatened ( 2011 ) . Coho salmon are known to spawn in 46 miles ( 74 km ) of streams in the Little Butte Creek watershed . An estimated 35 @,@ 131 Coho salmon lived in the creek in 2002 . Resident fish include coastal cutthroat trout , sculpins , rainbow trout , and brook trout .
= = History = =
The Little Butte Creek area was originally settled by the Takelma , and possibly the Shasta tribe of Native Americans . The first non @-@ indigenous settlers arrived in the Eagle Point region in 1852 . Little Butte Creek was named by the early settlers for its close proximity to Mount McLoughlin ( also known as Snowy Butte ) , as was nearby Big Butte Creek . Due to conflicts with the Rogue River Indians , Major J. A. Lupton gathered 35 men from Jacksonville on October 8 , 1855 , and attacked the Native Americans near the mouth of Little Butte Creek , killing about 30 of them . Lupton was also killed , and eleven of his men were injured . On December 24 of the same year , Captain Miles Alcorn discovered and attacked a Native American camp on the north fork , killing eight . On Christmas the following day , another band of Native Americans were attacked near Little Butte Creek 's mouth ; some fled , while the rest were either captured or killed .
By the late 1850s , the land was primarily used for agriculture and lumber in the upper regions . A sawmill was constructed on the north fork in the 1870s . In 1901 , the Sunnyside Hotel was built by Alfred Howlett on the banks of the creek in Eagle Point . Eagle Point was later incorporated in 1911 , and remains the only incorporated town in the watershed . In 1917 , manganese ore was discovered near the confluence of South Fork Little Butte Creek and its tributary , Lost Creek . Mined nodules consisted of approximately 55 percent manganese and weighed up to 50 pounds ( 23 kg ) . Cinnabar was also discovered in the area . In 1922 , the 58 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 18 m ) Antelope Creek Covered Bridge was constructed on Antelope Creek . It was moved to Little Butte Creek in Eagle Point in 1987 .
= = = Diversions and dams = = =
Some of the water in the Little Butte Creek watershed is diverted to irrigate the Rogue Valley and to supplement Bear Creek , both roughly 15 miles ( 24 km ) to the southwest . In the late 19th century , a large number of orchards were planted near Ashland . They were initially irrigated by Bear Creek ; however , there was not enough water to satisfy the orchards ' needs . In 1898 , the Fish Lake Water Company was established to solve the problem . The company proposed the enlargement of Fourmile and Fish lakes by impounding Fourmile Creek and North Fork Little Butte Creek , respectively , and connecting them via the Cascade Canal . Construction of the temporary Fish Lake Dam began in 1902 . Around this time , construction of the Joint System Canal to the west also began . Construction of Fourmile Lake Dam started in 1906 , along with the Cascade Canal . A network of other small canals , such as Hopkins Canal and the Medford Canal , were also built in the Rogue Valley around this time . Fish Lake Dam was completed in 1908 , creating the 7 @,@ 836 @-@ acre @-@ foot ( 9 @,@ 666 @,@ 000 m3 ) reservoir .
The Cascade Canal was completed in 1915 , delivering about 5 @,@ 462 acre feet ( 6 @,@ 737 @,@ 000 m3 ) of water from Fourmile Lake in the Klamath River watershed 4 @.@ 5 miles ( 7 @.@ 2 km ) southwest to Fish Lake in the Rogue River watershed . The temporary Fish Lake Dam was also replaced by a permanent earthfill dam . It was later modified in 1922 and 1955 . In 1996 an auxiliary spillway was added . The dam stands 50 feet ( 15 m ) high and has a length of 960 feet ( 293 m ) .
In 1956 , the United States Bureau of Reclamation awarded a contract to Portland , Oregon @-@ based Lord Brothers to build the Deadwood Tunnel . The tunnel was finished in 1957 . Howard Prairie Lake was completed in 1958 , and is about 18 miles ( 29 km ) east of Ashland . Excess water is diverted from the South Fork , Beaver Dam Creek , and two of its tributaries 8 @.@ 6 miles ( 14 km ) south into the Deadwood Tunnel to supplement the lake and the surrounding regions . Dead Indian Creek is also diverted into Howard Prairie Lake . About 21 @.@ 4 cubic feet per second ( 0 @.@ 606 m3 / s ) annually , or about 16 @,@ 500 acre feet ( 20 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 m3 ) , was diverted into the Klamath River watershed between 1962 and 1999 .
The Howard Prairie Delivery Canal was completed in 1959 , along with Keene Creek Reservoir , Cascade Tunnel , and Greensprings Tunnel . Water from Howard Prairie Lake is diverted into the canal west to Keene Creek Reservoir , about 16 miles ( 26 km ) east of Ashland . Nearby Hyatt Reservoir also provides water . It is then piped through the mile long Cascade Tunnel to the Greensprings Power Plant , which generates about 18 megawatts of power . Afterward , the water is conveyed from the power plant 2 miles ( 3 km ) through the Greensprings Tunnel into Emigrant Creek , a tributary of Bear Creek . An average of approximately 38 @,@ 620 acre feet ( 47 @,@ 640 @,@ 000 m3 ) of water flows through the tunnel . The water eventually ends up in Emigrant Lake , about 8 miles ( 10 km ) southeast of Ashland , where it either continues along Bear Creek , or is diverted for irrigation .
= = = Butte Creek Mill = = =
The Butte Creek Mill , originally named Snowy Butte Mill , was built in 1872 on the banks of Little Butte Creek about 5 @.@ 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 9 km ) from its mouth . A diversion dam was built in the 1880s to provide water for the turbine that powers the mill . The dam was a damaging fish barrier in the watershed . In 2005 , the Rogue Basin Fish Access Team built a $ 250 @,@ 000 concrete fish ladder to allow fish to swim past the dam . A small weir made of boulders was built at the base of the ladder , creating a 9 @-@ inch ( 20 cm ) jump between the creek and the ladder ; however , the boulders were washed away in a severe storm just three months later , making the distance between them over 24 inches ( 61 cm ) . The weir was rebuilt in 2008 for about $ 122 @,@ 500 , with concrete instead of boulders .
The mill is now included on the National Register of Historic Places , and is the only gristmill in Oregon to still grind flour . It is also the oldest water @-@ powered gristmill west of the Mississippi River .
On Christmas morning , 25 Dec 2015 , the store had a fire and was considered a total loss . There are plans to rebuild . To assist in helping with the rebuild visit their website : buttecreekmill.com.
= = = Restoration = = =
Intense flooding occurred throughout the Rogue Valley in 1955 , and Little Butte Creek 's meanders in the Denman Wildlife Area between Eagle Point and the Rogue River were blamed for severe erosion . The 1 @.@ 3 @-@ mile ( 2 @.@ 1 km ) section of the creek was subsequently bulldozed and straightened in the late 1950s and early 1960s . The straightness forced water downward instead of outward like a typical creek , scouring the stream bed down to bedrock and creating an unsuitable habitat for wild salmon . In 2007 , a plan to divert the creek back into its old meanders was proposed . The $ 700 @,@ 000 project involved building engineered riffles and log jams and adding boulders , extending the creek by approximately 3 @,@ 500 feet ( 1 @,@ 100 m ) . It was completed in September 2011 .
= = Pollution = =
The Oregon Department of Environmental Quality ( DEQ ) has monitored Little Butte Creek for eight different parameters that affect water quality : temperature , oxygen saturation , pH , nutrients , bacteria , chemical contaminants such as pesticides and metals , turbidity , and alkalinity . Streams that exceed the standard level are then placed on the DEQ 303d list in accordance with the Clean Water Act . About 40 percent of the streams in the Little Butte Creek watershed were listed on the 2002 DEQ 303d list . The entire main stem exceeded the standard level for temperature , oxygen saturation , fecal coliforms ( bacteria ) , and turbidity . The lower 6 @.@ 5 miles ( 10 km ) of the North Fork were listed for high temperature and elevated levels of E. coli , while the upper region was affected by chlorophyll a and pH levels . The South Fork was listed for turbidity and temperature .
Overall , high temperature is the most common problem in the Little Butte Creek watershed . This is most likely caused by water diversion and depleted riparian zones . Approximately 53 percent of riparian zones in the watershed are damaged due to agriculture or deforestation , while 43 percent are classified as healthy . Another threat to healthy riparian zones are invasive blackberries , which crowd out native vegetation and provide little shade . The resulting higher water temperatures can be very harmful to anadromous fish . High concentration of bacteria is also an issue .
In 2003 , the Little Butte Creek Watershed Council rated the health of the Little Butte Creek watershed on a scale of 1 ( slightly degraded ) to 5 ( severely degraded ) . Overall , the watershed received 2 @.@ 95 , or moderately degraded . On the Oregon Water Quality Index ( OWQI ) used by DEQ , water quality scores can vary from 10 ( worst ) to 100 ( ideal ) . The average for Little Butte Creek at RM 1 @.@ 4 ( RK 2 @.@ 3 ) between 1998 and 2007 was 72 ( poor ) in the summer and 82 ( fair ) in the fall , winter , and spring .
= = Recreation = =
The Little Butte Creek watershed contains several points of interest . Popular activities in and around Fish Lake include fishing , swimming , and boating . Two campgrounds are on the banks of the lake : Doe Point and the Fish Lake Resort . Several trails in the area lead to the much larger Pacific Crest Trail . Two snowparks are on Oregon Route 140 .
The Eagle Point Golf Course is in the watershed , built in 1995 by the world @-@ renowned golf course architect Robert Trent Jones , Jr . Another course , Stone
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01 million viewers . This marked a decline from the first season premiere , which had been viewed by 2 @.@ 5 million viewers , but it marked an increase from the first season finale , which was watched by only 1 @.@ 77 million viewers . " It Came from the Nightospere " also marked gains when compared to the same timeslot a year prior ; for instance , 732 @,@ 000 kids aged 6 – 11 watched the episode , an increase by 35 percent when compared to the previous year . The season hit a high with its third episode , " Loyalty to the King " , which was watched by 2 @.@ 541 million viewers . The season ended with " Heat Signature " , which was viewed by 1 @.@ 975 million viewers . The season was originally supposed to end with the two @-@ parter " Mortal Folly " / " Mortal Recoil " , but due to a scheduling conflict , " Heat Signature " was the last episode of the season aired .
= = = Reviews and accolades = = =
The season 's first episode , " It Came from the Nightosphere " was largely well received by critics . Tyler Foster of DVD Talk called it " a pretty decent example of all the notes the show can hit . " He was particularly pleased with the way " the rift between Marceline and her dad is handled with a nice seriousness that fits right in alongside absurd gags about penguins " . He also noted that " any episode that includes a song is a plus in my book . " It was also called the " real highlight " of the eponymous DVD release by Charles Webb of MTV Geek . IGN writer Matt Fowler later referred to the episode as a " classic " . The episode was later nominated for a 2011 Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Short @-@ format Animated Program , although it did not win .
The series was a candidate for the " Best and Worst of 2010 " , a list compiled by the Bucks County Courier Times ; the series was under the " Best Animated TV Show " category . Patrick Broadnax of the Huntsville Examiner named the series one of " The Most Underrated Shows on Television " . He argued that , in its second season , the show was " shining as one of [ Cartoon Network 's ] best decisions ever . " He praised the spirit of the series , noting that it was reminiscent of the " charm that 90 's cartoon held so gracefully " . He concluded that the show was " goofy , colorful fun that should be able to put a smile on anyone 's face . " Tyler Foster of DVD Talk wrote that the season release was " highly recommended " . He praised that the season was able to " explor [ e ] and [ expand ] on everything that " was set up in the first season of the show . He specifically praised " Power Animal , " Death in Bloom " , " Crystals Have Power " , and " Her Parents " as the best episodes from the set . Foster was slightly critical of the visual presentation , noting that some aliasing was present , but felt that the commentaries were an added bonus .
The show itself was nominated for an Annie Award for Best Animated Television Production for Children . However , the series did not win . The episode " It Came from the Nightosphere " was nominated for a 2011 Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Short @-@ format Animated Program , although the episode did not win .
= = = Home media = = =
Warner Home Video released multiple DVDs , consisting of region 1 and region 2 formats . My Two Favorite People , It Came from the Nightosphere , Jake vs. Me @-@ Mow , Fionna and Cake , The Suitor , Princess Day , and The Enchiridion were created for region 1 markets containing some episodes from the second season . The full season set was released on June 4 , 2013 on DVD and Blu @-@ ray . All DVD releases can be purchased on the Cartoon Network Shop , and the individual episodes can be downloaded from both the iTunes Store and Amazon.com. On March 30 , 2014 , the second season of Adventure Time will be made available on the Netflix Instant Watch service for online streaming .
= = Episodes = =
= = DVD release = =
= 1987 Tampa Bay Buccaneers season =
The 1987 Tampa Bay Buccaneers season was a year of great change for the Tampa Bay Buccaneers ' organization in the National Football League . The season began with the hiring of former New York Giants and University of Alabama head coach Ray Perkins . Perkins had only needed three seasons to build the Giants into a playoff team , and it was hoped that he would be able to repeat the feat with the Buccaneers .
The Buccaneers possessed the first overall pick in the NFL Draft , and used it to select University of Miami quarterback Vinny Testaverde . The Buccaneers appeared changed and won four games early in the season , but they notably lost large leads in later games and fell from playoff contention after midseason . The season was marked by a 1987 players ' strike in which regular play was interrupted for a month , while the NFL owners fielded teams of replacement players .
= = Overview = =
Perkins brought discipline to a team that had been described as " the country club of the NFL " , and rebuilt the team with youth . Perkins claimed that the Buccaneers were more talented than the New York Giants team he had taken over in 1979 , and selected a then @-@ record 20 players in the 1987 NFL Draft . He improved their conditioning program , and instituted three @-@ a @-@ day practices . Perkins ' harsh style was in stark contrast to the laid @-@ back approach of his predecessor Bennett , of whom it was said that his " idea of team discipline was everyone wearing the same color uniform on game day " . Conditioning improvements included emphasizing free weights over Nautilus machines , to improve explosiveness . Players were also given pay incentives to work out , although Perkins expressed surprise that players should need extra incentive to improve their conditioning . The improved conditioning paid off early in the season : their opening @-@ week 48 – 10 win over the Atlanta Falcons still ( as of 2012 ) ranks as the most Buccaneer points scored in a game , matched only in Super Bowl XXXVII . The team had a 1 – 1 record when the season was disrupted by the 1987 players ' strike . Unlike in previous seasons , when players ' strikes stopped all play , the owners formed teams of replacement players to play the scheduled games . The Buccaneers had a 3 – 2 record when regular play resumed , and nearly beat a Chicago Bears team only one season removed from its Super Bowl victory . The game had been preceded by much media speculation over whether Bears star quarterback Jim McMahon would play . It was the first week since undergoing surgery after being dropped on his shoulder following a play the previous November that McMahon was in the Bears ' lineup , although Mike Tomczak remained the starter for the game . The Buccaneers took a 20 – 0 lead and dominated the game for three quarters . Late in the third quarter , McMahon came off the bench and sparked the Bears to a 27 – 26 win , their biggest comeback in team history . Two weeks later , Tampa Bay had a 28 – 3 fourth quarter lead over the St. Louis Cardinals . In what is now the third @-@ biggest comeback in NFL history , the Cardinals scored 4 touchdowns to win the game . The Buccaneers did not win again for the rest of the season . It was rare for an NFL team to fall into a season @-@ long losing streak following such a defensive collapse . Once the Buccaneers were out of the playoff picture , Perkins began to prepare Testaverde for the next season . Testaverde 's first start came on December 6 against the New Orleans Saints . His 369 yards on 22 completions set a record for an NFL debut , but his two early fumbles set up a Saints lead that the Buccaneers were not able to overcome . Tackle Ron Heller , dispirited by Coach Perkins ' confrontational attitude and three @-@ a @-@ day practices that he believed were causing unnecessary injuries to the players , got into a fight with Perkins at halftime of this game that led to his being traded to the Seattle Seahawks . In return , the Buccaneers received defensive lineman Randy Edwards and a 1989 6th @-@ round draft pick that was used to select linebacker Derrick Little . Neither made the Buccaneers ' squad . Heller went on to play seven more solid seasons . The Buccaneers finished the season with a 4 – 11 record . Their 3 – 4 division record placed them ahead of the 4 – 11 Detroit Lions for fourth place in the NFC Central . Ron Holmes had eight quarterback sacks despite appearing in only ten games . Ervin Randle , who was named a UPI Second Team All @-@ NFC linebacker , was the only Buccaneer to be singled out for postseason honors .
= = Offseason = =
= = = The Hiring of Ray Perkins = = =
Ray Perkins replaced Leeman Bennett as the third head coach in Buccaneers history . Expectations had been that owner Hugh Culverhouse would hire popular ex @-@ Tampa Bay Bandits coach Steve Spurrier , but Perkins was the only candidate interviewed . Perkins had been approached about the job two years earlier , but was not interested at the time . He was given the same title ( Head Coach and Vice @-@ President of Football Operations ) as the previous two coaches . He brought along seven of his Alabama assistants : linebackers coach Sylvester Croom , assistant coach John Bobo , running backs coach Rodney Stokes , defensive line coach Mike DuBose , strength coach Kent Johnston , head trainer Chris Smith , and defensive coordinator Joe Kines , who had previously been Charley Pell 's defensive coordinator with the Florida Gators . He rounded out his staff with Kansas City Chiefs secondary coach Doug Graber and receivers coach Richard Williamson , Buffalo Bills defensive coordinator Herb Paterra , SMU defensive coordinator Bill Clay , and Atlanta Falcons offensive line coach Larry Beightol . Perkins also overhauled the scouting staff , firing most of them ( including Jim Gruden , father of future Buccaneers coach Jon Gruden ) shortly after the draft . No reason was given , but some observers , most outspokenly Boston Globe columnist Will McDonough , felt that the Buccaneers ' office was staffed heavily with people whose main experience was in college football , and that the team suffered from a lack of NFL knowledge . Recently fired Falcons coach Dan Henning turned down the offensive coordinator position , as he had been trying to rebuild the Falcons and did not want to relive that experience with another team . Perkins had previously been hired as head coach of the New York Giants on the basis of his experience working with a losing franchise ( the New England Patriots ) that needed turning around . Perkins coached the Giants back to the playoffs , leaving four years later to succeed coaching legend Bear Bryant at the University of Alabama . Ironically , irritation over the 1982 players ' strike was a major factor in Perkins ' leaving the Giants , and became an issue he had to contend with again in 1987 . Frustration with what he saw as overregulation by the NCAA played a part in Perkins ' decision to return to the NFL . Along with $ 750 @,@ 000 a year for five years , Perkins was given free rein to run the Buccaneers however he wanted . Some players were enthusiastic about the Perkins hire . " Coach Perkins will bring in a sense of pride here , and that 's something we 've been missing " , said tackle Ron Heller . Others were upset with Perkins ' military @-@ style manner , saying that he " made playing football a miserable experience " .
= = = NFL Draft = = =
= = = = Draft Trades = = = =
The Buccaneers received a 2nd- and a 4th @-@ round draft pick from the San Francisco 49ers in exchange for quarterback Steve Young , and a 2nd @-@ round pick from the New England Patriots in exchange for guard Sean Farrell . They swapped 2nd @-@ round picks with the Buffalo Bills , and also received a 4th @-@ round pick in return . The Buccaneers ' original 5th @-@ round pick had been traded to the Patriots for a 6th @-@ round pick the previous year . They received a 5th @-@ round pick from New England in exchange for a 4th @-@ round pick the following year , and a 5th @-@ round pick from the Washington Redskins in exchange for the rights to quarterback Doug Williams . The Buccaneers ' original 6th @-@ round pick was traded to the Pittsburgh Steelers in exchange for center Dan Turk , but they received a 6th @-@ round pick from the San Diego Chargers as part of an earlier deal for linebacker Andy Hawkins . The original 8th @-@ round pick was traded to the New York Jets in exchange for tackle Marvin Powell . Cornerback John Holt had been traded to the Indianapolis Colts in 1986 for the Colts ' 1987 8th @-@ round pick . Linebacker Rick DiBernardo was traded to the St. Louis Cardinals for a 12th @-@ round pick . Dan Sileo was signed as a free agent after the NCAA ruled that he had used up his college eligibility , but the league voided the agreement and declared that he must enter a draft . A special draft was held in which the Buccaneers selected him with a 1988 third @-@ round pick .
= = = Vinny Testaverde = = =
Using the first selection in the 1987 draft , the Buccaneers selected quarterback Vinny Testaverde , who had led the Miami Hurricanes to a 21 – 3 record in games he started . Looking to avoid a repeat of the previous year 's disastrous selection of Bo Jackson , the Buccaneers signed Testaverde 16 days before the draft began . Owner Hugh Culverhouse wanted to take one last shot at building the Buccaneers into a successful franchise , and made sure that money would not be an issue in signing Testaverde . In training camp , Testaverde failed to win the starting job over veteran Steve DeBerg , who coach Perkins felt gave the team a better chance to win . DeBerg was displaced for the fourth time , having played for the San Francisco 49ers when Joe Montana was drafted , the Denver Broncos when John Elway was traded for , and the Buccaneers when Steve Young was signed .
= = = Steve Young = = =
When the Buccaneers selected University of Miami quarterback Vinny Testaverde first overall in the 1987 NFL Draft , starting quarterback Steve Young became expendable . He was traded to the 49ers on April 24 , 1987 . The 49ers were concerned about the health of Joe Montana , and were preparing for the possibility that he might not recover from back surgery . The Buccaneers received 2nd and 4th round draft picks in the trade , picks 50 and 106 overall , which they used to draft University of Miami linebacker Winston Moss and Arizona State wide receiver Bruce Hill . They also received an unspecified amount of cash in the deal . Young would spend the final 13 years of his career with the 49ers , a stint which would help him secure a spot in the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 2005 .
= = = Other Attempted Deals = = =
Coach Perkins met for several hours with Oklahoma linebacker Brian Bosworth , who entered a supplemental draft after being kicked off of the Oklahoma team . Perkins and Bosworth were impressed with each other , but the rights to select were awarded lottery @-@ style , and the first selection went to the Seattle Seahawks . The Seahawks drafted Bosworth despite his having sent them a letter telling them not to bother . He expressed a preference to play for the Buccaneers . When the Indianapolis Colts failed to sign linebacker Cornelius Bennett , the second player selected in the draft ( directly after Testaverde ) , they attempted to trade him to Tampa Bay . Perkins had previously coached Bennett at Alabama , but the Colts , looking for extra draft picks to trade to the Los Angeles Rams to get running back Eric Dickerson , wanted two draft picks in return for Bennett . Perkins felt that this price was too steep . Perkins also attempted to persuade Bo Jackson , their first @-@ overall pick from the 1986 NFL Draft who had refused to sign with the Buccaneers , to change his mind and join the team .
= = Regular season = =
= = = 1987 Players ' Strike = = =
The NFL players went on strike during the third week of the 1987 season . Unlike in the 1982 season , in which play was suspended for the duration of the strike , the NFL continued to play a full schedule . Games were cancelled in the third week , but returned in the fourth with rosters of replacement players . These ' scab ' players were in some cases regular players who crossed the picket line , but were usually players who had previously failed to make an NFL team . The Buccaneers ' replacement team was made up of a dozen of their training camp cuts , a dozen more players cut from other teams ' training camps , and 17 former players from the USFL 's Tampa Bay Bandits . The only regular Buccaneer to cross the picket line was center Dan Turk , although three inactive players crossed the picket line by receiving treatment for their injuries . There were a few notable names on the replacement roster . Former Bandits quarterback and Florida Gators standout John Reaves started the first two games , while former Seattle Seahawks and Winnipeg Blue Bombers quarterback Jim Zorn returned to the NFL to start for the Buccaneers in the final replacement game . Former Oklahoma and USFL standout Marcus Dupree tried out for the replacement squad , but was rejected due to health concerns . The replacement players finished with a 2 – 1 record . Several of them , notably Zorn and kicker John Carney , went on to have successful careers as players and coaches . Three replacement Buccaneers , Brian Gant , Steve Holloway , and Paul Tripoli , remained with the team once regular play resumed . Figures later published in the Los Angeles Times showed that the strike cost owners more than $ 108 million in potential income . All teams had less income in 1987 than in 1986 , and the Buccaneers lost money , although they were the closest to profitability of the 21 teams who lost money .
= = = Schedule = = =
= = = Standings = = =
= = = 1987 Roster = = =
= = = Coaching staff = = =
= = Game summaries = =
= = = Week 1 : vs Atlanta Falcons = = =
at Tampa Stadium , Tampa , Florida
The Buccaneers opened the Ray Perkins era by setting team records for points scored , total yardage , margin of victory , and touchdown passes thrown . Steve DeBerg was 24 of 34 for 333 yards and five touchdowns , throwing touchdowns on each of the Buccaneers ' first four possessions . DeBerg 's five touchdown passes still stands as a Buccaneers record , having been tied by Brad Johnson in 2002 . Perkins , who had played with Joe Namath in college and Johnny Unitas in the pros , and drafted Phil Simms with the Giants , said that DeBerg had one of the best games of any quarterback with whom he had been associated . In a completely dominating performance , the Buccaneers controlled the ball for 38 minutes , allowed no sacks , and converted 14 of 16 third @-@ down attempts . Meanwhile , the Buccaneers defense had four sacks and three turnovers . DeBerg did throw one interception , but on the very next play cornerback Bobby Futrell intercepted David Archer 's overthrow of tight end Ken Whisenhunt .
= = = Week 2 : at Chicago Bears = = =
at Soldier Field , Chicago , Illinois
The Buccaneers forced four turnovers and held Bears running back Walter Payton to 24 yards on 15 carries , but the offense , who also committed four turnovers , was ineffective . One of Payton 's runs was a 1 @-@ yard touchdown that broke Jim Brown 's all @-@ time record of 106 touchdowns . Payton also caught a 9 @-@ yard touchdown pass that clinched the game with 3 : 20 remaining . The Buccaneers had only a field goal to show for four possessions inside the Bears ' 30 @-@ yard line . Vinny Testaverde made his NFL debut after Steve DeBerg left the game in the fourth quarter with a sprained medial collateral ligament .
= = = Week 3 : vs Green Bay Packers , Cancelled = = =
The players went out on strike in week 3 . The main demand was free agency for all players with at least four years of service . The weekend 's games were cancelled as the owners prepared teams of replacement players . According to owner Hugh Culverhouse , it would not be feasible to make up the cancelled games , with the TV networks already having their schedules set for the open weekend following the season .
= = = Week 4 : at Detroit Lions = = =
at Pontiac Silverdome , Pontiac , Michigan
Despite advance sales of 40 @,@ 000 tickets , only 4 @,@ 919 fans showed up to the first strike game played by replacement players . Neither team had any of its regular players on the roster . Detroit punter Mike Black 's 3rd @-@ quarter fumble on the 3 @-@ yard line set up Harold Ricks ' game @-@ winning touchdown run . The Buccaneers ' three second @-@ quarter touchdowns overcame the Lions ' early 17 @-@ point lead . 17 of the Buccaneers ' points resulted from Lions turnovers . Around 1 @,@ 000 union members , including UAW president Owen Bieber , joined the Lions on the picket lines . Attendance was also likely influenced by a baseball game taking place the same day , in which the Detroit Tigers defeated the Toronto Blue Jays to win the A.L. East Championship .
= = = Week 5 : vs San Diego Chargers = = =
at Tampa Stadium , Tampa , Florida
Rick Neuheisel came off the bench to lead the Chargers to three second @-@ half scores . Partly based on this performance , the Buccaneers later signed Neuheisel as a backup quarterback . Although many veteran NFL players crossed the picket line during the week , the Buccaneers were one of only six teams to have no players cross . More than 1 @,@ 000 area union members joined the Buccaneers regulars in picketing the game , with some fans tearing up their tickets and joining them .
= = = Week 6 : vs Minnesota Vikings = = =
at Tampa Stadium , Tampa , Florida
The final replacement game featured a Vikings team with none of its regular players , facing a Buccaneers team with only center Dan Turk crossing the picket line . Tampa Bay took a 17 – 10 lead in the third quarter , after Kevin Walker 's 30 @-@ yard interception return and Arthur Wells ' end @-@ zone fumble recovery . The Buccaneers ' offensive output was limited to two field goals . Jim Zorn had been signed to replace the struggling John Reaves . Zorn also struggled , committing three early turnovers , but got his bearings and wound up 20 – 36 for 199 yards . The week was marked by sluggish work during practices . The players , some of whom were facing pressure to return to their regular jobs , were uncertain over whether they would have a game to play in by the time Sunday arrived .
= = = Week 7 : vs Chicago Bears = = =
at Tampa Stadium , Tampa , Florida
Chicago Bears quarterback Jim McMahon , on the active roster for the first time in the season , came off the bench in the third quarter to rally the Bears past the Buccaneers . He scored a touchdown on a quarterback sneak with six minutes to go , and tied the game with a touchdown pass to Neal Anderson with 1 : 28 to go . The Buccaneers allowed seven sacks , but led for most of the game . The Bears were aided by the Buccaneers ' poor clock management and their reliance on a conservative offense in the fourth quarter . Perkins denied accusations that they went to a prevent defense and a three @-@ man rush , but admitted that they played too conservatively on defense at the end . Steve DeBerg threw touchdown passes to Calvin Magee and Jeff Smith on the Buccaneers ' first two possessions . On the Bears ' next possession , Ron Holmes ' hit on Mike Tomczak forced a fumble that was recovered in the end zone by Winston Moss to give the Buccaneers a 20 – 0 lead . The Bears scored two quick touchdowns in the second quarter , but the Buccaneers extended their lead with two Donald Igwebuike field goals . With the Bears struggling on offense , McMahon was inserted into the game . McMahon was 12 of 14 for 144 yards and led the Bears to 156 yards of offense in the last two drives , compared with 142 in the first 50 minutes of the game . A win would have tied the Buccaneers with the Bears for first place in the NFC Central .
= = = Week 8 : at Green Bay Packers = = =
at Lambeau Field , Green Bay , Wisconsin
Steve DeBerg opened the second half with an 84 @-@ yard drive ending in a touchdown , and followed that with a touchdown pass to Gerald Carter a minute later . The game nearly became a repeat of the previous week , as the Packers replaced quarterback Don Majkowski with Randy Wright . Wright 's two fourth @-@ quarter touchdowns cut into Tampa Bay 's 23 – 3 lead , but this time the offense was able to hold on to the ball . Two Calvin Magee catches for first downs sealed the victory . The Buccaneers ' 17 second @-@ half points are credited to the coaching staff 's adjustment to the Packers ' man @-@ to @-@ man defense . The Buccaneers and Packers both had the same amount of net yards ( 279 ) , passing yards ( 190 ) , and rushing yards ( 89 ) . Donald Igwebuike 's three field goals broke Bill Capece 's Buccaneer career record . The victory left the Buccaneers in second place in the NFC Central division . This led to speculation as to whether coach Perkins , who had been able to lead the New York Giants to the playoffs in three years as their coach , would be able to repeat the feat in a single year with Tampa Bay .
= = = Week 9 : at St. Louis Cardinals = = =
at Busch Memorial Stadium , St. Louis , Missouri
With the Cardinals down by 25 points in the fourth quarter , quarterback Neil Lomax threw for three touchdowns in a come @-@ from @-@ behind win . One of the touchdowns was to tight end Robert Awalt , the other two to league reception leader J.T. Smith . Donald Igwebuike 's potential game @-@ tying 53 @-@ yard field goal attempt bounced off the crossbar as time ran out . The Cardinals came in on a three @-@ game losing streak , while the Buccaneers entered the game leading the league in takeaways . The attendance of 22 @,@ 449 was the Cardinals ' lowest in four years , the team having announced the previous week their plans to move to another city . Detectives were assigned to guard Cardinals owner Bill Bidwill due to death threats . Irritation over DeBerg 's celebrations after his three touchdown passes provided inspiration to some of the Cardinals , who commented , " he 's going to lose his job to Vinny Testaverde in a couple of weeks anyway " . Awalt caught nine passes for 124 yards , while Smith caught eight passes for 96 yards . Said coach Perkins of his team 's performance , " ... they whipped us in every phase of the game . Even down 28 – 3 , they were playing better football than we were " . After the Buccaneers turned three consecutive potential blowout wins into nail @-@ biters , safety Rick Woods said that the team seemed to be playing not to lose instead of playing to win . As an example , he noted that many players turned to see how much time was left on the clock after Cardinals linebacker Niko Noga returned a James Wilder fumble for a touchdown . The next week , Woods was demoted to the taxi squad . Offensive tackle Rob Taylor suffered a strained medial collateral ligament , and center Randy Grimes was also out for the fourth quarter with a hyperextended knee . " We should have gotten a lot more hurt " , Perkins said , and accused his players of allowing positive press coverage to inflate their egos and cloud their judgments . The 25 @-@ point lead , if it had held , would have represented the largest margin of victory in a Buccaneers road win . Instead , it became the largest fourth @-@ quarter comeback in NFL history .
= = = Week 10 : at Minnesota Vikings = = =
at Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome , Minneapolis , Minnesota
The Rob Taylor injury from the previous week became a factor as Steve DeBerg was sacked four times , two resulting in fumbles . Perkins expressed dissatisfaction with Taylor 's replacements , saying " I 'm looking for a left tackle " . Both fumbles were caused by Chris Doleman and recovered by Keith Millard , and both led to scores , including Tommy Kramer 's first touchdown pass since the previous Dec. 14 . Several players were injured , including Vikings first @-@ round draft pick D.J. Dozier . The Buccaneers threw forty @-@ one times , while rushing for a team @-@ low nine attempts . They still had a chance at victory , until Minnesota cornerback Wymon Henderson intercepted a DeBerg pass . He returned the interception 17 yards before fumbling , but the officials ruled him to have been down before the fumble occurred . The instant replay official overturned their call , but the field officials said that they could not return the ball to Tampa because the play had already been whistled dead . This outraged Buccaneer players , who claimed that no whistle had been blown . The Vikings proceeded to run out the clock . The Buccaneers had entered the game with the lead spot in the wild @-@ card playoff race .
= = = Week 11 : vs San Francisco 49ers = = =
at Tampa Stadium , Tampa , Florida
Joe Montana completed 29 of 45 passes for 304 yards , and Jerry Rice caught 7 passes for 103 yards and three touchdowns . Quarterbacks Montana and Steve DeBerg entered the game as the number one- and two @-@ rated passers in the NFC , respectively , but DeBerg was held to 205 yards passing . 2nd @-@ year cornerback Rod Jones was victimized on two of Rice 's touchdown receptions . On one of these , Rice found Jones in single coverage , and took the ball 42 yards by simply outrunning him . James Wilder carried the ball 11 times for 48 yards , and scored his first touchdown of the year on a screen pass . Two Buccaneer fourth quarter scoring opportunities ended in turnovers .
= = = Week 12 : at Los Angeles Rams = = =
at Anaheim Stadium , Anaheim , California
Rams running back Charles White rushed for 137 yards and two touchdowns , while quarterback Jim Everett threw for 208 yards and another two touchdowns . The Buccaneers only entered Rams territory twice . According to coach Perkins , " The only guy who played with guts was Steve DeBerg " . With two starting defensive linemen injured , the Buccaneers were forced to use three rookies , two of whom were making their NFL debuts . Early in the second quarter , a Mel Owens interception return set the Rams up for their second score , a run by White . White scored the Rams ' third touchdown shortly afterward . After a Donald Igwebuike field goal early in the second half , the Buccaneers attempted an onside kick , but failed to gain possession . They never again crossed midfield . Sacked three times , DeBerg suffered a hyperextended back that resulted in his being replaced by Vinny Testaverde with 10 : 44 to play . " Beginning next week , we 'll start making preparations for next year " , Perkins said following the loss .
= = = Week 13 : at New Orleans Saints = = =
at Louisiana Superdome , New Orleans , Louisiana
The Saints , having achieved their first winning record in team history , clinched their first @-@ ever playoff spot by defeating the Buccaneers 44 – 34 . The Saints led the game for good after two early Vinny Testaverde fumbles deep in Buccaneer territory . Testaverde was given the starting job over Steve DeBerg , a change that was not revealed until gametime . " ( Perkins ) didn 't want to give the Saints time to prepare for anything new " , said Testaverde . In the second half , Testaverde made the Saints nervous by rallying the Buccaneers to score on four consecutive possessions . Mark Carrier 's 212 yards on eight receptions set a team record , and Bruce Hill contributed 73 yards on five receptions . The rally lifted team spirits . " There 's definitely some light at the end of the tunnel , and it 's not a train " , said Perkins . The rally came after a turbulent halftime , in which Ron Heller urged his teammates not to quit . Ray Perkins , hearing only the word " quit " , punched Heller in the head , breaking his thumb on Heller 's helmet . The Saints ' first playoff @-@ clinching win came on the tenth anniversary of the Buccaneers ' first victory in franchise history , also a road game against the Saints .
= = = Week 14 : vs Detroit Lions = = =
at Tampa Stadium , Tampa , Florida
The Lions rushed for 190 yards , while holding the Buccaneers to 47 . Lions quarterback Chuck Long was 12 of 23 for 108 yards and a touchdown , while Testaverde was 20 – 39 for 262 yards and a touchdown . The Lions intercepted Testaverde once and sacked him four times , as they broke a four @-@ game losing streak . Testaverde was lucky that it was not worse , as three of his potential turnovers were called back due to Lions penalties . On another two occasions , balls that bounced off of his receivers ' fingertips wound up caught by other Buccaneer receivers .
= = = Week 15 : vs St. Louis Cardinals = = =
at Tampa Stadium , Tampa , Florida
Tampa Bay led early , but Cardinal defensive back Cedric Mack recovered two Buccaneer fumbles that led to 10 Cardinal points . Neil Lomax tied a team record with 12 straight completions , completing 22 – 29 passes for 233 yards and three touchdowns . With Buc starting cornerback Rod Jones injured , Lomax exploited Bobby Futrell throughout the game . Stump Mitchell rushed for 101 yards and a touchdown .
= = = Week 16 : at Indianapolis Colts = = =
at Indianapolis Hoosierdome , Indianapolis , Indiana
The Colts ' 24 – 6 victory over the Buccaneers clinched their first playoff berth in 10 years , and their first winning record since 1977 . Although Pro Bowl linebacker Duane Bickett did not play , the Colts ' defense did not allow the Buccaneers inside the 20 @-@ yard line . Eric Dickerson ran 33 times for 196 yards and two touchdowns . Colts quarterback Jack Trudeau was 17 of 27 for 426 yards .
= Wellard =
Wellard is a fictional Belgian Tervuren dog from the BBC soap opera EastEnders . He first appeared in the series on 18 October 1994 , and became EastEnders ' longest @-@ serving pet , before being killed off on 15 August 2008 . Although the character is male , he has been played primarily by three female dogs : Zenna , her daughter Chancer , and her granddaughter Kyte . A fourth dog briefly served as a replacement for Zenna in 1996 , when she was given time off from the show to have a litter of puppies .
Wellard was briefly written out of the series under executive producer Matthew Robinson , but returned when Robinson was succeeded by John Yorke . Wellard 's owners for the majority of his duration in the soap were Robbie Jackson and Gus Smith . He was voted " Best Pet " at the 2008 Digital Spy Soap Awards , and named the UK 's favourite soap opera pet in a 2009 Inside Soap poll . Wellard was a fan favourite , and although a storyline that saw him threatened with euthanasia for biting local café owner Ian Beale was poorly received by critics , his death drew generally favourable reviews .
= = Storylines = =
In November 1994 , Walford resident Robbie Jackson ( Dean Gaffney ) takes in a dog he assumes to be a stray , naming him Wellard . The dog 's owner , Mr Hammond , locates him and demands him back , but Wellard later returns to Albert Square of his own accord . Robbie realises he has been mistreated and has run away . Mr Hammond admits to neglecting Wellard , and allows Robbie to keep him . Wellard fathers puppies with Grant Mitchell ( Ross Kemp ) and Nigel Bates 's ( Paul Bradley ) greyhound , Frieda ; however , the puppies are stillborn . When Robbie begins a relationship with a woman allergic to dogs , she gives him the ultimatum of choosing between her and Wellard : Robbie chooses Wellard . Several years later , when Robbie is due to leave Walford to live in India , Wellard is run over , delaying Robbie 's departure . He is cared for by Robbie 's sister Sonia ( Natalie Cassidy ) , who gives him to her friend Gus ( Mohammed George ) after Robbie 's departure . When Gus is involved in a minibus crash , Wellard is able to save his owner by leading him to a spot from where he can call the emergency services .
Wellard is reported to the police when he bites local café owner Ian Beale on the buttocks . He is taken away , with the possibility that he will be euthanised , but Gus and Deano Wicks ( Matt Di Angelo ) launch a campaign to save him , under the moniker " Walford One Owed Freedom " ( WOOF ) . When Wellard is put on trial , Ian 's partner Jane ( Laurie Brett ) presents character witness statements for the dog , written by Ian 's children , Lucy ( Melissa Suffield ) and Peter ( Thomas Law ) . Wellard is found guilty , but as a result of the statements , Gus is allowed to take him home as long as he keeps him on a lead at all times . When Gus leaves Walford to travel with his girlfriend Keisha ( Suzie McGrath ) , he leaves Wellard with his friend Mickey Miller ( Joe Swash ) . Mickey sells Wellard to Vinnie Monks ( Bobby Davro ) , who intends to give him to his girlfriend Shirley Carter ( Linda Henry ) . When it transpires Shirley does not want him , Vinnie gives Wellard to the Jackson family . Bianca Jackson ( Patsy Palmer ) feeds Wellard a chocolate , causing him to suffer from theobromine poisoning . He has to be euthanised , is cremated , and has his ashes scattered on the local allotment .
= = Development = =
Wellard 's name is a portmanteau of " well hard " , meaning " very tough " . The character was originally played by a Belgian Shepherd ( Tervuren ) named Zenna , who was cast at the age of one . Producers had envisioned Wellard as a " rough , tough mongrel " , and Zenna 's owner , dog @-@ handler Gill Raddings , explained : " She had the look they wanted and the ability to do what was needed on command . " EastEnders ' producers were initially unaware that Zenna was female , and had to find a canine double to serve as temporary replacement in 1996 when it transpired that she was pregnant , going on to deliver 10 puppies . Zenna was retired in 1998 , as she was " losing her looks " .
Zenna was replaced in the soap by her daughter Chancer , who was in turn succeeded by her own daughter , Kyte . Kyte played Wellard for seven years , longer than Zenna and Chancer . The dog , whose pedigree name is Minka Independance Kyte , came to the soap from Raddings ' company Stunt Dogs , along with another EastEnders dog , Terence . She had previous experience in the television and film industry , having appeared on A Touch of Frost , The Jonny Vaughan Show , 102 Dalmatians and Gladiator . R
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th championship .
= = Series build up = =
The series was heavily discussed and analyzed by the American media prior to it beginning . Star @-@ News compared the Red Sox and Cardinals position by position and concluded that the Cardinals were stronger in eight positions , the Red Sox in four and the teams were even in one . They predicted that the Cardinals would win the series in seven games . Andrew Haskett of E @-@ Sports.com gave high praise to the two teams starting pitchers , but also said that the Cardinals " took a serious blow " when Chris Carpenter was forced out of the series due to an injury to his arm . He also pointed out the ability of both teams to hit home runs , especially in the case of the Red Sox 's David Ortiz and the Cardinals ' Albert Pujols , Scott Rolen and Jim Edmonds . While he praised the Red Sox defense , he called the Cardinals " one of the best defensive teams to ever walk onto a baseball field . " Ultimately he concluded that the series would be close and that the Red Sox would win it .
John Donovan of Sports Illustrated praised both teams for how unexpected their reaching the World Series was , saying that they were " not supposed to be here . " He also called the series a " blast from the past " because both teams were very old franchises and had twice previously met in the World Series . In a breakdown of how the two teams matched up , he concluded that the edge was with the Red Sox in pitching and the Cardinals in defense and batting . Ultimately he concluded that Schilling and Martinez would be the " key to [ the ] Series " and that the Red Sox would win in six games . Jim Molony of MLB.com , said he expected the series to play out very differently from the last time the two teams met in the World Series in 1967 . This was because both team offenses had been some of the best in the league during the season , while pitching had been very dominant in 1967 .
Dan Shaughnessy of The Boston Globe said that " Bally 's in Las Vegas set the Red Sox as 8 – 5 favorites to win the Series " and that there was " some sentiment in St. Louis that the NL champions have been disrespected . " but also that Red Sox General Manager Theo Epstein " Did not want to dis [ respect ] the Cardinals . " Shaughnessy also quoted Schilling as having said : " There 's a lot of good players in that [ visitors ] clubhouse over there . This isn 't the time for us to be thinking about history . If we get three wins and 26 outs into the fourth win , I 'm pretty sure it will hit us . " Before the series began , Shaughnessy wrote a piece saying that although the Red Sox had beaten the Yankees , the series needed to be won , as it was the only way the Curse of the Bambino , which he had publicized based on the book of the same title in 1990 , would end , and demeaning chants of " 1918 ! " would no longer echo at Yankee Stadium . During the series , he wrote a piece about how much people in New England were thinking about loved ones who had spent their entire lives rooting for the Red Sox , hoping that one day , they would see their Red Sox win a World Series .
Both teams had lost in their previous World Series appearances in seven games . The Red Sox lost to the New York Mets in 1986 , while the Cardinals lost in 1987 to the Minnesota Twins . The Cardinals and Red Sox had not won the World Series since 1982 and 1918 respectively . When the two teams had previously played each other in the 1946 and 1967 World Series , the Cardinals won both series in seven games . Having won the All @-@ Star Game , the AL had been awarded home @-@ field advantage , which meant the Red Sox had the advantage at Fenway Park in four of the seven games in the series .
= = Series = =
= = = Game 1 = = =
Saturday , October 23 , 2004 — 8 : 05 pm ( ET ) at Fenway Park in Boston , Massachusetts
Before Game 1 , local band Dropkick Murphys performed " Tessie " , and a moment of silence was observed to remember local student Victoria Snelgrove , who had been accidentally killed by police two days earlier as Sox fans had celebrated winning the American League pennant . Steven Tyler , the lead singer of Aerosmith , another local band , performed " The Star @-@ Spangled Banner " and Red Sox legend Carl Yastrzemski threw the ceremonial first pitch .
Tim Wakefield made his first start of the 2004 postseason for the Red Sox , becoming the first knuckleball pitcher to make a World Series start since 1948 , while Woody Williams , who had won both his previous two starts in the post @-@ season , was the Cardinals ' starting pitcher . In the bottom of the first inning , Williams gave up a lead @-@ off double to Johnny Damon , and then hit Orlando Cabrera in the shoulder with one of his pitches . After Manny Ramírez flied out , Ortiz hit a three @-@ run home run in his first ever World Series at bat . Kevin Millar then scored by virtue of a single by Bill Mueller to put the Red Sox up 4 – 0 .
The Cardinals scored one run in both the second and third innings on a sacrifice fly by Mike Matheny to score Jim Edmonds and a home run to right field by Walker , respectively . However , in the bottom of the third , the Red Sox scored three runs after seven consecutive batters reached base , giving them a five @-@ run lead . Dan Haren came in from the Cardinals ' bullpen to replace Williams during the inning .
In the top of the fourth inning , Bronson Arroyo was brought in to replace Wakefield after he had walked four batters . Those walks , combined with a throwing error by Millar and a passed ball by Doug Mirabelli , allowed the Cardinals to reduce the lead to two runs . In the sixth inning , So Taguchi reached first on an infield hit and was allowed to advance to second when Arroyo threw the ball into the stands . Doubles by Édgar Rentería and Walker tied the game at seven . In the bottom of the seventh inning , Ramírez singled with two men on base , and a poor throw by Edmonds allowed Bellhorn to score . Ortiz then hit a line drive that appeared to skip off the lip of the infield and hit Cardinals ' second baseman Tony Womack with " considerable force . " Womack immediately grabbed his clavicle as a second Red Sox run scored . He was attended to once play had ended and replaced by Marlon Anderson . A precautionary X @-@ ray revealed that there was no damage .
In the top of the eighth inning , with one out and two men on base , Red Sox closer Foulke came in to pitch . Édgar Rentería singled towards Ramírez in left field , who unintentionally kicked the ball away , allowing Jason Marquis to score . Walker also hit the ball towards Ramírez in the next at bat . Ramírez slid in an attempt to try to catch the ball , but tripped and deflected the ball for his second error in two plays , and the fourth Red Sox error in the game . Roger Cedeño scored on the play to tie the game at nine . In the bottom of the eighth inning however , Jason Varitek reached on an error , and Bellhorn then hit a home run off the right field foul pole , also known as Pesky 's Pole , for his third home run in as many games to give the Red Sox a two @-@ run lead . In the ninth inning , Foulke struck out Cedeño to win the game for the Red Sox 11 – 9 .
With a total of 20 runs , it was the highest scoring opening game of a World Series ever . With four RBI , Ortiz also tied a franchise record for RBI in a World Series game .
= = = Game 2 = = =
Sunday , October 24 , 2004 – 8 : 10 pm ( ET ) at Fenway Park in Boston , Massachusetts
Boston native James Taylor performed " The Star @-@ Spangled Banner " before Game 2 and singer Donna Summer , also a Boston native , performed " God Bless America " during the seventh @-@ inning stretch . The ceremonial first pitch was thrown by the surviving three members of the famous Red Sox quartet that had faced the Cardinals in 1946 : Bobby Doerr , Dom DiMaggio and Johnny Pesky ( Ted Williams had passed away two years earlier . )
Despite having a torn tendon in his right ankle , similar to Game 6 of the ALCS against the Yankees , Schilling started Game 2 for the Red Sox . Schilling had four stitches in the ankle the day before , causing him " considerable discomfort . " He was not sure on the morning of Game 2 if he would be able to play , but after one of the stitches was removed , he was treated with antibiotics and was able to pitch . Morris started for the Cardinals on three days rest ( one day less than is orthodox rest for a starting pitcher ) .
In the first inning , Albert Pujols doubled with two out , and Scott Rolen hit a line drive towards Mueller , who caught it to end the inning . Morris walked Ramírez and Ortiz in the bottom of the inning . Varitek then tripled to center field to give the Red Sox a 2 – 0 lead .
In the fourth inning , Pujols doubled again and was able to score on an error by Mueller . The Red Sox also scored in the bottom of the inning when Bellhorn doubled to center with two runners on base , to give them a three @-@ run lead . Cal Eldred came in to relieve Morris in the fifth inning , after he had walked the leadoff hitter , having already given up four runs in the previous four innings . Mueller committed his World Series record @-@ tying third error of the game , in the sixth inning ; however , the Cardinals failed to capitalize . In the bottom of the inning , Trot Nixon led off with a single to center , and two more singles by Johnny Damon and Orlando Cabrera enabled two more runs to score to make it 6 – 1 .
After six innings of allowing no earned runs – which gave him a total of 13 innings against the Yankees and Cardinals with only one earned run allowed on an bleeding ankle tendon with a torn tendon – Schilling made way for Alan Embree , who pitched a scoreless seventh . Mike Timlin replaced Embree in the eighth , in which a sacrifice fly by Scott Rolen reduced the Red Sox lead to four . Keith Foulke then came in to strike out Jim Edmonds to end the inning and also pitched the ninth to end the game . For the second game in a row , the Red Sox won despite committing four fielding errors .
With the win , Schilling became only the fifth pitcher to ever win a World Series game with a team from both leagues , having previously done it with National League teams , the Philadelphia Phillies in 1993 , and the Arizona Diamondbacks in 2001 . He later donated the bloody sock he wore during the game to the Baseball Hall of Fame museum . Much of the blame for the Cardinals losses in the first two games was directed at the fact that Rolen , Edmonds and Reggie Sanders , three of the Cardinals ' best batters , had combined for one hit in 22 at @-@ bats .
= = = Game 3 = = =
Tuesday , October 26 , 2004 — 8 : 30 pm ( ET ) at Busch Stadium ( II ) in St. Louis , Missouri
Seattle Mariners designated hitter Edgar Martínez was presented with the 2004 Roberto Clemente Award before Game 3 , having announced his retirement one month before . The ceremonial first pitch was thrown by arguably the Cardinals ' best @-@ ever position player , Stan Musial , and caught by arguably their best @-@ ever pitcher , Bob Gibson . " The Star @-@ Spangled Banner " and " God Bless America " were sung by country music singer Martina McBride and singer – songwriter Amy Grant respectively . During the game , a sign for the fast @-@ food restaurant Taco Bell that measured 12 by 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m × 3 @.@ 7 m ) and read " Free Taco Here " , was hung approximately 410 feet ( 120 m ) from home plate , over the left @-@ center field bullpen . Taco Bell promised that , if the sign was hit by a home run ball , they would give a free " Crunchy Beef Taco " to everyone in the United States .
Once again , the Red Sox took the lead in the first inning when Ramírez hit a home run off former Red Sox pitcher Jeff Suppan . Martínez was the starting pitcher for the Red Sox , and in the bottom of the first inning , he allowed the Cardinals to load the bases with one out . Edmonds then hit a fly ball towards Ramírez in left field , who caught it on the run and threw to catcher Jason Varitek at home plate . Varitek tagged out Walker , who was attempting to score from third , ending the inning .
In the bottom of the third inning , the Cardinals had two runners on base with no one out . Walker hit a ground ball towards first base , and Cardinals third base coach José Oquendo signalled to Suppan on third to run to home plate . However , halfway towards home , Suppan " suddenly stopped . " Édgar Rentería , who had been running from second base towards third , was forced to return to second when he saw Suppan had stopped . After forcing out Walker at first base , David Ortiz began moving toward Suppan , who had turned back toward third , Ortiz threw to third baseman Mueller , who tagged Suppan out . After the next batter Albert Pujols , was thrown out by Mueller , the inning ended .
Trot Nixon extended the Red Sox lead to two in the top of the fourth , hitting a single to right field that scored Mueller , who had started the rally with a two @-@ out double to left @-@ center . Johnny Damon then led off the Red Sox 's fifth inning with a double to right . Singles by Orlando Cabrera and Ramírez , to right and left respectively , scored Damon to make it 3 – 0 . With two out , Mueller singled along the first base line , enabling Cabrera to score the Red Sox 's fourth run . Suppan was replaced by Al Reyes , which meant none of the Cardinals three starting pitchers had finished five innings during the series .
Mike Timlin relieved Martinez in the bottom of the eighth inning . He finished with six strikeouts , three hits allowed and retired the last 14 batters he faced . The Cardinals avoided a shutout when Walker hit a home run to center field off Foulke in the ninth inning , but Foulke retired the other three batters he faced in the inning to secure the win for the Red Sox 4 – 1 .
On the same day the Red Sox won Game 3 , The Boston Globe ran a piece Dan Shaughnessy wrote that as this win brought the Red Sox on the verge of winning a World Series , how many people in New England were thinking about loved ones who had spent their entire lives rooting for the Red Sox and hoping that one day , they would see the Red Sox win a World Series .
= = = Game 4 = = =
Wednesday , October 27 , 2004 – 8 : 25 pm ( ET ) at Busch Stadium ( II ) in St. Louis , Missouri
Before the game , country music singer Gretchen Wilson , a life @-@ long Cardinals fan , performed " The Star @-@ Spangled Banner . " Barry Bonds and Manny Ramírez received the Hank Aaron Award for the National and American Leagues , respectively . Former Cardinals players Red Schoendienst and Lou Brock threw out ceremonial first pitches along with Rashima Manning , from the Herbert Hoover Boys & Girls Clubs of America . A lunar eclipse was visible during the game – the first lunar eclipse to take place during a World Series game . The game was also played on the eighteenth anniversary of Game 7 of the 1986 World Series , which the Red Sox had lost at Shea Stadium to the New York Mets despite holding a lead .
Damon hit a home run to right field in the first at @-@ bat of the game on a 2 @-@ 1 count to give the Red Sox the lead in the first inning for the fourth straight game ; it proved to be the game @-@ winning run . Ramírez singled in the third inning to give him a hit in 17 consecutive postseason games . Doubles by David Ortiz to right and Trot Nixon to center , who narrowly missed a grand slam after swinging on a 3 @-@ 0 count , scored two more runs for the Red Sox to give them a three @-@ run lead .
In the top of the eighth , Mueller led off with a single to right and Nixon followed with his third double of the game . Jason Isringhausen came in to pitch for the Cardinals with the bases loaded and nobody out , and was able the finish the inning without allowing a run to score . Kevin Millar pinch hit for the Red Sox starting pitcher Lowe during this inning . It was the third straight game in which the Red Sox starting pitcher had not allowed an earned run .
Red Sox closer Foulke came in to pitch the bottom of the ninth . Pujols led off the inning by hitting a single through Foulke 's legs and into center field . After Foulke induced Rolen into a fly out and struck out Edmonds , Pujols took second base , but no stolen base due to fielder 's indifference . Édgar Rentería then hit a ground ball that bounced back to Foulke on the mound . Foulke threw it underhand to Doug Mientkiewicz at first base to end the game , and secure the series .
The series win was the Red Sox 's first title in 86 years . They were also the fourth team to win a World Series without trailing in any of the games in the series , and the seventh to win it having previously been three outs away from elimination . With the win , pitcher Lowe became the first pitcher to ever win three series @-@ clinching games in a single postseason having also won Game 3 of the ALDS against the Angels and Game 7 of the ALCS against the Yankees . Although the series was won in St. Louis , 3 @,@ 000 Red Sox fans were present at the game , and many stayed after the final out to celebrate with the team , including going on the field when the team came back out of their dugout with the World Series trophy . Ramírez , who was named the Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) of the series , said afterwards " I don 't believe in curses , I believe you make your own destination . [ sic ] " Kevin Millar said that it was important to finish off the Cardinals in four and not let it go to a fifth game given the team 's history .
= = Statistics = =
AL Boston Red Sox ( 4 ) beat NL St. Louis Cardinals ( 0 )
= = Broadcasting = =
The series was broadcast by Fox , and the announcers were Joe Buck and Tim McCarver . Jeanne Zelasko covered the pre @-@ game build up to all four games and the presentation of the World Series trophy . An average of 23 @.@ 1 million people watched Game 1 . This was the highest television ratings for the opening game of a World Series in five years and had the highest average number of viewers since 1996 . It was also the highest rated broadcast on any network in the past ten months . The ratings for the first two games were also the highest average since 1996 , and the average for the first three games was the highest since 1999 . Game 3 had the highest average number of viewers with 24 @.@ 4 million , since 1996 when 28 @.@ 7 million watched the Atlanta Braves and New York Yankees . It was also the Fox network 's highest rating for a Game 3 of a World Series ever . Game 4 posted an 18 @.@ 2 national rating giving the series an overall average of 15 @.@ 8 . This was the highest average in five years , and the average number of viewers of 25 @.@ 4 million , was the highest since 1995 .
In terms of local radio , Joe Castiglione and Jerry Trupiano called the series for WEEI in Boston while Mike Shannon announced for KMOX in St. Louis .
= = Aftermath = =
With the win coming eight months after the New England Patriots victory in Super Bowl XXXVIII , the event made Boston the first city to have a Super Bowl and World Series winner in the same year since Pittsburgh in 1979 . A number of players from both teams won awards for their performances during the season . Manny Ramírez won the Hank Aaron Award and , along with Albert Pujols , a Silver Slugger Award , while Gold Glove awards were won by Mike Matheny , Scott Rolen and Jim Edmonds . The American sports magazine Sports Illustrated honored the Red Sox with their Sportsman of the Year award a month later , making them the first professional team to ever win the award . For pitcher Curt Schilling , it was the second time he had won the award , having shared it with then @-@ Arizona Diamondbacks teammate Randy Johnson in 2001 .
This World Series win by the Red Sox continued a trend of Boston teams beating St. Louis teams to win championships . Previously , in Super Bowl XXXVI , the New England Patriots had upset the St. Louis Rams ' " Greatest Show on Turf " , the Boston Bruins had swept the St. Louis Blues in the 1970 Stanley Cup Finals ( with Game 4 being remembered for Bobby Orr 's Cup @-@ winning overtime goal that sent him flying ) , and the Boston Celtics – when Bill Russell was still just a rookie – had beaten the St. Louis Hawks to win their first NBA championship in 1957 . With championship showdowns between teams from Boston and St. Louis seen in Major League Baseball , the NFL , NBA and NHL , it is the only showdown between teams from two specific locations , that has been seen in each of these four leagues .
= = = Red Sox = = =
The Red Sox 's win in the World Series ended the " Curse of the Bambino " , which supposedly had afflicted the team ever since the Red Sox sold Babe Ruth to the New York Yankees in 1919 . Pitcher Derek Lowe and other players said that the team would no longer hear " 1918 ! " at Yankee Stadium ever again . Kevin Millar said to all Red Sox fans : " We wanted to do it so bad for the city of Boston . To win a World Series with this on our chests , it hasn 't been done since 1918 . So rip up those ' 1918 ! ' posters right now . " Members of previous Red Sox teams who had fallen short immediately acclaimed the 2004 team , including Pesky - who had been the shortstop responsible for a fatal checking error that had allowed the Cardinals ' Enos Slaughter to complete his " Mad Dash " to score the winning run in Game 7 at the old Sportsman 's Park in 1946 . Pesky watched the game from the visiting clubhouse and was immediately embraced by Millar , Wakefield , Schilling and others as a living representative of those previous teams as he joined the celebrations .
It also added to the recent success of Boston @-@ area teams , following the Patriots wins in Super Bowls XXXVI and XXXVIII . With the Patriots having won Super Bowl XXXVIII the previous February , the Red Sox winning the World Series marked the first time since 1979 that the same city had a Super Bowl and World Series winner in the same year - the last city to do accomplish the feat had been Pittsburgh , when the Steelers and Pirates had won Super Bowl XIII and the World Series respectively . The city would go on to record a decade of sports success from 2001 to 2011 with seven championships in the four major North American sports leagues ( MLB , the NFL , the NBA and the NHL ) , including one in each league after the Patriots won two more Super Bowls , the Celtics won the 2008 NBA championship and the Bruins won the Stanley Cup in 2011 . Following the Bruins winning the 2011 Stanley Cup Finals , Boston Globe columnist Dan Shaughnessy ranked all seven championships and chose the Red Sox ' 2004 World Series win as the greatest Boston sports championship during the ten @-@ year span .
Red Sox Manager Terry Francona became the third manager in four years to win a World Series in his first year as manager , following Bob Brenly of the 2001 Arizona Diamondbacks and Jack McKeon of the 2003 Florida Marlins .
Massachusetts US Senator , Boston resident and future Secretary of State John Kerry , who had been named Democratic presidential nominee in Boston that summer , wore a Red Sox cap the day after the series ended . He also said that the Red Sox had " [ come ] back against all odds and showed America what heart is . " His Republican opponent , incumbent President George W. Bush , made a phone call from the White House to congratulate the team 's owner John W. Henry , president Larry Lucchino and manager Terry Francona . The team also visited Bush at the White House the following March , where he gave a speech honoring their presence , in which he asked " what took [ them ] so long ? " A future Presidential candidate , Mitt Romney , at the time Massaschusetts Governor , ceremonially helped remove the Reverse Curve road sign on Storrow Drive that had been famously spray @-@ painted to read " Reverse the Curse " as a further marking of the end of the Curse .
The day after the Red Sox win , the Boston Globe doubled its daily press run , from 500 @,@ 000 to 1 @.@ 2 million copies , with the headline , " YES ! ! ! " right across the front page .
The Red Sox held their World Series victory parade on the following Saturday , October 30 . The team was transported around on 17 duck boats equipped with loudspeakers so the players could talk to the spectators . Due to large interest in the parade , it was lengthened by officials the day before to include the Charles River , so that fans could watch from Boston and Cambridge river banks . The parade did not however , include a staged rally . The parade began at 10 a.m. local time at Fenway Park , turned east onto Boylston Street , then west onto Tremont Street and Storrow Drive before entering the river . One of the lanes on Massachusetts Avenue had to be closed to accommodate members of the media filming the parade as it passed under the Harvard Bridge . Ramírez was handed a sign by one of the spectators part of the way through the parade , which read , " Jeter is playing golf today . This is better ! " He held on to this sign for the rest of the parade , in a similar way to what Tug McGraw said after the Philadelphia Phillies won the 1980 World Series , " For once , we take a bite out of the Big Apple " . Over three million people were estimated to have attended the parade , making it the largest gathering ever in the city of Boston .
The Red Sox were presented with their World Series rings on April 11 , 2005 , at a ceremony before the team 's first home game of the 2005 season . Former Red Sox players Bobby Doerr , Dom DiMaggio , Johnny Pesky , and Carl Yastrzemski were all present , as were the Boston Symphony Orchestra and the Boston Pops Orchestra . During the ceremony , five red pennants were first unfurled at the top of the Green Monster , showing the years of each of the Red Sox previous World Series wins . A much larger banner was unfurled that covered the entire wall and read " 2004 World Series Champions . " James Taylor , himself a Boston native and a Red Sox fan , performed " America the Beautiful " , and 19 members of the United States Army and Marine Corps who had fought in the Iraq War walked onto the field . Moments of silence were held to honor the deaths of Pope John Paul II , who had died nine days earlier , and former Red Sox relief pitcher , Dick Radatz . The rings were handed out by the team 's owner , John W. Henry . Former Red Sox players Lowe and Dave Roberts , who had joined the Los Angeles Dodgers and San Diego Padres respectively during the off @-@ season , were also present to collect their rings . The ceremony , which lasted around an hour , ended with stars from other Boston sports teams , including the Celtics ' Bill Russell , the Bruins ' Bobby Orr and the Patriots ' Tedy Bruschi and Richard Seymour , throwing ceremonial first pitches . The presence of Bruschi and Seymour made evident the recent success of Boston @-@ area teams . The day after the Red Sox won the Series , Shaughnessy and the rest of the news media said of the Red Sox home opener : " The team in the third @-@ base dugout ? The New York Yankees , Sweet . " In a sign of respect , the Red Sox rivals came to the top step of the visitors dugout and gave the Red Sox a standing ovation . The Fenway Park crowd burst into cheers when Yankees pitcher Mariano Rivera was introduced , breaking from the tradition of fans booing opposing players , due to him having blown save opportunities in Games 4 and 5 of the 2004 ALCS . Rivera was a good sport about it and laughed while waving his arms in mock appreciation of the fans .
The following August , Simon & Schuster published Faithful , a book which chronicled e @-@ mails about the Red Sox , between American writers , and Red Sox fans , Stephen King and Stewart O 'Nan during the 2004 season . In March 2005 , Houghton Mifflin Company published Reversing the Curse , a book by Shaughnessy , author of the bestselling The Curse of the Bambino , chronicling the 2004 Red Sox season . ESPN 's Bill Simmons published Now I Can Die In Peace , a collection of his columns with updated annotations and notes , including columns for each of the last four games of the ALCS and each World Series game – with Game 4 being a running diary . The Farrelly Brothers altered the ending of their 2005 film Fever Pitch to coincide with the actual end of the series . They and their crew , plus stars Drew Barrymore and Jimmy Fallon , flew to St. Louis and Barrymore and Fallon attended Game 4 in character , complete with the two of them running onto the field at Busch Stadium and kissing once the final out was made .
= = = Cardinals = = =
On the Cardinals ' side , the media expressed disappointment at the team 's failure to win a game in the Series after recording the team 's best regular season in over 60 years . Many reporters believed that the Cardinals had not played up to their usual standard , and much of the blame was directed at Rolen , Edmonds and Reggie Sanders , three of the Cardinals ' best hitters , who had combined for one hit in 39 at bats in the series .
It also marked the last time that Busch Memorial Stadium would host a World Series . The Cardinals moved to the new Busch Stadium in their championship season of 2006 , which was their first since 1982 .
= = = 2005 season = = =
Both the Red Sox and Cardinals made the playoffs the following season . The Red Sox lost to the eventual champions the Chicago White Sox , in the American League Division Series . The Cardinals , in a repeat meeting of the previous season 's National League Championship Series , lost to the Houston Astros . However , the city of Boston would see more success when the New England Patriots won Super Bowl XXXIX , three months after the Red Sox won the World Series , giving the greater Boston area its third championship in 12 months , making it the first time since 1980 that any city had two Super Bowl winners and a World Series winner in a period of the same length .
Both teams also won one of the next three World Series in successive years ; the Cardinals , as noted above , in 2006 , beating the Detroit Tigers in five games , becoming the first team since the New York Yankees in 1923 , to win a World Series championship in their first season in a new stadium . Tony La Russa would achieve the distinction that he couldn 't achieve in 2004 of managing World Series winners in both leagues . He would continue to wear number 10 to pay tribute to Sparky Anderson afterwards .
The Red Sox won the World Series the following year , sweeping the Colorado Rockies in four games . Tom Werner , chairman of the Red Sox , and team president Larry Lucchino said that the 2004 championship was " for the parents and grandparents who had suffered through the Curse of the Bambino " , while 2007 was " for children , grandchildren , and for Red Sox Nation " .
= Wallace G. Wilkinson =
Wallace Glenn Wilkinson ( December 12 , 1941 – July 5 , 2002 ) was an American businessman and politician from the Commonwealth of Kentucky . From 1987 to 1991 , he served as the state 's fifty @-@ seventh governor . Wilkinson dropped out of college at the University of Kentucky in 1962 to attend to a book retail business he started . The business rapidly became a national success , and Wilkinson re @-@ invested his profits in real estate , farming , transportation , banking , coal , and construction ventures , becoming extremely wealthy . In 1987 , he joined a crowded field in the Democratic gubernatorial primary . After running behind two former governors and the sitting lieutenant governor for most of the race , Wilkinson began to climb in the polls after hiring then @-@ unknown campaign consultant James Carville . Wilkinson campaigned on a promise of no new taxes and advocated a state lottery as an alternative means of raising money for the state . Wilkinson surprised most political observers by winning the primary and going on to defeat his Republican challenger in the general election .
Wilkinson was able to secure passage of a constitutional amendment allowing a state lottery . He also helped craft a significant education reform bill in response to a ruling by the Kentucky Supreme Court that declared the state 's entire public school system unconstitutional . Wilkinson 's term was plagued by political scandal and an uneasy relationship with the state legislature . He advocated an amendment to the state constitution that would allow him to seek a second consecutive term as governor , but the amendment was defeated in the General Assembly . His wife Martha attempted to succeed him , but withdrew from the campaign amid weak support for her candidacy . Following his term as governor , Wilkinson encountered difficult financial times . In 2001 , he was sued by a group of creditors , and during the proceedings , it was revealed that he was operating a Ponzi scheme to keep his businesses afloat . Both he and his wife Martha filed for bankruptcy later that year . In 2002 , Wilkinson was hospitalized with arterial blockages . His condition was complicated by a recurrence of Non @-@ Hodgkin lymphoma . He suffered a stroke on July 4 , 2002 , and his family withdrew his life support the following day in accordance with his previously @-@ expressed wishes .
= = Early life = =
Wallace Wilkinson was born on a farm in Casey County , Kentucky , about 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) southwest of the city of Liberty , on December 12 , 1941 . The son of Hershel and Cleo ( Lay ) Wilkinson , he had two older brothers and a younger sister . His parents were farmers and also operated a small general store . When Wilkinson was four years old , the family moved to Liberty , and the family opened Wilkinson 's Grocery . During his childhood , he delivered newspapers , sold popcorn from a street stand , and co @-@ owned a shoe shine parlor with a boyhood friend . He also accompanied his father to sell produce from the back of a truck . It was during one such trip that he met Martha Carol Stafford , whose parents owned a grocery store about 10 miles ( 16 km ) away . The two dated throughout high school and were married in 1960 . They had two children : Wallace Glenn Wilkinson , Jr . ( b . 1970 ) and Andrew Stafford Wilkinson ( b . 1972 ) .
Wilkinson was a member of the freshman basketball team at Liberty High School . Using profits from his early business ventures , he purchased a business wardrobe that earned him the title of best dressed member of his senior class . He graduated from high school in 1959 , but the poor curriculum there left him without the credits he needed to gain admission to the University of Kentucky 's engineering program . He began selling livestock feed in Scottsville , Kentucky , and also worked at a venetian blind factory while taking classes at Campbellsville College to earn the credits he needed . In 1962 , he moved to Lexington , Kentucky , and enrolled at the University of Kentucky . While in college , he worked at Kennedy Book Store in Lexington . Later , he and two friends borrowed money to open the Kentucky Paperback Gallery in Lexington ; Wilkinson left school later that year to attend to the business full @-@ time . At the time , Kentucky high school students were required to purchase their own textbooks , but there was no marketplace for buying and selling used books ; Wilkinson 's business catered to this market and was highly successful .
= = Business ventures = =
Wilkinson opened Wallace 's Book Store in June 1965 after a local stockbroker helped him raise the initial capital needed through a public stock offering . By this time , Kentucky had adopted free textbook legislation at the behest of Governor Julian Carroll , so Wilkinson transitioned to selling college textbooks to students at the University of Kentucky . Throughout the 1960s , Wilkinson refused to pay the state sales tax on his transactions ; he and Joe Kennedy , the owner of Kennedy Book Store , both claimed that paying the tax put them at a competitive disadvantage with the university 's book store , which did not pay state taxes because it was operated by the university , a tax exempt entity . In 1977 , the state Board of Tax Appeals ruled that all three bookstores should have been paying the tax , but by this time , the statute of limitations had expired , and none of the three were required to pay any back taxes . Wallace 's Book Store continued to expand rapidly , opening retail stores in twenty @-@ eight states and becoming one of the country 's largest book firms . In January 1971 , he considered issuing more stock to raise capital to buy Providence , Rhode Island @-@ based Barnes & Noble , but the executive committee of Wallace 's was averse to purchasing a company so far away and blocked the move . In April 1977 , Wilkinson was cited for false and misleading advertisement in conjunction with claims made in radio ads for Wallace 's Book Store claiming they were offering the first discounts in history on new college textbooks . In a court filing , Wilkinson admitted the claims were untrue , promised to stop airing the ads , and agreed to refund any money overpaid by customers .
With the success of his chain of bookstores , Wilkinson pursued other business ventures in the fields of real estate development , farming , transportation , banking , coal interests , and construction . He purchased several private aircraft to help him tend to his diverse interests throughout the state , and in 1973 , created Wilkinson Flying Service to keep the planes busy when he wasn 't using them . After investing in the unfinished Bluegrass Commerce Center in Lexington in early 1977 , he purchased one @-@ third interest in the Purcell building on Lexington 's Vine Street later that year . The building was only partially occupied , but had become more valuable because of the opening of nearby Rupp Arena in October 1976 and a new Hyatt hotel in May 1977 . Developers Donald and Dudley Webb developed plans to construct the Vine Center on the block ; by May 1979 , they had options to buy every property on the block except Wilkinson 's interest in the Purcell building . Unwilling to meet Wilkinson 's asking price , they instead formed a partnership with him to co @-@ develop the Vine Center . When Wilkinson eventually sold his interest in the venture at the end of 1981 , he turned a profit of at least $ 1 @.@ 3 million on his investment . Next , he formed a public @-@ private partnership with the city of Lexington to construct the Capital Plaza Hotel in 1983 . The city provided $ 3 million in capital and another $ 8 @.@ 5 million in guaranteed loans to supplement Wilkinson 's $ 1 @.@ 15 million investment . Wallace 's Book Stores was given 95 % ownership in the hotel , allowing the company to shield $ 2 million in assets from federal income taxes and claim over $ 400 @,@ 000 in tax credits .
Despite playing a major role in the Lexington real estate market , Wilkinson was fiercely protective of his privacy ; for a time , he even refused to allow newspapers to publish pictures of him . His public profile began to rise when he announced plans to construct the 50 @-@ story World Coal Center on the corner of Main and Limestone streets in Lexington . When completed , it would be the largest office complex between Atlanta and Chicago . Wilkinson hoped that all the major coal companies in the state would relocate their offices to the center , making it a hub for the international coal market . Shortly after Wilkinson demolished the historic Phoenix Hotel to make way for the building , the coal market experienced a pronounced lull , and the empty lot where the proposed coal center would have stood was derided as " Wally 's Folly " and " Lake Wilkinson " . In 1984 , the Lexington @-@ Fayette Urban County Government secured a lease from Wilkinson to develop a temporary municipal park on the site . Wilkinson conceded that he would not be able to develop the proposed World Coal Center in the near @-@ term , and Lexington mayor Scotty Baesler wanted to improve the property before the city hosted the finals of the 1985 NCAA men 's basketball tournament at Rupp Arena . In early 1985 , Wilkinson struck a deal with the state and urban county governments to retain the park and build a public library and parking garage while allowing Wilkinson to construct and operate a 21 @-@ story apartment complex above the garage . Critics claimed that the city @-@ county government bailed Wilkinson out of a bad investment by purchasing the property from him and by giving him a government @-@ subsidized , low interest rate on his $ 12 million mortgage for the apartment building .
= = Alleged kidnapping by Jerome Jernigan = =
On April 10 , 1984 , Wilkinson was allegedly kidnapped by a man named Jerome Jernigan . In 1977 , Wilkinson had provided Jernigan with start @-@ up money for Jernigan Export Timber , Inc . , a company that manufactured and exported wood veneers internationally . The company went defunct around the time of Jernigan 's divorce from his wife , the secretary @-@ treasurer of the company , in December 1980 . Jernigan 's son , Victor , continued to work for Wilkinson in another capacity until 1982 .
According to Wilkinson , in the months leading up to the alleged kidnapping , Jernigan had come to Wilkinson 's office several times demanding money he claimed he was owed from his prior business dealings with Wilkinson . Wilkinson said he had been making the requested payments , but that when he refused Jernigan 's request on April 10 , Jernigan presented him with a four @-@ page suicide note , then produced a pistol and told Wilkinson , " I 'm going to kill you first . " Wilkinson further alleged that Jernigan forced him to drive to the Crowne Plaza Hotel in Frankfort , a hotel Wilkinson owned , at gunpoint . The two spent the night at the hotel , and sometime during the night , Wilkinson contacted James Aldridge , president of New Farmers National Bank in Glasgow , Kentucky . Wilkinson , who owned an interest in New Farmers National Bank , told Aldridge he needed $ 500 @,@ 000 as soon as possible . The next day , Wilkinson and Jernigan flew to Glasgow aboard a plane operated by Wilkinson Flying Service , another company owned by Wilkinson . Wilkinson said Jernigan threatened to kill employees at the company if Wilkinson attempted to alert them . Aldridge met Wilkinson and Jernigan with the money Wilkinson had requested at the Glasgow Municipal Airport . Upon their arrival , Wilkinson paid Jernigan $ 500 @,@ 000 and was released unharmed .
After his release , Wilkinson alerted the FBI , and Jernigan was arrested the same day in Lexington . Upon his arrest , he was in possession of two pistols , six sets of handcuffs , and $ 400 @,@ 000 in cash . Jernigan told authorities that he and Wilkinson had spent the previous night at the Crowne Plaza negotiating a settlement to their differences stemming from their earlier business relationship . The terms of the settlement , Jernigan maintained , included a $ 500 @,@ 000 cash payment from Wilkinson , part of which would finance a new business venture similar to Jernigan 's previous veneer export business . Wilkinson would also furnish Jernigan with a car , a furnished apartment in Lexington , and a salary of $ 5 @,@ 000 a month . Jernigan stated that after the $ 500 @,@ 000 was paid , Wilkinson decided to back out of the settlement and portray the encounter as a crime . Wilkinson denied Jernigan 's allegations and maintained that the money – which was later recovered – was demanded by Jernigan as a ransom for his release .
Weeks later , Jernigan filed a counter @-@ suit against Wilkinson in Fayette County circuit court . He asked the court to award him $ 50 million in punitive damages and to determine the profits made by his and Wilkinson 's veneer company , of which he would receive half . A judge ordered the case moved to Louisville because the alleged crime was committed in Glasgow , in the state 's western district . State charges against Jernigan , which included kidnapping and carrying a concealed deadly weapon , were dropped so that the federal extortion charges could take precedence . Over the objection of his legal counsel , the court ordered Jernigan to undergo a psychiatric evaluation to determine whether he was insane or mentally incompetent for his own defense . The court @-@ appointed psychiatrist found Jernigan competent to stand trial , and he was released in late May on a $ 25 @,@ 000 bond .
After his release on bond , Jernigan returned to the room at the Continental Inn in Lexington where he had been living prior to his arrest . On July 18 , 1984 , Jernigan 's son Randy found him dead in the room . An autopsy showed that Jernigan suffered from coronary atherosclerosis , and heart disease was officially listed as the cause of death . Lexington police determined that there was no evidence to suggest foul play . Jernigan 's ex @-@ wife continued to pursue Jernigan 's case against Wilkinson , but a Fayette County Circuit Court Judge awarded Wilkinson a summary judgment to dismiss the case in 1986 .
= = Political life = =
After announcing his plans for the World Coal Center , Wilkinson began attending meetings of the Lexington Urban City Council , where he advocated his fiscally conservative political views . He was an admirer of Ronald Reagan , although he said he wished Reagan was a Democrat like himself . In 1979 , Wilkinson became involved with Terry McBrayer 's campaign against John Y. Brown , Jr. in the Democratic gubernatorial primary . He held a critical fundraiser for Scotty Baesler 's 1981 Lexington mayoral campaign , although most of the businessmen in Lexington favored Baesler 's opponent . In the 1983 Democratic gubernatorial primary , he served as finance chairman for Harvey Sloane 's campaign . When Sloane lost a close race to Lieutenant Governor Martha Layne Collins , Republican nominee Jim Bunning tried to enlist the support of Sloane and his supporters , including Wilkinson . After a month of consideration , however , Wilkinson endorsed the entire Democratic ticket . The following year , he managed former governor Brown 's brief senatorial campaign . Already considering running for governor in 1987 , Wilkinson had hoped to remove Brown as a potential competitor for that office by helping him get elected to the Senate , but Brown ended his campaign early for health reasons . Through his work in various the campaigns , Wilkinson found that he enjoyed the challenges of competing in the political arena . He lobbied the General Assembly to pass a multi @-@ bank holding company bill allowing banking companies to own more than one Kentucky bank . The bill passed in 1984 .
= = = Democratic primary of 1987 = = =
In April 1985 , Wilkinson formed a campaign committee in advance of the 1987 gubernatorial election . Relatively unknown statewide , Wilkinson was the first candidate to enter the race . The Democratic primary field eventually grew to include two previous Kentucky governors , John Y. Brown , Jr. and Julian Carroll ; sitting Lieutenant Governor Steve Beshear , who would later win two terms as governor in 2007 and 2011 ; and Grady Stumbo , cabinet secretary for Governor Martha Layne Collins . Early in the race , Brown was the clear @-@ cut favorite , while Wilkinson was picked to finish fifth . Wilkinson financed his own campaign and campaign manager Danny Briscoe suggested that he hire a campaign consultant to reach out to the state 's large concentration of undecided voters . After a few interviews , Wilkinson hired a then @-@ unknown political consultant named James Carville ; Carville later went on to chair Bill Clinton 's successful presidential campaign in 1992 .
Beshear , considered the second strongest candidate in the primary race , spent much of the campaign attacking Brown , and Brown spent time and resources responding to Beshear 's attacks . Meanwhile , Wilkinson attacked all of his opponents in the race as political insiders while touting his own rise from poverty to financial success . He called the incentive package that sitting governor Martha Layne Collins had offered to lure a Toyota manufacturing plant to
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the state " a massive mistake and terrible deal " that had made Kentucky " an international laughingstock " . He also claimed that both Brown and Beshear would raise taxes and proposed a state lottery , which he claimed would generate $ 70 million annually for the state 's coffers , as an alternative to higher taxes . The proposal proved particularly popular in Northern Kentucky , where residents routinely traveled to neighboring Ohio to play that state 's lottery . Wilkinson also advocated for wholesale education reform , stating that Kentucky 's children " don 't have a learning problem ; they 've got a schooling problem . " Two @-@ time former governor A. B. " Happy " Chandler gave Wilkinson 's campaign further credibility with his endorsement .
In late April , Brown still held a 20 percentage point lead in public opinion polling . However , as Beshear began to slip in the polls , Wilkinson moved up . By Memorial Day weekend , he was polling second among the candidates . Brown largely ignored Wilkinson until a week before the election , when he began running ads questioning the amount of money Wilkinson claimed would be generated by a state lottery . Wilkinson won the primary , garnering 36 percent of the vote to 26 percent for Brown , 18 percent for Beshear , 12 percent for Stumbo , and 6 percent for Carroll . In total , Wilkinson spent a record $ 4 million during the primary campaign . Kentucky historian Thomas D. Clark opined that Wilkinson 's lavish spending during the campaign prompted the legislature to adopt campaign finance reform measures .
= = = Gubernatorial campaign of 1987 = = =
Democrats enjoyed a 3 @-@ to @-@ 1 voter registration advantage in Kentucky , and while he had been the underdog in the primary campaign , Wilkinson became the heavy favorite against the Republican nominee , State Representative John Harper of Shepherdsville . Larry Forgy , who had been groomed for the Republican nomination , unexpectedly dropped out of the race before the primary , leaving the party at a significant disadvantage with a largely unknown and underfunded candidate . While Harper began his general election campaign immediately , Wilkinson made few public appearances – except for fundraisers – until the second week in September . He also refused to endorse the $ 125 million education reform measure that sitting governor Martha Layne Collins had guided through the legislature in 1985 , which cost him the endorsement of the Kentucky Education Association . The association endorsed Harper , marking the first time in its history it had endorsed a Republican gubernatorial candidate , but endorsed Brereton Jones , the Democratic candidate for lieutenant governor .
Harper attacked Wilkinson 's lottery proposal as " Alice in Wonderland " economics . In addition , Harper 's campaign raised a number of ethical issues with regard to Wilkinson 's business dealings . Gary Stafford , Wilkinson 's brother @-@ in @-@ law who was serving as president of Wallace 's Book Store , pleaded guilty to illegal wiretapping and rolling back the odometers on company vehicles . The company was also forced to pay $ 44 @,@ 641 in back taxes . Further , Republican state chairman Bob Gable questioned whether Wilkinson had helped Italian businessmen circumvent laws that made it difficult to export Italian currency by disguising real estate ventures as legitimate business transactions with Jernigan Export Timber . Gable also hired a private investigator who determined that there was " substantial reason " to suspect that foul play was involved in the death of Wilkinson 's business partner , Jerome Jernigan . Despite Gable 's allegations and the investigator 's findings , Lexington police officials said they saw no reason to re @-@ open the investigation . Harper was at a substantial fundraising disadvantage , raising only $ 225 @,@ 000 for the entire campaign compared to Wilkinson 's $ 8 million . This left him unable to purchase enough media time to solidify any of the ethical questions about Wilkinson in the voters ' minds . Wilkinson 's campaign also delved into Harper 's personal life , admitting that it tipped off the media about Harper 's son , who had been shot to death in an attempted burglary .
In the general election , Wilkinson defeated Harper by a vote of 504 @,@ 674 to 273 @,@ 141 . By capturing 65 % of the vote , he broke Julian Carroll 's record of 62 @.@ 8 % . Low voter turnout prohibited him from setting the record for most votes received by a candidate in a Kentucky gubernatorial election , and he received several thousand fewer votes than Brereton Jones , the victorious Democratic candidate for lieutenant governor . He carried 115 of Kentucky 's 120 counties – besting Carroll 's old record of 99 – but lost in Fayette , his county of residence . A poll conducted by a Louisville television station after the election showed that 76 % of voters wished they had another candidate to vote for .
= = = Legislative session of 1988 = = =
Even before he officially took office , some of Wilkinson 's public comments set up an adversarial relationship with the General Assembly . Just two days after his election , he told reporters that he would exert the " full power " of his office toward getting his agenda approved by the legislature and that he " conceive of a situation " where he would use his political action committee ( PAC ) , Kentuckians for a Better Future , to help defeat legislators who opposed him . Under governors Brown and Collins , the legislature had become increasingly independent of the governor , and Lexington Herald @-@ Leader reporters opined that House Speaker Don Blandford and Senate President Pro Tem John " Eck " Rose would be reluctant to cede power back to the chief executive . During the 1988 legislative session , Rose introduced a bill setting a limit of $ 4 @,@ 000 on the amount PACs could contribute to an individual 's campaigns during a single election and a limit of $ 2 @,@ 000 on the amount any individual could contribute to a single PAC in a given election . A month later , Wilkinson recanted , saying he " misspoke " and only intended to use his PAC to promote passage of the lottery amendment . Despite the governor 's promise , the legislature passed Rose 's bill .
Tensions also developed between Wilkinson and Lieutenant Governor @-@ Elect Jones soon after the election . During the campaign , Jones was quoted as saying that he had talked with Wilkinson about being more open with the press and said that , if elected , he would not be a " yes man " for Wilkinson . At a press conference shortly after the election , Wilkinson said he did not know what role Jones would play in his administration and that much of it would depend on what Jones had meant when he said he did not agree with all of Wilkinson 's positions . In late November 1987 , Wilkinson announced that Jones would spearhead the promotion of the administration 's agricultural agenda . The Lexington Herald @-@ Leader reported that this would not be Jones ' primary role in the administration but that no other specifics had been provided .
Although amendments removing Kentucky 's constitutional prohibition on a state lottery had been introduced in every legislative session since the mid @-@ 1970s , Wilkinson 's election provided the issue with fresh momentum , and the General Assembly passed the amendment by the required majorities in the 1988 session . Another amendment passed during Wilkinson 's term required landowner approval before strip mining could occur on a piece of property . This amendment essentially overturned a 1956 court ruling and negated the practice of issuing broad form deeds which allowed property owners to sell their mineral rights while retaining ownership of structures and other improvements above @-@ ground . A third amendment for which Wilkinson advocated would have allowed elected state officials to succeed themselves in office . During his gubernatorial campaign , he insisted that he would not seek to have such an amendment apply to himself , but shortly after his election , he reversed course and insisted on an amendment that did not exclude present incumbents . The amendment became one of Wilkinson 's top priorities in the 1988 legislative session , and he threatened to work against legislators who opposed it . Legislators proposed that a succession amendment include provisions to lengthen the terms of state legislators in order to maintain a balance of power between the executive and legislative branches ; Wilkinson insisted that the General Assembly pass a " clean " succession amendment , free from any other provisions that might diminish the amendment 's chances of being approved by the state 's voters . The Kentucky House of Representatives passed such an amendment , but the state Senate continued to press for legislative concessions , proposing annual legislative sessions and mandatory runoffs in gubernatorial primaries when one candidate did not receive a majority of the votes cast . When Wilkinson rejected both proposals , Senate leaders refused to bring the amendment to the floor for a vote . Wilkinson 's reversal on his campaign promise not to seek succession for present incumbents damaged his reputation .
Wilkinson 's advocacy for the amendment further damaged his relationship with Lieutenant Governor Jones because Jones had already announced his intention to run for governor in 1991 . After the session , Jones told a crowd in Owensboro that if Wilkinson called a special session to insist that legislators pass his educational agenda , that the General Assembly would probably " throw it back in his face " . In response , Wilkinson said that Jones should " be involved in improving the process , not be so negative about everything " and " pay attention to his own business " . A Lexington Herald @-@ Leader story noted that a promised news conference to elaborate on Jones ' role in the administration had not yet happened and that " [ m ] ost observers expect it never will " . The two men 's relationship continued to be strained throughout their terms ; Jones later described it as " terrible " .
= = = Creation of the Kentucky Lottery = = =
Leaders of the Southern Baptists and United Methodists led opposition to the amendment during Wilkinson 's administration , activating the Coalition Against a State Lottery . Despite the opposition , Kentucky voters approved the lottery amendment by a vote of 694 @,@ 577 to 446 @,@ 937 in the November 1988 elections . Days after the election , Wilkinson signed a proclamation calling a special legislative session to begin November 28 to pass legislation to implement the lottery . The call instructed the legislature to consider a bill based on the recommendations of Wilkinson 's lottery commission . The recommendations included the establishment of a lottery board whose president and members would be appointed by the governor and could only be removed by the governor , and earmarked the first year 's proceeds to be split evenly between early childhood education programs , programs for the elderly , and a one @-@ time bonus to veterans of the Vietnam War . Legislators insisted on more legislative control of the lottery and did not favor explicit earmarks for the proceeds , preferring to allocate them in the 1990 legislative session . They also objected to the lottery board 's exemption from open records and open meetings laws .
Immediately after the session convened , Democratic leadership in both houses of the General Assembly announced they would not support earmarking lottery funds , but would let them accumulate in escrow until the 1990 legislative session . On December 14 , legislators adjourned the session after passing a bill that created an eight @-@ member lottery board , headed by a president appointed by the governor and confirmed by the other seven members . The other seven members of the board would serve staggered terms , would be appointed by the governor , and be confirmed by the Senate . The legislation also escrowed proceeds until the 1990 General Assembly and specified that the first expenditures from those proceeds would fund a one @-@ time bonus to veterans of the Vietnam War . The vote on the legislation was 32 – 5 in the Senate and 92 – 6 in the House . Several Republican amendments , including one by Senator David L. Williams to implement a local option for counties to decide whether or not to sell lottery tickets , were defeated on party @-@ line votes . While the legislation did not implement all of Wilkinson 's proposals for the lottery , he nonetheless praised it as a " very good " bill .
= = = Education reform = = =
On May 31 , 1988 , Franklin County circuit court judge Ray Corns issued a ruling in the case of Council for Better Education v. Collins , et al. stating that Kentucky 's system of school financing was unconstitutional . The suit was brought against Wilkinson 's predecessor , Martha Layne Collins , and several members of the state government by a group of poor school districts as a means to equalize funding for all the state 's school districts . An advocate for education , Wilkinson dropped the governor 's office 's defense in the suit and joined the plaintiffs when Corns ' decision was appealed to the Kentucky Supreme Court . On appeal , the Supreme Court declared Kentucky 's entire public school system unconstitutional and mandated that the legislature reform it .
Although state legislators maintained that reforming the public school system was too large an issue to tackle during the 60 @-@ day legislative session of 1990 and requested that Wilkinson call a special legislative session in June 1990 to consider the issue , the governor insisted that the issue be resolved during the regular session and said that he would not allow consideration of tax increases to fund improvements in the system if he had to call a special session . Wilkinson presented a budget proposal to the General Assembly that contained measures increasing taxes on cigarettes and corporations and eliminating sales tax exemptions on legal , engineering , and advertising services . Legislators favored raising the sales tax to six percent instead . For much of the legislative session , Wilkinson remained steadfastly opposed to an increased sales tax , repeatedly calling it a " dead issue " and threatening to veto it . Then on March 9 , 1990 , Wilkinson announced that he would drop his opposition to the tax in exchange for the Assembly 's approval of a $ 600 million bond issue to finance road improvements he had promised during the campaign . The Lexington Herald @-@ Leader called the move " a stunning reversal " and noted that Wilkinson would not comment on why he changed his mind . With the impasse between the legislature and Wilkinson resolved , House Speaker Don Blandford announced that the remainder of the session would focus only on approving the state budget and passing the court @-@ mandated education reforms ; any bills still in committees would not be brought to a vote , he said . On April 11 , 1990 , the Assembly passed the Kentucky Education Reform Act ( KERA ) to comply with the Supreme Court 's decision . Besides increasing funding for schools , it mandated high performance measures and held schools accountable for meeting them . Educators hailed the legislation as being among the nation 's best education reform plans .
Even after KERA was passed , disagreements between Wilkinson and the legislature continued . The $ 600 million bond issue for road construction that had been the price for Wilkinson 's support of the sales tax was modified to include language that allowed the legislature to determine where the roads were constructed . Wilkinson threatened to veto the measure , claiming he did not need the General Assembly 's approval to issue the bonds , but ultimately , he chose to allow it to become law without his signature . Wilkinson vetoed 21 bills passed by the legislature , but 13 of those vetoes were overridden ; it was the most gubernatorial vetoes overridden in a single session in modern times . Most of the overridden vetoes were on bills strengthening the legislative branch relative to the executive branch . The General Assembly also voted to send two proposed constitutional amendments that strengthened the legislative branch relative to the executive to voters for ratification . One allowed the legislature to call itself into session – a power constitutionally reserved for the governor – if two @-@ thirds of its members signed a petition to do so . The other allowed a committee of legislators to suspend regulations enacted by the executive branch between legislative sessions until the full legislature re @-@ convened . Through his political action committee , Wilkinson opposed both measures , and both were rejected by the state 's voters in the November 1990 elections .
The political debates and posturing leading up to the passing of KERA also permanently breached the relationship between Wilkinson and Lieutenant Governor Jones . During a teachers ' rally in Frankfort , Jones was sympathetic to their demands for more money for education than Wilkinson was supporting . Jones wanted to speak to the crowd that had gathered outside the Capitol . While in the governor 's office , Wilkinson told Jones that if he spoke to the crowd , he should never " step foot in this office again . " Jones defied Wilkinson by speaking to the teachers and , according to Penny Miller , editor of Jones ' public papers , never again entered Wilkinson 's office .
= = = Other matters of Wilkinson 's term = = =
Wilkinson also advanced economic development in the state . During his tenure , Delta Air Lines nearly doubled the number of people it employed at the Cincinnati / Northern Kentucky International Airport ; Wilkinson secured Delta 's expansion by agreeing to limit the company 's sales tax liability on jet fuel to $ 4 million annually . Additionally , Scott Paper Company opened a plant near Owensboro and North American Stainless , a Spanish @-@ owned steel company , located a plant near Carrollton . During his term in office , Wilkinson served on the Education Commission of the States , the Southern Growth Policies Board , and the Council of the State Governments and the Southern States Energy Board . He was elected chair of the Southern Governors Association in 1990 and served on the Education Commission of the States ' Policy and Priorities Committee .
The Wilkinson administration was dogged by ethical questions that eventually resulted in prosecution of some members . Before being elected governor , Wilkinson asked the Kentucky attorney general to rule on his ownership of the Holiday Inn Capital Plaza Hotel in Frankfort . The ruling stated that he should sell the hotel , and in November 1987 , Kentucky Central Life Insurance , a state @-@ regulated company , purchased the property for $ 12 million , which included $ 8 @.@ 2 million of debt . Kentucky Central became insolvent in 1994 and was ordered into liquidation . The following year , Kentucky Insurance Commissioner George Nichols III assumed the liquidation and brought suit against Wilkinson stating that the property was only worth $ 6 million . Franklin County Circuit Judge Earl O 'Bannon dismissed the lawsuit on the grounds that Wilkinson had not knowingly participated in Kentucky Central 's breach of financial responsibility , even though it had , in his words , an " odor of politics . " Further , an investigation of the Kentucky General Assembly by the FBI ( Operation Boptrot ) led to Wilkinson 's nephew , Bruce N. Wilkinson , who served as his appointment secretary . Bruce Wilkinson was convicted of extortion , fined $ 20 @,@ 000 , and sentenced to three years in prison . Wallace Wilkinson was investigated by a grand jury but never indicted . He vehemently denied any wrongdoing .
In 1990 , Wilkinson 's wife , Martha , announced that she would seek the Democratic gubernatorial nomination in 1991 . The move was widely seen as a surrogate candidacy so that her husband could continue his administration for a second consecutive term . Her challengers included Lieutenant Governor Jones , Lexington mayor Scotty Baesler , and Dr. Floyd G. Poore , the former Kentucky highway director . With polls consistently showing little support for her candidacy , Mrs. Wilkinson dropped out of the race in May 1991 . Earlier in the year , Wallace Wilkinson was diagnosed with limited @-@ stage Non @-@ Hodgkin lymphoma . This diagnosis was also a factor in Ms. Wilkinson 's withdrawal from the race . Wallace underwent surgery at the Mayo Clinic in Rochester , Minnesota , then received radiation therapy at the University of Kentucky . These treatments eliminated all signs of the disease by 1993 , and doctors gave Wilkinson an excellent chance of recovery .
As Wilkinson 's term ended , he appointed himself to a six @-@ year term on the University of Kentucky 's board of regents . The move was unprecedented , and was particularly controversial because of Wilkinson 's open feuds with Charles T. Wethington , Jr . , the university president . An incensed legislature passed a law shortly thereafter that dissolved the existing boards of trustees at all Kentucky public colleges and universities and mandated that they be reconstituted by allowing the governor to select each member from a list of three candidates recommended by an independent review board . Jones , who succeeded Wilkinson as governor , used the provisions of the law to remove Wilkinson and several of his appointees from the university boards .
= = Later life and death = =
After his service as governor , Wilkinson returned to his business pursuits . In the early 1990s , he began borrowing money to keep his bookstore business solvent and to support his lavish lifestyle . His interest in running for another non @-@ consecutive term as governor appeared to be dampened by the system of public financing that Kentucky had in place at that time for gubernatorial elections . In 1995 , he published his memoir entitled You Can 't Do That , Governor ! ; a major theme of the book was his disdain for conventional wisdom and political norms . In 1999 , he launched ECampus.com , an Internet book retailer . Among the investors in the company were Wendy 's founder Dave Thomas , Long John Silver 's founder James Patterson , and Ohio State University president William English Kirwan .
On February 5 , 2001 , a group of Wilkinson 's creditors filed suit to have his companies seized . During the ensuing bankruptcy proceedings , Wilkinson admitted that his liabilities exceeded his assets by $ 300 million . During the proceedings , it was revealed that Wilkinson had been financially insolvent since 1992 and was operating a Ponzi scheme , paying his creditors with money borrowed from others rather than his own profits . He had paid no federal income taxes since 1991 . At his deposition in June 2001 , Wilkinson invoked his Fifth Amendment privilege against self @-@ incrimination over 140 times . Wallace 's Bookstore was liquidated for just over $ 31 million , and ecampus.com was sold for $ 2 @.@ 5 million . Wilkinson 's wife , Martha , also filed for bankruptcy ; his sons were forced to sell their homes to repay loans made to them by their father . During the bankruptcy proceedings , the Wilkinsons moved from Lexington to Naples , Florida .
While in Lexington for a deposition on May 26 , 2002 , Wilkinson began to experience chest pains and was admitted to St. Joseph 's Hospital . Doctors diagnosed him with arterial blockages and scheduled him for arterial bypass surgery . Before the surgery could be performed , however , doctors discovered another lymphatic mass . Wilkinson began taking chemotherapy , and doctors removed the mass on June 4 , 2002 . Wilkinson was placed on life support on June 26 , 2002 . He suffered a stroke on July 4 , 2002 . Wilkinson had previously instructed his family not to continue life support after all hope of recovery was gone ; accordingly , they decided to withdraw life support , and Wilkinson died on July 5 , 2002 . He was originally buried at Blue Grass Memorial Gardens in Nicholasville , Kentucky . In August 2002 , his coffin was moved to a locked mausoleum at Sarasota Memorial Park in Sarasota , Florida ; the family chose July 4 , 2002 as the date of death for his marker . The city of Liberty dubbed the stretch of the U.S. 127 bypass that runs through the city Wallace Wilkinson Boulevard in 1987 .
= Trevor Tierney =
Trevor R. Tierney is a current National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) men 's lacrosse assistant coach , former Major League Lacrosse ( MLL ) defensive coordinator and retired lacrosse goaltender who has played professional box lacrosse in the National Lacrosse League ( NLL ) and professional field lacrosse in MLL . Trevor starred as a member of the Princeton Tigers men 's lacrosse team from 1998 through 2001 , where he was a NCAA goaltender of the year , two @-@ time United States Intercollegiate Lacrosse Association ( USILA ) All @-@ American ( first team once ) , a national goals against average ( GAA ) and save percentage statistical champion and a member of two national champion teams .
During his time at Princeton , the team qualified for the NCAA Men 's Lacrosse Championship all four years , reached the championship game three times , won the championship game twice and won four Ivy League championships . Trevor was a co @-@ captain of the second national champion team he participated on . For five years , Tierney held the NCAA goaltending all @-@ time records and continues to hold the Princeton University career GAA record . He is the son of Hall of Fame coach Bill Tierney .
He was a two @-@ time Team USA goaltender for the World Lacrosse Championships and a former All @-@ World goaltender . He is a three @-@ time MLL All @-@ Star and won a MLL championship . Since retiring he has become a defensive coordinator for MLL 's Denver Outlaws and a defensive assistant for his fathers Denver Pioneers team .
= = Background = =
Tierney attended the Hun School of Princeton , where he played goaltender .
= = College career = =
At Princeton Trevor Tierney was awarded the 2001 Ensign C. Markland Kelly , Jr . Award as the best National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) lacrosse goaltender . He was a first team USILA All @-@ American Team selection in 2001 and honorable mention selection in 2000 . Trevor was also a 2000 honorable mention All @-@ Ivy League selection , 2001 first team All @-@ Ivy selection , 2000 Academic All @-@ Ivy selection , and a 2001 USILA Scholar All @-@ American . He served as co @-@ captain of the 2001 team . Tierney was the 2001 national statistical champion for goals against average ( GAA ) ( 5 @.@ 70 ) and save percentage ( .671 ) . He held NCAA the career ( 6 @.@ 65 ) and single ( 5 @.@ 70 ) season GAA record from 2001 until they were both surpassesd in 2006 by Navy 's Matt Russell . His career GAA continues to be a Princeton record . During his four @-@ year career , Princeton went undefeated in Ivy League Conference play with consecutive 6 – 0 records . Princeton was invited to the 1999 tournament , was a finalist in the 2000 tournament and earned championships in both the 1998 and 2001 tournaments , bringing the schools consecutive tournament invitations streak to twelve .
As a freshman playing for his father 's team , Trevor Tierney was able to get playing time during the 1998 regular season because Princeton was winning their games by a large margin . In the 1998 NCAA championship quarterfinals , he came in as a substitute with his team behind by four goals and shut out Duke for 32 minutes as Princeton rallied for an 11 – 9 victory . This led to a minor controversy over who would start for the remaining tournament games . Corey Popham ended up playing and earning NCAA Tournament Most Outstanding Player . In the semifinals of the 2000 NCAA championship , Trevor made 14 saves as his younger brother Brendan Tierney scored two fourth quarter goals to lead Princeton to a 12 – 11 victory over Virginia . In 2001 , Trevor was one of five finalists for the Tewaaraton Trophy as the outstanding male player in college lacrosse . In the 2001 semifinal 12 – 11 victory over Towson State , he made game @-@ saving last @-@ minute point @-@ blank saves to secure the victory .
= = Professional career = =
Tierney was drafted by the New Jersey Pride with the second overall selection in the 2001 MLL Draft . He played with the Pride from 2001 until 2004 when he was traded to the Boston Cannons . He also played in the NLL with the Colorado Mammoth in 2003 . In MLL , he was traded to the Baltimore Bayhawks , where he earned his first Major League Lacrosse All @-@ Star Game selection in 2005 and a MLL Championship . In 2006 , Tierney was part of what is believed to have been the largest trade in professional sports , involving 6 teams and 24 players when he was traded from the Bayhawks to the Denver Outlaws . He earned two more All @-@ Star selections in 2006 and 2007 with the Outlaws , before becoming their defensive coordinator in 2008 . Tierney retired from active play due to a series of concussions . The final career @-@ ending concussion occurred during warm @-@ ups on June 16 , 2007 against the Rochester Rattlers .
Trevor Tierney represented Team USA at the 2002 and 2006 World Lacrosse Championships earning a gold and silver medal , respectively . On the 2006 team , he was one of four Princeton athletes . At the 2002 World Championship , he was selected as the tournament 's All @-@ World goaltender . In the semifinal match that year Trevor made seven first half saves as Team USA built a 9 – 2 lead over the Iroquois Nation . He was nominated as a finalist ( one of 5 goaltenders ) for MLL 's first All @-@ decade team in celebration of the first ten years of the league . Trevor is the only goalie to have won a NCAA Men 's Lacrosse Championship , an International Lacrosse Federation World Lacrosse Championship and a Major League Lacrosse Steinfeld Cup Championship .
In 2010 , Trevor Tierney joined his father 's coaching staff for the Denver Pioneers as the defensive assistant coach and yoga instructor . He left his position with the Outlaws to concentrate on his role on his father 's staff .
= = Personal = =
Trevor Tierney is the son of Helen and Bill Tierney and is the oldest of their four children . He is from an athletic family . In addition to his Hall of Fame father , all of his siblings are athletes and coaches . Brendan was a teammate on the 2001 championship team at Princeton . His sister Courtney Tierney , a former Franklin & Marshall basketball player , is the head girls ' basketball coach at Pennington Prep . Brianne Tierney , who played lacrosse at Colgate University , is the head women 's lacrosse coach at Lebanon Valley College .
= Antrodia serialiformis =
Antrodia serialiformis is a species of polypore fungus in the family Fomitopsidaceae . The fungus is resupinate , consisting of a fertile spore @-@ bearing pore surface lying flat on the underside of decaying wood , although one or more fan @-@ shaped overlapping caps may also be formed . Although quite common in the eastern United States , it was not recognized as a distinct species until 2009 , owing to its resemblance to the closely related Antrodia serialis . Differences in ecology , spore size , and DNA sequences distinguish the two lookalikes .
= = Taxonomy = =
Antrodia serialiformis was described as a new species by Jiří Kout and Josef Vlasák in the journal Mycotaxon in 2009 . The publication resulted from research conducted by Kout for his 2009 work on ecology and taxonomy of polypores , a PhD dissertation conducted under the supervision of Vlasák . The holotype material was collected from Wissahickon Creek Park ( Philadelphia ) in 2008 ; the species description is based on collections made from 2001 – 2008 . Vlasák had first noted the presence of the species and its similarity to the common European species Antrodia serialiformis in a 2004 publication . The degree of variability between the DNA sequences of the internal transcribed spacer regions Antrodia serialiformis and A. serialis confirm that the two species are genetically distinct . The specific epithet serialiformis refers to its resemblance to A. serialis ( the Latin adjective -formis derives from forma , meaning " having the form of " ) .
Molecular analysis shows that Antrodia leucaena , A. infirma , A. primaeva , and A. variiformis are closely related species .
= = Description = =
The perennial fruit bodies of A. serialiformis are effused @-@ reflexed ( that is , on a vertical surface that is partially lying flat on the substrate with the hymenium covering the upper surface , and partially pileate ) . In its upper part it has small caps that are often elongated along the growing surface , up to 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) or more in length , with a tough texture . The individual caps , which reach dimensions of up to 10 by 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 4 by 0 @.@ 8 in ) by 7 mm ( 0 @.@ 3 in ) , have roughly horizontal upper surfaces that are velvety , and brownish with a narrow white margin . On the underside of the cap , the pore surface is initially white , but turns dirty brown as it matures . The individual pores are round and small , numbering from 3 to 4 per millimeter . The tubes are the same color as the pore surface , and up to 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 2 in ) deep . The flesh is white and up to 1 mm thick . Fruit bodies are often infested with microlepidoptera species , which causes the pore surface to be powdery .
Antrodia serialiformis has a dimitic hyphal system , meaning that predominantly two types of hyphae comprise the fruit body . The generative hyphae ( relatively undifferentiated hyphae that can develop reproductive structures ) are thin @-@ walled , with clamp connections , and are 2 – 3 µm wide . The skeletal hyphae ( thick @-@ walled and long ) predominate ; they are hyaline ( translucent ) , straight , and 2 – 5 µm in width . Cystidia are absent , and cystidioles ( cells in the hymenium about the same size as the basidia , but remaining sterile ) are inconspicuous . The basidia are club @-@ shaped , four @-@ spored , and have a clamp connection at their bases ; they measure 12 – 18 by 4 – 6 µm . The thin @-@ walled spores are ellipsoid to somewhat tapered at both ends , hyaline , inamyloid ( non @-@ staining in Melzer 's reagent ) , and measure 4 @.@ 5 – 5 @.@ 5 by 2 – 2 @.@ 3 µm .
= = = Mycelial cultures and compatibility tests = = =
Grown on agar plates , the mycelia of A. serialiformis and A. serialis have identical chemical reactivity , and are rather similar in appearance , although the authors note that the former 's was more cottony than the latter 's . The authors mated several combinations of North American collections using vegetative compatibility tests , and confirmed the presence of different mating alleles — indicating that all of the North American collections represented a single species . Similar pairings performed between North American and European collections showed the species to be incompatible , and therefore distinct .
= = = Similar species = = =
Antrodia serialiformis is similar in appearance to A. serialis , but the latter has larger spores ( 6 @.@ 3 – 8 by 2 @.@ 2 – 3 @.@ 3 µm ) . The two can be distinguished in the field by their substrate preferences : while A. serialis usually fruits on coniferous wood , A. serialiformis grows strictly on old decorticated oak trunks .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
The fungus grows on lying oak logs in Pennsylvania , Maryland , Virginia , North Carolina , and Tennessee . However , owing to its similarity with Antrodia serialis , it is likely the two have been confused in the past , and so the true limits of its distribution are unclear . The authors suggests that it probably occurs in other southeastern states of the US as well , and consider it " one of the most common polypore species in the eastern USA " . A. serialiformis is sometimes found together with the much rarer Antrodia oleracea , a grayish , strictly resupinate species .
= Puck ( moon ) =
Puck ( / ˈpʌk / PUK ) is an inner moon of Uranus . It was discovered in December 1985 by the Voyager 2 spacecraft . The name Puck follows the convention of naming Uranus 's moons after characters from Shakespeare . The orbit of Puck lies between the rings of Uranus and the first of Uranus 's large moons , Miranda . Puck is approximately spherical in shape and has diameter of about 162 km . It has a dark , heavily cratered surface , which shows spectral signs of water ice .
= = Discovery and naming = =
Puck — the largest inner moon of Uranus — was discovered from the images taken by Voyager 2 on 30 December 1985 . It was given the temporary designation S / 1985 U 1 .
The moon was later named after the character Puck who appears in Shakespeare 's A Midsummer Night 's Dream , a little sprite who travels around the globe at night with the fairies . In Celtic mythology and English folklore , a Puck is a mischievous sprite , imagined as an evil demon by Christians .
It is also designated Uranus XV .
= = Physical characteristics = =
Puck is the largest small inner moon of Uranus , which orbits inside the orbit of Miranda . It is intermediate in size between Portia ( the second @-@ largest inner moon ) and Miranda ( the smallest of the five large classical moons ) . Puck 's orbit is located between the rings of Uranus and Miranda . Little is known about Puck aside from its orbit , radius of about 81 km , and geometric albedo in visible light of approximately 0 @.@ 11 .
Of the moons discovered by the Voyager 2 imaging team , only Puck was discovered early enough that the probe could be programmed to image it in some detail . Images showed that Puck has a shape of a slightly prolate spheroid ( ratio between axes is 0 @.@ 97 ± 0 @.@ 04 ) . Its surface is heavily cratered and is grey in color . There are three named craters on the surface of Puck , the largest being about 45 km in diameter . Observations with the Hubble Space Telescope and large terrestrial telescopes found water @-@ ice absorption features in the spectrum of Puck .
Nothing is known about the internal structure of Puck . It is probably made of a mixture of water ice with the dark material similar to that found in the rings . This dark material is probably made of rocks or radiation @-@ processed organics . The absence of craters with bright rays implies that Puck is not differentiated , meaning that ice and non @-@ ice components have not separated from each other into a core and mantle .
= The Kindly Ones ( Littell novel ) =
The Kindly Ones ( French : Les Bienveillantes ) is a historical fiction novel written in French by American @-@ born author Jonathan Littell . The book is narrated by its fictional protagonist Maximilien Aue , a former SS officer of French and German ancestry who helped to carry out the Holocaust and was present during several major events of World War II .
The 983 @-@ page book became a bestseller in France and was widely discussed in newspapers , magazines , academic journals , books and seminars . It was also awarded two of the most prestigious French literary awards , the Grand Prix du roman de l 'Académie française and the Prix Goncourt in 2006 , and has been translated into several languages .
= = Background = =
The title Les Bienveillantes ( The Kindly Ones ) refers to the trilogy of ancient Greek tragedies The Oresteia written by Aeschylus . The Erinyes or Furies were vengeful goddesses who tracked and tormented those who murdered a parent . In the plays , Orestes , who has killed his mother Clytemnestra to avenge his father Agamemnon , was pursued by these female goddesses . The goddess Athena intervenes , setting up a jury trial to judge the Furies ' case against Orestes . Athena casts the deciding vote which acquits Orestes , then pleads with the Furies to accept the trial 's verdict and to transform themselves into " most loved of gods , with me to show and share fair mercy , gratitude and grace as fair . " The Furies accept and are renamed the Eumenides or Kindly Ones ( in French Les Bienveillantes ) .
Andrew Nurnberg , Littell 's literary agent , said that a possible one @-@ line description of the novel would be : " The intimate memoirs of an ex @-@ Nazi mass murderer . " When asked why he wrote such a book , Littell invokes a photo he discovered in 1989 of Zoya Kosmodemyanskaya , a female Soviet partisan hanged by the Nazis in 1941 . He adds that a bit later , in 1992 , he watched the movie Shoah by Claude Lanzmann , which left an impression on him , especially the discussion by Raul Hilberg about the bureaucratic aspect of genocide .
In 2001 , Littell decided to quit his job at Action Against Hunger and started research which lasted 18 months , during which he went to Germany , Ukraine , Russia and Poland , and read around 200 books , mainly about Nazi Germany , the Eastern Front , the Nuremberg Trials , and the genocide process . In addition , the author studied the literature and film archives of World War II and the post @-@ war trials . Littell worked on this novel for about five years . This book is his first novel written in French and his second novel after the science fiction themed Bad Voltage in 1989 .
Littell said he wanted to focus on the thinking of an executioner and of origins of state murder , showing how we can take decisions that lead , or not , to a genocide . Littell claims he set out creating the character Max Aue by imagining what he would have done and how he would have behaved if he had been born into Nazi Germany . One childhood event that kept Littell interested in the question of being a killer was the Vietnam War . According to him , his childhood terror was that he would be drafted , sent to Vietnam " and made to kill women and children who hadn 't done anything to me . "
Whereas the influence of Greek tragedies is clear from the choice of title , the absent father , and the roles of incest and parricide , Littell makes it clear that he was influenced by more than the structure of The Oresteia . He found that the idea of morality in Ancient Greece is more relevant for making judgments about responsibility for the Holocaust than the Judeo @-@ Christian approach , wherein the idea of sin can be blurred by the concepts such as intentional sin , unintentional sin , sinning by thought , or sinning by deed . For the Greeks it was the commission of the act itself upon which one is judged : Oedipus is guilty of patricide , even if he did not know that he was killing his father .
= = Plot = =
The book is a fictional autobiography , describing the life of Maximilien Aue , a former officer in the SS who , decades later , tells the story of a crucial part of his life when he was an active member of the security forces of the Third Reich . Aue begins his narrative as a member of an Einsatzgruppe in 1941 , before being sent to the doomed German forces locked in the Battle of Stalingrad , which he survives . After a convalescence period in Berlin , and a visit to France , he is designated for an advisory role for the concentration camps , and visits the extermination camps . He is ultimately present during the 1945 Battle of Berlin , the Nazi regime 's last stand . By the end of the story , he flees Germany under a false French identity to start a new life in northern France . Throughout the account , Aue meets several famous Nazis , including Adolf Eichmann , Heinrich Himmler and Adolf Hitler . In the book , Aue accepts responsibility for his actions , but most of the time he feels more like an observer than a direct participant .
The book is divided into seven chapters , each named after a baroque dance , following the sequence of a Bach Suite . The narrative of each chapter is influenced by the rhythm of each dance .
« Toccata » : In this introduction , we are introduced to the narrator , and discover how he has ended up in France after the war . He is the director of a lace factory , has a wife , children , and grandchildren , though he has no real affection for his family and continues his homosexual encounters when he travels on business . He hints of an incestuous love , which we learn later was for his twin sister . He explains that he has decided to write about his experiences during the war for his own benefit and not as an attempt to justify himself . He closes the introduction by saying , " I live , I do what can be done , it 's the same for everyone , I am a man like other men , I am a man like you . I tell you I am just like you ! "
« Allemande I & II » : Aue describes his service as an officer in one of the Einsatzgruppen extermination squads operating in the Ukraine , as well as later in the Caucasus ( a major theme is the racial classification , and thus fate , of the region 's Mountain Jews ) . Aue 's group is attached to the 6th Army in Ukraine , where he witnesses the Lviv pogroms and participates in the enormous massacre at Babi Yar . He describes in detail the killing of Soviet Jews , Communists , alleged partisans and other victims of the " special operations " . Although he seems to become increasingly indifferent to the atrocities he is witnessing and sometimes taking part in , he begins to experience daily bouts of vomiting and suffers a mental breakdown . After taking sick leave , he is transferred to Otto Ohlendorf 's Einsatzgruppe D only to encounter much hostility from his new SS colleagues , who openly spread rumours of his homosexuality . Aue is then charged with the assignment of proving to the Wehrmacht that the Mountain Jews were historically Jewish rather than later converts to Judaism . After he fails in this task , due to political pressure from the beleaguered Army , his disappointed commanding officer arranged that he be transferred to the doomed German forces at Stalingrad in late 1942 .
« Courante » : Aue thus takes part in the final phase of the struggle for Stalingrad . As with the massacres , he is mostly an observer , the narrator rather than the combatant . In the midst of the mayhem and starvation , he manages to have a discussion with a captured Soviet political commissar about the similarities between the Nazi and the Bolshevik world views , and once again is able to indicate his
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intellectual support for Nazi ideas . Aue gets shot in the head and seriously wounded , but is miraculously evacuated just before the German surrender in February 1943 .
« Sarabande » : Convalescing in Berlin , Aue is awarded the Iron Cross 1st Class , by the SS chief Heinrich Himmler himself , for his duty at Stalingrad . While still on sick leave , he decides to visit his mother and stepfather in Antibes , in Italian @-@ occupied France . Apparently , while he is in a deep sleep , his mother and stepfather are brutally murdered . Max flees from the house without notifying anybody and returns to Berlin .
« Menuet en rondeaux » : Aue is transferred to Heinrich Himmler 's personal staff , where he is assigned an at @-@ large supervisory role for the concentration camps . He struggles to improve the living conditions of those prisoners selected to work in the factories as slave laborers , in order to improve their productivity . Aue meets Nazi bureaucrats organizing the implentation of the Final Solution ( i.e. , Eichmann , Oswald Pohl , and Rudolf Höß ) and is given a glimpse of extermination camps ( i.e. , Auschwitz and Belzec ) ; he also spends some time in Budapest , just when preparations are being made for transporting Hungarian Jews to Auschwitz . Aue witnesses the tug @-@ of @-@ war between those who are concerned with war production ( Albert Speer ) and those who are doggedly trying to implement the Final Solution . It is during this period that two police detectives from the Kripo , who are investigating the murders of his mother and stepfather , begin to visit him regularly . Like the Furies , they hound and torment him with their questions , which indicate their suspicions about his role in the crime .
« Air » : Max visits his sister and brother @-@ in @-@ law 's empty house in Pomerania . There , he engages in a veritable autoerotic orgy particularly fueled by fantasy images of his twin sister . The two police officers follow his trail to the house , but he manages to hide from them . However , Aue soon finds himself trapped when the Red Army rapidly invades and occupies Pomerania .
« Gigue » : Accompanied by his friend Thomas , who has come to rescue him , and escorted by a violent band of fanatical and half @-@ feral orphaned German children , Max makes his way through the Soviet @-@ occupied territory and across the front line . Arriving in Berlin , Max , Thomas , and many of their colleagues prepare for escape in the chaos of the last days of the Third Reich ; Thomas ' own plan is to impersonate a French laborer . Aue meets and is personally decorated by Hitler in the Führerbunker . During the decoration ceremony , Aue inexplicably bites the Führer 's nose and is immediately arrested . When he is transported to his execution , the car is hit by an artillery shell , enabling him to escape . Aue flees through the Berlin U @-@ Bahn subway tunnels , where he encounters his police pursuers again . Though their case has been repeatedly thrown out of court , the two detectives , unwilling to accept defeat , decided to track Aue down and execute him extrajudicially . Barely escaping when the Soviets storm the tunnels and kill one of the policemen , Aue wanders aimlessly in the ruined streets of war @-@ torn Berlin before deciding to make a break for it . Making his way through the wasteland of the destroyed Berlin Zoo , he is yet again faced by the surviving policeman . Thomas shows up to kill the policeman , only to himself be killed by Aue , who steals from him the papers and uniform of a French STO conscripted worker .
The readers know from the beginning of the book that Aue 's perfect mastery of the French language will allow him to slip away back to France with a new identity as a returning Frenchman . In the last paragraph of the novel , the narrator , after he ruthlessly killed his friend and protector , suddenly finds himself " alone with time and sadness " : " The Kindly Ones were on to me . " But in the end , all is not explicitly laid out for the reader ; for Littell , in the words of one reviewer , " excels in the unsaid . "
= = Characters = =
= = = Maximilien Aue = = =
Maximilien Aue is a former officer of the SD , security and intelligence service of the SS ; the book is written in the form of his memoirs . His mother was French ( from Alsace ) , while his father , who left his mother and disappeared from their life in 1921 , was German . Aue 's mother remarried a Frenchman , Aristide Moreau , which Maximilien highly disapproved of . After a childhood in Germany and an adolescence in France , where he attends Sciences @-@ Po , he later returns to Germany to study at the University of Berlin and the Kiel Institute for the World Economy . It is also during this period when he joins the SS , eventually rising to the rank of Obersturmbannführer . Aue is a cultured , highly educated , classical music @-@ loving intellectual . He speaks many languages fluently – German , French , Ancient Greek and Latin – and holds a doctorate in law . Despite his French heritage and upbringing , he is , like his father , an ardent German nationalist . Even after the war , he is unrepentant of the crimes he committed in the name of National Socialism , " believing that it was my duty and that it had to be done , disagreeable or unpleasant as it may have been . " He is extremely attracted to his twin sister Una , which led to an incestuous relationship with her when they were children , but ended when they entered puberty . Refusing to truly love any woman other than Una , he becomes a homosexual but continues to fantasize about having sex with Una .
The character appears to be in part inspired by Léon Degrelle , a Belgian fascist leader , Nazi collaborator and Waffen @-@ SS officer who was the subject of Littell 's short book Le sec et l ’ humide : Une brève incursion en territoire fasciste ( " The dry and wet : A brief foray into fascist territory " ) . A number of critics compared Aue 's omnipresence in the world of the novel to that of Winston Groom 's character Forrest Gump .
= = = Aue 's family = = =
Una Aue / Frau Von Üxküll – Una Aue is Maximilien 's twin sister . She is married to the aristocrat Berndt von Üxküll , and although she appears only briefly in person , she dominates Aue 's imagination , particularly his sexual fantasies and hallucinations . She lived with her husband on his estate in Pomerania , but apparently moved to Switzerland with him towards the end of the war . Like her husband , she is critical of Germany 's National Socialist regime which , along with his hatred of their mother and stepfather , and his attraction to her , led to her being estranged from Aue following the war .
Berndt Von Üxküll – Von Üxkül is a paraplegic junker from Pomerania and a composer who is married to Una . A World War I veteran , he fought alongside Aue 's father in the Freikorps , whom he describes as a sadist . Despite essentially agreeing with their nationalist and antisemitic ideology , he distances himself from the Nazis . His name is possibly a reference to Nikolaus Graf von Üxküll @-@ Gyllenband , an anti @-@ Nazi resistant and uncle of Claus von Stauffenberg , a central figure in the failed plot to assassinate Hitler .
Héloïse Aue ( Héloïse Moreau ) – Max 's mother , who , believing her first husband to be dead , remarried Aristide Moreau . Max does not accept that his father is dead and never forgives his mother for remarrying . Héloïse also disapproves of Max 's joining the Nazis , which further strains their relationship .
Aristide Moreau – Max 's stepfather , who is apparently connected to the French Resistance . Moreau is also the name of the " hero " from Gustave Flaubert 's Sentimental Education , a book that Aue reads later in the novel . Aristide is reminiscent in French of Atrides , the name given to the descendants of Atreus , among whom figure Agamemnon , Orestes and Electra .
The twins , Tristan and Orlando – Mysterious twin children who live with the Moreaus , but are most likely the offspring of the incestuous relationship between Aue and his sister . The epic poem Orlando Furioso is marked by the themes of love and madness , while the legend of Tristan and Iseult tells the story of an impossible love , two themes that can be found in The Kindly Ones .
= = = Other fictional main characters = = =
Thomas Hauser – Thomas is Max 's closest friend and the only person who appears in one capacity or another wherever he is posted . A highly educated , multilingual SS officer like Max , he is Aue 's main source of information about bureaucratic Nazi politics . He helps Max in a number of ways , both in advancing his career as well as rescuing him from his sister 's house in Pomerania . He saves Max 's life at the end of the novel .
Hélène Anders née Winnefeld – A young widow whom Aue meets through Thomas , while working in Berlin . When Max becomes seriously ill , she voluntarily comes to his apartment and nurses him back to health . While she is attracted to him , as he initially expresses interest in her , due to his feelings for his sister , as well as his homosexual tendencies , he coldly turns her down and away . She leaves Berlin for her parents ' house and writes , asking if he intends to marry her . She does not appear again in the novel . In the Greek mythology , Helen marries Menelaus , brother of Agamemnon .
Dr. Mandelbrod – The mysterious Dr. Mandelbrod plays an important role behind the scenes as Aue 's protector and promoter with high @-@ level NSDAP connections , particularly with Himmler . He was an admirer of Max 's father and grandfather . At the end of the book he is seen packing his bags to join the enemy , offering his services to the Soviet Union .
Kriminalkommissars Weser and Clemens – A pair of Kriminalpolizei detectives who are in charge of the investigation into the murders of Aue 's mother and her husband . They question and pursue Aue throughout the war , as if he were a prime murder suspect , despite the cases being repeatedly thrown out . They play the role of the Erinyes in the novel .
Dr. Hohenegg – Aue 's friend , a doctor interested in nutrition as well as the condition of soldiers and prisoners in concentration camps . Aue meets him in Ukraine during the German offensive against the Soviet Union . They both take part in battle of Stalingrad and successfully escape before the German surrender . They reunite in Berlin , with Hohenegg revealing to Max how he saved his life by convincing doctors at Stalingrad to operate on him and transport him back to Germany , rather than leaving him for dead . He is depicted at different points in the book .
Dr. Voss – A lieutenant sent in to the Eastern Front ( where he befriends Aue ) by the Abwehr and actually a university investigator and specialist in Indo @-@ Germanic , Indo @-@ Iranian and Caucasian languages .
= = = Historical characters = = =
Littell also includes many historical figures that Max encounters throughout the novel . Amongst them are :
Top @-@ ranking Nazis : Werner Best , Martin Bormann , Hermann Fegelein , Hans Frank , Reinhard Heydrich , Heinrich Himmler , Adolf Hitler , Ernst Kaltenbrunner , Heinrich Müller , Arthur Nebe , Walter Schellenberg and Albert Speer .
Other Nazis : Richard Baer , Walter Bierkamp , Paul Blobel , Rudolf Brandt , Adolf Eichmann , Otto Förschner , Odilo Globocnik , Rudolf Höß , Hans Kammler , Arthur Liebehenschel , Josef Mengele , Theodor Oberländer , Otto Ohlendorf , Otto Rasch , Walther von Reichenau . Franz Six , Eduard Wirths and Dieter Wisliceny .
French collaborators : Robert Brasillach and Lucien Rebatet .
Contemporary writers that have no interaction with Aue are Ernst Jünger , Charles Maurras , Louis @-@ Ferdinand Céline and Paul Carell . Historians cited by Aue are Alan Bullock , Raul Hilberg and Hugh Trevor @-@ Roper .
= = Reception = =
= = = The original French edition = = =
Besides winning two of the most prestigious literary prizes in France ( Grand Prix du roman de l 'Académie française and Prix Goncourt ) , Les Bienveillantes was generally very favourably reviewed in the French literary press . Le Figaro proclaimed Littell " man of the year " . The editor of the Nouvel Observateur 's literary section called it " a great book " and the weekly Le Point stated that the novel has " exploded onto the dreary plain of the literary autumn like a meteor . " Even though French filmmaker and professor Claude Lanzmann had mixed feelings about the book , he said : " I am familiar with his subject , and above all I was astounded by the absolute accuracy of the novel . Everything is correct . " French historian Pierre Nora called it " an extraordinary literary and historical phenomenon . " The book has been compared to War and Peace for its similar scope and ambition .
The Spectator 's literary reviewer , Anita Brookner , based on her reading of the novel in the original French , described the book as a " masterly novel ... diabolically ( and I use the word advisedly ) clever . It is also impressive , not merely as an act of impersonation but perhaps above all for the fiendish diligence with which it is carried out ... presuppose ( s ) formidable research on the part of the author , who is American , educated in France and writing fluent , idiomatic and purposeful French . This tour de force , which not everyone will welcome , outclasses all other fictions and will continue to do so for some time to come . No summary can do it justice . " The Observer ' s Paris correspondent , Jason Burke , praised the book as an " extraordinary Holocaust novel asks what it is that turns normal people into mass killers , " adding that " notwithstanding the controversial subject matter , this is an extraordinarily powerful novel . "
Initially , Littell thought that his book would sell around three to five thousand copies . Éditions Gallimard , his publishing house , was more optimistic and decided to print 12 @,@ 000 copies . Word of mouth and the enthusiastic reviews soon catapulted sales to such an extent that Gallimard had to stop publishing the latest Harry Potter novel in order to meet the demand for The Kindly Ones , which ended up selling more than 700 @,@ 000 copies in France by the end of 2007 . Littell was finally given French citizenship .
= = = Other language editions = = =
After the book was translated into German , there was widespread debate in Germany , during which Littell was accused of being " a pornographer of violence . " Some criticised it from an historical perspective , calling the novel a " strange , monstrous book " and alleging it is " full of errors and anachronisms over wartime German culture . "
Upon its publication in English in early 2009 , The Kindly Ones received mixed reviews . The New Republic 's literary critic Ruth Franklin called it " one of the most repugnant books I have ever read [ ... ] if getting under the skin of a murderer were sufficient to produce a masterpiece , then Thomas Harris would be Tolstoy . " Michiko Kakutani , the principal book critic of The New York Times , called the novel " [ w ] illfully sensationalistic and deliberately repellent " and went on to question the " perversity " of the French literary establishment for praising the novel . In a reply to Kakutani , writer and novelist Michael Korda wrote , " You want to read about Hell , here it is . If you don ’ t have the strength to read it , tough shit . It ’ s a dreadful , compelling , brilliantly researched , and imagined masterpiece , a terrifying literary achievement , and perhaps the first work of fiction to come out of the Holocaust that places us in its very heart , and keeps us there . " Writing for Time , American writer and journalist Lev Grossman compared it to Roberto Bolaño 's 2666 , similar in " their seriousness of purpose , their wild overestimation of the reader 's attention span and their interest in physical violence that makes Saw look like Dora the Explorer , " but added that while far from perfect , The Kindly Ones " is unmistakably the work of a profoundly gifted writer , if not an especially disciplined one . " In her review for Los Angeles Times , novelist and essayist Laila Lalami wrote : " Jonathan Littell has undertaken a very ambitious project in The Kindly Ones , and I think his boldness deserves to be commended . In the end , however , his highly problematic characterization and awkward handling of point of view make this book far more successful as a dramatized historical document than as a novel . " British historian Antony Beevor , author of Stalingrad and The Fall of Berlin 1945 , reviewing The Kindly Ones in The Times , called it " a great work of literary fiction , to which readers and scholars will turn for decades to come , " and listed it as one of the top five books of World War II fiction .
Jonathan Derbyshire , culture editor of the New Statesman called it " a remarkable novel " and its protagonist " a convincing witness to the defining moral catastrophe of the 20th century . " Tim Martin of The Telegraph praised the novel for not being just another story about banality of evil : " it is a magnificently artificial project in character construction , a highly literary and provocative attempt to create a character various enough to match the many discontinuous realities of the apocalyptic Nazi world @-@ view . The result is a sprawling , daring , loose @-@ ended monster of a book , one that justifies its towering subject matter by its persistent and troubling refusal to offer easy answers and to make satisfying sense . " Writing for The Guardian , British author James Lasdun criticized the novel for " some large flaws " such as its main character , " a ghoul belonging more to the fictional universe of , say , Bret Easton Ellis 's American Psycho " , and provocative use of anachronisms , but called it a " monumental inquiry into evil . To say that it falls short of Melville 's visionary originality ( and lacks , also , the breadth and vitality of Tolstoy , despite the claims of some reviewers ) is hardly a criticism . It 's a rare book that even invites such comparisons , and for all its faults , for all its problematic use of history , The Kindly Ones does just that . " In The Spectator , British journalist and biographer Patrick Marnham wrote : " Dr Aue cannot be brought to trial because he does not exist ; on the other hand , he can give us something even more valuable than vengeance , something that no real war criminal can manage , and that is total honesty . " Harvard University 's English studies ' Professor Leland de la Durantaye wrote that The Kindly Ones " is indeed about cruelty and evil in the way that morality plays are , but it is also about evil in history , the weaving together of hundreds of objectives , millions of people , into an ensemble so vast , diverse , and ever @-@ changing that even a well @-@ placed and sharp @-@ sighted observer cannot fully grasp it . "
Sales in the United States were considered extremely low . The book was bought by HarperCollins for a rumored $ 1 million , and the first printing consisted of 150 @,@ 000 copies . According to Nielsen BookScan – which captures around 70 percent of total sales – by the end of July 2009 only 17 @,@ 000 copies had been sold .
= Elaine Marley =
Elaine Marley – Threepwood is a fictional character in the Monkey Island series of graphic adventure video games . Created by Ron Gilbert for LucasArts , the character first appears in The Secret of Monkey Island and is one of the core characters in the franchise . Originally conceived as a ruthless island governor , the character evolved during development into the protagonist 's love interest . While the first two games in the series did not feature voice acting , Elaine was voiced by Alexandra Boyd in The Curse of Monkey Island and by Charity James in Escape from Monkey Island ; Boyd would reprise the role for later entries in the franchise .
Elaine is the governor of the Tri @-@ Island Area , a fictional group of pirate islands in the Caribbean . She is loved by the undead pirate LeChuck , who never ceases to pursue her affections and attempts to turn her into his undead bride , but Elaine instead falls in love with hapless protagonist Guybrush Threepwood . Elaine is consistently kidnapped by LeChuck , prompting Guybrush to attempt a rescue , although Elaine is usually more than capable of escaping predicaments by herself . She eventually marries Guybrush and relinquishes her gubernatorial responsibilities to her grandfather , travelling with Guybrush to the fictional Gulf of Melange to cure the outbreak of a voodoo @-@ empowered pox .
The character has enjoyed positive critical reception . Several sources commended Elaine 's aberration of the damsel in distress stereotype . Elaine has been ranked on a number of lists regarding the best female characters in the video game industry , and has received praise for her visual design and resilient personality . Critics have also complimented Boyd 's and James ' voice acting for the character in the later installments of the series , though some expressed disappointment at the character 's reduced lines in The Curse of Monkey Island .
= = Character design = =
The original script for The Secret of Monkey Island called for a character simply named " the Governor " ; Monkey Island creator Ron Gilbert had envisioned her as a far more ruthless character . The name " Elaine " was created later in development by Dave Grossman , who wrote the final scenes of the game in which protagonist Guybrush Threepwood disrupts the wedding of antagonist LeChuck and the governor . One of Grossman 's options for gatecrashing the wedding is having Guybrush scream " Elaine ! " in a parody of a similar scene in the 1967 film The Graduate ; Gilbert appreciated the reference , so Elaine was adopted as the governor 's name . As development on the game further progressed , the character evolved from being a ruthless governor to the player character 's love interest .
When the player talks to a number of characters in The Secret of Monkey Island , a close @-@ up portrait of the character is shown . Elaine 's appearance in this portrait was based on Avril Harrison , an artist working at LucasArts . Gilbert always felt bothered by these close @-@ up portraits , stating that " while they were great art , I never felt they matched the style of the rest of the game " . In the 2009 Special Edition , these close @-@ ups were redone in the same stylized artwork featured in the rest of the game .
In The Curse of Monkey Island , Elaine realises that Guybrush is her true love , and marries him . However , Ron Gilbert did not intend for the relationship between the characters to develop in this way , stating that Elaine " never really liked Guybrush and thought of him as more of a little brother " . Gilbert was not involved in the production of The Curse of Monkey Island ; while thinking that the new development team " did a pretty good job of capturing what Monkey Island was about " , the relationship between Elaine and Guybrush " was the thing that bugged [ Gilbert ] the most about The Curse of Monkey Island " .
The Curse of Monkey Island was the first Monkey Island game to feature voice acting ; in it , the part of Elaine Marley was given to British actress Alexandra Boyd . Boyd explains that she got the part of Elaine as she had worked with voice director Darragh O 'Farrell previously ; O 'Farrell brought Boyd in to read for the part . Boyd joked that " I figured I got the part because I have red hair like her " . Boyd was not contacted to return as the character for Escape from Monkey Island ; Elaine was instead voiced by American actress Charity James . Nevertheless , Boyd reprised the role for Telltale Games ' Tales of Monkey Island and the later enhanced remakes of the first two games . Boyd was glad to return , stating that the character " is very well written and it ’ s fun doing all that shouting at LeChuck and Guybrush ! Exhausting but fun " . Rather than travelling to Telltale 's studio in San Rafael , Boyd instead recorded her lines for Tales of Monkey Island in London , communicating with the director remotely with Skype . The development of Elaine 's character was one of Gilbert 's aims for Tales of Monkey Island ; Gilbert wanted Elaine to " be better informed and more capable than most of the other characters " .
= = = Attributes and depiction = = =
Intelligent and highly resourceful , Elaine is depicted as a caring and kind person . She is usually more than capable of taking care of herself ; on the multiple occasions that she is kidnapped by LeChuck , she is usually able to escape at her own volition and formulate plans to defeat her adversaries . In addition , Elaine is proficient in personal combat and displays an understanding of strategy in battle , reinforced by calm personality that allows Elaine to use common sense and stay composed despite dire situations . While attracted to piracy , Elaine is initially wary of pursuing a relationship with pirates due to a bad liaison with LeChuck while the pirate captain was still alive . Nevertheless , Elaine falls in love with Guybrush , seeing past his faults in favor of his kind personality and sharp wit . While Elaine is the dominant partner in their relationship , she still has faith in his abilities regardless of Guybrush 's hapless disposition .
Elaine is usually depicted as a beautiful woman with long red hair and with green eyes . She wears a variety of pirate clothing consistent with the game 's Golden Age of Piracy setting ; her outfit usually consists of pantaloons , a blouse worn under a lightweight tunic , a sash , boots and a headscarf . Elaine usually wears gold earrings , though by Tales of Monkey Island , she wears her diamond engagement ring as an earring until Chapter 2 . Her appearances in The Secret of Monkey Island and Monkey Island 2 : LeChuck 's Revenge are in the form of pixel art , with appearances slightly differing between the EGA , Amiga and VGA versions of the games . By The Curse of Monkey Island , Elaine is rendered in a cartoon art style by LucasArts artists Larry Ahern and Bill Tiller , although the character 's choice of clothing remains consistent . Escape from Monkey Island translated Ahern and Tiller 's depiction into 3D graphics , while the later special editions and Tales of Monkey Island produced a more stylized art form for the character . While under LeChuck 's influence as his demon bride in Tales of Monkey Island , Elaine is dressed in a Gothic wedding dress and a tiara , her eyes are pupiless and her skin is given a green hue .
= = Appearances = =
Elaine Marley debuts in the The Secret of Monkey Island as the governor of Mêlée Island , on which hapless protagonist Guybrush Threepwood is striving to become a pirate . As governor , she attracts many suitors , one of these being the pirate captain LeChuck . Although Elaine rebukes LeChuck 's advances , he nevertheless pursues her love and aims to impress her by discovering the secret of Monkey Island . The exhibition ultimately costs LeChuck his life , but he returns as a ghost still intent on marrying Elaine . LeChuck 's ambitions for Elaine 's hand in marriage — whether given willingly or not — form a major part of the franchise 's plot . Elaine first encounters Guybrush when he breaks into the governor 's mansion on Mêlée Island in an attempt to steal a valuable idol . Elaine has been fascinated to meet Guybrush since hearing of his arrival on the island and his strange name , however , their first meeting is stunted by Guybrush being too awestruck by Elaine 's beauty to say anything intelligible . When the local sheriff tries to drown Guybrush after a fight , Elaine nevertheless rushes to his aid , confessing that she feels deeply attracted to Guybrush , which he reciprocates . She implores Guybrush to finish his pirate trials before they act on their new @-@ found love , but is kidnapped by LeChuck and taken to his hideout on Monkey Island when the ghost pirate 's crew suddenly raids the island . Guybrush mounts a rescue attempt , but fails to reach Elaine before LeChuck 's ship returns to Mêlée Island for LeChuck 's wedding to Elaine . The well @-@ intentioned Threepwood gatecrashes the wedding , but in actuality ruins Elaine 's own plan to defeat LeChuck with an anti @-@ ghost concoction . Guybrush still manages to destroy LeChuck , and the game closes with the happy couple watching the fireworks as the evil pirate 's ghost form explodes .
Elaine 's role is significantly reduced for the sequel Monkey Island 2 : LeChuck 's Revenge , though the majority of the story is conveyed by Guybrush to Elaine in the form of a flashback . Between the games , the two have broken off their relationship and Elaine has moved to her governor 's mansion on Booty Island . When Guybrush appears at the mansion , she presumes he has come to apologize ; instead he is looking for a map that belonged to Elaine 's grandfather , which leads to fabled treasure Big Whoop . After discovering Guybrush 's intentions , Elaine is infuriated and refuses to speak to him . Guybrush eventually becomes trapped at the site of Big Whoop , with Elaine arriving to rescue him . Guybrush falls into a chasm , where he is confronted by LeChuck , recently resurrected as a zombie . As the game ends with Guybrush thinking he is a child in a theme park , Elaine is seen worrying that LeChuck has placed a curse on Guybrush .
In The Curse of Monkey Island , with Guybrush indisposed at the end of LeChuck 's Revenge , LeChuck attacks Plunder Island , the third island covered by Elaine 's gubernatorial powers . LeChuck 's efforts to buy Elaine 's love are again rebuked by Elaine during an exchange of cannon fire ; Elaine is angry at LeChuck for having apparently killed Guybrush , who she realises is the true love of her life . The battle is interrupted by Guybrush , who has escaped from LeChuck 's curse and helps defeat the zombie pirate . Afterwards , Guybrush proposes to Elaine , giving her a diamond ring found in LeChuck 's hold . Unknown to Guybrush , the ring is cursed and turns Elaine into solid gold . Guybrush manages to remove the curse , but both are captured by a reincarnated demon LeChuck . LeChuck plans to turn Elaine into a fellow undead creature , forcing her to accept him as he will be the only other person in a similar condition . Both Elaine and Guybrush escape , with Elaine eluding LeChuck until he is trapped under an avalanche of ice by Guybrush . Elaine and Guybrush marry , and leave on their honeymoon .
Elaine and Guybrush return to Mêlée Island in Escape from Monkey Island from their lengthy honeymoon to find that she has been declared legally dead ; as a result the governorship of the Tri @-@ Island Area is up for election . While Elaine and Guybrush work on reversing her legal demise , they discover that the other candidate in the election is actually LeChuck in disguise , but the townspeople , feeling neglected by Elaine 's long absence , do not believe her . Guybrush leaves to prevent the Ultimate Insult , a powerful voodoo talisman , from falling into the hands of LeChuck 's co @-@ conspirator Ozzie Mandrill . Elaine is defeated in the election and LeChuck becomes governor , while Guybrush is captured and marooned on Monkey Island . On Monkey Island , Guybrush discovers that resident castaway Herman Toothrot is actually Horatio Marley , Elaine 's long thought dead grandfather . The two escape Monkey Island and defeat LeChuck and Mandrill . Elaine asks Horatio to take over her position as governor of the Tri @-@ Island Area , and Guybrush and Elaine depart .
In Tales of Monkey Island , set several years after Escape from Monkey Island , Elaine has once again been kidnapped by LeChuck . In his rescue attempt , Guybrush inadvertently releases a voodoo pox over Gulf of Melange , which turns LeChuck into a human . While events separate Guybrush and Elaine , she befriends the now seemingly unmalicious LeChuck , and helps him return monkeys used for his voodoo spells to their homes . Elaine also attempts , without success , to arbitrate between merpeople with access to a cure for the pox and infected pirates . When negotiations break down , Elaine participates in a battle around the Jerkbait Islands to drive off the pirates . However , Elaine becomes infected with the pox and loses control , travelling to Flotsam Island to sack the town and kill Morgan LeFlay , a bounty hunter who she sees as a rival for Guybrush 's love . Guybrush cures the pox , but LeChuck turns on him and fatally stabs him ; Elaine cradles her husband as he dies . LeChuck takes Elaine captive and appears to convince her to join him as his demon bride ; however , Elaine only submits to LeChuck to acquire a voodoo cutlass capable of destroying LeChuck . Guybrush returns as a ghost and maneuvers LeChuck into a position where Elaine can attack him with the cutlass . With LeChuck defeated , Guybrush restores himself to life by using a spell with Elaine 's wedding ring , and returns to his wife .
= = Reception = =
The character of Elaine Marley has garnered a positive reception from critics within the video game industry . Described by GameSpot as the impetus for the whole series , critics lauded Elaine 's non @-@ conformity to the damsel in distress stereotype . GameSpot noted that Elaine is usually much more proficient at escaping trouble " than the so @-@ called hero who comes to save her " , while the video game culture journal Eludamos approved of the character for allowing a level of " feminine expression which did not necessary always conform to passive ideals of the damsel in distress " . The website That Guy with the Glasses put Elaine as the eighth best female character in gaming , describing her as possibly the only staple character in the series to have " a shred of sanity and smarts " , praising the character 's independence and resilience as well as noting that as a woman in the Golden Age of Piracy , Elaine has risen to a position of power far above what would be historically considered normal for the time .
Eurogamer commended Elaine 's design as " worthy of acclaim " , naming her the " Best Female Supporting Character " in their 2001 annual Gaming Globes awards , while IGN described her alongside Guybrush and LeChuck as one of " the most beloved adventure characters of all time " . Alexandra Boyd and Charity James have also been praised for their voicing of Elaine ; Computer Games Magazine described Boyd 's work for The Curse of Monkey Island as " wonderful " , though lamented that she did not speak more in the game , while Macworld admired the character 's depiction in Escape from Monkey Island as " beautiful and plucky " .
= SheiKra =
SheiKra ( / ˈʃiːkrə / , SHEE @-@ krə ) is a steel Dive Coaster roller coaster at the Busch Gardens Tampa Bay amusement park in Tampa , Florida , United States . The roller coaster was proposed by Mark Rose , vice @-@ president of design and engineering for the park , and designed by Bolliger & Mabillard . The ride was planned to be 160 feet ( 49 m ) high , but the park 's executives rejected this and the height was changed to 200 feet ( 61 m ) . SheiKra reaches a maximum speed of 70 miles per hour ( 110 km / h ) and has a total track length of 3 @,@ 188 feet ( 972 m ) . It first opened on May 21 , 2005 , and was converted to a floorless roller coaster on June 16 , 2007 , following the opening of its sister Dive Coaster Griffon at Busch Gardens Williamsburg that year .
SheiKra was the first Dive Coaster to be constructed in North America ; its track includes a splashdown and an Immelmann loop , both a first for its kind . It broke the records for the world 's longest , tallest , and fastest Dive Coaster , but lost these records when Griffon in Williamsburg , Virginia , United States and Dive Coaster at Chime @-@ Long Paradise in Guangzhou , China opened . The name SheiKra is derived from the word " shikra " , an Asian @-@ African hawk that is known to dive vertically for its prey . In 2005 , Amusement Today 's annual Golden Ticket Awards voted it the fourth @-@ best new steel roller coaster of that year in a three @-@ way tie and the 28th @-@ best steel roller coaster . It was voted the 38th @-@ best steel roller coaster in 2014 .
= = History = =
= = = Original attraction = = =
Mark Rose , vice @-@ president of design and engineering at Busch Gardens Tampa Bay , proposed a roller coaster that would be 160 feet ( 49 m ) tall ; the experience would be " like riding a barrel over Niagara Falls ... straight down into water . " Busch Gardens executives rejected the proposal , saying it was not interesting enough . Rose changed his concept , adding another 40 feet ( 12 m ) in height to the roller coaster and adding more features to the ride , which led to the executives ' approval of the plans . Peckham Guyton Albers & Viets Inc ( PGAV ) also helped plan and design the roller coaster .
Rumors of a new roller coaster being built at Busch Gardens Tampa Bay began to circulate after a roller coaster enthusiast emailed the park and received a response saying that a roller coaster would be built . These rumors stated that the roller coaster would include a splashdown and an inversion on Bolliger & Mabillard 's Dive Coaster , both a first for its kind . Later in the season , the park began to remove part of the track of Serengeti Express . On April 26 , 2004 , construction permits were discovered which confirmed that a roller coaster , restaurant , and gift shop would be constructed .
In May 2004 , further details were leaked including the height , speed and trains . A month later , Tiki masks with quotes relating to the project were placed on the construction walls , including : " I 'm a bird with no feathers , a beast with no equal , a fall that never hits the ground . What am I ? " , " What is taller than 10 giraffes and faster than a charging rhino ? " , and " What is too fast to see , but has a bird 's eye view ? " . Track and support pieces were later seen in a large field , which further confirmed the new attraction would be a roller coaster .
On October 20 , 2004 , SeaWorld Parks & Entertainment ( owner of Busch Gardens Tampa Bay ) filed a trademark for the name " SheiKra " . A week later , Busch Gardens Tampa Bay announced SheiKra , North America 's first Dive Coaster , as part of a deal with Bolliger & Mabillard . At the time of the announcement , about half of the ride 's foundations were complete . Superior Rigging & Erection constructed the supports and track of SheiKra and by January 28 , 2005 , the roller coaster 's highest track piece was placed along with an evergreen tree . Testing began in late April 2005 after the track had been constructed . After testing was completed , a media day was held on May 19 , 2005 , for international media outlets to promote the ride . Two days later , the roller coaster opened to the public on May 21 , 2005 . During SheiKra 's first year of operation , its computer systems experienced problems as it would halt operations when it sensed that pumps and compressors were not working as they should . This caused riders to get stranded on the roller coaster and be forced to evacuate .
Bolliger & Mabillard took approximately six months to design SheiKra and four years to complete the entire project . After Busch Gardens Tampa Bay announced SheiKra , the park contracted with Bolliger & Mabillard so that the layout of the roller coaster could not be reproduced for several years . In 2009 , after the deal expired , Happy Valley Shanghai built an identical copy of SheiKra called Diving Coaster .
= = = Modified attraction = = =
In 2006 , speculation began that Busch Gardens Tampa Bay would be removing the floors from SheiKra 's trains . On January 31 , 2007 , the park confirmed the rumors at a press conference that was also broadcast on the internet . In late April 2007 , a month before the temporary closure of the ride , Busch Gardens Tampa Bay placed billboards along Interstate 275 and advertisements in newspapers announcing that SheiKra 's floors would soon be removed . One of the billboards said , " SEEKING , One last fling while I 've still got it . Sheikra ( w / floor ) ... " Callers to a telephone number on the billboards would hear a recorded female voice saying , " Hi , doll face " , " it 's been a fun ride " , and " one last fling @-@ a @-@ ding " .
On April 24 , 2007 , during the park 's High School Journalism Day , Busch Gardens Tampa Bay unveiled the first floorless train for the roller coaster . SheiKra closed for the conversion on May 28 , 2007 . The station was modified because retractable floors needed to be installed so riders could board and disembark the trains . Just under two weeks before the scheduled reopening , the new trains were tested . On June 16 , 2007 , the modified roller coaster soft @-@ opened to 100 roller coaster enthusiasts , news reporters from 40 media outlets , and 37 radio broadcasters before opening to the public later that day . On January 7 , 2013 , the roller coaster temporarily closed so it could be completely repainted in its original colors ; it reopened on February 16 , 2013 .
= = Ride experience = =
SheiKra has two queues ; the standby queue is for guests without passes and the Quick Queue is for guests who have a pass that allows them to bypass the queues for most of the major attractions at the park .
After the floors retract and the front gate opens , the train leaves the station and makes a downward right turn , immediately followed by an upward right turn , which leads to the 45 @-@ degree inclined chain lift hill . Once the train reaches the top of the 200 @-@ foot ( 61 m ) lift , it turns right into a holding brake where it slowly moves over the first drop , stops for about four seconds , and then descends the 90 @-@ degree drop . As the train reaches the bottom of the first drop it reaches its maximum speed of 70 miles per hour ( 110 km / h ) . Then , the train enters a 145 @-@ foot ( 44 m ) Immelmann loop before making a banked , upward , 3.5G left turn into the mid course brake run . The train slows down and descends a 138 @-@ foot ( 42 m ) , near 90 @-@ degree drop into an underground tunnel . Next , the train makes a right overbanked turn leading into a splashdown which sprays two 60 @-@ foot ( 18 m ) lines of water in the air and takes approximately 1 @.@ 9 seconds to pass through . The train rises , makes a downward right turn , then enters the final brake run which leads directly back to the station . One cycle of the ride lasts about 2 minutes and 20 seconds .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Track = = =
The steel , box track of SheiKra is 3 @,@ 188 feet ( 972 m ) long and the lift is approximately 200 feet ( 61 m ) high . The track is red and the supports are blue . The ride is equipped with an eight @-@ passenger elevator that can return riders to ground level if a train must be evacuated while on the lift hill . The track and rails were shaped in Italy and fabricated by Clermont Steel Fabricators in Batavia , Ohio , which manufactures Bolliger & Mabillard 's roller coasters . SheiKra 's track spine is wider than those of Bolliger & Mabillard 's traditional roller coasters because of the extra weight of the trains compared to Bolliger & Mabillard 's four @-@ abreast cars . During the night , SheiKra 's track is illuminated with white lights .
= = = Trains = = =
SheiKra operates with several identical trains made from steel and fiberglass which are three times wider than the track . They were manufactured in Switzerland and shipped to Florida . Each seat has an over @-@ the @-@ shoulder restraint . SheiKra 's trains are fitted with nylon and polyurethane wheels to reduce the amount of friction created on the track . Underneath the trains are a pair of anti @-@ rollback devices that prevent the train from rolling down the lift hill should the chain break . There is also a " drop chain dog " that allows the trains to slowly enter the first drop . Each train has three eight @-@ passenger cars , allowing for a maximum capacity of 24 riders per train .
= = Records = =
When SheiKra opened in 2005 , it introduced two new roller coaster elements to the Dive Coaster . The splashdown causes the train to come into contact with water through " scoops " located on the last car of each train . The Immelmann loop is an element in which the train enters a half @-@ loop followed by a half @-@ twist and curve out in the direction opposite from which the train came . The loop was the first inversion used on a Dive Coaster . Since SheiKra , all Dive Coasters and other Bolliger & Mabillard roller coaster models have also had a splashdown and at least one Immelmann loop .
SheiKra was also the first Dive Coaster to feature a 90 @-@ degree drop . In 2005 , only two other Dive Coasters in the world had either an 87- or 87 @.@ 5 @-@ degree drop . When SheiKra first opened , it was the tallest , fastest , and longest Dive Coaster ever built , and was the first Dive Coaster in North America . However , in 2007 when Griffon opened at Busch Gardens Williamsburg , SheiKra lost the height and speed records . When Dive Coaster opened at Chime @-@ Long Paradise in 2008 , it took the length record .
= = Reception = =
SheiKra was mostly well @-@ received from the public and critics . Arthur Levine from About.com rated the roller coaster four and a half stars out of five , and awarded it a thrill rating of eight and half out of ten , writing , " It 's an unapologetic thrill ride that coaster lovers will adore and coaster wimps will avoid . " Joel Bullock from Coaster Critic rated SheiKra seven and a half out of ten and awarded it a thrill rating of four out of five . He wrote that the attraction was " underwhelming " and " didn 't live up to the hype " due to the ride 's short length and the lack of special elements . Bullock also said , " Overall , SheiKra 's no masterpiece , but is still an experience . " He praised the ride 's Immelmann loop , writing that the delay between the rise , inversion and finish of the maneuver was the highlight of the ride . " Jeremy Thompson from Roller Coaster Philosophy awarded the coaster a " B " , and wrote that , " riding the coaster is all about the visual experience " , and that , " Despite the 70mph top speed it 's quite gentle on the human body , although from the last row it easily wins the award for Most Airtime on a Roller Coaster in the State of Florida " .
Jay Cridlin from the Tampa Bay Times wrote that guests should expect long waiting times to ride , although the length of the ride is " probably a fair tradeoff . " Cridlin called SheiKra , " a majestic , one @-@ of @-@ a @-@ kind roller coaster experience " , and mentions that the attraction , " may be the world 's finest dive coaster " . In a 2005 article , Cridlin mostly praised the 90 @-@ degree drop and wrote that , " Despite its sheer size and dominance of the Busch Gardens landscape ... the coaster likely will still inspire debate among park visitors . " Eric Michael from Orlando Sentinel wrote , " The 200 @-@ foot monster , Florida 's tallest , wins my vote for best drop , straight down at 90 @-@ degrees , and most shameless tease ( riders hang at the top for a few seconds ) " . In 2007 , SheiKra was featured on Discovery Channel 's television series Build It Bigger .
= = = Awards = = =
= Grand Central Station ( Chicago ) =
Grand Central Station was a passenger railroad terminal in downtown Chicago , Illinois , from 1890 to 1969 . It was located at 201 West Harrison Street on a block bounded by Harrison , Wells and Polk Streets and the Chicago River in the southwestern portion of the Chicago Loop . Grand Central Station was designed by architect Solon Spencer Beman for the Wisconsin Central Railroad ( WC ) , and was completed by the Chicago and Northern Pacific Railroad .
The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad purchased the station in 1910 and used it as the Chicago terminus for its passenger rail service , including its Capitol Limited service to Washington , D.C. Major tenant railroads included the Soo Line Railroad , successor to the Wisconsin Central , the Chicago Great Western Railway , and the Pere Marquette Railway . The station opened December 8 , 1890 , closed November 8 , 1969 , and was demolished in 1971 .
= = Construction = =
In October 1889 , a subsidiary of the Wisconsin Central Railroad began constructing a new passenger terminal at the southwest corner of Harrison and Wells Streets ( then called Fifth Avenue ) in Chicago , to replace a nearby temporary facility . The location of this new depot , along the south branch of the Chicago River , was selected to take advantage of the bustling passenger and freight market traveling on nearby Lake Michigan .
Architect Solon S. Beman , who had gained notoriety as the designer of the Pullman company neighborhood , designed the station in the Norman Castellated and chose brick , brownstone and granite for construction . The structure measured 228 ft ( 69 m ) along Harrison Street and 482 ft ( 147 m ) along Wells . Imposing arches , crenellations , a spacious arched carriage @-@ court facing Harrison Street , and a multitude of towers dominated the walls . Its most
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fluences with Copano Bay and forming several saline lakes .
= = Ecosystem = =
Copano Bay serves as a nursery for shrimp , which attracts a large number of redfish . Abundant collections of black drum , flounder and trout , can also be found in the bay . Oysters grow in large numbers to form elongated reefs " oriented perpendicular to tidal flow " in the estuary . The reefs provide habitat for fish and sustenance for a wide variety of birds including the black @-@ bellied whistling @-@ duck , black @-@ necked stilt , brown pelican , gull @-@ billed tern , reddish egret , roseate spoonbill , seaside sparrow , white @-@ faced ibis and the whooping crane . The dominant species of gastropod in the bay is Eulimastoma harbisonae .
In 2003 , the United States Department of the Interior granted $ 574 @,@ 000 to Texas Parks and Wildlife to purchase over 900 acres ( 3 @.@ 6 km2 ) of prime birding habitat at Egery Flats and the mouth of the Aransas River , to prevent further development .
= = Industry = =
Oil and natural gas wells are located both onshore and offshore of Copano Bay . Three oil and natural gas fields are found on the bay , including the Copano Bay Oil and Gas Field , just west of Holiday Beach , the South Copano Bay Oil Field , just offshore from Bayside , and the West Fulton Beach Gas and Oil Field to the west of the Live Oak peninsula . In 1997 , a pipeline owned by Koch Industries burst in the marsh in Refugio County , two miles ( 3 km ) west of Copano Bay near the Aransas River , spilling 1 @,@ 000 gallons of oil over a 10 @-@ acre ( 40 @,@ 000 m2 ) area . The oil did not seep into Copano Bay , preventing a minor environmental disaster . Copano Bay is off limits to shrimping due to its designation as a nursery bay .
= Tim Frazier =
Tim Frazier ( born November 1 , 1990 ) is an American professional basketball player for the New Orleans Pelicans of the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) . The 6 ft 1 in ( 1 @.@ 85 m ) point guard played high school basketball for Strake Jesuit College Preparatory and competed at the collegiate level with Penn State . He earned various accolades with Penn State , including first @-@ team All @-@ Big Ten and All @-@ Big Ten Defensive team honors , both as a junior in 2012 . Frazier suffered an injury in his fourth year with the team , forcing him to redshirt the season . In his final season , he was named a Senior CLASS Award finalist and to the Bob Cousy Award watch list . Through his time attending Pennsylvania State University , Frazier also went to the Smeal College of Business .
= = Early life = =
Frazier was born on November 1 , 1990 in Houston , Texas , to Billy and Janice . He started playing basketball when he was five years old . He would knock down trophies of his sister and challenge his sister Krystal to games . His sister later said , " Most people learn basketball early on with a one @-@ on @-@ one kind of mentality ... Tim at an early age didn 't have that . He always wanted to make the team better and do whatever it takes to help team out . He is such a true point guard . " In his childhood , he was considered too small for contact sports , but was noted for his quickness , which helped him thrive as a guard on the court .
= = High school career = =
Frazier attended Strake Jesuit College Preparatory in Houston , Texas . He completed his junior year with 11 @.@ 5 points , 5 @.@ 5 rebounds , and 3 @.@ 0 steals per game . Frazier was named District 17 @-@ 5A Defensive Player of the Year . In his senior season , he averaged 15 @.@ 5 points , 7 @.@ 7 rebounds , 5 @.@ 5 assists , and 3 @.@ 6 steals per game , leading the team to a 37 – 1 record . He helped them become the first private school to reach the state tournament 's semifinals . Frazier commented on his final year with Strake Jesuit in an interview with BlueWhiteIllustrated.com. " My game , I don 't know , it just hit that next level , " he said .
After completing his senior year with Strake Jesuit , Frazier was ranked the 20th best point guard of his class , the 110th most valuable player overall , and a three @-@ star recruit by Rivals.com. According to TexasHoops.com , he was the best recruit in the state , and the Houston Chronicle labeled him the Boys Basketball Player of the Year . Frazier played with the Houston Elite Amateur Athletic Union team , which had produced players such as Anthony Thompson , Eddren McCain and Chris Roberts , all of whom attended Bradley University . He graduated high school cum laude .
On October 23 , 2008 , Frazier verbally committed to the Penn State Nittany Lions basketball team . He said to Scout.com , " I decided to be a Nittany Lion because I felt it was a great fit for me . Penn State has great academics as well as a great basketball team and that 's what I was looking for . " Frazier also said that he had a " great time " on his official visit and all his relatives supported the decision . He received offers from various other schools across the country , including Bradley , Colorado State , New Mexico State , Santa Clara , Stanford , Stephen F. Austin , and UTEP . Frazier was also visited by San Diego , TCU , and Penn State , spanning from September to October 2008 . After the move was made official , head coach Ed DeChellis said , " We are very excited to have Tim join our program . He is a very fast , quick player with tremendous speed in the backcourt and a good shooter . He possesses the kind of athleticism that Stanley Pringle does . He can get in the lane and find open guys and is a great drive and kick passer and he can score . He is a very good on @-@ the @-@ ball defender and a tremendous athlete and we think he really solidifies our backcourt for the future . "
= = Collegiate career = =
= = = Freshman = = =
Prior to the start of his freshman year , Frazier recorded a team @-@ high 34 @-@ inch vertical in Penn State 's preseason workouts . He also matched the 2009 NBA Draft Combine record , and surpassed the event 's best lane agility time . Frazier did not participate in Penn State 's exhibition opener against Slippery Rock . Coach DeChellis said , " Billy Oliver , Sasa [ Borovnjak ] , Tim Frazier , Jermaine Marshall , they haven 't played in this yet , so it was important just to get out there . " In his first official appearance against Pennsylvania , Frazier added 2 points and 1 rebound in a scoreless performance . He was only allowed 8 minutes of play time . He scored his first points against Robert Morris the following contest , with a game @-@ high 19 points off the bench . He shot 6 @-@ of @-@ 11 from the field , and 4 @-@ of @-@ 5 on three @-@ pointers . Frazier also contributed 3 assists , 2 rebounds , and 1 steal in 30 minutes on the court . DeChellis said , " ( Tim ) is a hard guy to contain . If he starts making perimeter shots , then we 're that much better . We 've seen him where he can make shots in practice and do pretty well . We just needed to get him some confidence and get him into the flow . " The game would remain a season @-@ high for him under the scoring category . Frazier was awarded his first start as a shooting guard on November 22 , 2009 against Davidson ; he registered 7 points , 5 rebounds , 3 assists , and 3 steals . He recorded a season @-@ high 34 minutes . He finished the 2009 – 10 season averaging 5 @.@ 0 points , 2 @.@ 3 rebounds , 2 @.@ 4 assists , 0 @.@ 7 steals , and 1 @.@ 7 turnovers . He played in all 31 regular season games .
= = = Sophomore = = =
Frazier made his sophomore debut on November 7 , 2010 , in an exhibition game against East Stroudsburg . He added 10 points , 6 assists , and two steals . Frazier also recorded a team @-@ high 4 turnovers . DeChellis commented , " Offensively we were poor tonight and we had too many turnovers ... something we 've struggled with in practice . " On November 12 , 2010 , Frazier made his second appearance as a sophomore with 6 points , 7 rebounds , 6 assists , and 1 steal . He shot 1 @-@ of @-@ 5 on field goals , while going a perfect 4 @-@ of @-@ 4 from the free @-@ throw line . Frazier was named the game 's starting shooting guard and was allowed 30 minutes of playing time . He made his first @-@ ever appearance as Penn State 's starting point guard on November 19 vs. Fairfield , and contributed 3 points , 4 rebounds , 7 assists , and 1 steal . The team 's coach commented on Frazier 's powerful defensive performance , " thought Tim Frazier did a very nice job defensively on the point guard for Fairfield who is a really good player . He bothered him all night . " Frazier made his first impression above the 10 @-@ points barrier on January 15 , 2011 vs. Ohio State , with 11 points , 6 rebounds , and 5 assists . He shot 4 @-@ of @-@ 4 from the field and made three of four free throws . On March 12 , 2011 , Frazier scored 22 points against Michigan State , his season @-@ high as a sophomore , helping the team pull off the upset victory in the semifinals of the 2011 Big Ten Conference Men 's Basketball Tournament . He played in his first NCAA Tournament game against Temple , contributing 15 points , 7 assists , 5 rebounds , and 2 steals . He made a late miscue guarding Juan Fernández , allowing the opposing guard to close out the game with under one second remaining in regulation . Frazier recalled the moment , " I closed out high end so he wouldn 't be able to shoot over me . ( He ) made a great move , pivoted a couple of times and then stepped through . " Fernández said , " I was thinking about shooting a jump shot but I killed my dribble and ( Tim ) Frazier was right there . For some reason he jumped over to my right and that gave me the space to go left . " By the end of the season , Frazier averaged 6 @.@ 3 points , 5 @.@ 1 assists , 3 @.@ 9 rebounds , 1 @.@ 0 steals , and 0 @.@ 1 blocks per game . He was named to the Academic All @-@ Big Ten following 2010 – 11 .
= = = Junior = = =
Frazier opened his junior season , and his first year under coach Pat Chambers , on November 5 , 2011 in an exhibition game against Slippery Rock . He led the team in scoring with 19 points . Frazier also posted 7 assists and 6 rebounds , helping Penn State win the game 64 – 47 . He took part in the Nittany Lions ' first regular season contest on November 12 against Hartford , with 12 points , 6 assists , and 5 steals in spite of being given 28 minutes on the court . When asked on his communication with Frazier , Chambers said , " I 'm telling him to make plays ... he has to be one of our leading scorers . He 's got to look to score . " In the following game , Frazier made his second career display with 20 or more points . He also matched his career @-@ high total on assists , with 10 . This was his second double @-@ double with Penn State . Frazier also finished with 6 rebounds , 3 steals , and 1 block . Chambers said in a post @-@ game interview , " I 'm very greedy . I 'm an old point guard , so I want more out of Tim Frazier , if you can imagine ... what more means is even more leadership , even better habits . We 're always trying to create the best habits we can for the most difficult situation . " . Frazier helped power the 62 – 46 victory over Radford , the team 's second consecutive win in the regular season . It was also Penn State 's first round game in the Hall of Fame Tip Off tournament . In his next game against LIU @-@ Brooklyn , Frazier scored a career @-@ high 26 points and matched his assists record for the second straight game , with 10 . It was his second @-@ straight double @-@ double and the third in his stint with Penn State . Chambers commented after the game , " Tim was terrific . He was a great leader tonight . He did everything you ask your point guard to do tonight . " He helped the program reach a 3 – 0 record for the third time in 12 seasons . Following up on a loss to Kentucky , Frazier recorded 27 points on November 20 , 2011 against South Florida . The next game , Frazier recorded a career @-@ high 11 assists en route to his 4th double @-@ double in 2011 . On January 11 , 2012 , Frazier scored a career @-@ high 30 points against Nebraska , with his team losing the game , 70 – 58 . He led the Big Ten with eight 20 @-@ point games through the course of the year . By the end of the season , Frazier averaged 18 @.@ 8 points , 6 @.@ 2 assists , 4 @.@ 7 rebounds , 2 @.@ 4 steals , and 0 @.@ 2 blocks . It was his highest scoring average with Penn State . He was named the John Lawther Team MVP , Second Team NABC All @-@ District , All @-@ Big Ten First Team , Academic All @-@ Big Ten , Basketball Times ' All @-@ District , and Big Ten All @-@ Defensive Team .
= = = Redshirt = = =
Frazier began his fourth season representing Penn State with 17 points , 8 assists , and 5 rebounds in an exhibition game against Philadelphia on November 3 , 2012 . He sat out for much of the second half , giving his duties to D. J. Newbill . After the game , Frazier said that the team " just played Penn State basketball . " On November 9 , 2012 , the first regular season for Frazier as a senior , he logged his 19th career 20 @-@ point game against Saint Francis ( PA ) . On November 18 , Frazier left six minutes into a game against Akron due to a ruptured left Achilles tendon . It was announced that he had a recovery period of about 12 months and would be out for the season . The injury was described as a " devastating blow " to the program by ESPN.com writer Eamonn Brennan . Chambers addressed the situation , saying , " I have no doubt he will meet this challenge and will again be one of the top players in the nation , " in accordance to his potential fifth year of NCAA eligibility . Frazier redshirted the season shortly after it was announced by the school that he would undergo surgery . He said , " I will never forget that game , that injury , never forget that camera . I 'm sitting there on the sideline with the ( television ) camera just zooming in on my foot . I 'll never forget the look on my sister 's face , my mom and dad 's face . " During his rehabilitation , Frazier began using the elliptical machine , doing work in the swimming pool , and taking part in weight training . He was guided by Penn State 's athletic trainer , Jon Salazer , throughout the process . Frazier 's sister Krystal had torn her right Achilles tendon when playing college basketball nearly seven years prior , and had gone through a similar rehabilitation before resuming her playing career .
= = = Senior = = =
In late April , it was made official that Frazier would return to Penn State for his final year of eligibility . After the Big Ten granted him permission to partake his fifth season , Chambers said , " We are thrilled for him that he will have the opportunity to finish his career strong and again place himself among the top players in the nation . " It was also announced that Frazier would pursue a second major over the summer .
On November 3 , 2013 , Frazier posted 11 points , 6 assists , 1 steal , and 1 block in a winning effort in an exhibition game against Northwood . In his first regular season game , he recorded a double @-@ double against the Wagner Seahawks . It was the seventh incident in Frazier 's collegiate career . He was 12 @-@ for @-@ 17 on free @-@ throws and added 4 assists . On November 16 , 2013 , he scored a season @-@ high 29 points against Pennsylvania , also recording 7 assists , 3 rebounds , and 2 steals . The duo of Frazier and D. J. Newbill was regarded as one of the nation 's best backcourts , combining for 48 points through the contest . He matched his season record against St. John 's on November 29 , 2013 , posting 29 points . Over a week later , against Duquesne , Frazier recorded a career @-@ high 13 assists , powering a 9 @-@ point victory for Penn State . His performance tied Dan Earl for the third @-@ most assists in one game representing the Nittany Lions . Frazier completed his final season with Penn State by averaging 14 @.@ 9 points , 4 @.@ 5 rebounds , 5 @.@ 4 assists , 1 @.@ 6 steals , and 0 @.@ 2 blocks per game . He started in all 34 games , averaging 35 @.@ 2 minutes . Frazier was named to the Bob Cousy Award watch list , Third Team All @-@ Big Ten , and the Barclays Center Classic all @-@ tourney team . He was also a Senior CLASS Award finalist , and won the Big Ten Sportsmanship Award .
= = = College statistics = = =
= = Professional career = =
= = = Red Claws , 76ers and Trail Blazers ( 2014 – 2016 ) = = =
= = = = 2014 – 15 season = = = =
Prior to the 2014 NBA draft , Frazier worked out for several NBA teams , including the Phoenix Suns , New York Knicks , Boston Celtics , Minnesota Timberwolves , Philadelphia 76ers and Washington Wizards . Philadelphia worked him out two times , and head coach Brett Brown invited him to play for them at the 2014 Las Vegas Summer League within an hour after he was not selected in the draft . The situation was compared to that of Khalif Wyatt , who played for the 76ers through the 2013 edition of the summer league , and attended Temple University in the Philadelphia area . Frazier said , " When [ the coaches ] reached out to me and said they wanted me for the summer league , I was ready to go for it . I just want to go out , have fun , play my hardest and show Philly and other teams what they can get from me . " . According to the 76ers assistant coach , Chad Iske , he impressed the team 's staff by his " poise " and experience at the higher level . At Las Vegas , Frazier averaged 3 @.@ 4 points , 4 @.@ 0 rebounds , 2 @.@ 0 assists and 1 @.@ 2 steals in five games . On September 29 , 2014 , the Boston Celtics signed Frazier to a non @-@ guaranteed training camp deal with the likely notion of auditioning with the Maine Red Claws in the future . On October 27 , 2014 , he was waived by the Celtics after appearing in four preseason games where he went 1 @-@ for @-@ 2 from the field and recorded two rebounds , four assists and four steals . As expected , four days later , he was acquired by the Maine Red Claws as an affiliate player . Frazier opened his season in the D @-@ League by contributing 18 points , 9 assists , and 4 rebounds against the Oklahoma City Blue . He also shot 12 @-@ of @-@ 12 on free throws , helping the team win their first game .
On January 30 , 2015 , Frazier recorded his second triple @-@ double of the season with 13 points , 10 rebounds and 11 assists as he helped the Red Claws snap a three @-@ game losing streak with a 104 @-@ 92 win over the Canton Charge . On February 4 , 2015 , he was named to the Futures All @-@ Star team for the 2015 NBA D @-@ League All @-@ Star Game .
On February 5 , 2015 , Frazier signed a 10 @-@ day contract with the Philadelphia 76ers . The following day , he made his NBA debut in the 76ers ' 96 @-@ 107 loss to the Boston Celtics . In just under 35 minutes of action off the bench , he recorded a game @-@ high 11 assists to go with 5 points , 5 rebounds and 2 steals . Following the expiration of his 10 @-@ day contract , he was not retained by the 76ers , and on February 16 , he was reacquired by the Red Claws . On February 20 , he signed a second 10 @-@ day contract with the 76ers . However , he was waived by the 76ers on February 24 after the team acquired Thomas Robinson , and returned once again to Maine four days later . On March 5 , he recorded his fourth triple @-@ double of the season with 22 points , 13 rebounds , 14 assists in the Red Claws ' 121 @-@ 110 win over the Austin Spurs .
On March 30 , 2015 , Frazier signed a multi @-@ year deal with the Portland Trail Blazers . On April 21 , he was selected as both the 2015 NBA Development League 's Most Valuable Player and Rookie of the Year after averaging 16 @.@ 1 points , 7 @.@ 1 rebounds and 9 @.@ 5 assists in 41 games .
= = = = 2015 – 16 season = = = =
In July 2015 , Frazier joined the Portland Trail Blazers for the 2015 NBA Summer League and attended training camp with the team . He made the final roster for the 2015 – 16 season , and played in 15 of the team 's first 29 games of the season . On December 21 , he started in his first game for the Trail Blazers in place of the injured Damian Lillard . He subsequently played in all but 25 seconds of the team 's 106 – 97 loss to the Atlanta Hawks , recording 12 points , 7 rebounds , 7 assists , 2 steals and 1 block . On February 18 , 2016 , he was waived by the Trail Blazers .
On February 27 , Frazier was reacquired by the Maine Red Claws . The following day , in just his second game back for the Red Claws , Frazier recorded just the 10th triple @-@ double in Red Claws history in a 132 – 111 win over the Sioux Falls Skyforce . In 32 minutes of action , he recorded 24 points , 12 rebounds and 12 assists .
= = = New Orleans Pelicans ( 2016 – present ) = = =
On March 16 , 2016 , Frazier signed a 10 @-@ day contract with the New Orleans Pelicans to help the team deal with numerous injuries . New Orleans had to use an NBA hardship exemption in order to sign him as he made their roster stand at 17 , two over the allowed limited of 15 . He made his debut for the Pelicans later that night , recording 14 points and 9 assists in 27 minutes off the bench in a 123 – 108 win over the Sacramento Kings . On March 20 , he scored a season @-@ high 17 points in a 109 – 105 win over the Los Angeles Clippers . He topped that mark four days later , scoring 18 points in a loss to the Indiana Pacers . On March 26 , he signed with the Pelicans for the remainder of the season . On April 3 , he had career highs with 19 points and 13 assists off the bench in a 106 – 87 win over the Brooklyn Nets . On April 11 , he set a new career high with 20 points , along with 11 assists , in a 121 – 116 loss to the Chicago Bulls . In the Pelicans ' season finale on April 13 , Frazier had a 15 @-@ assist game off the bench in a 144 – 109 loss to the Minnesota Timberwolves .
On June 22 , 2016 , Frazier re @-@ signed with the Pelicans .
= = NBA career statistics = =
= = = Regular season = = =
= = = Playoffs = = =
= = Personal = =
Frazier is the younger brother of Krystal Frazier , a former Rice basketball guard . She was an All @-@ Conference USA selection after averaging over 10 points per game in her final seasons . Frazier graduated in May 2013 with a 3 @.@ 1 grade point average in supply chain and information systems at Smeal College of Business . Frazier added a second bachelor 's degree in communication arts and sciences the following year . He later served as the basketball team 's representative to the Penn State Student Athlete Advisory Board and was a member of the secret society Parmi Nous while at Penn State .
= Karnataka =
Karnataka ( Kannada : ಕರ ್ ನಾಟಕ , IPA : / kərˈnɑːtəkə , kɑːr- / ) is a state in south western region of India . It was formed on 1 November 1956 , with the passage of the States Reorganisation Act . Originally known as the State of Mysore , it was renamed Karnataka in 1973 . The capital and largest city is Bangalore ( Bengaluru ) . Karnataka is bordered by the Arabian Sea and the Laccadive Sea to the west , Goa to the northwest , Maharashtra to the north , Telangana to the northeast , Andhra Pradesh to the east , Tamil Nadu to the southeast , and Kerala to the southwest . The state covers an area of 191 @,@ 976 square kilometres ( 74 @,@ 122 sq mi ) , or 5 @.@ 83 percent of the total geographical area of India . It is the seventh largest Indian state by area . With 61 @,@ 130 @,@ 704 inhabitants at the 2011 census , Karnataka is the eighth largest state by population , comprising 30 districts . Kannada , one of the classical languages of India , is the most widely spoken and official language of the state .
The two main river systems of the state are the Krishna and its tributaries , the Bhima , Ghataprabha , Vedavathi , Malaprabha , and Tungabhadra , in the north , and the Kaveri and its tributaries , the Hemavati , Shimsha , Arkavati , Lakshmana Thirtha and Kabini , in the south . Most of these rivers flow out of Karnataka eastward into the Bay of Bengal .
Though several etymologies have been suggested for the name Karnataka , the generally accepted one is that Karnataka is derived from the Kannada words karu and nādu , meaning " elevated land " . Karu nadu may also be read as karu , meaning " black " , and nadu , meaning " region " , as a reference to the black cotton soil found in the Bayalu Seeme region of the state . The British used the word Carnatic , sometimes Karnatak , to describe both sides of peninsular India , south of the Krishna .
With an antiquity that dates to the paleolithic , Karnataka has been home to some of the most powerful empires of ancient and medieval India . The philosophers and musical bards patronised by these empires launched socio @-@ religious and literary movements which have endured to the present day . Karnataka has contributed significantly to both forms of Indian classical music , the Carnatic and Hindustani traditions .
= = History = =
Karnataka 's pre @-@ history goes back to a paleolithic hand @-@ axe culture evidenced by discoveries of , among other things , hand axes and cleavers in the region . Evidence of neolithic and megalithic cultures have also been found in the state . Gold discovered in Harappa was found to be imported from mines in Karnataka , prompting scholars to hypothesise about contacts between ancient Karnataka and the Indus Valley Civilisation ca . 3300 BCE .
Prior to the third century BCE , most of Karnataka formed part of the Nanda Empire before coming under the Mauryan empire of Emperor Ashoka . Four centuries of Satavahana rule followed , allowing them to control large areas of Karnataka . The decline of Satavahana power led to the rise of the earliest native kingdoms , the Kadambas and the Western Gangas , marking the region 's emergence as an independent political entity . The Kadamba Dynasty , founded by Mayurasharma , had its capital at Banavasi ; the Western Ganga Dynasty was formed with Talakad as its capital .
These were also the first kingdoms to use Kannada in administration , as evidenced by the Halmidi inscription and a fifth @-@ century copper coin discovered at Banavasi . These dynasties were followed by imperial Kannada empires such as the Badami Chalukyas , the Rashtrakuta Empire of Manyakheta and the Western Chalukya Empire , which ruled over large parts of the Deccan and had their capitals in what is now Karnataka . The Western Chalukyas patronised a unique style of architecture and Kannada literature which became a precursor to the Hoysala art of 12th century . Parts of modern @-@ day Southern Karnataka ( Gangavadi ) were occupied by the Chola Empire at the turn of 11th century . The Cholas and the Hoysalas fought over the region in the early 12th century before it eventually came under Hoysala rule .
At the turn of the first millennium , the Hoysalas gained power in the region . Literature flourished during this time , which led to the emergence of distinctive Kannada literary metres , and the construction of temples and sculptures adhering to the Vesara style of architecture . The expansion of the Hoysala Empire brought minor parts of modern Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu under its rule . In the early 14th century , Harihara and Bukka Raya established the Vijayanagara empire with its capital , Hosapattana ( later named Vijayanagara ) , on the banks of the Tungabhadra River in the modern Bellary district . The empire rose as a bulwark against Muslim advances into South India , which it completely controlled for over two centuries .
In 1565 , Karnataka and the rest of South India experienced a major geopolitical shift when the Vijayanagara empire fell to a confederation of Islamic sultanates in the Battle of Talikota . The Bijapur Sultanate , which had risen after the demise of the Bahmani Sultanate of Bidar , soon took control of the Deccan ; it was defeated by the Moghuls in the late 17th century . The Bahamani and Bijapur rulers encouraged Urdu and Persian literature and Indo @-@ Saracenic architecture , the Gol Gumbaz being one of the high points of this style . During the sixteenth century , Konkani Hindus migrated to Karnataka , mostly from Salcette , Goa , while during the seventeenth and eighteenth century , Goan Catholics migrated to South Canara , especially from Bardes , Goa , as a result of food shortages , epidemics and heavy taxation imposed by the Portuguese .
In the period that followed , parts of northern Karnataka were ruled by the Nizam of Hyderabad , the Maratha Empire , the British , and other powers . In the south , the Mysore Kingdom , a former vassal of the Vijayanagara Empire , was briefly independent . With the death of Krishnaraja Wodeyar II , Haidar Ali , the commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Mysore army , gained control of the region . After his death , the kingdom was inherited by his son Tippu Sultan . To contain European expansion in South India , Haidar Ali and later Tippu Sultan fought four significant Anglo @-@ Mysore Wars , the last of which resulted in Tippu Sultan 's death and the incorporation of Mysore into the British Raj in 1799 . The Kingdom of Mysore was restored to the Wodeyars and Mysore remained a princely state under the British Raj .
As the " doctrine of lapse " gave way to dissent and resistance from princely states across the country , Kittur Chennamma , Sangolli Rayanna and others spearheaded rebellions in Karnataka in 1830 , nearly three decades before the Indian Rebellion of 1857 . Other uprisings followed , such as the ones at Supa , Bagalkot , Shorapur , Nargund and Dandeli . These rebellions — which coincided with the Indian Rebellion of 1857 - were led by Mundargi Bhimarao , Bhaskar Rao Bhave , the Halagali Bedas , Raja Venkatappa Nayaka and others . By the late 19th century , the independence movement had gained momentum ; Karnad Sadashiva Rao , Aluru Venkata Raya , S. Nijalingappa , Kengal Hanumanthaiah , Nittoor Srinivasa Rau and others carried on the struggle into the early 20th century .
After India 's independence , the Maharaja , Jayachamarajendra Wodeyar , allowed his kingdom 's accession to India . In 1950 , Mysore became an Indian state of the same name ; the former Maharaja served as its Rajpramukh ( head of state ) until 1975 . Following the long @-@ standing demand of the Ekikarana Movement , Kodagu- and Kannada @-@ speaking regions from the adjoining states of Madras , Hyderabad and Bombay were incorporated into the Mysore state , under the States Reorganisation Act of 1956 . The thus expanded state was renamed Karnataka , seventeen years later , in 1973 . In the early 1900s through the post @-@ independence era , industrial visionaries such as Sir Mokshagundam Visvesvarayya born in Muddenahalli , Chikballapur District played an important role in the development of Karnataka 's strong manufacturing and industrial base .
= = Geography = =
The state has three principal geographical zones :
The coastal region of Karavali
The hilly Malenadu region comprising the Western Ghats
The Bayaluseeme region comprising the plains of the Deccan plateau
The bulk of the state is in the Bayaluseeme region , the northern part of which is the second @-@ largest arid region in India . The highest point in Karnataka is the Mullayanagiri hills in Chickmagalur district which has an altitude of 1 @,@ 929 metres ( 6 @,@ 329 ft ) . Some of the important rivers in Karnataka are Kaveri , Tungabhadra , Krishna , Malaprabha and the Sharavathi .
Karnataka consists of four main types of geological formations — the Archean complex made up of Dharwad schists and granitic gneisses , the Proterozoic non @-@ fossiliferous sedimentary formations of the Kaladgi and Bhima series , the Deccan trappean and intertrappean deposits and the tertiary and recent laterites and alluvial deposits . Significantly , about 60 % of the state is composed of the Archean complex which consist of gneisses , granites and charnockite rocks . Laterite cappings that are found in many districts over the Deccan Traps were formed after the cessation of volcanic activity in the early tertiary period . Eleven groups of soil orders are found in Karnataka , viz . Entisols , Inceptisols , Mollisols , Spodosols , Alfisols , Ultisols , Oxisols , Aridisols , Vertisols , Andisols and Histosols . Depending on the agricultural capability of the soil , the soil types are divided into six types , viz. red , lateritic , black , alluvio @-@ colluvial , forest and coastal soils .
Karnataka experiences four seasons . The winter in January and February is followed by summer between March and May , the monsoon season between June and September and the post @-@ monsoon season from October till December . Meteorologically , Karnataka is divided into three zones — coastal , north interior and south interior . Of these , the coastal zone receives the heaviest rainfall with an average rainfall of about 3 @,@ 638 @.@ 5 mm ( 143 in ) per annum , far in excess of the state average of 1 @,@ 139 mm ( 45 in ) . Agumbe in the Shivamogga district receives the second highest annual rainfall in India . The highest recorded temperature was 45 @.@ 6 ° C ( 114 ° F ) at Raichur and the lowest recorded temperature was 2 @.@ 8 ° C ( 37 ° F ) at Bidar .
About 38 @,@ 724 km2 ( 14 @,@ 951 sq mi ) of Karnataka ( i.e. 20 % of the state 's geographic area ) is covered by forests . The forests are classified as reserved , protected , unclosed , village and private forests . The percentage of forested area is slightly less than the all @-@ India average of about 23 % , and significantly less than the 33 % prescribed in the National Forest Policy .
= = Sub @-@ divisions = =
There are 30 districts in Karnataka :
Each district is governed by a district commissioner or district magistrate . The districts are further divided into sub @-@ divisions , which are governed by sub @-@ divisional magistrates ; sub @-@ divisions comprise blocks containing panchayats ( village councils ) and town municipalities .
At the 2011 census , Karnataka 's ten largest cities , sorted in order of decreasing population , were Bangalore , Hubballi @-@ Dharwad , Mysuru , Gulbarga , Mangaluru , Belagavi , Davangere , Ballary , Vijayapur and Shivamogga . Bangalore Urban , Belagavi and Mysore were the most populous districts , each of them having a population of more than three million . Bangalore Rural and Kodagu districts had a population of less than one million .
= = Demographics = =
According to the 2011 census of India , the total population of Karnataka was 61 @,@ 095 @,@ 297 of which 30 @,@ 966 @,@ 657 ( 50 @.@ 7 % ) were male and 30 @,@ 128 @,@ 640 ( 49 @.@ 3 % ) were female , or 1000 males for every 973 females . This represents a 15 @.@ 60 % increase over the population in 2001 . The population density was 319 per km2 and 38 @.@ 67 % of the people lived in urban areas . The literacy rate was 75 @.@ 36 % with 82 @.@ 47 % of males and 68 @.@ 08 % of females being literate . 84 @.@ 00 % of the population were Hindu , 12 @.@ 92 % were Muslim , 1 @.@ 87 % were Christian , 0 @.@ 72 % were Jains , 0 @.@ 16 % were Buddhist , 0 @.@ 05 % were Sikh and 0 @.@ 02 % were belonging to other religions and 0 @.@ 27 % of the population did not state their religion .
Kannada is the official language of Karnataka and spoken as a native language by about 66 @.@ 26 % of the people as of 2001 . Other linguistic minorities in the state were Urdu ( 10 @.@ 54 % ) , Telugu ( 7 @.@ 03 % ) , Tamil ( 3 @.@ 57 % ) , Marathi ( 3 @.@ 6 % ) , Tulu ( 3 @.@ 0 % ) , Hindi ( 2 @.@ 56 % ) , Konkani ( 1 @.@ 46 % ) , Malayalam ( 1 @.@ 33 % ) and Kodava Takk ( 0 @.@ 3 % ) . In 2007 the state had a birth rate of 2 @.@ 2 % , a death rate of 0 @.@ 7 % , an infant mortality rate of 5 @.@ 5 % and a maternal mortality rate of 0 @.@ 2 % . The total fertility rate was 2 @.@ 2 .
In the field of speciality health care , Karnataka 's private sector competes with the best in the world . Karnataka has also established a modicum of public health services having a better record of health care and child care than most other states of India . In spite of these advances , some parts of the state still leave much to be desired when it comes to primary health care .
= = Government and administration = =
Karnataka has a parliamentary system of government with two democratically elected houses , the Legislative Assembly and the Legislative Council . The Legislative Assembly consists of 224 members who are elected for five @-@ year terms . The Legislative Council is a permanent body of 75 members with one @-@ third ( 25 members ) retiring every two years .
The government of Karnataka is headed by the Chief Minister who is chosen by the ruling party members of the Legislative Assembly . The Chief Minister , along with the council of ministers , drives the legislative agenda and exercises most of the executive powers . However , the constitutional and formal head of the state is the Governor who is appointed for a five @-@ year term by the President of India on the advice of the Union government . The people of Karnataka also elect 28 members to the Lok Sabha , the lower house of the Indian Parliament . The members of the state Legislative Assembly elect 12 members to the Rajya Sabha , the upper house of the Indian Parliament .
For administrative purposes , Karnataka has been divided into four revenue divisions , 49 sub @-@ divisions , 30 districts , 175 taluks and 745 hoblies / revenue circles . The administration in each district is headed by a Deputy Commissioner who belongs to the Indian Administrative Service and is assisted by a number of officers belonging to Karnataka state services . The Deputy Commissioner of Police , an officer belonging to the Indian Police Service and assisted by the officers of the Karnataka Police Service , is entrusted with the responsibility of maintaining law and order and related issues in each district . The Deputy Conservator of Forests , an officer belonging to the Indian Forest Service , is entrusted with the responsibility of managing forests , environment and wildlife of the district , he will be assisted by the officers belonging to Karnataka Forest Service and officers belonging to Karnataka Forest Subordinate Service . Sectoral development in the districts is looked after by the district head of each development department such as Public Works Department , Health , Education , Agriculture , Animal Husbandry , etc . The judiciary in the state consists of the Karnataka High Court ( Attara Kacheri ) in Bangalore , district and session courts in each district and lower courts and judges at the taluk level .
Politics in Karnataka has been dominated by three political parties , the Indian National Congress , the Janata Dal ( Secular ) and the Bharatiya Janata Party . Politicians from Karnataka have played prominent roles in federal government of India with some of them having held the high positions of Prime Minister and Vice @-@ President . Border disputes involving Karnataka 's claim on the Kasaragod and Solapur districts and Maharashtra 's claim on Belgaum are ongoing since the states reorganisation . The official emblem of Karnataka has a Ganda Berunda in the centre . Surmounting this are four lions facing the four directions , taken from the Lion Capital of Ashoka at Sarnath . The emblem also carries two Sharabhas with the head of an elephant and the body of a lion .
= = Economy = =
Karnataka had an estimated GSDP ( Gross State Domestic Product ) of about US $ 58 @.@ 23 billion in the 2008 @-@ 09 fiscal year . The state registered a GSDP growth rate of 7 % for the year 2007 @-@ 2008 . Karnataka 's contribution to India 's GDP in the year 2004 @-@ 05 was 5 @.@ 2 % . With GDP growth of 56 @.@ 2 % and per capita GDP growth of 43 @.@ 9 % , Karnataka is now on the 15th position among all states . At the end of 2004 , the unemployment rate in Karnataka was 4 @.@ 94 % compared to the national rate of 5 @.@ 99 % . For the fiscal year 2006 @-@ 07 , the inflation rate in Karnataka was 4 @.@ 4 % , compared to the national average of 4 @.@ 7 % . In 2004 – 05 , Karnataka had an estimated poverty ratio of 17 % , less than the national ratio of 27 @.@ 5 % .
Nearly 56 % of the workforce in Karnataka is engaged in agriculture and related activities . A total of 12 @.@ 31 million hectares of land , or 64 @.@ 6 % of the state 's total area , is cultivated . Much of the agricultural output is dependent on the southwest monsoon as only 26 @.@ 5 % of the sown area is irrigated .
Karnataka is the manufacturing hub for some of the largest public sector industries in India , including Hindustan Aeronautics Limited , National Aerospace Laboratories , Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited , Indian Telephone Industries , Bharat Earth Movers Limited and HMT ( formerly Hindustan Machine Tools ) , which are based in Bangalore . Many of India 's premier science and technology research centres , such as Indian Space Research Organisation , Central Power Research Institute , Bharat Electronics Limited and the Central Food Technological Research Institute , are also headquartered in Karnataka . Mangalore Refinery and Petrochemicals Limited is an oil refinery located in Mangalore .
Since the 1980s , Karnataka has emerged as the pan @-@ Indian leader in the field of IT ( information technology ) . In 2007 , there were nearly 2 @,@ 000 firms operating in Karnataka . Many of them , including two of India 's biggest software firms , Infosys and Wipro , are also headquartered in the state . Exports from these firms exceeded ₹ 50 @,@ 000 crores ( $ 12 @.@ 5 billion ) in 2006 @-@ 07 , accounting for nearly 38 % of all IT exports from India . The Nandi Hills area in the outskirts of Devanahalli is the site of the upcoming $ 22 billion , 50 square kilometre BIAL IT Investment Region , one of the largest infrastructure projects in the history of Karnataka . All this has earned the state capital , Bangalore , the sobriquet Silicon Valley of India .
Karnataka also leads the nation in biotechnology . It is home to India 's largest biocluster , with 158 of the country 's 320 biotechnology firms being based here . The state accounts for 75 % of India 's floriculture , an upcoming industry which supplies flowers and ornamental plants worldwide .
Seven of India 's banks , Canara Bank , Syndicate Bank , Corporation Bank , Vijaya Bank , Karnataka Bank , Vysya Bank and the State Bank of Mysore originated in this state . The coastal districts of Udupi and Dakshina Kannada have a branch for every 500 persons — the best distribution of banks in India . In March 2002 , Karnataka had 4767 branches of different banks with each branch serving 11 @,@ 000 persons , which is lower than the national average of 16 @,@ 000 .
A majority of the silk industry in India is headquartered in Karnataka State , much of it in Doddaballapura , and the state government intends to invest ₹ 70 crore in a " Silk City " at Muddenahalli , near Bangalore International Airport .
= = Transport = =
Air transport in Karnataka , as in the rest of the country , is still a fledgling but fast expanding sector . Karnataka has Airports at Bangalore , Mangalore , Belgaum , Hubli , Hampi , Bellary and Mysore with international operations from Bangalore and Mangalore airports . Major airlines such as Kingfisher Airlines and Kingfisher Red were based in Bangalore .
Karnataka has a railway network with a total length of approximately 3 @,@ 089 kilometres ( 1 @,@ 919 mi ) . Until the creation of the South Western Zone headquartered at Hubli in 2003 , the railway network in the state was in the Southern and Western railway zones . Several parts of the state now come under the South Western Zone , with the remainder under the Southern Railways . Coastal Karnataka is covered under the Konkan railway network which was considered India 's biggest railway project of the century . Bangalore and Hubli are extensively connected with inter @-@ state destinations while other important cities and towns in the state are not so well @-@ connected .
Karnataka has 11 ports , including the New Mangalore Port , a major port and ten minor ports , of which three were operational in 2012 . The New Mangalore port was incorporated as the ninth major port in India on 4 May 1974 . This port handled 32 @.@ 04 million tonnes of traffic in the fiscal year 2006 @-@ 07 with 17 @.@ 92 million tonnes of imports and 14 @.@ 12 million tonnes of exports . The port also handled 1015 vessels including 18 cruise vessels during the year 2006 @-@ 07 . The inland water transport within the state is not well developed .
The total lengths of National Highways and state highways in Karnataka are 3 @,@ 973 and 9 @,@ 829 kilometres ( 2 @,@ 469 and 6 @,@ 107 mi ) , respectively . The KSRTC , the state public transport corporation , transports an average of 2 @.@ 2 million passengers daily and employs about 25 @,@ 000 people . In the late nineties , KSRTC was split into three corporations , viz . , The Bangalore Metropolitan Transport Corporation , The North @-@ East Karnataka Road Transport Corporation and The North @-@ West Karnataka Road Transport Corporation with their headquarters in Bangalore , Gulbarga and Hubli respectively .
= = Culture = =
The diverse linguistic and religious ethnicities that are native to Karnataka , combined with their long histories , have contributed immensely to the varied cultural heritage of the state . Apart from Kannadigas , Karnataka is home to Tuluvas , Kodavas and Konkanis . Minor populations of Tibetan Buddhists and tribes like the Soligas , Yeravas , Todas and Siddhis also live in Karnataka . The traditional folk arts cover the entire gamut of music , dance , drama , storytelling by itinerant troupes , etc . Yakshagana of Malnad and coastal Karnataka , a classical dance drama , is one of the major theatrical forms of Karnataka . Contemporary theatre culture in Karnataka remains vibrant with organisations like Ninasam , Ranga Shankara , Rangayana and Prabhat Kalavidaru continuing to build on the foundations laid by Gubbi Veeranna , T. P. Kailasam , B. V. Karanth , K V Subbanna , Prasanna and others . Veeragase , Kamsale , Kolata and Dollu Kunitha are popular dance forms . The Mysore style of Bharatanatya , nurtured and popularised by the likes of the legendary Jatti Tayamma , continues to hold sway in Karnataka , and Bangalore also enjoys an eminent place as one of the foremost centres of Bharatanatya .
Karnataka also has a special place in the world of Indian classical music , with both Karnataka ( Carnatic ) and Hindustani styles finding place in the state , and Karnataka has produced a number of stalwarts in both styles . The Haridasa movement of the sixteenth century contributed significantly to the development of Karnataka ( Carnatic ) music as a performing art form . Purandara Dasa , one of the most revered Haridasas , is known as the Karnataka Sangeeta Pitamaha ( ' Father of Karnataka a.k.a. Carnatic music ' ) . Celebrated Hindustani musicians like Gangubai Hangal , Mallikarjun Mansur , Bhimsen Joshi , Basavaraja Rajaguru , Sawai Gandharva and several others hail from Karnataka , and some of them have been recipients of the Kalidas Samman , Padma Bhushan and Padma Vibhushan awards . Noted Carnatic musicians include Violin T. Chowdiah , Veena Sheshanna , Mysore Vasudevachar , Doreswamy Iyengar and Thitte Krishna Iyengar .
Gamaka is another classical music genre based on Carnatic music that is practised in Karnataka . Kannada Bhavageete is a genre of popular music that draws inspiration from the expressionist poetry of modern poets . The Mysore school of painting has produced painters like Sundarayya , Tanjavur Kondayya , B. Venkatappa and Keshavayya . Chitrakala Parishat is an organisation in Karnataka dedicated to promoting painting , mainly in the Mysore painting style .
Saree is the traditional dress of women in Karnataka . Women in Kodagu have a distinct style of wearing the saree , different from the rest of Karnataka . Dhoti , known as Panche in Karnataka , is the traditional attire of men . Shirt , Trousers and Salwar kameez are widely worn in Urban areas . Mysore Peta is the traditional headgear of southern Karnataka , while the pagadi or pataga ( similar to the Rajasthani turban ) is preferred in the northern areas of the state .
Rice and Ragi form the staple food in South Karnataka , whereas Jolada rotti , Sorghum is staple to North Karnataka . Bisi bele bath , Jolada rotti , Ragi mudde , Uppittu , Benne Dose , Masala Dose and Maddur Vade are some of the popular food items in Karnataka . Among sweets , Mysore Pak , Karadantu of Gokak and Amingad , Belgaavi Kunda and Dharwad pedha are popular . Apart from this , coastal Karnataka and Kodagu have distinctive cuisines of their own . Udupi cuisine of coastal Karnataka is popular all over India .
= = Religion = =
Adi Shankaracharya ( 788 – 820 ) chose Sringeri in Karnataka to establish the first of his four mathas ( monastery ) . Madhvacharya ( 1238 – 1317 ) was the chief proponent of Tattvavāda ( Philosophy of Reality ) , popularly known as Dvaita or Dualistic school of Hindu philosophy — one of the three most influential Vedānta philosophies . Madhva was one of the important philosophers during the Bhakti movement . He was a pioneer in many ways , going against standard conventions and norms . According to tradition , Madhvācārya is believed to be the third incarnation of Vāyu ( Mukhyaprāṇa ) , after Hanumān and Bhīma . The Haridasa ( Kannada : ಹರಿದಾಸ ) devotional movement is considered as one of the turning points in the cultural history of India . Over a span of nearly six centuries , several saints and mystics helped shape the culture , philosophy and art of South India and Karnataka in particular by exerting considerable spiritual influence over the masses and kingdoms that ruled South India .
This movement was ushered in by the Haridasas ( literally " servants of Lord Hari " ) and took shape in the 13th century - 14th century CE , period , prior to and during the early rule of the Vijayanagara empire . The main objective of this movement was to propagate the Dvaita philosophy of Madhvacharya ( Madhva Siddhanta ) to the masses through a literary medium known as Dasa Sahitya literature of the servants of the Lord . Purandaradasa is widely recognised as the " Pithamaha " of Carnatic Music for his immense contribution . Ramanujacharya , the leading expounder of Viśiṣṭādvaita , spent many years in Melkote . He came to Karnataka in 1098 AD and lived here until 1122 AD . He first lived in Tondanur and then moved to Melkote where the Cheluvanarayana Temple and a well @-@ organised Matha were built . He was patronised by the Hoysala king , Vishnuvardhana .
In the twelfth century , Lingayatism emerged in northern Karnataka as a protest against the rigidity of the prevailing social and caste system . Leading figures of this movement were Basava , Akka Mahadevi and Allama Prabhu , who established the Anubhava Mantapa which was the centre of all religious and philosophical thoughts and discussions pertaining to Ligayats . These three social reformers did so by the literary means of ' Vachana Sahitya ' which is very famous for its simple , straight forward and easily understandable Kannada language . Lingayatism preached women equality by letting women wear Ishtalinga i.e. Symbol of god around their neck . Basava shunned the sharp hierarchical divisions that existed and sought to remove all distinctions between the hierarchically superior master class and the subordinate , servile class . He also supported inter @-@ caste marriages and Kaayaka Tatva of Basavanna . This was the basis of the Lingayat faith which today counts millions among its followers .
The Jain philosophy and literature have contributed immensely to the religious and cultural landscape of Karnataka . Islam , which had an early presence on the west coast of India as early as the tenth century , gained a foothold in Karnataka with the rise of the Bahamani and Bijapur sultanates that ruled parts of Karnataka . Christianity reached Karnataka in the sixteenth century with the arrival of the Portuguese and St. Francis Xavier in 1545 .
Buddhism was popular in Karnataka during the first millennium in places such as Gulbarga and Banavasi . A chance discovery of edicts and several Mauryan relics at Sannati in Gulbarga district in 1986 has proven that the Krishna River basin was once home to both Mahayana and Hinayana Buddhism . There are Tibetan refugee camps in Karnataka .
Mysore Dasara is celebrated as the Nada habba ( state festival ) and this is marked by major festivities at Mysore . Ugadi ( Kannada New Year ) , Makara Sankranti ( the harvest festival ) , Ganesh Chaturthi , Nagapanchami , Basava Jayanthi , Deepavali , and Ramzan are the other major festivals of Karnataka .
= = Language = =
The Kannada language serves as the official language of the state of Karnataka , as the native language of approximately 65 % of its population and as one of the classical languages of India . Kannada played a crucial role in the creation of Karnataka : linguistic demographics played a major role in defining the new state in 1956 . Tulu , Konkani and Kodava are other minor native languages that share a long history in the state . Urdu is spoken widely by the Muslim population . Less widely spoken languages include Beary bashe and certain dialects such as Sankethi , Dharwad Kannada , Mangaluru Kannada or Malnad Kannada , and Bengaluru Kannada .
Kannada features a rich and ancient body of literature including religious and secular genre , covering topics as diverse as Jainism ( such as Puranas ) , Veerashaivism ( such as Vachanas ) , Vaishnavism ( such as Haridasa Sahitya ) and modern literature . Evidence from edicts during the time of Ashoka the Great ( reigned 274 – 232 BCE ) suggest that Buddhist literature influenced the Kannada script and its literature . The Halmidi inscription , the earliest attested full @-@ length inscription in the Kannada language and script , dates from 450 CE , while the earliest available literary work , the Kavirajamarga , has been dated to 850 CE . References made in the Kavirajamarga , however , prove that Kannada literature flourished in the native composition meters such as Chattana , Beddande and Melvadu during earlier centuries . The classic refers to several earlier greats ( purvacharyar ) of Kannada poetry and prose .
Kuvempu , the renowned Kannada poet and writer who wrote Jaya Bharata Jananiya Tanujate , the state anthem of Karnataka was the first recipient of the " Karnataka Ratna " award , the highest civilian award bestowed by the Government of Karnataka . Contemporary Kannada literature has received considerable acknowledgement in the arena of Indian literature , with eight Kannada writers winning India 's highest literary honour , the Jnanpith award .
Tulu is spoken mainly in the coastal districts of Udupi and Dakshina Kannada . Tulu Mahabharato , written by Arunabja in the Tigalari script , is the oldest surviving Tulu text . Tigalari script was used by Brahmins to write Sanskrit language . The use of the Kannada script for writing Tulu and non @-@ availability of print in Tigalari script contributed to the marginalisation of Tigalari script . Konkani is mostly spoken in the Uttara Kannada and Dakshina Kannada districts and in parts of Udupi . The Kodavas who mainly reside in the Kodagu district , speak Kodava Takk . Two regional variations of the language exist , the northern Mendale Takka and the southern Kiggaati Takka . Kodava Takk use the Kannada script for writing and Konkani use the Kannada as well as Devanagari script for writing . English is the medium of education in many schools and widely used for business communication in most private companies .
All of the state 's languages are patronised and promoted by governmental and quasi @-@ governmental bodies . The Kannada Sahitya Parishat and the Kannada Sahitya Akademi are responsible for the promotion of Kannada while the Karnataka Konkani Sahitya Akademi , The Tulu Sahitya Akademi and the Kodava Sahitya Akademi promote their respective languages .
= = Education = =
As per the 2011 census , Karnataka had a literacy rate of 75 @.@ 60 % , with 82 @.@ 85 % of males and 68 @.@ 13 % of females in the state being literate . In 2001 the literacy rate of the state were 67 @.@ 04 % , with 76 @.@ 29 % of males and 57 @.@ 45 % of females being literate . The state is home to some of the premier educational and research institutions of India such as the Indian Institute of Technology Dharwad , the Indian Institute of Science , the Indian Institute of Management , the National Institute of Technology Karnataka and the National Law School of India University .
In March 2006 , Karnataka had 54 @,@ 529 primary schools with 252 @,@ 875 teachers and 8 @.@ 495 million students , and 9498 secondary schools with 92 @,@ 287 teachers and 1 @.@ 384 million students . There are three kinds of schools in the state , viz . , government @-@ run , private aided ( financial aid is provided by the government ) and private unaided ( no financial aid is provided ) . The primary languages of instruction in most schools are Kannada and English . The syllabus taught in the schools is either of the CBSE , the ICSE or the state syllabus ( SSLC ) defined by the Department of Public Instruction of the Government of Karnataka . However , some schools follows NIOS syllabus . The State has two Sainik Schools in Coorg Sainik School in Kodagu and in Bijapur Sainik School in Bijapur .
To maximise attendance in schools , the Karnataka Government has launched a midday meal scheme in government and aided schools in which free lunch is provided to the students . Statewide board examinations are conducted at the end of the period of secondary education and students who qualify are allowed to pursue a two @-@ year pre @-@ university course ; after which students become eligible to pursue under @-@ graduate degrees .
There are 481 degree colleges affiliated with one of the universities in the state , viz . Bangalore University , Gulbarga University , Karnatak University , Kuvempu University , Mangalore University and Mysore University . In 1998 , the engineering colleges in the state were brought under the newly formed Visvesvaraya Technological University headquartered at Belgaum , whereas the medical colleges are run under the jurisdiction of the Rajiv Gandhi University of Health Sciences . Some of these baccalaureate colleges are accredited with the status of a deemed university . There are 186 engineering , 39 medical and 41 dental colleges in the state . Udupi , Sringeri , Gokarna and Melkote are well @-@ known places of Sanskrit and Vedic learning . In 2015 the Central Government decided to establish the first Indian Institute of Technology in Karnataka at Dharwad . Tulu and Konkani languages are taught as an optional subject in the twin districts of South Canara and Udupi .
= = = High Literacy Districts = = =
= = Media = =
The era of Kannada newspapers started in the year 1843 when Hermann Mögling , a missionary from Basel Mission , published the first Kannada newspaper called Mangalooru Samachara in Mangalore . The first Kannada periodical , Mysuru Vrittanta Bodhini was started by Bhashyam Bhashyacharya in Mysore . Shortly after Indian independence in 1948 , K. N. Guruswamy founded The Printers ( Mysore ) Private Limited and began publishing two newspapers , Deccan Herald and Prajavani . Presently the Times of India and Vijaya Karnataka are the largest @-@ selling English and Kannada newspapers respectively . A vast number of weekly , biweekly and monthly magazines are under publication in both Kannada and English . Udayavani , Kannadaprabha , Samyukta Karnataka , VarthaBharathi , Sanjevani , Eesanje , Hosa digantha , Karavali Ale are also some popular dailies published from Karnataka .
Doordarshan is the broadcaster of the Government of India and its channel DD Chandana is dedicated to Kannada . Prominent Kannada channels include Janasri News , Colors Kannada , Zee Kannada , Udaya TV , TV 9 , Asianet Suvarna and Kasturi TV .
Karnataka occupies a special place in the history of Indian radio . In 1935 , Aakashvani , the first private radio station in India , was started by Prof. M.V. Gopalaswamy in Mysore . The popular radio station was taken over by the local municipality and later by All India Radio ( AIR ) and moved to Bangalore in 1955 . Later in 1957 , AIR adopted the original name of the radio station , Aakashavani as its own . Some of the popular programs
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aired by AIR Bangalore included Nisarga Sampada and Sasya Sanjeevini which were programs that taught science through songs , plays and stories . These two programs became so popular that they were translated and broadcast in 18 different languages and the entire series was recorded on cassettes by the Government of Karnataka and distributed to thousands of schools across the state . Karnataka has witnessed a growth in FM radio channels , mainly in the cities of Bangalore , Mangalore and Mysore , which has become hugely popular .
= = Sports = =
Karnataka 's smallest district , Kodagu , is a major contributor to Indian field hockey , producing numerous players who have represented India at the international level . The annual Kodava Hockey Festival is the largest hockey tournament in the world . Bangalore has hosted a WTA tennis event and , in 1997 , it hosted the fourth National Games of India . The Sports Authority of India , the premier sports institute in the country , and the Nike Tennis Academy are also situated in Bangalore . Karnataka has been referred to as the cradle of Indian swimming because of its high standards in comparison to other states .
One of the most popular sports in Karnataka is cricket . The state cricket team has won the Ranji Trophy seven times , second only to Mumbai in terms of success . Chinnaswamy Stadium in Bangalore regularly hosts international matches and is also the home of the National Cricket Academy , which was opened in 2000 to nurture potential international players . Many cricketers have represented India and in one international match held in the 1990s ; players from Karnataka composed the majority of the national team . The Royal Challengers Bangalore , an Indian Premier League franchise , The Bengaluru Football Club , an Indian Football League : I @-@ League franchise , The Bengaluru Yodhas , a Pro Wrestling League franchise , The Bengaluru Top Guns , a Premier Badminton League franchise and The Bengaluru Bulls , a Pro Kabaddi League franchise are based in Bangalore . The Karnataka Premier League is an inter @-@ regional Twenty20 cricket tournament played in the state .
Notable sportsmen from Karnataka include B.S. Chandrasekhar , Ravi Shastri , Sanjay Manjrekar , Anil Kumble , Javagal Srinath , Rahul Dravid , Venkatesh Prasad , Robin Uthappa , Vinay Kumar , Gundappa Vishwanath , Syed Kirmani , Stuart Binny , Ashwini Ponnappa , Mahesh Bhupathi , Rohan Bopanna , Prakash Padukone who won the All England Badminton Championships in 1980 and Pankaj Advani who has won three world titles in cue sports by the age of 20 including the amateur World Snooker Championship in 2003 and the World Billiards Championship in 2005 .
Cycling talent of Karnataka needs a special mention . Off late Bijapur district has produced some of the best known Road Cyclists in the national circuit . Premalata Sureban was part of the Indian contingent at the Perlis Open ' 99 in Malaysia . In recognition of the talent of cyclists in the district , the State Government has already laid a cycling track at the B.R. Ambedkar Stadium here , spending ₹ . 40 lakh .
Sports like kho kho , kabaddi , chinni daandu and goli ( marbles ) are played mostly in Karnataka 's rural areas .
= = Flora and fauna = =
Karnataka has a rich diversity of flora and fauna . It has a recorded forest area of 38 @,@ 720 km2 ( 14 @,@ 950 sq mi ) which constitutes 20 @.@ 19 % of the total geographical area of the state . These forests support 25 % of the elephant and 10 % of the tiger population of India . Many regions of Karnataka are as yet unexplored , so new species of flora and fauna are found periodically . The Western Ghats , a biodiversity hotspot , includes the western region of Karnataka . Two sub @-@ clusters in the Western Ghats , viz . Talacauvery and Kudremukh , both in Karnataka , are on the tentative list of World Heritage Sites of UNESCO . The Bandipur and Nagarahole National Parks , which fall outside these subclusters , were included in the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve in 1986 , a UNESCO designation . The Indian roller and the Indian elephant are recognised as the state bird and animal while sandalwood and the lotus are recognised as the state tree and flower respectively . Karnataka has five national parks : Anshi , Bandipur , Bannerghatta , Kudremukh and Nagarhole . It also has 27 wildlife sanctuaries of which seven are bird sanctuaries .
Wild animals that are found in Karnataka include the elephant , the tiger , the leopard , the gaur , the sambar deer , the chital or spotted deer , the muntjac , the bonnet macaque , the slender loris , the common palm civet , the small Indian civet , the sloth bear , the dhole , the striped hyena and the golden jackal . Some of the birds found here are the great hornbill , the Malabar pied hornbill , the Ceylon frogmouth , herons , ducks , kites , eagles , falcons , quails , partridges , lapwings , sandpipers , pigeons , doves , parakeets , cuckoos , owls , nightjars , swifts , kingfishers , bee @-@ eaters and munias . Some species of trees found in Karnataka are Callophyllum tomentosa , Callophyllum wightianum , Garcina cambogia , Garcina morealla , Alstonia scholaris , Flacourtia montana , Artocarpus hirsutus , Artocarpus lacoocha , Cinnamomum zeylanicum , Grewia tilaefolia , Santalum album , Shorea talura , Emblica officinalis , Vitex altissima and Wrightia tinctoria . Wildlife in Karnataka is threatened by poaching , habitat destruction , human @-@ wildlife conflict and pollution .
= = Tourism = =
By virtue of its varied geography and long history , Karnataka hosts numerous spots of interest for tourists . There is an array of ancient sculptured temples , modern cities , scenic hill ranges , unexplored forests and endless beaches . Karnataka has been ranked as the fourth most popular destination for tourism among the states of India . Karnataka has the second highest number of nationally protected monuments in India , second only to Uttar Pradesh , in addition to 752 monuments protected by the State Directorate of Archaeology and Museums . Another 25 @,@ 000 monuments are yet to receive protection .
The districts of the Western Ghats and the southern districts of the state have popular eco @-@ tourism locations including Kudremukh , Madikeri and Agumbe . Karnataka has 25 wildlife sanctuaries and five national parks . Popular among them are Bandipur National Park , Bannerghatta National Park and Nagarhole National Park . The ruins of the Vijayanagara Empire at Hampi and the monuments of Pattadakal are on the list of UNESCO 's World Heritage Sites . The cave temples at Badami and the rock @-@ cut temples at Aihole representing the Badami Chalukyan style of architecture are also popular tourist destinations . The Hoysala temples at Belur and Halebidu , which were built with Chloritic schist ( soapstone ) are proposed UNESCO World Heritage sites . The Gol Gumbaz and Ibrahim Rauza are famous examples of the Deccan Sultanate style of architecture . The monolith of Gomateshwara Bahubali at Shravanabelagola is the tallest sculpted monolith in the world , attracting tens of thousands of pilgrims during the Mahamastakabhisheka festival .
The waterfalls of Karnataka and Kudremukh are listed as must @-@ see places and among the " 1001 Natural Wonders of the World " . Jog Falls is India 's tallest single @-@ tiered waterfall with Gokak Falls , Unchalli Falls , Magod Falls , Abbey Falls and Shivanasamudra Falls among other popular waterfalls .
Several popular beaches dot the coastline , including Murudeshwara , Gokarna , Malpe and Karwar . In addition , Karnataka is home to several places of religious importance . Several Hindu temples including the famous Udupi Sri Krishna Matha , the Marikamba Temple at Sirsi , the Sri Manjunatha Temple at Dharmasthala , Kukke Subramanya Temple and Sharadamba Temple at Shringeri attract pilgrims from all over India . Most of the holy sites of Lingayatism , like Kudalasangama and Basavana Bagewadi , are found in northern parts of the state . Shravanabelagola , Mudabidri and Karkala are famous for Jain history and monuments . Jainism had a stronghold in Karnataka in the early medieval period with Shravanabelagola as its most important centre .
Recently Karnataka has emerged as a hot spot for health care tourism . Karnataka has the highest number of approved health systems and alternative therapies in India . Along with some ISO certified government @-@ owned hospitals , private institutions which provide international @-@ quality services have caused the health care industry to grow by 30 % during 2004 @-@ 05 . Hospitals in Karnataka treat around 8 @,@ 000 health tourists every year .
= Russian ironclad Kniaz Pozharsky =
The Russian ironclad Kniaz Pozharsky ( Russian : Князь Пожарский ) was an iron @-@ hulled armored frigate built for the Imperial Russian Navy during the 1860s . She was the first Russian armored ship to leave European waters when she cruised the Pacific Ocean in 1873 – 75 . The ship did not participate in the Russo @-@ Turkish War of 1877 – 78 , and remained in the Baltic Sea until 1879 – 80 , when she made another cruiser to the Pacific . Kniaz Pozharsky was assigned to the Baltic Fleet for the rest of her career . She mainly served as a training ship after her refit in 1885 until she was hulked in 1909 and probably scrapped in 1911 .
= = Design and description = =
Originally classified as an armored corvette , Kniaz Pozharsky was redesignated as an armored frigate on 20 November 1866 . She was laid out as a central battery ironclad with the armament concentrated amidships . The ship was fitted with a ram and her crew numbered approximately 495 officers and enlisted men .
Kniaz Pozharsky was 272 feet 8 inches ( 83 @.@ 1 m ) long at the waterline . She had a beam of 49 feet ( 14 @.@ 9 m ) and a draft of 24 feet 6 inches ( 7 @.@ 5 m ) . The ship was designed to displace 4 @,@ 506 long tons ( 4 @,@ 578 t ) , but displaced 5 @,@ 138 long tons ( 5 @,@ 220 t ) as built , an increase of over 600 long tons ( 610 t ) . Kniaz Pozharsky was fitted with a double bottom and was considered to be a steady gun platform and a good sea boat .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The ship had a simple horizontal direct @-@ acting steam engine driving a single two @-@ bladed propeller . Steam was provided by eight cylindrical boilers . The engine produced 2 @,@ 835 indicated horsepower ( 2 @,@ 114 kW ) during sea trials which gave the ship a maximum speed around 11 @.@ 7 knots ( 21 @.@ 7 km / h ; 13 @.@ 5 mph ) . Kniaz Pozharsky carried a maximum of 600 long tons ( 610 t ) of coal which gave her an economical range of 3 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 600 km ; 3 @,@ 500 mi ) . She was ship @-@ rigged with three masts and a maximum sail area of 27 @,@ 000 square feet ( 2 @,@ 508 m2 ) . To reduce drag while under sail her funnel was retractable and her propeller could be hoisted into the hull .
= = = Armament = = =
Kniaz Pozharsky was armed with eight Obukhov 9 @-@ inch ( 229 mm ) breech @-@ loading guns . In an attempt to provide axial fire , the sides of the hull at the upper deck level were cut away in front of and behind the battery . While providing better coverage than the traditional broadside layout , this still left a considerable area on which no gun could bear .
The solid shot of the 20 @-@ caliber gun weighed approximately 300 pounds ( 136 kg ) , while the gun itself weighed 14 @,@ 908 pounds ( 6 @,@ 762 kg ) . The gun had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 276 ft / s ( 389 m / s ) and was credited with the nominal ability to penetrate 9 @.@ 3 inches ( 236 mm ) of wrought iron armor at the muzzle .
Watts and Gardiner credit the ship with three spar torpedoes as well as three towed torpedoes , but these are not mentioned by Wright or Silverstone .
= = = Armour = = =
Figures for Kniaz Pozharsky 's armor protection vary between sources . They agree that she had a complete waterline belt of wrought iron that had a total height of 11 feet ( 3 m ) with 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) below the waterline . Thicknesses for the belt are quoted from 100 to 114 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 9 to 4 @.@ 5 in ) thick . The guns were protected by a section of 114 @-@ millimeter armor , 80 feet ( 24 @.@ 4 m ) long ; no information on any armored transverse bulkheads is available . The armor was backed by 17 or 18 inches ( 432 or 457 mm ) of teak .
= = Service = =
Kniaz Pozharsky was laid down on 30 November 1864 at the Mitchell Shipyard in Saint Petersburg with the name of Pozharsky , but it was changed before she was launched on 12 September 1867 . Sources differ on when the ship entered service ; they give either 1870 or 1873 . About 1873 Kniaz Pozharsky became the first Russian armored ship to deploy to the Pacific , but returned to the Baltic Fleet in 1875 . She remained in the Baltic Sea during the Russo @-@ Turkish War and the ensuing war scare with Great Britain . The ship made another cruise to the Pacific in 1879 – 80 . Kniaz Pozharsky served as the flagship during the fleet maneuvers of 1884 and she was reviewed by Tsar Alexander III of Russia . The ship was extensively refitted the following year and received new boilers , her propeller was fixed in place and her retractable funnel was replaced by two fixed funnels .
Kniaz Pozharsky was rearmed during the refit , but sources differ on the light guns fitted . Her 9 @-@ inch guns were replaced by new , more powerful 35 @-@ caliber 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) guns , likely the 12 @.@ 74 long tons ( 12 @.@ 94 t ) model with a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 796 ft / s ( 547 m / s ) . Two 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) , 23 @-@ caliber guns were also fitted , possibly as chase guns . Wright and Watts agree that eight 4 @-@ pounder guns and four quick @-@ firing guns of unspecified size were added ; Silverstone does not mention the four quick @-@ firers , but Gardiner says that four 83 @.@ 4 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 3 in ) guns were fitted . The ship was reclassified as a " cruiser of the 1st rank " in 1892 and her light armament was modified by the substitution of four 47 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) Hotchkiss guns for four of the 4 @-@ pounders and the addition of six 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Hotchkiss guns . Two above @-@ water 15 @-@ inch ( 381 mm ) torpedo tubes were also added at this time .
After her refit , Kniaz Pozharsky served mostly as a training ship with the Naval School Division , although she was not formally reclassified as a school ship until 24 March 1906 . After she was reclassified her armament was reduced to a single 6 @-@ inch gun , four 4 @-@ pounders , two 47 @-@ millimeter and six 37 @-@ millimeter Hotchkiss guns . The ship was hulked on 27 October 1909 and renamed Blokshiv No. 1 . She was struck from the Navy List on 14 April 1911 and probably scrapped shortly afterward because the elderly monitor Lava was renamed as Blokshiv No. 1 that same day .
= Mike Quinn =
Michael Patrick Quinn ( born April 15 , 1974 ) is a former professional gridiron football quarterback . He was signed by the Pittsburgh Steelers as an undrafted free agent in 1997 and was also a member of the Rhein Fire , Indianapolis Colts , Dallas Cowboys , Miami Dolphins , Houston Texans , Denver Broncos , Montreal Alouettes and Winnipeg Blue Bombers . He played college football at Stephen F. Austin State University .
Quinn attended Lee High School in Houston , Texas and Stephen F. Austin State University . He started playing football in high school and played at university , where he started for one season , his senior season . After he went undrafted in the 1997 NFL Draft he signed with the Pittsburgh Steelers . With Pittsburgh , he ended up making the roster as the third – string quarterback . Following the season , he was allocated to the Rhein Fire , whom he led to the championship game . He spent 1998 and 1999 as a backup for the Indianapolis Colts and Dallas Cowboys before signing with the Miami Dolphins . Quinn spent two seasons backing up for the Dolphins . In 2002 , he was one of the first group of players signed by the National Football League ( NFL ) expansion franchise , the Houston Texans . As he had done for the previous years in his career , Quinn spent two seasons as a backup for the new franchise . The final year of his NFL career was spent with the Denver Broncos in training camp and with the Steelers ' practice squad . After going unsigned , Quinn signed with the Montreal Alouettes joining their practice squad in August 2005 , leaving the team after the season . Quinn joined another Canadian team , the Winnipeg Blue Bombers in March 2006 but after receiving playing time in a backup role he was released later that year , in August .
= = Personal = =
Quinn attended Robert E. Lee High School in Houston , Texas . He was named to the state All @-@ Star team during his tenure . Currently , he and his wife , Jennifer , live in Houston , Texas . At Stephen F. Austin State University , he majored in accounting .
= = College career = =
On November 12 , 1995 in a game against Southwest Texas State , Quinn came into the game for starting quarterback James Ritchey and threw three touchdown passes .
In the game against Samford on October 27 , 1996 , Quinn led Stephen F. Austin to a 43 – 14 win after throwing a touchdown pass to Chris Jefferson at the end of the first half . SFA held the lead for the rest of the game . Against McNeese State on November 3 , Quinn led a come from behind win for SFA by throwing two touchdowns to Mikhael Ricks in the fourth quarter . The next week , Quinn threw for 283 yards and threw four touchdown passes to lead Stephen F. Austin to another win making them 7 – 2 . However , against Southwest Texas State on November 17 , Quinn threw 23 incomplete passes .
= = Professional career = =
= = = 1997 – 2003 = = =
Quinn signed with the Pittsburgh Steelers as an undrafted free agent following the 1997 NFL Draft . Quinn entered training camp behind Kordell Stewart , Mike Tomczak and Jim Miller on the depth chart , but after training camp Quinn had beaten out Miller and became the team 's third @-@ string quarterback . He saw his only game action on November 9 against the Baltimore Ravens , throwing for 10 yards on one completion . Following the 1997 season , the Steelers allocated Quinn to play in NFL Europe , he later agreed to play for the Rhein Fire . In his second game with the Fire on April 12 , Quinn completed 13 of 21 passes for 194 yards . He also completed two touchdown passes . With Quinn as the starting quarterback , the Fire played in the World Bowl . However , Quinn was hampered by a sprained ankle and could not play in the game . He returned to the Steelers after the NFL Europe season but was waived on August 31 .
After being waived by Pittsburgh , Quinn was claimed off waivers by the Indianapolis Colts on September 1 . To make room for Quinn the Colts had to release Jim Miller , who had lost a roster spot on the Steelers to Quinn a year earlier . However , after signing Doug Nussmeier , the Colts waived Quinn .
The Dallas Cowboys , who were unsuccessful claiming Quinn 10 days earlier , claimed him after he was waived by the Colts . In Dallas , Quinn became the Cowboys second @-@ string quarterback after Troy Aikman was injured and Jason Garrett became the starter . He played in three games for the Cowboys in 1998 , completing one pass for 10 yards . In 1999 , Quinn did not play in a game for Dallas . During the 2000 off – season , Garrett signed as a free agent with the New York Giants and quarterback Paul Justin was signed by Dallas to compete for the backup spot with Quinn . He was released on May 5 , 2000 .
Quinn signed with the Miami Dolphins on May 23 , 2000 . On November 6 , Quinn threw a touchdown pass to Deon Dyer but was waived by the Dolphins on November 10 , only to be re @-@ signed four days later . In the 2001 preseason , Quinn sprained a joint in his shoulder and was waived / injured . He was released from injured reserve with an injury settlement on September 6 .
The Houston Texans , the newest franchise in the NFL , signed Quinn to a reserve / future contract on December 30 , 2001 . Following the 2002 NFL Draft in which the Texans drafted quarterback David Carr with their first ever pick , Quinn became the backup . Quinn and Tony Banks ended up winning the backup jobs to Carr over Kent Graham and Ben Sankey . Banks was second – string with Quinn being the third – string quarterback . The Texans waived Quinn during final cuts on August 25 , 2003 . He was the final member of the Texans first signings still on the team . He was re @-@ signed to the practice squad on November 17 after David Carr suffered a sprained right shoulder . However , when Banks also became injured , Quinn was signed from the practice squad to back up the now healthy Carr and rookie Dave Ragone .
= = = 2004 – 2006 = = =
The Denver Broncos signed Quinn as an unrestricted free agent in March 2004 . At the end of training camp , Quinn was released by the Broncos .
Quinn was re @-@ signed by the Steelers on September 22 and assigned to their practice squad . He was released from the practice squad on November 10 .
Quinn was signed to the Montreal Alouettes practice roster on August 29 , 2005 .
The Winnipeg Blue Bombers signed Quinn on March 22 , 2006 joining quarterbacks Tee Martin , Russ Michna and Kevin Glenn on Winnipeg 's roster . In his CFL preseason debut against the Montreal Alouettes on June 2 , Quinn threw a 24 yard touchdown pass to Quentin McCord however the Blue Bombers lost 25 – 24 . After making the team out of training camp , Quinn injured his sternum and shoulder which caused him to miss three weeks . In his first week back with Winnipeg , Quinn was forced into the starting role after Kevin Glenn suffered a knee injury . However , a string of poor performances which included an interception in the end zone while Winnipeg was in field goal position led to his release on August 28 .
= Music of the Mana series =
The Mana series , known in Japan as Seiken Densetsu ( 聖剣伝説 , lit . " Holy Sword Legend " ) , is a role @-@ playing video game series from Square Enix , created by Koichi Ishii . The series began as a handheld side story to Square 's flagship franchise Final Fantasy , although most Final Fantasy @-@ inspired elements were subsequently dropped , starting with the second installment , Secret of Mana . It has since grown to include games of various genres within the fictional world of Mana . The music of the Mana series includes soundtracks and arranged albums of music from the series , which is currently composed of Final Fantasy Adventure and its remake Sword of Mana , Secret of Mana , Seiken Densetsu 3 , Legend of Mana , Dawn of Mana , Children of Mana , Friends of Mana , Heroes of Mana , Circle of Mana , and Rise of Mana . Each game except for Friends and Circle has produced a soundtrack album , while Adventure has sparked an arranged album as well as a combined soundtrack and arranged album , Legend of Mana has an additional promotional EP , and music from Secret and Seiken Densetsu 3 were combined together into an arranged album . For the series ' 20th anniversary , a 20 @-@ disc box set of previously @-@ released albums was produced , as well as an album of arrangements by Kenji Ito , composer for several games in the series .
The music of Final Fantasy Adventure was composed by Kenji Ito , while Hiroki Kikuta composed Secret of Mana and Seiken Densetsu 3 and Yoko Shimomura wrote the score to Legend of Mana . The music of the World of Mana subseries , composed of Children , Dawn , Friends , and Heroes of Mana , was composed by many different composers , with Ito , Kikuta , Shimomura , Tsuyoshi Sekito , Masayoshi Soken , and Ryuichi Sakamoto composing Dawn , Ito , Masaharu Iwata , and Takayuki Aihara writing Children , and Shimomura composing the music of Friends and Heroes . Rise of Mana was composed by an ensemble group including Ito , Kikuta , Shimomura , Sekito , Yasuhiro Yamanaka , and Kokia . Music from the series has been performed in live concerts such as the Orchestral Game Concerts and the Symphonic Game Music Concerts , and made up one fourth of the Symphonic Fantasies concert in Cologne , Germany . Music from the Mana series has also been arranged for the piano and published as sheet music books .
= = Final Fantasy Adventure = =
Final Fantasy Adventure , released as Seiken Densetsu : Final Fantasy Gaiden in Japan and Mystic Quest in Europe and marketed as a Final Fantasy spin @-@ off , was composed by Kenji Ito ; it was his second original score after that of SaGa 2 and his first solo work . The game was released in 1991 on the original Game Boy . It was remade in 2003 for the Game Boy Advance as Sword of Mana , wherein features of the original game were reworked to be brought more in line with the direction the Mana series had taken with the later games . It also severed the game from the Final Fantasy series . Ito was also the composer for the 2003 Sword of Mana , for which he remixed some pieces from Final Fantasy Adventure as well as composing new ones . Ito 's music is mainly inspired by images from the game rather than outside influences ; however , he never played the games themselves . Final Fantasy Adventure received a soundtrack album and an arranged album , which were later released again as a single album . Sword of Mana also sparked a soundtrack album .
= = = Original Sound Version = = =
Seiken Densetsu Original Sound Version is a soundtrack album of music from Final Fantasy Adventure . It was composed by Kenji Ito , with the exception of " Theme of Chocobo " , which was composed by Nobuo Uematsu for the Final Fantasy series . The album covers 27 tracks and has a duration of 34 : 40 . It was published by NTT Publishing / Square on July 15 , 1991 with the catalog number N23D @-@ 003 .
The album was well received by critics such as Ryan Mattich of RPGFan , who termed it full of " quality compositions and timeless melodies " that created a " nostalgic listening experience " . Another reviewer , in their review of the combined album , claimed that the sound hardware limitations of the Game Boy " forces composers to create strong melodies " and that the Final Fantasy Adventure soundtrack was " a perfect example of what quality Gameboy music should sound like " .
= = = Let Thoughts Ride on Knowledge = = =
Seiken Densetsu : Let Thoughts Ride on Knowledge is a soundtrack album of music arranged from the Final Fantasy Adventure soundtrack . The original music was composed by Kenji Ito , while the versions on the album were arranged by Takayuki Hattori . The album covers 7 tracks and has a duration of 35 : 11 . Each track covers several different songs from the original soundtrack . The pieces are arranged in an orchestral style , with moods ranging from " soft " to " powerful " . It was published by NTT Publishing / Square on September 30 , 1991 with the catalog number N30D @-@ 005 .
The album was well received by critics such as Ryan Mattich of RPGFan , who called it " an album of epic ambition " and said that it let " these timeless melodies live on , " " freed from the shackles of sound hardware limitations " . Kero Hazel of Square Enix Music Online agreed , saying that " those 35 minutes of arranged music are worth every penny " in their review of the combined album . Another reviewer of the combined album called the tracks a " combination of great compositions and excellent arranging " and said that the tracks " flow smoothly between each other " creating " a superb thirty @-@ five minutes of music " .
= = = Sound Collections = = =
Final Fantasy Gaiden : Seiken Densetsu Sound Collections is a soundtrack album of music from Final Fantasy Adventure combining its soundtrack album and arranged album . The music was composed by Kenji Ito , while the arranged tracks , which comprise the first seven tracks of this album , were arranged by Takayuki Hattori . The album covers 34 tracks and has a duration of 69 : 51 . It was published by NTT Publishing on August 25 , 1995 with the catalog number PSCN @-@ 5029 , and republished on October 1 , 2004 with the catalog number NTCP @-@ 5029 .
The combined album was as well received as the individual albums that make it up , with RPGFan calling it " one fantastic CD " that combined the " superb " arranged tracks with the " expressive " original tracks . Kero Hazel said that the album was worth buying for either component CD alone , if one did not already have them , but that the combination together made it a " fantastic album " of " great music " .
= = = Sword of Mana = = =
Sword of Mana Premium Soundtrack is a soundtrack album of music from Sword of Mana , the enhanced remake of Final Fantasy Adventure . It was composed by Kenji Ito , and included reworked tracks from the original game as well as new material . The second disc of the album contains piano arrangements of songs from the soundtrack , while a bonus disc included in the first edition of the album contains an orchestra arrangement of " Rising Sun ~ Endless Battlefield " . The album covers 48 tracks and has a duration of 1 : 42 : 51 , including the bonus disc . It was published by DigiCube on August 27 , 2003 with the catalog numbers SSCX @-@ 10097 ~ 8 , and republished by Square Enix on October 20 , 2004 with the catalog numbers SQEX @-@ 10038 ~ 9 .
The album reached # 118 on the Japan Oricon charts . Patrick Gann of RPGFan enjoyed it , calling it a " truly a gem " . Estimating that around twenty percent of the original tracks had received " significant changes " , he applauded the increase in sound quality and said that he " enjoy [ ed ] the OST tracks a great deal " . The addition of the piano tracks and the orchestral track made the album a " fine soundtrack " and he said that acquiring the soundtrack would be a " very , very good idea " . RPGamer , in their review of the game , said that the arrangements by Ito were " quite pleasing to the ear " , though they noted that the quality of the music was diminished by the " terrible speakers " of the Game Boy Advance .
Tracklist
= = Secret of Mana and Seiken Densetsu 3 = =
The scores for 1993 's Secret of Mana , originally released as Seiken Densetsu 2 in Japan , and 1995 's Seiken Densetsu 3 were both composed by Hiroki Kikuta . Kikuta was originally chosen for Secret of Mana after Kenji Ito , who was originally slated for the project , was forced to drop it due to other demands on his time such as the soundtrack to Romancing SaGa . It was Kikuta 's first video game score . Both games were produced for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System . Despite difficulties in dealing with the hardware limitations , Kikuta tried to express in the music of Secret of Mana two " contrasting styles " , namely himself and the game . The purpose of this was to create an original score which would be neither pop music nor standard game music . Kikuta worked on the music for the two games mostly by himself , spending nearly 24 hours a day in his office , alternating between composing and editing to create an immersive three @-@ dimensional sound . Rather than create MIDI versions of his compositions and rely on the sound engineers to create the sampled instruments ( like most game music composers of the time ) , Kikuta made his own samples that matched the hardware capabilities of the Super NES so that he would know exactly how the pieces would sound on the system 's hardware instead of having to deal with audio hardware differences between the original composition and the Super NES . Kikuta considers the score for Secret of Mana his favorite creation . His compositions for Secret of Mana and Seiken Densetsu 3 were partly inspired by natural landscapes , as well as music from Bali . In addition to the soundtrack albums for the two games , 1995 , Kikuta released an experimental album of arranged music from the two installments , titled Secret of Mana + , which features one 50 @-@ minute long track .
= = = Secret of Mana = = =
Secret of Mana Original Soundtrack is a soundtrack album of music from Secret of Mana , released as Seiken Densetsu 2 Original Sound Version in Japan ; the releases are identical aside from the packaging and localized English song titles . Secret of Mana was one of the first soundtrack releases in North America for the North American version of a game . The soundtrack was composed by Hiroki Kikuta . The soundtrack 's music covers both " ominous " and " light @-@ hearted " tracks , and is noted for its use of bells and " dark , solemn pianos " . The title track to the game , " Fear of the Heavens " , was designed by Kikuta to sync up with the title screen as it slowly faded in due to hardware limitations ; at the time trying to match the audio and visual effects in a game was rare . Kikuta also started the track off with a " whale noise " , rather than a traditional " ping " , in order to try to " more deeply connect " the player with the game from the moment it started up ; getting the sound to work with the memory limitations of the Super NES system was a difficult technical challenge . The album covers 44 tracks and has a duration of 1 : 06 : 01 . It was published by NTT Publishing / Square on August 6 , 1993 with the catalog number N25D @-@ 019 , and reprinted by NTT Publishing on August 25 , 1995 and October 1 , 2004 with the catalog numbers PSCN @-@ 5030 and NTCP @-@ 5030 .
The album was well received by reviewers such as Eve C. of RPGFan , who called it " a beautifully composed CD " and said that it was one of the best soundtracks of any Super NES game . She said that the largest complaint with the album was the synthetic quality of the music necessitated by the Super NES 's sound hardware , though she noted that the music pushed the limits of the system 's hardware further than any other Super NES game . Jason Walton of RPGFan agreed , saying that " the music is composed extremely well , full of variety " , though he did not like that the tracks were kept short instead of looping in order to fit all of the songs on one disc . Damian Thomas , in his review of the North American version of the album , also noted that the music was impressive for a Super NES game , and recommended the album as worth hunting for . Gamasutra , in an interview with Kikuta , described the music of Secret of Mana as leaving " a lasting impression on international audiences " . IGN named the title track as the seventh best RPG title track in a 2006 feature , calling
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oncé 's fourth number @-@ one video on the Billboard Top Music Videos chart , debuting on top for the week of December 14 , 2013 . In Australia , the DVD peaked at number two on the chart and was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipment of 7 @,@ 500 copies .
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= = Credits = =
Credits for Live in Atlantic City taken from the concert film 's liner notes and Beyoncé 's official website .
= = Charts = =
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= = Release history = =
= Mark Bavaro =
Mark Bavaro ( born April 28 , 1963 ) is a former American football tight end who played for the New York Giants ( 1985 – 1990 ) , Cleveland Browns ( 1992 ) , and Philadelphia Eagles ( 1993 – 1994 ) in the National Football League ( NFL ) . Bavaro was selected to the Pro Bowl for his performances in the 1986 and 1987 seasons and was a member of the Giants teams that won Super Bowls XXI and XXV .
After an All @-@ American career at the University of Notre Dame , Bavaro was drafted by the Giants in the fourth round ( # 100 overall ) in the 1985 NFL Draft . He quickly emerged as a starter in his rookie season and became renowned during his Giants career for his blocking , toughness , and receiving skills . After a degenerative knee condition forced him to sit out the 1991 season , he returned to play three seasons for the Browns and Eagles before retiring in 1995 . Since retiring Bavaro has done work as a pro @-@ life activist . His brother David also played in the NFL for four seasons .
= = Early life and college = =
Bavaro was born in Winthrop , Massachusetts . He attended Danvers High School in Danvers , Massachusetts , where he was a high school football All @-@ American . He was a well @-@ rounded athlete who also excelled in track and field at Danvers . After being intensively recruited by several colleges , he chose to play collegiately for the University of Notre Dame . He was recruited by head coach Dan Devine but played his four years under coach Gerry Faust . He played behind star tight end Tony Hunter as a freshman , then missed all but three minutes of his sophomore season due to a hand injury . He established himself as a starter as a junior , but grew home @-@ sick and briefly contemplated quitting the team to move back home following the season . After Faust talked him into staying , he won All @-@ America honors his senior season , when he totalled 32 receptions for 395 yards . Bavaro developed a reputation for playing through injuries while at Notre Dame . " He plays with pain better than any player I 've seen in my 37 years of coaching " Faust later stated . He left Notre Dame after graduating in 1985 despite having one season of eligibility remaining ( due to the redshirt status of his sophomore season ) and was selected in the fourth round ( # 100 overall ) of the 1985 NFL Draft by the New York Giants .
= = Professional career = =
Coming out of college , Bavaro was known mostly for his blocking ability and was expected to play the role of a run blocking tight end as a professional . He earned the nickname " Rambo " early in his rookie season due to his intense playing style , quiet personality , and physical resemblance to Sylvester Stallone . After starting tight end Zeke Mowatt suffered a season @-@ ending injury before the start of the 1985 season , coach Bill Parcells , who had called Bavaro the most impressive rookie during training camp , installed Bavaro as the starter . Bavaro finished his rookie season with 37 receptions , 511 yards , and 4 touchdowns . He also set a team record with 12 receptions in one game during quarterback Phil Simms ' 513 yard passing effort against the Cincinnati Bengals on October 13 , 1985 . After the game , which the Giants lost 35 – 30 , Bavaro responded in the low @-@ key manner that would typify his career , " [ i ] t was nothing special , the plays were the same stuff . I don 't know what they did . I just caught a lot of balls . I 'd rather win , that 's all . " Bavaro was named to the NFL All @-@ Rookie team for his performance during the season .
Bavaro continued his emergence in the 1986 season . He remained the starter after Mowatt 's recovery from injury and emerged as a favorite target of Simms . He finished the season with 66 receptions , 1 @,@ 001 yards , and 4 touchdowns and was selected to his first Pro Bowl . His 66 receptions broke the Giants record for receptions by a tight end previously held by Bob Tucker ( 59 ) . Perhaps the most well @-@ known play of Bavaro 's career occurred in a Monday Night Football game in 1986 . Here is a description of the play taken from a Monday Night Football broadcast in 2005 : " On Dec. 1 1986 , New York Giants tight end Mark Bavaro cements his reputation as one of the toughest men in the NFL . With the Giants trailing , Bavaro catches an innocent pass from Phil Simms over the middle . It takes nearly seven 49ers defenders to finally drag him down , some of which are carried for almost 20 yards , including future Hall of Famer Ronnie Lott . Bavaro ’ s inspiring play jump starts the Giants , who win the game and eventually the Super Bowl . " This reputation as a tough player was further cemented later in the season when he played for six weeks with a broken jaw that forced him to sip food through a straw . He continued to establish his reputation as an excellent blocker during the season , and was described as " the premier tight end " in the league by 49ers ' coach Bill Walsh before the team 's playoff matchup . The Giants finished the regular season 14 – 2 and defeated the Denver Broncos 39 – 20 in Super Bowl XXI . After the season Bavaro was chosen to appear on the cover or Sports Illustrated 's NFL preview issue for the 1987 season . Bavaro was pictured on the cover in a cutoff shirt holding his shoulder pads over his shoulder , the caption reads " The Living End : Mark Bavaro of the New York Giants " . The cover also featured Bavaro celebrating a touchdown in the trademark manner of his career . Bavaro , a Roman Catholic , would genuflect in the end zone and motion the sign of the cross after each touchdown .
Bavaro performed well the during the 1987 season and was again selected to the Pro Bowl . He finished the season with 55 receptions , 867 yards , and 8 touchdowns . He followed that with 53 receptions , 672 yards , and 4 touchdowns in 1988 . After failing to miss a game due to injury in his first four seasons , Bavaro struggled with knee injuries in 1989 and was limited to seven games . He came back to play in 15 games in 1990 . The Giants started the season 10 – 0 and finished 13 – 3 . They advanced to Super Bowl XXV where they played the Buffalo Bills . During the game Bavaro made two key third down receptions to keep scoring drives alive as the Giants won 20 – 19 .
Bavaro struggled with a degenerative knee condition throughout the 1990 season and was rarely able to practice . The Giants cut him in July 1991 because of the injury . After some initial dispute , the Giants signed him to a one @-@ year US $ 310 @,@ 000 contract and placed him on the physically unable to perform list . He spent the season as a tight end coach at Saint Dominic Savio High School in East Boston , Massachusetts . He took the position after the team 's coach took a chance and wrote Bavaro a letter to ask him if he would consider coaching .
Despite being advised to retire several times by the doctor who worked on his knee , Bavaro managed to secure a contract in 1992 with the Cleveland Browns , who were coached by former Giants assistant coach Bill Belichick . He played one season for the Browns and managed to appear in all 16 games . After the season he signed with the Philadelphia Eagles . He played in all 16 games again and had 43 receptions , 481 yards , and 6 touchdowns in 1993 . After playing one more season for the Eagles he retired in 1995 at the age of 31 . Bavaro finished his nine NFL seasons with 351 receptions for 4 @,@ 733 yards and 39 touchdowns .
In 2011 , he was inducted into the New York Giants Ring of Honor .
= = Personal life = =
Bavaro married Susan Downes in 1987 . They have three children . His wife attended Seton Hall Law School for one year , but later transferred to Harvard Law School , where she achieved a degree in Law , and is currently a teacher of World History and Law at St. John 's Preparatory School . After his retirement they lived in Naples , Florida for three years . They currently reside in Boxford , Massachusetts , near Bavaro 's hometown of Danvers . After his playing career , Bavaro worked as a sales trader for an equity block @-@ trading firm , where he traded large blocks of stocks for institutions and hedge funds . He pursued a career in this field at the suggestion of his former Giants teammate Phil McConkey , who worked for the same company as Bavaro . In 2007 , Bavaro was appointed Vice President of DesignCentrix , a premiere Chicago exhibit house . Bavaro is also an avid golfer who considers the sport his favorite pastime .
Throughout his life Bavaro has displayed a humble , low @-@ key , blue collar personality . During the 1986 season , when he emerged as a Pro Bowler , The New York Times columnist Frank Litsky described him by saying , " [ h ] e is a man of few words , even with teammates . Although he earned $ 90 @,@ 000 plus an $ 85 @,@ 000 signing bonus last year and will make $ 125 @,@ 000 plus incentives this year , he lives a Spartan life . He drives a Chevrolet . His everyday wardrobe features jeans and sneakers . He is humble to a fault . " Bavaro is also a pro @-@ life activist and was one of 503 people arrested during a pro @-@ life rally in 1988 . During his NFL career and since his retirement Bavaro has done work as a member of the LifeAthletes organization which promotes abstinence ; Bavaro was vice chairman of the group during his playing career . He has also recently befriended and followed the career of Denver Broncos tight end Daniel Graham who idolized Bavaro as a child . Mark 's younger brother David also played football professionally as a linebacker for four NFL teams over the course of four seasons .
In 2008 , Bavaro published his first novel , Rough & Tumble ( ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 312 @-@ 37574 @-@ 4 ) .
= Charles B. Pierce =
Charles B. Pierce ( June 16 , 1938 – March 5 , 2010 ) was an American film director , screenwriter , producer , set decorator , cinematographer and actor , and is considered one of the first modern independent filmmakers . Pierce directed thirteen films over the span of 26 years , but is best known for his cult hits The Legend of Boggy Creek ( 1973 ) and The Town That Dreaded Sundown ( 1976 ) .
An Arkansas resident most of his life , Pierce made his directorial debut with Boggy Creek , a faux documentary @-@ style film inspired by the legend of the Bigfoot @-@ like Fouke Monster . The low @-@ budget film grossed roughly $ 25 million , and Pierce followed that success with several inexpensive , regional films set in the southern United States , including The Town That Dreaded Sundown , based on the true story of the Phantom Killer murders in Texarkana .
Pierce continued directing films into the 1980s , when he wrote the story for the Clint Eastwood film Sudden Impact . For that screenplay , he is said to have written the phrase , " Go ahead , make my day , " which became one of the most famous movie quotes in history . After years of pressure from producers , Pierce directed a Boggy Creek sequel , Boggy Creek II : And the Legend Continues , which he considered the worst film of his career ; it was later riffed on by the comedy television series Mystery Science Theater 3000 .
= = Early life = =
Charles B. Pierce was born in Hammond , Indiana on June 16 , 1938 , one of three boys born to Mack McKenny Pierce and Mayven Bryant Pierce . His family moved to the southwestern Arkansas city of Hampton when he was just a few months old . There he was a childhood friend and neighbor of future film and television director Harry Thomason , and the two made home movies together in their backyards using an old 8 mm camera . His first professional foray into media entertainment was in the mid @-@ 1960s as an art director at KTAL @-@ TV in Shreveport , Louisiana . He later became a weatherman and hosted a children 's cartoon show for that channel .
Pierce continued working in production jobs at television stations in Arkansas , Louisiana and Texas until 1969 , when he moved to Texarkana , bought a 16 mm camera and started an advertising agency . He started a contract with Ledwell & Son Enterprises , a Texarkana @-@ based firm that built 18 @-@ wheel trailers and farm equipment . Pierce developed commercials for the company that played throughout the Southwestern United States , using mostly footage he shot of trucks on the highway and farming equipment being used . He said the reputation he developed with those commercials later helped him launch his film career . Also during this time , Pierce played a character named Mayor Chuckles on The Laffalot Club , a local Arkansas children 's television show . Pierce launched his independent film career in the early 1970s , when he sought funding from L.W. Ledwell , the owner of Ledwell & Son Enterprises . Ledwell was skeptical of the idea , but ultimately agreed to provide about $ 100 @,@ 000 of the $ 160 @,@ 000 budget for Pierce 's first film . Prior to his directorial debut , Pierce worked as a set decorator for television shows like the Western series Hondo and for films like Waco ( 1966 ) and Coffy ( 1973 ) .
= = The Legend of Boggy Creek = =
Pierce 's directorial debut was The Legend of Boggy Creek , which was inspired by the Fouke Monster , a seven @-@ foot @-@ tall Bigfoot @-@ like creature said to live in the swamps near Fouke , Arkansas . Pierce said he did not necessarily believe in the legend , but was fascinated with the stories . After interviewing Fouke residents who said they encountered the monster , Pierce became impressed with their authenticity and down @-@ to @-@ earth qualities . He approached Earl E. Smith , an acquaintance from the advertising business , to adapt those eyewitness tales into a screenplay . The film was shot at locations in Fouke , Texarkana and Shreveport , using a camera Pierce built himself at home . It was filmed in a faux documentary style , and included interviews with Fouke residents mixed with dramatizations of their supposed encounters with the creature . Like Pierce , the film 's financial backers and many of the actors had never been involved in a film before .
Pierce cast the actors by approaching customers at a local gas station whenever he saw somebody that looked like they fit one of the parts . He hired high school students as crew members who helped load and move equipment . For the creature itself , he limited the sightings to shadowy figures because he felt the film would be more frightening if the creature was left to the viewer 's imagination . Pierce sang the theme song featured in the film . Once the film was completed , he put the reel into the trunk of his car and drove to Los Angeles seeking post @-@ production services . He met Jamie Mendoza @-@ Nava , who owned a small post @-@ production company and agreed to work on the film for limited up @-@ front pay and a small percentage of the film 's box @-@ office receipts . Pierce could not find a major studio willing to distribute it , so he rented a local movie theater in Texarkana for one week to screen the film . He cleaned the property himself to prepare for the debut .
Released in 1972 , The Legend of Boggy Creek premiered at what was later called the Perot Theatre , where lines stretched around the block to see it . Pierce did not expect it to become a financial success , but it made $ 55 @,@ 000 in the first three weeks from that single theater . Eventually , Pierce entered into a distribution deal with Joy N. Houck , owner of the independent distribution company Howco , who paid Pierce $ 1 @.@ 29 million for a 50 percent interest in the film . Pierce and Houck signed with American International Pictures for foreign and television distribution . It became a hit at drive @-@ in movie theaters , eventually gaining a cult status and bringing Pierce a semblance of fame . The film went on to gross about $ 25 million , making it one of the highest grossing films of the year . At the time of the film 's release , Pierce incorrectly predicted to newspapers that it would win several Academy Awards . Several similarly @-@ styled films about strange and allegedly true phenomena were released in subsequent years due to success of The Legend of Boggy Creek . Julius E. " Smokey " Crabtree , a Fouke resident who appeared as himself in the film , became disgruntled with the production company and filed a lawsuit against Pierce and his financial supporters . Pierce declined to speak to the media about the suit .
= = Post @-@ Boggy Creek career = =
Following the success of The Legend of Boggy Creek , Pierce was encouraged to film a sequel , but resisted because he wanted to prove himself as a filmmaker rather than duplicate the same idea . He continued to make inexpensive regional films set in the southern United States , primarily targeting small @-@ town and rural audiences . His family said Pierce liked to be continuously working and would start a new film immediately after finishing the last . His sophomore effort was Bootleggers ( 1974 ) , a period action @-@ comedy film about rival families making moonshine in the Ozark Mountains . It featured Slim Pickins and the first major performance of Jaclyn Smith , who went on to play Kelly Garrett in the television series Charlie 's Angels . Pierce followed that film up with two Westerns released in 1976 . The first , Winterhawk , was about violence erupting between Blackfoot Native Americans and white villagers . The film proved difficult for Pierce to shoot due to challenges from the weather and problems with the horses on the set . However , according to Pierce , Winterhawk was more widely seen than The Legend of Boggy Creek . His second Western was Winds of Autumn . Pierce co @-@ wrote both films with his Boggy Creek partner , Earl E. Smith . Pierce made a trademark of casting his friends in his films , and Pierce himself performed minor roles in both Winterhawk and Winds of Autumn . During this period , Pierce continued working as a set decorator for films such as Black Belt Jones ( 1974 ) .
Pierce returned to the horror genre with the 1976 film The Town That Dreaded Sundown , based on the true story of the Phantom Killer , an unidentified serial killer who murdered five people in Texarkana in 1946 . Pierce remembered being scared by news stories about the killer during his youth in Hampton . He received some criticism for the graphic violence portrayed in the film , particularly one scene where the killer ties a woman to a tree , attaches a knife to the end of a trombone , then repeatedly stabs her while playing the instrument . Pierce said he purposely made the film violent because he felt the real @-@ life situation was horrific and did not want to glaze over it . While filming horror scenes , he tried to create a suspenseful mood by clearing the set of only the essential cast and staff , then refusing to let them talk to each other as the scenes were shot . Pierce appeared in The Town That Dreaded Sundown as police Patrolman A.C. " Spark Plug " Benson , an idiotic comic relief character . The name " Spark Plug " was a real @-@ life nickname given to the director due to his energy . Pierce described The Town That Dread Sundown as a very easy and enjoyable shoot with no major problems on the set .
During this period , Pierce worked as set decorator on films The Outlaw Josey Wales ( 1976 ) and The Cheap Detective ( 1978 ) . The year after The Town That Dreaded Sundown , Piece directed and co @-@ wrote Grayeagle , a Western based on a Cheyenne legend of a white man whose child ( with an Indian wife ) is kidnapped by a young warrior named Grayeagle . Pierce appeared in the film as Bugler , a half @-@ insane white man who takes on a Shoshone identity . He then wrote and directed The Norseman ( 1978 ) , which starred Lee Majors as a Viking prince who traveled to America to rescue his father from Indians . Working with a multimillion @-@ dollar budget , Pierce shot the film in the Florida locations Hillsborough River State Park and New Port Richey . The next year he co @-@ wrote and directed The Evictors ( 1979 ) , another documentary @-@ style horror film about a young couple who move into a rural Louisiana farmhouse and find their lives endangered by a series of strange events . Pierce was inspired to write the script after reading a true story in a detective magazine about a Kansas family who murdered somebody trying to evict them from the property . In order to match the late @-@ evening sunlight in his cinematography at the farmhouse set , Pierce set up reflectors outside and deflected the sunlight through the windows , which were fitted with sheer white curtains to give the actors an eerie glow . The Evictors was little @-@ seen and did not do financially well , which was a disappointment to distributor American International Pictures , but Pierce believed it one of his better films . He also considered it his most downbeat film , and said of the unhappy ending , " I probably just didn 't have any other way to end it . "
= = Later career = =
In the 1980s , to further his career as a filmmaker , Pierce moved to Carmel , California , where he met and befriended actor Clint Eastwood . Pierce shared a film treatment he had developed with Eastwood , who liked the story and helped Pierce develop it into Sudden Impact ( 1983 ) , the fourth entry in Eastwood 's Dirty Harry film series . Pierce was given a writer 's credit for the story along with Joseph C. Stinson . Pierce is said to have written the phrase , " Go ahead , make my day , " the film 's most famous line , which went on to be identified as one of the ten best movie quotes of all @-@ time by the American Film Institute . The phrase was inspired by something his father once told Pierce in his youth while encouraging his son to mow the lawn : " When I come home tonight and the yard has not been mowed , you 're going to make my day . " However , whether Pierce truly invented the phrase has been brought into question , since the same line was used in the action @-@ drama film Vice Squad ( 1982 ) the previous year . Around this time , Pierce also directed Sacred Ground ( 1983 ) , which was released the same year as Sudden Impact .
In 1985 , Pierce released a sequel to The Legend of Boggy Creek called Boggy Creek II : And the Legend Continues . American International Pictures had been encouraging him to make a Boggy Creek sequel for years because they believed it would be financially profitable , but he was resistant to the idea . He did not participate in an earlier sequel , Return to Boggy Creek ( 1977 ) , which directed by Tom Moore , and did not like the final film . In his own Boggy Creek II : And the Legend Continues , Pierce starred as an anthropologist who brings three students on an expedition into the bayou to track down the creature . His son , Chuck Pierce , Jr . , co @-@ starred as Tim , one of the students . Pierce ultimately considered Boggy Creek II his worst film , believing his own role was too large and that he cast too many of his friends in supporting roles . Boggy Creek II was featured in a 1999 episode of Mystery Science Theater 3000 , a comedy television series in which the characters watch and make jokes about bad films . The episode ultimately increased Pierce 's visibility to a wider audience .
Pierce largely fell from the movie industry 's public eye shortly after the release of Boggy Creek II . In 1987 , he directed Hawken 's Breed , a Western film starring Peter Fonda as a drifter who meets and rescues a young Shawnee woman . While shooting that film , Pierce met the woman who became his second wife , Beth Pulley . In 1996 , he directed Renfroe 's White Christmas , an adaptation of the classic children 's book Renfroe 's Christmas . Starting in 1997 , he began production on his western film Chasing the Wind ( 1998 ) , a gritty epic about a mountain man . It proved to be Pierce 's final directorial effort , although he continued working as a set decorator for several television shows including MacGyver , Remington Steele , The Twilight Zone and Fresno , a Carol Burnett miniseries parodying prime time soap operas . Pierce 's work on the latter show earned him a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Art Direction for a Miniseries or a Special .
Pierce began writing the screenplay for a sequel to The Town That Dreaded Sundown , but the film never came to fruition . Around 2008 , while developing the horror film The Wild Man of the Navidad , directors Duane Graves and Justin Meeks sought out Pierce , who they cited as a major influence on their work . Graves and Meeks wanted Pierce to work as a consultant on the film , but he turned them down because , according to Graves , " if he 's not running the show , he 's not interested " .
= = Death and legacy = =
In 2008 , Pierce was honored at the Little Rock Film Festival , where festival producers screened a retrospective of his films , and presented him with a Lifetime Achievement Award . Also that year , the festival 's best film award was renamed in his honor to the Charles B. Pierce Award for Best Film Made in Arkansas , In October 2009 , the Arkansas Arts Council honored Pierce with the Judges ' Special Recognition Award at the Governor 's Arts Awards ceremony in Hot Springs . Pierce died of natural causes on March 5 , 2010 at the Signature Care nursing home in Dover , Tennessee , where he had moved a few years earlier . He was 71 . Pierce directed thirteen films over the span of 26 years . He was considered one of the first modern independent filmmakers , and was credited with breaking new ground for other independent filmmakers , particularly for the Arkansas film industry .
Director Harry Thomason , Pierce 's childhood friend and neighbor , praised him for finding success independently at a time when the film industry was so controlled by major studios . Daniel Myrick , co @-@ director of the documentary @-@ style The Blair Witch Project ( 1999 ) , said he was strongly influenced by The Legend of Boggy Creek , which was one of his favorite films growing up . Myrick said he and fellow Blair Witch director Eduardo Sánchez wanted to " tap into the primal fear generated by the fact @-@ or @-@ fiction format like Legend of Boggy Creek " . In an Orlando Sentinel article that ran on Halloween , Myrick identified The Legend of Boggy Creek as the one film that most inspired him . On September 2 , 2010 , Pierce was inducted into the Arkansas Entertainers Hall of Fame in a ceremony at the Arkansas Governor 's Mansion in Little Rock .
= = Personal life = =
Pierce was married to Florene Lyons Pierce for 17 years and they had three children : Pamula Pierce Barcelou , Charles Bryant Pierce Jr . , and Amanda Pierce Squitiero , along with six grandchildren . Pierce briefly married Cindy Butler , who appeared in a role in his film The Town That Dreaded Sundown ; they also later divorced . He later married Beth Pulley , gaining two stepdaughters : Betsy Mathis Gillespie and Melissa Mathis Daley , and three step @-@ grandchildren . Pierce was a fan of the Arkansas Razorbacks , the University of Arkansas college sports teams .
= = Selected filmography = =
= Francis Walsingham =
Sir Francis Walsingham ( c . 1532 – 6 April 1590 ) was principal secretary to Queen Elizabeth I of England from 20 December 1573 until his death and is popularly remembered as her " spymaster " .
Born to a well @-@ connected family of gentry , Walsingham attended Cambridge University and travelled in continental Europe before embarking on a career in law at the age of twenty . A committed Protestant , during the reign of the Catholic Queen Mary I of England he joined other expatriates in exile in Switzerland and northern Italy until Mary 's death and the accession of her Protestant half @-@ sister , Elizabeth .
Walsingham rose from relative obscurity to become one of the small coterie who directed the Elizabethan state , overseeing foreign , domestic and religious policy . He served as English ambassador to France in the early 1570s and witnessed the St. Bartholomew 's Day massacre . As principal secretary , he supported exploration , colonization , the use of England 's maritime strength and the plantation of Ireland . He worked to bring Scotland and England together . Overall , his foreign policy demonstrated a new understanding of the role of England as a maritime , Protestant power in an increasingly global economy . He oversaw operations that penetrated Spanish military preparation , gathered intelligence from across Europe , disrupted a range of plots against Elizabeth and secured the execution of Mary , Queen of Scots .
= = Early years = =
Francis Walsingham was born in or about 1532 , probably at Foots Cray , near Chislehurst , Kent . His parents were William and Joyce Walsingham . William was a successful , well @-@ connected and wealthy London lawyer who died in 1534 and Joyce was the daughter of courtier Sir Edmund Denny and the sister of Sir Anthony Denny , who was the principal gentleman of King Henry VIII 's privy chamber . William Walsingham served as a member of the commission that was appointed to investigate the estates of Cardinal Thomas Wolsey in 1530 , and his elder brother , Sir Edmund Walsingham , was Lieutenant of the Tower of London . After William 's death , Joyce married the courtier Sir John Carey in 1538 . Carey 's brother William was the husband of Mary Boleyn , Anne Boleyn 's elder sister . Of Francis Walsingham 's five sisters , Mary married Sir Walter Mildmay , who was Chancellor of the Exchequer for over 20 years , and Elizabeth married the parliamentarian Peter Wentworth .
Francis Walsingham matriculated at King 's College , Cambridge , in 1548 with many other Protestants but as an undergraduate of high social status did not sit for a degree . From 1550 or 1551 , he travelled in continental Europe , returning to England by 1552 to enrol at Gray 's Inn , one of the qualifying bodies for English lawyers .
Upon the death in 1553 of Henry VIII 's successor , Edward VI , Edward 's Catholic half @-@ sister Mary I became queen . Many wealthy Protestants , such as John Foxe and John Cheke , fled England , and Walsingham was among them . He continued his studies in law at the universities of Basel and Padua , where he was elected to the governing body by his fellow students in 1555 .
= = Rise to power = =
Mary I died in 1558 and was succeeded by her Protestant half @-@ sister Elizabeth I. Walsingham returned to England and through the support of one of his fellow former exiles , Francis Russell , 2nd Earl of Bedford , he was elected to Elizabeth 's first parliament as the member for Bossiney , Cornwall , in 1559 . At the subsequent election in 1563 , he was returned for both Lyme Regis , Dorset , another constituency under Bedford 's influence , and Banbury , Oxfordshire . He chose to sit for Lyme Regis . In January 1562 he married Anne , daughter of Sir George Barne , Lord Mayor of London in 1552 – 3 , and widow of wine merchant Alexander Carleill . Anne died two years later leaving her son Christopher Carleill in Walsingham 's care . In 1566 , Walsingham married Ursula St. Barbe , widow of Sir Richard Worsley , and Walsingham acquired her estates of Appuldurcombe and Carisbrooke Priory on the Isle of Wight . The following year , she bore him a daughter , Frances . Walsingham 's other two stepsons , Ursula 's sons John and George , were killed in a gunpowder accident at Appuldurcombe in 1567 .
In the following years , Walsingham became active in soliciting support for the Huguenots in France and developed a friendly and close working relationship with Nicholas Throckmorton , his predecessor as MP for Lyme Regis and a former ambassador to France . By 1569 , Walsingham was working with William Cecil to counteract plots against Elizabeth . He was instrumental in the collapse of the Ridolfi plot , which hoped to replace Elizabeth with the Catholic Mary , Queen of Scots . He is credited with writing propaganda decrying a conspiratorial marriage between Mary and Thomas Howard , 4th Duke of Norfolk , and Roberto di Ridolfi , after whom the plot was named , was interrogated at Walsingham 's house .
In 1570 , the Queen chose Walsingham to support the Huguenots in their negotiations with Charles IX of France . Later that year , he succeeded Sir Henry Norris as English ambassador in Paris . One of his duties was to continue negotiations for a marriage between Elizabeth and Charles IX 's younger brother Henry , Duke of Anjou . The marriage plan was eventually dropped on the grounds of Henry 's Catholicism . A substitute match with the next youngest brother , Francis , Duke of Alençon , was proposed but Walsingham considered him ugly and " void of a good humour " . Elizabeth was 20 years older than Alençon , and was concerned that the age difference would be seen as absurd . Walsingham believed that it would serve England better to seek a military alliance with France against Spanish interests . The defensive Treaty of Blois was concluded between France and England in 1572 , but the treaty made no provision for a royal marriage and left the question of Elizabeth 's successor open .
The Huguenots and other European Protestant interests supported the nascent revolt in the Spanish Netherlands , which were provinces of Habsburg Spain . When Catholic opposition to this course in France resulted in the death of Huguenot leader Gaspard de Coligny and the St. Bartholomew 's Day massacre , Walsingham 's house in Paris became a temporary sanctuary for Protestant refugees , including Philip Sidney . Ursula , who was pregnant , escaped to England with their four @-@ year @-@ old daughter . She gave birth to a second girl , Mary , in January 1573 while Walsingham was still in France . He returned to England in April 1573 , having established himself as a competent official whom the Queen and Cecil could trust . He cultivated contacts throughout Europe , and a century later his dispatches would be published as The Complete Ambassador .
In the December following his return , Walsingham was appointed to the Privy Council of England and was made joint principal secretary ( the position which later became " Secretary of State " ) with Sir Thomas Smith . Smith retired in 1576 , leaving Walsingham in effective control of the privy seal , though he was not formally invested as Lord Privy Seal . Walsingham acquired a Surrey county seat in Parliament from 1572 that he retained until his death , but he was not a major parliamentarian . He was knighted on 1 December 1577 , and held the sinecure posts of Recorder of Colchester , custos rotulorum of Hampshire , and High Steward of Salisbury , Ipswich and Winchester . He was appointed Chancellor of the Order of the Garter from 22 April 1578 until succeeded by Sir Amias Paulet in June 1587 , when he became Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster in addition to principal secretary .
= = Secretary of State = =
The duties of the principal secretary were not defined formally , but as he handled all royal correspondence and determined the agenda of council meetings , he could wield great influence in all matters of policy and in every field of government , both foreign and domestic . During his term of office , Walsingham supported the use of England 's maritime power to open new trade routes and explore the New World , and was at the heart of international affairs . He was involved directly with English policy towards Spain , the Netherlands , Scotland , Ireland and France , and embarked on several diplomatic missions to neighbouring European states .
Closely linked to the mercantile community , he actively supported trade promotion schemes and invested in the Muscovy Company and the Levant Company . He supported the attempts of John Davis and Martin Frobisher to discover the Northwest Passage and exploit the mineral resources of Labrador , and encouraged Humphrey Gilbert 's exploration of Newfoundland . Gilbert 's voyage was largely financed by recusant Catholics and Walsingham favoured the scheme as a potential means of removing Catholics from England by encouraging emigration to the New World . Walsingham was among the promoters of Francis Drake 's profitable 1578 – 1581 circumnavigation of the world , correctly judging that Spanish possessions in the Pacific were vulnerable to attack . The venture was calculated to promote the Protestant interest by embarrassing and weakening the Spanish , as well as to seize Spanish treasure . The first edition of Richard Hakluyt 's Principal Navigation , Voyages and Discoveries of the English Nation was dedicated to Walsingham .
Walsingham advocated direct intervention in the Netherlands in support of the Protestant revolt against Spain , on the grounds that although wars of conquest were unjust , wars in defence of religious liberty and freedom were not . Cecil was more circumspect and
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. Bella asks Edward to transform her and Cullens vote in favor of that much to Edward and Rosalie 's dismay . Later , Jacob reminds Edward , the treaty Cullens and Quileutes made years before that they will not attack each other , as long as the Cullens do not feed on any humans , a necessity for Bella 's transformation . The movie concludes with Edward telling Bella that he will change her into a vampire after she marries him .
= = Cast = =
Main cast
Kristen Stewart as Bella Swan , a teenage girl who falls into a deep depression after her true love , Edward Cullen , leaves her . Her friendship with Jacob Black is expanded as she realizes that he can mend the hole left open by Edward .
Robert Pattinson as Edward Cullen , Bella 's vampire boyfriend who abruptly leaves town to protect her .
Taylor Lautner as Jacob Black , a cheerful companion who eases Bella 's pain over losing Edward . He reveals to Bella that he is part of a pack of werewolves whose main goal is to protect her from the vampires Laurent and Victoria .
Secondary cast
Peter Facinelli as Carlisle Cullen , leader and father figure of the Cullen family .
Elizabeth Reaser as Esme Cullen , Carlisle 's wife and the mother figure of the Cullen family .
Ashley Greene as Alice Cullen , a member of the Cullen family who can see " subjective " visions of the future and who develops a deep friendship with Bella .
Kellan Lutz as Emmett Cullen , a member of the Cullen family .
Nikki Reed as Rosalie Hale , a member of the Cullen family .
Jackson Rathbone as Jasper Hale , a member of the Cullen family who thirsts for Bella 's blood after she receives a paper cut .
Billy Burke as Charlie Swan , Bella 's father and Forks ' Chief of Police .
Rachelle Lefevre as Victoria , a ruthless vampire who wants to avenge her lover , James .
Edi Gathegi as Laurent , a vampire who wants to kill Bella , because he thirsts for her blood .
Michael Sheen as Aro , the leader of an ancient Italian vampire coven known as the Volturi .
Dakota Fanning as Jane , a guard of the Volturi who has the ability to torture people with illusions of pain .
Noot Seear as Heidi , she leads the tourists into the Volturi 's chamber and urges them to stay together while Demetri leads Bella , Alice and Edward in the opposite direction . Heidi 's special ability to make her attractive to other people , regardless of species or gender .
Anna Kendrick as Jessica Stanley , Bella 's self @-@ involved friend .
Michael Welch as Mike Newton , Bella 's friend who has a crush on her . He joins her on a date with Jacob .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
In early November 2008 , Summit Entertainment announced that they had obtained the rights to the remaining books in Stephenie Meyer 's Twilight series : New Moon , Eclipse , and Breaking Dawn . On November 22 , 2008 , one day after the theatrical release of Twilight , Summit confirmed that they would begin working on New Moon . " I don 't think any other author has had a more positive experience with the makers of her movie adaptation than I have had with Summit Entertainment , " said Meyer . In early December 2008 , it was announced that Twilight director Catherine Hardwicke would not be returning to direct the sequel . Hardwicke cited time restrictions as the reason behind her leaving the project . On December 13 , 2008 , it was announced that Chris Weitz , director of The Golden Compass and co @-@ director of About a Boy , had been hired to direct New Moon . Weitz released a statement shortly after the announcement , assuring Twilight fans that he would " protect on their behalf the characters , [ the ] themes and story they love . " He continued by saying , " This is not a task to be taken lightly , and I will put every effort into realizing a beautiful film to stand alongside a beautiful book . "
Melissa Rosenberg had been working on adapting the novel prior to Twilight 's release and handed in the draft for New Moon during Twilight 's opening weekend in November 2008 . " I would sit down at ten o 'clock in the morning and work on [ the script ] ... until six o 'clock in the evening . " Rosenberg spent the months of October though June 2008 alternating between writing for the Showtime television series Dexter , and writing New Moon on weekends . She and Meyer kept in touch during this five @-@ month period . One of the key changes the screenwriter made while adapting the book was the decision to take Edward 's voice in Bella 's head and make it visual . This change caused the first confrontation between the two main characters , one an " apparition " , to be emotional . For the screenplay , the four men who Bella approaches needed to create a significant and dangerous situation , and so Rosenberg gave these men motorcycles . " I added the motorcycles , [ mainly ] because ... they became an important part of [ Bella 's ] relationship with Jacob . "
= = = Casting = = =
Due to major physical changes that occur in the character of Jacob Black between Twilight and New Moon , Weitz considered replacing Taylor Lautner in the sequel with an actor who could more accurately portray " the new , larger Jacob Black " . In an attempt to keep the role , Lautner weight @-@ trained extensively and gained approximately 30 pounds . In January 2009 , Weitz and Summit Entertainment announced that Lautner would continue to play the role of Jacob in the sequel . In an interview , fellow cast member Kristen Stewart talked about Lautner 's transformation saying , " He 's an entirely different person physically . "
In late March 2009 , Summit Entertainment released a list of the actors who would be portraying the " wolf pack " alongside Lautner . The casting for the rest of the Quileute tribe was headed by casting director Rene Haynes , who has worked on films with large Native American casts , such as Dances with Wolves and Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee . A casting call was also held in Vancouver in February 2009 , specifically asking for " any first nations / aboriginal actors and actresses between the ages of 15 and 25 " . Referring to the casting of Michael Sheen as Aro , Weitz claims to have " ' aggressively ' pursued the actor " , and describes the character as " on the surface , a very gracious and friendly vampire , but beneath that he is a tremendous threat . "
= = = Filming = = =
Pre @-@ production for New Moon began in December 2008 . Filming was scheduled to begin on March 23 , 2009 in Vancouver , but began a few days early . Weitz envisioned a warm color palette for the sequel , contrary to the first film in the series , whose blue tones were prevalent . His intention resulted in golden tones , a change that was inspired by Italian paintings , and ultimately served as the basis for the crew 's collaborative work . The approach also included the use of specific colors at certain points in the movie . For example , although Jacob 's house is red , the color does not dominate until the climax of the movie . The director noted that , " The square becomes a flood of red , that 's how conscious we were of every visual aspect . "
The use of film , rather than digital , cameras added to the " old @-@ fashioned " nature of the production . Two main Panavision cameras , a high @-@ speed Arri 435 camera capable of shooting at 150 frames per second , a Steadicam , and VistaVision cameras for visual effect shots were among the equipment used to bring the book to the big screen . As with the use of specific colors , the different cameras and shooting setups would help serve the story points . When Bella was with Edward , the camera was moved on a dolly , in a very rigid , straight line to reflect how their relationship was " perfect " . When Bella is with Jacob , the Steadicam provided a fluid and organic style ; and when she is with her schoolmates , a slangy visual language was reflected by a handheld .
Once the film went into production , the decision to shoot in Vancouver , rather than in Portland , came after debate on how to match the locations that were introduced in the first film . One member involved in the decision process pointed out that Vancouver had been scouted as a potential setting for Twilight , and it was only because the U.S. dollar had , at that time , dropped below the Canadian dollar that Oregon drew Twilight principal photography to Portland and its surrounding areas . Vancouver was chosen because it allowed a higher production value , while the surrounding areas contained beautiful forests and gray weather . With this decision , however , came the issue of reconstructing key sets that were used in the first film . For the exterior of Forks High School , crew members were able to find a parking lot , but the school 's steps needed to be filmed with a greenscreen backing to match those that were originally presented in Twilight . David Thompson Secondary School would then be able to serve as the interior for the high school scenes .
The Cullen house was one of the major " match " assignments , mainly because of the Portland area location 's unique design . The production team agreed upon finding a house in the Vancouver area with an interior that emulated the high ceilings , glass walls , and forest surroundings of the first location . One location was positively compared to the one in Portland , and therefore Weitz and the production team filmed portions of the film there . In order to keep with the design of the original house , portions of the story that took place in New Moon were moved to different sections of the house that were not seen before .
After scouting Vancouver for a place to film scenes that involved the Swan house , the decision was made to recreate the house on an empty lot with a tree line and approaching road . The production team was able to rearrange the exterior of the house to match that in the first movie . When faced with creating the interior , the team measured the house in Portland , and built various pieces of the house on the lot and on a stage in Vancouver . The second film also attempted to clarify the location of Bella 's room , which , as seen in the first film , seemed to be located in the front of the house , when in reality it was on the right @-@ hand side . Complications arose when the Portland house was repainted after Twilight 's release , which took away the aging the house had come to depict in the film . When recreating the house , the production team referenced the first film on high @-@ definition Blu @-@ ray Disc .
As a director , Weitz had the pleasure of introducing and filming on new locations and sets . Of particular interest was the Quileute reservation and Jacob 's house . Using the Quileute country in Washington as a basis , the production team decided to place Jacob 's house on the edges of the territory , rather than in the community , because of Jacob 's attachment to the wolves . To Weitz , Jacob 's house was the stepping stone into the forest world , where the reality of the werewolves is hidden . The production designer was faced with a " real world " versus " book world " challenge when the barn they located , described in the book as a red barn , was green . Initially bordered by a green fence , the decision of painting the barn , aging it , and renovating the exterior proved to be a layout that fit well with Jacob 's character .
After scouting more than twelve possible locations to film scenes that would take place in Volterra , Italy , the scouting team selected the town of Montepulciano , which they believe was the best representation of Meyer 's description in the book . Principal photography concluded with the scenes that were filmed in this area from May 25 through the 29 . For the face @-@ off between the Volturi and Edward , the idea was to have a bigger " bang " , rather than just the paralysis of Edward . Initially what was a huge battle with vampires being thrown everywhere turned into a one @-@ on @-@ one fight between Felix and Edward , after receiving a stamp of approval from Meyer . The idea quickly changed from the typical outlandish battle , to portraying Edward as an average guy caught in the middle of a bad situation ; for Bella , conveying the feeling of being caught in the middle of a group of vampires fighting was important as well . This scene also required special effects , stunt work , and figuring out how to portray vampires fighting at very fast speeds .
= = = Visual effects = = =
Overseeing the visual effects department for New Moon was Susan MacLeod , who had previously worked with Weitz during the production of The Golden Compass . MacLeod enlisted Tippett Studio to create the computer generated wolves , while Prime Focus of Vancouver handled the effects of the vampires . To prepare for the aggressive task of making the wolves look real , Tippet artists studied wolf culture . They also were able to reflect leadership and human muscle size by adjusting certain features of the wolves , such as their fat and tallness . In February 2009 , a group of artists were able to travel to Wolf Mountain Sanctuary , outside of Los Angeles , and see real wolves . The artists were able to observe the behavior of both the timber and arctic wolves , who ran in packs of three to five . The idea was to give everyone a deeper feeling of the creature that they were creating .
MacLeod explained that creating the shape @-@ shifting werewolves was not an easy task . The wolf work included shooting " plates " , or photographic imagery into which CG creations are integrated . Since the book described the wolves as being as big as horses , full @-@ scale aluminum and board wolf cutouts were used as a visual reference for both actors and crew members . Once the actors had a reference , the cutouts would be removed allowing the cameras to capture the scene . In order for the CG wolves to be in sync with the live action cameras and actors ' movements , the team used match movers , a land surveying tool that recorded the shooting location 's topography with reference marks .
A raw 3D model of Jacob 's wolf was the basis for creating the others . A muscle system , which gave the appearance of muscles firing and flexing , contributed to this model . From there , the initial fur layout went to painters who were responsible for its color and groom . They also added characteristics , such as wet hair clumping together , and applied it to the fur . They refined this look before passing it off to the lighting and technical directors .
One challenge for the production team was how to convey Bella 's depression once Edward departs . In the novel , these pages were filled with the names of the passing months , and in the movie , would be represented as a visual effects shot with a camera circling around Kristen Stewart . The window that was used for the original film did not quite fit what Weitz was looking for , so the production team created a bay window when recreating the Swan house . The effect was one of the 300 visual effects helmed by Prime Focus led by visual effects supervisor Eric Pascarelli . It required matching two camera shots : one that shot the actress in a chair , and the other shooting the view outside the window as seen from the house built on location . Using a greenscreen , Prime Focus was able to enhance the changing of seasons with computer @-@ generated leaves and falling snow .
= = = Music = = =
The score for New Moon was composed by Alexandre Desplat while the rest of the soundtrack was chosen by music supervisor Alexandra Patsavas , who also produced the Twilight soundtrack . The Twilight Saga : New Moon : Original Motion Picture Soundtrack was released on October 16 , 2009 , by Patsavas ' Chop Shop label , in conjunction with Atlantic Records . It debuted at number two on the Billboard 200 albums chart , and climbed to number one a week later after selling 153 @,@ 000 copies in its first full week of release .
= = Distribution = =
= = = Marketing = = =
In February 2009 it was announced that the franchise would take the name The Twilight Saga with the book 's title separated by a colon , though the title that appears on @-@ screen is simply New Moon . The first promotional poster was released on May 19 , 2009 . On May 31 , Robert Pattinson , Kristen Stewart , and Taylor Lautner revealed the film 's first trailer at the MTV Movie Awards . Following the release of the trailer , two scenes from the film were presented at the 2009 San Diego Comic @-@ Con. A 14 @-@ second preview of the second trailer was released online on August 12 , 2009 , and the full @-@ length trailer was featured before theater showings of the film Bandslam . The film 's third trailer was shown at the MTV Video Music Awards on September 13 , 2009 . Spike TV also aired a new trailer at the 2009 Scream Awards on October 27 , 2009 .
American Idol finalist Allison Iraheta hosted an 8 @-@ minute block prior to the showing of the film in over 1 @,@ 200 theaters across the United States , where she talked about her upcoming album and played some tracks , including " Friday I 'll Be Over U " , " Pieces " , and " Trouble Is " . In addition , prior to the film 's release , author Stephenie Meyer made an appearance on The Oprah Winfrey Show to promote the film .
= = = Release = = =
Many theater showings sold out as early as two months prior to New Moon 's release date . The film set records for advance ticket sales , causing some theaters to add additional showings . The film is also the biggest advance ticket seller on Fandango , surpassing Star Wars : Episode III – Revenge of the Sith . New Moon accounted for 86 percent of Fandango 's online ticket sales the weekend before the film was released , and its total morning ticket sales on November 20 , 2009 are estimated to total $ 13 @.@ 9 million .
= = = Home media = = =
Various midnight release parties were held to help promote the film 's DVD and Blu @-@ ray Disc release on March 20 , 2010 , in the United States and on March 22 , 2010 , in the United Kingdom . Special features include an audio commentary by director Chris Weitz and editor Peter Lambert , a behind the scenes documentary , and music videos . Unlike the DVD and Blu @-@ ray Disc versions , the Ultimate Fan Edition DVD includes a 7 @-@ minute first look at the sequel , The Twilight Saga : Eclipse . Within its first weekend of release in the U.S. , the film sold over 4 million units , beating Twilight 's 3 @.@ 8 million units sold in its first two days . In North American DVD sales , the film has currently grossed $ 185 @,@ 166 @,@ 822 and has sold more than 8 @,@ 864 @,@ 541 units .
= = Reaction = =
= = = Box office = = =
New Moon set records as the biggest midnight opening in domestic ( United States and Canada ) box office history , grossing an estimated $ 26 @.@ 3 million in 3 @,@ 514 theaters . The record was previously held by Harry Potter and the Half @-@ Blood Prince , which grossed $ 22 @.@ 2 million domestically during its midnight premiere . In 2010 , the following sequel , The Twilight Saga : Eclipse , broke New Moon 's record with $ 30 million in over 4 @,@ 000 theaters but surpassed by Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2 , which made $ 43 @.@ 5 million in 2011 . The film grossed $ 72 @.@ 7 million on its opening day domestically , becoming the biggest single @-@ day opening in domestic history , beating The Dark Knight 's $ 67 @.@ 2 million . This opening strongly contributed to another record — the first time that the Top 10 films at the domestic box office had a combined gross of over $ 100 million in a single day . The record was later broken in 2011 by Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2 , which made $ 91 @.@ 1 million .
New Moon 's opening weekend is the ninth highest opening weekend in domestic history with $ 142 @,@ 839 @,@ 137 and is also has the 10th highest worldwide opening weekend with $ 274 @.@ 9 million total . At the time of its release , the film achieved the highest weekend debut in November , breaking Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire 's record ( $ 102 @.@ 7 million ) until The Hunger Games : Catching Fire surpassed it with $ 158 @.@ 1 million . With an estimated budget of just under $ 50 million , it is the least expensive movie to ever open to more than $ 200 million worldwide . On Thanksgiving weekend , the film grossed $ 42 @.@ 5 million , and including Wednesday and Thursday ticket sales , grossed $ 66 million . It has earned $ 230 @.@ 7 million in total since opening last week , 22 % more than the previous film grossed in its entire theatrical run . Internationally , the film grossed roughly $ 85 million over the weekend , adding up to a total worldwide gross of $ 473 @.@ 7 million in 10 days . In its third weekend New Moon grossed $ 15 @.@ 7 million in the domestic market and another $ 40 @.@ 7 million internationally for a worldwide gross of $ 570 @.@ 1 million . In its fourth weekend , the film dropped down to # 4 with an estimated $ 10 million , bringing its domestic total to $ 296 @,@ 623 @,@ 634 .
= = = Critical response = = =
New Moon received negative reviews from critics . Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 28 % of 220 critics have given the film a positive review , with a rating average of 4 @.@ 7 out of 10 . The site 's general consensus is that " The Twilight Saga 's second installment may satisfy hardcore fans of the series , but outsiders are likely to be turned off by its slow pace , relentlessly downcast tone , and excessive length . " On Metacritic , which assigns a weighted mean rating out of 100 reviews from film critics , the film has a rating score of 44 based on 32 reviews .
Robert Ignizio of the Cleveland Scene described the film as an " entertaining fantasy " , and noted that it " has a stronger visual look [ than Twilight ] and does a better job with its action scenes while still keeping the focus on the central love triangle . " Michael O 'Sullivan of The Washington Post gave the film two and half stars out of four , praised Stewart 's performance in the film and wrote , " Despite melodrama that , at times , is enough to induce diabetes , there 's enough wolf whistle in this sexy , scary romp to please anyone . " The Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer gave the film a " B " grading and said , " the movie looks tremendous , the dialogue works , there are numerous well placed jokes , the acting is on point . "
Time Out New York gave the film 3 stars out of 5 , calling it " acceptable escapism for those old enough to see it yet still young enough to shriek at undead dreamboats . " Jordan Mintzer from Variety stated , " Stewart is the heart and soul of the film " , and added that she " gives both weight and depth to dialogue ... that would sound like typical chick @-@ lit blather in the mouth of a less engaging actress , and she makes Bella 's psychological wounds seem like the real deal . "
British film critic Mark Kermode gave the film a positive review , saying , " After an initial 20 @-@ minute dip , when I thought , ' This is actually going to be two @-@ hours of mopey @-@ mopey , ' I thought it found its feet . " He also excused the film 's characterization of Taylor Lautner 's character , saying , " The sight of the buff , young guys running through the forest with their tops off was slightly smirk @-@ inducing . But it 's fine . They know what their target @-@ audience is . "
Mick Lasalle from the San Francisco Chronicle responded with a more mixed review , stating , " [ E ] xpect this film to satisfy its fans . Everybody else , get ready for a bizarre soap opera / pageant , consisting of a succession of static scenes with characters loping into the frame to announce exactly what they 're thinking . " Digital Spy gave the film 2 stars out of 5 , praising Kristen Stewart for " carrying the film on her shoulders and , once again , bringing plenty of soul to a character who might otherwise come across as self @-@ indulgent " , but was critical of its lack of action , ultimately calling it " a draining experience " . Roger Ebert gave the film 1 star out of 4 and said that it " takes the tepid achievement of Twilight , guts it , and leaves it for undead . " Richard Roeper graded New Moon with a C − and called it a " plodding , achingly slow , 130 @-@ minute chapter in the saga " .
= = = Accolades = = =
Since its release , New Moon has received several nominations and awards . In March 2010 , the film received the ShoWest Fandango Fan Choice Award for 2009 's Best Movie . At the 2010 Empire Awards , Pattinson was nominated for Best Actor and Anna Kendrick was nominated for Best Newcomer . , the film won the award for Best Fantasy Film , while Pattinson won an award for Best Performance . At the 2010 Nickelodeon Kids ' Choice Awards , the film was nominated for Best Movie , but lost to Alvin and the Chipmunks : The Squeakquel , Lautner won an award for Favorite Movie Actor , and Jacob and Bella , who were also nominated alongside Edward and Bella , won an award for Best Couple . At the 2010 MTV Movie Awards , Pattinson , who was nominated alongside Stewart and Lautner , won the award for Global Superstar ; the Best Male Performance award was also given to Pattinson , who was , again , nominated against Lautner . Stewart and Pattinson won the award for Best Kiss , while New Moon won the award for Best Movie . For the 2010 Teen Choice Awards , held on August 8 , the film and its actors were given a combined total of ten nominations , eight of which the film won , and three separate awards going to The Twilight Saga : Eclipse . In addition , the film was nominated for Best Horror Film and Taylor Lautner was nominated for Best Performance by a Younger Actor at the 36th Saturn Awards , but lost to Drag Me To Hell and Saoirse Ronan , respectively . Lautner was also nominated for Best Performance in a Feature Film – Leading Actor at the 2010 Young Artist Awards . However , it was nominated for four Razzies : Worst Supporting Actor ( Robert Pattinson ) , Worst Screen Couple ( Kristen Stewart and either Taylor Lautner or Robert Pattinson ) , Worst Prequel , Remake , Rip @-@ off or Sequel and Worst Screenplay .
= = Sequel = =
In February 2009 , Summit Entertainment scheduled a film adaptation of Eclipse , the third novel in the Twilight series , for release on June 30 , 2010 . Weitz would not be able to direct the third film of The Twilight Saga as it would be filming while New Moon would be in post @-@ production . David Slade was therefore confirmed as the director of The Twilight Saga : Eclipse on April 22 , 2009 .
= Washington State Route 904 =
State Route 904 ( SR 904 , named the Lt. Col. Michael P. Anderson Memorial Highway ) is a 16 @.@ 96 @-@ mile ( 27 @.@ 29 km ) long state highway in the U.S. state of Washington , located entirely in Spokane County . The route starts at an interchange with Interstate 90 ( I @-@ 90 ) and U.S. Route 395 ( US 395 ) in Tyler and travels to Cheney , serving the Eastern Washington University , before ending at I @-@ 90 and US 395 in Four Lakes . The roadway , named First Street in Downtown Cheney , is paralleled by three rail lines , a BNSF Railway route that carries Amtrak 's Empire Builder , a Union Pacific route and the Eastern Washington Gateway Railroad .
The Central Washington Highway was established in 1913 and served Cheney via the current route of SR 904 . The highway 's designation were changed starting in 1923 , when it became State Road 11 . US 395 was extended southwest from Spokane to Pasco between 1933 and 1939 . In 1937 , State Road 11 became Primary State Highway 11 ( PSH 11 ) , which was concurrent with both US 395 and US 10 by 1940 . A bypass of Cheney between Tyler and Four Lakes was planned at the same time as the Interstate Highway System . I @-@ 90 was created and PSH 11 was routed onto the future alignment in 1957 . Secondary State Highway 11H ( SSH 11H ) used the original route and became SR 904 during the 1964 highway renumbering . The Cheney bypass was opened in 1966 . After the Space Shuttle Columbia disintegrated during re @-@ entry during STS @-@ 107 in 2003 , killing all seven passengers , the road was renamed the Lt. Col. Michael P. Anderson Memorial Highway after one of the passengers that was raised in Cheney . The Washington State Department of Transportation ( WSDOT ) is currently planning to widen SR 904 between Cheney and Four Lakes from two to five lanes as part of the route development plan , but no funds have been made available for the work .
= = Route description = =
State Route 904 ( SR 904 ) begins at a diamond interchange with Interstate 90 ( I @-@ 90 ) , concurrent with U.S. Route 395 ( US 395 ) in Tyler . Traveling northeast over an unnamed creek to Babb , the highway becomes parallel with a rail line owned by BNSF Railway and used by Amtrak 's Empire Builder route from Portland , Oregon to Spokane . The BNSF line is paralleled by a Union Pacific rail line while the roadway and railways enter Cheney . Within Cheney , the road is named First Street and passes Eastern Washington University . SR 904 turns north , now parallel to the Eastern Washington Gateway Railroad , at an intersection with the Cheney – Spokane Road , which was the busiest intersection on the highway , with an estimated daily average of 13 @,@ 000 motorists in 2007 . After the intersection , the road turns northwest to exit Cheney and intersect the old alignment of Primary State Highway 11 ( PSH 11 ) . Shortly afterwards , the roadway enters Four Lakes , passing Meadow Lake and leaving the Eastern Washington Gateway Railroad before ending at a trumpet interchange with I @-@ 90 and US 395 .
= = History = =
The first state – maintained highway to serve Cheney using the present @-@ day route of SR 904 was the Central Washington Highway , added to the state highway system in 1913 . The highway served Pasco , Ritzville , Cheney and Spokane , but the segment between Cheney and Four Lakes wasn 't completed until after 1919 . The Central Washington Highway became State Road 11 in a 1923 restructuring of the highway system . Between 1933 and 1939 , U.S. Route 395 ( US 395 ) was extended southwest from Spokane to Pasco , via Cheney . The state roads became Primary state highways in 1937 and hence , Primary State Highway 11 ( PSH 11 ) was established to replace State Road 11 . US 10 later became concurrent with US 395 and PSH 11 in 1940 after it was moved to a southern alignment .
On June 29 , 1956 , President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956 into law , establishing a system of freeways that would later become the Interstate Highway System . Included in the system was Interstate 90 , which was to replace US 10 and become concurrent with US 395 , while bypassing Cheney . PSH 11 , US 395 and I @-@ 90 were rerouted onto the future bypass in 1957 . The former highway from Tyler to Four Lakes became Secondary State Highway 11H ( SSH 11H ) in 1961 ; the Cheney bypass opened on November 18 , 1966 . During the 1964 highway renumbering , SSH 11H became SR 904 , part of the new highway system , then named the " sign routes " . During STS @-@ 107 , a NASA Space Shuttle mission , Lieutenat colonel Michael P. Anderson , a Cheney native , along with the rest of the Columbia 's crew , were killed when it disintegrated during re @-@ entry on February 1 , 2003 . SR 904 was posthumously renamed to the Lt. Col. Michael P. Anderson Memorial Highway in his honor later that February . The official dedication ceremony was held on August 1 , 2003 . Increasing traffic accidents and traffic has caused the Washington State Department of Transportation ( WSDOT ) to create plans to widen the roadway between Cheney and Four Lakes . The plans , later named the route development plan , calls for a five @-@ lane highway with new intersections built on the highway .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Spokane County .
= Tifa Lockhart =
Tifa Lockhart ( Japanese : ティファ ・ ロックハート , Hepburn : Tifa Rokkuhāto ) is a fictional character in Square 's ( now Square Enix ) role @-@ playing video game Final Fantasy VII . Created and designed by Tetsuya Nomura , she has since appeared in the fighting game Ehrgeiz and made cameo appearances in several other titles , as well as the CGI film sequel to Final Fantasy VII , Advent Children and related games and media in the Compilation of Final Fantasy VII series .
A member of the eco @-@ terrorist group AVALANCHE and owner of the 7th Heaven bar in the slums of Midgar , Tifa is the childhood friend of Cloud Strife , the protagonist of Final Fantasy VII . Convincing him to join the group to keep him close and safe , she later assists him in saving the Planet from the game 's villain , Sephiroth . Installments in The Compilation of Final Fantasy VII later expanded upon her character , such as in the film Advent Children , where she attempts to convince Cloud to let go of his self @-@ imposed guilt , and move on with his life after Sephiroth 's defeat .
Named the pin @-@ up girl of the " cyber generation " by The New York Times , Tifa has been compared to Lara Croft as an example of a strong , independent and attractive female character in video games . Media have repeatedly praised both the character 's strength and appearance and described her as one of the best female characters in gaming .
= = Appearances = =
= = = Final Fantasy VII = = =
Introduced in Final Fantasy VII , Tifa is the childhood friend of Cloud Strife , and owner of the 7th Heaven bar , as well as a member of the eco @-@ terrorist organization AVALANCHE , who oppose the megacorporation Shinra and their use of Mako energy as a power source . She convinces Cloud to join the group to keep a closer eye on him after noticing his personality has changed , and she follows him in pursuit of the game 's antagonist , Sephiroth . Unable to keep him from being manipulated by Sephiroth , she helps him recover after his mind becomes fractured , and they realise their mutual feelings for one another , working together to defeat Sephiroth .
In flashbacks , it is revealed that as children Tifa and Cloud had decided to follow a path to a mountain near their hometown of Nibelheim . However , they were both injured and Tifa was in a coma for a week , with her father holding Cloud responsible for the incident . Cloud eventually left to join Shinra 's SOLDIER program in order to become stronger , but it is later revealed that he did it primarily to attract her attention . In response , she requested if she was ever in danger , he would return to save her . Years later , after Sephiroth destroyed the town of Nibelheim , Cloud rescued Tifa after she was wounded by Sephiroth . Surviving the incident , Tifa was taken to safety by her martial arts instructor Zangan , eventually arriving in Midgar and meeting AVALANCHE 's leader , Barret Wallace . Upon recovering , she joined AVALANCHE so as to get revenge for the destruction of her home . She eventually encountered an incoherent Cloud at the city 's train station , and convinced him to work for Barret , so as to keep him close and safe . This is the point at which the game begins .
In early drafts of Final Fantasy VII , Tifa was to be a background character . Her role in AVALANCHE was to add support behind the scenes , and to cheer everyone up after missions , as well as having a particular fondness for Cloud . She was also supposed to have a large scar on her back caused by Cloud , and partial amnesia from the incident when she had received it . A scene intended to imply herself and Cloud having sex was proposed by Masato Kato , one of the event planners , but it was replaced with a toned down version by Kitase in which a risqué line is followed by a fade to black . In an interview Nojima stated that none of the staff thought the scene would become such an issue at the time .
= = = Compilation of Final Fantasy VII = = =
In 2005 , she appeared in the CGI film Final Fantasy VII : Advent Children , set two years after the events of the game . In it , she tries to give emotional support to Cloud , urging him to come to terms with the unwarranted guilt he places upon himself . In addition , she takes care of Barret Wallace 's adopted daughter Marlene and another child , Denzel . During the film , she fights against one of the antagonists , Loz , and later she helps battle the summoned creature Bahamut SIN . Script writer Kazushige Nojima described her role in the film as " very much like any woman who 's been left behind by a man , " stating that while they did not want her to appear clingy , they also wanted to portray that she was emotionally hurt by Cloud 's departure . In the film 's initial draft , she was intended to have a more central role in the then @-@ short film , which only featured herself , Cloud , and several children , with the story revolving around a note being delivered to him .
Tifa is featured in the prequel games Before Crisis : Final Fantasy VII and Crisis Core : Final Fantasy VII , as well as the OVA Last Order : Final Fantasy VII . In each , her appearance relates to Nibelheim 's destruction . The novella " Case of Tifa " , written as part of the On the Way to a Smile series , is a story set between the original game and Advent Children . Told from her point of view , the story details how she creates a new 7th Heaven bar in the city of Edge , and attempts to hold onto the concept of a normal family with herself and Cloud , despite him beginning to isolate himself from others . Tifa also appears briefly in the game Dirge of Cerberus : Final Fantasy VII , set one year after the events of Advent Children in which she helps the protagonist Vincent Valentine defend the Planet against Omega WEAPON ; she later appears in the game 's epilogue , discussing Vincent 's apparent disappearance .
= = = Other appearances = = =
Outside of the Compilation of Final Fantasy VII , Tifa appears in the fighting game Ehrgeiz , as an unlockable character and an optional boss . She later appears in the electronic board games Itadaki Street Special and Itadaki Street Portable . In Kingdom Hearts II , she appears in her Advent Children attire , searching for Cloud and later fighting various Heartless , the series ' monsters . She was originally planned to appear in the Final Mix version of the original Kingdom Hearts , but due to time constraints the staff members chose to incorporate Sephiroth instead . Tifa is one of player characters in the fighting game Dissidia 012 Final Fantasy , which features characters from various Final Fantasy games . She is featured in her Final Fantasy VII outfit , but the player has also access to her Advent Children form and a third form that is shown during Tifa 's appearances in Nibelheim . The first print run of the game also features another form based on artwork by Yoshitaka Amano . In LittleBigPlanet 2 , Tifa is featured as a downloadable character model .
Korean singer Ivy portrayed the character in a 2007 music video for the song " 유혹의 소나타 " ( " Sonata of Temptation " ) . Recreating a fight scene from Advent Children , the video was banned from airing on Korean television after a copyright lawsuit by Square Enix citing plagiarism . In 2015 Tifa was added to the iOS game Final Fantasy : Record Keeper as a playable character .
= = Creation and development = =
Designed by Tetsuya Nomura , Tifa was not present in early versions of Final Fantasy VII , as initially , the game was to have only three playable characters ; the protagonist Cloud Strife , Aerith Gainsborough and Barret Wallace . However , during a phone call to project director Yoshinori Kitase , it was suggested that at some point in the game , one of the main characters should die , and after much discussion as to whether it should be Barret or Aerith , the producers chose Aerith . Nomura later joked that this was his idea , so as to enable him to introduce Tifa into the game . Regardless , the notion of having two concurrent heroines , and having the hero waver between them , was something Kitase liked , describing it as something new in the Final Fantasy series . Nomura describes Tifa 's character in Advent Children as having several dimensions , calling her " like a mother , a sweetheart , and a close ally in battle " and " remarkably strong , not only emotionally , but physically as well . "
Tifa was designed to use the " monk " character class that appears in previous games in the series . She has long , black hair in a style resembling a dolphin 's tail at the tip , and garments described as simple and monotone , consisting of a white tank top and black miniskirt . She also wears red boots and gloves , and sleeves extend up her arms from her wrists to her elbows , with suspenders connecting her skirt to her shoulders , and a large metal guard covering her left elbow . She stands about 5 feet 4 inches ( 167 cm ) tall , and has measurements of 36 @-@ 24 @-@ 35 " ( 92 @-@ 60 @-@ 88 cm ) .
Initially , Nomura had difficulty deciding whether to go with a miniskirt or long pants . Seeking input , he passed his sketches around Square 's offices , and the majority of the staff members approved of the miniskirt design . This additionally served as a contrast to Aerith , whose " Long Skirt " was her trademark . The attire was explained in respect to the game as giving her freedom of movement , due to her affinity with hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat , and the skirt , referred to as " quite short [ ... ] giving a considerable degree of exposure , " was kept as a staple of her alternate costumes . The developers additionally noted that due to her figure , her otherwise plain garments took on a pleasant appearance .
When producing Final Fantasy VII : Advent Children , co @-@ director Takeshi Nozue had difficulty developing a framework for Tifa 's body that was " balanced , yet showed off her feminine qualities . " Her outfit too was redesigned at this point , with emphasis on expressing those qualities , while still being pleasing to the eye . A white tank top with black zipped up vest covers her front , a pink ribbon wraps around her left biceps , and boots cover her feet . A black buttoned @-@ up skirt covers her thighs , and she wears shorts beneath , with a piece of cloth similar to a coattail extending from the back of the skirt 's waistband and ending at her ankles . While her gloves remain , they are worn only during the film 's fight scenes . Her hairstyle was changed to end at the middle of her back , with the removal of the dolphin tail from her original design . This alteration was because of the difficulty of animating her original length of hair , as well as problems that arose due to its black color and lighting .
Nomura noted he liked Ayumi Ito as an actress , and wished to work with her on Advent Children . With Aerith 's voice actor already decided , Nomura asked Ito to voice Tifa , feeling her " husky voice " would offer a good contrast to Maaya Sakamoto 's soft @-@ spoken Aerith . Nomura additionally noted that after completing Tifa 's updated design , the producers debated about her finalized details , but once Ito had been cast for the role they chose to blend many traits from the voice actress into the character 's final appearance .
= = Reception = =
Since her introduction , Tifa has received an extremely positive reaction from both critics and fans . In 2000 , GameSpot readers voted her as the fifth best female character in video games , with the site 's editors noting they agreed . In 2004 , Play featured Tifa in the first issue of their Girls of Gaming annual periodical , describing her as " the most adored female in recent history . " In 2007 , Tifa was named the eighth best character of all time in Dengeki PlayStation 's retrospective awards feature about the original PlayStation , the third highest ranked character from Final Fantasy VII . That same year , Tom 's Hardware listed her as one of the 50 greatest female characters in video game history , describing her as " one of the more richly drawn and intricate female characters around . " In 2008 , UGO listed her as one of the top " girls of gaming " , placing her at number five , and stating a preference for her over Aerith , adding " Tifa 's outfit is a marvel of understatement – but it 's her natural assets and unforgettable personality that earn her a spot on this list . " That same year , Chip ranked her as the tenth top " girl of gaming " . In 2009 , IGN named Tifa one of the ten best heroines in gaming , describing her as " without a doubt , a legendary heroine of the Final Fantasy universe . " A 2010 poll by Famitsu named her the 19th most popular video game character by Japanese audiences . Complex ranked her as the 13th greatest heroine in video game history in 2013 .
In 2001 , The Beaumont Enterprise cited Tifa as an example of a strong female character in video games in the wake of Lara Croft 's introduction . In 2008 , Joystiq named her their top pick out of 20 characters from the Final Fantasy franchise they wished to see in Square Enix 's crossover fighting game Dissidia Final Fantasy , describing her as one of the series ' " greatest heroines . " IGN listed Tifa as the 13th best Final Fantasy character of all time in 2008 , describing her as an attempt by Square to " give Final Fantasy characters real sex appeal , " and someone who " could take care of herself in a pinch " ; in a follow @-@ up Reader 's Choice edition of the list , Tifa placed first , with the staff repeating their previous comments while attributing her placement on the list to her breasts . In a 2009 IGN article focusing solely on Final Fantasy VII characters , Tifa placed fourth , with a comment that while her sex appeal contributes to her popularity , " Tifa helped drive a tradition of tough , independent RPG heroines . " Other sources too praised Tifa for that aspect of her character . Mania Entertainment placed her tenth in the 2010 list of " video game women that kick ass , " stating that while subsequent games in the Final Fantasy series introduced other memorable female characters , " Tifa is our first Final Fantasy girl and holds a special place in our hearts . " In 2013 , Gus Turner of Complex ranked Tifa as the 12th greatest Final Fantasy character of all time , stating that " next to Lara Croft and Samus , Tifa Lockhart stands out as one of gaming 's most independent and empowered females ever . "
Much of Tifa 's reception regarded her sex appeal . In 1998 , The New York Times featured her as the pin @-@ up girl of for the " cyber generation . " That same year , Electronic Gaming Monthly awarded her the " Hottest Game Babe " of 1997 , calling her " as well @-@ proportioned as they come , " and praising her as a viable alternative to Lara Croft . UGO ranked her as 24th in their 2008 list of " videogame hotties , " adding they could not " get over how much better she looks in each subsequent game release . " That same year , GameDaily ranked her 31st on their " hottest game babes " list , sharing UGO.com 's preference for her and praising both her appearance and combat abilities . MSN shared a similar sentiment when they included " this loving , caring , super @-@ sexy gal " on the list of " gaming 's hottest babes " , placing her at number six , and stating that her presence in the series was " a little subtle , giving her more of an emotional undertone , " and that the franchise would not be as special without her . Manolith ranked her at second place on their 2009 list of the " hottest " female video game protagonists . In 2010 , VideoGamer.com included her among the top ten video game crushes , while Sarah Warn of AfterEllen ranked her as the ninth " hottest " female video game character . In 2011 , Complex ranked her as the 16th best looking " sideline chick in games , " while UGO placed her 13th among the " fighting games ' finest hottest women " just for her appearance in Ehrgeiz . That same year , GameFront placed her breasts at ninth place on the list of " the greatest boobs in video game history , " calling her " the existential crisis version of Lara Croft ; " she was also included on the list of " incredible chests in video games " by Joystick Division , but with a comment that she " has much more than sex appeal . " In 2012 , Complex ranked her as the second " hottest " video game character overall , while MSN included her among the 20 " hottest women in video game history " , adding that " she 's one of the famous game gals in history , and has everlasting appeal . " In 2013 , Scott Marley of Daily Record ranked her as the second most attractive female video game character , while CheatCodes.com declared her " the # 1 hottest " female video game character of all time . Similarly , La Nueva España included the " sexy , independent and strong " Tifa among the top ten sexiest video game characters of both genders in 2014 , and Thanh Niên ranked her as the most sexy female video game character in 2015 .
= Extreme Rules ( 2012 ) =
Extreme Rules ( 2012 ) was a professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view ( PPV ) event produced by WWE . It took place on April 29 , 2012 at the Allstate Arena in Chicago , Illinois . It was the fourth event under the Extreme Rules chronology . Eight professional wrestling matches were scheduled on the event 's card and one pre @-@ show match was streamed on YouTube . It featured Brock Lesnar 's first WWE match since WrestleMania XX in 2004 .
The concept of Extreme Rules was that the event would feature various hardcore @-@ based matches . In the main event , John Cena defeated Brock Lesnar in an Extreme Rules match . Elsewhere on the card , CM Punk defeated Chris Jericho in a Chicago Street Fight to retain the WWE Championship , and Sheamus defeated Daniel Bryan in a 2 @-@ out @-@ of @-@ 3 falls match to retain the World Heavyweight Championship .
The pay @-@ per @-@ view received universally positive reviews , with the main event and two world championship matches drawing high praise from critics and fans . The event received 263 @,@ 000 buys , up 25 @.@ 8 % from the 209 @,@ 000 buys for the previous year 's event , whereas the next Extreme Rules event in 2013 received 231 @,@ 000 buys , a drop of 12 @.@ 1 % .
= = Storylines = =
The professional wrestling matches at Extreme Rules featured professional wrestlers performing as characters in scripted events pre @-@ determined by the hosting promotion , WWE . Storylines between the characters played out on WWE 's primary television programs , Raw and SmackDown .
On the April 2 Raw , John Cena spoke about his loss to The Rock the previous night at WrestleMania XXVIII , which was dubbed a once @-@ in @-@ a @-@ lifetime match and the most important battle of Cena 's career . Cena asked for the Rock to come out so that Cena could offer his congratulations . Instead , Brock Lesnar came into the ring , making his first WWE appearance since 2004 . Lesnar offered to shake hands with Cena but instead executed the F @-@ 5 maneuver , dropping Cena onto the mat . The next week , General Manager John Laurinaitis revealed that he signed Lesnar to bring " legitimacy " and for Lesnar to become the " new face of the WWE " ; Laurinaitis also announced that Lesnar would face Cena at Extreme Rules . On April 16 , the match was made into an Extreme Rules match .
On the January 2 Raw , Chris Jericho returned to WWE . He made it clear that he wanted to reclaim his title as the " best wrestler in the world , " which CM Punk had claimed to be since Money in the Bank 2011 . Punk defeated Jericho at WrestleMania XXVIII . In the weeks following the event , Jericho attacked Punk several times , once pouring a bottle of Jack Daniel 's over him — a pointed insult to the straight edge Punk , and vowed to lead Punk " down the path to alcoholism just like [ his ] father . " On the April 16 Raw , Jericho announced that he would face Punk in a Chicago Street Fight at Extreme Rules for the WWE Championship . Punk had held the WWE Championship since November 2011 at Survivor Series .
At WWE 's Royal Rumble pay @-@ per @-@ view event on January 29 , Sheamus won the Royal Rumble match to earn the opportunity to face either WWE Champion CM Punk or World Heavyweight Champion Daniel Bryan for their respective titles at WrestleMania XXVIII . Sheamus elected to wrestle Bryan and defeated him in 18 seconds to win the championship . On the April 10 SmackDown , Bryan used his rematch clause as ex @-@ champion to announce a 2 @-@ out @-@ of @-@ 3 Falls match for the championship at Extreme Rules between him and Sheamus . Bryan chose the multiple @-@ falls format to prevent Sheamus from scoring another quick victory .
Another rivalry heading into Extreme Rules was between Randy Orton and Kane . In July 2011 , Kane lost in a Street Fight to Orton , and the two shook hands after the match as a sign of respect . In 2012 , a newly re @-@ masked Kane viewed the handshake as a sign of weakness , hence Kane started a feud with Orton and defeated him at WrestleMania XXVIII . Yet , on the April 6 SmackDown , Orton defeated Kane in a No Disqualification match . On the April 10 SmackDown , Kane attacked Orton and his father " Cowboy " Bob Orton . On the April 20 SmackDown , it was announced that Kane and Orton would face off at Extreme Rules in a Falls Count Anywhere match .
On April 23 , the fifth match for the event was announced , a rematch between Big Show and Cody Rhodes for the WWE Intercontinental Championship ; Big Show won the title from Rhodes at WrestleMania XXVIII . Later that same day , it was announced that The Miz would challenge Santino Marella for the United States Championship in a pre @-@ show match that would be streamed live on YouTube , on WWE.com , and on WWE 's official Facebook page .
Also on April 23 , Nikki Bella defeated the Divas Champion , Beth Phoenix , to capture the Divas Championship . Phoenix was slated to receive a rematch for the title during Extreme Rules , but due to suffering a sprained left ankle in storyline during the aforementioned match on April 23 , Phoenix was not medically cleared to compete at the event . During the PPV , Phoenix was replaced by Layla , who made her first WWE appearance since the 13 May 2011 SmackDown . Layla had suffered a knee injury at the previous year 's Extreme Rules event and was subsequently attacked by Kharma .
= = Event = =
= = = Pre @-@ show = = =
The Miz challenged Santino Marella in a singles match for the United States Championship in the pre @-@ show . This was Marella 's third defense of the title . Before the match , Miz complained about being in the pre @-@ show after he was in the main event a year before at Extreme Rules ( 2011 ) . The title match ended with Marella pinning Miz after hitting the Cobra . After the match , the format for the Intercontinental Championship match between champion Big Show and Cody Rhodes was determined by a wheel spin to be a Tables match .
= = = Preliminary matches = = =
The English commentators for the event were Michael Cole , Jerry Lawler and Booker T , while there were also Spanish commentators . Justin Roberts and Lilian Garcia acted as ring announcers . In the first face @-@ off on the main card of Extreme Rules , Randy Orton defeated Kane in a Falls Count Anywhere match . The match started with Kane and Orton brawling into the crowd and then backstage , where Zack Ryder made an appearance to attack Kane and allow Orton to deliver an inverted headlock backbreaker for a two count . Orton and Kane eventually headed back into the ring , where Orton was unable to beat Kane despite multiple pin attempts after repeated chair shots , an elevated DDT onto the floor and a superplex . However , Orton managed to survive a chokeslam from Kane to counter the Tombstone piledriver into an RKO on a steel chair for the pinfall victory .
Brodus Clay defeated Dolph Ziggler in the main show 's second match . Interference from Jack Swagger at ringside led to Ziggler seizing an early advantage with a leg drop bulldog and a sleeper hold . Clay then mounted a comeback ; his headbutt floored an onrushing Ziggler , and he delivered a running splash for the pinfall victory .
In the main show 's third match , Big Show 's first defense of his Intercontinental Championship ended in failure when he lost to Cody Rhodes in a Tables match . Big Show had the upper hand early on , but Rhodes managed to escape being thrown into a table propped up in the ring corner by running up and pushing off it to hit the Beautiful Disaster kick . Big Show then re @-@ established the advantage with superior size and strength , but Rhodes later dropkicked his leg as he attempted to re @-@ enter the ring from the outside . To regain his balance , Big Show stepped on and broke a table at ringside , and Rhodes was announced as the winner and new Intercontinental Champion as Big Show " went through a table " with his foot . An angry Big Show assaulted Rhodes after the match .
The fourth match on the main card was a 2 @-@ out @-@ of @-@ 3 falls match for the World Heavyweight Championship in which Sheamus defended his title against Daniel Bryan in his first title defense . Sheamus held the early advantage , putting Bryan in a Texas Cloverleaf and countering Bryan 's flying knee off the apron by catching and ramming Bryan 's back into the guardrail . Bryan then began to target Sheamus ' left arm and shoulder with a hammerlock , and he repeatedly went for the " Yes ! " Lock ( omoplata crossface ) , although Sheamus was able to shake him off . Bryan then sent Sheamus flying shoulder @-@ first into the corner ring post , and continued to ram Sheamus into the ring post shoulder @-@ first while outside the ring . Back in the ring , Bryan repeatedly kicked Sheamus ' left arm while it was in the ropes and refused to stop at the referee 's five count . The referee disqualified Bryan and awarded the first fall to Sheamus . Bryan , who intentionally disqualified himself to hurt Sheamus , immediately rushed to put the " Yes ! " Lock on Sheamus , targeting the injured arm as soon the match was restarted . Sheamus soon passed out due to the " Yes ! " Lock and the referee awarded the second fall to Bryan . WWE officials then tended to a dazed Sheamus , who insisted that he could continue the match , as Bryan started shouting " Yes ! " , prompting his fans to chant with him and his detractors in the crowd to yell " No ! " . As Bryan rushed in again at the restart , Sheamus floored him with a desperation Brogue Kick . Sheamus was slow to cover Bryan , and Bryan kicked out at two . Bryan then peppered Sheamus with kicks , and a kick to Sheamus ' head got a two count . However , Bryan missed a diving headbutt and a corner dropkick , allowing Sheamus to make a comeback with double axe handles and an Irish Curse backbreaker . Sheamus finished Bryan off with a Brogue Kick to score a pinfall and win 2 falls to 1 . With this victory , Sheamus retained his World Heavyweight Championship .
The fifth match featured Ryback facing two local competitors Aaron Relic and Jay Hatton in a 2 @-@ on @-@ 1 Handicap match . Ryback hit a powerslam on Hatton , then a clothesline and a stunner on Relic . Ryback then delivered his finisher on Hatton and pinned both opponents at the same time for the dominant victory .
The next match was the sixth on the main card , a Chicago Street Fight for the WWE Championship , in which CM Punk defended his title in his hometown against Chris Jericho in his tenth title defense . After weathering an initial flurry of offense from Punk , Jericho gained the edge and taunted Punk and his family . This earned Jericho a slap from Punk 's sister at ringside . An aggravated Jericho went after Punk 's sister , causing Punk to go into a frenzy , slamming Jericho through the top piece of the announcers ' table , which had been removed and propped up against the under @-@ structure of the table . When Jericho managed to re @-@ establish an advantage , he taunted the straight edge Punk by pouring beer all over him . Then , Punk made a comeback and performed the Randy Savage diving elbow drop , but Jericho kicked out at two . Yet Jericho managed to block Punk 's attempts at executing his finisher , the Go to Sleep , and managed to hit his own finisher on Punk
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, the Codebreaker . Jericho then locked Punk in his finishing submission , the Walls of Jericho . Punk made it to the ropes while in the hold , but there were no rope breaks in the Street Fight format . Punk then reached under the ring , grabbed a fire extinguisher and sprayed it in Jericho 's face to blind him and break the hold . Punk then jumped off the top rope with a diving elbow drop onto Jericho , who was at ringside on the Spanish announcers ' table . The blow sent both men through the table . That did not give Punk a pinfall victory , however , and he locked Jericho in the Anaconda Vise , his finishing submission . Jericho broke it by hitting Punk with a kendo stick . Punk then grabbed a chair and prepared to attack Jericho , but Jericho nailed Punk with a Codebreaker into the chair . Jericho made the cover but Punk kicked out at the last second . Aiming to humiliate Punk , Jericho attempted Punk 's finishing move , the Go to Sleep , but Punk countered the move and then catapulted Jericho into an exposed turnbuckle that Jericho himself had exposed earlier in the match . Punk finished by delivering the Go to Sleep to Jericho for the pin and the win . Punk then celebrated retaining his WWE Championship with his hometown crowd .
Then , a backstage segment revealed that Beth Phoenix was declared not medically fit to wrestle . As a result , Divas Champion Nikki Bella would have to make her first defense of her title against a mystery opponent . The mystery opponent was revealed as Layla , who managed to counter Bella 's Twin Magic switcheroo to score the pinfall victory with a neckbreaker .
= = = Main event match = = =
The main event for the night saw John Cena face Brock Lesnar in an Extreme Rules match ; this was Lesnar 's first match in WWE since 2004 . The match , refereed by Charles Robinson , started with Lesnar causing Cena to bleed with a vicious elbow to his head after a double leg takedown . Lesnar continued to dominate the match , delivering punches , clotheslines and knee strikes to Cena ; the match had to be paused twice while a medic attended to Cena to clean up the blood . After the match restarted for the second time , Lesnar continued to brutalize Cena , hanging him from the turnbuckles and throwing him into the steel steps and the guardrail . Cena desperately went for his finishing move , the Attitude Adjustment , but Lesnar countered into his own finishing move , the F @-@ 5 . While throwing Cena to the mat , however , Lesnar inadvertently caused Cena to hit and knock out the referee . By the time another referee got to the ring to make the count , Cena was able to kick out at two . Lesnar then brought the metal ring steps into the ring and put a kimura lock on Cena while on the steps . Cena lifted and slammed Lesnar onto the metal steps to break the hold . After Lesnar avoided a Cena diving leg drop bulldog , Lesnar charged and leapt off the ring steps and over the top rope onto Cena , sending both men to the floor . When Lesnar tried the same move again , Cena countered by hitting Lesnar in the head with a metal chain that he brought to the match , bloodying Lesnar . An intense and re @-@ energized Cena then delivered an Attitude Adjustment to Lesnar onto the metal steps and pinned him . Following his victory , a bloodied Cena , selling an arm injury , closed the event by announcing his intentions to go home for a vacation .
= = Reception = =
The event sold out the Allstate Arena with 14 @,@ 817 people in attendance . The official buy total for the 2012 Extreme Rules event was 263 @,@ 000 , up from 209 @,@ 000 for the 2011 event and 182 @,@ 000 for the 2010 event , whereas the next Extreme Rules event in 2013 received 231 @,@ 000 buys , a drop of 12 @.@ 1 % .
Extreme Rules received widespread acclaim from critics and fans . The professional wrestling section of Canoe.ca described the event as " outstanding " and " a show where all the big matches delivered in spades " , rating the entire event a 9 out of 10 , while also rating each of the three main events 9 out of 10 .
The Sun rated the entire event 9 out of 10 , saying that Extreme Rules " was about as good a show and ( sic ) one could realistically expect " . The Sun also described the Cena @-@ Lesnar main @-@ event as " a peculiar — but effective — hybrid of MMA and pro wrestling ... The most important thing is that this match was different to what we usually see in a WWE ring . It was intriguing and most of all compelling . "
Dave Meltzer of the Wrestling Observer Newsletter awarded out of 5 stars , 4 @.@ 5 for the Cena @-@ Lesnar match , 4 for the Bryan @-@ Sheamus match and 3 @.@ 5 stars for the Punk @-@ Jericho match .
Benjamin Tucker of Pro Wrestling Torch rated the event 8 @.@ 5 out of 10 , stating that " with a solid under @-@ card and three four @-@ star @-@ plus [ out of five stars ] matches , the show was a lot of fun to watch and had a lot of emotional highs . " Tucker described the Punk @-@ Jericho match as a " hellacious brawl that built really well and had a great emotional aspect to it " . James Caldwell , also of Pro Wrestling Torch , praised the event 's strong matches and performances and the " nice pace with downs to follow the big ups " . Caldwell described the Cena @-@ Lesnar main @-@ event as " super @-@ intense " , saying that Lesnar offered " physicality not seen in years " . Caldwell described the World Heavyweight Championship match as an " excellent , excellent bout " with Bryan " phenomenal in defeat " and Sheamus " looking strong headed into the next chapter of his title run " . As 2012 drew to a close , Pro Wrestling Torch rated Extreme Rules as the best pay @-@ per @-@ view of all the WWE and TNA pay @-@ per @-@ views produced in that year with an average staff rating of 8 @.@ 3 compared to the second best WWE PPV , WrestleMania XXVIII 's 7 @.@ 6 and TNA 's best pay @-@ per @-@ view , Destination X 's 7 @.@ 0 . The average rating across all of WWE 's pay @-@ per @-@ views in 2012 was 6 @.@ 1 .
The Baltimore Sun summarized the " terrific " event being engineered by " a ' perfect storm ' of a stellar Chicago crowd , excellent matches with several clever finishes , refreshing commentary and WWE rarities including violence , blood and referee assault " . The Baltimore Sun also felt that " all four rematches on this card from WrestleMania exceeded their matches one month ago " , while reserving special praise for Daniel Bryan and Dolph Ziggler , saying that although " Bryan doesn 't hold the World Heavyweight title , he proved that he is a champion in terms of someone who can be counted on to always be one half of a fantastic match in big @-@ stage situations " , while Ziggler " made Brodus look like a million dollars in his offense " .
Patrick Lennon of the Daily Star described the main @-@ event as " compelling " while perceiving a " discrepancy " between WWE 's TV @-@ PG approach and " Lesnar elbowing Cena repeatedly in the face until he bleeds profusely " .
The International Business Times rated Extreme Rules as the best pay @-@ per @-@ view of the year and listed both the Cena @-@ Lesnar and Bryan @-@ Sheamus matches in the top five WWE matches in 2012 . Cena @-@ Lesnar was described as " as brutal as anyone could have hoped for " while Bryan @-@ Sheamus " stole the show " . Bryan was also spotlighted as the " greatest in @-@ ring performer that WWE has at the moment " .
Fans also praised to the event 's match quality , but raised concerns about Cena beating Lesnar in Lesnar 's first return match .
In 2013 , WWE released a list of their " 15 best pay @-@ per @-@ views ever " , with 2012 's Extreme Rules being ranked at # 11 .
Extreme Rules was released on DVD by WWE Home Video on 29 May 2012 , featuring the DVD extra of Matt Striker interviewing CM Punk . About.com 's Eric Cohen rated the DVD 5 stars out of 5 , stating that for " a three @-@ hour pay @-@ per @-@ view event , it doesn 't get much better than this " . DVD Talk gave a " Recommended " rating to the DVD , stating that the release was " right on target with other recent WWE DVDs ( for better or worse ) , from the decent technical presentation to the lack of bonus features " .
= = Aftermath = =
Extreme Rules saw the culmination of most of its feuds , some of which started before the previous pay @-@ per @-@ view , WrestleMania XXVIII . The Cena @-@ Lesnar , Punk @-@ Jericho , Sheamus @-@ Bryan and Orton @-@ Kane feuds ended at Extreme Rules ; the only feud to continue on after the event was the Rhodes @-@ Show feud , which ended before the next pay @-@ per @-@ view , Over the Limit .
Immediately after Extreme Rules on the April 30 Raw , WWE 's Chief Operating Officer Triple H refused to give in to Brock Lesnar 's unreasonable contract demands , starting a feud between the duo and resulting in Lesnar attacking Triple H and ( in storyline ) breaking Triple H 's arm . This led to Lesnar defeating Triple H via submission at SummerSlam . At WrestleMania 29 , with Triple H 's career on the line , Triple H defeated Lesnar in a No Holds Barred match . The feud ended in the main event of 2013 's Extreme Rules , where Lesnar ( with his manager Paul Heyman 's interference ) defeated Triple H in a steel cage match .
Also on the April 30 Raw , General Manager John Laurinaitis , unhappy that his hand @-@ picked star Lesnar lost to Cena at Extreme Rules , revealed himself to be Cena 's next opponent for Over the Limit . In the storyline , WWE 's board of directors declared that as a condition of the match , if Laurinaitis lost , he would be fired , and any wrestler who interfered would be fired . At Over the Limit , Laurinaitis defeated Cena after Big Show interfered on Laurinaitis ' behalf . Show was free to interfere in the match because he had already been fired the week before Over the Limit by Laurinaitis after he mocked Laurinaitis ' speech mannerisms .
To determine the # 1 contendership for CM Punk 's WWE Championship , a Beat @-@ the @-@ Clock challenge was held on the April 30 Raw . A series of five singles matches took place where the victor with the lowest match @-@ time was deemed the overall winner ; Daniel Bryan set the fastest time by defeating Jerry Lawler in under three minutes . Notably , during the Beat @-@ the @-@ Clock challenge , The Miz avenged his loss to Santino Marella by defeating Marella in a non @-@ title match . Marella eventually lost the United States Championship in August to Antonio Cesaro at SummerSlam .
At Over the Limit , Punk retained his title in controversial fashion when Bryan rolled back onto his shoulders as he applied the " Yes ! " Lock on Punk , Punk tapped out immediately after the referee counted a pinfall win for Punk . Punk would continue to hold the WWE Championship until January 2013 when he was defeated by The Rock at the Royal Rumble , a title reign of 434 days .
Before Extreme Rules , Alberto Del Rio defeated World Heavyweight Champion Sheamus via disqualification on the April 6 SmackDown to earn a future title shot . After Extreme Rules on the May 7 Raw , Sheamus and Randy Orton faced Del Rio and Chris Jericho , with Sheamus accidentally delivering a Brogue Kick to Orton followed by Jericho hitting the Codebreaker on Sheamus and pinning him . Orton then gave Sheamus an RKO after the match . Due to this , the World Heavyweight Championship match at Over the Limit was made a fatal @-@ four way match . Sheamus pinned Jericho at Over the Limit to retain his title . Sheamus remained as World Heavyweight Champion until October 2012 , where he lost his title to Big Show at Hell in a Cell .
Cody Rhodes ' feud with Big Show continued after Extreme Rules , ending on the May 7 Raw when Show defeated Rhodes in a title match via count @-@ out , but this meant Rhodes retained the title . At Over the Limit , Christian made his surprise return after a month 's absence from injury and won a battle royal to earn an Intercontinental Championship opportunity later that night ; Rhodes lost the match and the title to Christian .
After Nikki Bella lost the Divas Championship to Layla at Extreme Rules , both Bella Twins received a title shot in a triple threat match on the April 30 Raw . Layla won the match quickly and the Bella Twins were " fired " from WWE ( in actuality , the twins ' contracts expired ) . Layla moved on to feud with Beth Phoenix , whom she beat at Over the Limit to retain her title . Layla remained Divas Champion until September 2012 , where she lost her title to Eve at Night of Champions .
After Extreme Rules , both Brodus Clay and Ryback 's winning streaks continued through Raw and SmackDown into Over the Limit as Clay defeated the Miz while Ryback defeated Camacho . Clay 's streak ended at 24 wins on the June 25 Raw with a loss to Big Show . Ryback 's streak ended at 38 wins in October 2012 at Hell in a Cell with a loss to CM Punk . Meanwhile , Dolph Ziggler and Jack Swagger moved on to feud with Tag Team Champions Kofi Kingston and R @-@ Truth but would fail to win their title .
= = Results = =
= Bruce Jackson ( audio engineer ) =
Bruce Robert Jackson ( 3 June 1949 – 29 January 2011 ) was an Australian audio engineer who co @-@ founded JANDS , an Australian audio , lighting and staging company . He joined American touring audio engineer Roy Clair and mixed concert stage monitors for Elvis Presley in the 1970s . With Clair Brothers , a concert sound company , Jackson designed audio electronics including a custom mixing console . Beginning in 1978 , Jackson toured as Bruce Springsteen 's band engineer for a decade , using Clair Brothers sound systems . A business interest in Fairlight CMI in Sydney introduced Jackson to digital audio , and he subsequently founded the digital audio company Apogee Electronics in Santa Monica , California , where he lived at the time . After selling his share of Apogee , Jackson co @-@ founded with Roy and Gene Clair a joint venture which produced the Clair iO , a loudspeaker management system for control of complex concert sound systems . Jackson turned the venture commercial with the help of Dave McGrath 's Lake Technology . Dolby Laboratories bought the technology and formed Dolby Lake with Jackson as vice president , then in 2009 Lab.gruppen acquired the brand . Jackson was honoured with the Parnelli Innovator Award in 2005 for his inventive loudspeaker controller .
While still a partner at Apogee , Jackson began touring with Barbra Streisand , mixing concert sound and serving as sound designer from 1993 to 2007 . With two other audio engineers he received an Emmy Award for sound design and sound mixing on Streisand 's TV special Barbra : The Concert . Jackson worked on sound design for the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney and served as audio director for the opening and closing ceremonies . He performed the same role in Doha , Qatar , at the 2006 Asian Games and in Vancouver , Canada , at the 2010 Winter Olympics .
= = JANDS = =
Bruce R. Jackson was the first of five children born to Bruce H. Jackson , Sr and Mavis Jackson , living in Rose Bay , New South Wales . His wealthy parents moved to a mansion in Point Piper , a harbourside suburb east of Sydney in the district of Vaucluse , New South Wales . ( The mansion , " Altona " , is one of Australia 's most expensive homes . ) Jackson first expressed an interest in electronics at age 13 when he set up a basement workbench and small lab under his parents ' mansion . While at Vaucluse Boys ' High School , Jackson was discovered by investigators of the Postmaster @-@ General 's Department , along with a group of his electronics @-@ minded schoolmates , Phillip Storey , Wally Pearce , Bruce Morrison and Adrian Wood operating a pirate radio station " 2VH " , with a too @-@ powerful AM transmitter — which the boys operated during and after school , and on the weekends , tuned to 1350 kHz in the upper end of the commercial AM band to avoid more powerful commercial radio station signals . The boys did not know that their tube transmitter and very long , very efficient full wavelength antenna were so well crafted that their unlicensed signal was broadcasting all over Sydney and parts of the state of New South Wales 600 km away , at night time .
At age 18 , Jackson and one of the boys , Phillip Storey , dropped out of university and became partners in an electronics business . They used their surname initials to form the company name : J & S Research Electronics Pty Limited . The partnership 's largest customer , Roger Foley , doing business as Ellis D Fogg , a producer of psychedelic lighting effects , refused to write out the full company name and instead wrote JandS on his checks . The partners added an equipment rental company with the name JANDS Pty Limited , in response . After moving the company from Point Piper to Rose Bay , JANDS made " whatever the hell they felt like " , according to Jackson : lighting equipment , guitar amplifiers and public address system components such as column loudspeakers . He described how , with so many American servicemen stationed in Vietnam spending their recreation time in Sydney , Australian bands and clubs were doing well : " the live music scene was jumping , and we were busy " . JANDS ' successful rental business paid for the design of new gear . After two years , Jackson and Storey quarrelled and the two decided to disband the company . They sold out to Paul Mulholland , David Mulholland and Eric Robinson , who were operating a small lighting company Jubillee Gaslight , on Sydney 's north shore . Later , JANDS grew under Mulholland and Robinson to become Australia 's largest sound and lighting company . Jackson and Storey served as consultants to JANDS , from time to time .
= = Clair Brothers = =
Jackson first met Roy Clair in 1970 during a world tour by the band Blood , Sweat & Tears when they stopped at Sydney for a concert held at Randwick Racecourse . Clair had brought his unusually large American concert sound system to Australia and Jackson was curious to hear it , and to see how the big black ' W ' bins were designed . He and a friend sneaked into the concert and spoke with Clair , asking " a whole stack of questions " . Clair decided to leave his sound system in Jackson 's hands for a series of Johnny Cash tour dates coming up in some six months , rather than shipping all the gear home to the USA and back in between . Jackson stored the system and then mixed the Cash tour across Australia . Afterward , Clair invited Jackson to visit him in Lititz , Pennsylvania . Following a trip to London , Jackson stopped in at Clair Brothers and stayed to live in Pennsylvania .
Jackson assisted Clair Brothers by teaming with Ron Borthwick to design a mixing console that folded up into its own road case , a proprietary model used by Clair Brothers for some 12 years of top tours . The console used novel plasma bargraph meters which displayed both average and peak sound levels , combining the characteristics of fast peak meters and slower VU meters . Clair Brothers built 10 of the consoles , the first live sound console to incorporate parametric equalisation .
= = = Elvis Presley = = =
Working for Clair Brothers , Jackson toured with Elvis Presley , mixing monitors while independent engineer Bill Porter mixed front of house ( FOH ) for the audience . Clair Brothers supplied all the audio gear ; Jackson designed a powerful stage monitor system for Presley 's show . To make more room for audience seating , he also used a sound reinforcement system that was not mounted on scaffolding but hung with steel chain above the audience from overhead beams , using chain hoists rigged upside down to raise the loudspeakers from the floor — a now @-@ common method used by licensed riggers . Jackson has said that he made a number of concert recordings during this period , all unreleased .
The earliest of these Clair Brothers @-@ supported dates did not have a dedicated monitor engineer — monitors were mixed from FOH by Porter , assisted by Jackson . Jackson noticed that Presley 's performance was very much dependent on how easily he was able to hear himself from the monitor speakers . Jackson said , " some nights would work well and others would be a total train wreck . " He advocated for a separate monitor mixing position at the side of the stage and after overcoming resistance to the concept was given this dedicated position . Asked whether he thus invented the role of concert monitor engineer , Jackson replied , " no , not really . It was more that its time had just come . "
Jackson had to deal with Presley 's absence from rehearsals at Graceland and concert soundchecks . The singer would usually show up at the concert venue at the last minute , walk out on stage and start to sing , having never heard the sound system . Presley sometimes turned to the side of the stage to ask Jackson to make changes , and a few times he stopped the show to have Jackson come out and stand center stage and listen carefully to the monitors while Presley sang to 20 @,@ 000 people . One night in Fort Worth , Texas , Presley led the audience in singing " Happy Birthday to You " in honour of the engineer 's birthday — an " amazing , and very embarrassing " occasion for Jackson . Jackson can be seen at his side @-@ stage mix position in Presley 's 1977 " CBS Special " TV show . At Presley 's final performance on 26 June 1977 , he said " I would like to thank my sound engineer : Bruce Jackson from Australia . "
Touring with Presley was like no other assignment . Presley and his entourage travelled in four or five jets to the next tour stop : one for Elvis and his closest colleagues , one for the band , one for Colonel Tom Parker ( Presley 's manager ) , one for concessions and crew , and a Learjet used by RCA Records management to fly ahead of everyone else . For two weeks during June and July 1973 , Elvis flew on an all @-@ black DC @-@ 9 airliner with a Playboy logo on the tail ; the aircraft was named Big Bunny . Jackson said he and the other Elvis @-@ chosen passengers were served food and drinks by elite Playboy Bunnies called " Jet Bunnies " .
Parker managed the concert tours for Presley , and exerted a strong influence . Jackson quit his job while on tour after he was " pushed too far " by Parker , according to Roy Clair . Presley apologised to Jackson , and he rejoined the tour as an independent engineer , answering only to Presley . Jackson mixed hundreds of concerts for the singer , who called him " Bruce the Goose " — a working life filled with strange hours , hard physical labour and constant travelling . In August 1977 he was in Portland , Maine setting up at the next Presley engagement when he heard he had died .
= = Independent engineer = =
= = = Bruce Springsteen = = =
As an independent engineer , Jackson signed a contract to work directly for Bruce Springsteen , on concert tours supported by Clair Brothers . Jackson mixed Springsteen on four major tours from 1978 to 1988 , and is credited as engineer on the album Live / 1975 – 85 . The tours include Darkness , The River , Born in the U.S.A. and Tunnel of Love Express . Prior to each tour , Springsteen and the E @-@ Street Band practised at Clair Brothers in Lititz to check out new sound system components and lighting effects , and to give crew members a chance to work out the technical details . Jackson mixed the rehearsals and concerts on the folding console he designed for Clair Brothers . Springsteen called him " BJ " .
Right away , Jackson noticed that Springsteen was a very particular critic of his own concert sound . At every new venue , Springsteen would take " BJ " around to various seats in the concert venue , sitting in every section , even the last row of seats , and listen to the E @-@ Street Band play . He asked Jackson why the sound was not so good far away as it was up close , and if the audio crew could do anything about it . Jackson said , " we can do a lot about it " , and worked with Clair Brothers to design a ring of delay loudspeakers positioned closer to the farthest seats to augment the high frequencies lost over distance by sound waves travelling through air . This made the hi @-@ hat sound more " crisp and clean " , with higher quality sound in the back row than previously experienced in such large venues . Throughout Jackson 's years with him , Springsteen maintained his interest in delivering high quality sound to every seat , and the solutions grew in size and complexity until by 1984 there were eight rings of delays set up for the largest venues .
In 1981 for the River tour , Jackson arrived at a " checkerboard " configuration of loudspeakers which were supplied with nominal left and right stereo signals , the signals connected throughout the sound system in an alternating pattern of vertical lines of eight loudspeakers each , giving the audience a semblance of stereo imaging otherwise impractical on such a large scale . He continued its use on the Born in the U.S.A. tour in 1985 . A reporter from Popular Mechanics described the 160 main and 40 auxiliary loudspeakers typically used at a large arena or stadium . Jackson set the main loudspeakers 54 feet ( 16 m ) high on scaffolding , each enclosure holding two 18 @-@ inch low @-@ frequency cone drivers , four 10 @-@ inch mid @-@ frequency cone drivers , two high @-@ mid compression drivers and two high @-@ frequency compression drivers . The auxiliary zones covered audience areas which wrapped around to the sides of the stage . The 200 loudspeakers were driven by 96 amplifier channels capable of putting out a total of 380 @,@ 000 watts . The tour was said to have drawn " unusual critical acclaim for crispness and distortion @-@ free performances . " Jackson was nominated for a TEC Award as 1985 's best sound reinforcement engineer but Gene Clair received the honour .
Jackson worked closely with individual musicians in Springsteen 's band to help them achieve the sound they wanted . Keyboard player Danny Federici received attention from John Stilwell and Jackson who collaborated in modifying his cut @-@ down Hammond B @-@ 3 organ . Clarence Clemons came to Jackson with his ideas about microphones ; subsequently , the sound of his saxophones was picked up by a device invented jointly by Clemons and Jackson . Bassist Garry Tallent described the elements of his bass rig to a reporter then summed up its overall effect by saying , " the rest is up to God and Bruce Jackson . "
Jackson was close to Presley , but the two men were not near in age . Springsteen was closer to Jackson 's age and the two got along as friends , the singer giving a Jeep off @-@ road vehicle as a gift in thanks for his contribution to successful concerts . Jackson said of the Jeep that he sold it after tiring of " bouncing around the place in it . " In 1988 , Jackson quit touring at the birth of his son Lindsey . He settled in Santa Monica , California , to concentrate on audio electronics ideas . However , everynow and then he was called as consultant by Springsteen staff and Clair Bros to solve acoustic issues during the following world tours , for instance in Verona , Italy ( 1993 ) .
= = = Barbra Streisand = = =
Jackson was working as an entrepreneur in digital audio electronics in 1993 when Barbra Streisand 's producer asked him to mix her first concert tour in decades . Jackson signed on partly because he was assured he could do anything to make her concert sound as good as possible . Jackson determined that huge concert venues such as Wembley Stadium and Madison Square Garden would be carpeted for Streisand , and that expensive heavy drapes would be hung at the walls to damp sound reflections . After discovering that Streisand did not like to listen to any stage monitors made after the 1960s , he designed a stage wedge which used soft dome drivers for midrange and for high frequencies rather than the more powerful compression drivers in common use after the 1970s . As well , the main sound system Jackson specified was a new design by Clair Brothers , a proprietary line array system called the I4 . Streisand was not willing to wear in @-@ ear monitors but the band was fitted with them , to reduce stage wash and make the band 's instruments stand out better individually in the mix . The stage monitors , line array and extravagant acoustic treatments were a hit with Streisand , who said of Jackson that he was " the best sound engineer in the world . "
Streisand employed Jackson 's mixing talents on her 1995 TV special called Barbra : The Concert . Along with Ed Greene and Bob La Masney who worked on post @-@ production mixing , he received an Emmy Award for sound design and the mixing of the live show . Jackson designed the sound for Streisand 's 1999 – 2000 Timeless : Live in Concert Tour , and he mixed the New Year 's Eve concert 31 December 1999 at the MGM Grand Garden Arena in Paradise , Nevada . He mixed Streisand 's appearances in Sydney and Melbourne in March 2000 , connecting the large backing choir 's sound mix by optical fibre from a nearby polo field where the choir was stationed . The fibre connection was Jackson 's real @-@ world test of a similar setup planned to be used for the Summer Olympics six months later .
Jackson mixed Streisand 's U.S. and world tours in 2006 and 2007 , using a Digidesign Venue digital mixing console at FOH for its smaller footprint ( allowing more audience seats ) and its plug @-@ in audio effects . As well , the Venue mixing system was chosen for its integration with Pro Tools hardware and software , to make 128 @-@ channel hard disk recordings of the concerts directly from the three Digidesign consoles : one to mix strings , one to mix brass , reeds and percussion , and one under Jackson 's control out in the audience , with Streisand 's microphone inputs and stems ( submixes of other microphones ) from the other consoles . The recordings made in New York City and Washington , D.C. were remixed into the album Live In Concert 2006 — Jackson was listed as sound designer . Sharing sound designer and FOH mixing duties with Chris Carlton , Jackson made certain that the custom soft dome monitor wedges were positioned correctly aiming up from under the stage to cover everywhere Streisand might walk . Clair Brothers supplied 18 Dolby Lake Processors for the tour , the majority used by Jackson to tune the main sound system , and the rest for control of monitor wedges used by Streisand and by the supporting artist , Il Divo . For Streisand 's voice , Jackson auditioned several wireless microphones and ended up using a Sennheiser SKM 5200 transmitter equipped with a Neumann KK 105 S supercardioid capsule . He used the vocal microphone to test the sound system from different locations around the arena . When the tour hit the UK and continental Europe , Jackson changed from a Neumann to a Røde Microphones capsule , custom made to his requirements ; one that Røde called the " Jackson Special " . Jackson used Millennia microphone preamps for any microphone that was required to be sent to multiple mixing consoles , such as at Madison Square Garden where cable runs to the recording trucks were 800 feet ( 240 m ) long . The use of only one preamp prevents the microphone output from being loaded down by too little resistance which can change its tone quality .
= = = Other artists = = =
In addition to Presley , Springsteen and Streisand , Jackson mixed concert sound for Diana Ross , Stevie Wonder , Rod Stewart and the Faces , Barry White , Jefferson Airplane , Ozzy Osbourne , Carly Simon , Three Dog Night , The Jackson 5 , Cat Stevens , Glen Campbell , Art Garfunkel , Procol Harum and Lou Reed . During 1983 when Springsteen was not touring , Jackson mixed sound for Stevie Nicks on The Wild Heart Tour , June to November 1983 . Fourteen years later he mixed for Fleetwood Mac during their live performances recorded in Burbank for MTV , released as the album The Dance .
= = World events = =
In 1998 , Jackson was contacted by Ric Birch of the Sydney Organising Committee for the Olympic Games ( SOCOG ) to mix sound for the 2000 Summer Olympic Games in Sydney . Jackson felt that his skills would be put to best use as organiser and audio director rather than as one man behind a mixing console . He put together a team of audio professionals as well as an equipment design composed of digital nodes linked with optic fibre to transport digital audio around the largest venues without attenuation or ground hum . To wire the spectacle which played to 110 @,@ 000 people in attendance and some 3 billion distant viewers around the world , redundant systems were connected throughout so that a single failure point could not halt the show . To complete the assignment , Jackson said one of the main factors was working within budget , which was not unlimited as it had been with Streisand . He served as audio director for the opening ceremony on 15 September and the closing ceremony on 1 October . Before the event , he told a reporter , " I have a well rehearsed crew in place and there is every reason to expect it to go well . "
In December 2006 , Jackson served as audio director at the 15th Asian Games , held in Doha , Qatar . The main loudspeakers for the opening and closing ceremonies were the KUDO model from L @-@ ACOUSTICS . Jackson found that extreme heat and occasional downpours did not adversely affect the Optocore fibre audio connections around the largest venues . Digital audio was passed to a combination of Lake Contour and Dolby Lake Processors .
Following his success in Sydney , Jackson was tapped to direct the audio design and production at the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver , British Columbia , Canada , where he directed the opening ceremony and the closing ceremony . His sound design for BC Place Stadium did not have loudspeakers at ground level aimed up at the seating areas — Jackson determined that this approach would produce too much uncontrolled reverberation from sound waves bouncing off the ceiling . Instead , he configured two rings of loudspeakers hung from the ceiling 100 ft ( 30 m ) above the ground , aimed downward . The inner ring held 8 arrays each composed of 12 Clair Brothers i3 line array speakers and the outer ring held 12 arrays of 7 Clair Brothers i3 line array speakers , augmented by 16 subwoofers . The lot was powered by 160 Lab.gruppen amplifiers which were also hung from the ceiling , and were networked via Dante in a triple @-@ redundant configuration . Two DiGiCo D5 digital mixing consoles served as main and backup for the main audience sound , and two Yamaha PM1Ds handled main and backup duties for monitor mixing . Other equipment included dual @-@ redundant Optocore fibre connections , two Dolby Lake Processors , and time code generated by two pairs of Fairlights which also handled audio cues timed to the action on the field .
Jackson directed sound for the 2010 Shanghai Expo opening ceremony , held on 30 April 2010 . He used four Fairlight digital audio systems to replay music cues , connected to Studer routing and distribution gear which supplied signal to Soundcraft digital mixers and an analogue mixer . Some 64 kilometres ( 40 mi ) of fibre optic cable in a dual @-@ redundant star topology connected 72 amplifier racks along both sides of the Huangpu River . Each amp rack held a BSS Audio loudspeaker controller and multiple Crown International amplifiers , pushing audio signal to more than 400 JBL loudspeakers .
= = Digital audio = =
Beginning in 1979 between Springsteen tour dates , Jackson crisscrossed the U.S. promoting the Fairlight CMI , a digital sampler made by fellow Australians Peter Vogel and Kim Ryrie . ( Ryrie grew up in Point Piper next to Jackson 's house . ) The earliest Fairlights were prohibitively expensive , and their 24 kHz sampling rate was not considered high enough for audio mastering , but Jackson found that musicians immediately discovered how useful the Fairlight was for composition . Rick Wakeman explored the sampler , as did Tony Bongiovi , founder of the Power Station recording studio in New York City . There , Springsteen was shown the sampler and said , " Ah yeah , BJ that 's great , but what am I gonna do with it ? "
None of Jackson 's prospects bought one in the first year . He had better luck with Herbie Hancock , Stevie Wonder , and Geordie Hormel who bought two for $ 27 @,@ 500 each . Wonder , who had recently recorded Stevie Wonder 's Journey Through " The Secret Life of Plants " using a Computer Music Melodian sampler , paid for his Fairlight by signing a personal check with his thumbprint . He then convinced Jackson to mix sound for a tour he was undertaking in support of Secret Life of Plants . Jackson 's close association with Fairlight made him intimately aware of the limitations of early digital audio , " weaknesses " such as noise and inharmonic distortion .
During an April 1985 Springsteen tour leg in Japan , Jackson first listened to Compact Discs played on a CD player connected to his concert sound system , and he did not like what he heard .
= = = Apogee Electronics = = =
After finishing Springsteen 's Born in the U.S.A. tour , Jackson expressed his ideas about possible improvements to digital audio in a conversation with Christof Heidelberger , a designer of digital audio electronics , and Betty Bennett , the president of Soundcraft 's U.S. division . Jackson , Bennett and Heidelberger formed Apogee Electronics in December 1985 ( announced in the 23 November issue of Billboard ) and started investigating 44 kHz digital audio circuits for audible problems . They found that " textbook filters " which were unnecessarily steep were protecting the CD player output from high levels of 20 kHz signals , an exceedingly unlikely occurrence in music . Jackson determined that Apogee could improve the sound of CDs if the low @-@ pass filters used in the recording process were made less steep , for less phase shift throughout the hearing range . The small company produced better anti @-@ aliasing filters for recording equipment . Initially operating out of his garage , Jackson served as the company 's owner and president , and his third wife Bennett headed up sales . They demonstrated their first product at the Audio Engineering Society 's 81st convention held in Los Angeles in November 1986 : the 944 Series low @-@ dispersion , linear phase , active low @-@ pass filter , intended to replace existing filters on multi @-@ track digital tape recorders such as the Sony PCM @-@ 3324 . After a slow start , the firm sold 30 @,@ 000 of the filters : " a great success . " The 944 earned a TEC Award in 1988 , the first of many such awards for Apogee .
Apogee 's branding was largely Jackson 's doing . Bennett said in 2005 that the company 's decision to sell purple @-@ coloured products was one of Jackson 's ideas : " He has a good eye for design , and we wanted to distinguish ourselves from the all @-@ black rack gear that everybody had at that point . " Jackson encouraged a lighting designer from Clair Brothers to sketch a company logo on a cocktail napkin over dinner one evening , and that was immediately made the Apogee logo .
In 1994 , Jackson spoke to a Billboard reporter about digital audio . Described as Apogee 's president and chief engineer , he said , " digital is finally living up to the warm , natural sound of analogue that we know and love . " A decade later , he warned against the belief that bigger specification numbers guarantee better sound quality . He noted that 192 kHz sampling rate was often cited as being better than 96 kHz because of it being twice as fast " when in reality there 's a whole bunch of other influencing factors responsible for any audible improvements . "
Jackson and Bennett divorced in the mid @-@ 1990s and he sold his share of Apogee to finance the divorce settlement . Company co @-@ founder Bennett became CEO .
= = = Loudspeaker management system = = =
After leaving Apogee , Jackson entered into a joint venture with Clair Brothers to design a digital loudspeaker controller for control of complex concert sound systems . Jackson estimated that the project would cost $ 800 @,@ 000 in U.S. dollars , but it ended up costing Clair Brothers more than $ 2M . From the same garage in which he started Apogee , Jackson developed the proprietary Clair iO : a two @-@ input , six @-@ output digital audio matrix with opto @-@ isolated output circuits . An essential element of the system was its ability to be controlled by wireless tablet computer by an audio engineer walking around to various seating sections in a concert venue , to tailor the system 's response more precisely .
Jackson then joined with Dave McGrath of Lake Technology to produce a commercial version of the controller , the Lake Contour , essentially the same hardware but with different software . McGrath and Jackson acquired Clair Technologies LLC , the earlier joint venture . In turn , Dolby Laboratories bought Lake in 2004 , Jackson staying with the product line to become vice president of the live sound division at Dolby , and by 2005 the loudspeaker controller was being used by seven of the ten top concert tours ; 3 @,@ 000 units had been built . Jackson moved back to Sydney in 2005 with Terri — his fourth wife — and their children , but in November he returned to the U.S. to accept his Parnelli Innovator Award . In 2006 , the digital audio product was redesigned and introduced as the Dolby Lake Processor , capable of 4 @-@ in , 12 @-@ out operation as a loudspeaker crossover ; 8 @-@ in , 8 @-@ out operation as a system equaliser ; or a combination of 2 crossovers and 4 equalizers — the whole integrated with Smaart audio analysis software . A collaboration between Dolby and Swedish audio electronics company Lab.gruppen was announced in 2007 ; Jackson 's technology would be incorporated into Lab.gruppen 's Powered Loudspeaker Management ( PLM ) system . Two years later , Lab.gruppen acquired the Lake brand for further development of the PLM and other product lines . John Carey of Dolby said , " As we pass the live sound torch to Lab.gruppen we are confident that they will continue to innovate and evolve the technology . "
= = Pilot = =
Jackson was an avid pilot , licensed to fly from early adulthood . He flew often , for pleasure , one of the few concert audio engineers who did . In the 1970s between Presley concert dates , Jackson flew the singer 's personal jet airliner , a converted Convair 880 named Lisa Marie after Presley 's daughter . For Presley 's band rehearsals at Graceland , Jackson would fly some 800 miles ( 1 @,@ 300 km ) from Lititz to Memphis with the back of a small plane loaded with assorted mic stands , cables and monitor loudspeakers . The band would rehearse for a bit in Graceland 's racquetball court , then hang out in the Jungle Room waiting for Presley who rarely came downstairs .
A small aircraft owner , at one time Jackson operated a 1975 Grumman American AA @-@ 5B Tiger . In 1979 he sold it to his lighting company friend , Tait Towers founder Michael Tait , to pay for an earlier purchase of a more powerful aircraft , a new Mooney M20J that he registered 7 December 1978 . Jackson used the M20J to carry Fairlight samplers across the U.S. to demonstrate them to studios and musicians , once flying from New York to Los Angeles in 15 hours after he heard Herbie Hancock was interested . Interviewed in 2005 at his Sydney office , Jackson said he missed his " little plane " terribly , that it was kept in a hangar for his use whenever he visited California , surrounded by dusty boxes of audio gear and stored memorabilia . He said he had considered flying it from California to Australia but his wife was " not too keen on the idea . "
Jackson was interested in aviation developments . In mid @-@ 2010 he flew himself and a friend to Mojave Air and Space Port to see Virgin Galactic 's VSS Enterprise , a sub @-@ orbital spacecraft being glide @-@ tested .
= = = Death = = =
Jackson landed his Mooney at Furnace Creek Airport ( the lowest elevation airstrip in North America ) near the visitor center of Death Valley National Park early in the afternoon of 29 January 2011 . He had no flight plan filed . Following a brief stop he took off in clear , sunny weather bound for Santa Monica , but a few minutes later he crashed and died about 6 @.@ 5 miles ( 11 km ) south of the airfield in a dry lake bed . The wreckage was discovered by park rangers on the morning of 31 January , and was later examined by investigators who did not determine a cause for the accident . Jackson was survived by two brothers and two sisters , and by his fourth wife , Terri , their daughter Brianna , and Aja , Jackson 's stepdaughter . He was survived by his third wife Betty Bennett and their son Lindsey and daughter Alex . Jackson was survived by his second wife Ruth Davis who sang background vocals for Springsteen . He was also survived by his first wife Margaret who married him when they were both 21 years old . Margaret was with him when he started JANDS , and accompanied him to the U.S. when he went to work for Clair Brothers .
A memorial celebration of Jackson 's life was held 25 February at the Sydney Opera House . Some 500 attendees listened to remembrances and anecdotes from family members and from business colleagues such as Roy Clair and David McGrath . Prerecorded videos were played , sent from Springsteen , the band U2 , Streisand and her manager Martin Erlichman , and members of Fleetwood Mac .
= Braathens Helikopter =
Braathens Helikopter A / S was a Norwegian helicopter airline based at Stavanger Airport , Sola , and Bergen Airport , Flesland . It used a fleet of seven Aérospatiale Super Pumas to serve offshore oil platforms in the North Sea . The customers were Phillips Petroleum , Norsk Hydro , Statoil , Amoco and British Petroleum , serving their oil fields Ekofisk , Oseberg , Gullfaks , Veslefrikk , Valhall , Ula and Gyda . Braathens Helikopter operated from 1989 to 1993 , after which it was sold to and merged with the main competitor , Helikopter Service . Braathens Helikopter was owned by Ludvig G. Braathens Rederi and was a sister company of the airline Braathens SAFE .
= = Operations = =
Braathens Helikopter was a pure helicopter airline , with a main base at Stavanger Airport , Sola and a secondary base at Bergen Airport , Flesland . It operated seven Aérospatiale Super Puma helicopters , each with nineteen seats . They were used exclusively on long @-@ term contracts with oil companies to ship crews to their oil platforms in the Norwegian sector of the North Sea . The company employed at the most 120 people , was owned by Ludvig G. Braathens Rederi , and was a sister company of Braathens SAFE . The airline served seven oil fields : Ekofisk , Gullfaks , Gyda , Oseberg , Ula , Valhall , Veslefrikk . These were on contract with Amoco , British Petroleum , Norsk Hydro , Phillips Petroleum and Statoil . The company had a 30 % market share before it was sold .
= = History = =
Ludvig G. Braathens Rederi 's first attempt at entering the helicopter market was in 1982 , when it applied for a concession from the Norwegian Ministry of Transport and Communications to operate offshore helicopters , which it was awarded in 1983 . As a protest , the incumbent Helikopter Service applied for the airline routes that Braathens SAFE operated from Stavanger , but this application was rejected .
The airline was not founded until 1 September 1989 , after Ludvig G. Braathens Rederi , the owner of Braathens SAFE , made an agreement with the oil companies Phillips Petroleum , Norsk Hydro and Statoil . The agreement involved flights to the platforms Ekofisk , Oseberg , Gullfaks og Veslefrikk . Prior to this , Helikopter Service had held a monopoly on flights for the oil companies to their offshore installations . The oil companies wanted to establish a competitor to Helikopter Service to press down prices . The initial agreement gave a revenue of NOK 800 million and gave the new company a 20 % market share . Four 19 @-@ seat Aérospatiale Super Puma helicopters were ordered , each costing NOK 60 million . Total investment costs were NOK 300 million . Two helicopters were stationed at Stavanger Airport , Sola , and two at Bergen Airport , Flesland .
Bjarne Sortland was appointed managing director . The first helicopter was delivered in May , with a new helicopter being delivered each month . They were named Havsulen , Havhesten , Havørn and Havsvale . Owner Bjørn G. Braathen stated that his goal was that the airline would reach a 50 % market share . In 1990 , another challenger , Mørefly , had also established themselves in the market . For the start of operations , Braathens Helikopter hired 22 pilots , most of them previously working for the Royal Norwegian Air Force . The company had 70 employees in total . Services started on 1 September 1990 , where the initial contract involved flying 10 @,@ 000 passengers per year .
In January 1991 , the company placed an order and an option for the Super Puma . In June , Braathens Helikopter signed a three @-@ year agreement , with an option for a two @-@ year extension , with Amoco for flights from Stavanger to Valhall . The revenue was between NOK 100 and 200 million , depending on the length of the contract and the capacity needed . Operations started in February 1992 , and involved the company purchasing the Super Puma they had an option for . On 10 September , Braathens Helikopter was awarded the contract with British Petroleum for flights from Stavanger to Ula and Gyda . The contract gave a revenue of up to NOK 300 million in the course five years . Operations started on 1 November 1992 , and involved about 2 @,@ 000 hours of flying per year . With this contract , Braathens Helikopter had about a 30 % market share . As a consequence of the contract , Braathens purchased another Super Puma . After operations started , the company had grown to 120 employees and was the second @-@ largest helicopter operator in the country . The company made a profit of NOK 14 million in 1991 , NOK 11 million in 1992 and NOK 23 million in the seven first months of 1993 .
In 1993 , Norway decided to allow any airline from the European Economic Area to operate helicopter services in Norway from 1995 . This meant that companies like Bristow Group , KLM and Maersk Air could start operation in Norway . This would be coordinated through common technical rules for helicopters through the Joint Aviation Authorities . Braathens Helikopter and Helikopter Service announced on 1 October 1993 that the two companies would merge from 1 January 1994 . Ludvig G. Braathens Rederi would be paid NOK 225 million in Helikopter Service shares . The Norwegian Competition Authority stated they would have to look at the merger , since the new company would have a near @-@ monopoly on offshore flights . However , the Ministry of Transport and Communications stated that the authority could not hinder the merger , because by the time new contracts were awarded in 1995 , helicopter operators from foreign countries would also be allowed to bid . The ownership of Braathens Helikopter was transferred to Helikopter Service on 14 December . Ludvig G. Braathens Rederi received 14 % of the shares in the merged company . They were immediately sold , giving Ludvig G. Braathens Rederi a NOK 170 million profit on the five @-@ year venture . Ludvig G. Braathens Rederi needed the capital to participate in an initial public offering of Braathens . Most of the management of Braathens Helikopter was hired at the newly established competitor United Helicopter , a joint venture between Bristow Helicopters , Leif Höegh & Co and Andreas Ugland & Sønn .
= = Destinations = =
The following is a list of Braathens Helikoper 's destinations . It includes the name of the location or platform , the aerodrome 's ICAO and IATA codes and name .
= Night of the Long Knives =
The Night of the Long Knives ( German : Nacht der langen Messer , also called Operation Hummingbird or , in Germany , the Röhm Putsch ( German spelling : Röhm @-@ Putsch ) , or sometimes mockingly Reich Murder Week ( Reichsmordwoche ) ) , was a purge that took place in Nazi Germany from June 30 to July 2 , 1934 , when the Nazi regime carried out a series of political extra @-@ judicial executions intended to consolidate Hitler 's absolute hold on power in Germany . Many of those killed were leaders of the Sturmabteilung ( SA ) , the Nazis ' own paramilitary Brownshirts organization ; the best @-@ known victim was Ernst Röhm , the SA 's leader and one of Hitler 's longtime supporters and allies . Leading members of the left @-@ wing Strasserist faction of the Nazi Party ( NSDAP ) , along with its figurehead , Gregor Strasser , were also killed , as were prominent conservative anti @-@ Nazis ( such as former Chancellor Kurt von Schleicher and Gustav Ritter von Kahr , who had suppressed Adolf Hitler 's Beer Hall Putsch in 1923 ) .
Hitler moved against the SA and its leader , Ernst Röhm because he saw the independence of the SA and the penchant of its members for street violence as a direct threat to his newly gained political power . Hitler also wanted to conciliate leaders of the Reichswehr , the official German military who feared and despised the SA — in particular Röhm 's ambition to absorb the Reichswehr into the SA under his own leadership . Additionally , Hitler was uncomfortable with Röhm 's outspoken support for a " second revolution " to redistribute wealth ( in Röhm 's view , President Hindenburg 's appointing of Hitler as German Chancellor on January 30 , 1933 had accomplished the " nationalistic " revolution but had left unfulfilled the " socialistic " motive in National Socialism ) . Finally , Hitler used the purge to attack or eliminate critics of his new regime , especially those loyal to Vice @-@ Chancellor Franz von Papen , as well as to settle scores with old enemies .
At least 85 people died during the purge , although the final death toll may have been in the hundreds , and more than a thousand perceived opponents were arrested . Most of the killings were carried out by the Schutzstaffel ( SS ) and the Gestapo ( Geheime Staatspolizei ) , the regime 's secret police . The purge strengthened and consolidated the support of the Reichswehr for Hitler . It also provided a legal grounding for the Nazi regime , as the German courts and cabinet quickly swept aside centuries of legal prohibition against extra @-@ judicial killings to demonstrate their loyalty to the regime . The Night of the Long Knives was a turning point for the German government . It established Hitler as " the supreme judge of the German people , " as he put it in his July 13 , 1934 speech to the Reichstag .
Before its execution , its planners sometimes referred to it as Hummingbird ( German : Kolibri ) , the codeword used to send the execution squads into action on the day of the purge . The codename for the operation appears to have been chosen arbitrarily . The phrase " Night of the Long Knives " in the German language predates the massacre itself and refers generally to acts of vengeance . Germans still use the term Röhm @-@ Putsch to describe the murders , the term given to it by the Nazi regime , despite its unproven implication that the murders were necessary to prevent a coup . German authors often use quotation marks or write about the sogenannter Röhm @-@ Putsch ( " so @-@ called Röhm Putsch " ) for emphasis .
= = Hitler and the Sturmabteilung ( SA ) = =
President Paul von Hindenburg appointed Hitler Chancellor on January 30 , 1933 . Over the next few months , during the so @-@ called Gleichschaltung , Hitler dispensed with the need for the Reichstag as a legislative body and eliminated all rival political parties in Germany , so that by the middle of 1933 the country had become a one @-@ party state under his direction and control . Hitler did not exercise absolute power , however , despite his swift consolidation of political authority . As chancellor , Hitler did not command the army , which remained under the formal leadership of Hindenburg , a highly respected veteran field marshal . While many officers were impressed by Hitler '
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in the first teaser trailer . The parting shot showed Madonna running around the room and posing in front of the windows overlooking New York . Other scenes included Madonna chatting with Ora and Rock in @-@ between takes , sitting in the hallways , plunging towards the neon sock puppets multiple times as well as singing the song with the little girls from the beginning of the video . Another video set to Kleinenberg 's remix featured further footage of Madonna dancing and more casual scenes featuring the guest stars .
= = = Reception and analysis = = =
Jason Lipshutz from Billboard wrote an article about why the video was an important release for Madonna . He felt that although the Rebel Heart era had received more promotion than the previous MDNA era , the commercial returns had been diminishing . The first two singles , " Living for Love " and " Ghosttown " , failed to chart on the Billboard Hot 100 , making it the first Madonna album without a Hot 100 single , until " Bitch I 'm Madonna " debuted at number 84 . The video , Lipshutz theorized , was Madonna 's attempt to bring back an audience for the whole era . Joe Lynch from the same magazine called the video an " embarrassment of star power " , adding that it " has everything : Miley 's middle fingers , Madonna kissing a shirtless hunk , topless women in a bathtub , break @-@ dancing , sock puppets singing , Moschino fashion and much more " . Brennan Carly from Spin believed that the " grandeur and ambition " of the clip made it comparable to Madonna 's music videos for " Hung Up " ( 2005 ) and " Living for Love " .
Kevin O 'Donnell from Entertainment Weekly said that although " [ a ] nytime Madonna announces a new video , it 's a global event . And it 's no different with [ ' Bitch I 'm Madonna ' ] " , he called it " her most bonkers video in years " . Hicks from the San Jose Mercury News was impressed with the video , but felt Madonna could have done it without the guest appearances . Emilee Linder from MTV News observed that the video was completely different from the one released by Swift , but described it as " action @-@ packed " in a different way , that of portraying a party . Daniel Kreps from Rolling Stone declared that with the release of " Bitch I 'm Madonna , " The age of blockbuster all @-@ star music videos are upon us " . Both Nolan Feeney from Time and August Brown from Los Angeles Times noted that Madonna was able to successfully bring together her music industry peers in one video .
Christopher Rosa from VH1 criticized the fact that none of the female singers ( apart from Rita Ora ) including Minaj , were actually present on set during shooting of the video ; their parts were filmed separately . He added that it was " pretty hilarious . Madge 's clip is called , ' Bitch I 'm Madonna ' , but why couldn 't she get these youths to show the eff up ? " Writing for Life & Style magazine , Chantal Waldholtz was disappointed with the clip , calling it " lackluster " due to the short cameo appearances . Kevin Fallon from The Daily Beast called the video " pathetic and sad " and questioned the inclusion of guest stars like Swift 's video , ultimately describing the whole affair as " absolutely pointless . At worst , it 's desperate . At best , it 's just dumb ... [ The video ] is a fascinating mix of impressive and sad , both aggressively relevant and therefore wholly irrelevant at the same time . " He ended the review with one compliment about the single take in which the video was shot , comparing it to the 2014 black comedy film Birdman .
Bernard Zuel from The Sydney Morning Herald spoke about the problems with the release to Tidal , saying " Apologies , embarrassment and another social media fail : is this already a new low water mark for Madonna and Tidal only weeks after it began operating ? " He criticized Madonna 's team for not being able to release the video smoothly , while also noting that negative feedback given to the video included " Madonna 's age , sexually charged performances , [ and ] need to shock " . Tshepo Mokoena from The Guardian considered the cameos as more of " slapdash than slick " , appearing as " flat and glossily detached " . Time magazine listed the music video at number 8 on their ranking of the " Top 10 Pop Music Videos " , describing it as " nuts as its croaking bass drop " .
= = Live performances = =
Madonna performed " Bitch I 'm Madonna " during her appearance on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon on April 9 , 2015 . She adorned herself in a black jacket covered with gold dollar symbols and a number of gold chains around her neck . The performance began with Madonna in the backstage where she put finishing touches to her make @-@ up , then entered Diplo 's dressing room where he was having a party surrounded by women . Madonna did a dance routine in the hallway where her son Rocco appeared mouthing the chorus . The singer and her troupe then moved into the studio area where the audience was present . Energetic dancing continued with Madonna straddling one member of the audience at one point . Still photos of Minaj were projected on video screens with Diplo DJing on a console . Madonna also climbed atop Fallon 's desk and made him sing the chorus line . The performance ended with another energetic dance routine and crumping .
Biance Gracie from Idolator gave a positive review to the performance , saying that " Instead of doing her usual bit of either singing ' Living for Love ' or the current single ' Ghosttown ' , the entertainer decided to switch things up a bit — and we 're so glad [ she ] did ! Madge did a wild and super @-@ fun version of ' Bitch I 'm Madonna ' . " The Hollywood Reporter listed the performance as one of the top five shocking moments by Madonna in 2015 . Stereogum 's Caitlin White was amazed by Madonna 's performance , saying that " the fact that she can dance like ... this at 56 is practically a superhuman feat , and I was surprised by how much I enjoyed the performance . " Bradley Stern also wrote a similar review for MuuMuse , describing the performance as " one of the most all @-@ out insane television performances of the entire Rebel Heart era ... This was no basic stage performance : Instead , Madonna brought her noisy , bratty and utterly # Unapologetic banger to life . "
On the Rebel Heart Tour ( 2015 – 16 ) , the song was the second performance on the set list , during the first segment . For the first section , inspired by the Rebel Heart album cover art and Joan of Arc , costume designer Arianne Phillips had created a series of costumes referencing liturgical fabrics and a contemporary exhibition of samurai armor at the Los Angeles County Museum of Art . As the theatrical performance of opening number " Iconic " concluded , Madonna was joined onstage by her female dancers wearing geisha inspired costumes . They started performing the song while holding Japanese war fans . Minaj appeared on the backdrops rapping her verses , aided by " shuddering " bass sounds .
= = Track listings and formats = =
Digital download ( Album Version )
" Bitch I 'm Madonna " ( featuring Nicki Minaj ) – 3 : 47
Digital download ( Clean )
" B * * * * I 'm Madonna " ( featuring Nicki Minaj ) – 3 : 47
Digital download ( Remixes )
" Bitch I 'm Madonna " ( Fedde le Grand Remix ) – 3 : 55
" Bitch I 'm Madonna " ( Rosabel 's Bitch Move Mix ) – 7 : 05
" Bitch I 'm Madonna " ( Sander Kleinenberg Remix ) – 4 : 58
" Bitch I 'm Madonna " ( Junior Sanchez Remix ) – 5 : 10
" Bitch I 'm Madonna " ( Oscar G 305 Dub ) – 8 : 44
" Bitch I 'm Madonna " ( Sick Individuals Remix ) – 5 : 07
" Bitch I 'm Madonna " ( Dirty Pop Remix ) – 5 : 11
" Bitch I 'm Madonna " ( Flechette Remix ) – 3 : 21
" Bitch I 'm Madonna " ( Oscar G Bitch Beats ) – 8 : 44
" Bitch I 'm Madonna " ( Rosabel 's Bitch Move Dub ) – 7 : 35
= = Credits and personnel = =
Management
Webo Girl Publishing , Inc . ( ASCAP ) / Songs Music Publishing , LLC on behalf of " I Like Turtles " Music
Songs of SMP ( ASCAP ) / Lion of God Publishing Co . ( ASCAP ) c / o Kobalt Songs Music Publishing / EMI April Music , Inc. and MoZella Mo Music ( ASCAP ) / Atlas Music Publishing on behalf of itself and Gadfly Songs ( ASCAP )
Songs of Universal , Inc . ( BMI ) on behalf of itself and Harajuku Barbie Music ( BMI ) / Brill Building Songs ( ASCAP ) c / o Kobalt Songs Music Publishing
Nicki Minaj appears courtesy of Young Money Entertainment / Cash Money Records
Personnel
Personnel adapted from Madonna 's official website .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Mother ( 1910 film ) =
Mother is a 1910 American silent short drama produced by the Thanhouser Company . The film is a melodrama that focuses with Will Allen who runs away from home after being violently abused by his stepfather and his mother keeps a candle lit for him to return home . Twenty years later , Will returns home after having become a successful lawyer , but cannot find his parents . Will later takes the case to defend a lady being prosecuted by a client company . After being successful he recognizes the lady as his mother and they are reunited . The film 's cast included Anna Rosemond , Frank H. Crane and Carey L. Hastings , but other credits are uncertain . The film was released on September 6 , 1910 , and was met with mixed reviews . The film is presumed lost .
= = Plot = =
Though the film is presumed lost , a synopsis survives in The Moving Picture World from September 10 , 1910 . It states : " The play deals with Will Allen , a country lad , who is unhappy at home , owing to the fact that he is a studious little chap and prefers his books to farm work , which incurs the displeasure and enmity of his stepfather , a rough and surly farmer , to whom book learning does not appeal . Will runs away from home , and although his mother keeps a light in the window , hoping to guide her boy home , he never returns . Twenty years later , when the boy has made a place for himself in the world as a successful lawyer , he goes back to the farm , only to find that his little mother , who has been left a widow , has gone away , whither , no one knows . The mother , in the meantime , being left alone in the world , goes to the city and there supports herself by dressmaking . While shopping in a department store she is unjustly accused of shoplifting . The only person who believes in her innocence is a salesgirl , who is discharged for her presumption and daring to correct her superiors . The girl , in her efforts to help the friendless old lady , enlists the aid of Will , whom she knows to be a lawyer of great ability . Will is about to refuse the case , as the dry goods company is a client of his , when the girl describes the lonely old lady , and begs him for the sake of his mother to befriend her . Will consents . Will 's clear statement of the case to the judge , together with May 's testimony , frees the mother . When her counsel approaches to offer his congratulations , mutual recognition results . "
= = Cast = =
Anna Rosemond
Frank H. Crane
Carey L. Hastings
= = Production = =
The writer of the scenario is unknown , but it was most likely Lloyd Lonergan . He was an experienced newspaperman employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions . The plot of the production was criticized by a film reviewer The New York Dramatic Mirror because the boy grows up unaware that his stepfather had died or that her mother had moved to the city in search of work . The reviewer states , " One would think that he would have kept in communication with his mother if he loved her so much , but it appears he did not ... " The film director is unknown , but it may have been Barry O 'Neil . Film historian Q. David Bowers does not attribute a cameraman for this production , but at least two possible candidates exist . Blair Smith was the first cameraman of the Thanhouser company , but he was soon joined by Carl Louis Gregory who had years of experience as a still and motion picture photographer . The role of the cameraman was uncredited in 1910 productions . The cast includes both Anna Rosemond and Frank H. Crane , two early leading actors of the Thanhouser Company . Carey L. Hastings , real name Carey Tidball , was a sister of Gertrude Thanhouser and was an actress that was featured in numerous Thanhouser productions . Hastings first and earliest known work was Thanhouser 's St. Elmo adaptation . Hastings would not have another known credit until 1912 . The Silent Era website states that Harry Benham and Maude Fealy had roles in the production . However , both of these credits are well @-@ before those attributed by Bowers . Harry Benham is known to have joined the Thanhouser Company in 1910 , but the first credit cited by Bowers is The Old Curiosity Shop in January 1911 . Bowers also cites Maude Fealy having made only intermittent appearances with the first being The Early Life of David Copperfield in October 1911 . Other credits amongst the cast are unknown , but most of the credits are fragmentary for 1910 Thanhouser productions .
= = Release and reception = =
The single reel drama , approximately 975 feet long , was released on September 6 , 1910 . The film was distributed by the Motion Picture Distributing and Sales Company . Once the film was released , it was sometimes listed ambiguously for other productions bearing the same name . One ambiguous listing , most likely for the Thanhouser film , was made by the Crystal Theatre in Hutchinson , Kansas . Known theaters advertising the film , unambiguously , are noted in Indiana and Arizona . A reviewer of The Moving Picture World wrote , " [ The film is a ] little domestic tragedy which shows how boys are sometimes driven from home and what results from it . ... It is a picture that goes direct to the heart and makes one put himself in the place of all the characters . Perhaps that magic word , mother , is the key to the whole situation . " The New York Dramatic Mirror took issue with the depiction of the step father 's violent abuse of the young son and found the melodrama to be one " with an ending that appeals to the sympathies " .
= San Marco ( Jacksonville ) =
San Marco is a neighborhood of Jacksonville , Florida , located south of Downtown across the St. Johns River . The neighborhood was formerly the independent city of South Jacksonville until it was annexed by Jacksonville in 1932 . The neighborhood is primarily residential , with an integrated commercial sector known as San Marco Square .
The South Jacksonville community emerged after the American Civil War and incorporated in 1907 . It saw its greatest growth after the Acosta Bridge was completed in 1921 , connecting the neighborhood to Downtown Jacksonville . This period included the construction of the original San Marco development , which eventually gave its name to the area as a whole . Since the 1990s , the neighborhood has seen several historic preservation and redevelopment projects . It is home to fourteen city parks , several schools and other amenities .
= = Geography = =
" San Marco " originally designated only one development within South Jacksonville , but the name is now used for much of the former city 's territory , south and east of the St. Johns River across from downtown Jacksonville . The place name " South Jacksonville " or Southside has similarly evolved , and now signifies a much larger area of southeastern Duval County . The neighborhood 's borders are not official and have changed over time . The boundaries used by the San Marco Preservation Society are Interstate 95 to the north , Philips Highway to the east , Greenridge Road to the south , and the St. Johns River to the west . The area along the riverbank north of I @-@ 95 , known as the Southbank , was historically part of the community but was designated part of the downtown Jacksonville business district in the 1980s . Notable neighborhoods within San Marco include Colonial Manor and South Riverside . The St. Nicholas neighborhood is immediately to the east of San Marco .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
Permanent habitation on this part of the St. Johns River came only during Florida 's British period , when officials established a ferry crossing at the Cow Ford in 1760 . The ferry docked on the river 's southern bank , which was thus populated continuously long before what is now downtown Jacksonville . When the Spanish resumed control of Florida in 1783 they built Fort San Nicolas beside the ferry landing in present @-@ day St. Nicholas . In 1793 the Spanish government issued a land grant for a slave plantation , which was eventually taken over by Isaac Hendricks . By 1850 , Hendricks had married Elizabeth Hudnall , who owned a large adjacent tract , and his daughter Margaret married Albert Gallatin Philips , owner of the nearby Red Bank Plantation ; as a result much of the area was owned by families connected to each other by marriage .
After the American Civil War , the plantations were broken up for residential developments . In 1873 Elizabeth Hendricks sold the eastern part of the Hendricks @-@ Hudnall tract to retiring Florida governor Harrison Reed , who moved there and established the original South Jacksonville development . In 1882 , Hendricks developed the western portion of her land as " Oklahoma " . South of Oklahoma , Harrison Reed 's sister Martha Reed Mitchell and her husband Alexander established the vast estate of Alexandria as a winter home . Martha Mitchell became a prominent fixture in Jacksonville society , involved in a number of charities and causes . By 1900 the developments had grown into a community generally known as " South Jacksonville " .
= = = South Jacksonville = = =
Promoters marketed South Jacksonville as a suburb of Jacksonville , though access to the city across the river was limited to ferries . Following the completion of the FEC Railway Bridge in 1890 , several railways serviced South Jacksonville , contributing to its growth . By 1907 South Jacksonville was a regional transit hub with a population of around 600 , though it still lacked paved streets , sidewalks , and electric lights . Led by businessman John Fletcher White and the Hendricks and Philips families , residents voted to incorporate the town . S. M. Scruggs was appointed its first mayor ; White defeated him in the inaugural election six months after .
Growth came rapidly over the next few years as the town saw the construction of a bank , a public school , a city hall , several sizable industries and a series of amusement parks at present @-@ day Treaty Oak Park . In 1910 Atlantic Boulevard opened between South Jacksonville and the Jacksonville Beaches , further cementing South Jacksonville 's place as a hub for car and ferry traffic . By 1917 the town 's population was ten times what it had been when it was incorporated , so local leaders planned the original Acosta Bridge , connecting Jacksonville and South Jacksonville by road for the first time .
The bridge opened in 1921 and spurred a new wave of development in South Jacksonville . New subdivisions were platted in Oklahoma and Villa Alexandria , including South Shores , Alexandria Place , River Oaks , and the original San Marco development , while the old Red Bank plantation became South Riverside and Colonial Manor . The 1857 the Red Bank Plantation House became a residence in the Colonial Manor neighborhood that grew around it ; it is Jacksonville 's second oldest residential building still in use . The bridge triggered economic development in South Jacksonville as well , though it greatly reduced the ferry business , which disappeared entirely within twenty years .
= = = San Marco development = = =
San Marco , which eventually gave its name to the former area of South Jacksonville , broke ground in 1925 as the city 's most ambitious development . It was constructed over 80 acres of the former Villa Alexandria estate , which had deteriorated after Martha Reed Mitchell 's death in 1902 . The developer was Telfair Stockton , who had previously established the exclusive Avondale neighborhood on the other side of the river . San Marco , designed as a fashionable , upscale development in keeping with Villa Alexandria 's reputation , comprised 250 lots and a commercial district . It was remarkably successful from the beginning ; apparently driven by land speculation , San Marco shattered local records by selling every lot within three hours of putting them up for sale , even though very little work had begun .
Construction on the first buildings started in 1926 . San Marco was originally planned in the Italian Renaissance revival style , which influenced the name of the development and several of its streets . The commercial district was called " San Marco Square " after Venice 's Piazza San Marco , and featured several Mediterranean buildings and a fountain . Ultimately , however , few of the homes built there kept to the style , which was falling out of favor at the time . Instead , a diverse mix of contemporary architectural styles appeared in the development in the late 1920s . A former clay pit was landscaped into an artificial lake , Lake Marco .
Unlike most of Jacksonville 's neighborhoods , San Marco 's momentum and profusion of desirable properties carried it through the collapse of the 1920s Florida land boom and the onset of the Great Depression . While other neighborhoods faltered in the downturn , in 1929 Telfair Stockton formed a company to purchase and develop the remainder of the former Villa Alexandria property as the " First Addition to San Marco " . San Marco grew steadily through the 1930s , with new lots selling into the 1940s .
= = = Annexation and later history = = =
By 1931 , many Duval County residents were warming to the idea of merging municipal and county governments to reduce bureaucracy , corruption and weak management . As a result , in 1932 , citizens of both cities voted for the annexation of South Jacksonville into Jacksonville . While full city @-@ county consolidation was voted down , the efforts of the 1930s set the stage for further attempts , ultimately resulting in the 1968 Jacksonville Consolidation .
In 1937 , Jacksonville annexed the neighborhoods on the old Red Bank property . As development continued to spread south of the city limits , much of the former city of South Jacksonville came to be called " San Marco " . The area was increasingly integrated into Jacksonville 's urban fabric , and in the 1980s the area along the St. Johns River , known as the Southbank , was designated part of the Downtown Jacksonville central business district and was developed primarily for commercial office uses . Meanwhile , the neighborhood began to decline under the pressure of suburban sprawl . In 1975 , the San Marco Preservation Society ( SMPS ) was formed to encourage historic preservation and to revitalize the commercial district . Subsequently , the society and the City of Jacksonville undertook a series of urban renewal projects , including renovating San Marco Square , building a new branch library and park complex , and converting the former South Jacksonville City Hall as the SMPS headquarters .
= = San Marco Square = =
San Marco Square is the neighborhood 's major commercial district . The triangular district is located at the three @-@ way juncture of Atlantic Boulevard , Hendricks Avenue and San Marco Boulevard ; a tiered fountain at the center of the square originally marked the convergence of these streets . The San Marco Building , a Mediterranean Revival structure completed in 1927 , was the district 's first commercial building and set its architectural tone . Other features of the square include the San Marco Theatre , an art deco single @-@ screen movie theater first opened in 1938 ; and the Little Theatre , home to Theatre Jacksonville , one of the country 's oldest community theater troupes .
Designed as the commercial heart of San Marco , the square had declined seriously by the 1970s , with many businesses closing . The original , compass @-@ themed fountain was demolished . In the 1990s the City of Jacksonville undertook a major renovation and streetscaping project , which included restoring the fountain with three lion statues inspired by the Piazza San Marco . Since then , the square has become a popular commercial destination with many shops , restaurants and bars . In 2013 the square underwent another renovation project that rerouted the streets and expanded the small park in the center , named Balis Park , into a larger pedestrian green space .
= = Features = =
San Marco has a number of parks of various sizes and purposes ; the San Marco Preservation Society lists fourteen within its boundaries . There are two more in the Southbank : Treaty Oak Park , home of one of Jacksonville 's oldest live oaks , and Friendship Fountain Park . Other amenities on the Southbank include the Museum of Science and History ( MOSH ) and the Southbank Riverwalk . San Marco is served by an elementary school , a middle school , and the Southside Branch Public Library . Two major projects of the San Marco Preservation Society have been the restoration of the former South Jacksonville City Hall as the society 's headquarters and the conversion of the former St. Paul 's Episcopal Church building into Preservation Hall , a reservable banquet hall .
= Newfoundland pony =
The Newfoundland pony is a breed of pony originating in Newfoundland , Canada . They are sturdy and muscular ponies , found in many colors , including the relatively rare white coloration . The Newfoundland developed from a mix of English , Irish and Scottish pony breeds brought to Newfoundland by settlers over a period of four centuries . Initially free @-@ roaming , they crossbred to produce the modern type . They were used by settlers as draft and multi @-@ purpose ponies until the mid @-@ 20th century , when they were brought almost to the point of extinction by mechanization and slaughter . The population rebounded slightly after the formation of a breed registry in 1980 , but still remains low . In 1997 , the Newfoundland pony was declared a heritage breed of Newfoundland and Labrador , which afforded it protection under the law , but the breed has not yet been recognized under the Canadian federal Animal Pedigree Act . As of 2008 , there were 248 registered ponies of breeding age , out of a total population of 361 . In 2013 , the widely dispersed breeding population is still estimated at between 200 and 250 animals .
= = Physical Characteristics = =
Newfoundland ponies are usually 11 to 14 @.@ 2 hands ( 44 to 58 inches , 112 to 147 cm ) tall and weight 400 to 800 pounds ( 180 to 360 kg ) . They are often black , bay or brown in color . Roan , chestnut , gray and dun are also seen . White coloration is occasionally found in the breed , though white in horses is very rare . Gray horses , whose hair coats become white as they age , are much more common . Grays are born dark colored with dark skin and lighten in color as they age , retaining the dark skin . White horses are born and remain white in color , and have pink skin . Pinto color patterns are not eligible for registration . White markings are minimal , and seasonal color changes are often drastic .
The head is small , with thickly @-@ furred ears that are small and quite pointed at the tips . Overall , the body is stocky and muscular , with a deep , narrow chest , short back , sloping croup and low @-@ set tail . The coat and mane are thick , especially in winter . In order to be registered with the Newfoundland Pony Society , ponies must " [ have ] a good temperament and [ be ] docile and easy to work with . " They are generally used as family horses for pleasure riding and driving , although they are also seen at horse shows .
= = History = =
The ancestors of the Newfoundland pony arrived in Newfoundland from the British Isles , brought there by settlers between 1611 and the mid @-@ 1900s . Dartmoor ponies formed the initial shipment , imported by John Guy , the first Proprietary Governor of Newfoundland . Lord Falkland imported additional animals soon after , and these were followed by a spate of pony shipments from England , Ireland and Scotland . Additional breeds found in the shipments included the now @-@ extinct Galloway pony , as well as Connemara , Dartmoor , Exmoor , Fell , Highland and New Forest ponies . Beginning with the first imports , the breeds crossbred , eventually forming the modern Newfoundland pony .
In the past , the Newfoundland pony was used for ploughing , assisting with gardens , hauling kelp from the beaches , gathering hay , and carrying wood , and they were also used for transportation . They were successfully used and bred to withstand the hard climate , and by 1935 there were over 9 @,@ 000 ponies on the island . During the mid @-@ 20th century , however , increasing mechanization and a ban on free @-@ roaming ponies contributed to a decline in the population , and increased exports to France for horse meat in the 1970s almost led to the extinction of the breed .
Shortly before the breed would have become extinct , several interested breeders came together and formed the Newfoundland Pony Society in 1980 . The group was formed to gather the remaining free @-@ roaming herds , register the horses and breed them in captivity , and was successful in locating around 300 animals . In 1997 , the Government of Newfoundland and Labrador passed the Heritage Animals Act , which made the Newfoundland pony the first ( and , so far , only ) heritage animal of Newfoundland and Labrador . A subsequent order designated the Newfoundland Pony Society as " the group which will maintain the registry of ponies and otherwise act for the preservation of the animal . " In part , this Act required anyone wishing to export ponies from Newfoundland to first acquire a permit ; this ensured that ponies were going to private homes instead of slaughterhouses . Also in 1997 , the Newfoundland Pony Breed Association was formed . This group sought to have the Newfoundland pony recognized under the Canadian Animal Pedigree Act , which may have given it additional protection and recognition . In March 2014 , the Newfoundland Pony Society stated that they believed the breed should not have federal recognition , believing that the " federal act is meant for farm stock and breeding animals " , not heritage breeds . Members of the society also fear that protection of the breed may be lessened under federal law when compared with current provincial regulations . However , the provincial government will make the final decision on whether to move forward with the process for federal recognition .
In a study of mitochondrial DNA published in 2012 , the Newfoundland pony and Canadian horse were found to be the most genetically diverse of the Canadian breeds studied , which also included the Sable Island horse and the Lac La Croix pony . When an estimation was made using microsatellite loci , the Newfoundland was found to have high autosomal diversity and a high number of haplotypes , some of which overlapped with the mountain and moorland pony breeds ( historically documented as the ancestors of the Newfoundland ) , Nordic breeds and a feral population at Saint @-@ Pierre et Miquelon . Overlapping haplotypes also suggested a relationship with the Standardbred and Clydesdale , suggesting possible crossbreeding at some point , although previous studies using microsatellite markers had not come to this conclusion . Although the microsatellite loci showed a relationship between the Newfoundland and the Sable Island horse , the study did not find overlapping haplotypes that would support this , possibly due to the population bottleneck in the 1980s that may have resulted in such haplotypes being lost . In order to be registered with the Newfoundland Pony Society , ponies must undergo DNA testing to verify Newfoundland parentage .
In 2011 , The Livestock Conservancy ( TLC ) added the Newfoundland pony to their Conservation Priority List in the " study " category , as it worked to verify the breed 's history and population numbers . In 2012 , with studies completed , the breed was moved to the " critical " category , meaning that the breed has a global population of less than 2 @,@ 000 and annual registrations in the US of less than 200 . Rare Breeds Canada also considers the breed critically endangered , with fewer than 15 annual registrations of purebred female breeding stock . As of 2008 , there were 248 registered ponies of breeding age , out of a total registered population of 361 ponies . The largest populations were in the provinces of Newfoundland and Labrador and Ontario , with smaller populations in seven other Canadian provinces and the United States . As of 2013 , TLC estimates that the widely dispersed breeding population consists of between 200 and 250 ponies .
= HMS Brilliant ( 1757 ) =
HMS Brilliant was a 36 @-@ gun Venus @-@ class fifth @-@ rate frigate of the Royal Navy which saw active service during the Seven Years ' War with France .
Designed in 1756 and launched the following year , she was one of the first Royal Navy vessels to be built to a classic frigate design with a single gun deck and an emphasis on speed . Her principal focus was as a hunter of French privateers , capturing eight such vessels and sinking two more during her six years at sea . She also performed well against the regular French Navy in the 1760 Battle of Bishops Court and the 1761 Battle of Cape Finisterre , but was less capable when deployed for bombardment duty off enemy ports . Decommissioned in 1763 , she was sold thirteen years later to the East India Company but was wrecked in the Comoros Islands in 1782 .
One naval historian has described Brilliant as one of " the best British fighting cruisers " of her day . However she remained slightly inferior to her French equivalents in both speed and weight of ordinance , and was the last ship to be built to the Venus @-@ class design .
= = Construction = =
The Venus @-@ class of 36 @-@ gun frigates were designed by Thomas Slade , the Surveyor of the Navy and former Master Shipwright at Deptford Dockyard . Alongside their smaller cousin , the 32 @-@ gun Southampton class , the Venus @-@ class represented an experiment in ship design ; fast , medium @-@ sized and heavily @-@ armed , capable of overhauling smaller craft and singlehandedly engaging enemy cruisers or large privateers . As a further innovation , Slade borrowed from contemporary French ship design by removing the lower deck gun ports and locating the ship 's cannons solely on the upper deck . This permitted the carrying of heavier ordinance without a substantial increase in hull size which would have been required to keep the lower gun ports consistently above the waterline . The lower deck was instead used for additional stores , enabling Venus @-@ class frigates to remain at sea for longer periods without resupply .
Admiralty approved the Venus class design on 13 July 1756 and three ships were ordered . Brilliant was the last of these , and the only one to be constructed at Plymouth Dockyard . Construction was overseen by Thomas Bucknall , the Navy 's Master Shipwright at Plymouth , and commenced with the laying of the keel on 28 August 1756 . The vessel was formally named Brilliant on 17 March 1757 . A 1755 Admiralty review of Plymouth Dockyard had found it inefficient , poorly staffed and suffering from " notorious neglect , " but work on Brilliant proceeded apace and was completed by early October 1757 .
As built , Brilliant was 128 feet 4 inches ( 39 @.@ 12 m ) long at the gundeck and 106 feet 2 @.@ 625 inches ( 32 @.@ 38 m ) at the keel with a beam of 35 feet 8 inches ( 10 @.@ 87 m ) . She was a full @-@ rigged ship and measured 38 ⁄ 94 tons ( bm ) . She was equipped with three ship 's boats , a 23 ft ( 7 @.@ 0 m ) longboat , a 30 ft ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) pinnace and a 24 ft ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) yawl . Her crew complement was 240 officers and men .
= = = Armament = = =
Brilliant 's principal armament was 26 iron @-@ cast twelve @-@ pound cannons , located along her upper deck . The guns were constructed with shorter barrels as traditional twelve @-@ pound cannons were too long to fit within the frigate 's narrow beam . Each cannon weighed 28 @.@ 5 long cwt ( 3 @,@ 200 lb or 1 @,@ 400 kg ) with a gun barrel length of 7 feet 6 inches ( 2 @.@ 29 m ) compared with their 8 feet 6 inches ( 2 @.@ 59 m ) equivalent in larger Royal Navy vessels .
The twelve @-@ pound cannons were supported by ten six @-@ pounder guns , eight on the quarterdeck and two on the forecastle , each weighing 16 @.@ 5 long cwt ( 1 @,@ 800 lb or 800 kg ) with a barrel length of 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) . Taken together , the twelve @-@ pound and six @-@ pound cannons provided a broadside weight of 189 pounds ( 86 kg ) . She was also equipped with twelve 1 ⁄ 2 @-@ pound swivel guns for anti @-@ personnel use . These swivel guns were mounted in fixed positions on the quarterdeck and forecastle .
= = Royal Navy service = =
= = = Privateer hunter = = =
Brilliant was commissioned in October 1757 under the command of post @-@ captain Hyde Parker and entering Navy service during the early stages of the Seven Years ' War against France .
Her first engagement was on 19 December 1757 when , in company with the 24 @-@ gun HMS Coventry , she encountered the French privateer Diamond . A contemporary report described the Quebec @-@ built Diamond as " a very fine vessel " of 200 tons burthen , carrying 14 carriage guns and a cargo of furs . Diamond opened fire on Brilliant as she approached , but before the British could retaliate the French vessel exploded and sank . The detonation was assumed to have been caused by sparks flying back from the privateer 's guns and igniting her powder magazine . Only 24 of Diamond 's 70 crew survived the explosion . These men were hauled aboard Brilliant and Coventry as prisoners of war .
On 24 December Brilliant and Coventry encountered their second privateer , the 24 @-@ gun Le Dragon . There was a brief exchange of fire in which four French sailors were killed and up to 12 wounded , against six wounded men aboard Coventry . The vastly outgunned French vessel was then surrendered and her remaining 280 crew taken prisoner . On the following day a third French ship was spotted , a snow @-@ rigged 14 @-@ gun privateer named Intrepid . After a short chase she was brought within range of Brilliant 's guns . The French fired first , wounding one British sailor . The responding broadside from Brilliant capsized Intrepid and killed ten men among her crew of 120 . The survivors were taken prisoner aboard Brilliant and handed over to British authorities at Plymouth .
In March 1758 Brilliant captured two more French vessels , the 20 @-@ gun privateer Le Nymphe and the 12 @-@ gun Le Vengeur . On 8 April these two captured vessels were sailed to Plymouth .
= = = Coastal raids = = =
In late 1758 Brilliant joined a Royal Navy squadron supporting amphibious raids along the French coastline . In company with other frigates she protected fleet transports and bomb vessels and assisted with shore bombardment in the Battle of Saint Cast on 11 September 1758 . The future founder of the Royal Geographic Society , James Rennell , was a midshipman aboard Brilliant during this period and produced his first coastal map while the frigate was stationed off Saint Cast . Overall , Brilliant played an undistinguished role in this engagement as her draught was too deep for her to approach the shore . By the afternoon of the battle she was close enough to the beach for her crew to witness the surrounding and defeat of the British Grenadier Guards , but was too distant to range her guns onto their French assailants .
Brilliant resumed her privateer hunting in the spring of 1759 . On 17 April she encountered and forced the surrender of the 22 @-@ gun French vessel Basque around 700 miles ( 1 @,@ 100 km ) west of Cape Clear . As with previous privateer captures , the captured French ship and her crew were taken to Plymouth and handed over to Navy authorities .
Captain Parker left Brilliant in 1759 , having been promoted to the captaincy of the 74 @-@ gun HMS Norfolk . Command of Brilliant temporarily transferred to Captain John Lendrick , with the frigate assigned to a squadron under Admiral George Rodney for a coastal raid on Le Havre . The raid took place on 3 July with Brilliant acting to protect the squadron 's bomb vessels and transport ships from some distance offshore . Lendrick was subsequently replaced by James Logie , who remained with Brilliant until she was decommissioned in 1763 .
= = = Battle of Bishops Court = = =
The Battle of Bishops Court was a shift in Brilliant 's focus from capturing French privateers to direct engagement with an enemy naval squadron . Between 21 and 26 February 1760 a force of three French vessels , the 44 @-@ gun Maréchal de Belle @-@ Isle , the 36 @-@ gun Blonde and the 30 @-@ gun Terpsichore , arrived off the coast of Ireland . Under the command of privateer François Thurot , they landed 600 French troops and captured the town of Carrickfergus . Thurot held the town for five days .
Brilliant and her sister ship HMS Pallas were in port at Kinsale in southern Ireland , and were sent north to intercept Thurot 's force . While at sea they were joined by HMS Aeolus whose captain , John Elliott , assumed overall command of the squadron . The three Royal Navy frigates reached Dublin on the morning of 26 February but bad weather prevented them from entering Belfast Lough . On the same day , Thurot re @-@ embarked his troops and put to sea , evading the British vessels and seeking to return south to France .
After two days of searching , the three Royal Navy frigates encountered Thurot 's forces at 4 a.m. on 28 February between the Mull of Galloway and the Isle of Man . A general chase ensued with Brilliant overhauling the 36 @-@ gun Blonde and engaging her in battle at around 9 a.m. , off shore from Bishopscourt , Isle of Man . Blonde quickly surrendered , as did Terpsichore which had been fired upon by Pallas . Thurot 's flagship Maréchal de Belle @-@ Isle fought on alone against all three Royal Navy vessels , with her crew making repeated attempts to board and seize Aeolus . After ninety minutes of close combat Thurot was killed by a shot through the neck , and Maréchal de Belle @-@ Isle was so battered from cannon fire that she began to sink . Her surviving crew surrendered and were taken prisoner . Brilliant , Pallas and Aeolus then anchored off the Isle of Man to repair damage to their rigging and masts before sailing for Portsmouth with their prizes .
The French had suffered 300 casualties in the battle . A further 1000 men were taken prisoner , including both soldiers and crew . British casualties were small with Aeolus suffering four killed and 15 wounded ; Pallas one killed and five wounded and Brilliant escaping with no deaths and 11 men wounded .
= = = Battle of Cape Finisterre = = =
On 14 August 1761 , Brilliant was accompanying the 74 @-@ gun HMS Bellona from Lisbon to England when they encountered Courageux , a 74 @-@ gun French ship of the line , and two frigates , Malicieuse and Hermione . After some maneuvering the British and French squadrons finally engaged with each other at 6 @.@ 00 a.m. on the morning of 14 August off shore from Cape Finisterre .
Bellona opened fire on Corageux while Brilliant engaged Maliceuse and Hermione . Through skillful sailing , Logie was able to keep both French frigates at bay and unable to assist Courageux , which surrendered to Bellona after ninety minutes of fighting . At 7 @.@ 30 a.m. Maliceuse and Hermione made sail and retreated , with Brilliant too damaged to give chase . British losses in the battle numbered six killed and 28 wounded on Bellona and five killed and 16 wounded on Brilliant , while losses on Courageux alone were 240 killed and 110 wounded . Historian William Laird Clowes considered that this discrepancy was probably the result of differences in British and French tactical doctrine , the French trained to fire at the masts and rigging of an enemy ship in order to disable them , while British doctrine trained crews to fire into the hull of enemy ships to kill the crew .
= = = Later service = = =
There were several small victories for Brilliant throughout 1761 , with the capture of the 6 @-@ gun privateers Le Malouin and Le Curieux from St. Malo , and the 8 @-@ gun La Mignonne from Bayonne . After a period spent refitting at Portsmouth , in January 1763 Brilliant was sailed to Dublin to assist in clearing stores and transporting crew from the 66 @-@ gun HMS Devonshire , which was in port after being damaged at sea . Later that year she had her final victory at sea , overhauling and forcing the surrender of the small 8 @-@ gun privateer L 'Esperance .
War with France was by now drawing to a close , and in March 1763 Logie brought Brilliant to Deptford Dockyard where she was decommissioned and her crew paid off to join other vessels .
= = East India Company = =
Brilliant remained at Deptford until 1776 when she was offered for sale as surplus to Navy requirements . She was purchased by Sir William James on 1 November 1776 , for the sum of ₤ 800 . The vessel 's name was retained and she was converted into an East India Merchantman in 1781 . Under Captain Charles Mears , Brilliant set sail on her first merchant voyage in 1782 , but her career in private hands was short @-@ lived . She narrowly avoided disaster on 26 January 1782 when she struck and heavily damaged HMS Albemarle which was anchored off the Kentish coast under the command of Captain Horatio Nelson . Seven months later , on 28 August , while transporting troops to India , she struck a rock off Johanna in the Comoro Islands and was lost . The majority of the crew survived the wreck but more than 100 soldiers from the 15th Hanoverian Regiment were drowned , including three officers .
= = Legacy = =
William Clowes describes Brilliant as one of " the best British fighting cruisers of the days before the accession of George III . " However , throughout her Navy career she remained slightly inferior to her French equivalents in both speed and weight of ordinance and was the last ship to be built in the Venus class . Subsequent generations of Royal Navy frigate preserved Brilliant 's design but with an extended hull to allow for additional gun ports and the carrying of heavier guns including the 18 @-@ pounder cannon .
= Irish presidential election , 2011 =
The Irish presidential election of 2011 was the thirteenth presidential election to be held in Ireland , and the first to be contested by a record seven candidates . It was held on Thursday , 27 October 2011 . The election was held to elect a successor to Mary McAleese , with the winner scheduled to be inaugurated as the ninth President of Ireland on 11 November 2011 . Two constitutional referendums and a by @-@ election for a vacant Dáil seat in the Dublin West constituency took place on the same day .
The seven candidates were Mary Davis , Seán Gallagher , Michael D. Higgins , Martin McGuinness , Gay Mitchell , David Norris and Dana Rosemary Scallon . Davis , Gallagher , Norris and Scallon ( all running as Independents ) , secured their nominations via local authorities . Higgins was put forward by Labour , McGuinness was put forward by Sinn Féin and Mitchell was put forward by Fine Gael . The previously dominant Fianna Fáil party declined to put forward an official candidate following their disastrous general election campaign earlier that year . Norris , a civil rights campaigner credited with helping overthrow Ireland 's laws criminalising homosexuality , was the leading candidate for much of the race , and had more than double the support of the other declared candidates in January 2011 . He withdrew in August 2011 but returned to the race the following month due to his continuing widespread popular appeal .
The opening televised debate , Vincent Browne 's Big Presidential Debate on TV3 , saw moderator Vincent Browne challenge Sinn Féin candidate Martin McGuinness on the post @-@ 1974 membership of the Irish Republican Army ( IRA ) , that McGuinness repeatedly denied , by producing eight books from under his desk that claimed otherwise . Fine Gael candidate Gay Mitchell suffered from lack of recognition by many voters , and suffered heavily for his controversial views on suicide and on Ireland joining the Commonwealth . Labour candidate Michael D. Higgins was pursued by his past links to the unpopular Fianna Fáil and his admission that he had smoked marijuana . Independent candidate Dana Rosemary Scallon interrupted the Prime Time debate , moderated by Miriam O 'Callaghan , to read out a statement condemning a " malicious " and " false " accusation that she had heard had been made against her family . Seán Gallagher , a former member of the Fianna Fáil national executive , was leading the opinion polls ahead of the final televised debate , moderated by Pat Kenny on The Frontline . However , Gallagher 's campaign came undone when he admitted live on air to collecting a € 5 @,@ 000 cheque for a Fianna Fáil fundraiser event from a man he described as a " convicted criminal and fuel smuggler " .
Michael D. Higgins was ultimately elected the ninth President of Ireland . Gallagher finished in second place , McGuinness finished in third , while Norris , favourite for much of the race , finished fifth . Gallagher 's sudden demise was compared to Devon Loch 's fall at the winning post in the 1956 Grand National .
= = Procedure = =
To qualify , candidates had to :
be a citizen of Ireland
be at least 35 years of age
be nominated by :
at least twenty of the 226 serving members of the Houses of the Oireachtas ( parliament ) , or
at least four of the 34 county or city councils , or
him- or herself , in the case of an incumbent or former president who has served one term .
Presidential elections are conducted under the Presidential Elections Act 1993 , as amended . Constitutionally , the election must be held not more than 60 days before the ending of the term of office of the incumbent , or within 60 days of the office becoming vacant . On 27 July the government announced that the election would be held on 27 October 2011 . An order was made on 30 August by the Minister for the Environment , Community and Local Government declaring 28 September to be the last day on which nominations could be received . The election was conducted by means of the alternative vote ( also called instant runoff voting ) , which is the single @-@ winner analogue of the single transferable vote used in other Irish elections . Although the constitution calls the system " proportional representation by means of the single transferable vote " , a single @-@ winner election cannot be proportional . All Irish citizens entered on the current electoral register were eligible to vote .
= = Nomination campaign = =
Following the general election in February 2011 , and the election of the members of the 24th Seanad , only three political parties had the minimum 20 members of Oireachtas to nominate a candidate : Fine Gael ( 76 TDs and 19 senators ) , the Labour Party ( 37 TDs and 13 senators ) and Fianna Fáil ( 19 TDs and 14 senators ) . Sinn Féin , the next largest party in the Dáil Éireann , have 14 TDs and 3 senators . For other candidates to be nominated , support from members of smaller parties , independents ( of which there are currently 14 TDs and 11 senators ) or excess members of the three larger parties was needed , or the support of four local authorities .
= = = Fine Gael = = =
Gay Mitchell , MEP for the Dublin constituency and former TD for Dublin South @-@ Central was chosen as the Fine Gael candidate at a special convention held on 9 July 2011 . He announced that he would be seeking the party 's nomination in June 2011 , having been contacted by " a large number of senior figures in the party " . Voting was by secret ballot , with an electoral college consisting of the Fine Gael parliamentary party ( TDs , Senators and MEPs ) with 70 % of the vote , county and city councillors ( 20 % ) and the twelve @-@ member executive council ( 10 % ) .
Three others sought the nomination :
Pat Cox , former President of the European Parliament and former Progressive Democrats / Independent MEP . Early in June 2011 , press reports indicated that Cox , who had stated his desire to stand as an independent candidate , was seeking to join Fine Gael to be eligible for the party 's nomination . His application to join the party was accepted by Fine Gael 's National Executive Committee on 14 June . He launched his campaign for the Fine Gael nomination on 17 June 2011 , describing it as a " one @-@ shot opportunity " and that if he failed to be nominated by the party he would not stand as an independent . Cox was claimed by the Irish Independent to be the preferred choice of Taoiseach Enda Kenny and the Fine Gael leadership .
Avril Doyle , former MEP and TD . On 21 June 2011 , she announced her candidacy . She withdrew from the contest on 7 July stating that she realised she was unlikely to receive the nomination .
Mairead McGuinness , MEP for the East constituency , former presenter of Ear to the Ground on RTÉ One and former journalist with the Irish Independent . She announced her bid for the Fine Gael nomination in April 2011 .
In March 2011 , Fine Gael produced a shortlist of three candidates : John Bruton , Seán Kelly and Mairead McGuinness . Bruton , a former Taoiseach and European Union Ambassador , ruled himself out of the contest on 28 May 2011 . Kelly , an MEP and former President of the Gaelic Athletic Association indicated on 1 June 2011 that he would not be seeking the party 's nomination , and wished to continue serving in the European Parliament . The party approached Nobel laureate poet Seamus Heaney in late 2010 , but Heaney declined to stand unless he was an agreed cross @-@ party candidate .
On the announcement that Mitchell had won the nomination , the Sunday Independent stated that Kenny was seen to slump and " could barely contain
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utilities of the " bedding " system , with its wearisome repetitions and garish colouring , Mr William Robinson chose as his work in live to make better known the treasures that were lying neglected , and at the same time to overthrow the feeble follies of the " bedding " system . It is mainly owing to his unremitting labours that a clear knowledge of the world of hardy @-@ plant beauty is now placed within easy reach of all who care to acquire it , and that the " bedding mania " is virtually dead .
Robinson also published God 's Acre Beautiful or The Cemeteries of The Future , in which he applied his gardening aesthetic to urban churchyards and cemeteries . His campaign included trying to win an unwilling public to the advantages of cremation over burial , and he quite freely shared unsavoury stories of what happened in certain crowded graveyards . He was instrumental in the founding of Golders Green Crematorium and designed the gardens there , which replaced the traditional Victorian mourning graveyard with open lawn , flowerbeds , and woodland gardens .
= = = Gravetye Manor = = =
With his writing career a financial success , in 1884 Robinson was able to purchase the Elizabethan Manor of Gravetye near East Grinstead in Sussex , along with about 200 acres ( 0 @.@ 81 km2 ) of rich pasture and woodland . His diary of planting and care was published as Gravetye Manor , or Twenty Years of the Work round an old Manor House ( 1911 ) . Gravetye would find practical fulfilment of many of Robinson 's ideas of a more natural style of gardening . Eventually it would grow to nearly 1 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 km2 ) .
Much of the estate had been managed as a coppiced woodland , giving Robinson the opportunity to plant drifts of scilla , cyclamen , and narcissus between the coppiced hazels and chestnuts . On the edges , and in the cleared spaces in the woods , Robinson established plantings of Japanese anemone , lily , acanthus , and pampas grass , along with shrubs such as fothergilla , stewartia , and nyssa . Closer to the house he had some flower beds ; throughout he planted red valerian , which he allowed to spread naturally around paving and staircases . Robinson planted thousands of daffodils annually , including 100 @,@ 000 narcissi planted along one of the lakes in 1897 . Over the years he added hundreds of trees , some of them from American friends John Singer Sargent and Frederick Law Olmsted . Other features included an oval @-@ shaped walled kitchen garden , a heather garden , and a water garden with one of the largest collections of water lilies in Europe .
Robinson invited several well @-@ known painters to portray his own landscape artistry , including the English watercolourist Beatrice Parsons , the landscape and botanical painter Henry Moon , and Alfred Parsons . Moon and Parsons illustrated many of Robinson 's works .
After Robinson 's death , Gravetye Manor was left to the Forestry Commission , who left it derelict for many years . In 1958 it was leased to a restaurateur who refurbished the gardens , replacing some of the flower beds with lawn . Today , Gravetye Manor serves as a hotel and restaurant .
= = = Long @-@ term impact on Gardening = = =
Through his magazines and books , Robinson challenged many gardening traditions and introduced new ideas that have become commonplace today . He is most linked with introducing the herbaceous border , which he referred to by the older name of ' mixed border ' — it included a mixture of shrubs , hardy and half @-@ hardy herbaceous plants . He also advocated dense plantings that left no bare soil , with the spaces between taller plants filled with what are now commonly called ground cover plants . Even his rose garden at Gravetye was filled with saxifrage between and under the roses . Following a visit to the Alps , Robinson wrote Alpine Flowers for Gardens , which for the first time showed how to use alpine plants in a designed rock garden .
His most significant influence was the introduction of the idea of wild gardening , which first appeared in The Wild Garden and was further developed in The English Flower Garden . The idea of introducing large drifts of native hardy perennial plants into meadow , woodand , and waterside is taken for granted today , but was revolutionary in Robinson 's time . In the first edition , he happily used any plant that could be naturalised , including half @-@ hardy perennials and natives from other parts of the world — thus Robinson 's wild garden was not limited to locally native species . Robinson 's own garden at Gravetye was planted on a large scale , but his wild garden idea could be realised in small yards , where the ' garden ' is designed to appear to merge into the surrounding woodland or meadow . Robinson 's ideas continue to influence gardeners and landscape architects today — from home and cottage gardens to large estate and public gardens .
= = The Wild Garden , 1870 = =
In The Wild Garden Robinson set forth fresh gardening principles that expanded the idea of garden and introduced themes and techniques that are taken for granted today , notably that of " naturalised " plantings . Robinson 's audience were not the owners of intensely gardened suburban plots , nor dwellers in gentrified country cottages seeking a nostalgic atmosphere ; nor was Robinson concerned with the immediate surroundings of the English country house . Robinson 's wild garden brought the untidy edges , where garden blended into the larger landscape into the garden picture : meadow , water 's edge , woodland edges and openings .
The hardy plants Robinson endorsed were not all natives by any means : two chapters are devoted to the hardy plants from other temperate climate zones that were appropriate to naturalising schemes . The narcissus he preferred were the small , delicate ones from the Iberian peninsula . Meadowflowers included goldenrod and asters , rampant spreaders from North America long familiar in English gardens . Nor did Robinson 's ' wild ' approach refer to letting gardens return to their natural state — he taught a specific gardening method and aesthetic . The nature of plants ' habit of growth and their cultural preferences dictated the free design , in which human intervention was to be kept undetectable .
Without being in any sense retrograde , Robinson 's book brought attention back to the plants , which had been eclipsed since the decline of " gardenesque " plantings of the 1820s and 30s , during the use of tender annuals as massed color in patterned schemes of the mid @-@ century . The book 's popularity was largely due to Robinson 's promise that wild gardening could be easy and beautiful ; that the use of hardy perennials would be less expensive and offer more variety than the frequent mass planting of greenhouse annuals ; and that it followed nature , which he considered the source of all true design .
= = The English Flower Garden , 1883 = =
In The English Flower Garden , Robinson laid down the principles that revolutionised the art of gardening . Robinson 's source of inspiration was the simple cottage garden , long neglected by the fashionable landscapists . In The English Flower Garden he rejected the artificial and the formal , specifically statuary , topiary , carpet bedding , and waterworks — comparing the modern garden to " the lifeless formality of wall @-@ paper or carpet . " The straight lines and form in many gardens were seen by Robinson to " carry the dead lines of the builder into the garden . " He admired nature 's diversity , and promoted creepers and ramblers , smaller plantings of roses , herbaceous plants and bulbs , woodland plants , and winter flowers .
Robinson compared gardening to art , and wrote in the first chapter :
The gardener must follow the true artist , however modestly , in his respect for things as they are , in delight in natural form and beauty of flower and tree , if we are to be free from barren geometry , and if our gardens are ever to be true pictures .... And as the artist 's work is to see for us and preserve in pictures some of the beauty of landscape , tree , or flower , so the gardener 's should be to keep for us as far as may be , in the fulness of their natural beauty , the living things themselves .
The first part of The English Flower Garden covered garden design , emphasising an approach that was individual and not stereotypical : " the best kind of garden grows out of the situation , as the primrose grows out of a cool bank . " The second part covered individual plants , hardy and half @-@ hardy , showing artistic and natural use of each plant — with several articles included from The Garden and chapters contributed by leading gardeners of the day , including Gertrude Jekyll , who contributed the chapter on " Colour in the Flower Garden "
This book was first published in 1883 , with the last and definitive edition published in 1933 . During Robinson 's lifetime , the book found increasing popularity , with fifteen editions during his life . For fifty years , The English Flower Garden was considered a bible by many gardeners .
= The List ( The Office ) =
" The List " is the eighth season premiere of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's 153rd episode overall . The episode originally aired on NBC in the United States on September 22 , 2011 . It was written and directed by executive producer B. J. Novak .
The series — presented as if it were a real documentary — depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania , branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In the episode , new CEO Robert California ( James Spader ) writes a mysterious list that has a line down the middle and every member of the office on either one side or the other . The office members frantically try to figure out what it means , causing a crisis for manager Andy Bernard .
" The List " was the first episode of The Office to feature James Spader 's Robert California in a starring role . The episode received moderately positive reviews with many commenting that it proved the series could survive without Carell . According to Nielsen Media Research , " The List " drew an estimated 7 @.@ 63 million viewers and received a 3 @.@ 9 rating / 10 % share in the 18 – 49 demographic , making it , at the time , the lowest @-@ rated season premiere since the first @-@ season premiere .
= = Plot = =
Jim explains to the camera that Robert California ( James Spader ) was appointed Regional Manager of the Scranton Branch , but on his first day traveled to Florida and convinced Jo Bennett to give him her position as CEO of Dunder Mifflin @-@ Sabre . Robert then appointed Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) as Scranton Regional Manager in his place . Andy makes it his goal for the office to receive a half day off on the Friday before the Columbus Day weekend .
Robert accidentally leaves his personal notebook at Erin Hannon 's ( Ellie Kemper ) desk , and she notices it contains a list of Scranton 's employees on two columns with a line down the middle . Concerned about what the list means , the employees pressure Andy to ask Robert about it . Robert is offended by Andy 's inquiry , assuming that he snooped through his notebook . While brushing the list off as " doodles , " he conspicuously moves Andy 's name from the left column to the right . Later that day , Robert invites the employees on the left column to lunch : Jim ( John Krasinski ) , Dwight ( Rainn Wilson ) , Angela ( Angela Kinsey ) , Kevin ( Brian Baumgartner ) , Phyllis ( Phyllis Smith ) , Toby ( Paul Lieberstein ) and Oscar ( Oscar Nunez ) . After they leave , the " right @-@ siders " try to console themselves with a pizza party , but remain despondent about their exclusion .
During lunch , the " left @-@ siders " pester Robert about the list . Slightly intoxicated , Robert informs them that the left @-@ siders are " winners " while the right side are " losers " . Jim is astonished , but the others become cocky . Kevin sends a mass text to the right @-@ siders , mocking them as " losers " , and later squirts Meredith with a water pistol . Andy does not like this and confronts Robert with a demand to alter the list . Robert refuses , and then speaks to everyone by admitting to calling certain members of the office losers , but also reprimanding them for fixating so much on someone else 's opinion of them , saying he will be working with them a long time and that his opinions on certain people may very well change , finishing with " Winners , prove me right ; losers , prove me wrong " . Andy , unsatisfied , lists off the qualities the right @-@ siders have , stating that Stanley ( Leslie David Baker ) may be a grump , but has the best sales record in the office ( something Robert admits to being unaware of ) ; Meredith ( Kate Flannery ) is persistent and does not know what the word " no " means ; and Pam ( Jenna Fischer ) is " easily the most creative and kind person [ he has ] ever worked with " . Andy concedes to Robert that putting Gabe ( Zach Woods ) in the losers ' column was " astute " . He then demands the Columbus half day and exits , prompting a respecting smile from Robert . Though the office annually gets the half day in any case , they happily wish him good evening as they depart , and Andy looks very pleased with his work as the boss .
Pam is pregnant with her and Jim 's second child ( revealed to be a boy ) and is emotional , easily brought to tears throughout the day . Angela is also pregnant , having married the state senator Robert Lipton over the summer , and says that she 's " Little Preg " to Pam 's " Big Preg " . When Jim picks up his things to leave for the day , he " accidentally " drops a piece of paper . Pam picks it up and sees Jim 's personal winners and losers list : Pam , Cece and their new baby are on the left , and the words " everything else " is written on the right . Pam tearfully vows to frame it .
= = Production = =
The episode was written and directed by executive producer B. J. Novak , who also portrays Ryan Howard in the series . It is Novak 's fourteenth writing credit and third directing credit for the series . Before this episode , series star Steve Carell left the series and the following episodes featured several different managers . In the season finale , several guest actors appeared in the episode including James Spader and it was left up in the air on who would become the manager . On June 27 , 2011 , co @-@ creator and executive producer Ricky Gervais announced Spader was to join the cast on a permanent basis . This marks his second appearance of James Spader , having appeared in the previous episode , the seventh season finale . He will appear in at least 15 episodes and will serve as a replacement for Jo Bennett as CEO of Sabre , portrayed by Kathy Bates , who left the series due to her commitment for the NBC drama series , Harry 's Law .
The episode revealed who the new office manager would be after lead actor Steve Carell , who portrayed Michael Scott . Executive Producer Paul Lieberstein had told Ed Helms his character , Andy , would be the manager during lunch in June . The writers had gone through the main contenders for the job , Darryl , Dwight and Andy , with Andy being the best choice . The episode also confirmed that Pam is pregnant with her second child , which corresponds to Jenna Fischer 's real @-@ life pregnancy . The episode also started filming on July 25 , 2011 . The Season Eight DVD contains a number of deleted scenes from this episode . Notable cut scenes include Ryan explaining where trends comes from and Gabe explaining why he 's back in a talking head , Andy attempting to calm everybody down while they try to figure out what the list means , and more scenes with the winner 's lunch and the loser 's pizza party .
= = Cultural references = =
The cold open features multiple workers " planking " , an activity consisting of lying face down in an unusual or incongruous location . This is the third season premiere to include an internet trend in the cold open in a row . The first was in Gossip where Michael , Dwight and Andy try to film a video of them attempting parkour . The second was in Nepotism where the office make a lip dub video of the song " Nobody but Me " . Throughout the episode , Pam is seen crying at a commercial for The Travelers Companies featuring a dog trying to keep his dog bone safe .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original American broadcast on September 22 , 2011 , " The List " was viewed by an estimated 7 @.@ 63 million viewers and received a 3 @.@ 9 rating / 10 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 3 @.@ 9 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 10 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This marked an 11 percent fall in the demographic from the seventh @-@ season premiere , " Nepotism " , making it the lowest @-@ rated season premiere . It was also the last episode of The Office to be viewed by more than 7 million viewers . The episode ranked second in its timeslot beating Person of Interest which received a 3 @.@ 1 rating / 8 % share in the 18 – 49 demographic and The Secret Circle which received a 0 @.@ 9 rating / 2 % share , but was defeated by The X Factor which received a 4 @.@ 4 rating / 11 % share and tied with Grey 's Anatomy which received a 3 @.@ 9 rating / 10 % share . " The List " was the twenty @-@ second most @-@ watched show for the week of broadcast among adults aged 18 – 49 .
= = = Reviews = = =
" The List " received moderately positive reviews . Myles McNutt of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " B " and wrote that the entry " was about on par with what the show was delivering last season . " He was slightly critical of the episode 's tone , noting that it " eschew [ ed ] subtlety " and , instead , yielded , " a thesis statement for the transitional season to come " . HitFix reviewer Alan Sepinwall complimented the final scene featuring Andy confronting Robert calling it " sweet and felt genuine , in the way that made the show 's early days feel special . " Despite this , he said the " story fell a little flat . "
Linda Homles of NPR praised the choice of adding James Spader , making Andy the manager , and praised the writers for differentiating Andy as manager from Michael . IGN writer Cindy White praised the episode for being an " ensemble affair " writing that " And when you 've got an ensemble this strong , that 's a smart way to go " . She concluded that " In context with the rest of NBC 's hilarious Thursday @-@ night lineup [ ... ] The Office can 't help but seem a little long in the tooth . But you can always rely on it for at least a few laugh @-@ out @-@ loud moments [ ... ] I 'm not ready to call time of death on this show just yet . She ultimately gave the episode an 8 @.@ 0 / 10 . TV Guide writers Joyce Eng and Kate Stanhope called the promotion of Andy as manager the third best television moment of the week . James Poniewozik of Time gave the episode a positive review commenting that " it at least showed that a season 8 Office is capable of delivering the funny as well as the character grace notes " .
= Pudú =
The pudús ( Mapudungun püdü or püdu , Spanish : pudú , Spanish pronunciation : [ puˈðu ] ) are two species of South American deer from the genus Pudu , and are the world 's smallest deer . The name is a loanword from Mapudungun , the language of the indigenous Mapuche people of southern Chile . The two species of pudús are the northern pudú ( Pudu mephistophiles ) from Colombia , Ecuador , and Peru , and the southern pudú ( Pudu puda ; sometimes incorrectly modified to Pudu pudu ) from southern Chile and south @-@ western Argentina . Pudús range in size from 32 to 44 centimeters ( 13 to 17 in ) tall , and up to 85 centimeters ( 33 in ) long . As of 2009 , the southern pudu is classified as near threatened , while the northern pudu is classified as vulnerable in the IUCN Red List .
= = Taxonomy = =
The genus Pudu was first erected by English naturalist John Edward Gray in 1850 . Pudua was a Latinized version of the name proposed by Alfred Henry Garrod in 1877 , but was ruled invalid . Pudús are classified in the New World deer subfamily Capreolinae within the deer family Cervidae . The term " pudú " itself is derived from the Mapuche people of southern Chile . Because they live on the slopes of the Andes Mountain Range , they are also known as the " Chilean mountain goat " .
Two similar species of pudús are recognised :
The southern pudú ( P. puda ) is the better @-@ known species found in the southern Andes of Chile and Argentina . It is slightly larger than its sister species , the northern pudú , being 35 to 45 cm ( 14 to 18 in ) tall at the shoulder and weighs 6 @.@ 4 to 13 @.@ 4 kg ( 14 to 30 lb ) . The antlers of the southern pudú grow to be 5 @.@ 3 to 9 cm ( 2 @.@ 1 to 3 @.@ 5 in ) long and tend to curve back , somewhat like a mountain goat . Its coat is a dark chestnut @-@ brown , and tends to tuft in the front , covering the antlers . It is found at lower elevations than its sister species , from sea level to 2 @,@ 000 m ( 6 @,@ 600 ft ) .
The northern pudú ( P. mephistophiles ) , found in the Andes of Colombia , Peru , and Ecuador , is the smallest species of deer in the world , being 32 to 35 cm ( 13 to 14 in ) tall at the shoulder and weighs 3 @.@ 3 to 6 kg ( 7 @.@ 3 to 13 @.@ 2 lb ) . The antlers of the northern pudú grow to about 6 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) long , also curving backward . Its coat tends to be lighter than that of the southern pudú , but the face is darker compared to the coat . It is found at higher altitudes than its sister species , from 2 @,@ 000 to 4 @,@ 000 m ( 6 @,@ 600 to 13 @,@ 100 ft ) above sea level .
= = Description = =
The pudús are the world 's smallest deer , with the southern pudú being slightly larger than the northern pudú . It has a stocky frame supported by four short and slender legs . It is 32 to 44 cm ( 13 to 17 in ) high at the shoulder and up to 85 cm ( 33 in ) in length . Pudús normally weigh up to 12 kg ( 26 lb ) , but the highest recorded weight of a pudú is 13 @.@ 4 kg ( 30 lb ) . Pudús have small , black eyes , black noses , and rounded ears with lengths of 7 @.@ 5 to 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 0 to 3 @.@ 1 in ) . Sexual dimorphism in the species includes an absence of antlers in females . Males have short , spiked antlers that are not forked , as seen in most species of deer . The antlers , which are shed annually , can extend from 6 @.@ 5 to 7 @.@ 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 6 to 3 @.@ 0 in ) in length and protrude from between the ears . Also on the head are large preorbital glands . Pudús have small hooves , dewclaws , and short tails about 4 @.@ 0 to 4 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 to 1 @.@ 8 in ) in length when measured without hair . Coat coloration varies with season , sex , and individual genes . The fur is long and stiff , typically pressed close to the body , with a reddish @-@ brown to dark @-@ brown hue . The neck and shoulders of an aged pudú turn a dark gray @-@ brown in the winter .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
The pudú inhabits temperate rainforests in South America , where the dense underbrush and bamboo thickets offer protection from predators . Southern Chile , south @-@ west Argentina , Chiloé Island , and northwest South America are home to the deer . The northern pudú is found in the northern Andes of Colombia , Ecuador , and Peru , from 2 @,@ 000 to 4 @,@ 000 m ( 6 @,@ 600 to 13 @,@ 100 ft ) above sea level . The southern species is found in the slope of the southern Andes from sea level to 2 @,@ 000 m ( 6 @,@ 600 ft ) .
The climate of the pudú 's habitat is composed of two main seasons : a damp , moderate winter and an arid summer . Annual precipitation in these areas of Argentina and Chile ranges from 2 to 4 m ( 6 @.@ 6 to 13 @.@ 1 ft ) .
= = Behavior = =
= = = Social = = =
The pudú is a solitary animal whose behavior in the wild is largely unknown because of its secretive nature . Pudús are crepuscular , most active in the morning , late afternoon , and evening . Their home range generally extends about 16 to 25 ha ( 40 to 62 acres ) , much of which consists of crisscrossing pudú @-@ trodden paths . Each pudú has its own home range , or territory . A single animal 's territory is marked with sizable dung piles found on paths and near eating and resting areas . Large facial glands for scent communication allow correspondence with other pudú deer . Pudús do not interact socially , other than to mate . An easily frightened animal , the deer barks when in fear . Its fur bristles and the pudú shivers when angered .
Predators of the pudús include the horned owl , Andean fox , Magellan fox , cougar , and other small cats . The pudú is a wary animal that moves slowly and stops often , smelling the air for scents of predators . Being a proficient climber , jumper , and sprinter , the deer flees in a zigzag path when being pursued . The lifespan of the pudús ranges from 8 to 10 years in the wild . The longest recorded lifespan is 15 years and 9 months . However , such longevity is rare and most pudús die at a much younger age , from a wide range of causes . Maternal neglect of newborns , as well as a wide range of diseases , can decrease the population . A popular rumor is that if alarmed to a high degree , pudús die from fear @-@ induced cardiac complications .
= = = Diet = = =
The pudús are herbivorous , consuming vines , leaves from low trees , shrubs , succulent sprouts , herbs , ferns , blossoms , buds , tree bark , and fallen fruit . They can survive without drinking water for long periods due to the high water content of the succulent foliage in their diets .
Pudús have various methods of obtaining the foliage they need . Their small stature and cautious nature create obstacles in attaining food . They stop often while searching for food to stand on their hind legs and smell the wind , detecting food scents . Females and fawns peel bark from saplings using their teeth , but mature males may use their spikelike antlers . The deer may use their front legs to press down on saplings until they snap or become low enough to the ground so they can reach the leaves . Forced to stand on their hind legs due to their small size , the deer climb branches and tree stumps to reach higher foliage . They bend bamboo shoots horizontally in order to walk on them and eat from higher branches .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Pudús are solitary and only come together for rut . Mating season is in the Southern Hemisphere autumn , from April to May . Pudú DNA is arranged into 70 chromosomes . To mate , the pudú male rests his chin on the female 's back , then sniffs her rear before mounting her from behind , holding her with his fore legs . The gestation period ranges from 202 to 223 days ( around 7 months ) with the average being 210 days . A single offspring or sometimes twins are born in austral spring , from November to January . Newborns weigh 700 to 1 @,@ 000 g ( 25 to 35 oz ) with the average birth weight being 890 g ( 31 oz ) . Newborns less than 600 g ( 21 oz ) or more than 1 @,@ 000 g ( 35 oz ) die . Females and males weigh the same at birth . Fawns have reddish @-@ brown fur and southern pudú fawns have white spots running the length of their backs . Young are weaned after 2 months . Females mature sexually in 6 months , while males mature in 8 – 12 months . Fawns are fully grown in 3 months , but may stay with their mothers for 8 to 12 months .
= = Status and conservation = =
As of 2009 , both species of pudús are classified as endangered on the IUCN Red List , mainly because of overhunting and habitat loss . Pudu puda is listed in CITES Appendix I , and Pudu mephistophiles is listed in CITES Appendix II . The southern species is more easily maintained in captivity than the northern , though small populations of the northern formerly existed in zoos . As of 2010 , more than 100 southern pudús are kept at ISIS @-@ registered institutions with the vast majority in European and US zoos . Pudús are difficult to transport because they are easily overheated and stressed . Pudús are protected in various national parks ; parks require resources to enforce protection of the deer .
Efforts to preserve the pudú species are being taken in order to prevent extinction . An international captive @-@ breeding program for the southern pudú led by Concepcion University in Chile has been started . Some deer have been bred in captivity and reintroduced into Nahuel Huapi National Park in Argentina . Reintroduction efforts include the use of radio collars for tracking . The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species has banned the international trading of pudús . The Wildlife Conservation Society protects their natural habitat and works to recreate it for pudús in captivity . Despite efforts made by the World Wildlife Fund , the size of the pudú population remains unknown . Threats to the pudús remain despite various conservation efforts .
= = = Threats = = =
Pudús are threatened due to the destruction of their rainforest habitat . The land is cleared for human development , cattle ranching , agriculture , logging , and exotic tree plantations . Habitat fragmentation and road accidents cause pudú deaths . They are taken from the wild as pets , as well as exported illegally . They are overhunted and killed for food by specially trained hunting dogs . The recently introduced red deer compete with pudús for food . Domestic dogs prey upon pudús and transfer parasites through contact . Pudús are very susceptible to diseases such as bladder worms , lungworms , roundworms , and heartworms .
= The Holocaust in Albania =
The Holocaust in Albania consisted of murders , deportations and crimes against humanity committed against Jews , Slavs , Roma and other minorities in Greater Albania by German , Italian and Albanian collaborationist forces while the country was under Italian and German occupation during the Second World War . Throughout the war , nearly 2 @,@ 000 Jews sought refuge in Albania @-@ proper . Most of these Jewish refugees were treated well by the local Albanian population , despite the fact that the country was occupied first by Fascist Italy , and then by Nazi Germany . Albanians , following a traditional custom of hospitality known as besa , often sheltered Jewish refugees in mountain villages , and transported them to Adriatic ports from where they fled to Italy . Other Jews joined resistance movements throughout the country .
For the 500 Jews who lived in Albanian @-@ dominated Kosovo , the experience was starkly different and many did not survive the war . With the surrender of Italy in September 1943 , German forces occupied Albania , Kosovo and other territories that had been annexed to the country . In 1944 , an Albanian Waffen @-@ SS division was formed , which arrested and handed over to the Germans a further 281 Jews from Kosovo who were subsequently deported to the Bergen @-@ Belsen concentration camp , where many were killed . In late 1944 , German forces were driven out of Albania @-@ proper and Communists led by Enver Hoxha came to power in the country . At the same time , Axis forces in the Albanian @-@ annexed regions of Kosovo and western Macedonia were defeated by the Yugoslav Partisans , who subsequently re @-@ incorporated these areas into the newly Communist Federal People 's Republic of Yugoslavia .
Approximately 600 Jews were killed in Albania @-@ proper , and Albanian @-@ annexed Kosovo and western Macedonia during the war . As up to 1 @,@ 800 Jews were living in Albania @-@ proper at the end of the war , it is estimated that the country emerged from the Second World War with a population of Jews eleven times greater than at the beginning . Most of these subsequently emigrated to Israel , but several hundred remained until the fall of Communism in the early 1990s before they did the same . In 1995 , the Republic of Albania was declared Righteous Among the Nations for the role that dozens of Albanian families played in saving Jewish refugees in the country during the Second World War . As of 2011 , 69 Albanians have been recognized as Righteous Among the Nations .
= = Background = =
According to the census of 1930 , 24 Jews lived in Albania . In 1937 , the Jewish community , which then numbered nearly 300 , was granted official recognition in the country . With the rise of Nazism , a number of German and Austrian Jews took refuge in Albania , and the Albanian embassy in Berlin continued to issue visas to Jews until the end of 1938 , at a time when no other European country was willing to do so . Prior to the outbreak of the Second World War , most Albanians had never had contact with Jews because of the small number of them in the country . As a result , antisemitism was less widespread in Albania than in other countries . Before the war , most Albanian Jews lived in the town of Korçë , in the southeastern part of the country . The Jewish community in Kosovo , part of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia , numbered approximately 500 .
The least developed country in Europe , Albania was subjected to Italian economic and political influence throughout the 1930s . On 25 March 1939 , Italian dictator Benito Mussolini gave Albanian King Zog I an ultimatum demanding the acceptance of an Italian military protectorate over Albania . When Zog refused to accept , the Italians invaded on 7 April 1939 , and deposed him . Afterwards , they re @-@ established the Albanian state as a protectorate of the Kingdom of Italy , then installed a quisling regime headed by the biggest landowner in the country , Shefqet Vërlaci . An Albanian " national assembly " was established , which quickly voted for the full economic and political union of Albania with the Kingdom of Italy , led by Italian King Victor Emmanuel III . Under the direction of viceroy general Francesco Jacomoni , the Italian administration implemented laws that prohibited Jewish immigration to Albania and mandated the deportation of all foreign Jews in the country .
Within a month of the Italian occupation , the Albanian Fascist Party ( Albanian : Partia Fashiste e Shqipërisë , or PFSh ) was formed . It enacted laws that prevented Jews from joining it and excluded them from professions such as education . Composed of ethnic Albanians and Italians residing in Albania , the party existed as a branch of the Italian Fascist Party ( Italian : Partito Nazionale Fascista , or PNF ) and its members were required to swear an oath of loyalty to Mussolini . All Albanians serving the Italian occupiers were required to join , and it became the only legal political party in the country .
As the war progressed , Italy transformed the Albanian Kingdom into Greater Albania , a protectorate of Italy that included most of Kosovo and a portion of western Macedonia which was detached from Yugoslavia after the Axis powers invaded in 1941 . Kosovo Albanians enthusiastically welcomed the Italian occupation . Although officially under Italian rule , the Albanians in Kosovo controlled the region and were encouraged to open Albanian schools , which had been prohibited under Yugoslav rule . They were also given Albanian citizenship by Italian authorities and allowed to fly the Albanian flag . Nevertheless , the Italians kept hundreds of thousands of troops in Albania and surrounding areas . Yugoslav sources indicated that there were approximately 20 @,@ 000 Italian soldiers and 5 @,@ 000 Italian police and frontier guards in Kosovo , and 12 @,@ 000 soldiers and 5 @,@ 000 police and border guards in the Albanian @-@ annexed portion of Macedonia . At the same time , Italian military authorities warned that at least ten hostages would be shot for every Italian soldier killed or wounded in these regions .
= = Holocaust = =
= = = 1939 – 43 = = =
After the invasion of Yugoslavia , the Jewish community in Albania grew as Jews from Macedonia and northern Serbia , as well as Jewish refugees from Germany , Austria and Poland , came to Italian @-@ controlled , Albanian @-@ annexed Kosovo and settled in the towns of Pristina , Prizren and Uroševac . As many as 1 @,@ 000 refugees arrived , attributed by German sources to a Jewish organization which was responsible for smuggling Jews into the country . The refugees did not experience persecution to the level that Jews were experiencing in German @-@ controlled territories , because the Italians considered them to be of economic importance and " representative of Italian interests abroad " . However , the Italians did arrest approximately 150 Jewish refugees and transferred them to the town of Berat in Albania , where they were given a chance to work to earn money . Also arrested were 192 Jews from the Italian @-@ annexed Bay of Kotor who were transferred to Nazi concentration camps in Albania on 27 or 28 July 1941 , before being transferred to camps located within Italy . As many as 2 @,@ 000 Jews sought refuge in Albania during the war .
The local population of Albania was very protective of the Jewish refugees . Many were transported to Albanian ports on the Adriatic from where they could travel to Italy . Other Jews hid in remote mountain villages , while some joined resistance movements across the country . The Albanian treatment of Jews was in accordance with traditional Albanian customs of hospitality and besa ( " word of honour " ) . Despite this , instances of cruelty towards Jews did occur in Albania during the war , and on several occasions Jews being smuggled into the country were killed by Albanians who seized their jewellery and money .
In January 1942 , the Germans estimated at the Wannsee Conference that Albania was inhabited by 200 Jews . That same month , Jews were interned by the Italians at a camp in the town of Pristina . Although they feared that they would be handed over to the Germans , the Italian commander of the camp promised them that this would never happen . However , on 14 March the Italians blockaded the camp and arrested the Jews who had been detained there . Some were then handed over to German forces and transported to the Sajmište concentration camp near Belgrade , where they were killed . Others , together with Serbs , were taken to the camp in Berat , where they remained until Italy 's capitulation . It is estimated that as many as 500 Jews were interned in the camps in Berat , Krujë and Kavajë during the Italian occupation .
= = = 1943 – 45 = = =
When Italy surrendered to the Allies in September 1943 , all concentration camps in Albania were dissolved . Shortly after , the Germans invaded and occupied Albania , and most Italian soldiers in the country surrendered to the Germans . German forces then began to target for extermination all Jews living in Albania and the Albanian @-@ dominated regions of occupied Yugoslavia . The Jewish community in western Macedonia , which had remained untouched under Italian occupation , was targeted and several groups of Jews were dispatched to extermination camps . Their property and belongings were later taken by many organizations , institutions and private individuals .
The Germans arranged for Albania 's administration to be reorganized shortly after occupying the country . On 15 September , the Albanian National Committee was established under German sponsorship . It governed until a Regency Council was established and recognized by Germany as the official government of the country on 3 November 1943 . Xhafer Deva , a Kosovo Albanian ally of the Germans in the region , was then appointed the Minister of Interior of Albania . Deva later founded the Nazi @-@ aligned Second League of Prizren in Kosovo , which declared jihad ( holy war ) against Slavs , Gypsies and Jews and sought to create an ethnically cleansed Greater Albania . The League had the backing of Haj Amin al @-@ Husseini , the Mufti of Jerusalem . A leading supporter of the Nazis , he pressed for the implementation of the Final Solution . With a new administration in place , the Germans demanded that Albanian authorities provide them with lists of Jews to be deported . However , local authorities did not comply and even provided Jewish families with forged documents . The situation in Albanian @-@ dominated Kosovo was quite different . There , Deva began recruiting Kosovo Albanians to join the Waffen @-@ SS . The 21st Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Skanderbeg ( 1st Albanian ) was formed on 1 May 1944 . Composed of ethnic Albanians , it was named after Albanian national hero George Kastrioti Skanderbeg , who fought the Ottoman Turks in the 15th century . Members took a religious oath using the Quran , pledging " jihad against unbelievers " . The division had a strength of 6 @,@ 500 men at the time of its creation and was better known for murdering , raping , and looting in predominantly Serbian areas than for participating in combat operations on behalf of the German war effort . On 14 May , members of the division raided Jewish homes in Pristina , arrested 281 native and foreign Jews , then handed them over to the Germans . On 23 June , 249 of these were taken to the Bergen @-@ Belsen concentration camp , where many were killed . With the Allied victory in the Balkans imminent , Deva and his men attempted to purchase weapons from withdrawing German soldiers in order to organize a " final solution " of the Slavic population of Kosovo . Nothing came of this as the powerful Yugoslav Partisans prevented any large @-@ scale ethnic cleansing of Slavs from occurring .
Kosovo Albanians were generally less hospitable to Jews than their counterparts in Albania . Due to their historical experiences with Serbs and the Ottoman Empire , they tended to be more unfriendly towards non @-@ Albanians . Many enthusiastically supported the Germans as a result . Claims have been made that Kosovo Albanians protected Jews after German forces took over territories that Italian authorities had controlled during the war , but the protection that Jews received in Kosovo in the early years of the war was due more to the Italian authorities than to the local Albanian population . It is estimated that 210 Jews from Kosovo perished during the war . An official Yugoslav state report published in 1964 recorded 74 Jewish wartime fatalities in the region . Approximately 600 Jews were killed in Albania , Kosovo and other Albanian @-@ controlled territories during the war . A somewhat greater number , as well as several hundred refugees , hid and survived with the assistance of the local Albanian population .
= = Aftermath = =
From October to November 1944 , the Yugoslav Partisans , supported by both the Western Allies and the Soviet Union , and assisted by the forces of the newly anti @-@ fascist Bulgarian regime and two brigades of Albanian partisans , retook the region of Kosovo as the Germans withdrew . The area was then reincorporated into the Federal People 's Republic of Yugoslavia . With defeat guaranteed , the withdrawing Germans helped Albanian collaborators escape the country as Communist forces drew closer . However , many failed to escape and were executed by the Communists upon capture . On 28 November 1944 , Communist forces under Enver Hoxha emerged victorious in Albania . Hoxha subsequently implemented a totalitarian Stalinist government which banned all religions in the country .
It is estimated that there were 1 @,@ 800 Jews in Albania at the end of the Second World War , eleven times more than the number of Jews living in the country at the beginning of the war . The Jewish community in Kosovo never fully recovered from the war . Few Jews remained in the region and many emigrated to Israel during the Communist period . Similarly , most Jews in Albania decided to emigrate following the Communist takeover , but approximately 300 remained in the country until the early 1990s . The official Albanian census of April 1989 recorded 73 Jews living in the country . With the fall of Communism , Albania eased restrictions on religion and foreign travel , which resulted in virtually the entire Jewish community of the country emigrating to Israel . From December 1990 to June 1991 , 350 Albanian Jews were airlifted from Albania to Israel in what was codenamed " Operation Flying Carpet " . Most of the 60 remaining Jews in the country left in 1997 , after an outbreak of political violence .
The Republic of Albania was recognized as Righteous Among the Nations at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington , D.C. on 2 February 1995 . As of 2011 , 69 Albanians have been recognized by Yad Vashem as Righteous Among the Nations for their role in helping Jews in Albania survive the Holocaust . The only public space in Albania dedicated to the Holocaust is a small display at the National Historical Museum in Tirana . Consisting of photographs , texts , maps , and wartime documents , it was opened on 29 November 2004 .
= The Power of Three ( Doctor Who ) =
" The Power of Three " is the fourth episode of the seventh series of the British science fiction television programme Doctor Who that aired on BBC One and BBC One HD on 22 September 2012 . It was written by Chris Chibnall and directed by Douglas Mackinnon .
In the episode , alien time traveller the Doctor ( Matt Smith ) spends time on Earth with his travelling companions Amy Pond ( Karen Gillan ) and her husband Rory ( Arthur Darvill ) while he awaits activity from millions of small cubes that appeared overnight .
" The Power of Three " focused on Amy and Rory 's point of view and the impact of the Doctor 's influence on their lives , as they would be leaving in the next episode . The story was inspired by The Man Who Came to Dinner and the story of the MSC Napoli . The episode also saw the return of UNIT and introduced their new scientific advisor , Kate Stewart ( Jemma Redgrave ) , daughter of Brigadier Lethbridge @-@ Stewart . The episode featured brief cameo appearances by Lord Sugar and professor Brian Cox . Despite being the penultimate episode in the first block of the series , " The Power of Three " was the last to be filmed , and was thus the last episode for Gillan and Darvill .
The episode was watched by 7 @.@ 67 million viewers in the UK . Critical reception to the episode was generally positive , highlighting the emotion and humour , although many critics derided the solution to the plot .
= = Plot = =
Amy and Rory have tried to adjust to normal life without travelling with the Doctor . One day billions of small black cubes appear around the globe , but they appear to be inert and invulnerable . The Doctor arrives to help , having been alerted by news stories . UNIT storms the Williams ' house soon after in response to the Doctor 's arrival ; the UNIT force is led by scientific adviser Kate Stewart , the daughter of the Doctor 's friend and former UNIT commander , Brigadier Lethbridge @-@ Stewart . Kate explains that they have no idea of the purpose of the cubes and hope the Doctor can help . After several days of watching the cubes without anything out of the ordinary occurring , the Doctor decides there is no problem and puts Rory 's father Brian in charge of watching the cubes as he returns and departs in the TARDIS .
Over the following year , Amy and Rory live out their lives , making commitments despite not knowing if they will always be around . The Doctor visits them at their wedding anniversary party and takes them on a trip for seven weeks , though returns them a few minutes after leaving . Brian notices their absence and , in private , asks the Doctor the fate of his previous companions . The Doctor admits that while most had left on their own or were left behind , some have died , but promises that will not happen to Amy or Rory . Humanity forgets about the cubes ' arrival , and use them as paperweights and similar mundane functions . Unknown to anyone at the hospital where Rory works , a young girl with a cube controls a pair of identical orderlies with distorted faces to capture a few selected patients .
A year after their arrival , the cubes start to activate , scanning the world 's information networks and acting in self @-@ defence . The Doctor realises that the cubes are part of a " slow invasion " . While Rory and Brian go to the hospital to help those injured by the cubes , the Doctor and Amy are summoned to the UNIT headquarters under the Tower of London where Kate shows them several cubes under investigation , every single one behaving in a different fashion . The cubes then simultaneously display the number 7 and slowly count down . Meanwhile , at the hospital , Brian is taken by the two orderlies to a lift , where they disappear . Rory soon follows and finds that the back of the lift is a portal to a spaceship in Earth 's orbit .
The cubes all open when they reach zero , appearing empty , but soon reports of people dying from cardiac arrest appear from around the globe . The Doctor finds that one of his own hearts has stopped , and realises that the cubes sent out an electrical impulse that killed about one @-@ third of the human population . Kate 's team traces a communication from the cubes to seven different outposts across the world , including one at Rory 's hospital , and the Doctor and Amy race there . Amy uses a defibrillator to restart the Doctor 's heart . They find the girl , who the Doctor realises is an android , and disable her before locating the lift and the portal .
Aboard the ship , Amy and Rory rescue Brian while the Doctor encounters a hologram of a member of the Shakri , who , according to Gallifreyan legend , were self @-@ appointed " pest controllers " in the universe . The Shakri states that he and six other ships tied to the other outposts are there to wipe out humanity before it spreads across the galaxy , and prepares to launch a second wave of cubes to kill even more before disappearing . The Doctor uses the ship 's computer to reverse the shock the cubes gave to the original victims , restoring them , and the three escape the ship before the feedback from the cubes causes it to explode . As the world recovers , the Doctor prepares to leave when Brian insists that Amy and Rory go with him , stating the adventures they have with him are a once @-@ in @-@ a @-@ lifetime opportunity . He tells the Doctor to " just bring them back safe " . The three say goodbye to Brian and depart in the TARDIS .
= = = Continuity = = =
The Doctor tells Brian that a few of his previous companions have died ; this is a reference to Sara Kingdom , Katarina , and Adric . At one point , the Doctor , Amy , and Rory relax and eat fish fingers and custard , a reference to " The Eleventh Hour " . Amy and Rory 's meal at the newly opened Savoy hotel is ruined by " a Zygon spaceship parked under the Savoy " ; the Zygons previously featured in the Fourth Doctor serial Terror of the Zygons and would appear again in the 50th anniversary special The Day of the Doctor ( 2013 ) . The Tower of London had previously served as a UNIT base in " The Christmas Invasion " and was mentioned as such in " The Sontaran Stratagem " . The Doctor also mentions having a metallic dog that could hover ; this refers to K @-@ 9 , the robotic dog of the Fourth Doctor .
= = Production = =
The episode 's title was originally reported as " Cubed " , but was later announced as " The Power of Three " . Chris Chibnall had previously written the Doctor Who episodes " 42 " ( 2007 ) , " The Hungry Earth " / " Cold Blood " ( 2010 ) , and the second episode of the seventh series , " Dinosaurs on a Spaceship " . He was also a major contributor to the spinoff series Torchwood . " The Power of Three " is his second contribution to Doctor Who 's seventh series , after " Dinosaurs on a Spaceship " . Chibnall described " The Power of Three " as " a lovely big Earth invasion story " but different from the ones done before , as it focused on Amy and Rory 's time with the Doctor and the impact of him on their lives . He stated it is told more from Amy and Rory 's point of view than ever before , and is about celebrating them before they leave in the following episode . Chibnall 's brief from showrunner Steven Moffat was to " live with the Doctor — The Man Who Came to Dinner , Doctor Who style . " Chibnall was also inspired by the story of the MSC Napoli . Smith put disgust into the Doctor 's remark concerning Twitter in the episode , reflecting his real @-@ life decision to stay off the social network .
At Chibnall 's request , " The Power of Three " sees the return of UNIT , which first appeared in The Invasion ( 1968 ) and became a regular feature during the Third Doctor ( Jon Pertwee ) era . The episode reveals that Kate Stewart is now running UNIT ; she is the daughter of Brigadier Lethbridge @-@ Stewart and previously appeared in the Reeltime Pictures direct @-@ to @-@ video films Downtime and Dæmos Rising played by Beverley Cressman . Following the death of actor Nicholas Courtney in early 2011 , the Doctor learned of the Brigadier 's death in the sixth series finale " The Wedding of River Song " . Matt Smith enjoyed working with Jemma Redgrave , describing her as " graceful , funny and charming and an absolute delight " .
The read @-@ through of " The Power of Three " took place at Roath Lock , Cardiff on 27 April 2012 . It was filmed by itself in the series ' third production block . Because of this schedule , it was the final episode Gillan and Darvill filmed as Amy and Rory . Their last scene filmed together was getting into the TARDIS with the Doctor after saying farwell to Brian ; when the doors closed Gillan , Darvill , and Smith hugged and started crying . Some exterior scenes at Amy and Rory 's house were re @-@ shot in June and July 2012 , with Darvill briefly returning for the June re @-@ shoot . Producer Marcus Wilson stated that a " hundred " individual cube props were made , with " many more " added with computer @-@ generated imagery ( CGI ) . Amy and the Doctor 's conversation outside the Tower of London could not be filmed at the genuine location due to the London Olympics , so it was shot on studio in Cardiff and the live action was combined with other footage to create the illusion . The episode also features cameos from physicist Brian Cox and Lord Sugar , both of whom were long @-@ time fans of the program . Sugar 's cameo was in fact filmed on the set of The Apprentice , with director Douglas Mackinnon standing in for the person who was fired .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" The Power of Three " was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC One and BBC One HD on 22 September 2012 . Overnight ratings showed that it was watched by an audience of 5 @.@ 49 million live . The final consolidated rating rose to 7 @.@ 67 million viewers , making it the thirteenth most @-@ watched programme of the week on British television , and the fifth highest rated on BBC One . The episode also received 1 @.@ 3 million requests on BBC 's online iPlayer , placing it fourth for the month on the site behind the first three episodes of the series . It also received an Appreciation Index of 87 , considered " excellent " .
= = = Critical reception = = =
" The Power of Three " received generally positive reviews . Dan Martin of The Guardian stated he " bloody loved " the episode , calling it " a nostalgic run through all the best bits of the Russell T Davies era " . However , he noted that it " also had the weaknesses of some of [ Davies ' ] adventures – the ending was so underdeveloped that even a magic button couldn 't explain it – but ' The Power of Three ' was , in every sense , completely gorgeous " . Neela Debnath , writing for The Independent , praised the way the episode showed the companion 's life outside the TARDIS and celebrated Amy and Rory , as well as the introduction of Kate Stewart and her connection with the Brigadier .
Radio Times reviewer Patrick Mulkern described it as " beautifully made television " and welcomed Kate as a " wonderful addition " . However , he stated that he did not " entirely buy the Doctor 's solution " . Keith Phipps of The A.V. Club graded the episode as a B + . Despite noting the plot was " fairly standard " and " easily foiled " , he wrote that the concept of the cubes and " slow invasion " was " a cleverly executed bit of business " . IGN 's Matt Risley rated " The Power of Three " a score of 8 out of 10 , writing that the first three quarters were " simply brilliant " because of the emotion and humour . However , he criticised the " rushed resolution " and the lack of explanation for the aliens at the hospital . Digital Spy reviewer Morgan Jeffery gave the episode four out of five stars , describing it as " an emotional , fun and involving Doctor Who episode " despite the disappointing resolution .
Russell Lewin of SFX gave the episode three and a half out of five stars , naming it as Chibnall 's best Doctor Who episode . While he noted that " the ending was potentially always going to be a let down ... And it is " , there was " much to enjoy beforehand " such as UNIT and the humour . The Daily Telegraph reviewer Gavin Fuller gave it a score of two and a half out of five stars , feeling that it was " treading water " as a lead @-@ in to the following finale . He described the first twenty minutes as " overpadded " and " heavy on exposition but little else " , and pointed out the unexplained action at Rory 's hospital . However , he enjoyed Amy and the Doctor 's conversation and the " countdown element and the mystery of the cubes " , but found the explanation unoriginal and the conclusion too easy .
= Edward I of England =
Edward I ( 17 / 18 June 1239 – 7 July 1307 ) , also known as Edward Longshanks and the Hammer of the Scots ( Latin : Malleus Scotorum ) , was King of England from 1
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am Patel , author of many works about Kalidasa , credits him as the first person to introduce the petrification motif . In the Ramavataram too , Rama does not have to touch Ahalya with his foot ; the dust from his feet is enough to bring her back to life . As in other versions of the tale , the repentant Ahalya is turned to stone , only to be liberated by Rama , and Indra runs away disguised as a cat but is cursed to bear the marks of a thousand vulvae . The Ramavataram is an example of the Bhakti @-@ era poets who exalt Rama as a saviour .
Although opinions differ on whether the Bala Kanda narrative of Ahalya refers to the divinity of Rama , later sources assert Rama 's divine status , portraying Ahalya as a condemned woman rescued by God . The Bhakti @-@ era poets use the episode as an archetypal example to demonstrate God 's saving grace . The main theme of such narratives is her deliverance by Rama , which is seen as proof of his compassion .
Most of the fifth chapter of the Bala Kanda Book of the Adhyatma Ramayana ( embedded in the Brahmanda Purana , c . 14th century ) is dedicated to the Ahalya episode . Like most other versions of the story , Ahalya is turned into stone and advised to engross herself in meditation of Rama , " the Supreme Lord " . When Rama touches the stone with his foot on Vishvamitra 's advice , Ahalya rises as a beautiful maiden and sings a long panegyric dedicated to Rama . She describes his iconographic form and exalts him as an avatar of Vishnu and source of the universe to whom many divinities pay their respects . After worshipping him , she returns to Gautama . At the end of the narrative , Ahalya 's hymn is prescribed as an ideal benediction for a devotee to gain Rama 's favour . The Awadhi Ramacharitamanasa ( 16th century ) drops the narrative of Indra 's visit to Ahalya . In this epic , Vishvamitra tells Rama that the cursed Ahalya has assumed the form of a rock and is patiently awaiting the dust from Rama 's feet . Ahalya tells Rama that Gautama was right to pronounce the curse , and she deems it as the greatest favour , for as a result , she feasted her eyes on Rama , who liberated her from her worldly existence . As in the Adhyatma Ramayana , Ahalya lauds Rama as the great Lord served by other divinities , asks for the boon of eternal engrossment in his devotion and afterwards leaves for her husband 's abode . The narrative ends with praise for Rama 's compassion . Tulsidas alludes to this episode numerous times in the Ramacharitamanasa while highlighting the significance of Rama 's benevolence . Commenting on this narrative in the Ramacharitamanasa , Rambhadracharya says that Rama destroyed three things : the sin of Ahalya by his sight , the curse by the dust of his feet and the affliction by the touch of his feet , evidenced by the use of the Tribhangi ( meaning " destroyer of the three " ) metre in the verses which form Ahalya 's panegyric .
= = = Other variants = = =
In some rare exceptions , the curse is dropped . In an instance in the Mahabharata , where details of the seduction are absent , an agitated Gautama orders his son Chirakari to behead his " polluted " mother and leaves the ashram . However , Chirakari is hesitant to follow the order and later concludes that Ahalya is innocent . Gautama returns and repents his hasty decision , realising that Indra is the guilty party . In the Bhil Ramayana , Gautama attacks and imprisons Indra , who is freed when he promises to shower rain on the crops as the rain god . He must also ensure that one quarter of the crops is dedicated to Gautama . Here , Ahalya is interpreted as dry and burnt land , eager for the rains sent by Indra , who is tamed by the wild cyclonic Gautama .
= = Modern renditions = =
Ahalya has been examined in a new light by several modern writers , most commonly through short stories or through poetry in various Indian languages . Although Ahalya is a minor character in all ancient sources , " stigmatised and despised by those around her " for violating gender norms , modern Indian writers have elevated her to the status of an epic heroine , rather than an insignificant figure in the saga of Rama . However , in modern devotional Ramayana adaptations where Rama is the hero , the redemption of Ahalya continues to be a supernatural incident in his life .
Ahalya 's tale lives on in modern @-@ day poetry , including works by Rabindranath Tagore in Bengali and English ; P. T. Narasimhachar 's 1940 Kannada poetic drama , Ahalya , which weighs kama against dharma ( pleasure against duty ) ; and the works of the Sanskrit scholar and poet Chandra Rajan . It is retold numerous times in stage enactments as well as in film and television productions . Ahalya is a popular motif in the Mahari temple @-@ dancer tradition of Odisha . Other works and genres of performance art that have been used to tell her story include the mohiniyattam dance of Kerala ; Ahalyamoksham , a play by Kunchan Nambiar staged in the ottamthullal tradition ; and Sati Ahalya , a padya @-@ natakam drama from Andhra Pradesh .
Early in the 20th century , the old norms were reasserted . Pa . Subramania Mudaliar in his Tamil poem ( 1938 ) describes Ahalya lecturing Indra on chastity , but Indra 's lust compels him to rape her . Gautama turns Ahalya to stone to free her from the trauma . The Tamil writer Yogiyar portrays an innocent Ahalya , who sleeps with the disguised Indra , overcome with guilt and asking for punishment . Sripada Krishnamurty Sastry 's Telugu version of Ramayana ( 1947 ) , one of the most censored versions of the tale , reduces Ahalya 's contact with Indra to a handshake .
Other authors reinterpreted the Ahalya legend from a very different perspective , often depicting Ahalya as a rebel and telling the story from her angle . R. K. Narayan ( 1906 – 2001 ) focuses on the psychological details of the story , reusing the old tale of Indra 's disguise as Gautama , his flight as a cat and Ahalya 's petrifaction . The theme of adulterous love is explored in Vishram Bedekar 's musical Marathi play Brahma Kumari ( 1933 ) and the Malayalam works of P. V. Ramavarier ( 1941 ) and M. Parvati Amma ( 1948 ) . The Ahalya of the Tamil short story writer Ku Pa Rajagopalan ( 1902 – 44 ) also secretly longs for Indra and enjoys dalliance with him . Pratibha Ray 's Odia novel Mahamoha ( 1997 , " Great Lust " ) portrays an independent and nonconformist Ahalya as a tragic heroine , who offers herself to Indra so that he can fulfil his lust and she her womanhood . When Gautama persuades her to lie to society by claiming to have been raped , she debates chastity and freedom of mind with him .
Some writers try to imagine Ahalya 's life after the curse and redemption , a denouement which remains undisclosed in the ancient scriptures . Pudhumaipithan 's Tamil story Sapavimocanam ( 1943 , " Deliverance from the Curse " ) and K. B. Sreedevi 's Malayalam language work ( 1990 ) translated as " Woman of Stone " focus on Rama 's " double standard " from a feminist perspective . They ask why Rama frees Ahalya from being cursed for adultery , but punishes his wife Sita over false accusations of adultery with her kidnapper , Ravana . In Pudhumaipithan 's tale , Ahalya turns back into stone after hearing that Sita had to undergo a trial by fire to prove her chastity . Sreedevi portrays her turning into stone upon learning that Sita was banished from the kingdom on charges of adultery even after proving her chastity through the trial . Pudhumaipithan also narrates how , after the redemption , Ahalya suffers from " post @-@ trauma repetition syndrome " , repeatedly re @-@ experiencing Indra 's seduction and Gautama 's fury , as well as suffering the ire of a conservative society that rejects her . Gautama also suffers from self @-@ recrimination at his hasty decision to curse Ahalya . In another story , Ahalya by Pudhumaipithan , Gautama forgives both Ahalya and Indra .
S. Sivasekaram 's 1980 Tamil poem Ahalikai examines the stone motif in Ahalya 's tale : she marries a husband who is no more interested in her than a stone and briefly encounters joy with Indra , only to end up cursed to become a lifeless stone . The poet asks if it was better for Ahalya to remain physically a stone and retain her dignity rather than return to a stony marriage . Uyir Maga ( " Life @-@ woman " ) by the Tamil poet Na . Pichamurthy ( 1900 – 76 ) presents Ahalya as an allegorical representation of life , with Gautama as the mind and Indra pleasure . The Marxist critic Kovai Gnani , in his poem Kallihai , represents Ahalya as the oppressed class and Rama as an ideal future without exploitation . Gautama and Indra represent feudalism and capitalism . The character of Ahalya played by Kamala Kotnis in the 1949 movie Sati Ahalya ( " chaste Ahalya " ) was described as still relevant by contemporary film critics due to its portrayal of the predicament of a stained woman .
Love , sex and desire become important elements of the plot in Sant Singh Sekhon 's Punjabi play Kalakar ( 1945 ) , which places the epic drama in the modern age . It depicts Ahalya as a free @-@ spirited woman , who dares to be painted nude by Inder ( Indra ) , a pupil of the art professor , Gautama , and defends her decision against her husband 's criticisms . N. S. Madhavan 's Malayalam story ( April 2006 ) also retells Ahalya 's tale in a modern setting , wherein Ahalya , accused of adultery , is beaten by her husband , leaving her in a coma from which the neurologist , Rama , revives her . The 2015 film Ahalya gives a feminist twist to the tale where the policeman Indra turns into a stone doll , after visiting Ahalya . The tale was also parodied in the Telugu film Attarintiki Daredi . However , the practice of retelling the classical Ahalya – Indra tale in a contemporary setting is not new . The Yoga Vasistha ( 1001 – 1400 ) narrates a tale of two adulterous lovers , Queen Ahalya and the Brahmin Indra . Here , Ahalya and Indra fall in love and continue their affair , despite being punished by Ahalya 's jealous husband . After death , they reunite in their next birth .
= = Children = =
The Ramayana mentions Ahalya 's son , Shatananda ( Satananda ) , the family priest and preceptor of King Janaka of Mithila . In this version , Shatananda asks Vishvamitra anxiously about the well @-@ being of his " renowned " mother . By contrast , the Mahabharata mentions two sons : Sharadvan , born with arrows in his hand , and Chirakari , whose extensive brooding over his actions leads to procrastination . Besides these , an unnamed daughter is also alluded to in the narrative . The Vamana Purana mentions three daughters : Jaya , Jayanti and Aparaji .
Another legend , generally told in Indian folk tales , states that Aruna , the charioteer of the sun @-@ god Surya , once became a woman named Aruni and entered an assembly of celestial nymphs , where no man except Indra was allowed . Indra fell in love with Aruni and fathered a son named Vali . The next day , at Surya 's request , Aruna again assumed female form , and Surya fathered a son , Sugriva . Both children were given to Ahalya for rearing , but Gautama cursed them , causing them to turn into monkeys , as he did not like them . In the Thai version of the Ramayana , the Ramakien , Vali and Sugriva are described as Ahalya 's children from her liaisons with Indra and Surya . Although Ahalya initially passes them off as sons of Gautama , her daughter by Gautama – Anjani – reveals her mother 's secret to her father . He consequently drives the brothers away and curses them to become monkeys . Enraged , Ahalya curses Anjani to give birth to a monkey too . Anjani bears Hanuman , the monkey @-@ god and helper of Rama . Similar tales are also found in the Malay adaptation , Hikayat Seri Rama , and Punjabi and Gujarati folk tales . However , Anjani is cursed by Gautama in these versions , generally for aiding Indra and Ahalya in concealing the secret .
Some Tamil castes trace their ancestry to Ahalya and Indra 's liaison ; the castes are named after Ahalya 's children . Gautama finds the three boys and names them according to their behaviour : Agamudayar ( derived from " brave " ) , who confronts Gautama , Maravar ( derived from " tree " ) , who climbs a tree and Kallar ( derived from " thief " or " rock " ) , who hides like a thief behind a large rock . A fourth child , Vellala , is added in some versions . In another variant , the liaison is replaced by penance and worship offered by Ahalya to Indra , who gifts her the children as a reward .
= = Assessment and remembrance = =
A well @-@ known verse about Ahalya runs :
Orthodox Hindus , especially Hindu wives , remember the panchakanya , the five virgins or maidens , in this daily morning prayer . One view considers them " exemplary chaste women " or mahasatis ( " great chaste women " ) as per the Mahari dance tradition , and worthy as an ideal for " displaying some outstanding quality " . According to this view , Ahalya is the " epitome of the chaste wife , unjustly accused of adultery " , while her " proverbial loyalty to her husband " makes her venerable . Ahalya is often regarded as the leader of the panchkanya due to the " nobility of her character , her extraordinary beauty and the fact of her being chronologically the first kanya " . In the Devi @-@ Bhagavata Purana , Ahalya is included in a list of secondary goddesses , who are " auspicious , glorious and much praiseworthy " , alongside Tara and Mandodari as well as some of the pancha @-@ satis ( " five satis or chaste wives " ) Arundhati and Damayanti .
Another view does not regard the panchakanya as ideal women who should be emulated . Bhattacharya , author of Panch @-@ Kanya : The Five Virgins of Indian Epics contrasts the panchakanya with the five satis enlisted in another traditional prayer : Sati , Sita , Savitri , Damayanti and Arundhati . He rhetorically asks , " Are then Ahalya , Draupadi , Kunti , Tara , and Mandodari not chaste wives because each has ' known ' a man , or more than one , other than her husband ? " Because they exhibited sexual behaviours that were non @-@ ideal and even unethical according to traditional norms , Indian social reformer Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay was perplexed by the inclusion of Ahalya and Tara in the panchakanya . Although Ahalya 's transgression blemished her and denied her the high status and reverence accorded to women like Sita and Savitri , this action made her immortal in legend .
The place where Ahalya is held to have practised her penance and was redeemed has been celebrated in scriptures as a sacred place called the Ahalya @-@ tirtha . A tirtha is a sacred place with a body of water , where pilgrims generally bathe to purify themselves . The location of the Ahalya @-@ tirtha is disputed : according to some scriptures , it is on the river Godavari , others place it on the river Narmada . Two sites are widely held to be the Ahalya @-@ tirtha . One is located near Ahalyeshvara Temple in Bhalod , on the banks of the Narmada ; another is located in Darbhanga district , Bihar . The Ahilya Asthan temple in Ahalya @-@ gram ( " Ahalya 's village " ) in the same district is dedicated to Ahalya . For those seeking to attract women and be handsome like the love @-@ god Kamadeva , the Matsya Purana and the Kurma Purana prescribe the worship of Ahalya at the Ahalya @-@ tirtha . This is to be done on the day of Kamadeva , in the Hindu month of Chaitra . According to the texts , he who bathes in the tirtha will enjoy pleasure with the celestial nymphs .
For Bhattacharya , Ahalya is the eternal woman who responds to her inner urges and the advances of the divine ruler , a direct contrast to her ascetic husband , who did not satisfy her carnal desire . The author regards Ahalya as an independent woman who makes her own decisions , takes risks and is driven by curiosity to experiment with the extraordinary and then accept the curse imposed on her by patriarchal society . It is this undaunted acceptance of the curse that makes the Ramayana praise and venerate her . V. R. Devika , author of Ahalya : Scarlet Letter , asks , " So is it right to condemn adultery and physical encounters as modern afflictions and against our [ Indian / Hindu ] culture ? Or do we learn from Ahalya who made a conscious choice to fulfil her need and yet has been extolled ? "
Like Bhattacharya , Meena Kelkar , author of Subordination of Woman : a New Perspective , feels that Ahalya was made venerable due to her acceptance of gender norms ; she ungrudgingly accepted the curse while acknowledging her need for punishment . However , Kelkar adds that another reason for making Ahalya immortal in scripture could be that her punishment acts as a warning and deterrent to women . Patriarchal society always condemns Ahalya as a fallen woman . In Bhavabhuti 's 8th @-@ century play Mahaviracharita , which alludes to Ahalya 's redemption in a verbal spat with Parashurama , Satananda is mocked as the son of Ahalya , the adulteress . Jaya Srinivasan , in her discourses on tales from the Hindu epics , says that though Ahalya 's action was " unpardonable " , she was redeemed by the divine touch of dust from Rama 's feet . Jaya adds that Ahalya 's actions and the resultant curse are a warning that such immoral behaviour leads to doom , although sincere penitence and complete surrender to God can erase the gravest sins . In Hindu Tamil weddings in India and Sri Lanka , Ahalya appears as a symbolic black grinding stone , which the bride touches with her foot while promising not to be like Ahalya . The bride is also shown the star associated with the chaste Arundhati , who is cast as her ideal . The well @-@ known treatise on sexual behaviour , the Kama Sutra ( 301 – 600 ) , also mentions Ahalya and Indra while discussing how lust destroys men . However , it also urges men to seduce women by telling the romantic tales of Ahalya .
The right @-@ wing Hindu women 's organisation Rashtra Sevika Samiti considers Ahalya the symbol of " Hindu woman 's ( and Hindu society 's ) rape by the outsider " , especially British colonisers and Muslim invaders , but also Hindu men . The feminist writer Tarabai Shinde ( 1850 – 1910 ) writes that the scriptures , by depicting gods such as Indra who exploit chaste wives such as Ahalya , are responsible for promoting immoral ways ; she asks why so much importance is then given to pativrata dharma , the devotion and fidelity to the husband which is said to be the ultimate duty of a wife .
A similar tale of divine seduction appears in Greek mythology , where Zeus , a king @-@ of @-@ the @-@ gods figure akin to Indra , seduces Alcmene by assuming the form of her husband , resulting in the birth of the legendary hero Heracles . Like Ahalya , Alcmene falls victim to Zeus 's trickery in some versions or , recognising his true identity , proceeds with the affair in others . The main difference between the tales is that the raison @-@ d 'être of Alcmene 's seduction is the justification of Heracles 's divine parentage , so she is never condemned as an adulteress or punished ; in contrast , Ahalya faces the ire of the scriptures as her encounter is regarded as purely erotic ( not resulting in procreation ) .
= Coronation =
A coronation is a ceremony marking the formal investiture of a monarch and / or their consort with regal power , usually involving the ritual placement of a crown upon his or her head and the presentation of other items of regalia . A ceremony without the placement of a crown on one 's head is known as an enthronement . The ceremony may include the taking of special vows by the monarch , acts of homage by the new ruler 's subjects and the performance of other ritual deeds of special significance to the particular nation . Once a vital ritual among the world 's monarchies , coronations have changed over time for a variety of socio @-@ political and religious factors ; most modern monarchies have dispensed with them altogether , preferring simpler enthronement , investiture or benediction ceremonies . Coronations are still observed in the United Kingdom , Tonga , and several Asian and African countries . In common usage today , coronation normally refers to the official investiture or enthronement of the monarch , whether or not an actual crown is bestowed .
In addition to investing the monarch with symbols of state , Western @-@ style coronations have often traditionally involve anointing with holy oil , or chrism as it is often called . Wherever a ruler is anointed in this way , as in Great Britain and Tonga , this ritual takes on an overtly religious significance , following examples found in the Bible . Some other lands use bathing or cleansing rites , the drinking of a sacred beverage , or other religious practices to achieve a comparable effect . Such acts symbolise the granting of divine favour to the monarch within the relevant spiritual @-@ religious paradigm of the country .
In the past , concepts of royalty , coronation and deity were often inexorably linked . In some ancient cultures , rulers were considered to be divine or partially divine : the Egyptian Pharaoh was believed to be the son of Ra , the sun god , while in Japan , the Emperor was believed to be a descendant of Amaterasu , the sun goddess . Rome promulgated the practice of emperor worship ; in Medieval Europe , monarchs claimed to have a divine right to rule . Coronations were once a direct visual expression of these alleged connections , but recent centuries have seen the lessening of such beliefs due to increasing secularization and democratization . Thus , coronations ( or their religious elements , at least ) have often been discarded altogether or altered to reflect the constitutional nature of the states in which they are held . However , some monarchies still choose to retain an overtly religious dimension to their accession rituals . Others have adopted simpler enthronement or inauguration ceremonies , or even no ceremony at all .
= = History and development = =
The coronation ceremonies in medieval Christendom , both Western and Eastern , are influenced by the practice of the Roman Emperors as it developed during Late Antiquity , indirectly influenced by Biblical accounts of kings being crowned and anointed . The European coronation ceremonies , perhaps best known in the form they have taken in Great Britain ( the most recent of which occurred in 1953 ) , descend from rites initially created in Byzantium , Visigothic Spain , Carolingian France and the Holy Roman Empire and brought to their apogee during the Medieval era .
In non @-@ Christian states , coronation rites evolved from a variety of sources , often related to the religious beliefs of that particular nation . Buddhism , for instance , influenced the coronation rituals of Thailand , Cambodia and Bhutan , while Hindu elements played a significant role in Nepalese rites . The ceremonies used in modern Egypt , Malaysia , Brunei and Iran were shaped by Islam , while Tonga 's ritual combines ancient Polynesian influences with more modern Anglican ones .
= = = Antiquity = = =
Coronations , in one form or another , have existed since ancient times . Egyptian records show coronation scenes , such as that of Seti I in 1290 BC . Judeo @-@ Christian scriptures testify to particular rites associated with the conferring of kingship , the most detailed accounts of which are found in II Kings 11 : 12 and II Chronicles 23 : 11 .
The corona radiata , the " radiant crown " known best on the Statue of Liberty , and perhaps worn by the Helios that was the Colossus of Rhodes , was worn by Roman emperors as part of the cult of Sol Invictus , part of the imperial cult as it developed during the 3rd century . The origin of the crown is thus religious , comparable to the significance of a halo , marking the sacral nature of kingship , expressing that either the king is himself divine , or ruling by divine right .
The precursor to the crown was the browband called the diadem , which had been worn by the Achaemenid rulers , was adopted by Constantine I , and was worn by all subsequent rulers of the later Roman Empire . Following the assumption of the diadem by Constantine , Roman and Byzantine emperors continued to wear it as the supreme symbol of their authority . Although no specific coronation ceremony was observed at first , one gradually evolved over the following century . The emperor Julian was hoisted upon a shield and crowned with a gold necklace provided by one of his standard @-@ bearers ; he later wore a jewel @-@ studded diadem . Later emperors were crowned and acclaimed in a similar manner , until the momentous decision was taken to permit the Patriarch of Constantinople to physically place the crown on the emperor 's head . Historians debate when exactly this first took place , but the precedent was clearly established by the reign of Leo II , who was crowned by the Patriarch Acacius in 473 . This ritual included recitation of prayers by the Byzantine prelate over the crown , a further — and extremely vital — development in the liturgical ordo of crowning . After this event , according to the Catholic Encyclopedia , " the ecclesiastical element in the coronation ceremonial rapidly develop [ ed ] " .
In some European Celtic or Germanic countries prior to the adoption of Christianity , the ruler upon his election was raised on a shield and , while standing upon it , was borne on the shoulders of several chief men of the nation ( or tribe ) in a procession around his assembled subjects . This was usually performed three times . Following this , the king was given a spear , and a diadem wrought of silk or linen ( not to be confused with a crown ) was bound around his forehead as a token of regal authority .
= = = Middle Ages = = =
According to Adomnan of Iona , the King of Dal Riata Áedán mac Gabráin came to the monastery at Iona in 574 to be crowned as King by St Columba . In 610 , Heraclius arranged a ceremony in Constantinople where he was crowned and acclaimed emperor . In Spain , the Visigothic king Sisenand was crowned in 631 , and in 672 , Wamba was the first occidental king to be anointed as well , by the archbishop of Toledo . In England , the Anglo @-@ Saxon king Eardwulf of Northumbria was " consecrated and enthroned " in 796 , and Æthelstan was crowned and anointed in 925 . These practices were nevertheless irregularly used or occurred some considerable time after the rulers had become kings , until their regular adoption by the Carolingian dynasty in France . To legitimate his deposition of the last of the Merovingian kings , Pepin the Short was twice crowned and anointed , at the beginning of his reign in 752 , and for the first time by a pope in 754 in Saint @-@ Denis . The anointing served as a reminder of the baptism of Clovis I in Reims in 496 , where the ceremony was finally transferred in 816 . His son Charlemagne , who was crowned emperor in Rome in 800 , passed as well the ceremony to the Holy Roman Empire , and this tradition acquired a newly constitutive function in England too , with the kings Harold Godwinson and William the Conqueror immediately crowned in Westminster Abbey in 1066 .
The European coronation ceremonies of the Middle Ages were essentially a combination of the Christian rite of anointing with additional elements . Following Europe 's conversion to Christianity , crowning ceremonies became more and more ornate , depending on the country in question , and their Christian elements — especially anointing — became the paramount concern . Crowns and sceptres , used in coronations since ancient times , took on a Christian significance together with the orb as symbols of the purported divine order of things , with the monarch as the divinely ordained overlord and protector of his dominion . During the Middle Ages , this rite was considered so vital in some European kingdoms that it was sometimes referred to as an " eighth sacrament " . The anointed ruler was viewed as a mixta persona , part priest and part layman , but never wholly either . This notion persisted into the twentieth century in Imperial Russia , where the Tsar was considered to be " wedded " to his subjects through the Orthodox coronation service . Coronation stones marked the site of some medieval ceremonies , though some alleged stones are later inventions .
Crowning ceremonies arose from a worldview in which monarchs were seen as ordained by God to serve not merely as political or military leaders , nor as figureheads or historical symbols — a role played by most royals today — but rather to occupy a vital ( and very real ) spiritual place in their dominions as well . Coronations were created to reflect and enable these alleged connections ; however , the belief systems that gave birth to them have been radically altered in recent centuries by secularism , egalitarianism and the rise of constitutionalism and democracy . During the Protestant Reformation , the idea of divinely ordained monarchs began to be challenged .
= = = Modern history = = =
The Age of Enlightenment and various revolutions of the last three centuries all helped to further this trend , until the religious dimension of the ceremony has become relatively meaningless in all but a few kingdoms ( mostly in Asia and Oceania ) . Hence , many monarchies — especially in Europe — have dispensed with coronations altogether , or transformed them into simpler inauguration or benediction rites that better reflect the secular nature of those states . Of all European monarchies today , only the United Kingdom still retains its coronation rite , though even this ritual has been altered in the last few centuries . Other nations that still crowning their rulers include Bhutan , Brunei , Cambodia , Lesotho , Swaziland , Thailand , and Tonga , as well as several subnational entities such as the Toro Kingdom . The Papacy retains the option of a coronation , but no pope has used it since 1963 after Pope John Paul I opted for an Inauguration in 1978 .
= = = Canonical Coronation = = =
A Canonical Coronation ( Latin : Coronatam Canonicus ) : is a pious institutional act of the Pope , on behalf of a devotion . This tradition still stands in 2015 , in 2014 Pope Francis crowned Our Lady of Immaculate Conception of Juquila . Since 1989 , the act has been carried out through the authorised decree by the Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments .
= = Coronations and monarchical power = =
In most kingdoms , a monarch succeeding hereditarily does not have to undergo a coronation to ascend the throne or exercise the prerogatives of their office . King Edward VIII of the United Kingdom , for example , did not reign long enough to be crowned before he abdicated , yet he was unquestionably the King of the United Kingdom and Emperor of India during his brief reign . This is because in Britain , the law stipulates that the moment one monarch dies , the new one assumes the throne ; thus , there is no point at which the throne is vacant . In France , the new king ascended the throne when the coffin of the previous monarch descended into the vault at Saint Denis Basilica , and the Duke of Uzes proclaimed " Le Roi est mort , vive le Roi " ! In Hungary , on the other hand , no ruler was regarded as being truly legitimate until he was physically crowned with St. Stephen 's Crown , while monarchs of Belgium or Albania were not allowed to succeed or exercise any of their prerogatives until swearing a formal constitutional oath before their respective nations ' parliaments . Following their election , the kings of Poland were permitted to perform a variety of political acts prior to their coronation , but were not allowed to exercise any of their judicial powers prior to being crowned .
= = Coronation of heirs apparent = =
During the Middle Ages , Capetian Kings of France chose to have their heirs apparent crowned during their own lifetime in order to avoid succession disputes . This practice was later adopted by Angevin Kings of England , Kings of Hungary and other European monarchs . From the moment of their coronation , the heirs were regarded as junior kings ( rex iunior ) , but they exercised little power and historically were not included in the numbering of monarchs if they predeceased their fathers . The nobility disliked this custom , as it reduced their chances to benefit from a possible succession dispute .
The last heir apparent to the French throne to be crowned during his father 's lifetime was the future Philip II of France , while the only crowned heir apparent to the English throne was Henry the Young King , who was first crowned alone and then with his wife , Margaret of France . The practice was eventually abandoned by all kingdoms that had adopted it , as the rules of primogeniture became stronger . The last coronation of an heir apparent , with the exception of the investiture of the current Prince of Wales in 1969 , was the coronation of the future Emperor Ferdinand I of Austria as junior King of Hungary in 1830 .
= = In the modern era = =
Specific coronation rituals by country , arranged by continent or region , are described in the following articles :
Coronations in Africa
Coronations in the Americas
Coronations in Asia
Coronations in Europe
Coronations in Oceania
= = Other uses = =
The term coronation is sometimes used in a semi @-@ ironic sense to refer to uncontested party leadership elections , with all potential party leaders choosing to back a single candidate or to stay silent , rather than stand in an election they are likely to lose . This typically happens where there has been a protracted behind @-@ the @-@ scenes attempt to remove the outgoing leader , leading to a significant amount of time to determine who has the most party support before the election proper .
= = Gallery = =
= 1965 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1965 Atlantic hurricane season was the first to use the modern @-@ day bounds for an Atlantic hurricane season , which are June 1 to November 30 . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin . It was one of the least active seasons on record , with only 6 tropical cyclones developing and reaching tropical storm intensity . Four of the storms strengthened into hurricanes . One system reached major hurricane intensity – Category 3 or higher on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane scale . The first system , an unnamed tropical storm , developed during the month of June in the Pacific Ocean , while located south of Guatemala . The storm moved northward across Central America , but caused no known impact in the region . It struck the Florida Panhandle and caused minor impact across much of the Southern United States . Tropical cyclogenesis halted for over two months , until Anna formed on August 21 . The storm remained well away from land in the far North Atlantic Ocean and caused no impact .
Hurricane Betsy was the strongest and most devastating storm of the season . Extensive damage from Betsy was reported in The Bahamas , Florida , and Louisiana , particularly the New Orleans area . It was the first hurricane in the history of the United States to result in at least $ 1 billion ( 1965 USD ) in losses . Hurricane Carol meandered in the eastern Atlantic for over two weeks from mid @-@ September to very early October . Impact on land from Carol was minimal . In late September , Tropical Storm Debbie developed in the northwestern Caribbean Sea and moved slowly across the region , before later reaching the Gulf of Mexico . The storm dissipated just offshore of Louisiana , which resulted in only minor impact along the Gulf Coast of the United States . The final tropical cyclone , Hurricane Elena , formed on October 12 . Elena remained at sea for nearly a week and caused no damage on land . Collectively , the storms of the 1965 Atlantic hurricane season caused 76 fatalities and $ 1 @.@ 45 billion in damage , almost entirely due to Hurricane Betsy .
= = Season summary = =
The Atlantic hurricane season officially began on June 1 , 1965 . This was the first Atlantic hurricane season to start on June 1 and end on November 30 , which is the modern @-@ day season bounds . It was a below average season in which six tropical depressions formed . All six of the depressions attained tropical storm status , and four of these attained hurricane status . Furthermore , one storm reached major hurricane status – Category 3 or greater on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale . Two tropical storms and one hurricane made landfall during the season and caused 76 fatalities and about $ 1 @.@ 45 billion in damage .
Season activity began with the development of an unnamed tropical storm on June 11 . However , the season briefly became dormant after the storm dissipated on June 15 , and there were no other tropical cyclones in June or July . The next system , Hurricane Anna , formed on August 21 , more than two months later . Later in August , Hurricane Betsy developed and eventually became the most intense tropical cyclone of the 1965 season . In mid @-@ September , Hurricane Carol formed in the eastern Atlantic and meandered for over two weeks . The next system , Tropical Storm Debbie , developed in the northwestern Caribbean Sea on September 24 . Hurricane Elena , the final tropical cyclone , developed on October 12 and dissipated on October 18 , slightly less than two weeks before the official end of the season on November 30 .
The season 's activity was reflected with an accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) rating of 84 , which was below the 1950 @-@ 2000 average of 96 @.@ 1 . ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , have high ACEs . It is only calculated for full advisories on tropical cyclones with winds exceeding 39 mph ( 63 km / h ) , which is tropical storm strength .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Storm One = = =
A cut @-@ off low pressure area developed from a shear trough in the northwestern Gulf of Mexico on June 9 . The low caused the detachment of a disturbance from the Intertropical convergence zone , which was located near the south coast of Guatemala . At 0600 UTC on June 11 , a tropical depression formed while centered about 95 miles ( 153 km ) south @-@ southwest of Sipacate , Guatemala . Shortly thereafter , it struck Escuintla Department without strengthening . After moving across Guatemala and Mexico , the depression emerged into the Gulf of Mexico on June 13 . The depression intensified on the following day , reaching tropical storm status at 0000 UTC . Operationally , the system was considered a tropical depression for its entire duration , thus , this went unnamed . The storm began curving northeastward , and by early on June 15 , it peaked with winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) .
Later that day at 1200 UTC , the storm made landfall near Santa Rosa Beach , Florida at the same intensity . Inland , the storm continued northeastward and became extratropical over eastern Georgia at 0000 UTC on June 16 . Tides along the coast of the Florida Panhandle were 3 – 4 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 – 1 @.@ 22 m ) above normal . The storm brought sustained winds of 50 to 60 mph ( 85 to 105 km / h ) with gusts up to 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) at Alligator Point . Winds blew the roof off of two beach cottages on St. George Island , while tides sank or washed ashore several small boats . The storm also produced rainfall up to 8 @.@ 75 inches ( 222 mm ) in Wewahitchka , but no flooding occurred . Two tornadoes were spawned in the state with one damaging a houses and a mobile home in Live Oak . The storm also brought rainfall to several other states .
= = = Hurricane Anna = = =
A weak circulation was noted by Television Infrared Observation Satellite ( TIROS ) near Cape Verde on August 16 . During the next five days , the system tracked west @-@ northwestward or northwestward , while conditions gradually became favorable for tropical cyclogenesis . At 0600 UTC on August 21 , it is estimated that the system became Tropical Storm Anna . While Anna was tracking north @-@ northeastward on August 23 , an eye feature appeared on TIROS . After another aircraft reported an eye on its radar , Anna was upgraded to a hurricane later that day . Late on August 24 , Anna reached maximum sustained winds of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) while accelerating northeastward . Anna began losing tropical characteristics , and early on the following day , it transitioned into an extratropical storm while about halfway between the Azores and Greenland .
= = = Hurricane Betsy = = =
A tropical disturbance developed into a tropical depression on August 27 , while well east of the Windward Islands . It tracked generally west @-@ northward until crossing the Leeward Islands on August 28 . No impact was reported in the islands . After re @-@ curving to the northwest , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Betsy on August 29 . Betsy then rapidly intensified and became a Category 1 hurricane later that day . It executed a small cyclonic loop , before turning west on September 1 . Significant intensification resumed later that day . By late on September 3 , Betsy became a Category 4 hurricane . While northeast of The Bahamas , Betsy moved erratically and executed another cyclonic loop . The storm steadily weakened , and was briefly downgraded to a Category 2 hurricane early on September 6 . However , it promptly re @-@ strengthened into a Category 3 hurricane . Betsy then tracked southwestward and then westward through the Bahamas . The storm produced very strong winds and rough seas in The Bahamas . Damage reached $ 14 million and 1 death occurred in the island chain .
By early on September 8 , Betsy made landfall on Key Largo as a Category 3 hurricane . In South Florida , the storm brought strong winds and significant storm surge . In the Upper Florida Keys , water reached several feet in height , which inundated highways and the first floor of buildings . Nearly all of the land south of Homestead Air Force Base and east of U.S. Route 1 was covered by water . There were 8 deaths and $ 120 million in losses , which included both property and agriculture . Betsy entered into the Gulf of Mexico and re @-@ strengthened into a Category 4 hurricane on September 9 . While approaching the Gulf Coast of the United States , Betsy peaked with winds of 155 mph ( 250 km / h ) , slightly below the threshold for Category 5 hurricane status . However , further intensification was halted after Betsy made landfall in Grand Isle , Louisiana later on September 9 . In Louisiana , strong winds and rough seas caused extensive damage . Storm surge inundated the levees in New Orleans , flooding much of the city . Throughout the state , more than 22 @,@ 000 homes and either damage or destroyed , and 168 @,@ 000 people were left without electricity . The storm caused more than 17 @,@ 000 injuries and resulted in 58 deaths . Damage in the state of Louisiana reached $ 1 @.@ 2 billion . Once inland , the storm rapidly weakened , and became extratropical over Ohio on September 12 . Impact in other states ranged from minor to moderate . Overall , Betsy caused about $ 1 @.@ 45 billion in damage and 76 fatalities . Betsy was the first hurricane in the United States to cause at least $ 1 billion in losses .
= = = Hurricane Carol = = =
A tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic from the west coast of Africa on September 15 and developed into a tropical depression by early on the following day . It headed steadily westward and strengthened into Tropical Storm Carol late on September 17 . The storm began curving northwestward by the following day . Operationally , advisories were not initiated until 1900 UTC on September 19 , after winds had already reached 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . Carol then slowed and began turning north @-@ northward . Later on September 20 , a Navy reconnaissance flight confirmed a circulation and also measured hurricane @-@ force winds . Thus , Carol was upgraded to a hurricane at 1800 UTC on September 20 .
On September 21 , another flight into the storm recorded a minimum pressure of 974 mbar ( 28 @.@ 8 inHg ) , the lowest in relation to Carol . The hurricane accelerated , before slowing in forward motion on September 22 . Between September 24 and September 28 , the storm drifted and executed a small cyclonic loop . Thereafter , Carol re @-@ accelerated and was briefly upgraded to a Category 2 hurricane following an Air Force Reconnaissance report of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) winds . While passing northwest of the Azores , a weather station on Corvo Island reported a sustained wind speed of 64 mph ( 103 km / h ) and a gust up to 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . The storm curved east @-@ southeastward , weakened , and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone while located west of Portugal on October 1 .
= = = Tropical Storm Debbie = = =
A low pressure area in the northwestern Caribbean Sea developed into a tropical depression on September 24 . The depression brought locally heavy rainfall to areas of Honduras while tracking northwestward . Despite winds of only 30 mph ( 45 km / h ) , the Miami Weather Bureau prematurely named the depression Debbie at 1600 UTC on September 25 . Several hours later , Debbie struck the northeastern Yucatán Peninsula . After emerging into the Gulf of Mexico early on September 26 , the storm was described as " weaker than before " , as the convective activity indicated no organization . However , Debbie began to strengthen , reaching tropical storm status on September 28 .
After peaked at winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) late on September 28 , cooler and drier air caused the storm to weaken . Late on September 29 , Debbie was downgraded to a tropical depression and dissipated just offshore Mississippi about twenty @-@ four hours later . Despite its demise , Debbie brought heavy precipitation , especially in Mobile , Alabama , where a 24 @-@ hour rainfall record was broken after 16 @.@ 85 in ( 428 mm ) fell . Within the city of Mobile , hundreds of cars were flooded , while more than 200 people fled their inundated homes . Many roads and businesses were also closed in the area . Damage in Mobile alone reached $ 25 million . Rainfall was reported in 7 other states , though no significant impact occurred .
= = = Hurricane Elena = = =
TIROS imagery indicated a very weak circulation near 12 ° N , 40 ° W on October 11 . Ship reports on the following day indicated a somewhat more organized circulation . As a result , it is estimated that the final tropical depression of the season at 1200 UTC on October 12 , while located about midway between Cape Verde and the Leeward Islands . Initially , the depression remained disorganized while tracking northwestward . However , by early on October 14 , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Elena . The storm continued to intensify and by early on October 16 , a minimum pressure of 991 mbar ( 29 @.@ 3 inHg ) . Therefore , Elena likely reached hurricane status at 0600 UTC that day . Later on October 16 , the storm re @-@ curved to the northeast and began to accelerate . On October 18 , Elena attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 977 mbar ( 28 @.@ 9 inHg ) . At 0000 UTC on the following day , the storm merged with an approaching cold front near the Azores .
= = Storm names = =
The following names were used for named storms ( tropical storms and hurricanes ) that formed in the North Atlantic in 1965 . The name Betsy was later retired . Carol had been removed from the naming list for 10 years following Hurricane Carol of 1954 . It was then retroactively retired because of the 1954 hurricane , not the storm in 1965 . They were replaced with Blanche and Camille for use in the 1969 season . Names that were not assigned are marked in gray .
= Bobby Orr =
Robert Gordon " Bobby " Orr , OC ( born March 20 , 1948 ) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey player , widely acknowledged as one of the greatest hockey players of all time . Orr used his ice skating speed , scoring , and play @-@ making abilities to revolutionize the position of defenceman . He played in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) for 12 seasons , starting with 10 with the Boston Bruins followed by two with the Chicago Black Hawks . Orr remains the only defenceman to have won the league scoring title with two Art Ross Trophies . He holds the record for most points and assists in a single season by a defenceman . Orr won a record eight consecutive Norris Trophies as the NHL 's best defenceman and three consecutive Hart Trophies as the league 's most valuable player ( MVP ) . Orr was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1979 at age 31 , the youngest to be inducted at that time . After his hockey career , he became a well @-@ known scout for many professional teams . He also spends time talking to and mentoring young skaters .
Orr started in organized hockey at age five . He first played as a forward , but was moved to defence by his coach , Royce Tennant . Going against the standard practice of the time , Tennant felt Orr 's offensive skills were best suited for a rushing defenceman role and he gave Orr the freedom to play that role despite its inherent risks . With Orr on defence , the Parry Sound Shamrocks had many successes . After Tennant , Bucko MacDonald coached Orr , and Orr continued to excel against small town Ontario provincial competition on defence . At fourteen , Orr joined the Oshawa Generals , the Bruins ' junior hockey affiliate , and he was an all @-@ star for three of his four seasons .
In 1966 , Orr joined Boston , a team that had not won a Stanley Cup since 1941 and had not qualified for the playoffs since 1959 . With Orr , the Bruins won the Stanley Cup twice , in 1970 and 1972 , and lost in the 1974 Final . In both victories , Orr scored the clinching goal and was named the playoff MVP . In the final achievement of his career , he was the MVP of the 1976 Canada Cup international hockey tournament . In 1976 , Orr left Boston as a free agent to join the Black Hawks , but repeated injuries had effectively destroyed his left knee , and he retired in 1978 at age 30 .
Orr 's first professional contract was one of the first in professional ice hockey to be negotiated by an agent . It made him the highest @-@ paid player in NHL history as a rookie . His second contract was the first million @-@ dollar contract in the NHL . However , after his retirement , Orr learned he was deeply in debt and he had to sell off most of what he owned . Orr broke with his agent Alan Eagleson and sued the Black Hawks to settle his contract . Orr and his family returned to Boston where Orr went into business to rebuild his finances . Orr aided the investigations that led to Eagleson 's fraud convictions and disbarment . Orr also supported the law suit that exposed the corruption of the NHL 's pension plan .
Orr entered the player agent business in 1996 and today is president of the Orr Hockey Group agency . As of 2009 , the agency represents over 30 active NHL players . Orr is also active in charitable works and in television commercials . Since 1996 , Orr has coached a team of junior hockey players in the annual CHL Top Prospects Game . Orr was married in 1972 . He is the father of two sons and is a grandfather .
= = Hockey career = =
= = = Early life = = =
Orr was born in the town of Parry Sound on the shores of Georgian Bay in Ontario , Canada . His grandfather , Robert Orr , was a top @-@ tier soccer pro player who emigrated from Ballymena , Northern Ireland to Parry Sound early in the 20th century . Orr 's father , Doug Orr , had once been a hockey prospect and was invited to join the Atlantic City Seagulls in 1942 but turned down the offer . Doug Orr instead joined the Royal Canadian Navy , serving during the Second World War . He returned after the war to Parry Sound and Arva Steele , whom he had married before he left for war , and to a job in the CIL dynamite factory . Doug and Arva had five children together : Patricia , Ronnie , Bobby , Penny and Doug Jr . Bobby was born on March 20 , 1948 at St. Joseph 's Hospital , where his grandmother Elsie Orr was a nurse . Bobby was a sick baby at birth and his survival was tenuous .
Bobby Orr displayed his hockey talents from an early age . Orr played his first organized hockey in 1953 at age five , in the " minor squirt " division , a year after getting his first skates and playing shinny . Although he was tiny and somewhat frail , he soon was able to skate faster than anyone his own age , speed he demonstrated in races around the rink and in games . Until he was ten years old , Orr played on the wing , as a forward . His coach , former NHL player Bucko McDonald moved Orr to defence . Although Orr played defence , McDonald encouraged Orr to use his talents as a stickhandler , skater and scorer to make offensive rushes . According to McDonald : " I used to tell Doug the kid was in his natural position when he played defence . You didn 't have to be genius to see that – honest . I don 't think Doug agreed , but he accepted my decision . " Orr would later credit McDonald : " Bucko taught me almost everything I know . "
Orr was noticed by the Boston Bruins in the spring of 1961 , playing in a youth hockey tournament in Gananoque , Ontario . The Bruins ' Wren Blair described him as " a combination of Doug Harvey and Eddie Shore . " The Bruins immediately pursued Orr . Blair made regular visits to the family home . In the fall of 1961 , the Bruins invested C $ 1 @,@ 000 ( C $ 8 @,@ 076 in 2016 dollars ) to sponsor his minor hockey team . Although three other NHL teams ( Toronto Maple Leafs , Detroit Red Wings and Montreal Canadiens ) were interested in Orr , he signed in 1962 with the Bruins . Orr explained that he signed with the Bruins because " they 're a team of the future . They 're rebuilding and I want to be part of that building program . "
Blair was involved with a plan to start a new Oshawa Generals franchise in a new arena in Oshawa , Ontario . Despite the Bruins already having a junior hockey franchise , the Niagara Falls Flyers , Blair convinced the Bruins to own another . He arranged a deal whereby the Bruins owned 51 % of the franchise . But Orr would have to play for Oshawa . When Orr was fourteen , Blair convinced the Orr family to allow Bobby to attend the Flyers ' tryout camp . When camp ended and it came time to sign with the Bruins , a meeting with Bruins ' owner Weston Adams went sour and Orr headed back to Parry Sound . Blair was able to smooth over the situation and convince Arva Bobby was old enough to leave home . To get the Orrs ' signatures on a " C " Form , committing Bobby to the Bruins at age eighteen , Blair agreed to have Bobby stay in Parry Sound for his schooling , skipping Generals ' practices and only driving south to play games on weekends , a three @-@ hour trip one way . The bonus for signing was C $ 10 @,@ 000 ( C $ 79 @,@ 748 in 2016 dollars ) , a new car and the Bruins would pay to stucco the family home .
Orr debuted in junior in the 1962 – 63 season for the new Generals in the new Metro Junior A League . Orr was only fourteen , competing against eighteen- , nineteen- and twenty @-@ year @-@ olds . The 1963 – 64 season brought further changes as the Metro League folded and Oshawa joined the Ontario Hockey Association ( OHA ) . Orr moved to Oshawa , where he started attending R. S. McLaughlin high school and boarded with a local family . Orr scored 29 goals to set a junior record for goals by a defenceman and was named to the OHA 's First All @-@ Star team .
Orr 's goal and point totals increased every year during his junior career , and he was named to the OHA First @-@ All Star team every season he was in the OHA . Orr had his best season in 1965 – 66 , his fourth season of junior . Orr scored 38 goals to increase his goal @-@ scoring record , and finished with 94 points to average two points per game for the Generals . The Generals finished fourth in the league but won the OHA championship , the J. Ross Robertson Cup , by defeating the St. Catharines Black Hawks , the Montreal Junior Canadiens and the Kitchener Rangers . The team defeated the Northern Ontario champions North Bay Trappers and the Quebec champions Shawinigan Bruins to win a berth in the Memorial Cup Final for the junior championship of Canada .
Oshawa 's hopes in the Cup Final were damaged when Orr suffered a groin injury against Shawinigan , an injury that is painful and weakens a player 's skating ability . To promote the event , held in Toronto 's Maple Leaf Gardens , the Generals had advertised it would be the last chance to see Orr in junior and were anxious for him to play . Bruins ' management demanded Orr not play in the Final , not wanting to risk further damage to their property . Orr and his parents , however , were adamant he be allowed to play for the national championship . As he had not signed to the Bruins , they threatened he would never play for Boston if he was held out . Blair decided to defy the Bruins ' ownership and let Orr play . While Orr dressed and played some , he was not a factor and Edmonton defeated Oshawa for the Cup . Oshawa coach Bep Guidolin was fired for letting Orr play , while Blair left the organization of his own accord to join the expansion Minnesota North Stars .
= = = Orr and Eagleson = = =
By the time Orr turned 16 in 1964 , he was still two years away from playing in the NHL and his father Doug was dissatisfied with the Bruins ' treatment of the prospect . Doug had asked the Bruins ' Blair for more money for Bobby and was turned down . Doug Orr met Toronto lawyer Alan Eagleson at a juvenile fastball tournament dinner in Parry Sound and asked Eagleson to help out with the situation . Eagleson agreed to work with the family for free and continued to do so for the next two years . Bobby and Eagleson developed a relationship Orr would later describe as being like brothers . The two soon became a team , discussing Bobby 's future plans without his father Doug .
Eagleson was determined to get Orr a top salary . When Hap Emms , the general manager of the Bruins offered a US $ 5 @,@ 000 ( US $ 36 @,@ 467 in 2016 dollars ) signing bonus and US $ 7 @,@ 000 and US $ 8 @,@ 000 ( US $ 51 @,@ 053 and US $ 56 @,@ 774 in 2016 dollars ) for his first two years in the league , Eagleson countered with US $ 100 @,@ 000 ( US $ 729 @,@ 333 in 2016 dollars ) for the two years. or Orr would refuse to play with the Bruins and play for Canada 's national team instead , like Carl Brewer . Orr wanted desperately to play in the NHL , but he went along with Eagleson 's strategy and was willing to play for the nationals . The Bruins and Orr agreed on a US $ 25 @,@ 000 signing bonus ( US $ 182 @,@ 333 in 2016 dollars ) , and a salary " less than $ 100 @,@ 000 " for the two years , a figure kept secret . Speculation has ranged on an annual salary of US $ 25 @,@
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000 to US $ 40 @,@ 000 ( US $ 182 @,@ 333 to US $ 328 @,@ 200 in 2016 dollars ) at a time when the typical maximum rookie salary was US $ 8 @,@ 000 . ( US $ 58 @,@ 347 in 2016 dollars ) The official signing ceremony was done on Emms ' boat , the Barbara Lynn , where Eagleson and Emms had conferred during negotiations .
At the time , it made Orr the highest @-@ paid player in league history . But beyond that , the signing became one of the most important in the history of professional hockey . Until that time , players had been forced to accept whatever NHL management paid in salaries . It was the start of the player 's agent era in professional hockey . For Eagleson , it was the start of his sports business empire . Based on the Orr signing , Eagleson would become the executive director of the new National Hockey League Players ' Association ( NHLPA ) and started on his rise to become one of the most powerful men in the sport and business of ice hockey .
= = = Bruins career = = =
= = = = 1966 – 67 = = = =
Orr joined the Bruins for the 1966 – 67 season , his first as a professional . The Bruins were not convinced Orr belonged on defence , trying him out at centre first . Through the pre @-@ season , Orr was given jersey number 27 . At the season 's start , the Bruins offered him jersey number 5 , that of past Bruins star Dit Clapper , but Orr chose jersey number 4 . Orr made his NHL regular @-@ season debut on October 19 , 1966 , against the Detroit Red Wings , getting one assist . On October 22 , he scored his first NHL goal against the Montreal Canadiens . It was a slap shot past Gump Worsley and the Boston Garden crowd gave Orr a standing ovation .
In that first season , Orr was challenged by the veterans , and he earned respect by defeating Montreal tough guy Ted Harris in his first NHL fight . On December 4 , 1966 , Toronto Maple Leafs ' defenceman Marcel Pronovost checked him into the boards , injuring Orr 's knees for the first time in the NHL . He would miss nine games and the Bruins would lose six of them . The team finished with a 17 – 43 – 10 record , leaving the Bruins in last place . However , attendance at Boston Garden increased by forty @-@ one thousand fans .
For the season , Orr scored 13 goals and 28 assists , one of the best rookie seasons in NHL history to that point by a defenceman . Orr won the Calder Memorial Trophy as the league 's outstanding rookie and was named to the NHL 's Second All @-@ Star team . New York Rangers defenceman Harry Howell won the Norris Trophy as the league 's best defenceman that year . In accepting the award , Howell said he was glad to win when he did , predicting " Orr will own this trophy from now on . " Orr was runner @-@ up in voting .
= = = = 1967 – 68 = = = =
In 1967 – 68 , his second season , injuries limited Orr to just 46 games . Prior to the season , Orr had injured his right knee during a charity game in Winnipeg during the summer requiring five weeks in a cast . In December , a Frank Mahovlich check caused a fracture of Orr 's collar bone and a shoulder separation . Orr returned in January in time to play in the NHL All @-@ Star Game , his first of eight appearances overall . Orr had to sit out five games afterwards due to soreness in his left knee . In February , he had to leave a game against Detroit after his left knee went stiff . He would receive the first of his many operations on the knee , repairing ligament and removing cartilage . Orr did return to finish the season , but required an operation during the off @-@ season to remove a bone chip . Despite the injuries , Orr won the first of a record eight consecutive Norris trophies and was named to the NHL 's First All @-@ Star team .
After finishing last in 1966 – 67 , the Bruins qualified for the 1968 playoffs , their first appearance in the playoffs since the 1958 – 59 season . In the pre @-@ season , the Bruins added Phil Esposito , Fred Stanfield and Ken Hodge from the Chicago Black Hawks in one of the most famous deals ever . The Bruins also added rookies Glen Sather and Derek Sanderson , developing a more aggressive image that led to the nickname of the ' Big Bad Bruins . ' The Bruins , happy to make the playoffs , were swept by eventual champion Montreal in the first round .
= = = = 1968 – 69 = = = =
In 1968 – 69 , Orr skipped the pre @-@ season to rest the knee but was in uniform for the season start . He required an ice pack on the knee after every game and missed nine games after he caught a skate in a crack in the ice , twisting his knee . He returned to the lineup and finished the season playing through the pain , sometimes struggling to get up to speed and relying on team @-@ mates instead of making the plays himself . In other games , Orr was outstanding , scoring his first career NHL hat trick on December 14 against Chicago , adding two assists for a five @-@ point night . He scored 21 goals on the season , breaking the goal scoring record for a defenceman , and totalled 64 points to set a new point scoring record for one season for a defenceman .
Orr feuded with Toronto rookie defenceman Pat Quinn that season . In a late season game , Orr attempted to knock the puck loose from Maple Leafs goaltender Bruce Gamble and Quinn cross @-@ checked Orr to the ice . Orr kicked Quinn and Quinn kicked Orr . On @-@ ice officials broke it up , but the feud continued into the 1969 playoffs . The Bruins finished second in the NHL 's East Division and drew the Maple Leafs in the first round . In the first game , in Boston , Quinn caught Orr with his head down during a rush , and caught him with an open @-@ ice hit , knocking Orr unconscious . Quinn , assessed five minutes for elbowing , was attacked in the penalty box by a fan and Quinn swung at the fan with his stick , breaking the glass . When Quinn returned , the Boston fans showered garbage onto the ice . Orr was carried out on a stretcher to the dressing room where he revived after the concussion . According to a Boston police officer at the scene , " The fans here don 't like anybody to touch Orr . He 's their Frank Merriwell and Jack Armstrong rolled into one . To my thinking , it looked like a clean check . " The game degenerated into a brawl after the score reached 10 – 0 for the Bruins . The Bruins went on to sweep the Maple Leafs before losing in six games to the Montreal Canadiens in the second round . Orr returned for the third game against Toronto , getting two assists as the Bruins won their first games in Toronto since 1965 .
= = = = 1969 – 70 = = = =
In 1969 – 70 , Orr doubled his scoring total from the previous season , to 120 points , six shy of the league record and led the league in scoring . As of 2014 , Orr is the only defenceman in history to win the Art Ross Trophy as the league 's leading scorer . In addition to the Norris and the Art Ross , Orr captured the first of three consecutive Hart Trophies as regular @-@ season MVP and later won the Conn Smythe Trophy for his playoff performance , becoming the only player in history to win four major NHL awards in one season .
Orr went on to lead the Bruins in a march through the 1970 playoffs that culminated on May 10 , 1970 , when he scored one of the most famous goals in hockey history and one that gave Boston its first Stanley Cup since 1941 . The goal came off a give @-@ and @-@ go pass with teammate Derek Sanderson at the 40 @-@ second mark of the first overtime period in the fourth game , helping to complete a sweep of the St. Louis Blues . According to Orr :
If it had gone by me , it 's a two @-@ on @-@ one . So I got a little lucky there , but Derek gave me a great pass and when I got the pass I was moving across . As I skated across , Glenn had to move across the crease and had to open his pads a little . I was really trying to get the puck on net , and I did . As I went across , Glenn 's legs opened . I looked back , and I saw it go in , so I jumped .
The subsequent photograph by Ray Lussier of a horizontal Orr flying through the air , his arms raised in victory – he had been tripped by Blues ' defenceman Noel Picard after scoring the goal – has become one of the most famous and recognized hockey images of all time — and today is highlighted in the opening sequence of the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation 's Hockey Night in Canada telecasts .
= = = = 1970 – 71 = = = =
The following season , the powerhouse Bruins shattered dozens of league offensive records . Orr himself finished second in league scoring while setting records that still stand for points in a season by a defenceman and for plus @-@ minus ( + 124 ) by any position player . Orr 's Bruins were heavy favourites to repeat as Cup champions , but were upset by the Montreal Canadiens and their rookie goaltender Ken Dryden , at one time Bruins ' property , in the first round of the 1971 playoffs .
For the season , the Bruins gave Orr a solid gold puck , one of four they gave out to Bruins players – to each of the four Bruins who scored over 100 points that season – Esposito , Orr , Johnny Bucyk and Ken Hodge . Orr later gave his puck to Alan Eagleson . In 2007 , Eagleson sold the puck in an auction of memorabilia for C $ 16 @,@ 500 .
= = = = 1971 – 72 = = = =
Orr signed a new five @-@ year contract on August 26 , 1971 , for US $ 200 @,@ 000 ( US $ 1 @,@ 168 @,@ 611 in 2016 dollars ) per season – the NHL 's first million dollar contract . In the following 1971 – 72 season , Orr was second in the scoring race to teammate Phil Esposito , and won the Hart and Norris trophies , helping the Bruins to a first @-@ place finish in the East . In the 1972 playoffs , Orr again led the Bruins to the Stanley Cup , leading the scoring in the playoffs and scoring the championship @-@ winning goal against New York . For his performance in the playoffs , he received his second Conn Smythe Trophy as playoff MVP , making him the award 's first two @-@ time winner . Rangers forward Vic Hadfield commented " We played them pretty even , but they had Bobby Orr and we didn 't . " By this time , Orr knew his left knee was deteriorating and he would not have many seasons left . Orr also won the MVP award at the 1972 NHL All @-@ Star Game to win three MVP awards in one season .
The 1972 – 73 saw upheaval at the Bruins . Coach Sinden became the general manager . Bruins players Gerry Cheevers , Derek Sanderson and Johnny McKenzie joined the upstart World Hockey Association . Coach Tom Johnson was fired fifty @-@ two games into the season , replaced by Bep Guidolin , who had once coached Orr . The Adams family , which had owned the team since its founding in the 1920s , sold it to Storer Broadcasting . The Bruins ' season came to a premature end in a first @-@ round loss in the 1973 playoffs , losing Esposito to injury in that first round . Orr amassed 101 points during the regular season , but had only two points in the playoff loss .
= = = = 1973 – 74 = = = =
In 1973 – 74 , Orr led the Bruins to another first @-@ place finish in the regular season . The Bruins made it to the Stanley Cup final , but lost this time to the Philadelphia Flyers . Flyers ' coach Fred Shero commented : " They had Orr and he can do an awful lot . But we 've got 17 good hockey players and every one of them put out . It was 17 against one . " That season , Orr set the record ( since surpassed ) for the most points in a game by a defenceman , scoring 3 goals and 4 assists in a November 15 , 1973 game against the New York Rangers . One goal , a shot from the blue line , broke Rangers ' defenceman Rod Seiling 's stick .
= = = = 1974 – 75 = = = =
In the 1974 – 75 season , Orr broke his own previous record for goals by a defenceman , scoring 46 goals to go with 89 assists for his sixth straight 100 @-@ point season . He won the league scoring title and the Art Ross Trophy for the second time . 1974 – 75 was his last full season and his last season playing with Phil Esposito . The Bruins placed second in the Adams Division , and lost to the Chicago Black Hawks in the first round of the 1975 playoffs , losing a best @-@ of @-@ three series , two games to one .
The 1975 – 76 season was Orr 's final season with the Bruins and it was tumultuous . Orr 's contract was ending after the season , potentially making him a free agent . The Bruins were sold by Storer Broadcasting in August 1975 and the new Jacobs ownership group had to promise to keep Orr as a condition of the purchase . The Bruins and Orr reached a verbal agreement with the Jacobs during the summer of 1975 , including a controversial agreement for Orr to take an 18 @.@ 5 % share of the Bruins after his playing days were over . The agreement was to be checked out as to whether it would be legal for tax reasons and whether or not the league would approve it .
Before the season started , however , Orr underwent another surgery on September 20 , 1975 . The Bruins ' contract talks with Orr and Eagleson became difficult . The Bruins ' insurer would not insure a contract with Orr and doctors advised the Bruins that Orr would not be able to play much longer . Orr returned to the lineup on November 8 , 1975 , the day after the Bruins traded Esposito to the New York Rangers . Orr was able to play the next ten games for the team , but had to stop on November 28 due to pain in his knee . The next day , he underwent another knee surgery . Originally expected to only be out for seven to eight weeks , his knee did not respond to therapy and he returned home to Parry Sound . His season was over after ten games and he would not play again for the Bruins . His impending free agency led to speculation that the Bruins would trade him , but despite his injury , they were negotiating to keep him until the end .
During his Bruins career , Orr was often the player the press wanted for a post @-@ game interview . Orr instead would hide in the trainer 's room . Teammate Terry O 'Reilly described him as a " very private , very shy guy , who just happened to be the best hockey player in the world . " According to the Bruins public relations director Nate Greenberg " one of my toughest jobs in the day was trying to get Orr to come out of the trainer 's room to talk to the press . The reason he wouldn 't or didn 't all the time was that he really wanted his teammates to get proper accolades , while everybody , all the time wanted him . " As of 2010 , Orr has not authorized a biography of himself , preferring to not be the centre of attention .
= = = Free agency , and the move to Chicago = = =
In September 1975 , the Bruins and Eagleson had reached a deal that would pay Orr US $ 4 million ( US $ 17 @,@ 590 @,@ 600 in 2016 dollars ) for ten years . But when Orr 's knee required surgery , the Bruins reduced its offer to US $ 295 @,@ 000 ( US $ 1 @,@ 226 @,@ 751 in 2016 dollars ) per season and a payment of US $ 925 @,@ 000 ( US $ 2 @,@ 656 @,@ 573 in 2016 dollars ) or 18 @.@ 6 % of the Bruins in June 1980 . Eagleson turned down the offer and on June 7 , 1976 was quoted in the Toronto Star as saying " Boston offered a five @-@ year deal at US $ 925 @,@ 000 or 18 @.@ 6 percent ownership of the club in 1980 . I didn 't think it would be wise for him to be a player @-@ owner . " On June 9 , 1976 , after Orr had signed with Chicago , Eagleson told the Toronto Globe and Mail that the Bruin offer was " a five @-@ year offer for US $ 295 @,@ 000 a year . In addition , Orr was to receive US $ 925 @,@ 000 in cash payable in June 1980 . That was to be a cash payment or involve Orr 's receiving 18 @.@ 6 percent of the Bruins stock . " According to a famous 1990 story in the Toronto Star by Ellie Tesher , Orr stated that Eagleson never told him of the offer , during negotiations or after . While Eagleson had spoken publicly to reporters of the offer , he had not discussed it with Orr .
In 1976 , the Bruins offered Orr US $ 600 @,@ 000 ( US $ 2 @,@ 495 @,@ 088 in 2016 dollars ) per season , but he would have to pass a physical examination at the start of each season 's training camp . Only the first year 's money was guaranteed . Eagleson was quoted at the time as saying , " There is only one way that Bobby Orr will ever be back with the Bruins . And that 's if Jeremy Jacobs asks him for another meeting and straightens out the whole situation . Otherwise he 's gone . " Instead , Orr became a free agent , with Boston to receive compensation . Orr and Eagleson whittled down a list of potential teams to St. Louis and Chicago . Chicago offered a five @-@ year guaranteed contract with the Black Hawks , and on June 8 , 1976 , he officially signed with the Black Hawks . The Bruins ' general manager , Harry Sinden complained of tampering by the Black Hawks , and demanded that Chicago owner Bill Wirtz submit to a lie detector test . According to documents held by Orr , they had a valid case . Orr signed with the Black Hawks at a secret meeting in May 1976 , prior to becoming a free agent .
Then @-@ Bruins head coach Don Cherry suggested that the reason Orr never re @-@ signed with the Bruins was Orr 's complete trust in Eagleson at the time ( Orr said that he described Eagleson as a brother ) . Cherry recalled Orr had refused to speak with the Bruins team president directly , allowing Eagleson to mislead or withhold enough details from Boston 's offer . Orr 's departure from the Bruins was acrimonious and he has not held an official role with the Bruins since . Years later , it emerged that Eagleson had very good relations with Black Hawks owner Bill Wirtz and NHL president John Ziegler that colluded to hold back salaries of certain players . Orr disassociated himself from Eagleson in 1980 .
Orr 's contract with Chicago , five years in length , was for US $ 3 million , ( US $ 12 @,@ 475 @,@ 439 in 2016 dollars ) , to be paid over 30 years . Spreading out the payments in this way was done to minimize taxes . While a player , he never cashed a Chicago paycheck , stating that he was paid to play hockey and would not accept a salary if he was not playing .
= = = 1976 Canada Cup = = =
After Orr signed with Chicago , the Black Hawks gave him permission to play for Team Canada in the 1976 Canada Cup tournament . Orr did not play in the 1972 Summit Series against the Soviet Union , and he wanted badly to play for Canada . Orr had been unable to play in the Summit Series due to knee surgery , although he did participate as a non @-@ player . Orr 's participation in the Canada Cup was considered ill @-@ conceived and Eagleson later thought it may have been the ' last straw ' that killed his career . Orr himself said that he knew before the tournament that " I knew I didn 't have much longer . That series didn 't do it . I thought I could get the next season in , but not much after that . I knew , looking at that team , I wouldn 't have to do as much . I wouldn 't have traded it for anything . "
Despite his knee , Orr 's performance in the Canada Cup led to him being named to the tournament All @-@ Star team and he was named the overall MVP for the tournament . According to team @-@ mate Bobby Clarke , Orr " would hardly be able to walk on the morning of the game . And he would hardly be able to walk in the afternoon . And then , at night , he would be the best player on one of the greatest teams ever assembled . He was the best player in every game ; he was the best player in the tournament . He couldn 't skate like he used to , but he could still go . " According to team @-@ mate Darryl Sittler , " Bobby Orr was better on one leg , than anybody else was on two . "
= = = Retirement = = =
Orr signed with Chicago , but his injuries limited him to only 26 games over the next three seasons . He sat out the entire 1977 – 78 season . By 1978 , Orr had undergone over a dozen knee surgeries , was having trouble walking and barely skated any more . However , in the summer of 1978 , he decided to make a comeback . He played six games of the 1978 – 79 season and came to the conclusion that he could no longer play and informed the Black Hawks that he was retiring . He started a new role as an assistant to Chicago general manager Bob Pulford . He scored his last NHL goal and point against Detroit on October 28 , 1978 , at Detroit 's Olympia Stadium .
Orr retired having scored 270 goals and 645 assists for 915 points in 657 games , adding 953 penalty minutes . At the time of his retirement , he was the leading defenceman in league history in goals , assists and points , tenth overall in assists and 19th in points . As of 2013 , the only retired players in league history to have averaged more points per game than Orr are Wayne Gretzky , Mario Lemieux and Mike Bossy , all of them forwards . " Losing Bobby " , said Gordie Howe , " was the greatest blow the National Hockey League has ever suffered " .
The Hockey Hall of Fame waived the normal three @-@ year waiting period for induction into the Hall and he was enshrined at age 31 – the youngest player living at the time of his induction in history . Orr was the eighth player to have the three @-@ year period waived , the next two being Mario Lemieux ( 1997 ) and Wayne Gretzky ( 1999 ) , after which the Hall decided that the waiting period would no longer be waived for any player except under " certain humanitarian circumstances " .
His number 4 jersey was retired by the Bruins on January 9 , 1979 . At the ceremony , the crowd at Boston Garden would not stop applauding and as a result , most of the evening 's program had to be scrapped at the last second due to the constant cheering . The crowd did not allow Orr to say his thank you speech until he put on a Bruins jersey . The day was proclaimed " Bobby Orr Day " in Boston and the event raised thousands of dollars for charity . He attended the Massachusetts Senate and House of Representatives and was given a five @-@ minute standing ovation . Boston Celtics basketball superstar Larry Bird said in his pre @-@ game inspiration that he always looked up at the rafters of the Garden at Orr 's retired No. 4 , instead of the retired numbers of Celtics stars such as Bill Russell , Bob Cousy , or John Havlicek .
= = = Style of play = = =
Orr inspired the game of hockey with his command of the two @-@ way game . While a few Hall of Fame defencemen , such as Red Kelly , were known for having offensive ability , they were the exception rather than the norm in the NHL before Orr 's arrival . Orr 's offensive style has influenced countless defencemen who followed him . His speed – most notably a rapid acceleration – and his open @-@ ice artistry electrified fans as he set almost every conceivable record for a defenceman . When Orr and the Bruins visited cities , attendance was usually a sell @-@ out . According to long @-@ time Bruins coach and general manager Harry Sinden , " Bobby became a star in the NHL about the time they played the National Anthem for his first game with us " .
Former Montreal Canadiens goaltender Ken Dryden described of Orr : " When he began to move ... the sensation was unique : All the Canadiens began backpedaling in a small panic , like beachgoers sighting a coming monster wave . He brought others with him ; he wanted them involved . That 's what made him so different : It felt like a five @-@ player stampede moving toward you — and at his pace . He pushed his teammates , [ because ] you 're playing with the best player in the league and he 's giving you the puck and you just can 't mess it up . You had to be better than you 'd ever been . "
In contrast to the style of hanging @-@ back defensive play common in the later 1950s and 1960s , Orr was known for his fluid skating and end @-@ to @-@ end rushing . Orr 's rushing enabled him to be where the puck was , allowing him not only to score effectively but also to defend when necessary . According to the Bruins ' Phil Esposito , " No matter how fast an opponent was , Bobby could skate faster than him if he needed to do it in the framework of a play . If he was caught up @-@ ice and the other team had an odd @-@ man rush , that 's when you saw his truly great speed . Very seldom did he not get back to have a hand in breaking up the play . " Orr also benefited from playing most of his career in Boston Garden , which was 9 feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) shorter than the standard NHL rink . This suited his rushing style very well , as he was able to get from one end of the ice to the other faster than in a standard rink .
His style of play was hard on his left knee , leading to injuries and surgeries that shortened his career . The left knee took all of the punishment and was operated on " 13 or 14 " times according to Orr . Orr was a left @-@ hand shot who played the right side . He would race down the right wing with the puck and attempt to beat the opposing defenceman using his speed and strength . He ' protected the puck ' , leading with his left knee , and holding his left arm up to fend off opponents . This put him into a position where a hit by the opposing defencemen would often hit the left knee . Also , he would often end up crashing into either the opposing goalie , the net or the end boards . " It was the way I played , " Orr has said . " I liked to carry the puck and if you do that , you 're going to get hit . I wish I 'd played longer , but I don 't regret it . " Orr stated in 2008 . " I had a style — when you play , you play all @-@ out . I tried to do things . I didn 't want to sit back . I wanted to be involved . "
His right knee was basically undamaged during his career ; his left knee looks like " a road map of downtown Boston " according to sportswriter Bob McKenzie . His left knee was used in a MasterCard commercial in 2008 , his scar lines used in an animation connecting his many achievements to the year of the individual scar line . According to a 2009 Sports Illustrated article Orr has since had two knee replacement surgeries that have left him pain @-@ free .
Orr was also known for his mean streak . Former coach Don Cherry recounts an incident one night in Los Angeles during a game that the Bruins were losing . With a minute to go , Orr pulled one of the Bruins off the ice , left the bench and attacked a Los Angeles Kings player . Asked why , Orr said to Cherry " He was laughing at us . " According to Cherry , he fought a lot . On another occasion in November 1967 , Orr was clipped in the face by a stick from the Toronto Maple Leafs ' Brian Conacher . Boston teammate Johnny McKenzie flattened Conacher from behind and started punching Conacher . Orr , cut and bleeding , got up from the ice , pulled MacKenzie off Conacher and started punching Conacher . Conacher , who was not fighting back , was also sucker @-@ punched by the Bruins ' Ken Hodge . Orr would be booed in Toronto from that date onwards . Orr was frequently compared to Brad Park , who played a similar style to Orr and later succeeded Orr as Boston 's top defenceman , and the two often fought each other on @-@ ice , fueling the bitter rivalry between the Bruins and New York Rangers . Park said " I saw no reason to be upset because I was rated second to Bobby Orr . After all , Orr not only was the top defenceman in the game but he was considered the best player ever to put on a pair of skates . There was nothing insulting about being rated number two to such a super superstar " .
= = Post @-@ hockey career = =
Shortly after Orr retired , an independent accountant revealed that Orr 's liabilities exceeded his assets , leaving him essentially bankrupt despite being supposedly one of the highest @-@ paid players in the NHL . As well , Orr 's taxes were under review . Eagleson had set up a corporation to receive Orr 's income and pay Orr a salary , but the arrangement was rejected by US and Canadian tax authorities . His assets in July 1980 totalled US $ 456 @,@ 604 ( US $ 1 @,@ 488 @,@ 726 in 2016 dollars ) and his tax , legal and accounting bills totalled US $ 469 @,@ 546 ( US $ 1 @,@ 530 @,@ 922 in 2016 dollars ) . Eagleson , who had once said Orr was ' fixed for life ' , criticized Orr for ' living beyond his means ' and ignoring his investment advice . Orr split with Eagleson on April 1 , 1980 . As part of the legal settlement with Orr , Eagleson agreed to purchase various of Orr 's assets for US $ 620 @,@ 000 ( US $ 1 @,@ 780 @,@ 622 in 2016 dollars ) , including his Orr – Walton Hockey Camp , which paid off US $ 450 @,@ 000 ( US $ 1 @,@ 292 @,@ 387 in 2016 dollars ) of Orr 's bank loans .
Orr served briefly as an assistant coach for Chicago , and as a consultant to the NHL and the Hartford Whalers . The Black Hawks balked at paying him the balance of his contract , and Orr took them to court , settling in 1983 for US $ 450 @,@ 000 ( US $ 1 @,@ 069 @,@ 145 in 2016 dollars ) , one @-@ third of the money they owed him . Of this , US $ 200 @,@ 000 ( US $ 475 @,@ 175 in 2016 dollars ) went to taxes and legal fees . Orr moved back to the Boston area and formed Can @-@ Am Enterprises with partners Tom Kelly and Paul Shanley , which built up a clientele of endorsements for Orr , including Baybank and Standard Brands . Orr did eventually restore his finances , thanks to endorsement contracts and public relations work .
Orr later played a role in the exposure of Eagleson 's misconduct over the years . He had once considered Eagleson a " big brother " , but broke with him in 1980 in part because he suspected that Eagleson had not been truthful with him . In addition to misleading his clients about contract terms , Eagleson fraudulently used NHLPA funds to enrich himself . Orr was one of several players who filed a formal complaint of legal misconduct against Eagleson with the Law Society of Upper Canada over Eagleson 's lending of trust monies without the consent or knowledge of his clients . In 1998 , Eagleson was convicted of fraud , embezzlement and racketeering . After the conviction , Orr was one of eighteen former players who threatened to resign from the Hockey Hall of Fame if Eagleson was not removed as a builder . Facing almost certain removal , Eagleson resigned instead .
Orr was also involved in the 1991 lawsuit of retired NHL players against the NHL over its control of the players ' pension fund . Eagleson was involved there too , arranging for the players to give up a seat on the trusteeship of the pension fund in 1969 to gain the acceptance of the NHLPA with the NHL owners . Orr and ex @-@ Bruin Dave Forbes discussed the law suit with the sports newspaper The National . Orr : " Our money is being used to pay pensions for current players " . The NHL 's response was to file a notice of libel and slander against Orr and Forbes . Carl Brewer defended Orr in a letter to then @-@ NHL president John Ziegler : " It is regrettable that the NHL and the member clubs would resort to such treatment of one of our game 's icons , Bobby Orr . And isn 't it interesting that baseball players who started their pension plan in 1947 , as did the NHL , have assets in their plan of some US $ 500 million while we , as far as we can understand , have US $ 31 @.@ 9 million . " The pension law suit was finally won by the players in 1994 after two courts ruled against the NHL . The NHL had appealed the case to the Supreme Court of Canada which decided not to hear the case .
Orr became an agent representing hockey players in 1996 . Along with investors , Orr purchased the Woolf Associates agency founded by Boston lawyer Bob Woolf . To prevent conflicts of interest , Orr sold an investment in the Lowell Lock Monsters minor pro hockey team and cut his ties with a credit card firm that had a contract with the NHLPA . Orr became a certified agent , although he would not be negotiating with hockey clubs . Player agent Rick Curran merged his agency with Orr 's in 2000 . Curran and Orr along with partner Paul Krepelka incorporated the agency as Orr Hockey Group in February 2002 .
The group represents such NHL players as Jeff Carter , Steve Downie , Taylor Hall , Nathan Horton , Adam McQuaid , Colton Orr ( no relation ) , Patrick Sharp , Jason Spezza , Eric Staal , Jordan Staal , Marc Staal , and Cam Ward . Spezza , asked to comment on the experience of having Orr as an agent , replied : " I don 't think I have a true feeling for how great he is . I have so much respect for him . I watch him on tapes and it 's just ridiculous how good he was compared to the guys he was playing against . He 's a great guy and you don 't even know it 's Bobby Orr , the way he talks to you . "
For a number of years , Orr has coached a team of top Canadian Hockey League junior players against a similar team coached by Don Cherry in the annual CHL Top Prospects Game . Cherry , briefly his former coach in Boston , considers Orr the greatest hockey player who ever lived , noting that Orr was a complete all @-@ around player who could skate , score , fight , and defend . As of 2010 , Orr 's teams have won most of the games , winning seven of the eleven times Orr has coached against Cherry . Orr 's participation was criticized as a conflict @-@ of @-@ interest while he was a player 's agent and he stopped coaching in the series . Organizers of the series convinced Orr to return to coaching in the series . He stepped down again before the 2011 game for the birth of his second grandchild . One of the teams remained named ' Team Orr.'
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1970 – 1972 )
Awarded the Conn Smythe Trophy in 1970 and 1972 , the first two @-@ time winner of the playoff MVP award
Stanley Cup winner in 1970 and 1972
Won Lou Marsh Trophy as Canadian athlete of the year in 1970
NHL All @-@ Star Game MVP in 1972
Received Sports Illustrated magazine 's " Sportsman of the Year " award in 1970
Voted the greatest athlete in Boston history in the Boston Globe newspaper 's poll of New Englanders in 1975 , beating out baseball and basketball stars such as Ted Williams , Bill Russell , Carl Yastrzemski and Bob Cousy
Awarded the Lester B. Pearson Award in 1975
Named the Canada Cup Tournament MVP in 1976
Awarded the Lester Patrick Trophy in 1979
Inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1979 , with the mandatory three @-@ year waiting period waived , making him the youngest inductee at 31 years of age
Voted the second greatest hockey player of all time by an expert committee in 1997 by The Hockey News . Orr is behind only Wayne Gretzky and ahead of Gordie Howe as well as being named the top defenceman of all time . Gretzky said he 'd have voted for Orr , or for his hero , Gordie Howe .
Ranked 31 in ESPN 's SportsCentury : 50 Greatest Athletes of the 20th Century in 1999
Named the top defenceman of all time in 2010 by The Hockey News
= = = Records = = =
Most points in one NHL season by a defenceman ( 139 ; 1970 – 71 )
Most assists in one NHL season by a defenceman ( 102 ; 1970 – 71 ) .
Highest plus / minus in one NHL season ( + 124 ; 1970 – 71 )
Tied for most assists in one NHL game by a defenceman ( 6 ; tied with Babe Pratt , Pat Stapleton , Ron Stackhouse , Paul Coffey and Gary Suter )
Only player in history to win four major NHL awards in one season ( Hart , Norris , Art Ross , and Conn Smythe in 1970 ) , as well as only player to win the Norris and Art Ross in the same season more than once .
Fastest goal from start of overtime to clinch the Stanley Cup - 0 : 40 - 1970 ( game 4 )
Records since surpassed
Held record for most assists in one NHL season from 1970 to 1981 ( 87 in 1969 – 70 , which he surpassed in 1970 – 71 with 102 ; broken by Wayne Gretzky and also bettered by Mario Lemieux )
Held record for most goals in one NHL season by a defenceman from 1968 to 1986 ( 21 , in 1967 – 68 , 37 in 1970 – 71 , broke own record in 1974 – 75 with 46 ; broken in 1985 – 86 by Paul Coffey with 48 )
Held record for most points by a defenceman in one game from 1973 until 1977 ( 7 ( 3 goals / 4 assists ) in game November 15 , 1973 )
Held record for longest consecutive point @-@ scoring streak by a defenceman from 1971 until 1984 ( 15 games , set in 1970 – 71 and 1973 – 74 )
Held record for career goal @-@ scoring by a defenceman ( 270 ) until surpassed by Denis Potvin in 1987 .
Held record for most consecutive 100 @-@ or @-@ more point seasons from 1974 until 1980 ( 6 , from 1969 – 70 until 1974 – 75 )
Held record for career plus @-@ minus rating from 1978 until 1985 ( + 597 )
Held record for most assists in a season by any player from 1971 until 1981 ( 102 )
= = = Career statistics = = =
Career highs in each statistical category are marked in boldface .
Source : hockeydb.com
= = International play = =
Was named to Canada 's 1972 Summit Series team , but did not play due to injuries .
Played for Team Canada in the 1976 Canada Cup .
International statistics
= Same @-@ sex marriage in Maryland =
Same @-@ sex marriage has been legally recognized in Maryland since January 1 , 2013 . In 2012 , the state 's Democratic representatives , led by Governor Martin O 'Malley , began a campaign for its legalization . After much debate , a law permitting same @-@ sex marriage was passed by the General Assembly ( Maryland 's bicameral legislature , composed of the Senate and House of Delegates ) in February 2012 and signed on March 1 , 2012 . The law took effect on January 1 , 2013 after 52 @.@ 4 % of voters approved a statewide referendum held on November 6 , 2012 . The vote was hailed as a watershed moment by gay rights activists and marked the first time marriage rights in the United States have been extended to same @-@ sex couples by popular vote .
Upon the rise of the same @-@ sex marriage movement in the early 1970s , Maryland established the first law in the United States that expressly defined marriage to be a union between a man and a woman . Attempts to both ban and legalize same @-@ sex marriage in the 1990s and 2000s failed to gain enough support from central committees of the state legislature . Roman Catholic authorities throughout the state were adamantly opposed to the legalization of same @-@ sex marriage , saying it deeply conflicted with the best interests of society and would threaten religious liberty . The debates produced disputes between individuals who had been traditionally aligned on causes and prompted sharp criticism from African @-@ American religious leaders who said same @-@ sex marriage would " disrupt the fabric of the culture . "
Before passage of the Civil Marriage Protection Act , the state recognized same @-@ sex marriages performed in other jurisdictions following the 2010 release of a legal opinion from Attorney General Doug Gansler in his nine @-@ month analysis of comity laws . In 2012 , the Maryland Court of Appeals maintained Gansler 's analysis and issued a unanimous decision in Port v. Cowan finding that a same @-@ sex marriage performed out @-@ of @-@ state must be considered equal and valid under state law , despite its earlier decision in Conaway v. Deane ( 2007 ) in which the court upheld the statutory ban on same @-@ sex marriage as constitutional .
= = History = =
Maryland holds a unique place in the history of same @-@ sex marriage in the United States . In 1973 , it became the first state in the nation to define marriage as a union between a man and a woman , expressly banning same @-@ sex marriage . The General Assembly passed the law a short time after voters in the state ratified Article 46 of the Maryland Declaration of Rights , commonly referred to as the Equal Rights Amendment , in November 1972 . The constitutional provision prohibited discrimination in equality of rights on the basis of sex .
During the 1990s , attempts to both ban and legalize same @-@ sex marriage did not pass through the legislature . After a Maryland House of Delegates committee voted in March 2004 to reject a pair of marriage bills that would have submitted a constitutional amendment against same @-@ sex marriage to voters and invalidated same @-@ sex marriages performed in another state or foreign country , the American Civil Liberties Union ( ACLU ) and Equality Maryland filed a lawsuit , Deane & Polyak v. Conaway , to challenge the existing law on behalf of nine same @-@ sex couples and one bereaved man whose partner had died . The lead plaintiffs , from whom the case received its name , were Gita Deane , a learning specialist at Goucher College , and her partner Lisa Polyak , an environmental engineer for the U.S. Army Medical Department . The plaintiffs had applied for marriage licenses in several different Maryland counties but were denied by court officials . In their complaint , the plaintiffs argued that the state 's statutory ban on same @-@ sex marriage violated constitutional protections of due process , equality , and prohibitions against sex discrimination in Articles 24 and 46 of the Maryland Declaration of Rights .
In January 2006 , Baltimore Circuit Court Judge M. Brooke Murdock granted summary judgment to the plaintiffs , writing that " Family law § 2 @-@ 201 violates Article 46 of the Maryland Declaration of Rights because it discriminates , based on gender against a suspect class , and is not narrowly tailored to serve any compelling governmental interests . " She added that " tradition and social values alone cannot support adequately a discriminatory statutory classification , " because " when tradition is the guise under which prejudice or animosity hides , it is not a legitimate state interest . " The judge immediately stayed the decision pending an appeal by the Attorney General of Maryland , which occurred later that day .
While the decision was favored by the plaintiffs , gay rights groups and their supporters — including more than 100 religious leaders and child welfare advocates across the state who filed amicus briefs — other local religious leaders and evangelical ministers were upset by the decision and looked to state legislators to propose a constitutional ban on same @-@ sex marriage . Such an amendment was favored by then @-@ Governor Bob Ehrlich who said " my politics on this are very clear . We 're going to protect marriage . Traditional marriage . " In February 2006 , the proposed ban was rejected after opponents successfully amended it to legalize civil unions .
Consequently , Delegate Don Dwyer introduced a resolution to impeach Judge Murdock in 2006 , alleging " misbehavior in office , [ willful ] neglect of duty , and incompetency " for her trial court decision ; in 2007 , he introduced a law that would ban discussion of same @-@ sex unions in public schools . One lawmaker said " It is a clear attempt to intimidate judges and to make the judiciary subservient to the legislature , " and Michael Conroy , former President of the Maryland State Bar Association , said that " No basis in fact or law exists to support any suggestion to impeach Murdock for her recent decision on same @-@ sex marriage . " David Rocah , an attorney for the ACLU , called the resolution " a frivolous , dangerous and extremist response from the lunatic fringe . " Both of the measures failed to pass through committee .
= = = Conaway v. Deane & Polyak = = =
The Court of Appeals , Maryland 's highest court , agreed to hear the state 's appeal in 2006 , bypassing the intermediate court . To the surprise of spectators , there were almost no questions from the judges during oral argument , which took place on December 4 , 2006 , causing speculation that the court may have taken the appeal just to reverse the Circuit Court ruling . On September 18 , 2007 , the court issued its decision in Conaway v. Deane , overturning the trial court ruling for the plaintiffs in a 4 – 3 decision , and holding that the statutory ban on same @-@ sex marriage did not violate the Maryland Constitution .
Judge Glenn T. Harrell , Jr. wrote that because the statute equally barred both men and women from marrying partners of the same sex , it was not discriminatory on the basis of sex and thus , does not violate the Equal Rights Amendment ( ERA ) as plaintiffs argued . Judge Harrell said that the ERA was intended to prohibit sex discrimination against women and did not apply to this case , which he said was a matter of sexual orientation . Judge Lynne A. Battaglia wrote a dissenting opinion stating that the statutes and ordinances in Maryland barring discrimination based on sexual orientation , in addition to the state 's lack of prohibiting LGBT adoption and its recognition of same @-@ sex couples as co @-@ parents , support the argument that denying committed same @-@ sex couples the full benefits and privileges of marriage is not related to any rational government interest . Judge Battaglia said she would have remanded the case to circuit court for a full trial in order to settle what she deemed a central factual issue : whether the state could demonstrate that it had " broad societal interest " in retaining marriage in the traditional form . The dissenting opinion from Chief Judge Robert M. Bell faulted the majority for not recognizing gay people as a suspect class in need of protection from discrimination . He dismissed the majority view that gays are politically empowered and should not be viewed as constituting such a class .
Evan Wolfson , founder of Freedom to Marry , said that the decision was " deeply flawed " because the 4 – 3 majority did not answer the question of how denying marriage to same @-@ sex couples affects the ability of heterosexual couples to procreate . Then – President of the Human Rights Campaign , Joe Solmonese , called the decision a " setback " and Ken Choe , the ACLU attorney who argued on behalf of the plaintiffs , expressed hope that , unlike the majority of the bench , the state legislature would be able to see " that lesbian and gay couples form committed relationships and loving families just like heterosexual couples . "
= = Recognition of out @-@ of @-@ state marriages = =
State Senator Richard Madaleno requested in 2009 that the Attorney General answer the question of whether same @-@ sex marriages could be recognized by the state . In February 2010 , Doug Gansler issued an opinion after a nine @-@ month analysis of state laws stating that valid same @-@ sex marriages performed in other states that permit same @-@ sex marriage could be recognized under Maryland law . Gansler stated that the opinion was not binding on the courts and state agencies could begin immediately to recognize out @-@ of @-@ state same @-@ sex marriages . He said that he expected the opinion to be quickly challenged in court .
The opinion garnered negative reactions from some Republicans , socially conservative Democrats , and several African @-@ American lawmakers , including delegates Emmett C. Burns , Jr. and Don Dwyer , who spoke out against the opinion and promised to initiate impeachment proceedings against Gansler . " It is not up to the attorney general , and that 's the reason I will be bringing charges of impeachment , " Dwyer said in statement where he described the attorney general as usurping the law . The Roman Catholic archbishops of Washington and Baltimore and the bishop of Wilmington also took " strong exception " to the decision .
= = = Port v. Cowan = = =
Recognition of same @-@ sex marriages from other states became precedent when the Court of Appeals agreed to hear a case from Prince George 's County , where two women who were legally married in California had been denied a divorce by the circuit court . On May 18 , 2012 , the court published a unanimous ruling in Port v. Cowan that validated the marriage of Jessica Port and Virginia Cowan because it said " no viable decision by the Court had deemed a valid foreign marriage to be ' repugnant ' , " even if the marriage was void or punishable as a crime were it performed in Maryland . The opinion cited conflicts that arose from decisions in Anne Arundel and St. Mary ’ s counties where two same @-@ sex couples had their petitions for divorce granted , and another case in Baltimore City where it was denied . The decision of the court was based on the state 's traditional use of the common law doctrine of comity , which specifies that Maryland " will give effect to laws and judicial decisions of another state or jurisdiction , not as a matter of obligation but out of deference and respect . "
= = Legislative action = =
After the Court of Appeals upheld the statutory ban on same @-@ sex marriage in 2007 , state senator Gwendolyn Britt of Landover Hills , along with delegates Victor R. Ramirez and Benjamin S. Barnes , sought to sponsor a marriage bill in the legislature . On January 12 , 2008 , Britt died of heart failure . Equality Maryland executive director Dan Furmansky , who originally approached Britt to sponsor the legislation , said her death was a " devastating loss , but civil rights struggles are greater than any one person , and as our fight for equality in Maryland continues , her spirit will be with us . " On January 25 , 2008 , the Religious Freedom and Civil Marriage Protection Act was introduced in the House of Delegates . The Senate version of the bill was introduced by senators Richard Madaleno and Jamie Raskin the same day . Advocates held a rally in support of the bill on February 11 , 2008 , but it ultimately failed in committee , alongside a constitutional ban introduced by Don Dwyer .
= = = Domestic partnerships = = =
While early efforts to legalize same @-@ sex marriage failed , the legislature approved two bills in 2008 that granted all unmarried couples certain domestic partnership rights , including the ability to make hospital and nursing home visits , end @-@ of @-@ life choices and other medical decisions , in addition to rights to joint property ownership . Domestic partners must be at least 18 years old and be able to provide an affidavit attesting to their relationship along with two documents , such as joint checking accounts , mortgages or car leases ; coverage on health insurance policies or the designation as a primary beneficiary in a will . The laws went into effect on July 1 , 2008 .
= = = Civil Marriage Protection Act = = =
The General Assembly first considered the Civil Marriage Protection Act in 2011 . Governor Martin O 'Malley stated that he would sign the bill , despite urges from then @-@ Archbishop of Baltimore Edwin Frederick O 'Brien requesting that he " resist pressure to do so . " O ’ Malley said " I have concluded that discriminating against individuals based on their sexual orientation in the context of civil marital rights is unjust . I have also concluded that treating the children of families headed by same @-@ sex couples with lesser protections under the law than the children of families headed by heterosexual parents , is also unjust . " On February 24 , 2011 , the Senate , which was thought to be the biggest obstacle to passage , approved the bill in a 25 – 21 vote . The House of Delegates proved to be a challenge , where same @-@ sex marriage advocates struggled to gain support from social conservatives from Prince George 's County , southern Maryland , and the Baltimore suburbs who cited religious concerns .
The debate highlighted disagreements between openly gay lawmakers and some black lawmakers on whether same @-@ sex marriage is a matter of civil rights . Delegate Emmett C. Burns , Jr. said : " If you want to compare same @-@ sex marriage to civil rights as I know it , show me the Ku Klux Klan that invaded your home . " Delegate Keiffer J. Mitchell , Jr . , grandson of NAACP chief lobbyist Clarence M. Mitchell , Jr . , said " It is a civil rights issue when we as a state and a government deny equal protection under the law . " Several delegates who originally co @-@ sponsored the bill began to express doubts after being lobbied by church @-@ going constituents , including Sam Arora and Tiffany Alston , who delayed the bill 's vote in the House committee by skipping the voting session . The bill passed through the committee after its chairman , who rarely votes in committee , voted in favor . The House majority whip opposed the bill . Despite pleas from gay lawmakers , the House of Delegates voted to send the bill back to committee on March 11 , 2011 and would not reconsider it before January 2012 .
= = = = Referendum = = = =
The Civil Marriage Protection Act was reintroduced to the General Assembly on January 23 , 2012 . The new version of the bill contained provisions that more explicitly protects religious leaders , institutions , and their programs from legal action if they refuse to officiate or provide facilities for a same @-@ sex marriage or couple as a matter of their doctrine . During the legislative process , several high @-@ profile political figures attempted to persuade legislators to vote in favor of the bill , including former President Bill Clinton , former Vice President Dick Cheney , Terry McAuliffe , and Ken Mehlman . The House of Delegates passed the bill with a 72 – 67 vote on February 17 , 2012 and the Senate passed with a 25 – 22 vote on February 23 , 2012 . To secure support from some lawmakers who desired to submit the law to public referendum , the bill was amended to take effect on January 1 , 2013 .
Governor O 'Malley signed the bill on March 1 , 2012 . In June 2012 , referendum supporters submitted 109 @,@ 313 valid signatures to the state secretary , more than the 55 @,@ 736 required for a ballot in Maryland . The language of Referendum Question 6 informed voters that the Civil Marriage Protection Act would allow same @-@ sex couples to obtain a civil marriage license , protect clergy from having to perform any particular marriage ceremony in violation of their religious beliefs , and affirm that each religious faith has exclusive control over its own theological doctrine regarding who may marry within that faith . On November 6 , 2012 , the measure passed with 52 @.@ 4 % of the vote . On November 29 , 2012 , the attorney general issued a legal opinion stating that court clerks could accept applications for same @-@ sex marriage licenses immediately and issue them on December 6 , 2012 , as long as the effective date on the licenses specified January 1 , 2013 . 20 out of the 23 counties in Maryland and the city of Baltimore chose to issue the licenses ahead of schedule . The definition of marriage in the state of Maryland is now the following :
Only a marriage between two individuals who are not otherwise prohibited from marrying is valid in this State .
= = Economic impact = =
A study from the University of California , Los Angeles estimated in 2007 that extending marriage rights to same @-@ sex couples would result in a net gain of approximately $ 3 @.@ 2 million each year to the state budget . The study drew on data from the U.S. Census Bureau and Maryland statistical reports . The gain is attributable to savings in expenditures on means @-@ tested public benefit programs and an increase in sales and lodging tax revenue from weddings and wedding @-@ related tourism .
Another Williams Institute study conducted in February 2012 estimated that in the first three years after the law takes effect , Maryland same @-@ sex couples will generate between $ 40 and $ 64 million for the state economy , in addition to whatever revenue out @-@ of @-@ state couples bring . Several dozen small employers in the state have also said that same @-@ sex marriage will be good for their businesses , helping to attract and retain talent .
= = Marriage statistics = =
In 2013 , there were 40 @,@ 456 marriages in Maryland , an increase of 23 % from the year prior thought to be largely attributed to the legalization of same @-@ sex marriage on January 1 . The state has not recorded such a significant increase in the number of marriages since 1970 .
= = Public opinion = =
= Korean Air Lines Flight 007 =
Korean Air Lines Flight 007 ( also known as KAL007 and KE007 ) was a scheduled Korean Air Lines flight from New York City to Seoul via Anchorage . On September 1 , 1983 , the airliner serving the flight was shot down by a Soviet Su @-@ 15 interceptor , near Moneron Island west of Sakhalin in the Sea of Japan . The interceptor 's pilot was Major Gennadi Osipovich . All 269 passengers and crew aboard were killed , including Larry McDonald , a Representative from Georgia in the United States House of Representatives . The aircraft was en route from Anchorage , Alaska , to Seoul when it flew through Soviet prohibited airspace around the time of a U.S. aerial reconnaissance mission .
The Soviet Union initially denied knowledge of the incident , but later admitted shooting it down , claiming that the aircraft was on a MASINT spy mission . The Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union said it was a deliberate provocation by the United States to test the Soviet Union 's military preparedness , or even to provoke a war . The White House accused the Soviet Union of obstructing search and rescue operations . The Soviet Armed Forces suppressed evidence sought by the International Civil Aviation Organization ( ICAO ) investigation , such as the flight data recorders , which were released eight years later after the dissolution of the Soviet Union .
The incident was one of the most tense moments of the Cold War and resulted in an escalation of anti @-@ Soviet sentiment , particularly in the United States . The opposing points of view on the incident were never fully resolved ; consequently , several groups continue to dispute official reports and offer alternative theories of the event . The subsequent release of Korean Air Lines Flight 007 transcripts and flight recorders by the Russian Federation has clarified some details .
As a result of the incident the United States altered tracking procedures for aircraft departing from Alaska . The interface of the autopilot used on airliners was redesigned to make it more ergonomic . In addition , the event was one of the most important single events that prompted the Reagan administration to allow worldwide access to the United States military satellite navigation system DNSS , which was classified at the time . Today this system , and others like it , are known as GPS .
= = Details of the flight = =
The aircraft flying as Korean Air Lines Flight 007 was a commercial Boeing 747 @-@ 230B . The jet first flew on January 28 , 1972 and was delivered on March 17 , 1972 with the serial number CN20559 / 186 and registration HL7442 ( formerly D @-@ ABYH operated by Condor ) . The aircraft departed Gate 15 of John F. Kennedy International Airport , New York City on August 30 , 1983 , bound for Gimpo International Airport in Gangseo District , Seoul , 35 minutes behind its scheduled departure time of 23 : 50 EDT ( 03 : 50 UTC , August 31 ) . The flight was carrying 246 passengers and 23 crew members . After refueling at Anchorage International Airport in Anchorage , Alaska , the aircraft , piloted on this leg of the journey by Captain Chun Byung @-@ in , First officer Son Dong @-@ hui and Flight Engineer Kim Eui @-@ dong , departed for Seoul at 04 : 00 AKST ( 13 : 00 UTC ) on August 31 , 1983 .
The aircrew had an unusually high ratio of crew to passengers , as six deadheading crew were on board . Twelve passengers occupied the upper deck first class , while in business almost all of 24 seats were taken ; in economy class , approximately 80 seats did not contain passengers . There were 22 children under the age of 12 years aboard . One hundred and thirty passengers planned to connect to other destinations such as Tokyo , Hong Kong , and Taipei .
United States Congressman Larry McDonald from Georgia , who at the time was also the second president of the conservative John Birch Society , was on the flight . Senator Jesse Helms of North Carolina , Senator Steve Symms of Idaho , and Representative Carroll Hubbard of Kentucky were aboard sister flight KAL 015 , which flew 15 minutes behind KAL 007 ; they were headed , along with McDonald on KAL 007 , to Seoul , South Korea , in order to attend the ceremonies for the thirtieth anniversary of the U.S.-South Korea Mutual Defense Treaty . The Soviets contended former U.S. president Richard Nixon was to have been seated next to Larry McDonald on KAL 007 but that the CIA warned him not to go , according to the New York Post and Telegraph Agency of the Soviet Union ( TASS ) ; this was denied by Nixon .
= = = Flight deviation from assigned route = = =
After taking off from Anchorage , the flight was instructed by air traffic control ( ATC ) to turn to a heading of 220 degrees . Approximately 90 seconds later , ATC directed the flight to " proceed direct Bethel when able " . Upon arriving over Bethel , Alaska , flight 007 entered the northernmost of five 50 @-@ mile ( 80 km ) wide airways , known as the NOPAC ( North Pacific ) routes , that bridge the Alaskan and Japanese coasts . KAL 007 's particular airway , R @-@ 20 ( Romeo 20 ) , passes just 17 @.@ 5 miles ( 28 @.@ 2 km ) from what was then Soviet airspace off the coast of the Kamchatka Peninsula .
The autopilot system used at the time had four basic control modes : HEADING , VOR / LOC , ILS , and INS . The HEADING mode maintained a constant magnetic course selected by the pilot . The VOR / LOC mode maintained the plane on a specific course , transmitted from a VOR ( VHF omnidirectional range , a type of short @-@ range radio signal transmitted from ground beacons ) or Localizer ( LOC ) beacon selected by the pilot . The ILS ( instrument landing system ) mode caused the plane to track both vertical and lateral course beacons , which led to a specific runway selected by the pilot . The INS ( inertial navigation system ) mode maintained the plane on lateral course lines between selected flight plan waypoints programmed into the INS computer .
When the INS navigation systems were properly programmed with the filed flight plan waypoints , the pilot could turn the autopilot mode selector switch to the INS position and the plane would then automatically track the programmed INS course line , provided the plane was headed in the proper direction and within 7 @.@ 5 nautical miles ( 13 @.@ 9 km ) of that course line . If , however , the plane was more than 7 @.@ 5 miles ( 12 @.@ 1 km ) from the flight @-@ planned course line when the pilot turned the autopilot mode selector from HEADING to INS , the plane would continue to track the heading selected in HEADING mode as long as the actual position of the plane was more than 7 @.@ 5 miles ( 12 @.@ 1 km ) from the programmed INS course line . The autopilot computer software commanded the INS mode to remain in the " armed " condition until the plane had moved to a position less than 7 @.@ 5 miles ( 12 @.@ 1 km ) from the desired course line . Once that happened , the INS mode would change from " armed " to " capture " and the plane would track the flight @-@ planned course from then on .
The HEADING mode of the autopilot would normally be engaged sometime after takeoff to comply with vectors from ATC , and then after receiving appropriate ATC clearance , to guide the plane to intercept the desired INS course line .
The Anchorage VOR beacon was not operational because of maintenance . The crew received a NOTAM ( Notice to Airmen ) of this fact , which was not seen as a problem , as the captain could still check his position at the next VORTAC beacon at Bethel , 346 miles ( 557 km ) away . The aircraft was required to maintain the assigned heading of 220 degrees , until it could receive the signals from Bethel , then it could fly direct to Bethel , as instructed by ATC , by centering the VOR " to " course deviation indicator ( CDI ) and then engaging the auto pilot in the VOR / LOC mode . Then , when over the Bethel beacon , the flight could start using INS mode to follow the waypoints that make up route Romeo @-@ 20 around the coast of the USSR to Seoul . The INS mode was necessary for this route , since after Bethel the plane would be mostly out of range from VOR stations .
At about 10 minutes after take @-@ off , KAL 007 , flying on a heading of 245 degrees , began to deviate to the right ( north ) of its assigned route to Bethel , and continued to fly on this constant heading for the next five and a half hours .
International Civil Aviation Organization ( ICAO ) simulation and analysis of the flight data recorder determined that this deviation was probably caused by the aircraft 's autopilot system operating in HEADING mode , after the point that it should have been switched to the INS mode . According to the ICAO , the autopilot was not operating in the INS mode either because the crew did not switch the autopilot to the INS mode ( shortly after Cairn Mountain ) , or they did select the INS mode , but the computer did not transition from INERTIAL NAVIGATION ARMED to INS mode because the aircraft had already deviated off track by more than the 7 @.@ 5 nautical miles ( 13 @.@ 9 km ) tolerance permitted by the inertial navigation computer . Whatever the reason , the autopilot remained in the HEADING mode , and the problem was not detected by the crew .
At 28 minutes after takeoff , civilian radar at Kenai Peninsula on the eastern shore of Cook Inlet and with radar coverage 175 miles ( 282 km ) west of Anchorage , tracked KAL 007 5 @.@ 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 0 km ) north of where it should have been .
When KAL 007 did not reach Bethel at 50 minutes after takeoff , a military radar at King Salmon , Alaska , tracked KAL 007 at 12 @.@ 6 nautical miles ( 23 @.@ 3 km ) north of where it should have been . There is no evidence to indicate that civil air traffic controllers or military radar personnel at Elmendorf Air Force Base ( who were in a position to receive the King Salmon radar output ) were aware of KAL 007 's deviation in real @-@ time , and therefore able to warn the aircraft . It had exceeded its expected maximum deviation sixfold , 2 nautical miles ( 3 @.@ 7 km ) of error being the maximum expected drift from course if the inertial navigation system was activated .
KAL 007 's divergence prevented the aircraft from transmitting its position via shorter range very high frequency radio ( VHF ) . It therefore requested KAL 015 , also en route to Seoul , to relay reports to air traffic control on its behalf . KAL 007 requested KAL 015 to relay its position three times in total . At 14 : 43 UTC , KAL 007 directly transmitted a change of estimated time of arrival for its next waypoint , NEEVA , to the international flight service station at Anchorage , but it did so over the longer range high frequency radio ( HF ) rather than VHF . HF transmissions are able to carry a longer distance than VHF , but are vulnerable to electromagnetic interference and static ; VHF is clearer with less interference , and preferred by flight crews . The inability to establish direct radio communications to be able to transmit their position directly did not alert the pilots of KAL 007 of their ever @-@ increasing divergence and was not considered unusual by air traffic controllers . Halfway between Bethel and waypoint NABIE , KAL 007 passed through the southern portion of the North American Aerospace Defense Command buffer zone . This zone is north of Romeo 20 and off @-@ limits to civilian aircraft .
Some time after leaving American territorial waters , KAL Flight 007 crossed the International Date Line , where the local date shifted from August 31 , 1983 to September 1 , 1983 .
KAL 007 continued its journey , ever increasing its deviation — 60 nautical miles ( 110 km ) off course at waypoint NABIE , 100 nautical miles ( 190 km ) off course at waypoint NUKKS , and 160 nautical miles ( 300 km ) off course at waypoint NEEVA — until it reached the Kamchatka Peninsula .
= = = Shootdown = = =
In 1983 , Cold War tensions between the United States and Soviet Union had escalated to a level not seen since the Cuban Missile Crisis because of several factors . These included the United States ' Strategic Defense Initiative , its planned deployment of the Pershing II Weapon System in Europe in March and April , and FleetEx ' 83 , the largest fleet exercise held to date in the North Pacific . The military hierarchy of the Soviet Union ( particularly the old guard led by Soviet General Secretary Yuri Andropov and Minister of Defence Dmitriy Ustinov ) viewed these actions as bellicose and destabilizing ; they were deeply suspicious of U.S. President Ronald Reagan 's intentions and openly fearful he was planning a pre @-@ emptive nuclear strike against the Soviet Union . These fears culminated in RYAN , the code name for a secret intelligence @-@ gathering program initiated by Andropov to detect a potential nuclear sneak attack which he believed Reagan was plotting .
Aircraft from USS Midway and USS Enterprise repeatedly overflew Soviet military installations in the disputed Kuril Islands during FleetEx ' 83 , resulting in the dismissal or reprimanding of Soviet military officials who had been unable to shoot them down . On the Soviet side , RYAN was expanded . Lastly , there was a heightened alert around the Kamchatka Peninsula at the time KAL 007 was in the vicinity , because of a Soviet missile test that was scheduled for the same day . A United States Air Force Boeing RC @-@ 135 reconnaissance aircraft flying in the area was monitoring the missile test off the peninsula .
At 15 : 51 UTC , according to Soviet sources , KAL 007 entered the restricted airspace of the Kamchatka Peninsula . The buffer zone extended 200 kilometres ( 120 mi ) from Kamchatka 's coast and is known as a flight information region ( FIR ) . The 100 @-@ kilometre ( 62 mi ) radius of the buffer zone nearest to Soviet territory had the additional designation of prohibited airspace . When KAL 007 was about 130 kilometres ( 81 mi ) from the Kamchatka coast , four MiG @-@ 23 fighters were scrambled to intercept the Boeing 747 .
Significant command and control problems were experienced trying to vector the fast military jets onto the Boeing before they ran out of fuel . In addition , pursuit was made more difficult , according to Soviet Air Force Captain Aleksandr Zuyev , who defected to the West in 1989 , because Arctic gales had knocked out Soviet radar ten days before . The unidentified jetliner therefore crossed over the Kamchatka Peninsula back into international airspace over the Sea of Okhotsk without being intercepted .
The Commander of the Soviet Far East District Air Defense Forces , General Valery Kamensky , was adamant that KAL 007 was to be destroyed even over neutral waters but only after positive identification showed it not to be a passenger plane . His subordinate , General Anatoly Kornukov , commander of Sokol Air Base and later to become commander of the Russian Air Force , insisted that there was no need to make positive identification as " the intruder " had already flown over the Kamchatka Peninsula .
General Kornukov ( to Military District Headquarters @-@ Gen. Kamensky ) : ( 5 : 47 ) " ... simply destroy [ it ] even if it is over neutral waters ? Are the orders to destroy it over neutral waters ? Oh , well . " Kamensky : We must find out , maybe it is some civilian craft or God knows who . "
Kornukov : " What civilian ? [ It ] has flown over Kamchatka ! It [ came ] from the ocean without identification . I am giving the order to attack if it crosses the State border . "
Units of the Soviet Air Defence Forces that had been tracking the South Korean aircraft for more than an hour while it entered and left Soviet airspace now classified the aircraft as a military target when it reentered their airspace over Sakhalin . After the protracted ground @-@ controlled interception , the three Su @-@ 15 fighters ( from nearby Dolinsk @-@ Sokol airbase ) and the MiG @-@ 23 ( from Smirnykh Air Base ) managed to make visual contact with the Boeing . The pilot of the lead Su @-@ 15 fighter fired warning shots , but recalled later in 1991 , " I fired four bursts , more than 200 rounds . For all the good it did . After all , I was loaded with armor piercing shells , not incendiary shells . It 's doubtful whether anyone could see them . "
At this point , KAL 007 contacted Tokyo Area Control Center , requesting clearance to ascend to a higher flight level for reasons of fuel economy ; the request was granted , so the Boeing started to climb , gradually slowing as it exchanged speed for altitude . The decrease in speed caused the pursuing fighter to overshoot the Boeing , an action that was interpreted by the Soviet pilot as an evasive maneuver . The order to shoot KAL 007 down was given as it was about to leave Soviet airspace for the second time . At around 18 : 26 UTC , under pressure from General Kornukov , and ground controllers who were not to let the aircraft escape into international airspace , the lead fighter was able to move back into a position where it could fire two K @-@ 8 ( NATO reporting name : AA @-@ 3 " Anab " ) air @-@ to @-@ air missiles at the plane .
= = = = Soviet pilot 's recollection of shootdown = = = =
In a 1991 interview with Izvestia , Major Genadi Osipovich , pilot of the Su @-@ 15 interceptor that shot the 747 down , spoke about his recollections of the events leading up to the shootdown . Contrary to official Soviet statements at the time , he recalled telling ground controllers that there were " blinking lights " . He continued , saying that " I saw two rows of windows and knew that this was a Boeing . I knew this was a civilian plane . But for me this meant nothing . It is easy to turn a civilian type of plane into one for military use . " He furthermore did not provide a detailed description of the aircraft to his ground controllers : " I did not tell the ground that it was a Boeing @-@ type plane ; they did not ask me . "
Commenting on the moment that KAL 007 slowed as it ascended from flight level 330 to flight level 350 , and then on his maneuvering for missile launch , Osipovich said :
They [ KAL 007 ] quickly lowered their speed . They were flying at 400 km / h ( 249 mph ) . My speed was more than 400 . I was simply unable to fly slower . In my opinion , the intruder 's intentions were plain . If I did not want to go into a stall , I would be forced to overshoot them . That 's exactly what happened . We had already flown over the island [ Sakhalin ] . It is narrow at that point , the target was about to get away ... Then the ground [ controller ] gave the command : " Destroy the target ... ! " That was easy to say . But how ? With shells ? I had already expended 243 rounds . Ram it ? I had always thought of that as poor taste . Ramming is the last resort . Just in case , I had already completed my turn and was coming down on top of him . Then , I had an idea . I dropped below him about 2 @,@ 000 meters ... afterburners . Switched on the missiles and brought the nose up sharply . Success ! I have a lock on .
We shot down the plane legally ... Later we began to lie about small details : the plane was supposedly flying without running lights or strobe light , that tracer bullets were fired , or that I had radio contact with them on the emergency frequency of 121 @.@ 5 megahertz .
= = = = Soviet command hierarchy of shootdown = = = =
The Soviet real @-@ time military communication transcripts of the shootdown suggest the chain of command from the top general to Major Osipovich , the Su @-@ 15 interceptor pilot who shot down KAL 007 . In reverse order , they are :
Major Gennady Osipovich ,
Captain Titovnin , Combat Control Center – Fighter Division
Lt. Colonel Maistrenko , Smirnykh Air Base Fighter Division Acting Chief of Staff , who confirmed the shootdown order to Titovnin
" Titovnin : You confirm the task ?
" Maistrenko : Yes . "
Lt. Colonel Gerasimenko , Acting Commander , 41st Fighter Regiment .
" Gerasimenko : ( to Kornukov ) Task received . Destroy target 60 – 65 with missile fire . Accept control of fighter from Smirnikh . "
General Anatoly Kornukov , Commander of Sokol Air Base – Sakhalin .
" Kornukov : ( to Gerasimenko ) I repeat the task , Fire the missiles , Fire on target 60 – 65 . Destroy target 60 – 65 ... Take control of the MiG 23 from Smirnikh , call sign 163 , call sign 163 He is behind the target at the moment . Destroy the target ! ... Carry out the task , Destroy it ! "
General Valery Kamensky , Commander of Far East Military District Air Defense Forces .
" Kornukov : ( To Kamensky ) ... simply destroy [ it ] even if it is over neutral waters ? Are the orders to destroy it over neutral waters ? Oh , well . "
Army General Ivan Moiseevich Tretyak , Commander of the Far East Military District .
" Weapons were used , weapons authorized at the highest level . Ivan Moiseevich authorized it . Hello , hello . " , " Say again . " , " I cannot hear you clearly now . " , " He gave the order . Hello , hello , hello . " , " Yes , yes . " , " Ivan Moiseevich gave the order , Tretyak . " , " Roger , roger . " , " Weapons were used at his order . "
= = = = Post @-@ attack flight = = = =
At the time of the attack , the plane had been cruising at an altitude of about 35 @,@ 000 feet ( 11 @,@ 000 m ) . Tapes recovered from the airliner 's cockpit voice recorder indicate that the crew were unaware that they were off course and violating Soviet airspace . Immediately after missile detonation , the airliner began a 113 @-@ second arc upward because of a damaged crossover cable between the left inboard and right outboard elevators .
At 18 : 26 : 46 UTC , at the apex of the arc at altitude 38 @,@ 250 feet ( 11 @,@ 660 m ) , either the pilot was able to turn off the autopilot or the autopilot tripped and the plane began to descend to 35 @,@ 000 feet ( 11 @,@ 000 m ) . From 18 : 27 : 01 until 18 : 27 : 09 , the flight crew reports to Tokyo Radio informing that KAL 007 to " descend to 10 @,@ 000 " [ feet ] . At 18 : 27 : 20 , ICAO graphing of Digital Flight Data Recorder tapes show that after a descent phase and a 10 second " nose @-@ up " , KAL 007 is now leveled out at pre @-@ missile detonation altitude of 35 @,@ 000 ft ( 11 @,@ 000 m ) , forward acceleration is now back to pre @-@ missile detonation rate of zero acceleration , and air speed has returned to pre @-@ detonation velocity .
Yaw ( oscillations ) , begun at the time of missile detonation , continue decreasingly until the end of the minute 44 second portion of the tape . The Boeing did not break up , explode or plummet immediately after the attack ; it continued its gradual descent for four minutes , then leveled off at 16 @,@ 424 feet ( 18 : 30 – 18 : 31 UTC ) , rather than continue descending to 10 @,@ 000 as previously reported to Tokyo Radio , continuing at this altitude for almost five more minutes ( 18 : 35 UTC ) .
The last cockpit voice recorder entry occurred at 18 : 27 : 46 while in this phase of the descent . At 18 : 28 UTC , the aircraft was reported turning to the north . ICAO analysis concluded that the flight crew " retained limited control " of the aircraft . Finally , the aircraft began to descend in spirals over Moneron Island before coming down 2 @.@ 6 miles ( 4 @.@ 2 km ) , killing all 269 on board . The aircraft was last seen visually by Osipovich , " somehow descending slowly " over Moneron Island . The aircraft disappeared off long range military radar at Wakkanai , Japan at a height of 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) .
KAL 007 was probably attacked in international airspace , with a 1993 Russian report listing the location of the missile firing outside its territory at 46 ° 46 ′ 27 ″ N 141 ° 32 ′ 48 ″ E , although the intercepting pilot stated otherwise in a subsequent interview . Initial reports that the airliner had been forced to land on Sakhalin were soon proved false . One of these reports conveyed via phone by Orville Brockman , the Washington office spokesman of the Federal Aviation Administration to the press secretary of Larry McDonald was that the FAA in Tokyo had been informed by the Japanese Civil Aviation Bureau that " Japanese self @-@ defense force radar confirms that the Hokkaido radar followed Air Korea to a landing in Soviet territory on the island of Sakhalinska and it is confirmed by the manifest that Congressman McDonald is on board " .
A Japanese fisherman aboard the 58th Chidori Maru later reported to the Japanese Maritime Safety Agency ( this report was cited by ICAO analysis ) that he had heard a plane at low altitude , but had not seen it . Then he heard " a loud sound followed by a bright flash of light on the horizon , then another dull sound and a less intense flash of light on the horizon " and smelled aviation fuel .
= = = = Soviet command response to post @-@ detonation flight = = = =
Though the interceptor pilot reported to ground control , " Target destroyed " , the Soviet command , from General on down , indicated surprise and consternation at KAL 007 's continued flight , and ability to regain its altitude and maneuver . This consternation continued through to KAL 007 's subsequent level flight at altitude 16 @,@ 424 ft ( 5 @,@ 006 m ) , and then , after almost 5 minutes , through its spiral descent over Moneron Island ( see Korean Air Lines Flight 007 transcripts from 18 : 26 UTC onwards : " Lt. Col. Novoseletski : Well , what is happening , what is the matter , who guided him in , he locked on , why didn ’ t he shoot it down ? " )
= = = = Missile damage to plane = = = =
The following damage to the aircraft was determined by the ICAO from its analysis of the flight data recorder and cockpit voice recorder :
Hydraulics
KAL 007 had four redundant hydraulic systems of which systems one , two , and three were damaged or destroyed . There was no evidence of damage to system four . The hydraulics provided actuation for all the primary flight controls ; all secondary flight controls except leading edge slats ; and landing gear retraction , extension , gear steering , and wheel braking . Each primary flight control axis received power from all four hydraulic systems . Upon missile detonation , the jumbo jet began to experience oscillations ( yawing ) as the dual channel yaw damper was damaged . Yawing would not have occurred if hydraulic systems one or two were fully operational . The result is that the control column did not thrust forward upon impact ( it should have done so as the plane was on autopilot ) to bring down the plane to its former altitude of 35 @,@ 000 feet ( 11 @,@ 000 m ) . This failure of the autopilot to correct the rise in altitude indicates that hydraulic system number three , which operates the autopilot actuator , a system controlling the plane 's elevators , was damaged or out . KAL 007 's airspeed and acceleration rate both began to decrease as the plane began to climb . At twenty seconds after missile detonation a click was heard in the cabin , which is identified as the " automatic pilot disconnect warning " sound . Either the pilot or co @-@ pilot had disconnected the autopilot and was manually thrusting the control column forward in order to bring the plane lower . Though the autopilot had been turned off , manual mode did not begin functioning for another twenty seconds . This failure of the manual system to engage upon command indicates failure in hydraulic systems one and two . With wing flaps up , " control was reduced to the right inboard aileron and the innermost of spoiler section of each side " .
Left wing
Contrary to Major Osipovich 's statement in 1991 that he had taken off half of KAL 007 's left wing , ICAO analysis found that the wing was intact : " The interceptor pilot stated that the first missile hit near the tail , while the second missile took off half the left wing of the aircraft ... The interceptor 's pilot 's statement that the second missile took off half of the left wing was probably incorrect . The missiles were fired with a two @-@ second interval and would have detonated at an equal interval . The first detonated at 18 : 26 : 02 UTC . The last radio transmissions from KE007 to Tokyo Radio were between 18 : 26 : 57 and 18 : 27 : 15 UTC using HF [ high frequency ] . The HF 1 radio aerial of the aircraft was positioned in the left wing tip suggesting that the left wing tip was intact at this time . Also , the aircraft 's maneuvers after the attack did not indicate extensive damage to the left wing . "
Engines
The co @-@ pilot reported to Captain Chun twice during the flight after the missile 's detonation , " Engines normal , sir . "
Tail section
The first missile was radar @-@ controlled and proximity fuzed , and detonated 50 metres ( 160 ft ) behind the aircraft . Sending fragments forward , it either severed or unraveled the crossover cable from the left inboard elevator to the right elevator . This , with damage to one of the four hydraulic systems , caused KAL 007 to ascend from 35 @,@ 000 to 38 @,@ 250 feet ( 10
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in international waters at the designated crash site or within the 225 @-@ square @-@ nautical @-@ mile ( 770 km2 ) search area .
= = = Hokkaido finds = = =
Eight days after the shootdown , human remains appeared on the north shore of Hokkaido , Japan . Hokkaido is about 30 miles ( 48 km ) below the southern tip of Sakhalin across the Soya Strait ( the southern tip of Sakhalin is 35 miles ( 56 km ) from Moneron Island which lies to the west of Sakhalin ) . The ICAO concluded that these objects were carried from Soviet waters to the shores of Hokkaido by the southerly current west of Sakhalin Island . All currents of the Strait of Tartary relevant to Moneron Island flow to the north , except this southerly current between Moneron Island and Sakhalin Island .
These human remains , including body parts , tissues , and two partial torsos , totaled 13 . All were unidentifiable , but one partial torso was that of a Caucasian woman as indicated by auburn hair on a partial skull , and one partial body was of an Asian child ( with glass embedded ) . There was no luggage recovered . Of the non @-@ human remains that the Japanese recovered were various items including dentures , newspapers , seats , books , eight KAL paper cups , shoes , sandals , and sneakers , a camera case , a " please fasten seat belt " sign , an oxygen mask , a handbag , a bottle of dish washing fluid , several blouses , an identity card belonging to 25 @-@ year @-@ old passenger Mary Jane Hendrie of Sault Ste . Marie , Ontario , Canada , and the business card of passenger Kathy Brown @-@ Spier . These items generally come from the passenger cabin of an aircraft . None of the items found generally come from the cargo hold of a plane , such as suitcases , packing boxes , industrial machinery , instruments , and sports equipment .
= = = Soviet diver reports = = =
In 1991 , Russian newspaper Izvestia published a series of interviews with Soviet military personnel who had been involved in salvage operations to find and recover parts of the aircraft . After three days of searching using trawlers , side @-@ scan sonar , and diving bells , the aircraft wreckage was located by Soviet searchers at a depth of 174 metres ( 571 ft ) near Moneron Island . Since no human remains or luggage were found on the surface in the impact area , the divers expected to find the remains of passengers who had been trapped in the submerged wreckage of the aircraft on the seabed . When they visited the site two weeks after the shootdown , they found that the wreckage was in small pieces and no bodies :
" I had the idea that it would be intact . Well , perhaps a little banged up ... The divers would go inside the aircraft and see everything there was to see . In fact it was completely demolished , scattered about like kindling . The largest things we saw were the braces which are especially strong — they were about one and a half or two meters long and 50 – 60 centimeters wide . As for the rest — broken into tiny pieces ... "
According to Izvestia , the divers had only 10 encounters with passenger remains ( tissues and body parts ) in the debris area , including one partial torso .
Tinro ll submersible Captain Mikhail Igorevich Girs ' diary : Submergence 10 October . Aircraft pieces , wing spars , pieces of aircraft skin , wiring , and clothing . But — no people . The impression is that all of this has been dragged here by a trawl rather than falling down from the sky ... ’
Vyacheslav Popov : " I will confess that we felt great relief when we found out that there were no bodies at the bottom . Not only no bodies ; there were also no suitcases or large bags . I did not miss a single dive . I have quite a clear impression : The aircraft was filled with garbage , but there were really no people there . Why ? Usually when an aircraft crashes , even a small one ... As a rule there are suitcases and bags , or at least the handles of the suitcases . "
A number of civilian divers , whose first dive was on September 15 , two weeks after the shootdown , state that Soviet military divers and trawls had been at work before them :
Diver Viyacheslav Popov : " As we learned then , before us the trawlers had done some ‘ work ’ in the designated quadrant . It is hard to understand what sense the military saw in the trawling operation . First drag everything haphazardly around the bottom by the trawls , and then send in the submersibles ? ... It is clear that things should have been done in the reverse order . ”
ICAO also interviewed a number of these divers for its 1993 report : " In addition to the scraps of metal , they observed personal items , such as clothing , documents and wallets . Although some evidence of human remains was noticed by the divers , they found no bodies . "
= = Political events = =
= = = Initial Soviet denial = = =
General Secretary Yuri Andropov , on the advice of Defense Minister Dmitriy Ustinov , but against advice of the Foreign Ministry , initially decided not to make any admission of downing the airliner , on the premise that no one would find out or be able to prove otherwise . Consequently the TASS news agency reported twelve hours after the shootdown only that an unidentified aircraft , flying without lights , had been intercepted by Soviet fighters after it violated Soviet airspace over Sakhalin . The aircraft had allegedly failed to respond to warnings and " continued its flight toward the Sea of Japan " . Some commentators believe that the inept manner in which the political events were handled by the Soviet government was affected by the failing health of Andropov , who was permanently hospitalised in late September or early October 1983 ( Andropov died the following February ) .
In a 2015 interview Igor Kirillov , the senior Soviet news anchor , said that he was initially given a printed TASS Report to announce over the news on September 1 , which included an " open and honest " admission that the plane was shot down by mistake ( a wrong judgement call by the Far Eastern Air Defence Command ) . However , at the moment the opening credits of the Vremya ' evening news programme rolled in , an editor ran in and snatched the sheet of paper from his hand , handing him another TASS Report which was " completely opposite " to the first one and to the truth .
= = = U.S. reaction and further developments = = =
The shootdown happened at a very tense time in U.S.-Soviet relations during the Cold War . The U.S. adopted a strategy of releasing a substantial amount of hitherto highly classified intelligence information in order to exploit a major propaganda advantage over the U.S.S.R. Six hours after the plane was downed , the South Korean government issued an announcement that the plane had merely been forced to land abruptly by the Soviets , and that all passengers and crew were safe .
Secretary of State George P. Shultz held a press conference about the incident at 10 : 45 on September 1 , during which he divulged some details of intercepted Soviet communications and denounced the actions of the Soviet Union .
On September 5 , 1983 , President Reagan condemned the shooting down of the airplane as the " Korean airline massacre " , a " crime against humanity [ that ] must never be forgotten " and an " act of barbarism ... [ and ] inhuman brutality " . The following day , the U.S. ambassador to the UN Jeane Kirkpatrick delivered an audio @-@ visual presentation in the United Nations Security Council , using audio tapes of the Soviet pilots ' radio conversations and a map of Flight 007 's path in depicting its shooting down . Following this presentation , TASS acknowledged for the first time that the aircraft had indeed been shot down after warnings were ignored . The Soviets challenged many of the facts presented by the U.S. , and revealed the previously unknown presence of a USAF RC @-@ 135 surveillance aircraft whose path had crossed that of KAL 007 .
On September 7 , Japan and the United States jointly released a transcript of Soviet communications , intercepted by the listening post at Wakkanai , to an emergency session of the United Nations Security Council . Reagan issued a National Security Directive stating that the Soviets were not to be let off the hook , and initiating " a major diplomatic effort to keep international and domestic attention focused on the Soviet action " . The move was seen by the Soviet leadership as confirmation of the West 's bad intentions .
A high level U.S.-Soviet summit , the first in nearly a year , was scheduled for September 8 , 1983 , in Madrid . The Shultz – Gromyko meeting went ahead , but was overshadowed by the KAL 007 event . It ended acrimoniously , with Shultz stating : " Foreign Minister Gromyko 's response to me today was even more unsatisfactory than the response he gave in public yesterday . I find it totally unacceptable . " Reagan ordered the Federal Aviation Administration ( FAA ) on September 15 , 1983 , to revoke the license of Aeroflot Soviet Airlines to operate flights to and from the United States . Aeroflot flights to North America were consequently available only through Canadian and Mexican cities , forcing the Soviet foreign minister to cancel his scheduled trip to the UN . Aeroflot service to the U.S. was not restored until April 29 , 1986 .
An emergency session of the ICAO was held in Montreal . On September 12 , 1983 , the Soviet Union used its veto to block a United Nations resolution condemning it for shooting down the aircraft .
Shortly after the Soviet Union shot down KAL 007 , the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey , operating the commercial airports around New York City , denied Soviet aircraft landing rights , in violation of the United Nations Charter that required the host nation to allow all member countries access to the UN . In reaction , TASS and some at the UN raised the question of whether the UN should move its headquarters from the United States . Charles Lichenstein , acting U.S. permanent representative to the UN under Ambassador Kirkpatrick , responded , " We will put no impediment in your way . The members of the U.S. mission to the United Nations will be down at the dockside waving you a fond farewell as you sail off into the sunset . " Administration officials were quick to announce that Lichenstein was speaking only for himself .
In the Cold War context of Operation RYAN , the Strategic Defence Initiative , Pershing II missile deployment in Europe , and the upcoming Exercise Able Archer , the Soviet Government perceived the incident with the South Korean airliner to be a portent of war . The Soviet hierarchy took the official line that KAL Flight 007 was on a spy mission , as it " flew deep into Soviet territory for several hundred kilometres , without responding to signals and disobeying the orders of interceptor fighter planes " . They claimed its purpose was to probe the air defences of highly sensitive Soviet military sites in the Kamchatka Peninsula and Sakhalin Island . The Soviet government expressed regret over the loss of life , but offered no apology and did not respond to demands for compensation . Instead , the USSR blamed the CIA for this " criminal , provocative act " .
= = Investigations = =
= = = NTSB = = =
Since the aircraft had departed from U.S. soil and U.S. nationals had died in the incident , the National Transportation Safety Board ( NTSB ) was legally required to investigate . On the morning of September 1 , the NTSB chief in Alaska , James Michelangelo , received an order from the NTSB in Washington at the behest of the State Department requiring all documents relating to the NTSB investigation to be sent to Washington , and notifying him that the State Department would now conduct the investigation .
The U.S. State Department , after closing the NTSB investigation on the grounds that it was not an accident , pursued an ICAO investigation instead . Commentators such as Johnson point out that this action was illegal , and that in deferring the investigation to the ICAO , the Reagan administration effectively precluded any politically or militarily sensitive information from being subpoenaed that might have embarrassed the administration or contradicted its version of events . Unlike the NTSB , ICAO can subpoena neither persons nor documents and is dependent on the governments involved — in this incident , the United States , the Soviet Union , Japan , and South Korea — to supply evidence voluntarily .
= = = Initial ICAO investigation ( 1983 ) = = =
ICAO had only one experience of investigation of an air disaster prior to the KAL 007 shootdown . This was the incident of February 21 , 1973 , when Libyan Arab Airlines Flight 114 was shot down by Israeli F @-@ 4 jets over the Sinai Peninsula . ICAO convention required the state in whose territory the accident had taken place ( the U.S.S.R. ) to conduct an investigation together with the country of registration ( South Korea ) , the country whose air traffic control the aircraft was flying under ( Japan ) , as well as the aircraft 's manufacturer ( Boeing ) .
The ICAO investigation , led by Caj Frostell , did not have the authority to compel the states involved to hand over evidence , instead having to rely on what they voluntarily submitted . Consequently , the investigation did not have access to sensitive evidence such as radar data , intercepts , ATC tapes , or the Flight Data Recorder ( FDR ) and Cockpit Voice Recorder ( CVR ) ( whose discovery the U.S.S.R. had kept secret ) . A number of simulations were conducted with the assistance of Boeing and Litton ( the manufacturer of the navigation system ) .
The ICAO released their report December 2 , 1983 , which concluded that the violation of Soviet airspace was accidental : One of two explanations for the aircraft 's deviation was that the autopilot had remained in HEADING hold instead of INS mode after departing Anchorage . They postulated that this inflight navigational error was caused by either the crew 's failure to select INS mode , or the inertial navigation 's not activating when selected , because the aircraft was already too far off track . It was determined that the crew did not notice this error or subsequently perform navigational checks , that would have revealed that the aircraft was diverging further and further from its assigned route . This was later deemed to be caused by a " lack of situational awareness and flight deck coordination " .
The report included a statement by the Soviet Government claiming " no remains of the victims , the instruments or their components or the flight recorders have so far been discovered " . This statement was subsequently shown to be untrue by Boris Yeltsin 's release in 1993 of a November 1983 memo from KGB head Viktor Chebrikov and Defence Minister Dmitriy Ustinov to Yuri Andropov . This memo stated " In the third decade of October this year the equipment in question ( the recorder of in @-@ flight parameters and the recorder of voice communications by the flight crew with ground air traffic surveillance stations and between themselves ) was brought aboard a search vessel and forwarded to Moscow by air for decoding and translation at the Air Force Scientific Research Institute . " The Soviet Government statement would further be contradicted by Soviet civilian divers who later recalled that they viewed wreckage of the aircraft on the bottom of sea for the first time on September 15 , two weeks after the plane had been shot down .
Following publication of the report , the ICAO adopted a resolution condemning the Soviet Union for the attack . Furthermore , the report led to a unanimous amendment in May 1984 – though not coming into force until October 1 , 1998 – to the Convention on International Civil Aviation that defined the use of force against civilian airliners in more detail . The amendment to section 3 ( d ) reads in part : " The contracting States recognize that every State must refrain from resorting to the use of weapons against civil aircraft in flight and that , in case of interception , the lives of persons on board and the safety of aircraft must not be endangered . "
= = = U.S. Air Force radar data = = =
It is customary for the Air Force to impound radar trackings involving possible litigation in cases of aviation accidents . In the civil litigation for damages , the United States Department of Justice explained that the tapes from the Air Force radar installation at King Salmon , Alaska pertinent to KAL 007 's flight in the Bethel area had been destroyed and could therefore not be supplied to the plaintiffs . At first Justice Department lawyer Jan Van Flatern stated that they were destroyed 15 days after the shootdown . Later , he said he had " misspoken " and changed the time of destruction to 30 hours after the event . A Pentagon spokesman concurred , saying that the tapes are re @-@ cycled for reuse from 24 – 30 hours afterwards ; the fate of KAL 007 was known inside this timeframe .
= = = Interim developments = = =
Hans Ephraimson @-@ Abt , whose daughter Alice Ephraimson @-@ Abt had died on the flight , chaired the American Association for Families of KAL 007 Victims . He single @-@ handedly pursued three U.S. administrations for answers about the flight , flying to Washington 250 times and meeting with 149 State Department officials . Following the dissolution of the U.S.S.R. , Ephraimson @-@ Abt persuaded U.S. Senators Ted Kennedy , Sam Nunn , Carl Levin , and Bill Bradley to write to the Soviet President , Mikhail Gorbachev requesting information about the flight .
Glasnost reforms in the same year brought about a relaxation of press censorship ; consequently reports started to appear in the Soviet press suggesting that the Soviet military knew the location of the wreckage and had possession of the flight data recorders . On December 10 , 1991 , Senator Jesse Helms of the Committee on Foreign Relations , wrote to Boris Yeltsin requesting information concerning the survival of passengers and crew of KAL 007 including the fate of Congressman Larry McDonald .
On June 17 , 1992 President Yeltsin revealed that after the 1991 failed coup attempt concerted attempts were made to locate Soviet @-@ era documents relating to KAL 007 . He mentioned the discovery of " a memorandum from K.G.B. to the Central Committee of the Communist Party , " stating that a tragedy had taken place and adding that there are documents " which would clarify the entire picture . " Yeltsin said the memo continued to say that " these documents are so well concealed that it is doubtful that our children will be able to find them . " On September 11 , 1992 , Yeltsin officially acknowledged the existence of the recorders , and promised to give the South Korean government a transcript of the flight recorder contents as found in KGB files .
In October 1992 , Hans Ephraimson @-@ Abt led a delegation of families and U.S. State Department officials to Moscow at the invitation of President Yeltsin . During a state ceremony at St. Catherine 's Hall in the Kremlin , the KAL family delegation was handed a portfolio containing partial transcripts of the KAL 007 cockpit voice recorder , translated into Russian , and documents of the Politburo pertaining to the tragedy .
In November 1992 , President Yeltsin handed the two recorder containers to Korean President Roh Tae @-@ Woo , but not the tapes themselves . The following month , the ICAO voted to reopen the KAL 007 investigation in order to take the newly released information into account . The tapes were handed to ICAO in Paris on January 8 , 1993 . Also handed over at the same time were tapes of the ground to air communications of the Soviet military . The tapes were transcribed by the Bureau d 'Enquêtes et d 'Analyses pour la sécurité de l 'Aviation Civile ( BEA ) in Paris in the presence of representatives from Japan , The Russian Federation , South Korea , and the United States .
A 1993 official enquiry by the Russian Federation absolved the Soviet hierarchy of blame , determining that the incident was a case of mistaken identity . On May 28 , 1993 , the ICAO presented its second report to the Secretary @-@ General of the United Nations .
= = = = Soviet memoranda = = = =
In 1992 , Russian president Boris Yeltsin disclosed five top @-@ secret memos dating from a few weeks after the downing of KAL 007 in 1983 . The memos contained Soviet communications ( from KGB Chief Viktor Chebrikov and Defense Minister Dmitriy Ustinov to General Secretary Yury Andropov ) that indicated that they knew the location of KAL 007 's wreckage while they were simulating a search and harassing the American Navy ; they had found the sought @-@ after cockpit voice recorder on October 20 , 1983 ( 50 days after the incident ) , and had decided to keep this knowledge secret , the reason being that the tapes could not unequivocally support their firmly held view that KAL 007 's flight to Soviet territory was a deliberately planned intelligence mission .
The third memo acknowledges that analysis of the recorder tapes showed no evidence of the Soviet interceptor attempting to contact KAL 007 via radio nor any indication that the KAL 007 had been given warning shots .
" However in case the flight recorders shall become available to the western countries their data may be used for : Confirmation of no attempt by the intercepting aircraft to establish a radio contact with the intruder plane on 121 @.@ 5 MHz and no tracers warning shots in the last section of the flight "
That the Soviet search was simulated ( while knowing the wreckage lay elsewhere ) also is suggested by the article of Mikhail Prozumentshchikov , Deputy Director of the Russian State Archives of Recent History , commemorating the twentieth anniversary of the airplane 's shootdown . Commenting on the Soviet and American searches : " Since the U.S.S.R. , for natural reasons , knew better where the Boeing had been downed ... it was very problematical to retrieve anything , especially as the U.S.S.R. was not particularly interested " .
= = = Revised ICAO report ( 1993 ) = = =
On November 18 , 1992 , Russian President Boris Yeltsin , in a goodwill gesture to South Korea during a visit to Seoul to ratify a new treaty , released both the flight data recorder ( FDR ) and cockpit voice recorder ( CVR ) of KAL 007 . Initial South Korean research showed the FDR to be empty and the CVR to have an unintelligible copy . The Russians then released the recordings to the ICAO Secretary General . The ICAO report continued to support the initial assertion that KAL 007 accidentally flew in Soviet airspace , after listening to the flight crew 's conversations recorded by the CVR , and confirming that either the aircraft had flown on a constant magnetic heading instead of activating the INS and following its assigned waypoints , or , if it had activated the INS , it had been activated when the aircraft had already deviated beyond the 7 ½ -nautical mile Desired Track Envelope within which the waypoints would have been captured .
In addition , the Russian Federation released " Transcript of Communications . U.S.S.R. Air Defence Command Centres on Sakhalin Island " transcripts to ICAO — this new evidence triggered the revised ICAO report in 1993 " The Report of the Completion of the Fact Finding Investigation " , and is appended to it . These transcripts ( of two reels of tape , each containing multiple tracks ) are time specified , some to the second , of the communications between the various command posts and other military facilities on Sakhalin from the time of the initial orders for the shootdown and then through the stalking of KAL 007 by Maj. Osipovich in his Sukhoi 15 interceptor , the attack as seen and commented on by General Kornukov , Commander of Sokol Air Base , down the ranks to the Combat Controller Captain Titovnin .
The transcripts include the post @-@ attack flight of KAL 007 until it had reached Moneron Island , the descent of KAL 007 over Moneron , the initial Soviet SAR missions to Moneron , the futile search of the support interceptors for KAL 007 on the water , and ending with the debriefing of Osipovich on return to base . Some of the communications are the telephone conversations between superior officers and subordinates and involve commands to them , while other communications involve the recorded responses to what was then being viewed on radar tracking KAL 007 . These multi @-@ track communications from various command posts telecommunicating at the same minute and seconds as other command posts were communicating provide a " composite " picture of what was taking place .
The data from the CVR and the FDR revealed that the recordings broke off after the first minute and 44 seconds of KAL 007 's post missile detonation 12 minute flight . The remaining minutes of flight would be supplied by the Russia 1992 submission to ICAO of the real @-@ time Soviet military communication of the shootdown and aftermath . The fact that both recorder tapes stopped exactly at the same time 1 minute and 44 seconds after missile detonation ( 18 : 38 : 02 UTC ) without the tape portions for the more than 10 minutes of KAL 007 's post detonation flight before it descended below radar tracking ( 18 : 38 UTC ) finds no explanation in the ICAO analysis , " It could not be established why both flight recorders simultaneously ceased to operate 104 seconds after the attack . The power supply cables were fed to the rear of the aircraft in raceways on opposite sides of the fuselage until they came together behind the two recorders . "
= = = Passenger pain and suffering = = =
Passenger pain and suffering was an important factor in determining the level of compensation that was paid by Korean Air Lines .
Fragments from the proximity fused R @-@ 98 medium range air @-@ to @-@ air missile exploding 50 metres ( 160 ft ) behind the tail caused punctures to the pressurized passenger cabin . When one of the flight crew radioed Tokyo Area Control one minute and two seconds after missile detonation his breathing was already " accentuated " , indicating to ICAO analysts that he was speaking through the microphone located in his oxygen mask , " Korean Air 007 ah ... We are ... Rapid compressions . Descend to 10 @,@ 000 . "
Two expert witnesses testified at a Court of Appeals trial on the issue of pre @-@ death pain and suffering . Captain James McIntyre , an experienced Boeing 747 pilot and aircraft accident investigator , testified that shrapnel from the missile caused rapid decompression of the cabin , but left the passengers sufficient time to don oxygen masks : " McIntyre testified that , based upon his estimate of the extent of damage the aircraft sustained , all passengers survived the initial impact of the shrapnel from the missile explosion . In McIntyre 's expert opinion , at least 12 minutes elapsed between the impact of the shrapnel and the crash of the plane , and the passengers remained conscious throughout . "
= = Alternative hypotheses = =
Flight 007 has been the subject of ongoing controversy and has spawned a number of conspiracy theories . Many of these are based on the suppression of evidence such as the flight data recorders , unexplained details such as the role of a USAF RC @-@ 135 surveillance aircraft , the untimely destruction of the U.S. Air Force 's King Salmon radar data , or merely Cold War disinformation and propaganda .
= = Aftermath = =
The FAA temporarily closed Airway R @-@ 20 , the air corridor that Korean Air Flight 007 was meant to follow , on September 2 . Airlines fiercely resisted the closure of this popular route , the shortest of five corridors between Alaska and the Far East . It was therefore reopened on October 2 after safety and navigational aids were checked .
NATO had decided , under the impetus of the Reagan administration , to deploy Pershing II and cruise missiles in West Germany . This deployment would have placed missiles just 6 – 10 minutes striking distance from Moscow . Support for the deployment was wavering and it looked doubtful that it would be carried out . When the Soviet Union shot down Flight 007 , the U.S. was able to galvanize enough support at home and abroad to enable the deployment to go ahead .
The unprecedented disclosure of the communications intercepted by the United States and Japan revealed a considerable amount of information about their intelligence systems and capabilities . National Security Agency director Lincoln D. Faurer commented : " ... as a result of the Korean Air Lines affair , you have already heard more about my business in the past two weeks than I would desire ... For the most part this has not been a matter of unwelcome leaks . It is the result of a conscious , responsible decision to address an otherwise unbelievable horror . " Changes that the Soviets subsequently made to their codes and frequencies reduced the effectiveness of this monitoring by 60 % .
The U.S. KAL 007 Victims ' Association , under the leadership of Hans Ephraimson @-@ Abt , successfully lobbied U.S. Congress and the airline industry to accept an agreement that would ensure that future victims of airline incidents would be compensated quickly and fairly by increasing compensation and lowering the burden of proof of airliner misconduct . This legislation has had far reaching effects for the victims of subsequent aircraft disasters .
The U.S. decided to utilize military radars to extend air traffic control radar coverage from 200 to 1 @,@ 200 miles ( 320 to 1 @,@ 930 km ) out from Anchorage . The FAA also established a secondary radar system ( ATCBI @-@ 5 ) on Saint Paul Island . In 1986 , the United States , Japan and the Soviet Union set up a joint air traffic control system to monitor aircraft over the North Pacific , thereby giving the Soviet Union formal responsibility to monitor civilian air traffic , and setting up direct communication links between the controllers of the three countries .
President Reagan announced on September 16 , 1983 , that the Global Positioning System ( GPS ) would be made available for civilian use , free of charge , once completed in order to avert similar navigational errors in future . Furthermore , the interface of the autopilot used on large airliners was modified to make it more obvious whether it is operating in HEADING mode or INS mode .
Alvin Snyder , the director of worldwide television for the United States Information Agency , was the producer of the video shown to the U.N. Security Council on September 6 , 1983 . In an article in the Washington Post on September 1 , 1996 , he stated that he had been given only limited access to the transcripts of the Soviet communication when he produced the video in 1983 . When he received full insight into the Soviet transmissions in 1993 , he says he realised that : " The Russians ( sic ) believed the plane to be an RC @-@ 135 reconnaissance plane " and that " Osipovich ( the Soviet fighter pilot ) could not identify the plane " and " That he fired warning cannon shots and tipped his wings , an international signal to force the plane to land " . Some of these statements were contradicted by the pilot in an interview with The New York Times , in which he confirmed that he did fire warning shots , but that they would not have been visible as they were not tracers .
In a March 15 , 2001 interview , Valery Kamensky , then Commander of the Soviet Far East Military District Air Defense Force and direct superior to Gen. Kornukov , opined that such a shootdown of a civilian passenger plane could not happen again in view of the changing political conditions and alliances . In this interview , Kamensky stated , “ It is still a mystery what happened to the bodies of the crew and passengers on the plane . According to one theory , right after the rocket ’ s detonation , the nose and tail section of the jumbo fell off and the mid fuselage became a sort of wind tunnel so the people were swept through it and scattered over the surface of the ocean . Yet in this case , some of the bodies were to have been found during the search operations in the area . The question of what actually happened to the people has not been given a distinct answer . ”
On September 1 , 2003 , commenting in a 20th anniversary of the shootdown article in RIA Novosti , Mikhail Prozumentshchikov , Deputy Director of the Russian State Archives of Recent History disclosed that the Soviet naval forces in the search for KAL 007 in international waters , already " knew better where [ it ] had been downed " while conducting their search , and that nothing was found " especially as the USSR was not particularly interested . "
In 2015 Japan ’ s Foreign Ministry declassified diplomatic documents revealed that two months after the catastrophe , a high @-@ ranking official of the US administration confidentially informed Japan ’ s diplomats that Soviet Union had mistaken the aircraft with an American reconnaissance plane .
Korean Air still flies from New York JFK International Airport to Seoul . However , the flight no longer stops at Anchorage as well as flying to Gimpo International Airport as it now flies to Incheon International Airport . Flight number 007 has been retired since , using flight numbers for two separate flights as 82 and 86 . The separate flights now use an Airbus A380 and a Boeing 747 @-@ 8 .
= = Popular culture = =
Two television movies were produced about the incident ; both films were produced before the fall of the Soviet Union allowed access to archives :
Shootdown ( 1988 ) , starring Angela Lansbury , John Cullum , and Kyle Secor , was based on the book of the same title by R.W. Johnson , about the efforts of Nan Moore ( Lansbury ) , the mother of a passenger , to get answers from the U.S. and Soviet governments .
The British Granada Television documentary drama Coded Hostile , screened on September 7 , 1989 , detailed the U.S. military and governmental investigation , highlighting the likely confusion of Flight 007 with the USAF RC @-@ 135 in the context of routine US SIGINT / COMINT missions in the area . Written by Brian Phelan and directed by David Darlow , it starred Michael Murphy , Michael Moriarty , and Chris Sarandon . It was screened by HBO in the United States under the title Tailspin – Behind the Korean Airliner Tragedy on August 20 , 1989 . An updated version of Coded Hostile was screened in the UK on August 31 , 1993 , incorporating details of the 1992 UN investigation .
Lee Greenwood has stated that he wrote the song " God Bless the USA " in response to his feelings about the shooting down of Korean Air Lines Flight 007 . " The song just about wrote itself , " Greenwood said in the book God Bless the USA ( by Greenwood and Gwen McLin ) . " The words seemed to flow naturally from the music , and came out with total honesty . They were an expression of my feelings of pride . To me , America seemed just like a rookery , a place where we have a chance to grow , unmolested and free . "
KGO @-@ TV in San Francisco aired an advertisement in November 1983 for an upcoming news special report titled " Green Street Reds " , about suspicious activities at the Soviet Consulate . In the ad , they depict Santa Claus and all his reindeer being blown out of the sky by a Soviet missile . The advertisement was produced by Davis , Johnson , Mogul & Colombatto . Angry parents complained to KGO about the poor impression the image of Santa 's death made upon young children .
The incident is used as a plot point in the episode " Brandy Station " of Deutschland 83 .
The Gary Moore song " Murder in the Skies " from the album Victims of the Future was written about this incident .
= = Maps = =
= = = Books = = =
Luethye , Randy ( 2015 ) . The Cold War , KAL @-@ 007 & Communism : Intelligence Secrets Revealed . USA : Amazon 's CreateSpace . ISBN 978 @-@ 1512126761 .
Brun , Michel ( 1995 ) . Incident at Sakhalin : The True mission of KAL Flight 007 . New York , London : Four Walls Eight Windows . ISBN 1 @-@ 56858 @-@ 054 @-@ 1 .
Ball , Desmond ( 1993 ) . Signals Intelligence in the Post @-@ cold War Era : Developments in the Asia @-@ Pacific Region . Institute of Southeast Asian Studies . ISBN 981 @-@ 3016 @-@ 37 @-@ X.
Blacker , Coit D. ( 1984 ) . International arms control : issues and agreements . Stanford Arms Control Group . ISBN 0 @-@ 8047 @-@ 1211 @-@ 5 .
Report of the completion of the fact finding investigation regarding the shooting down of Korean Airlines Boeing 747 ( Flight KE007 ) On 31 August 1983 . International Civil Aviation Organization ( ICAO ) . 1993 .
Dallin , Alexander ( 1985 ) . Black Box : KAL 007 and the Superpowers . University of California Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 520 @-@ 05515 @-@ 2 .
Daniloff , Nicholas ( 2008 ) . Of Spies and Spokesmen . University of Missouri Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 8262 @-@ 1804 @-@ 0 .
Degani , Asaf ( 2004 ) . Taming HAL : Designing Interfaces Beyond 2001 . St. Martin ’ s Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 312 @-@ 29574 @-@ X.
Gollin , James ; Allardyce , Robert ( 1994 ) . Desired Track . The Tragic Flight of KAL Flight 007 . American Vision Publishing . ISBN 1 @-@ 883868 @-@ 01 @-@ 7 .
Hersh , Seymour M. ( 1986 ) . The Target is Destroyed . Random House New York . ISBN 0 @-@ 394 @-@ 54261 @-@ 4 .
Johnson , Richard William ( 1986 ) . Shootdown : Flight 007 and the American Connection . Viking . ISBN 0 @-@ 670 @-@ 81209 @-@ 9 .
Kilroy , Christopher . " Accident Database – Accident Synopsis – 09011983 " . AirDisaster.com.
Kleiner , Jürgen ( 2001 ) . Korea , a Century of Change . World Scientific . ISBN 981 @-@ 02 @-@ 4657 @-@ 9 .
Knight , Peter ( 2003 ) . Conspiracy Theories in American History . ABC @-@ CLIO. p . 382 . ISBN 1 @-@ 57607 @-@ 812 @-@ 4 .
Luck , Edward C. ( 1999 ) . Mixed Messages : American Politics and International Organization , 1919 – 1999 . Brookings Institution Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 8157 @-@ 5307 @-@ 1 .
Milde , Michael ( 2008 ) . International Air Law and ICAO . Eleven International Publishing . ISBN 90 @-@ 77596 @-@ 54 @-@ 2 .
McCormick , Barnes Warnock ; et al . ( 2003 ) . Aircraft Accident Reconstruction and Litigation . Lawyers & Judges Publishing Company . ISBN 1 @-@ 930056 @-@ 61 @-@ 3 .
Merrills , J.G. ( 2005 ) . International Dispute Settlement . Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 85250 @-@ 1 .
Norris , Guy ; Wagner , Mark ( 1998 ) . Boeing . Osceolo , WI : Motorbooks International . ISBN 0 @-@ 7603 @-@ 0497 @-@ 1 .
Oberdorfer , Don ( 1998 ) . From the Cold War to a New Era : The United States and the Soviet Union , 1983 – 1991 . JHU Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 8018 @-@ 5922 @-@ 0 .
Pearson , David Eric ( 1987 ) . KAL 007 : The Cover @-@ up . N.Y. : Summit Books . ISBN 0 @-@ 671 @-@ 55716 @-@ 5 .
Pry , Peter Vincent ( 1999 ) . War Scare : Russia and America on the Nuclear Brink . Greenwood Publishing Group . ISBN 0 @-@ 275 @-@ 96643 @-@ 7 .
Richelson , Jeffrey T. ( 1997 ) . A Century of Spies . Oxford University Press US. p . 385 . ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 511390 @-@ X.
Rosenthal , Uriel and Michael T. Charles , Paul ' t Hart ( 1989 ) . Coping with Crises . C.C. Thomas . ISBN 0 @-@ 398 @-@ 05597 @-@ 1 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link )
Ross , Robert S. and Robert Gilpin , Institute of Southeast Asian Studies ( 1995 ) . East Asia in Transition : Toward a New Regional Order . M.E. Sharpe . ISBN 1 @-@ 56324 @-@ 561 @-@ 2 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link )
Shultz , George Pratt ( 1993 ) . Turmoil and Triumph : My Years as Secretary of State . Scribner 's . ISBN 0 @-@ 684 @-@ 19325 @-@ 6 .
Winkler , David F. ( June 2000 ) . Cold War at Sea : High @-@ seas Confrontation Between the United States and the Soviet Union . U.S. Naval Institute Press . ISBN 1 @-@ 55750 @-@ 955 @-@ 7 . Retrieved January 13 , 2009 .
Young , Marilyn J ; Launer , Michael K. ( 1988 ) . Flights of Fancy , Flight of Doom : KAL 007 and Soviet @-@ American Rhetoric . University Press of America . ISBN 0 @-@ 8191 @-@ 7225 @-@ 1 .
= = = Journals = = =
Allardyce , Robert W ; Gollin , James ( 2007 ) . " Flight KAL007 : The Anatomy of a Cover @-@ up " . Airways Magazine . Retrieved March 7 , 2009 .
Andrew , Christopher ( July 1994 ) . " KGB Foreign Intelligence from Brezhnev to the Coup " . Intelligence and National Security ( Routledge ) 8 ( 3 ) : 52 – 67 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1080 / 02684529308432214 . ISBN 0 @-@ 7146 @-@ 4515 @-@ X. Retrieved March 3 , 2008 .
Joint Committee on Slavic Studies ( U.S. ) , American Council of Learned Societies , Social Science Research Council ( U.S. ) ( 1986 ) . " The Current digest of the Soviet press " . The Current Digest of the Soviet Press ( American Association for the Advancement of Slavic Studies ) . Retrieved January 26 , 2009 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link )
Charles , Dan ( March 9 , 1991 ) . " Cover @-@ up continues over downed Korean plane " . New Scientist ( Washington , DC : IPC Magazines ) 1759 . Retrieved January 13 , 2009 .
Doerner , William R ; Ed Magnuson ( September 12 , 1983 ) . " Atrocity In the Skies " . TIME . Retrieved January 10 , 2009 .
Illesh , Andrey ( 1992 ) . " The Mystery of the KAL @-@ 007 ( English translation ) " . Izvestia .
Walter Isaacson ; Johanna McGeary ; Erik Amfitheatrof ( September 26 , 1983 ) . " Salvaging the Remains " . TIME . Retrieved February 11 , 2009 .
Maier , Timothy W. ( April 16 , 2001 ) . " KAL 007 Mystery " . Insight Magazine . Retrieved February 17 , 2007 .
Oberg , James ( October 1993 ) . " KAL 007 : The Real Story " . American Spectator . Archived from the original on December 11 , 2008 . Retrieved January 19 , 2009 .
Pearson , David ; Keppel , John ( August 17 , 1985 ) . " New Pieces in the Puzzle of Flight 007 : Journey into Doubt " . The Nation 421 . Retrieved February 17 , 2007 .
" The Truth and Lies about the South Korean Airliner " . Sputnik : A Digest of the Soviet Press ( Novosti Printing House ) . December 1983 .
Lee , Robert W. ( September 10 , 1991 ) . " KAL 007 Remembered : The Questions Remain Unanswered " . The New American ( John Birch Society ) . Retrieved February 2 , 2009 .
" Backing Down on Flight 007 " . TIME . December 3 , 1984 . Retrieved February 2 , 2009 .
= = = Online sources = = =
" ASN Aircraft Accident Boeing 747 @-@ 230B HL7442 Sakhalin Okhotsk Sea " . Aviation Safety Database . Retrieved January 22 , 2009 .
Degani , Asaf ( September 18 , 2001 ) . " Korean Air Lines Flight 007 : Lessons From the Past and Insights for the Future " ( PDF ) . NASA Ames Research Center : NASA . Retrieved January 10 , 2009 . This article was adapted from a book chapter , entitled " The Crash of Korean Air Lines Flight 007 , " which appeared in Degani , A. ( 2004 ) . Taming HAL : Designing Interfaces Beyond 2001 . New York : St. Martin ’ s Press ( Palgrave @-@ Macmillan )
Ephraimson , Hans ( January 20 , 1996 ) . " Korean Bribe Rekindles Flight 007 Issues " . The New York Times . Letters to the Editor . Retrieved January 13 , 2009 .
Fischer , Benjamin B. ( March 17 , 2007 ) . " A Cold War Conundrum : The 1983 Soviet War Scare " . Central Intelligence Agency . Retrieved January 10 , 2009 .
Gordon , Michael R. ( December 9 , 1996 ) . " Ex @-@ Soviet Pilot Still Insists KAL 007 Was Spying " . The New York Times . Retrieved January 13 , 2009 .
Gwertzman , Bernard ( September 12 , 1983 ) . " A New US Transcript Indicates Soviet Pilot Fired ' Cannon Bursts ' " . The New York Times . Retrieved September 1 , 2008 .
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= Something , Something , Something , Dark Side =
" Something , Something , Something , Dark Side " is a direct @-@ to @-@ video special of the animated series Family Guy which later served as the 20th episode of the show 's eighth season and is part of the series ' Star Wars parody trilogy Laugh It Up , Fuzzball . It originally was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray Disc on December 22 , 2009 , and later aired on Fox in the United States on May 23 , 2010 . The episode is a retelling and parody of the film The Empire Strikes Back , recasting characters from Family Guy into roles from the film .
The episode was written by Kirker Butler and directed by Dominic Polcino . It received high praise from critics for its accurate depiction of the original film , as well as its inclusion of many cultural references . According to Nielsen ratings , it was viewed in 6 @.@ 13 million homes in its original airing . The episode featured guest performances by Jon Benjamin , John Bunnell , James Caan , Jackson Douglas , Joe Flaherty , James Greene , Phil LaMarr , Kevin Michael Richardson , George Rogan and James Woods , along with several recurring guest voice actors for the series .
= = Plot = =
As the Griffin family is watching television , the power suddenly goes out , leading Peter to retell the story of The Empire Strikes Back .
After the " opening crawl " an Imperial Star Destroyer deploys a series of probe droids in search of the Rebel Alliance . One of the probe droids ( Joe ) lands on the ice planet Hoth , where the Rebels have set up a base . Rebel commander Luke Skywalker ( Chris ) is patrolling when he is attacked by a large wampa ( Cookie Monster ) and taken back to its lair . At the base , Han Solo ( Peter ) announces his intention to leave the Rebellion to Princess Leia ( Lois ) and Carlist Rieekan ( Dr. Hartman ) , with Leia objecting to his decision , however she denies it when confronted , saying she would rather kiss George Takei . When he finds out that Luke has not yet returned , Han sets out on his " Dondon " to find him . Luke escapes the wampa lair and has a vision of his late mentor Obi @-@ Wan Kenobi ( Herbert ) , who tells him to go to the Dagobah system to learn the ways of the Force from Jedi Master Yoda , after offering him a bowl of Zima soup . Han quickly locates Luke , and the two are rescued soon after .
Soon after , the Empire discovers the Rebel base , and Darth Vader ( Stewie ) orders an attack . The Imperial fleet exits hyperspace too early , giving the Rebels time to evacuate the base while Luke leads his squadron of snowspeeders to hold off the Empire 's battalion of Imperial Walkers . Imperial stormtroopers break into the base , forcing Han to escape in the Millennium Falcon with Leia , C @-@ 3PO ( Quagmire ) and Chewbacca ( Brian ) , while Luke escapes in his X @-@ wing with R2 @-@ D2 ( Cleveland ) , stopping to see R2 's niece 's violin recital . The Millennium Falcon enters an asteroid field and Han decides to dock inside a cave to repair the ship . They flee when they discover they have actually landed in the belly of a space slug ( Meg ) . Meanwhile , Luke crash @-@ lands in the swamps of Dagobah and finds Yoda ( Carl ) amid the foggy landscape . Yoda trains Luke , guiding him through a series of training exercises , including watching " sweet @-@ ass DVD releases " , and a training montage that parodies Rocky IV .
Darth Vader is ordered by the Emperor ( Carter ) to capture Luke and turn him to the dark side of the Force . Vader recruits bounty hunters to track down and capture Luke 's friends , intending to use them as bait to trap Luke , including Raggedy Andy , whom he orders to leave . With the Millennium Falcon 's hyperdrive broken , Han and company escape by hiding amongst a field of disposed trash , but are tracked by Boba Fett ( Ernie the Giant Chicken ) , after hitting a " space bum " collecting some of the garbage . Luke has a premonition that his friends are in danger and leaves Dagobah to save them , although he has not finished his Jedi training . Yoda initially doesn 't want him to go , but encourages it after Luke suggests Yoda fight Vader himself .
Han and the others go to Cloud City on the planet Bespin to obtain help from Han 's friend Lando Calrissian ( Mort ) , " the only black guy in the galaxy " , only to be turned over to Darth Vader . Han willingly reveals the location of Luke and the Rebel base but is tortured by being forced to listen to Paula Cole 's " Where Have All the Cowboys Gone ? " , as punishment for clogging a toilet on the 16th floor of Cloud City , which forced Vader to use the " little pig people 's " bathroom . Han is used to test a carbon freezing chamber Vader intends to use on Luke to take him to the Emperor . Leia professes her love to Han , but Han tells her to fuck off and is then frozen in carbonite for posterity . Lando later double @-@ crosses the Empire , freeing Leia , Chewbacca and C @-@ 3PO , motivating the guards with a pizza party . Despite R2 @-@ D2 having sex with the combination lock , and subsequently being discovered by her husband , to get the door open , they are too late to stop Boba Fett from flying off with Han . Luke arrives at Cloud City and , after being briefly interrupted by Ryan Seacrest on American Idol , engages Vader in a lightsaber duel . Vader cuts off Luke 's right hand . With Luke cornered and defenseless , Vader goads Luke to join the dark side , revealing that he is his father . Luke casts himself into an air shaft and , after discovering that a worker has shoved his severed hand down his pants , ends up hanging on an antenna beneath the city , calling out to Ben , Leia , and Tom Selleck . Leia senses Luke 's call from within the Millennium Falcon and has him rescued . On board a Nebulon @-@ B frigate , Luke is fitted with an artificial hand , but told to practice masturbating with a hot dog first , while Lando , dressed in Han 's clothes , sets off with Chewbacca on the Millennium Falcon to rescue Han . Before the story ends , Luke is angry because of the way the story ends . Then he receives a letter from Doc Brown , a reference to the ending of Back to the Future Part II .
In the Griffins ' home , the power returns as Peter finishes his story , only to get into another argument with Chris over Robot Chicken . Chris vows to not let Peter get his goat this time , but eventually storms off when Peter brings up Without a Paddle .
= = Production and development = =
The episode was written by series regular Kirker Butler , before the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike , and before his leave from the series in order to become co @-@ executive producer of the Family Guy spinoff series The Cleveland Show . Butler wrote the first draft of the episode in four weeks , under the guidance of series creator Seth MacFarlane . The episode was directed by Dominic Polcino , who had previously directed " Blue Harvest " . This was the last episode in the series to use hand @-@ drawn animatics , before transitioning to computer @-@ designed animatics .
In addition to the regular cast , voice actor Jon Benjamin reprised his role as Carl , who portrays Yoda , and Sheriff John Bunnell made his second appearance in the series , the first being in the eighth season episode " Quagmire 's Baby " . Actor James Woods , in his third appearance in the series , as an exaggerated version of himself , guest starred . Actors James Caan , Jackson Douglas and Joe Flaherty , along with voice actors James Greene , Phil LaMarr , Kevin Michael Richardson and George Rogan made appearances . Recurring guest voice actors Johnny Brennan , Chris Cox , Ralph Garman , Wally Wingert , writers Kirker Butler , Danny Smith , Alec Sulkin , John Viener , writer and showrunner Mark Hentemann , and producer Chris Sheridan also made minor appearances in the episode . Live @-@ action clips of actor Dolph Lundgren , actress Brigitte Nielsen and actor Michael Pataki from the film Rocky IV , and actor Tom Selleck from the film Her Alibi were also used in multiple sequences throughout the episode .
The DVD release of " Blue Harvest " on January 15 , 2008 , contained an easter egg of a brief read through of bits from " Something , Something , Something , Dark Side " , as well as a teaser trailer for the episode as another easter egg .
The title of this episode is a reference to a specific line from the season five episode " Barely Legal " , which was used in a cutaway relating to Star Wars . The line is an inside joke relating to the Emperor " figuring out the formula for great dialogue " for Star Wars . While the Emperor talks to a kneeling Darth Vader , he says " Something , something , something , dark side . Something , something , something , complete " . " Barely Legal " was written by Kirker Butler , who also wrote this episode .
= = Cultural references = =
As the episode opens with a shot of the Griffin family , they are seen sitting in front of the television watching a parody of several Aaron Sorkin shows , including Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip , entitled The Kitchen . Once the scene ends , the power unexpectedly goes out , to which Stewie responds by asking " What are we in , Iraq ? " Reminiscent of the previous Star Wars @-@ inspired episode , " Blue Harvest " , Meg insists her father tell another story about Star Wars . Peter then begins to retell the film Black Snake Moan before being interrupted by Stewie and Chris .
In the same fashion as the original Star Wars films , the story opens with a large , yellow crawl of text , with the text in this variation calling out 20th Century Fox for their lack of foresight in terms of merchandising rights , thus allowing George Lucas and Lucasfilm to keep all the rights to every film in the Star Wars franchise . The text then addresses the stockholders of 20th Century Fox , and cites Family Guy 's two cancellations as another example of the company 's short @-@ sighted decisions , and spending budget money in a useless manner . As the Imperial Fleet approaches , a Star Destroyer deploys Elroy Jetson , a character from the Hanna @-@ Barbera animated sitcom The Jetsons , along with a series of probe droids . Elroy Jetson proceeds to the Little Dipper School , in imitation of the original intro to The Jetsons . One of the probe droids , portrayed by Joe Swanson , then lands in the snow near Luke Skywalker . Luke mistakes the droid for a meteorite and approaches the device , before being attacked by a snow beast , which looks like Cookie Monster from PBS ' Sesame Street . The character had previously appeared in the fourth season episode " Model Misbehavior " as a " cookie addict " .
Before leaving , Han Solo runs into Princess Leia , who insists on Han staying with her . Apologizing to Leia for having to leave her , Han gives her his e @-@ mail address , which is hosted by the nearly defunct company CompuServe at " hansolo64 @ compuserve.com. " Han Solo then questions why Leia wants him to stay , and suggests that she is afraid that she will not get a " goodbye kiss " before he leaves . Leia then mulls over the thought , and tells him that she would rather kiss Star Trek actor George Takei . Abruptly entering , C @-@ 3PO and R2 @-@ D2 alert Han Solo of Luke Skywalker 's disappearance . Han goes out to look for Luke on his " Dondon " , which has the body of a tauntaun , and the head of the late actor Don Knotts . Once Han locates Luke , the late comedian Rodney Dangerfield appears , to which Han responds , " There are way too many elderly comedians out here in the snow . " Before being rescued , Han first appears in a 1980s commercial for the chewing gum Juicy Fruit , with the original audio from the commercial and Juicy Fruit 's current logo . The sequence was originally planned for the fifth season episode " Road to Rupert " , with Stewie and Brian taking the place of Peter .
Continuing on their approach to the Hoth system , the Imperial Fleet passes by a mailbox with the surname ' Nimoy ' on it . Darth Vader , as portrayed by Stewie , hits the mailbox with a baseball bat as the ship passes . As the Imperial Walkers , or " robot camels " , begin to approach the rebels , one of the rebels looks through his binoculars at the group of robots and spots one of the Walkers wearing Crocs , a type of shoe reminiscent of the wooden clog but made out of plastic . When Luke 's aircraft is shot down during the battle , he contacts OnStar , a company that provides vehicle security . As Han decides to outrun a series of TIE fighters , Sheriff John Bunnell then begins narrating the chase , in a parody of World 's Wildest Police Videos , which Bunnell hosted from 1998 to 2002 . This is Family Guy 's second reference to the show , as well as Bunnell 's second appearance in the series . His first appearance was in " Quagmire 's Baby " , which first aired shortly before the DVD release of " Something , Something , Something , Dark Side " . Han then seemingly goes through an asteroid field , much to Leia 's chagrin . Han responds by stating that it is better than going through the nearby strawberry field , with The Beatles members John
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