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wrong_mix_range_leader_00122	FactBench	1	73	https://www.csis.org/events/statesmens-forum-president-timor-leste	en	Statesmen's Forum: President of Timor-Leste	https://www.csis.org/themes/custom/ts_csis/assets/favicon.ico	https://www.csis.org/themes/custom/ts_csis/assets/favicon.ico	[ "https://www.csis.org/themes/custom/ts_csis/assets/csis-logo-white.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	President Ramos-Horta is the second President of Timor-Leste since independence from Indonesia, taking office on 20 May 2007.	en	/themes/custom/ts_csis/assets/favicon.ico		https://www.csis.org/events/statesmens-forum-president-timor-leste	Video On Demand China’s Third Plenum: A Plan for Renewed Reform? July 22, 2024 • 9:00 – 10:00 am EDT Live in 18 hours 2024 International Dialogue on North Korean Human Rights July 23, 2024 • 9:00 am – 2:40 pm EDT Live in 1 day Report Launch: Alliance Online: The Evolution of the U.S.-Japan Security Partnership July 23, 2024 • 2:30 – 3:15 pm EDT
wrong_mix_range_leader_00122	FactBench	3	9	https://www.embassy-worldwide.com/country/east-timor/	en	Embassies and Consulates Worldwide			[ "https://www.embassy-worldwide.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/embassy-worldwide.png", "https://www.embassy-worldwide.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/embassy-worldwide.png", "https://www.embassy-worldwide.com/wp-content/plugins/embassy/images/flags/East Timor.png", "https://www.embassy-worldwide.com/wp-content/plugins/embassy/images/flags/Australia.png", "https://www.embassy-worldwide.com/wp-content/plugins/embassy/images/flags/Belgium.png", "https://www.embassy-worldwide.com/wp-content/plugins/embassy/images/flags/China.png", "https://www.embassy-worldwide.com/wp-content/plugins/embassy/images/flags/Finland.png", "https://www.embassy-worldwide.com/wp-content/plugins/embassy/images/flags/Indonesia.png", "https://www.embassy-worldwide.com/wp-content/plugins/embassy/images/flags/Malaysia.png", "https://www.embassy-worldwide.com/wp-content/plugins/embassy/images/flags/Mozambique.png", "https://www.embassy-worldwide.com/wp-content/plugins/embassy/images/flags/Philippines.png", "https://www.embassy-worldwide.com/wp-content/plugins/embassy/images/flags/Portugal.png", "https://www.embassy-worldwide.com/wp-content/plugins/embassy/images/flags/United States.png", "https://www.embassy-worldwide.com/wp-content/plugins/embassy/images/flags/Australia.png", "https://www.embassy-worldwide.com/wp-content/plugins/embassy/images/flags/Brazil.png", "https://www.embassy-worldwide.com/wp-content/plugins/embassy/images/flags/China.png", "https://www.embassy-worldwide.com/wp-content/plugins/embassy/images/flags/Cuba.png", "https://www.embassy-worldwide.com/wp-content/plugins/embassy/images/flags/Indonesia.png", "https://www.embassy-worldwide.com/wp-content/plugins/embassy/images/flags/Ireland.png", "https://www.embassy-worldwide.com/wp-content/plugins/embassy/images/flags/Japan.png", "https://www.embassy-worldwide.com/wp-content/plugins/embassy/images/flags/Philippines.png", "https://www.embassy-worldwide.com/wp-content/plugins/embassy/images/flags/South Korea.png", "https://www.embassy-worldwide.com/wp-content/plugins/embassy/images/flags/Thailand.png", "https://www.embassy-worldwide.com/wp-content/plugins/embassy/images/flags/United States.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null		en		Embassy WorldWide	https://www.embassy-worldwide.com/country/east-timor/	List of Diplomatic Missions in East Timor & East Timorese Diplomatic Missions abroad The East Timor Embassy Worldwide page indicates the comprehensive list of Foreign Embassies and Consulates from around the world located in East Timor as well as East Timorese Embassies, Consulates and other East Timorese representations worldwide. There are about 10 Foreign Embassies and 1 Consulates placed in the territory of East Timor. East Timor itself in total counts near 9 Embassies and 4 Consulates spread all over the world. In the list below, you can connect with any of indicated specific Embassy or Consulate in East Timor or East Timorese Embassy or Consulate in specific foreign country to get the complete information as regards of contact details and services offered by that particular diplomatic or consular office.
wrong_mix_range_leader_00122	FactBench	1	32	https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2001/03/valdivie.htm	en	East Timor: Macroeconomic Management on the Road to Independence	http://www.imf.org/external/Pubs/FT/fandd/2001/03/images/fdlogo.gif	http://www.imf.org/external/Pubs/FT/fandd/2001/03/images/fdlogo.gif	[ "https://www.imf.org/external/07/images/imf.gif", "https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2001/03/images/mar-cov.jpg", "https://www.imf.org/external/gifs/space.gif", "https://www.imf.org/external/gifs/space.gif", "https://www.imf.org/external/gifs/space.gif", "https://www.imf.org/external/gifs/space.gif", "https://www.imf.org/external/gifs/space.gif", "https://www.imf.org/external/gifs/space.gif", "https://www.imf.org/external/gifs/space.gif", "https://www.imf.org/external/gifs/space.gif", "https://www.imf.org/external/gifs/space.gif", "https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2001/03/images/fdlogo.gif", "https://www.imf.org/external/gifs/space.gif", "https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2001/03/images/vald-c1.gif" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	2001-03-01T00:00:00		en		Finance and Development \| F&D	null	A quarterly magazine of the IMF March 2001, Volume 38, Number 1 East Timor: Macroeconomic Management on the Road to Independence Luis M. Valdivieso and Alejandro López-Mejía East Timor's economy was seriously disrupted by widespread violence following the 1999 referendum in which its people voted for independence from Indonesia. With strong support from the international community, East Timor is reconstructing its economy and making the transition to managing it independently. What has been done so far to achieve these goals, and what additional challenges lie ahead? East Timor—which had a population of about 900,000 in early 1999 and an area of 14,600 square kilometers, including the islands of Ataúro and Jaco and the enclave of Oecussi on the western half of the island of Timor—spent more than four centuries under Portuguese rule before Indonesia annexed it in 1975. Following a long period of political and social unrest, in May 1999 the United Nations (UN), Indonesia, and Portugal agreed to hold a referendum on August 30, 1999 on the future status of East Timor. The referendum produced an overwhelming mandate for independence but triggered widespread violence, which resulted in the displacement of about two-thirds of the population, the loss of many lives, the damage and destruction of property, and a serious disruption of economic activity. The response of the international community to East Timor's suffering was unprecedented. International peacekeeping forces were deployed in mid-September 1999, rapidly reducing security concerns and facilitating the provision of humanitarian relief. In October, Indonesia's legislature revoked the annexation of East Timor, clearing the way for the UN Security Council to establish the UN Transitional Administration in East Timor (UNTAET) with broad responsibility for administering the territory until independence. Following a request by the UN Secretary General, several multilateral and bilateral agencies joined UN agencies and the East Timorese in assessing requirements for reconstruction, including external financing, technical assistance, and training. The World Bank took the lead in assessing the country's reconstruction needs and the design of its reconstruction program, while the IMF focused on developing basic macroeconomic, institutional, and legal frameworks. Successful reconstruction required the following: the restoration of law and order; the reestablishment of governmental structures and systems; the rebuilding of institutions needed to ensure the functioning of a market economy; the normalization of relations with Indonesia; and the full participation of the East Timorese. Reconstruction was further complicated by the weak economic system the country had inherited from the Indonesian administration. Economic system before the referendum In the mid-1990s, East Timor ranked among the poorest provinces in Indonesia, with an annual per capita income of around $350. Inflation was in single digits and real GDP was growing fast (about 10 percent annually), driven by capital outlays on infrastructure funded largely by transfers from Indonesia's central budget (see chart). In the wake of the Asian crisis, East Timor's output declined, although by less than the average for Indonesia; inflation and interest rates rose; and monetary velocity (how rapidly money changes hands in an economy as a result of transactions) and credit disintermediation (disruptions in the normal flows of funds between lenders and borrowers) increased. Fiscal transfers from Indonesia's central government declined sharply, forcing a reduction in capital expenditures. Nevertheless, East Timor's wage bill remained unchanged, reflecting rigidities imposed by an overstaffed provincial administration. East Timor's external current account deficit averaged almost a third of GDP during 1995-98, reflecting the extent of the public sector's savings-investment gap. Most trade was with other provinces of Indonesia. Exports were mainly agricultural goods (mostly coffee), while imports were mainly foodstuffs, petroleum, and construction materials. The payment system and public administration were provincial versions of those in Jakarta. By mid-1999, there were eight commercial banks, half of them public, settling their payments through the local branch of Indonesia's central bank, Bank Indonesia. Budget preparation was not guided by traditional economic indicators and there was no comprehensive cash management. The province's management capacity was limited because very few East Timorese occupied managerial positions. In sum, the economic system that emerged from the Indonesian administration lacked an indigenous managerial capacity and promoted a culture of dependence on the government as key provider of employment, subsidies, and transfers that built up an infrastructure that was very costly to maintain. Short-term impact of the violence The violent events of early September 1999 brought about acute shortages of goods and services, and trade was seriously curtailed by disruptions in transportation and distribution channels. Real GDP is estimated to have declined by more than a third in 1999. The supply shortage and the removal of subsidies led to sharp increases in prices. The banking and payment system ceased functioning. All bank buildings were destroyed and transactions were shifted to a cash basis, with payments made mostly in Indonesian rupiah. Some foreign currencies started to circulate, leading to distortions in relative prices in the absence of a functioning financial market. The government effectively stopped functioning. Tax and customs administrations were dismantled; office equipment and records were removed or destroyed; and revenue collections stopped. Budgetary transfers from Jakarta ceased. In addition, the widespread displacement of the population, including key civil servants and bank officials, created acute labor shortages; the UN and nongovernmental organizations became almost the only sources of employment, paying wages well above those paid before the referendum. Against this background, the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) launched a consolidated appeal to raise funds, initially setting a target of $199 million (approximately 90 percent of East Timor's GDP in 1999), to provide humanitarian assistance through the end of June 2000; the World Bank estimated that reconstruction would cost some $300 million over three years (World Bank, 1999), and the UN estimated that the operations of UNTAET would cost some $700 million in the period through the end of 2000. Simultaneously, the IMF helped UNTAET to develop a macroeconomic framework that would ensure the efficient use and proper accounting of the resources made available to East Timor. Key features of the strategy In November 1999, the IMF staff proposed a strategy that featured reviving the payment system, developing a basic fiscal framework, and providing a technical assistance program. The critical steps to be taken to revive the payment system were choosing the legal tender and establishing a monetary authority. After taking into account political and economic considerations, East Timor adopted the U.S. dollar as its only legal tender to help eliminate the distortions arising from the use of multiple currencies. The East Timorese leadership wished to eventually introduce a national currency, but the staff of the IMF, while receptive to these views, recommended that such a step be taken only once a financial market became functional in East Timor and sound financial policy and well-developed institutional and legal frameworks were in place. Initially, a monetary authority—the Central Payments Office—would be responsible for providing basic depository and payment services, mainly to the government, and facilitating the development of the foreign exchange and money markets by adopting internationally accepted bank licensing and supervisory procedures. The fiscal strategy called for adopting a sustainable budget underpinned by a fair, transparent, efficient, and easy-to-administer tax system and an expenditure plan that would guarantee the provision of basic public services. It also called for establishing the Central Fiscal Authority, which would formulate tax policy and administer the collection of revenues, and design and coordinate the execution of the expenditure program. Implementing the proposed strategy required a comprehensive technical assistance program. East Timor needed immediate assistance from the IMF to design and implement a macroeconomic policy framework, and establish and make operational the Central Fiscal Authority and the Central Payments Office. Substantial medium-term assistance was also needed to enable East Timor to carry out both macroeconomic management and policy design and analysis. Developments up to November 2000 Economic activity revived strongly during 2000, led by commerce, services, and construction—activities closely linked to the international presence and reconstruction efforts in East Timor. Imports have increased, reflecting both substantial official aid flows and steadily growing private sector imports, but exports have continued to weaken. Inflation is low and price differences across districts have narrowed. Unemployment remains high. It is becoming increasingly difficult, however, to hire and retain civil servants because of the high wages being paid to people employed by UN and international financial institutions and the inflexible wage scale of the East Timor Transitional Administration (ETTA), which stipulates the same wage for workers within each skill category regardless of their experience. The average monthly wage for civil servants has been set at $135, which is much higher than comparable wages in Indonesia and other countries with similar per capita GDPs; and despite a lean civil service (which employs only about a third as many people as the Indonesian provincial administration did), the wage bill was higher than envisaged in the preliminary budget (see Valdivieso and others, 2000; and IMF, 2000). The preliminary budget, which was prepared by UNTAET with IMF technical support, guided public spending in East Timor in the first half of 2000. On July 1, 2000, this budget was replaced by the first consolidated budget for ETTA (covering fiscal year 2000/2001), which was prepared by the Central Fiscal Authority and was reviewed and marginally revised in November to accommodate additional expenditures. Budget execution has proceeded more slowly than anticipated, although it started to pick up speed toward the end of the year. Efforts to raise tax revenues—principally from a 5 percent import duty; various excises; a 5 percent sales tax on commercial imports; a 10 percent service tax; and royalties from, and taxes on, the production of oil and gas—have been successful, but enforcement of user fees (especially on power) needs improvement. With the exception of wages, ETTA expenditures—including recurrent and capital expenditures related to public administration buildings and equipment—and the reconstruction expenditures funded through the Trust Fund for East Timor (administered by the World Bank) have been lower than anticipated, reflecting managerial and operational problems in spending agencies, delays in supply and procurement, and long-drawn-out planning stages of investment programs. East Timor's fiscal deficits are expected to be fully financed by grants during the next three years. Following meetings in Tokyo (December 1999), Lisbon (June 2000), and Brussels (December 2000), donors have disbursed $150 million (thus fully meeting the target of OCHA's revised special appeal), allowing UN agencies to provide a wide range of humanitarian services. The capital expenditure program has been supported by pledges to the Trust Fund for East Timor of $166 million, enough to cover more than half of the country's estimated three-year reconstruction needs, and by pledges of bilateral assistance of $149 million up to mid-2003. Donors are also committed to providing an additional $55 million, which should be enough to meet ETTA's budget net financing requirements until mid-2001. Finally, to support UNTAET activities through June 2001, UN member states have approved expenditures of almost $1 billion, of which only a minimal fraction is likely to represent obligations for the budget of a future East Timorese government. Progress in the financial sector has been mixed. The foreign exchange market turnover (that is, the total value of sales and purchases of foreign exchange) is growing rapidly, and the exchange rate of the U.S. dollar vis-à-vis the Indonesian rupiah is closely tracking the corresponding rate in the Jakarta market. Two foreign banks have started operations and several others are interested. Bank demand deposits have risen quickly, but no commercial bank has extended credit, except for on-lending operations under the Trust Fund for East Timor, owing to the lack of collateral. Since January 2000, all budgetary payments have been made in U.S. dollars. Use of the U.S. dollar is increasing, but the rupiah continues to be widely used as a means of payment countrywide while the Australian dollar circulates mainly in the capital, Dili. Throughout the year, UNTAET has taken steps to progressively involve East Timorese in decision making. Five out of nine cabinet ministers are East Timorese; and the National Council, all of whose 36 members are East Timorese, is consulted on all policy decision matters. There is an ongoing effort to appoint East Timorese to management positions. Work to establish the Central Fiscal Authority and the Central Payments Office and associated regulatory frameworks has progressed on schedule. Regulations for budget execution and taxation framework were adopted (see http://www.easttimor.com for details); the treasury is functional; and there has been progress in setting up a tax administration. The Central Payments Office has issued several regulations, based on the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision's Core Principles, enabling foreign exchange bureaus and banks to operate. Licensing rules for nonbank financial institutions are being drawn up. Technical and financial assistance from the IMF, the World Bank, and bilateral sources has been critical in setting up the Central Fiscal Authority and the Central Payments Office. Finally, significant progress has been made in discussions with Indonesia, including on delineating land and maritime borders, rebuilding archives, and regularizing payments of state pensions to retired East Timorese civil servants. Several lessons are beginning to be drawn from the experience in assisting East Timor (see box). Challenges ahead Looking ahead, East Timor will face the challenge of creating an environment conducive to long-term private investment, so that this can become the engine of growth. Only by attaining high and sustained rates of economic growth will East Timor be able to effectively fight unemployment and poverty, and reduce, and eventually phase out, its reliance on foreign grants. Private investment is more likely to flourish if investors have favorable perceptions of East Timor's internal security, political and economic stability, and regulatory and institutional frameworks. To improve the security environment, additional progress needs to be made on refugee issues, delineation of borders, and free transit to the Oecussi enclave through West Timor. To foster political stability, the political transition expected to be completed by the end of 2001 needs to be supported by a broad campaign of civil education and the development of well-structured and well-funded political institutions. East Timor's fiscal policy stance is a critical part of its efforts to achieve and maintain macroeconomic stability. Although adopting the U.S. dollar as legal tender eliminated the possibility of inflationary budget financing, ensuring fiscal stability in the face of an eventual decline of foreign grants will require East Timor to adopt measures to increase revenues and maintain strict control over expenditures. Controlling expenditures may require reductions in both the wage bill and spending on goods and services. Reducing the wage bill will be difficult because of existing distortions and the number of people likely to be needed by newly created agencies, including the army. Controlling the growth of other expenditures over the medium term will require that bilaterally funded expenditures match the government's capital expenditure priorities and that the implications of bilaterally funded expenditures for medium-term recurrent expenditures (especially maintenance) be carefully watched. This will, in turn, require development of a formal institutional process for signing bilateral agreements. Finally, there is need to adopt a commercial legal framework, a land and property rights law, a labor code, mechanisms for the resolution and arbitration of disputes, proceedings for business bankruptcies, and a legal framework for foreign investment. Steps must also be taken to ensure that the Central Payments Office and the Central Fiscal Authority continue operating under sound principles of good governance, and to specify clearly the mandates of recently created economic institutions to avoid duplication of functions. This article is based on Luis M. Valdivieso, Toshihide Endo, Luis V. Mendonça, Shamsuddin Tareq, and Alejandro López-Mejía, 2000, East Timor: Establishing the Foundations of Sound Macroeconomic Management (Washington: International Monetary Fund), also available on the IMF's website at http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/etimor/index.htm; and International Monetary Fund, Asia and Pacific Department, 2000, "East Timor: Recent Developments and Macroeconomic Assessment," FO/DIS/00/149, November 30, available on the IMF's website at http://www.imf.org/external/np/et/2000/eng/113000.htm. References: World Bank, 1999, Joint Assessment Mission (JAM) background report, available on the World Bank's website at http://wbln0018.worldbank.org/eap/eap.nsf. http://www.easttimor.com (This website, which is published by the East Timorese nongovernmental organization Timor Aid, provides a wide range of information on East Timor, including a list of regulations issued by UNTAET.)
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"https://www.martenscentre.eu/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/AZAD-LOGO-650x363.jpg", "https://www.martenscentre.eu/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/martens-logo-footer.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null		en	https://www.martenscentr…avicon-60x60.png		https://www.martenscentre.eu/	About Martens Centre Hi, we are the Wilfried Martens Centre for European Studies, the official think tank of the European People’s Party. Through our work, we inspire ideas for action and shape responses to European challenges.
wrong_mix_range_leader_00122	FactBench	1	28	https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/5/24/east-timors-president-to-focus-on-economy-political-stability	en	East Timor’s president to focus on economy, political stability	https://www.aljazeera.co…esize=1200%2C630	https://www.aljazeera.co…esize=1200%2C630	[ "https://www.aljazeera.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/Screenshot-2022-05-24-at-8.36.13-AM-copy.jpg?resize=770%2C513&quality=80", "https://www.aljazeera.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/The-parade-in-celebration-of-Timor-Lestes-20th-anniversary-of-the-countrys-restoration-of-independence-is-held-at-the-Presidential-Palace-on-May-20-2022.-Allegra-Mendelson..jpeg?w=770&resize=770%2C513", "https://www.aljazeera.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/Jose-Ramos-Horta-is-sworn-in-as-president-with-former-president-Lu-Olo-at-his-side-in-Dili-on-May-20-2022.-Allegra-Mendelson.jpeg?w=770&resize=770%2C524", "https://www.aljazeera.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/President-Jose-Ramos-Horta-greets-his-guests-after-delivering-remarks-at-the-20th-anniversary-of-Timor-Lestes-restoration-of-independence-celebrations-in-Dili-on-May-20-2022.-Allegra-Mendelson.jpeg?w=770&resize=770%2C513", "https://www.aljazeera.com/static/media/aj-footer-logo.bac952ad.svg" ]	[]	[]	[ "News", "Elections", "Politics", "Asia Pacific", "East Timor" ]	null	[ "Allegra Mendelson" ]	2022-05-24T00:00:00	José Ramos-Horta explains why he is focusing on the economy and why China is important ‘but not more important’.	en	/favicon_aje.ico	Al Jazeera	https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/5/24/east-timors-president-to-focus-on-economy-political-stability	Dili, East Timor – José Ramos-Horta, who came out of political retirement to run for president of Southeast Asia’s youngest nation a second time, has a raft of challenges as he embarks on his first full week in office. Ramos-Horta, who has previously served as president and prime minister, decided to re-enter the political arena after accusing his predecessor Francisco Gueterres, popularly known as Lú Olo, of exceeding his constitutional powers and driving the economy into the ground. He emerged victorious after the presidential vote went to a second round in April. Known by many as a revolutionary icon, Ramos-Horta was awarded the 1996 Nobel Peace Prize for his work fighting for East Timor’s independence. His global prominence has made him a revered figure within the country – now formally known as Timor-Leste – and abroad, and has allowed him to build an impressive network of friends, many of whom travelled to Dili to watch his inauguration. Last week, Al Jazeera spoke to Ramos-Horta, who explained why he returned to politics and the kind of leader he hopes to be during his five years in office. The interview has been edited for length and clarity. Al Jazeera: Why did you decide to run for president again? José Ramos-Horta: I was approached in March 2020 by a large group of people who suggested to me that they wanted me to run again for president. Since 2018, current outgoing president [Lu Olo] made many decisions that were viewed as a violation of the constitution by declining to swear in many cabinet members of the then-majority party. He did this two or three times, which in my view and the view of many people, was an abuse of power by overstepping the boundaries of the limits of the president’s authority. The government was also incapable of injecting life into the economy, especially in the midst of the pandemic. The president entertained himself by imposing lockdown and stay-away measures and that really damaged the economy. Then the government was incapable of compensating people for their work and for their losses. Al Jazeera: Just a few days before you were to be sworn in, former President Lú Olo supported a bill to further restrict the president’s powers. Why do you think he pushed for this law just before your inauguration? Ramos-Horta: No one understands why [this bill was introduced]. For one, it is totally unconstitutional. You have a constitution – you cannot have a bunch of political parties in parliament decide the limits of the power of the president. It is so idiotic. People ask, ‘Well then these laws should also apply to the prime minister, to members of parliament, why only to the president?’ But they cannot because the power sharing is outlined in the constitution. They are so stupid. It’s a very fragile [coalition] government, a bit like if you marry a donkey with a monkey with a chicken. Al Jazeera: Timor Leste has the lowest gross domestic product [GDP] per capita in Southeast Asia. What is your economic policy? Ramos-Horta: I understand the limits of the power of the president. I can articulate the wisest policy strategy on how to address economic issues, like strong support for agriculture but that will be in the hands of the parliament to agree and to finance it. I just hope that I can mobilise enough public support to it and enough support from the international community. I will instead tell the donors, please do not channel any money to the government – the government has access to its budget – all your money that you want to use to help, make sure that it goes directly to the communities, go through a United Nations system. Al Jazeera: What will be your approach to tackling unemployment, especially among young people? Ramos-Horta: Number one is we have to improve the education system. We have to focus more on job training and investing more in science and technology and less on humanities. Too many young people go into humanities because it’s easier. So we have to create incentives for students going into science. I also have no problem with young Timorese people going abroad to work. They make much more money [abroad] than we will ever be able to pay them and they send money home. They learn new skills and they come back changed. It’s a bit like going to university but instead they go to work. Another way is better education for our people and creating more jobs. We have to create incentives for young people to want to work in agriculture. This is difficult. If we had industrialised agriculture then maybe more young people would want to work but the reality in Timor Leste is we have small land and not much water resources, so I prefer small or midsize agriculture for national consumption. We don’t need to dream about exporting abroad. Al Jazeera: As a Nobel Peace Prize laureate and longtime politician, you have a large network of international contacts. How could this affect your presidency? Ramos-Horta: I don’t know whether I have any influence with the international community. I spend time cultivating relationships with people – diplomats, ambassadors, government people, but not with a sense of opportunism. I care about people. My strength is not because I have numerous titles, those titles came about because of my performance and my commitment over the years. On a human level, I’m the most accessible leader anywhere in the world. If I were to show you my phone, you would see that hundreds of people have my phone number. So many people text me ‘Hello Grandpa’ and of course I cannot say hello or good morning or good night to 1,000 people but if someone calls me asking for help I try to help them with my own money or in some more serious cases I contact my sources in the country. Al Jazeera: Your inauguration was also the 20th anniversary of Timor Leste’s independence. How has the country changed in the last 20 years? Ramos-Horta: It has changed for much better. When we started, we had nothing – our annual budget was $63m, now it’s $3bn. Before, we had no electricity, now electricity covers 96.2 percent of the country. We had 20 medical doctors and now we have 1,200 medical doctors. We have zero political violence and we don’t have any ethnic or religious violence. We don’t have organised crime – I often joke that we don’t have organised crime because generally, we are very disorganised as a country, so even the criminals don’t get organised. We do have serious corruption but that’s more in the area of contracts whereby things are marked up. For instance, with road construction if it’s done by our government, there are networks of officials and while the bids are supposed to be secret, somehow they know and they pass on the information to their friends, the bidders, so they can outbid the competitors. Ideally we need to have an international and independent auditing to review when a contract is awarded, and review if it was done properly. Al Jazeera: In your inauguration address you mentioned increasing bilateral relations with China, while also calling on China to lead global dialogue for peace. Some reports now claim that stronger ties with China are a priority for your presidency. What is your response to this? Ramos-Horta: If you listen to my speech, it’s the only reference that I made that was actually more like an indirect criticism. We are one of the few countries in the world without any debt with China, and China is not even our biggest aid donor. Yes, Chinese companies have won construction projects, such as for road building, but they don’t win everything. As I said in my [inauguration] speech, the countries that are most important to Timor Leste are Australia, New Zealand, ASEAN countries, Japan and South Korea. These are absolute priorities. Separate from that, China is important, but not more important.
wrong_mix_range_leader_00122	FactBench	1	45	https://www.hi-us.org/en/country/east-timor	en	East Timor	https://www.hi-us.org/sn…riz_blue_rgb.png	https://www.hi-us.org/sn…riz_blue_rgb.png	[ "https://www.hi-us.org/sn_uploads/fck/logo_hi_en_horiz_white_rgb.png?maxw=220", "https://www.hi-us.org/sn_uploads/fck/logo_hi_en_horiz_white_rgb.png?maxw=220", "https://www.hi-us.org/sn_uploads/fck/logo_hi_en_horiz_white_rgb.png?maxw=220", "https://www.hi-us.org/sn_uploads/fck/logo_hi_en_horiz_white_rgb.png?maxw=220", "https://www.hi-us.org/sn_uploads/fck/Logo_Humanity_EN_Horizontal_Blue_Optimized.png", "https://www.hi-us.org/sn_uploads/fck/Logo_Humanity_EN_Horizontal_Blue_Optimized.png", "https://www.hi-us.org/sn_uploads/fck/Logo_Humanity_EN_Horizontal_Blue_Optimized.png", "https://www.hi-us.org/sn_uploads/fck/Logo_Humanity_EN_Horizontal_Blue_Optimized.png", "https://www.hi-us.org/sn_uploads/federation/country/fp_timo_1280x720.jpg?maxw=1110&maxh=1110", "https://www.hi-us.org/sn_uploads/federation/news/IRAK-deminage_1.JPEG?size=350x200&crop", "https://www.hi-us.org/sn_uploads/aC-seal-horizontal-w-url.png", "https://www.hi-us.org/sn_uploads/aC-seal-horizontal-w-url.png", "https://www.hi-us.org/sn_uploads/aC-seal-horizontal-w-url.png", "https://www.hi-us.org/sn_uploads/aC-seal-horizontal-w-url.png", "https://www.hi-us.org/sn_uploads/fck/candid-seal-platinum-2024.png", "https://www.hi-us.org/sn_uploads/fck/candid-seal-platinum-2024.png", "https://www.hi-us.org/sn_uploads/fck/candid-seal-platinum-2024.png", "https://www.hi-us.org/sn_uploads/fck/candid-seal-platinum-2024.png", "https://www.hi-us.org/sn_uploads/fck/Three-Star_Rating_Badge_-_Full_Color.png", "https://www.hi-us.org/sn_uploads/fck/Three-Star_Rating_Badge_-_Full_Color.png", "https://www.hi-us.org/sn_uploads/fck/Three-Star_Rating_Badge_-_Full_Color.png", "https://www.hi-us.org/sn_uploads/fck/Three-Star_Rating_Badge_-_Full_Color.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "Humanity & Inclusion is an independent nonprofit supporting people with disabilities in times of peace", "conflict and natural disaster." ]	null	[]	null	People with disabilities experience high levels of discrimination in East Timor which has now been an independent country for two decades. Humanity & Inclusion worked in the country to champion the rights of people with disabilities and to promote their inclusive employment, among other activities. Since 2017, East Timor has been included in a regional program with the Philippines and Indonesia but HI currently has no projects in the country.	en		East Timor	https://www.hi-us.org//en/country/east-timor	People with disabilities experience high levels of discrimination in East Timor which has now been an independent country for two decades. Humanity & Inclusion worked in the country to champion the rights of people with disabilities and to promote their inclusive employment, among other activities. Since 2017, East Timor has been included in a regional program with the Philippines and Indonesia but HI currently has no projects in the country. People with disabilities in East Timor often experience multiple layers of discrimination and even violence due to certain beliefs and traditions and are unlikely to be able to attend school or find employment. Humanity & Inclusion also campaigned to defend the rights of people with disabilities at local and national levels and to increase recognition of their right to a life of dignity. The organization worked with organizations of people with disabilities to create conditions favorable to the ratification of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. Humanity & Inclusion is not currently conducting any projects in East Timor.
wrong_mix_range_leader_00122	FactBench	0	88	https://fraser.stlouisfed.org/title/rand-mcnally-bankers-directory-105/final-1937-edition-598427/content/fulltext/rmbd_1937final_09_foreignbanks	en	Full text of Rand McNally Bankers Directory : Final 1937 Edition : Selected List of Foreign Banks and Bankers	https://fraser.stlouisfe…avicon-32x32.png	https://fraser.stlouisfe…avicon-32x32.png	[ "https://s3.amazonaws.com/files.fraser.stlouisfed.org/images/StlFedHoriz.svg", "https://s3.amazonaws.com/files.fraser.stlouisfed.org/images/FRASER-20Years_Rev.svg", "https://fraser.stlouisfed.org/images/x-logo/logo-white.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null		en	/favicons/apple-touch-icon-57x57.png		null	The full text on this page is automatically extracted from the file linked above and may contain errors and inconsistencies. Alphabetical Index to Countries FOREIGN BANKS AND BANKERS (For banks in United States, American Samoa, Canada, Canal Zone, Island of Guam, Philippine Islands, Puerto Rico and Virgin Islands, see indexed information in front part of directory) PAGE PAGE PAGE Abyssinia.........................(See Ethiopia) Aden.................................................. 1426 Aegean Island.................. (See Rhodes) Afghanistan..................................... 1426 Africa................................................. 1415 Albania..............................................1452 Algeria.............................................1415 Anglo-Egyptian Sudan................... 1415 Angola................................................1415 Arabia................................................ 1426 Argentina (Republic)......................1632 Aruba Island (Dutch)(See Curacao Colony) Ashanti (See Gold Coastand Ashanti) Asia.................................................... 1426 Australasia and Oceania............... 1442 Austria...............................................1452 Azores Islands..................................1454 Bahamas............................................1631 Bahrein Islands................................1426 Baluchistan.......................... (See India) Barbados........................................... 1631 Basutoland........................................ 1415 Belgian Congo..................................1415 Belgium............................................. 1454 Bermudas.......................................... 1619 Bolivia............................................... 1638 Borneo............. (See Netherland Indies) Brazil................................................. 1639 British Borneo..................................1426 British Guiana..................................1641 British Honduras............................. 1619 Bulgaria.............................................1459 Cameroons........................................ 1416 Canary Islands.................................1416 Cape of Good Hope (See Union of South Africa) Cape Verde Islands......................... 1416 Celebes.............(See Netherland Indies) Central America.............................. 1619 Ceylon........................................ .1426 Channel Islands (See Great Britain and Ireland) Chile...................................................1641 China................................................. 1431 Chosen (formerly Korea) (See Japan) Colombia........................................... 1642 Corsica................................ (See France) Costa Rica........................................ 1619 Cuba.................................................. 1631 Curacao Colony............................... 1631 Cyprus (Island of)........................... 1433 Czecho-Slovakia............................... 1461 Dahomey.... (See French West Africa) Danzig............................................... 1464 Denmark........................................... 1465 Dominican Republic........................1631 Dutch East Indies (See Netherland Indies) Dutch Guiana (Surinam) (See Nether land Guiana) Ecuador............................................. 1643 Egypt.................................................1416 England (See Great Britain and Ireland) Eritrea................................................1421 Estonia.............................................. 1470 Ethiopia......................................... .1421 Europe............................................... 1452 Federal Capital Territory............. 1442 Federated Malay States (See Malay S tates—Federated) Fernando Po..................................... 1421 Fiji Islands.......................................1442 Finland.............................................. 1471 France................................................1474 French Equatorial Africa............... 1421 French Guiana................................. 1644 French Guinea(See French West Africa) French India.................................... 1433 French Indo China.................. '.. .1433 French Somaliland.......................... 1421 French West Africa.........................1421 Gambia..............................................1421 Germany........................................... 1488 Gibraltar........................................... 1505 Goa....................(See Portuguese India) Gold Coast and Ashanti.................1421 Great Britain and Ireland............. 1506 Greece................................................1558 Guadaloupe...................................... 1632 Guatemala........................................ 1619 Haiti.................................................. 1632 Holland...................... (See Netherlands) Honduras.......................................... 1620 Hong Kong.......................................1433 Hungary............................................1560 Iceland.............................................. 1562 India.................................................. 1434 Ionian Islands.................... (See Greece) Iran....................................................1436 Iraq....................................................1437 Irish Free State and Northern Ireland (See Great Britain and Ireland) Italian Somaliland...........................1421 Italy...................................................1563 Ivory Coast (See French West Africa) Jamaica............................................. 1632 Japan................................................. 1437 Java.................(See Netherland Indies) Johore................................................1439 Kedah................................................1439 Kelantan........................................... 1439 Kenya................................................1421 Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes..................(See Yugoslavia) Nyasaland.........................................1422 Oceania (See Australasia and, Oceania) Orange Free State (See Union of South Africa) Palestine........................................... 1440 Panama (Republic)........................1631 Papua................................................ 1447 Paraguay........................................... 1644 Persia......................................(See Iran) Peru....................................................1644 Poland................................................1585 Portugal............................................ 1588 Portuguese East Africa (See Mozam bique) Portuguese Guinea.......................... 1422 Portuguese India............................. 1441 Principe Island.................................1422 Queensland....................................... 1447 Reunion.............................................1423 Rhodes Island..................................1441 Rhodesia (See Northern andSouthern Rhodesia) Romania............................................1589 Russia (See Soviet Union in Europe) Salvador............................................ 1620 Samoa Islands.................................. 1449 Sao Thome........................................1423 Scotland (See Great Britain and Ireland) Senegal........ (See French West Africa) Siam................................................... 1441 Siberia (See Soviet Union) (Europe and Asia) Sierra Leone..................................... 1423 South America................................. 1632 South Australia............................... 1449 Southern Rhodesia..........................1423 South-West Africa...........................1423 Soviet Union (In Asia) (See Soviet Union) (Europe and Asia) Soviet Union (Europe and Asia). .1595 Spain.................................................. 1598 Spanish Guinea................................1423 Straits Settlement............................1441 Sumatra.......... (See Netherland Indies) Swaziland..........................................1423 Sweden.............................................. 1603 Switzerland....................................... 1607 Syria...................................................1441 Tahiti.................................................1449 Taiwan (formerly Formosa) (See Japan) Tanganyika Territory.....................1423 Tasmania.................... 1449 Territory of New Guinea............... 1450 Timor...............(See Netherland Indies) Togo.............. (See French West Africa) Transjordan......................................1442 Transvaal (See Union of South Africa) Trengganu....................................... 1439 Trinidad............................................ 1632 Tunisia.............................................. 1423 Turkey in Asia (See Turkey in Europe) Turkey (Europe and Asia)........... 1615 Uganda..............................................1423 Unfederated Malay States (See Malay States—Unfederated) Union of South Africa....................1423 Uruguay............................................ 1644 Venezuela..........................................1645 Victoria..............................................1450 Wales.. (See Great Britain and Ireland) Western Australia............................1451 West Indies...................................... 1631 Windward Islands........................... 1632 Yugoslavia (Serb, Croat and Slovene Kingdom)......................................1616 Zanzibar Island................................1426 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Kwan-Tung........................ (See Japan) Latvia (Republic)............................1572 Leeward Islands.............................. 1632 Liberia............................................... 1421 Libya................................................. 1421 Liechtenstein....................................1573 Lithuania.......................................... 1573 Lombok.......... (See Netherland Indies) Luxembourg..................................... 1574 Madagascar Island..........................1422 Madeira Island................................1575 Malay States—Federated.............1439 Malay States—Unfederated........1439 Malta.................................................1575 Manchukuo..................................... 1439 Martinique....................................... 1632 Mauritius..........................................1422 Mesopotamia......................... (See Iraq) Mexico........................... 1620 Molucca Islands (See Netherland Indies) Monaco............................................. 1575 Morocco............................................ 1422 Mozambique.................................... 1422 Natal........(See Union of South Africa) Netherland Guiana (Surinam)... 1644 Netherland Indies........................... 1439 Netherlands..................................... 1575 New Caledonia................................ 1442 New South Wales........................... 1442 New Zealand (Dominion of)......... 1445 Nicaragua......................................... 1620 Nigeria.............................................. 1422 North America.................................1619 Northern Ireland (See Great Britain and Ireland) Northern Rhodesia......................... 1422 Northern Territory......................... 1447 Norway............................................. 1581 1410 The Chartered Bank of India, Australia, and China INCORPORATED BY ROYAL CHARTER 1853 HEAD OFFICE ___________________________________________ 38 Blshopsgate, LONDON, E. C. PAID-UP CAPITAL £3,000,000 RESERVE FUND, £3,000,000 Reserve Liability of Shareholders £3,000,000 Undivided Profits, 1936, £182,720 Directors: Arthur d’Anyers Willis, Esq., Chairman Colin Frederick Campbell, Esq. Sir William Henry Neville Goschen,Bt.,K. B. E. Moses Mordecai Simeon Gubbay,Esq.,C.S.I.,C.I.E. The Earl of Inchcape Chief Manager A. H. Ferguson Manager W. B. White Sub Manager W. R. Cockburn Edward Fairbairn Mackay, Esq. Sir Henry Pelham Wentworth Macnaghten Sir William Foot Mitchell Archibald Rose, Esq., C. I. E. Jasper Bertram Young, Esq. VDIA AND BllRMAH:—Amritsar, Bombay, Calcutta, Cawnpore, Colombo, Delhi, Karachi, Madras, Rangoon, TRAITS SETTLEMENTS. F. M. S. AND SIAM:— Alor Star, Bangkok, Ipoh, Klang, Kuala Lumpur, Penang, Tongkah (Bhuket), Seremban, Singapore, Taiping, Sitiawan. AVA AND SUMATRA: — Batavia, Medan (Deli.), Semarang, Sourabaya. ORNEO:—Kuching (Sarawak) The Bank’s London Office undertakes Executor of British Income-Tax overpaid, on terms w Provide the latest Blue Book inrormation HESfl HHmBh in the new Book. It contains com facts on practically ever !connected with banking. » » RAND MCNALLY https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis & COMPANY 536 S. Clark Street, Chicago https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis JhmgA. 'IfojuL TTlaj^ TboL Jirww (Do QAoul Jinow that every member of the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation is so indicated in your Blue Book? (Do IAdul Jinow that the latest map of every state in the Union is in your Blue Book—before each state? (Do IAjoil Jinow that immediately following the Federal Reserve Bank information in the front part of your Blue Book you will find a complete directory of other Federal banks and Government agencies which deal with banks? 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Clark St. NEW YORK CHICAGO SAN FRANCISCO SELECTED LIST OF FOREIGN BANKS AND BANKERS For Banks in the United States, American Samoa, Canada, Canal Zone, Island of Guam, Philippine Islands, Puerto Rico and Virgin Islands, see indexed information in front part of Directory. Lilted Alphabetically, — lit, ai to Continenti, — 2d, ai to Countriei, — 3d, ai to Citiea and Towni. For Alphabetical Index to Countries see previous page. AFRICA AFRICA ABYSSINIA See Ethiopia ALGERIA (France) Affrevllle—_......... ..........Banque de L’Algerie. Compagnie Algerienne, S. A. Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunisie. Ain Belda__________ Banque de L’Algerie. Compagnie Algerienne, S. A. Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunisia. Aln-Temouchent_____ Banque de L’Algerie. Compagnie Algerienne, S. A. Credit Foncier d’Algerie de Tunisie. Credit Lyonnais. Alger (Algiers) (Capt'fal)Banque de L’Algerie. Banque de L’Union Nord Africaine. Barclays Bank (France) Limited. Compagnie Algerienne, S. A. (H. O. Paris). Credit Algenen pour Favoriser le Developpement Agricole, Commercial et Industrial de l’Algerie, S. A. Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunisie {Head Office) (8, Boulevard de la Republique) {Central Office (43, rue Cambon, Paris). Joint Stock Co. > Directors in Africa: Paul Rouan {Managing Director), Charles Henri, Louis Dubourdieu, Alfred Borgeaud, Charles Thevenet, Eugene Robe, Andre Coudray. Capital-_______ _______________Frs. 150,000,000 Reserves______________________ 12,888,476 Deposits______________________ 1,752,885,964 Total resources (Dec. 31, 1935).2,579,130,709 Credit Lyonnais (Lyons) Societe Generate Pour Favoriser. SocifitS Marseillaise de Credit Industrial et Commercial et de Depots. Arzeu_______________Compagnie Algerienne. Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunisie. Aumale_____________ Banque de L’Algerie. Compagnie Algerienne, S. A. Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunlsle. Batna_______________Compagnie Algerienne, S. A. Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunisie. Berrouaghia.................. Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunisie. Biskra______ ________Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunisie. Bllda_______________ Banque de L’Algerie. Compagnie Algerienne, S. A. Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunlsle. Credit Lyonnais. Society Marseillaise de Credit Industrial et Commercial et de Depots. BOne_______________ Banque de L’Algerie. Compagnie Algerienne, S. A. Credit Foncier d’Algerie et Tunisie. Credit Lyonnais. SociOtO GSnSrale Pour Favoriser. Borjd-Bou-Arreridj___Banque de L’Algerie. Compagnie Algerienne, S. A. Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunlsle. Boufarik.........................Compagnie Algerienne. Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunisie. Credit Lyonnais. Bouira.......... ................. Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunisie. Bougie_____ _________Banque de L’Algerie. Compagnie Algerienne, S. A. Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunlsle. Credit Lyonnais. SociOtS GOnSrale Pour Favoriser. Cherchel........................Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunisie. Constantine_________ Banque de L’Algerie. Compagnie Algerienne, S. A. Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunisie. Credit Lyonnais. SociStS GOnOrale Pour Favoriser. Dellys........................Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunisie. Douera......... ..................Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunisie. Fort-National...............Credit Foncier d'Algerie et de Tunisie. Frenda............................Credit Foncier d'Algerie et de Tunisie. Guelma............ ..............ComDagnie Algerienne. Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunisie. Hussein-Dey..... ............Credit Lyonnais. Khenchela__________ ComDagnie Algerienne. Kolea............................. Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunisie. Maison-CarrSe..............ComDagnie Algerienne. Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunisie. Credit Lyonnais. Mascara..... ......... ......... Compagnie Algerienne. Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunisie. Credit Lyonnais. Medea........ ................... Compagnie Algerienne. Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunisie. Menerville__________ Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunisie. Mila_______________ Credit Foncier d'Algerie et de Tunisie. MUiana.........................Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunisie. Mostaganem________ Banque de L’Algerie. Compagnie Algerienne, S. A. Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunisie. Credit Lyonnais. SociStS GSnSrale Pour Favoriser. Oran_______________ Banque de L'Algerie. Barclays Bank (France) Limited. Compagnie Algerienne, S. A. Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunisie. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Algeria—(Continued) Oran {Continued).........Credit Lyonnais. SociSte Generate Pour Favoriser. Soci6t6 Marseillaise de Credit Industriel et Commercial et de Depots. Orleansville...................Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunisie. Palestro..... ....................Compagnie Algerienne. Perregaux..................... Credit Foncier d'Algerie et de Tunisie. Phillppeville_________Banque de L’Algerie. Compagnie d’Algerienne, S. A. Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunisie. Credit Lyonnais. Society G&nSraie Pour Favoriser. Relizane........................ Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunisie. Saida............................ Banque de L’Algerie. Compagnie Algerienne, S. A. Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunlsle. Saint-Denis-du-Sig.__ Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunisie. Setif...................... ..........Banque de L’Algerie. Compagnie Algorienne, S. A. Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunlsle. Sldl-Bel-Abbes______ Banque de L’Algerie. Compagnie Algerienne, S. A. Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunisie. Credit Lyonnais. Soci6t6 Generale Pour Favoriser. Societe Marseillaise de Credit Industriel et Commercial et de Depdts. Souk-Ahras_________ Banque de L'Algerie. Compagnie Algerienne, S. A. Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunlsle. Staoueli____________ Credit Lyonnais. Tebessa................ ..........Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunisie. Teniet-el-Haad.......... Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunisie. Tenez---------------------- Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunisie. Tlaret______________ Banque de L’Algerie. Compagnie Algerienne, S. A. Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunisie. Tlzl Ouzou.................... Banque de L’Algerie. Compagnie Algerienne, S. A. Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunlsle. Tlemcen____________ Banque de L’Algerie. Compagnie Algerienne, S. A. Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunlsle. Credit Lyonnais. Touggourt................. ..Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunisie. ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN {British Protectorate) El Obeid........................ National Bank of Egypt (Cairo, Egypt). Khartoum {Capital)__ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). National Bank of Egypt. (Cairo, Egypt). Omdurman................... BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS) National Bank of Egypt. (Cairo, Egypt). Port Sudan.................... BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). National Bank of Egypt. (Cairo, Egypt). Tokar................... ..........National Bank of Egypt. (Cairo, Egypt). Wad-Medani................. BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). (London). National Bank of Egypt. (Cairo, Egypt). ANGOLA {Portuguese Colony) Benguella....................Banco de Angola. Cabinda____________ Banco de Angola. Lobito______________Banco de Angola. Malanje........................Banco de Angola. Mossamedes________ Banco de Angola. Nova Lisboa________ Banco de Angola. Novo Redondo______ Banco de Angola. Sa Da Bandeira_____ Banco de Angola. Santa Antonio do Zaire Banco de Angola. Vila Luso.......................Banco de Angola. Vila Silva Porto {Bihe) Banco de Angola. BASUTOLAND {British Colony) Maseru {Capital)_____ STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED BELGIAN CONGO Albertville__________ Banque Beige d’Afrique, S. A. Banque Commerciale du Congo, S. A. Banaue du Congo Beige, S. A. Credit Foncier Africain, S. A. Credit Hypothecaire d’Afrique, S. A. Banningville..................Banque Commerciale du Congo, S. A. Banque du Congo Beige, S. A. Basankusu.....................Banque Commerciale du Congo, S. A. Banque du Congo Beige, S. A. Boma {Capital)...........Banco de Angola. Banque Beige d’Afrique, S. A. Banque Commerciale du Congo, S. A. Banque du Congo Beige, S. A. Credit Foncier Africain, S. A. Credit Hypothecaire d’Afrique, S. A. Bumba______ ______ Banque Commerciale du Congo, S. A. Banque du Congo Beige, S. A. Buta_______________ Banque Commerciale du Congo, S. A. Banaue du Congo Beige, S. A. Credit Foncier Africain, S. A. Credit Hypothecaire d’Afrique, S. A. Coquilhatville............... Banque Beige d’Afrique, S. A. Banque Commerciale du Congo, S. A. Banque du Congo Beige, S. A. Credit Foncier Africain, S. A. Credit Hypothecaire d’Afrique, S. A. 1415 SELECTED LIST OF FOREIGN BANKS AND BANKERS 1416 AFRICA AFRICA Egypt—(Continued) Alexandria (Continued)Banco Italo-Egiziano, S. A. E. (Head Office) Pres.: On Antonio Stefano Benni; Vice Presidents: Dott Gr. Uff. Carlo Feltrinelli, On. Gr. Uff. Ing. Giacinto Motta; Gen. Mgr.: Dott. Enrico Biagl. Capital______:_________________......£ 75,000 Reserves___________________ .......... 60,000 Total resources_________________ 6,748,476 Bank of Athens. Banque Beige et Internationale en Egypt (10 Rue Stamboul) (Offices at Cairo and Alexandria) Joint Stock Co.—Est. 1929 Manager: Ellsworth Lambiotte; Joint Manager: Robert Halet; Sub.-Manager: Victor Brunner. Capital subscribed__________________ £E 1,000.000 Capital paid-up____________________ 500,000 Belgian Congo—(Continued) Costermansville............ Banque Beige d’Afrique, S. A. Banque Commerciale du Congo, S. A. Banque du Congo Beige, S. A. Credit Fonder Africain, S. A. Credit Hypothecaire d’Afrique, S. A. Dar es Salaam..............Banque du Congo Beige, S. A. Elizabethville................Banque Beige d Afnque, S. A. Banque Commerciale du Congo, S. A. Banque du Congo Beige, S. A. Credit Fonder Africain, S. A. Credit Hypothecaire d’Afrique, S. A. Tnonpn ...Banque Commerciale du Congo, S. A. Banque du Congo Belee. S. A. Tmmu ....Banque Commerciale du Congo, S. A. ... Banque du Congo Beige, S. A. Jadotville........................Banque Beige d’Afrique, S. A. Banque Commerciale du Congo, S. A. Banque du Congo Beige, S. A. Ktnriii ............Banque Commerciale du Congo, S. A. . .... Banque du Congo Beige, S. A. Leopoldville....................Banque Beige d’Afrique, S. A. v Banque Commerciale du Congo, S. A. Banque du Congo Beige, S. A. Credit Fonder Africain, S. A. Credit Hypothecaire d’Afrique, S. A. Lihenee ......... Banque Commerciale du Congo, S. A. Banque du Congo Beige ,S. A. Bikasi _______ Credit Fonder Africain, S. A. Credit Hypothecaire d’Afrique, S. A. Lusambo........................Banque Beige d’Afrique, S. A. Banque Commerciale du Congo, S. A. Banque du Congo Beige, S. A. Credit Fonder Africain, S. A. Credit Hypothecaire d’Afrique, S. A. vfatadi ............. Banque Commerdale du Congo, S. A. Banque du Congo Beige, S. A. Credit Fonder Africain, S. A. Credit Hypothecaire d’Afrique, S. A. Nianeara _________Banque Commerciale du Congo, S. A. Banque du Congo Beige, S. A. Port Francqui...............Banque Commerciale du Congo, 8. A. Banque du Congo Beige, S. A. Stanleyville................... Banque Beige d’Afrique, S. A. Banque Commerciale du Congo, 8. A. Banque du Congo Beige, S. A. Credit Fonder Africain, S. A. Credit Hypothecaire d’Afrique, S. A. Thysville................... .Banque Beige d’Afrique, 8. A. Credit Foncier Africain, S. A. Credit Hypothecaire d’Afrique, S. A. Usumbura___________Banque Commerciale du Congo, S. A. Banque du Congo Beige, 8. A. Uvira _______ Credit Foncier Africain, 8 A. Credit Hypothecaire d’Afrique, S. A. Wamba ________ Banque Commerciale du Congo, S. A. Banque du Congo Beige, S. A. Watsa ___________ Banque Commerciale du Congo, S. A. Banque du Congo Beige, S. A. 4QR Total resources (3une~30,”1936)^.111111 2,783442 Corr.: Banque Beige pour l’Etranger (Overseas) Ltd., N. Y. and London. Banque Misr, S. A. E. Banque Nationale de Grece. BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Commercial Bank of Egypt, S. A. E. (Banque Com merciale d’Egypte) (Head Office) (10 Rue Fouad) Joint Stock Co. Manager: Elie N. Salama. Capital paid-up_________________ P.T. 14,625,000 Reserves_________________________ 5,850,000 Total resources________________ 56,698,682 CAMEROONS .......................Bank of British West Africa, Limited. Banque Commerciale Africaine, 8. A. Banque de l’Afrique Ocddentale. Victoria.......................... BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS) Douala CANARY ISLANDS (.Spain) Las Palmas................... Banco de Bilboa. (Grand Canary) Banco de Espafia. Banco Hispano Americano. Bank of British West Africa, Limited. Blandy Brothers & Co. (Grand Canary), 8. A. (Head Office) Private—Est. 1885. Managing Directors: C. M. Blandy, R. R. Faber, D. O. Davies, P. G. Blandy. J „ Officers: Daniel O’Shanahan, O. Vahland, Pablo Cabrera Vazquez, Frank Morrison. Corr.: Brown Bros., Harriman & Co., N. Y.; Blandy Bros. & Co. (London), Ltd., Lon. Puerto de la Luz.......... Blandy Brothers & Co. (Grand Canary), S. A. Santa Cruz (Palma I.) Banco Hispano Americano. Juan Cabrera Martin (La Palma) Sociedad Anonima. (2 Perez de Brito) Private Limited Co.—Est. 1864. Partners: Nicolas, Dolores, Josefa Rosario y Carmen Cabrera Martin y Jose E. Cabrera Martin. Managers and Directors: Jose E. Cabrera, Nicolas Cabrera Martin. „ Capital paid-up___________________ PtS. 1,225,000 Corr.: Barclays Bk., Ltd., London. Santa Cruz (Tenerife).Jacob Ahlers (Calle Marina 31). Private—Est. 1904. Owner: Jacob Ahlers. _ Paid-up Capital____________________ PtS. 620,000 Reserves______________ -------------------------- 380,579 Total resources (Sept. 30, 1934)--------------- 1,090,579 Corr: J. Henry Schroeder Banking Corp., N. Y., J. Henry Schroeder & Co., Midland Bk. Ltd., Lon. Banco de Bilboa. Banco Hispano Americano. Bank of British West Africa, Limited. CAPE OF GOOD HOPE (See Union of South Africa) CAPE VERDE ISLANDS (Portugal) Sao Thiago—........ ....Banco Nacional Ultramarino. Sao Vicente................... Banco Nacional Ultramarino. DAHOMEY (See French West Africa) EGYPT Aboukir..........................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). AbO Tig......................... BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). National Bank of Egypt. Alexandria_____ ____ Banca Commerciale Italiana per l’Egitto, 8. A. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis (Head Office) Commercial Bank of the Near East, Ltd. Comp. Nat’l d’Escompte de Paris. Thomas Cook & Son, Limited. Credit Lyonnais. Dresdner Bank. Ionian Bank. Ltd. Land Bank of Egypt (Banque Fonciere d’ Egypt) (15 rue Toussoun) Joint Stock Co.—Est. 1905 Manager: Edouard Bourre; General Secretary: A. Deprat. Capital paid-up__ __________________£E. 975,000 Reserves__________________________ 525,297 Total resources_________ 7,519,951 Corr.: Comptoir National d’ Escompte de Paris, London. National Bank of Egypt. Ottoman Bank. Ed Suares fils & Co. (6 Rue Eglise DebbanG (Private Bank—Est. 1891 Partners: Joseph Carlo Suares, Enrico Suares, Jacques B. Naggar; Holders of Procuration: Joseph T. Benaroyo, Maurice J. Cohen. Capital paid-up_____________ _______£E 60,000 Reserves___________________________ 4,483 Corr.: Westminster Bk. Ltd., and Union Discount Co. of London Ltd., London. Yokohamie Shokin Ginko. Aswan (Assuan)........... National Bank of Egypt. Assiut............................. BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). National Bank of Egypt. Benha........................... Banque Misr, S. A. E. Ionian Bank, Ltd. National Bank of Egypt. Beni-Suef....................Banca Italo-Egiziano, S. A. Banque Misr, S. A. E. BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Ionian Bank, Ltd. National Bank of Egypt. Cairo (Capital)............. American Express Co., Inc. Banca Commerciale Italiana per l’Egitto. Banco Italo-Egiziano. S. A. Bank of Athens. Banque Beige et Internationale en Egypte. (Offices at Cairo and Alexandria) (45, Kasr-el-Nil St.) Joint Stock Co.—Est. 1929. Manager: Louis Van Damme; Joint Manager: Georges Ernst; Sub.-Manager: Leon Blalobos. Capital subscribed__________________ £E 1,000,000 Paid-up capital__ ______________ ... 500,000 Reserves__________________________ 32,498 Total resources (June 30, 1936)--------2,783,142 Corr.: Banque Beige pour L’Etranger (Overseas) Ltd., N. Y. and London. Banque De Commerce N. Tepeghiosi & Co. 8. en C.P.A. Banque Misr, (Societe Anonyme Egyptienne), (151 Sharia Emad el Dine) (Head Office) Joint Stock Co. —Est. 1920. Directors: S. E. Ahmed Midhat Yeghen Pasha (Pres.), S. E. Mohammed Talaat Harb Pasha (Vice Pres, and Mgr. Director). Dr. Fouad Sultan (Mng. Director), S E. Joseph Cattaui Pasha, 8. E. Issawi Zayed Pasha, 8. E. Abdel Fattah Bey El Lozy, Mr. Joseph Cicurel. Capital paid-up..______ ___ ______ £E. 1,000,000 Reserves________________ ____________ 740,469 Total Resources____-_________________ 13,125,548 Corr.: Banque Beige pour L’Etranger, N. Y.; Lloyds Bk. Ltd., Barclays. Bk. Ltd., Lon. Banque Nationale de Grece. BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION. COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Commercial Bank of Egypt. 8. A. E. Comptoir National d’Escompte de Paris. Thomas Cook & Son (Bankers), Ltd. Credit Lyonnais. Dresdner Bank. Mosseri & Co. National Bank of Egypt (Head Office) Est. 1898. Governor: Sir Edward Cook, C. S. I., C. I. E. Sub-Governors: A. C. Hann (Alexandria), J. A. Crawford (Cairo). Mgr.: H. 8. Job, O. B. E. Paid-up capital____________________ £E 2,925,000 Capital reserves___________________ 2,925,000 Total resources (Dec. 31, 1935)______ 38,857,773 with which is incorporated THE AFRICAN BANKING CORPORATION Ltd. Bankers to the Imperial Government in South Africa, and to the Governments of Northern Rhodesia, Southern Rhodesia, Nyasaland, and Tanganyika. CAPITAL AUTHORISED & SUBSCRIBED CAPITAL PAID UP RESERVE FUND TOTAL ASSETS Board of Directors WILLIAM REIERSON ARBUTHNOT, Esq. ROBERT EDMUND DICKINSON, E.q. THE RT. HON. THE EARL OF ATHLONE, K. G. JOHN FRANCIS GREY GILLIAT, Esq. THE RT. HON. LORD BALFOUR of BURLEIGH hoRACE^PEEL^Esq^* ESq‘ STANLEY CHRISTOPHERSON, Esq. THE RT. HON. THE EARL OF SELBORNE, K. G. EDWARD CLIFTON-BROWN, Esq. SIR RODERICK ROY WILSON BRIG. GEN. SIR SAMUEL HERBERT WILSON, G. C. M. G., K. C. B., K. B. E. General Manager in South Africa: MILTON CLOUGH Deputy General Managers in South Africa: H. G. HOEY, J. BREMNER •ral Managers in South Africa: R. W. NORMAND, W. A. COOMBS, J. T. JURGENS London Manager: RALPH GIBSON Secretary: H. DALES Bankers: The Bank of England. Westminster Bank, Ltd. HEAD OFFICE: 10 Clements Lane, Lombard Street\T , — ^ . & 77 King William Street JLondon’ E* C> 4 BRANCHES IN LONDON: 63 London Wall E. C. 2 & 9 Northumberland Avenue, W. C. 2 Hamburg Agency: Schauenburgerstrasse 49. Branches Throughout South, Southwest and East Africa New York Agency: 67 Wall Street Also Representing in New York the Bank of British West Africa, Ltd., with Branches Throughout West Africa, Morocco, and Canary Islands, and the Bank of New South Wales, with Branches Throughout Australia and New Zealand Agent: ROWLAND SMITH THE NEW YORK AGENCY offers to Bankers and Merchants throughout the United States and Canada its unsurpassed service for facilitating trade with the markets of the above countries. Every description of Banking Business Transacted with our Branches and Agencies. Bills Negotiated and Collected. Drafts Issued, Mail and Telegraphic Transfers ef fected with all our Branches, Agents and Correspondents. Circular and Com mercial Letters of Credit Issued available in all Parts of the World. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis The Officers of the Bank are pledged to secrecy regarding the transactions of its customers. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS) formerly THE COLONIAL BANK Incorporated by Royal Charter, 1836 Reincorporated by Act of Parliament, 1925 with which are amalgamated THE NATIONAL BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA, LTD. and THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN BANK, LTD. Directors HERBERT LESLIE MELVILLE TRITTON, Chairman SIR JOHN CAULCUTT, K. C. M. G., Deputy Chairman SIR EDWARD DAVSON, BART., K.C. M.G., Vice Chairman ANTHONY CHARLES BARNES, D. S. O. CHARLES LYALL DALZIEL THE RIGHT HON. LORD ESSENDON ARTHUR BEVINGTON GILLETT WILLIAM MACNAMARA GOODENOUGH JAMES RANKINE LEISK, C. M. G. THE RIGHT HON. LORD LUGARD, G.C.M.G., C.B., D.S.O. SIR ERNEST OPPENHEIMER, M. P. (Union of South Africa). EMIL PUSCH SIR HAROLD EDWARD SNAGGE. K. B. E. WALTER OSBORNE STEVENSON £10,000,000 Authorised capital Subscribed capital Paid-up capital Reserve Fund HEAD OFFICE: £ 6,975,500 £ 4,975,500 £ 1,925,000 54 LOMBARD STREET, LONDON, ENGLAND BRANCHES THROUGHOUT South Africa East Africa West Africa British West Indies British Guiana Also at ENGLAND: LONDON LIVERPOOL GERMANY: HAMBURG and MALTA GIBRALTAR NEW YORK AGENCY: Egypt The Sudan Palestine MANCHESTER MAURITIUS 120 BROADWAY GENERAL FOREIGN BANKING BUSINESS CONDUCTED https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 1421 SELECTED LIST OF FOREIGN BANKS AND BANKERS AFRICA AFRICA Egypt— (Continued) FRENCH WEST AFRICA .Ottoman Bank. L’Union Fonciere d’Egypte. (8, Rue Cheikh Aboul SebSa) {Head. Office). Private—Est. 1905. Board of Directors: S. E. Joseph A. Cattaui Pacha {Chairman), Elie N. Mosseri {Vice Chairman), Emile N. Ades, Aslan Cattaui Bey (Managing Director) Charles Chalom, S. E. Tewfik Doss Pacha, Bakhos Lebnan, S. E. Hassan Mazloum Pacha, le Comte Selim de Saab. Manager: Tewflk Bahari. Paid-up Capital_____________________ £E 414,375,000 Capital reserves_________________ 31,216,987 Total resources (Dec. 31, 1935)------577,219,072 Corr: Banque Beige pour L’Etranger (Overseas) Ltd., London. .Banca Commerciale Italiana per l’Egitto. Commercial Bank of Egypt. Ionian Bank, Ltd. National Bank of Egypt. Cairo (Capital) (Continued) Damanhnr. .BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Deirut.. Faydm. .Banco Italo-Egiziano, S. A. Banque Misr, S. A. E. BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS) Ionian Bank, Ltd. National Bank of Egypt. .BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION. COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS) .BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS) Girga____ Heliopolis. National Bank of Egypt. .Ottoman Bank. .Ionian Bank, Limited. National Bank of Egypt. .National Bank of Egypt. .See Cairo. .National Bank of Egypt. Ismailia_____ Kafr-ez-Zaiyat. Keneh............. Le Caire........... Luqsor {Luxor). Manfalut_____ Mansourah___ .BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS) .Banca Commerciale Italiana per l’Egitto. Banco Italo-Egiziano, S. A. BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Ionian Bank, Ltd. National Bank of Egypt. Ottoman Bank. .Ionian Bank, Ltd. National Bank of Egypt. Mehalla-el-Kebir ..BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Mellawl.............. Mlnleh (Minya). .Banca Commerciale Italiana per L'Egitto. Banco Italo-Egiziano, S. A. Banque Misr, S. A. E. BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). National Bank of Egypt. Ottoman Bank. Mlt Gamr (Mil Ohamr) Banaue Misr S. A. E. Musky.,___________ Ottoman Bank. Port Said................ . Bank of Athens. BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Compt. National d’Escompte de Paris. Thomas Cook & Son (Bankers), Ltd. Credit Lyonnais. National Bank of Egypt. Ottoman Bank. Rod-el-Farag {Cairo). National Bank of Egypt. Banca Commerciale Italiana per l’Egitto. Bohag............... . BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). National Bank of Egypt. Suez. BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). National Bank of Egypt. Tahta. Tanta. BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Banca Commerciale Italiana per l’Egitto. Banco Italo-Egiziano. S. A. Banque Misr, S. A. E. BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Commercial Bank of Egypt. Ionian Bank, Ltd. National Bank of Egypt. .Banca Commerciale Italiana per l’Egitto. Banque Misr, S. A. E. Banque Nationale de Grece. Zagazlg. BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION. COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). National Bank of Egypt. National Bank of Greece. ERITREA (Italian Colony) Asmara (Capital) ._Banca d’ Italia. Banco di Napoli. Banco di Roma. Massaua.................... Banca d’ Italia. Banco di Roma. ETHIOPIA (Abyssinia) Monetary unit—Thalari =» Fluctuates with price of silver. Addis Ababa (Capital) Banca d’ltalia (Roma, Italy). Banco di Roma (Roma, Italy). FERNANDO PO (Spain) Santa Isabel......___ Banco Exterior de Espana. Bank of British West Africa, Limited. FRENCH EQUATORIAL AFRICA Bangui_____ _______ Banque Belee d’Afrique, S. A. Banque Commerciale Africaine, S. A. Brazzaville__________ Banque Beige d’Afrique, S. A. (Middle Congo) Banque de L’Afrique Occidentale. Libreville_____ _____ Banque Commerciale Africaine, S. A. (Gabon) Banque de L’Afrique Occidentale. Pointe-Noire________ Banque Beige d’Afrique, S. A. Port Gentil.................... Banque Commerciale Africaine, S. A. (Gabon) Banque de L’Afrique Occidentale. FRENCH GUINEA (See French West Africa) FRENCH SOMALILAND (.French Colony) Djibouti (Capital)........Banque de l’lndochine. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Abidjan..........................Banque de l’Afrique Occidentale. Banque Commerciale Africaine, S. A. Bamako........................ Banque de l’Afrique Occidentale. Bangui____________ Banque Beige d'Afrique, S. A. Brazzaville_________ Banque Beige d’Afrique, S. A. Cotonou..................... ..Banque de l’Afrique Occidentale. Conakry........... ......... Banque de l’Afrique Occidentale. (French Guinea) Dakar (Senegal)_____ Banque Beige d’Afrique, S. A. Banque Commerciale Africaine, S. A. Banque de l’Afrique Occidentale. Credit Foncier d’Afrique S. A. (Head Office) Grand Bassam............ Banque Commerciale Africaine, S. A. (Ivory Coast) Banque de 1’Afrique Occidentale. Kaolack......................... Banque de l’Afrique Occidentale. Banque Commerciale Africaine, S. A. Lome (Togo)________ Banque de L’Afrique Occidentale. Pointe Noire________ Banque Beige d’Afrique, S. A. St. Louis (Senegal)___ Banque de l’Afrique Occidentale. GAMBIA (England) Bathurst (Capital).__ Bank of British West Africa, Ltd. GOLD COAST AND ASHANTI (English Colony) Accra (Capital)______ Bank of British West Africa, Limited. RARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION. COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). OVERSEAS). BogOSU.......................... BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND Cape Coast_________ Bank of British West Africa, Limited. Dunkwa___________ Bank of British West Africa, Limited. BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Keta___ ____ Bank or British West Africa. Koforidua..................... Bank of British West Africa, Limited. BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Kumasi (or Coomasgie) .Bank of British West Africa, Limited. BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION. COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Oda............................ Bank of British West Africa Limited. Sekondi (Secondee). Bank of British West Africa, Limited. BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION. COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Takoradi.......................Bank of British West Africa Limited. BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS) Tarkwa........................Bank of British West Africa, Limited. BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION. COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Winneba....................... Bank of British West Africa, Limited. BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS) ITALIAN SOMALILAND Mogadishu (Capital) ..Banca d’ Italia. Banco di Roma. IVORY COAST (See French West Africa) KENYA (British Colony and Protectorate) Eldoret.............................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION. COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Kakamega.......................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA, LIMITED. Kisumu____________ National Bank of India, Limited. STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Kitale (Transnxoia)___BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION. COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. AND OVERSEAS). Mombasa........................ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL National Bank of India, Limited. STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. AND OVERSEAS). Nairobi (Capital).......... BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL Thomas Cook & Son (Bankers), Ltd. National Bank of India, Limited. STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. AND OVERSEAS). Nakuru............................ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL National Bank of India, Limited. STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Nanyukl.......................... STANDARD Nyeri............................... STANDARD LIBERIA (Republic) Cape Palmas_______ Bank of Monrovia, Inc. Cape Mount....... ......... Bank of Monrovia, Inc. Grand Bassa....... ......... Bank of Monrovia. Inc. Monrovia (Capital) ...Bank of Monrovia, Inc. (Head Office) Home Office: Akron O., U. S. A. Private Bank.—Est. 1930. Owners: Firestone Plantations Co. Vice-President and General Manager: W. J. Samels. Capital paid-up_____________________ $ 75,000 Undivided Profits and Reserves__________ 12,591 Total resources (Dec. 31, 1936)_________ 447,261 Corr: Firestone Park Tr. & Sav. Bk., Akron, 0. ; N. City Bk., N. Y. and London. River Cess.......... ......... Bank of Monrovia, Inc. Sinoe............................. Bank of Monrovia, Inc. LIBYA (Italy) Agedabia.....................Cassa di Risparmio della Libia. Apollonia...................... Cassa di Risparmio della Libia. Barce....... .....................Cassa di Risparmio della Libia. Bengasi (Cirenaica) ...Banca d’ltalia.S. A. (Capital) Banca di Roma. Cassa di Risparmio della Libia. Derna_________ Cassa di Risparmio della Libia. Garian.................. Cassa di Risparmio della Libia. Homs................. Cassa di Risparmio della Libia. Misurata___________ Cassa di Risparmio della Libia. Porto Bardia................Cassa di Risparmio della Libia. Sirte..................... Cassa di Risparmio della Libia. Sliten_____ ________ Cassa di Risparmio della Libia. Tobruk............. Cassa di Risparmio della Libia. Tripoli (Tripolitania) .Banca d’ltalia. (Capital) Banco di Napoli. Banca di Roma. Banca di Sicilia. Cassa di Risparmio. della Libii 1935. Zavia............................. Cassa di Risparmio della Libia. Zuara............................ Cassa di Risparmio della Libia (Head Office) Est. 1422 SELECTED LIST OF FOREIGN BANKS AND BANKERS AFRICA AFRICA MADAGASCAR ISLAND (France) Antananarivo_______ See Tananarive. Antsirabe_________ Credit Fonder de Madagascar. Diego-Suarez..............-Banque de Madagascar. Comptoir National d’Escompte de Paris. Credit Fonder de Madagascar. Fianarantsoa............... Banque de Madagascar. Comptoir National d’Escompte de Paris. Credit Foncier de Madagascar. Fort Dauphin..............Credit Foncier de Madagascar. Majunga..................... Banque de Madagascar. Comptoir National d’Escompte de Paris. Credit Foncier de Madagascar. Mananjary.................. Banque de Madagascar. Comptoir National d’Escompte de Paris. Morondava..................Comptoir National d’Escompte de Paris. Credit Foncier de Madagascar. Nossi Be...................... Banque de Madagascar. Credit Foncier de Madagascar. Tamatave.................... Banque de Madagascar. Comptoir National d’Escompte de Paris. Credit Foncier de Madagascar. Tananarive (.Capital)..Banque de Madagascar. Comptoir National d’Escompte de Paris. Credit Foncier de Madagascar. Tulear.......................... Banque de Madagascar. Comptoir National d’Escompte de Paris. Credit Foncier de Madagascar. MAURITIUS (England) Curepipe... Port Louis . .Mauritius Commercial Bank. .BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Mauritius Commercial Bank. (Head Office) (Joint Stock Co.—Eat. 1838.) President: Hon. J. Leclezio, C.B.E. Vice-President: Jules Hein. Secretary: Maurice P. Pitot. Assl. Secretary: Marc Lamusse. Paid-up Capital______ ___________ Rs 2,000,000 Reserves________________________ 2,721,662 Total Resources (April 10, 1936)_____ 13,190,810 Agents: N. City Bk., N. Y.; Lloyds Bk. Ltd., London. Mercantile Bank of India, Limited Rogers & Co. MOROCCO (French and Spanish Protectorate) Alcazarqulvir..............Banque d’Etat du Maroc. Beni-ensar (Melilla)...Banque d’Etat du Maroc. Berkane_____ ______ Compagnie Algerienne, S. A. Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunisia. Casablanca_________Banca Commerciale Italiana (France). Bank of British West Africa, Limited. Banque Commerciale du Maroc. Banque d’Etat du Maroc. Compagnie Algerienne. S. A. Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunisia. Credit Lyonnais. SoctetS Gfinerale Pour Favoriser. S octets Marseillaise de Credit Industriel. Ceuta_____________ Banco Espanol de Credito. Fedhala......... ..............Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunisia. Fes (Fez)......................Banque d’Etat du Maroc. Compagnie Algerienne, S. A. Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunisia. Credit Foncier de l’Ouest Africaln. Credit Lyonnais. Society Generate Pour Favoriser. Societe Marseillaise de Credit Industriel. Kourigha......................Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunisia. Larache........................ Banco Espanol de Credito. Banque d’Etat du Maroc. Compagnie Algerienne, S. A. Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunisia. Marrakech................... Banque d'Etat du Maroc. Compagnie Algerienne, S. A. Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunisia. Society Marseillaise de Credit Industriel. Mazagan....... ..............Bank of British West Africa, Limited. Banque d’Etat du Maroc. Compagnie Algerienne. S. A. Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunisia. Meknes........................Banque d’Etat du Maroc. Compagnie Algerienne, S. A. Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunisia. Melilla...... .................. Banco de Bilbao. Banco Espanol de Credito. Mogador....................Banque d’Etat du Maroc. Compagnie Algerienne, S. A. Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunisie. Oudjda.......................... Banque d’Etat du Maroc. Compagnie Algerienne, S. A. Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunisie. Credit Lyonnais. Petitjean_____ _____ Compagnie Algerienne ,S. A. Port Lyautey................ Banque d’Etat du Maroc. Credit Foncier d’ Algerie et de Tunisie. Compagnie Algerienne, S. A. Rabat (Capital)............ Banque Commerciale du Maroc. Banque d’Etat du Maroc. (Head Office) Government Bank. Capital paid-up______ ...__ _______Fr. 46,200,000 Reserves________________________ 31,300,000 Con.: French Am. Bkg. Coro., N. Y.: Comptoir N. D’Escompte de Paris, Glynn Mills & Co., Lon. Compagnie Algerienne, S. A. Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunisie. Society Marseillaise de Credit Industriel. Safi............................... Bank of British West Africa, Limited. Banque d’Etat du Maroc. Compagnie Algerienne, S. A. Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunisie. Soctet6 Marseillais de Credit Industriel. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Morocco—(Continued) Sale............................. Compagnie Algerienne, S. A. Settat—— ----------Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunisie. Souk-el-Arba-du-Rharb Compagnie Algerienne, S. A. Tangier (Tanger)____ Banco de Bilbao. Banco de Espana. Bank of British West Africa, Limited. Banque Commercial du Maroc. Banque d’Etat du Maroc. Main Business Office —see Rabat for information. Compagnie Algerienne, S. A. Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunisie. Salvador Hassan e Hljos. Moses Pariente. (21 Pariente St.) Private—Est. 1844. Partners: I. A. Abensur, A. Abensur, M. Abensur. Corr.: Brown Brothers Harriman & Co., N. Y.: National Provincial Bk. Ltd., London. Soci6t6 Marseillaise de Credit Industriel. Taza---------------------- Compagnie Algerienne, S. A. Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunisie. Tetuan------------------ Banco de Espana. Banco Espanol de Credito. „ Banque d’Etat du Maroc. Villa-Alhucemas..........Banque d’Etat du Maroc. MOZAMBIQUE (Portuguese East Africa) Belra............................. BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL ANO OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. . . Chinde-------------------Banco Nacional Ultramarino. Inhambane--------------Banco Nacional Ultramarino. Lourenco Marques.__ Banco Nacional Ultramarino. (Capital) (Delagoa Bay) BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Mocambique----------- Banco Nacional Ultramarino. Port Amelia-------------Banco Nacional Ultramarino. Quelimane--------- -----Banco Nacional Ultramarino. Tete---------------------- Banco Nacional Ultramarino. NATAL (See Union of South Africa) NIGERIA (British Protectorate) Abeokuta..................... Bank of British West Africa, Limited. Burutu......................... BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND Calabar........................ Bank of British West Africa, Limited. Ebute Metta............... BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND Enugu.......................... Bank of British West Africa, Limited. Ibadan--------------....Bank of British West Africa, Limited. v _ OVERSEAS). OVERSEAS). BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). AND OVERSEAS) IJebu-Ode.....................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL Jos--------------------- ..Bank of British West Africa, Limited. „ , BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Kaduna........................ Bank of British West Africa, Limited. Kano--------------------- Bank of British West Africa, Limited. BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Lagos............................Bank of British West Africa, Limited. „ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS) Maidurgurl...................Bank of British West Africa, Limited Onitsha.........................Bank of British West Africa, Limited. Oshogbo................ ....Bank of British West Africa, Limited. Port Harcourt..............Bank of British West Africa, Limited. „ , BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Sapele-------------------- Bank of British West Africa, Limited. Warri......... —.............Bank of British West Africa, Limited. Zaria----------------------Bank of British West Africa Limited. BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). NORTHERN RHODESIA Broken Hill.................. BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS) STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Luanshya..................... BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Lusaka......................... BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). , STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Mazabuka................... STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Mufulira...................... BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA, LIMITED. Ndola........................... BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION. COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. New Lusaka................ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Nkana.......................... BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION. COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Roan Antelope Mine.-STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Victoria Falls............... BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS) Fort Jameson.............. BARCLAYS Livingstone............... BARCLAYS NYASALAND (English Protectorate) Blantyre....................... BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Lilongwe.......................STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Limbe........................... BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Zomba......................... STANDARD ORANGE FREE STATE (See Union of South Africa) PORTUGUESE EAST AFRICA (See Mozambique) PORTUGUESE GUINEA Bissau--------------------Banco Nacional Ultramarino. Bolama------------------ Banco Nacional Ultramarino. PRINCIPE ISLAND Principe----------------- Banco Nacional Ultramarino SELECTED LIST OF FOREIGN BANKS AND BANKERS AFRICA REUNION (France) St. Denis_ Saint Pierre. AFRICA ■ -Banque de la Reunion (Rue du Barachois) (Head Office) Joint Stock Co.-—Est. 1849. Board of Directors: Henry Poulet (Pres, and Oen. Mgr.), Antoine Baret, Albert Foucgue (Vice Pres.), Vincent Boyer de la Giroday, Rieul Dupuis, Roger Payet, Andre Barbot. Capital-------------------------------------------------------------------- Frs. 6,000,000 Capital reserves_______________________ 15,600,000 Total resources (June 30, 1936)_____ 143,289,780 Corr.: French American Bkg. Corp., N. Y.; Comptoir N. de Escompte de Paris, London. Credit Foncier de Madagascar. .Banque de la Reunion. SAO THOME Sao Thome-------------------- Banco Nacional Ultramarino. SENEGAL (See French West Africa) SIERRA LEONE (British Protectorate) Freetown------------- --------- Bank of British West Africa, Limited. BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Sherbro-------------------------- Bank of British West Africa, Limited. SOUTHERN Bindura..............................BARCLAYS STANDARD Bulawayo_______________ BARCLAYS STANDARD Chipinga.................................BARCLAYS E nkeldoorn...........................STANDARD Fort Victoria.................. ..BARCLAYS STANDARD Gatooma................... BARCLAYS STANDARD Gwanda.................. BARCLAYS STANDARD GwelO.......................................BARCLAYS STANDARD Hartley................................... STANDARD Mashaba................................STANDARD Penhalonga. .......................STANDARD Que Que........................... ..BARCLAYS STANDARD Salisbury (Capital)____ BARCLAYS STANDARD Selukwe.................................STANDARD Shabani............................. ..STANDARD Shamva.................................. STANDARD Sinoia.................................... .STANDARD Umtali.....................................BARCLAYS STANDARD Umvuma.......................... ..STANDARD Wankie-.............................. STANDARD 1423 RHODESIA (England) BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVEBSEAS). BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. SOUTH-WEST AFRICA (Mandate to Union of South Africa) Gobabis..................................STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Grootfontein.......................STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Kalkfeld................................ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS) Tr „ „ , STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Kalkfontein.........................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS) Karibib........... ........................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Keetmanshoop.................. BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS) STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Lflderitz............................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS) ,, , STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Mariental............................. STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Okahandja............................STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Omaruru................................ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVEBSEAS) „ , STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Otavi............. .....................STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Otjiwarongo.........................STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Outjo-----------------BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). „ STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Swakopmund..................... BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS) STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Tsumeb------------------------- STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Usakos.................................... BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Walvis Bay..........................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS) STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Windhoek (Capital)-----BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS) STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED TOGO (See French West Africa) TRANSVAAL (See Union of South Africa) TUNISIA (French Colony) Beja--------------------------------Banque de L’Algerie. Banque de Tunisia. Compagnie Algerienne. Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunisle. Blzerte----------- ---------Banque de L’Algerie. Banque de Tunisie. Compagnie Algerienne. Comptoir Nat’l d’Escompte de Paris. Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunisie. Djerba--------------------------Compagnie Algerienne. „ Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunisie. El Keff----------------------------Banque de Tunisie, S. A. Compagnie Algerienne. „ Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunisie. Ferryville--------------------- Banque de Tunisie, S. A. Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunisie Gabes (Qabes)_________ Banque de Tunisie. Compagnie Algerienne. Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunisie. Kairouan (Quirwan)...Banque de Tunisie, S. A. Compagnie Algerienne. Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunisie. Mahdla------------------------- Banque de Tunisie, S. A. Compagnie Algerienne. Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunisie. Mateur------------------------- Compagnie Algerienne. Medjez-el-Bab------------- Banque de Tunisie, S. A. Compagnie Algerienne. Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunisie. Nabeul................. ..................Banque de Tunisie, S. A. Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunisie. Sfax------------------------------- Banque de L’Algerie. Banque de Tunisie. Compagnie Algerienne. Comp. Nat’l d’Escompte de Paris. Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunisie. Souk-el-Arba---------------- Compagnie Algerienne. Souk-el-Khemis________Banque de Tunisie, S. A. Compagnie Algerienne. Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunisie. Sousse----------------------------Banque de L’Algerie. Banque de Tunisie. Compagnie Algerienne. Comp. Nat’l d’Escompte de Paris. Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunisie. Tabarca-------------------------Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunisie. Teboursouk....................... Credit Foncier d’Algerie et de Tunisie. Tunis (Capital)------------ Banca Italiana di Credito, S. A. Banque de L’Algerie. Banque de Tunisie, S. A. (Head Office) Directors: G. Despret (Chairman). W. ArchawskJ, (Managing Director), M. Angelim, P. Hackenberger, H. Halphen, I. Manoach, Ch. Poirson. Capital......................... ...................................... _Fr. 16,000,000 Reserves_____________________________ __ 7,841,334 Total Resources (Dec. 31, 1934).___ 140’053J)70 Banque Fonciere et Immobiliere Belgo-Tunisienne, S. A. Banque Italo Francaise de Credit. Compagnie Algerienne. Compagnie Fonciere et Immobiliere Belgo-Tunisienne S. A. Comptoir Nat. d’Escompte de Paris. Credit Foncier de l’Algerie et de Tunisie. Credit Lyonnais. Ottoman Bank. Socifite Gfinerale Pour Favoriser. Zarzis................................. Banque de Tunisie, S. A. UGANDA (British Protectorate) Entebbe (Capital)...........National Bank of India, Limited. Jihla........................................ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). National Bank of India, Ltd. „ , STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Kampala...............................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). National Bank of India, Ltd. STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. SPANISH GUINEA (Spain) Bata................... .................... Banco Exterior de Espana (Madrid, Spain) UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA (England) Cape of Good Hope Province SWAZILAND (England) Bremersdorp....................... BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS) m , STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. matlkula............................... BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS) Mbabane (Capital)-------BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS) 8tegi.......................................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION. COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS) Aberdeen............................... STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Addo........................................ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVEBSEAS) Adelaide................. BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS) STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Albertinia............................. BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS) Alexandria........................... STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Alice.......................................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS) „ „ STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Aliwal North ............... BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS) STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Balfour.................................. .BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION. COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS) Barkly East........................ .BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS) „ , , _ STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Barkly West....................... STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Barrydale............................... STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Bathurst................................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS) Beaconsfleld—................... STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Beaufort West...................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVEBSEAS) „ „ STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Bedford.................................... BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS) „ STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. BelMlle....................................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS) „ „ STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Berlin....................................... BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). BolO........................................... BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Bot River------------ --------- STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Brandvlei............................... BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Bredasdorp............................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS) STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Britstown.............................STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Burghersdorp..................... BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. TANGANYIKA TERRITORY (Mandatory of Britain) (England) Arusha....................................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS) „ , v STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA, LIMITED. Bukoba..................................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). ^ STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Chunya ---------------------BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Dar-es-Salaam-------------- Banque du Congo Beige (Capital) BARLCAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS) National Bank of India, Limited. r_, STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Wnga.......................................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Llndi.........................................STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Mbeya.....................................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVEBSEAS) Morogoro..............................STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Moshi......................................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVEBSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Mwanza.................................BARCLAYS BANK (BOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS) (Lake Victoria, STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Nyanza) Tabora..................................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS) STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Tanga..................................... BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). National Bank of India, Limited. STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED 74 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 1424 SELECTED LIST OF FOREIGN BANKS AND BANKERS AFRICA AFRICA Union of South Africa—(Continued) Union of South Africa—(Continued) Cape of Good Hope Province (Continued) Cape of Good Hope Province (Continued) Loxton.................... ........... STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFBICA LIMITED. Butterworth..................... STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Maclear......... ...................STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Cala .............................STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Caledon_____________ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Mafeking...........................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED Maitland............................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Calitzdorp......................... STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Calvinia............................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Malmesbury..................... BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Cambridge.......... ............. STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Matatiele.......................... BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Capetown (Capital)____BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Colonial Banking & Trust Co. Middelburg.......................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Netherlands Bank of South Africa. STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. South African Reserve Bank. Molteno............................. BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Carnarvon..................................... STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Montagu......... .................STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED Cathcart................ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Moorreesburg.................. BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED Cedarville............ ............. STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Mossel Bay..................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Ceres.................... BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Mount Frere__________STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Citrusdal............................STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Mowbray.................... .BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Clan william_________________ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Muizenberg--................. BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Claremont........................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Murraysburg_________ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION. COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Colesberg...........................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Naauwpoort___________ STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Napier_____________ STANDARDBANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Cradock______ ______ .BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Nieuwoudtville................STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Noorder Paarl...............STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Danielskuil...................... .BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). North Avenue_________ STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Darling.......... ..................... STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED Observatory__________ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). De Aar................................ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Oliphants Hoek.................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). De Dooms........................ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Orchard Siding________ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH. AFRICA LIMITED. Oudtshoorn.........................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). De Rust..........................STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA, LIMITED. Dordrecht-...................... BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Paarl (Huguenot)_____ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Douglas.............................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION. COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Paarl Station__________ STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Durbanville___________ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Parow_______ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. East London............... BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Pearston............................. STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Colonial Banking & Trust Co. Peddie_________________STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Netherlands Bank of South Africa. Petrus ville......................... STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. South African Reserve Bank. STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Philadelphia..................... STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Elliot................................... BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Philipstown--...................STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Piquetberg. —.................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Engcobo.............................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Fish Hoek____________ STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Plumstead______ _____ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Flaauwkraal-....................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED). Fort Beaufort...................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Port Alfred......... ............. BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION. COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Port Elizabeth................. BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Fransch Hoek................STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Colonial Banking & Trust Co. Netherlands Bank of South Africa. Fraserburg.........................STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Garles................. BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). South African Reserve Bank. STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. George............................... BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Porterville.......................... STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Port St. John................... STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Gordons Bay................. .STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Graaf-Reinet.................. BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Postmasburg_________ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Grabouw...........................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Prieska__________ STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Prince Albert__________ STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Grahamstown..............BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Queenstown__________ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Greyton..............................STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Rhodes.................... STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Griquatown___________ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Richmond......................... STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Groot Drakenstein____STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Riebeek Kasteel.............. BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Hanover.......................... .STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Riebeek West_________ STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Heidelberg.......... ............. BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Riversdale........... ............. BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. River Zonder End____STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Hermanus..........................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Robertson..........................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Hermon...........................STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Hofmeyr.......................... .BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Rondebosch......................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS) STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Hopefleld...........................STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Saldanha......... ...................STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Hopetown......................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Salt River.......................... BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Sandflats-.................... ..STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Huguenot........................... STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Humansdorp....................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Sea Point_____________ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. LKloofrd. Cape Town) STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Idutywa................. STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Seymour........................... .BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Indwe........ ..........................STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Simondlum....... ................ STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Jamestown........................ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Simonstown................... .STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Jansenville........................ STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Somerset East.................. BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Joubertina_____________ STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Kakamas.......................... STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Somerset West................ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Kalk Bay.......................STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Keimoes........ ..................STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Springbok..... .................... BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). KeiRoad............. .........STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Stanford.............................STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Keiskama Hoek_______STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Stellenbosch..................... BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Kenhardt.......... ...............BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Sterkstroom..................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Kimberley....................... BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Steynsburg____________STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. King William’s Town..BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Steytlerville................. ..STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. strand_________ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Kirkwood_______ _____ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. strydenburg....... ............. BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Klipdam.................... STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Stutterheim.................. ..BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Knysna_______________ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Sunland..............................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS) STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Kokstad............................. BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Sutherland_____ _____ .STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Swellendam................... BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Komgha..............................STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Koringberg____________ STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Sydney on Vaal............BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Kuruman........................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Tarkastad_____ _____ .BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Ladlsmith_____________ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED Touws River....................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Lady Grey........................ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Tulbagh............................. STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFBICA LIMITED. Ugie—............................... STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Laingsbure........................STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Lansdowne-....................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Ultenhage..........................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Loeriesfontein.................. STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis SELECTED LIST OF FOREIGN BANKS AND BANKERS AFRICA 1425 AFRICA Union of South Africa—(Continued) Cape of Good Hope Province—(Continued) Union of South Africa—(Continued) Orange Free State—(Continued) Urntata_________ _____ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Uniondale—................. ..BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. University of Cape Town....................... BARCLAYSBANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Upington...... ................. BARCLAYSBANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Van Rhynsdorp________ STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Venterstad_____________STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Victoria West.................. BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. villiersdorp_____ _____ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION. COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Vredenburg____________ STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Vreden dal______________STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Vryburg. ...................... ..BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Warrenton.......................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Wellington_____ _____ .BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Wellington Station____ STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Williston_______ STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Wiilowmore____________STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. WIndsorton____________ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Wolseley_______________ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Woodstock______ _____ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Worcester_____________ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Wynberg............................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Zuider PaarL..................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Natal Edenburg........................... BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Edenville............................STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Excelsior.......................... .BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Fauresmith....... .................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Ficksburg...........................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Fouriesburg...................... .BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION. COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Frankfort............................. BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Harrismith........................ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Heilbron............................. BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Hennenman........................ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Hertzogville.......... ........... BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Hobhouse.............................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Hoopstad______________ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Jacobsdal-.................... BARCLAYSBANK(DOMINION. COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Jagersfontein__________ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Kaallaagte______ _____ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Kestell____ ___________ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Koffiefontein.....................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Kopjes_____ __________ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Kroonstad.....................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Ladybrand........................ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Lindley............................... BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Luckhoff............................. BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION .COLONIAL ANB OVERSEAS). Marquard_____________ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION. COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA, LIMITED. Memel—............... BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Odendaalsrust................... BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL ANB OVERSEAS). Oranjeville.......................... BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Parys......... .........................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL ANB OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Paul Roux_____________ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Petrusburg.......................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Petrus steyn....................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Philippolis........................... BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Reddersburg___________ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Reitz.......................... BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Rosendal.............. ..............BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Rouxville______________ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Senekal.......... ..................... BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Smithfleld.......................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Springfontein.................... BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Steynsrust_____________ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Thaba ’Nchu................... BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Theunissen............ ........... BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. TromDSburg......................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION .COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS) Tweeling-............ ..............BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Tweesprult.........................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Ventersbure___________ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Viljoenskroon__________ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Villiers____ ___________ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED, Vrede-_______________ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Vredefort_____________ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Warden_________ _____ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED, Wepener______________ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Wesselsbron___________ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Westminster___________ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Winburg............ ............. BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Zastron.......... .................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Bergville.......... .................. BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Clairwood—......................STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Colenso_________ _____ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Dalton________ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Dannhauser...................... STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Dundee_________ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS) STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Durban............ ..................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Netherlands Bank of South Africa. STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Empangenl-....................... BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Eshowe________________ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Estcourt.......... ..................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Glencoe________ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Groytown..........................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Harding...... .......................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Howick.______ ________ BARCLAYS BANK (DAMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Ixopo..________________ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Krantzkop........ .................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Ladysmith........ ................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Margate........ ........... ......... BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVEBSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Melmoth-............................ BARCLAYS BANK DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Mooi River____________ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Muden__________ _____ STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Newcastle..........................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. New Hanover..................STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Nottingham Road........... BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Paillpietersburg________BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Pietermaritzburg.............BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). (.Capital) STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Pinetown........... ...............BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Port Shepstone________ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Richmond____ _____ ..BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS) Bezel a.................... ..............STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED, Stanger................................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Tongaat_______________ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Umkomaas.........................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Umzimkulu...... .................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Urnzinto.......... ...................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Utrecht................. ............. BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Verulam------------------BARCLAYSBANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Vryheid_______ ______ .BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Weenen--------------------------BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS) Winterton...................... BARCLAYSBANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS) Orange Free State Arlington........................ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS) STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Bethlehem____________ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Netherlands Bank of South Africa. STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Bethulie...... ........................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Bloemfontein..................... BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Netherlands Bank of South Africa. STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Boshof________________ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Bothaville..........................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Brandfort........ .................. BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Bultfontein......... ..............BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). ciocolan........ ...................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Cornelia--------------BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Dealesville......................... BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Dewetsdorf....... .................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION. COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Transvaal Alberton...............................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Amalia..............................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Amersfoort____________ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Balfour............ ................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Bandolier Kop_________BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Barberton...........................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Belfast................. BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Belgravia______________ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Benoni_____________ BARCLAYSBANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL ANDOVERSEAS). Colonial Banking & Trust Co. STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Bethal________________ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Bloemliof_____________ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Boksburg_____________ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Boksburg North______ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Braamfontein_________ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL ANB OVERSEAS) Brakpan..................... BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Breyten.............................. BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Brits....................... BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Bronkhortspruit______ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). 1426 SELECTED LIST OF FOREIGN BANKS AND BANKERS AFRICA Union of South Africa—(Continued) Transvaal—(Continued) Carolina................................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Christiana______ _______ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION. COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Coligny__________________BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION .COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Davel........................................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Delareyville.......................... BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Delmas.................................. .BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Denver................................ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Devon.......................... ..........STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Doornfontein.....................STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Dullstroom____________ Netherlands Bank of South Africa. Duivelskloof.........................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Ermelo..................................... BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Netherlands Bank of South Africa. STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. FochvUle.............................STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Fordsburg............................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Germiston............................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Gravelotte...................... ..BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS) Greylingstad......................STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Groot Marico....................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION .COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Grootvlei............................. BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Hartebeestfontein_____ Netherlands Bank of South Africa. Heidelberg..........................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Hendrlna..............................STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED Hospital Hill......................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS) Jeppestown......................... BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Johannesburg................... BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Colonial Banking & Trust Co., Ltd. (Head Office) (Simmonds & Market) Joint Stock Co.—Est. 1910 Directors: I. W. Schlesinger (Chairman), W. Otis Bullock, J. A. MacRae, W F. White; General Manager: R. W. Davenport; Secretary: A. F. Guthrie. Paid-up Capital______________________________£ 20,000 Total Resources (March 31, 1936)________ 1,152,040 Corr.: M. A. Schlesinger, N. Y. Netherlands Bank of South Africa. South African Reserve Bank. STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Kinross................................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Klerksdorp........................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Knights................................... BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Koster................................. ..BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Krugersdorp......................BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Lake Chrlssie....................... BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION, COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Leeuwdoornsstad........... BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION .COLONIAL AND OVERSEAS). Leslie...................................... STANDARD BANK OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED. Leydsdorp______________ BARCLAYS BANK (DOMINION. COLONIAL AND OVERS
wrong_mix_range_leader_00122	FactBench	3	6	https://www.usaid.gov/timor-leste/our-work	en	U.S. Agency for International Development	https://www.usaid.gov/themes/custom/uswds_usaid/favicon.ico	https://www.usaid.gov/themes/custom/uswds_usaid/favicon.ico	[ "https://www.usaid.gov/themes/custom/uswds_usaid/assets/img/us_flag_small.png", "https://www.usaid.gov/themes/custom/uswds_usaid/assets/img/icon-dot-gov.svg", "https://www.usaid.gov/themes/custom/uswds_usaid/assets/img/icon-https.svg", "https://www.usaid.gov/themes/custom/uswds_usaid/logo-overlay.svg", "https://www.usaid.gov/themes/custom/uswds_usaid/logo-overlay.svg", "https://www.usaid.gov/themes/custom/uswds_usaid/logo-overlay.svg", "https://www.usaid.gov/sites/default/files/styles/max_325x325/public/uploads/images/locations/activities/timor-lestecountryprofile2022page1.png?itok=DEqedY7-", "https://www.usaid.gov/themes/custom/uswds_usaid/logo-overlay.svg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	2022-12-29T21:09:00	After almost 25 years of violent occupation and historical underdevelopment, Timor-Leste regained independence in 2002. Since then, Timor-Leste has made tremendous progress, including rebuilding and expanding critical infrastructure, expanding access to education, nearly eradicating malaria, and conducting several free and fair elections leading to peaceful transitions of power.	en	/themes/custom/uswds_usaid/favicon.ico	U.S. Agency for International Development	https://www.usaid.gov/timor-leste/our-work	After almost 25 years of violent occupation and historical underdevelopment, Timor-Leste regained independence in 2002. Since then, Timor-Leste has made tremendous progress, including rebuilding and expanding critical infrastructure, expanding access to education, nearly eradicating malaria, and conducting several free and fair elections leading to peaceful transitions of power. Despite these achievements, Timor-Leste still struggles with extreme rates of malnutrition and poor health outcomes, high rates of poverty, pervasive gender-based violence, an underdeveloped economy overly dependent on oil, persistent political instability, inefficient government spending, and weak institutional checks on power. With relatively modest investments, USAID is laying the foundations to ensure that all Timorese people, particularly women and youth, are able to reap the benefits of a nascent private sector and improved governance. PROGRAMS USAID builds resilience by helping Timor-Leste strengthen its democratic institutions, expand inclusive economic growth and private-sector competitiveness, and improve the health system’s ability to provide quality services for all Timorese. These measures support USAID’s goal of an inclusive, prosperous, and healthy Timor-Leste. DEMOCRACY AND GOVERNANCE USAID promotes good governance by strengthening institutional effectiveness and increasing citizen participation. USAID assistance has supported Timor-Leste’s ability to hold free and fair elections since its independence, including the most recent 2022 presidential election and runoff. USAID strengthens the ability of non-governmental organizations to advocate on behalf of the public for transparent and responsive governance. USAID’s work includes promoting gender equality and addressing high rates of gender-based violence. USAID also supports the Government of Timor-Leste (GOTL) to institutionalize a well-governed and modern trade system that is professional, transparent, and complies with international standards. ECONOMIC GROWTH USAID builds an inclusive and sustainable economy by expanding economic opportunities for women and youth, strengthening the private sector in key growth sectors, and bolstering the enabling environment for private sector growth. With USAID assistance, Timor-Leste’s tourism sector is expanding, farmer productivity is increasing, digital infrastructure and policy is forged, and natural resource management is improving with private sector-led recycled plastic market initiatives. Thanks in part to USAID’s introduction of modern technology and farming techniques, farmers’ monthly incomes in target areas rose by 1,100 percent from $235 to $2,661 from 2015 to 2020. HEALTH USAID advances Timor-Leste’s resilience by strengthening the GOTL’s ability to manage, finance, and deliver high-quality, affordable essential health services while being responsive and accountable to users and an engaged civil society. Since 2020, USAID supports Timor-Leste’s efforts to save lives and end the COVID-19 pandemic, including the delivery of over 200,000 U.S.-donated vaccines. Additionally, USAID has managed more than $4 million in supplemental COVID-19 funds to support vaccine campaigns, train health workers, prepare laboratory systems, and support risk communication. Finally, USAID, in collaboration with the U.S. Indo-Pacific Command, upgraded quarantine facilities and increased intensive care unit capacity in Timor-Leste by 150 percent.
wrong_mix_range_leader_00122	FactBench	0	26	https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo/diplomatic-discussions.html	en	res stock photography and images	https://s.alamy.com/logo…avicon-16x16.png	https://s.alamy.com/logo…avicon-16x16.png	[ "https://s.alamy.com/logos/1.68.0/alamy.svg", "https://s.alamy.com/logos/1.68.0/alamy-black.svg", "https://s.alamy.com/logos/1.68.0/alamy-black.svg", "https://s.alamy.com/logos/1.68.0/alamy.svg", "https://s.alamy.com/assets/latest/footer/mastercard.svg", "https://s.alamy.com/assets/latest/footer/visa.svg", "https://s.alamy.com/assets/latest/footer/amex.svg", "https://s.alamy.com/assets/latest/footer/paypal.svg", "https://s.alamy.com/assets/latest/footer/apple-pay.svg", "https://s.alamy.com/assets/latest/footer/google-pay.svg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Alamy Limited" ]	null	Find the perfect diplomatic discussions stock photo, image, vector, illustration or 360 image. Available for both RF and RM licensing.	en	https://s.alamy.com/logo…avicon-16x16.png	Alamy	https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo/diplomatic-discussions.html	Alamy and its logo are trademarks of Alamy Ltd. and are registered in certain countries. Copyright © 24/07/2024 Alamy Ltd. All rights reserved.
wrong_mix_range_leader_00122	FactBench	2	13	https://www.eppgroup.eu/who-we-are/traineeships-amp-programmes	en	EPP Group in the European Parliament	https://www.eppgroup.eu/…2024BjHgCol8.jpg		[ "https://www.eppgroup.eu/sites/default/files/styles/free_text/public/inlined_images/04/Trainee%20Alumni_2024BjHgCol8.jpg", "https://www.eppgroup.eu/sites/default/files/styles/free_text/public/inlined_images/03/young-erasmus-510x350a3xdNnxQ.jpg?itok=a7ZEoQIv", "https://www.eppgroup.eu/sites/default/files/styles/free_text/public/inlined_images/03/research-grant-556x324baH0ZAdc.jpg?itok=00CmbWd8", "https://www.eppgroup.eu/sites/default/files/default_images/consent-image-youtube.jpeg", "https://www.eppgroup.eu/sites/default/files/default_images/consent-image-youtube.jpeg", "https://www.eppgroup.eu/sites/default/files/default_images/consent-image-youtube.jpeg", "https://www.eppgroup.eu/sites/default/files/default_images/consent-image-youtube.jpeg", "https://www.eppgroup.eu/sites/default/files/default_images/consent-image-youtube.jpeg", "https://www.eppgroup.eu/sites/default/files/default_images/consent-image-youtube.jpeg", "https://www.eppgroup.eu/sites/default/files/default_images/consent-image-youtube.jpeg", "https://www.eppgroup.eu/sites/default/files/default_images/consent-image-youtube.jpeg", "https://www.eppgroup.eu/sites/default/files/default_images/consent-image-youtube.jpeg", "https://www.eppgroup.eu/sites/default/files/default_images/consent-image-youtube.jpeg", "https://www.eppgroup.eu/sites/default/files/default_images/consent-image-youtube.jpeg", "https://www.eppgroup.eu/sites/default/files/default_images/consent-image-youtube.jpeg", "https://www.eppgroup.eu/sites/default/files/default_images/consent-image-youtube.jpeg", "https://www.eppgroup.eu/sites/default/files/default_images/consent-image-youtube.jpeg", "https://www.eppgroup.eu/sites/default/files/default_images/consent-image-youtube.jpeg", "https://www.eppgroup.eu/sites/default/files/default_images/consent-image-youtube.jpeg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	The EPP Group is the largest and oldest group in the European Parliament. A centre-right group, we are committed to creating a stronger and self-assured Europe, built at the service of its people. Our goal is to create a more competitive and democratic Europe, where people can build the life they want.	en			null	What we offer Five months paid traineeships We offer five-month traineeships to EU citizens and candidates from associated and candidate countries. In addition, we also grant traineeships by way of derogation to a limited number of nationals from other countries. This type of traineeship is addressed to young people who have a university degree or have completed three years of study (at least six terms) at a university or an equivalent institute of higher education. The EPP Group covers the cost of living in Brussels with a monthly allowance of €1.500. Unpaid, short-term traineeships of a maximum length of 3 months (when the traineeship is compulsory in the framework of the university studies) This type of traineeship is addressed to university students who have not yet completed at least six terms at university and when the traineeship is a compulsory part of their studies. This has to be justified by a letter provided by the university. The EPP Group can offer a limited number of this type of traineeship. Moreover, the EPP Group has a compulsory, primary sickness and accident insurance for trainees. All trainees get to attend one plenary session of the European Parliament in Strasbourg. As an equal opportunities employer, we encourage applications from young people with disabilities.
wrong_mix_range_leader_00122	FactBench	3	49	https://www.imf.org/external/np/et/2000/eng/113000.htm	en	Recent Developments and Macroeconomic Assessment			[ "https://www.imf.org/external/07/images/imf.gif", "https://www.imf.org/external/12/images/header/feedback_x10.png", "https://www.imf.org/external/gifs/space.gif", "https://www.imf.org/external/gifs/space.gif", "https://www.imf.org/external/gifs/space.gif", "https://www.imf.org/external/gifs/space.gif", "https://www.imf.org/external/np/et/2000/eng/figure1.gif", "https://www.imf.org/external/np/et/2000/eng/figure2a.gif", "https://www.imf.org/external/np/et/2000/eng/figure2b.gif" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	2000-11-30T00:00:00		en			null	Acronyms and Abbreviations AsDBAsian Development Bank BNUBanco Nacional Ultramarino CFA Central Fiscal Authority CFETConsolidated Fund for East Timor CPOCentral Payments Office DCUDonor Coordination Unit EPDAEconomic Planning and Development Agency ETRSEast Timor Revenue Service ETTAEast Timor Transitional Administration FADIMF Fiscal Affairs Department IFIInternational Financial Institutions MAEIMF Monetary and Exchange Affairs Department NCBANational Cooperative Business Association NCCNational Consultative CouncilNGOnongovernmental organization RpIndonesian rupiah TFETTrust Fund for East Timor UNTAET United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor UNTFUnited Nations Trust Fund for East Timor I. Introduction 1. This paper presents an overview of recent developments and an assessment of macroeconomic conditions in East Timor as of mid November 2000.1 There is little doubt that there have been many positive developments so far, but there also are questions about their sustainability over time. Favorable developments in output growth, consumer prices, trade and bank deposit flows, are in sharp contrast with the prevailing sizable unemployment, emerging wage distortions and a lagging response of private sector longer term investment. Domestic saving is beginning to rise slowly but there will be a need for continued, albeit declining, generous external financial support in the years to come. A basic economic institutional and legal framework has been established, but much remains to be done to create an enabling environment for private sector development. There is an encouraging measure of fiscal control and the foundations for the development of the financial sector have been established. However, there is growing political uncertainty as independence approaches, and there is a need to develop soon a commercial legal framework, land and property laws, a foreign investment law, a labor code, bankruptcy proceedings, and a mechanism for dispute resolution. Building an indigenous capacity in macroeconomic management will also be critical to ensure sustainability. Continued comprehensive technical assistance will be required as well as intensive training and skills development. II. Growth and Inflation 2. There is an ongoing strong revival of economic activity, led by growth in construction, commerce and trade, and basic services.2 Real GDP growth is likely to reach at least 15 percent in 2000 (Table 1). The revival is largely driven by the demand created by the large UN and expatriate presence which has stimulated consumption and some private investment, mostly in the services sector. However, there is little evidence of permanent businesses being established outside the services sector. Private sector representatives have confirmed their preference for engaging in activities in which investments are recovered in the shortest possible period. The main factors underlying this behavior include political uncertainty on the road towards independence and a number of impediments, including the lack of a commercial legal framework, a land and property rights law, a labor code, mechanisms for the resolution and arbitration of disputes, proceedings for the bankruptcy of businesses, and a legal framework for foreign investment.3 The creation of an enabling environment for private sector activity is an essential complement to the effort being made at setting up an efficient public administration. The income effect of a favorable supply response of non-services sectors will also make it easier to absorb the decline in demand that will emerge as the large expatriate presence starts winding down after independence. 3. Consumer price inflation appears to have slowed down and regional price differences for key staples have narrowed. Following an 8 percent increase in May, rupiah denominated consumer prices in Dili increased at a very low average monthly rate between June and October (an annualized rate of about 2 percent) (Figure 1). Over the same six month period, the rupiah depreciated by 13 percent in relation to the U.S. dollar. There is evidence that rice prices have converged across and within East Timor regions and rice is now being sold at levels close to or below those prevailing in mid 1999 throughout the territory.4 The favorable price performance reflects the increased availability of goods in domestic markets, despite the persistence of supply shortages for certain products. III. Employment and Wages 4. In the absence of comprehensive estimates of employment, the consensus view is that the agricultural sector continues to provide most of the employment in East Timor. In addition, about 6,000 full time jobs are currently provided by East Timor Transitional Administration (ETTA) and there are several programs providing temporary employment, including those financed through the Trust Fund for East Timor (TFET). Finally, although there is no information on employment provided by the emerging private sector, indications are that a large number of temporary positions have been created by construction and transport companies, as well as by restaurants and hotels. There is no information available on unemployment. There are also renewed doubts about the estimated size of the total population, following the completion of the recent registration of 240,000 students for the 2000/01 school year, compared to an estimate of 175,000 used for preparing the budgetary estimates for the education sector.5 Deficiencies in the information about population and employment need to be addressed; to this end, efforts are being made to ensure that the household survey to be jointly conducted by the World Bank and AsDB and ETTA's Economic Planning and Development Agency (EPDA) will be completed before the end of the current fiscal year.6 5. Wages paid to the locally hired employees of the UN, the International Financial Institutions (IFIs), and to those working in the provision of services to the large group of expatriates and foreign representations have been putting upward pressure on wages in the rest of the economy. The pressure to raise wages seems to be more acute in urban areas, but there are also indications that wages in the coffee sector for the 2000 harvest trebled in U.S. dollars compared to the minimum daily wage of about $1 paid under the Indonesian administration. As envisaged in the June IMF report,7 the emerging labor market distortions are making it difficult to recruit civil servants not only because of sizable average wage differentials compared to UN and IFIs wages, but also due to the lack of flexibility in ETTA's current wage scale which does not permit extending differential wages to workers with various levels of experience within each skill category. This issue requires urgent attention, and a comprehensive review is planned for early next year.8 IV. Public Finance 6. The execution of the ETTA budget (CFET) for FY00/01 has proceeded at a slower pace than anticipated. During the first quarter of FY 2000/01, the deficit amounted to $1 million, compared with a pro-rata estimate of about $11 million (Table 2). Over the same period, the collection of tax revenues and user fees has been weaker than anticipated but has since started to pick up rapidly. Collections on custom duties, excise taxes, and the sales tax on imported goods were robust, despite a larger than anticipated level of exemptions from taxes on imported goods. Collection from the newly-introduced service tax on restaurants, hotels, and car rentals was initially low, but rose faster in September and October. User fees for power and water have not been collected at all, mostly due to long delays in the installation of power meters (see box 1). Port and airport fee collections commenced in September. Expenditure has also fallen short of the pro-rata target. In terms of commitments, around 60 percent of the target has been reached. However, in cash terms, outlays were only 20 percent of the target. Underspending reflects delays in making the spending agencies operational as well as management problems (many agencies have not yet produced detailed work plans for FY00/01). Only few agencies have overspent, the largest being the power sector. 7. The ETTA budget for FY00/01 was revised in November to introduce new revenue measures to strengthen revenue performance. The National Council has recently endorsed the Cabinet's proposal to introduce a wage withholding tax and an income tax, to reduce exemptions from customs duty, excise, and sales tax, and to increase the number of goods subject to excise taxes. Pending final approval by the legal department of the UN, the corresponding regulations will be issued shortly.9 The main revenue measures include: The wage income tax, which would become effective January 1, 2001 and would be withheld by the employer. Monthly wage income below $100 would be tax exempt; between $100 to $650 would be subject to a 10 percent tax rate; and above $650 would be subject to a 30 percent tax rate. The projected annual yield, assuming that UN locally hired employees will be exempt from paying this tax, would range between $0.5 and 0.7 million. The income tax, which adapts the Indonesian income tax law to the limited administrative capacities in East Timor, would apply to all other taxable income. The income tax rates will vary according to the source of income, and range from 20 percent on the income earned by non-residents, and 15 percent for dividends, interest, and royalties, to 2 percent for income from construction and building activities. The revenue generating capacity of the income tax is difficult to project as a business register is only expected to be compiled at the end of 2000. The income tax does not apply to income associated with Timor Gap activities, which remain subject to production sharing agreements and the Indonesian tax regime as applicable in October 1999. These arrangements affecting Timor Gap activities should be seen as transitory and are part of the ongoing discussions with Australia (See section VIII below). The reduction in exemptions from customs duties, excises, and the sales tax would be implemented through a more limited list of exempt persons and organizations. Charitable organizations will be asked to register in order to be eligible for an exemption. This measure may yield as much as $2 million for every 5 percentage points reduction in the level of exempted imports. No significant additional revenue is expected from the increase in the number of goods that will be subject to excise taxes. 8. On the expenditure side, the budget revision endorsed by the National Council will increase overall expenditure in FY00/01 by a small amount (Table 3). The proposed revisions change the structure of expenditure in favor of the power sector (higher than anticipated consumption and oil prices), police and security (hiring police trainees at a faster rate and establishing the Timor Lorosa'e Defense Force), and public administration (increases for cabinet of the transitional administration, central administration, and foreign affairs). To offset these increases, the remaining unallocated budgetary funds were appropriated, and expenditure for roads, agriculture, health, border service, environment protection and census and research were reduced, among others. The expenditure cuts either reflect expenditure items that should have been carried out in the first four months but were not (e.g. improvement of roads before the rainy season), or tasks being taken over by the UNTAET's (United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor) assessed contribution budget (e.g., border control). 9. As a result of the revenue and expenditure measures, the cash deficit for FY00/01 is now projected at about $36 million, compared with $42 million in the original budget. Revenue is projected at $25 million, of which $6 million will come from royalties and taxes associated with the Timor Gap. Expenditures are budgeted at $61 million. The budget deficit is expected to be fully financed by grants and assumes that $14 million in pledges will be disbursed in the remainder of the year. There is, however, a need to clarify further the financing available to the budget, as the UN has not provided yet a full and detailed accounting of the United Nations Trust Fund for East Timor (UNTF). If the projected revenues materialize and the budget is fully executed, which requires speedy resolution of operational and management problems in spending agencies,10 the CFA will close FY00/01 with total assets of $10 million, of which $6 million would be held in the special sub-account for the Timor Gap. A cabinet decision provides that any Timor Gap revenue in excess of the $2 million allocated to the budget be saved until a policy on the utilization of those revenues is defined after independence. 10. For FY01/02 and FY02/03, the overall expenditure targets have so far been revised upwards only marginally. Expenditure is now targeted at $57 million in FY01/02 and $59 million in FY02/03. Consistent with the budget document presented in Lisbon, the CFA still targets revenue collection at $30 million in FY01/02 and $40 million in FY02/03. However, on current policies, domestic tax and non-tax revenues (excluding Timor Gap revenue) are expected to fall short of these targets by $8 million in FY01/02 and $18 million in FY02/03, indicating that additional measures would be needed. If the original revenue targets were not met, the projected financing requirements would reach $31 million in FY01/02 and $34 million in FY02/03. Moreover, if the policy of not using Timor Gap revenue in excess of $2 million to fund budget expenditures is pursued, the budgetary financing requirements would reach $33 million in FY01/02 and $37 million in FY02/03. In view of the above, it will be very important that revenue estimates be updated before the budget discussion for FY01/02 and if needed, steps be taken to raise revenues. In this context, it will be also important to define the medium-term policy on the use of Timor Gap revenues. 11. The expenditure revisions have implications for future fiscal sustainability. While current projections are based on the original appropriations, the introduction of new agencies and spending priorities has led to an increase in public sector employment by more than 2,000 workers this fiscal year.11 Maintaining the new agencies and the higher level of public servants in coming years will require spending cuts, if overall spending is to remain in line with the projected expenditure targets. For FY01/02, the CFA estimates that expenditure on wages and salaries would need to be cut by 6.5 percent for all agencies in existence before the November revisions. Likewise, expenditure on goods and services would need to be cut by 13 percent. Similar expenditure cuts will need to be made for FY02/03. In the budget process for FY01/02, ETTA should introduce a sustainable wage level and structure, consider options for increasing domestic revenue (including to offset the impact that a reduction in the UN led foreign presence may have on the tax base), and assess possible grant flows. V. The Combined Sources Budget 12. The combined sources budget attempts to summarize all fiscal and quasi-fiscal activities carried out in East Timor directly by the ETTA budget, and with the financial support of TFET, UNTAET's assessed contributions budget,12 and bilateral donors whether directly or through implementing agencies, including from the UN(Table 4). The objective is to provide a comprehensive view of the current level of public spending on goods and services. This exercise requires some judgment to determine what is quasi-fiscal expenditure, but serves as a good starting point for a discussion of long-term fiscal sustainability. In particular, it will be important to determine as a matter of some urgency the current level of public goods and services that an independent East Timorese government will be able to afford as the provision of external financial assistance by donors starts declining. The combined sources budget is intended to serve as background information for the FY01/02 budget exercise, allowing the National Council to get a better picture of sectoral expenditure priorities. 13. In the early stages, all entities engaged in East Timor drew up their individual budgets independently. At the Lisbon meeting, a CFET current and capital budget was presented, together with a projection for the Reconstruction and Development Program. The IMF presented a preliminary estimate of a combined sources budget and there was agreement that efforts should be made to move toward a comprehensive budget format, to facilitate internal discussions and decision making, as well as Donors' reviews. More recently, the CFA has started to integrate the CFET and the TFET as well as the assessed contribution budget and individual donor projects.13 Completion of this task requires detailed information from bilateral donors, regarding spending plans and execution. The bulk of non-CFET quasi-fiscal expenditure has been classified as capital expenditure. However, some expenditure items are of a recurrent nature, and future budget exercises should identify their likely impact on the path and composition of expenditures. 14. Based on existing information from various sources of external financial assistance, the capital expenditure that could be supported for FY00/01 would amount to $130 million (or about 45 percent of GDP), of which $15 million would be executed through the ETTA budget and about $70 million under the TFET.14 The expenditure levels are expected to decline gradually in FY01/02 and FY01/02 and FY02/03, reflecting a winding down of UNTAET quasi-fiscal operations and a decline in bilateral support in the form of quasi-fiscal expenditures. For the three fiscal years under review, the deficit is expected to be fully financed by grants. VI. Banking Sector and Foreign Exchange Market 15. Financial intermediation is yet to be restored. Bank current account deposits as of end June 2000 have been estimated at about $14 million (a level similar to that held by Indonesian banks in September 1999), but there has not been any build up of time or savings deposits yet, except for some TFET deposits.15 Despite the favorable evolution of current bank deposits, no commercial bank credit has been extended due to the lack of adequate collateral. The only loans extended so far are those under the Small Enterprise Project funded by the TFET. Loans fully processed as of end September were equivalent to $0.8 million16 and carried an interest rate of 10 percent per year. Most loans have been extended with a maturity of 36 months and a three-month grace period. Loan performance has been good so far, but it is still too early to draw definite conclusions. In addition, three microfinance institutions have started operating, one of which has already made 350 small loans-ranging between US$50 and US$100-70 percent of which have been repaid. 16. There is growing interest among foreign banks to start operating in East Timor. Banco Nacional Ultramarino (BNU) is the only bank offering payment services and a wide range of banking facilities. Westpac Bank, which until recently had been engaged in foreign exchange operations only, is now in the process of formalizing a broadening of its operations to include banking activities. The licensing procedures for another Australian bank (ANZ) are in the final stages and there have been recent inquiries by an Indonesian bank to reestablish operations in Dili. In addition, a foreign exchange dealer license has been recently granted to an Australian firm. 17. The Dili foreign exchange market is growing rapidly and the exchange rate of the U.S. dollar vis-à-vis the Indonesian Rupiah has continued to track developments in the Jakarta market closely, albeit with a lag(Figure 2). Between September 15 and October 30, the foreign exchange market turnover (i.e., the total value of sales and purchases of foreign exchange) was close to $19 million, of which 60 percent was settled in U.S. dollars, 25 percent in Australian dollars and the rest in Indonesian rupiah and Portuguese escudos. In Dili, the buying rate for dollars offered by street vendors tends to be consistently higher than the rate offered by financial institutions. The spread between the buy/sell rate of the rupiah vis-à-vis the U.S. dollar has remained stable (at around 6 percent), whereas the margin between the mid-point exchange rate in Dili and that in Jakarta has continued to display some volatility.17 Figure 2. EAST TIMOR: Indonesian Rupiah/U.S. Dollar exchange Rate Developments in dili 18. The use of the U.S. dollar, although still low, is gradually starting to pick up in line with rising domestic fiscal outlays, continued efforts at educating the population in the use of the legal tender, and improved availability of low denomination notes and coins. Executing agencies of TFET projects are increasingly making payments in U.S. dollars and there is evidence that employees in the private sector (including in agriculture) are requesting their salaries to be set and paid in U.S. dollars. Anecdotal evidence also suggests that the use of the U.S. dollar as a store of value is rapidly becoming important. The Central Payment Office (CPO) needs to continue to encourage NGOs, Diplomatic Missions, UN agencies, and other institutions to make their disbursements/payments in U.S. dollars, without prejudice for the freedom of private parties to settle contracts in the currency of their choice. 19. The Indonesian Rupiah continues to be widely used as a means of payment throughout the territory, while the Australian dollar circulates mainly in Dili. In August, demonetization by Bank Indonesia of certain rupiah notes led some businesses in East Timor to stop accepting the demonetized rupiah notes which were still in circulation in the territory and a secondary market for such notes with a steep discount soon emerged. As a result, the CPO negotiated temporary arrangements with BNU to exchange the demonetized notes and a potential disruption of the payments system was avoided. A permanent arrangement for exchanging old and demonetized rupiah notes between CPO and Bank Indonesia should be sought as soon as possible. VII. External Sector and External Financial Assistance 20. One year into its post-conflict recovery, East Timor's trade flows are dominated by the substantial official aid flows (including UNTAET). These have assisted in the rehabilitation and reconstruction of the economy but, because of the large import component, have also resulted in a substantial deterioration in the trade and current account deficits. The current account deficit, excluding transfers, is expected to deteriorate sharply in 2000 and to peak at around $166 million (55 percent of GDP) in 2001 (Table 5). Merchandise imports are expected to reach about $126 million in 2000, despite an expected cessation of imports related to humanitarian assistance and a moderation of other aid-related flows, including from UNTAET. The surge in imports, however, is not likely to be reflected in border tax revenues since the bulk of them will continue to be aid-related and, as such, are tax-exempt. 21. Private sector imports are beginning to rise steadily. Private sector imports, which had been running at about $2-3 million per month in the second quarter of 2000, rose to about $5-6 million per month thereafter. It is not clear to what extent stronger private imports reflect a strengthening of the local economy rather than the increased activity of temporary businesses, mostly run by expatriates, servicing the large international community. Rice imports have increased rapidly reflecting in part a decline in the cost competitiveness of domestic rice producers following the discontinuation of production subsidies. 22. Exports have weakened further and export earnings in 2000 are likely to be well below the pre-conflict average. Limited data suggests that earnings from coffee, the main export commodity, are likely to reach about $8 million in 2000, significantly lower than the average of about $25 million recorded before the conflict. The weak coffee export values reflects both the 30 percent decline in world coffee prices this year as well as a sharp drop in recorded export volumes to a third (2.5 thousand tons) of the pre-conflict average.18 The recovery of exports will depend critically on the rehabilitation of the transportation and processing infrastructure since damage in these sectors has led to significant crop spoilage, sharply reducing income especially for the high quality segment of the export crop. For a large proportion of the coffee crop, which is of lower quality, exports have remained hampered by the continued disruption of distribution channels, especially to Indonesia, East Timor's traditional market.19 23. At the Lisbon meeting, donor pledges to the UN Trust Fund totaled $43 million. The administration of the UN Trust Fund was transferred to the CFA in October 2000, at which time contributions to the fund totaled $40.6 million. However, a full accounting of the Trust Fund remains to be received from the UN trustees in New York. Donors are currently committed to make further contributions for a cumulative total of $55.4 million by the end of FY00/01. 24. Donors also pledged $166 million to the Trust Fund for East Timor (TFET). The level of project spending commitments for FY00/01 is fully funded. However, commitments by the end of FY02/03 are projected to reach $218 million, which given the expected level of donor contributions of about $172 million, would leave TFET with unmet financing needs of about $46 million. 25. Bilateral donors were expected to pledge $149 million for the three year period ending in FY02/03 to fund capital expenditure needs identified in May 2000 by UNTAET and the NCC in May, 2000 with the cooperation of the World Bank. A recent review of bilateral donors spending commitments has served to confirm bilaterals' commitments for about $173 million through to end-FY02/03 and $191 million through to end-FY03/04. However, the Donor Coordinating Unit of the National Planning and Development Agency (DCU/NPDA) needs to clarify whether these spending commitments match the amounts and types of needs identified by the NCC. As a result, it is not possible yet to determine whether or not the capital expenditure needs identified by the NCC are fully funded. Moreover, many projects to be funded by bilateral sources are of a quasi-fiscal nature and have longer-term fiscal implications which need to be evaluated. This evaluation has not been done in a number of cases and needs to be pursued. In future, it will be important that the signing of bilateral agreements be preceded by a careful evaluation of its medium term fiscal implications. To this end, a clear line of authority for signing bilateral agreements must be established and a formal institutional process developed. VIII. International Negotiations 26. Discussions with Indonesia have continued on a wide range of issues.Discussions have proceeded slowly on the settlement of financial claims and liabilities of the banking sector, on ensuring a transit corridor between Oecussi and the main territory of East Timor, and on maintaining educational opportunities for East Timorese in Indonesia. Negotiations on the delineation of land and maritime borders have been more successful and a Joint Border Committee has been established. In addition, some progress has been made on rebuilding East Timor's archives and records, including restoring information on land and property. Progress also has been made on the regularization of payment of state pensions to retired East Timorese public employees. UNTAET officials expect a lump sum transfer of about $2.5 million in December 2000, covering pensions that should have been paid since August 1999, as well as benefits under the Indonesian housing saving scheme. Payments will be made in U.S. dollars and are expected to continue until independence. The payment of pensions after independence is a matter for future negotiations. Although residual pension obligations owed to former civil servants are likely to be sizeable (at least $20 million), no understanding has been reached on the amount to be paid and on the modalities for the payment of these benefits. 27. Formal negotiations between East Timor, represented by UNTAET, and Australia on the Timor Gap have been initiated. The first round of negotiations took place in early October and focused on the tax regime and product sharing agreements. The calendar for future discussions has not been decided. IX. Economic Institutions and Regulatory Framework 28. Work to establish the institutional and regulatory framework in the financial sector has progressed on schedule. The CFA and the CPO are close to being fully operational. Regulations for a budget and taxation framework were adopted, allowing the budget to be developed and executed in an accountable and transparent manner, and empowering the East Timor Revenue Service (ETRS) to collect taxes and fees. In addition, the treasury has made significant progress in completing the first stage of computerizing budget execution, which should facilitate the monitoring and control of cash and commitment expenditures. With respect to the CPO, a prudential regulatory framework for the banking system is being finalized, based on the Basel Core Principles. Instructions on bank licensing, capital requirements and liquidity have recently been adopted. Additional instructions are expected to be approved before the end of the year, including instructions on qualifications of administrators, large credit exposures, credit to employees of banks, on bank reporting and publication of balance sheets, on audits and publication of auditor's opinion and annual report, and on transactions with related persons, related banks and financial institutions and affiliates. Credit unions and several microfinance institutions that are accepting deposits will be allowed to operate under the current banking regulation. A specific regulation for non-bank financial institutions is under preparation, but is not expected to be ready for approval until early next year. Although there were delays in filling international staff positions for the CFA and the CPO early in the year, key managerial positions are now filled, but the process of building up East Timorese managerial capacity has been slow. Eighty East Timorese staff are being trained to fill positions in the CFA and 14 to fill positions in the CPO (with 23 more to be hired soon). 29. The financial autonomy of the CPO is a matter that needs to be addressed in the near term. The CPO is dependent on budget resources to carry out its operations. While these resources appear to be consistent with the CPO's role of fiscal agent (including carrying out some functions typically done by a Treasury Department), serious thought should be given to making available funds to permit it to develop the payments system, regulate and supervise the financial system, and address unanticipated problems which may put at risk the credibility and stability of the payments and banking system. Because CPO's financial autonomy is a key step towards the development of an independent central bank, options to provide such autonomy should start to be explored as soon as possible, in case the East Timorese government decides to create a central bank after independence. 30. The rationalization of Economic Institutions requires urgent attention. The recent creation of a National Planning and Development Agency has raised concerns of duplication in regard to the economic analysis and policy advice functions of existing agencies such as CFA and CPO, as well as the Department of Economic Affairs. In a severely human-resource-constrained situation such as that of East Timor, it is crucial that each institution's role be clearly defined, so as to avoid costly duplication of services. X. Technical Assistance 31. The requirements for technical assistance and training in the macroeconomic management area are expected to remain high in the foreseeable future.Coordinated assistance between the World Bank and the IMF in the area of statistics is expected to begin shortly. Training in basic macroeconomic policy and analysis will intensify, and the first course especially designed for 12 Timorese civil servants will be delivered by the IMF Institute in January 2001 at the IMF-Singapore Regional Training Institute. IMF technical assistance by FAD and MAE to the CFA and the CPO, respectively, will also continue, including advice on taxation of oil and gas (starting in early December 2000) and further training of CFA and CPO officials. The World Bank's Economic Institutions Capacity Building project will provide training and skills development in economic management and will generate a baseline set of macroeconomic aggregates. This project also will provide assistance in setting up an integrated accounting system which will help with budget management. The needs for technical assistance on macroeconomic management, policy design and analysis, and the creation of economic databases are very large so additional efforts at meeting these needs will be also coordinated with the AsDB and other bilateral providers of technical assistance.
wrong_mix_range_leader_00122	FactBench	1	50	https://press.vatican.va/content/salastampa/en/bollettino/pubblico/2024/01/19/240119e.html	en	Credential Letters of the Ambassador of East Timor to the Holy See	https://press.vatican.va/etc/designs/salastampa/favicon.ico	https://press.vatican.va/etc/designs/salastampa/favicon.ico	[ "https://press.vatican.va/etc/designs/salastampa/library/images/banner-stampa.png", "https://press.vatican.va/etc/designs/salastampa/library/images/logo-vatican.png", "https://press.vatican.va/etc/designs/salastampa/library/images/logo-press-en.png", "https://press.vatican.va/etc/designs/salastampa/library/images/share/facebook-48.png", "https://press.vatican.va/etc/designs/salastampa/library/images/share/twitter-48.png", "https://press.vatican.va/etc/designs/salastampa/library/images/share/mail-48.png", "https://press.vatican.va/etc/designs/salastampa/library/images/share/rss-48.png", "https://press.vatican.va/etc/designs/salastampa/library/images/back.png", "https://press.vatican.va/etc/designs/salastampa/library/images/top.png", "https://press.vatican.va/etc/designs/salastampa/library/images/print.png", "https://press.vatican.va/etc/designs/salastampa/library/images/file-pdf.png", "https://press.vatican.va/etc/designs/salastampa/library/images/logo-press-en.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	2024-01-19T00:00:00			/etc/designs/salastampa/favicon.ico		null	This morning, in the Vatican Apostolic Palace, the Holy Father Francis received in audience Her Excellency Ms. Chloé Silvia Tilman Dindo, ambassador of East Timor to the Holy See, on the occasion of the presentation of her credential letters. The following is a brief biography of the new ambassador: Her Excellency Ms. Chloé Silvia Tilman Dindo Ambassador of East Timor to the Holy See Her Excellency Ms. Chloé Silvia Tilman Dindo was born on 19 April 1989. She graduated in law from the Nova University of Lisbon, Portugal, in 2013, and was awarded a master’s degree in law from the Université de Neuchâtel, Switzerland, in 2018. She has served as a legal advisor at the Office of the Prime Minister of East Timor (2013-2014), policy officer at the European Hub of the G7+ (2018-2020); legal and diplomatic advisor to the executive secretary of the Community of Portuguese-Speaking Countries – CPLP (2021-2022); and chief of staff of the executive secretary of the CPLP (2022-2023).
wrong_mix_range_leader_00122	FactBench	2	72	https://findingaids.princeton.edu/catalog/C0003_c000004098	en	North, Wilfred, circa 1885	https://findingaids.prin…sitories/mss.jpg		[ "https://findingaids.princeton.edu/assets/library_full_logo-2455e0ea00ca6b0f9d885eb4f8218c8279f1e7acad27683cfd60f8b29f3d527d.svg", "https://findingaids.princeton.edu/repositories/mss.jpg", "https://findingaids.princeton.edu/assets/facebook-830ed0d4085e3e896cbdb4d7074930abfb123fdf87d85e239c83a05dbd38705e.png", "https://findingaids.princeton.edu/assets/twitter-92a420d1adb5b3bdffda93153304761a5cfc3117234588adb0b7af2a4a5c5a24.png", "https://findingaids.princeton.edu/assets/govdocs-693ebb19e82eae54864a9434368bb2723de27770173811820d4b34f77569e7b6.png", "https://findingaids.princeton.edu/assets/friends-0b7dd7ef037118093c35538ce8a21a1eb2ae2e74bd0ddcd3f7cc87e0e80129f1.png", "https://findingaids.princeton.edu/assets/pu-51a408b14408e04caba9f75a3d4b0e92f7577e4b7aa00efd0fa1b7efd52b629a.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null		en	/assets/pul-favicon-5468035336e685d7d9989575b2d13754eece89f679fe2686ea090ac2341d48b0.ico		null	Some of the manuscripts in this collection have been published. The following were published by J. B. Lippincott of Philadelphia: In the Yule-Log Glow (1892), Madonna and Other Poems (1894), Martial Notes (1929), Masterpieces of the Sea (1912), A Mosaic, Tales from Shakespeare (1893), and Tales from Ten Poets (1893). Also published were: Confessions in Art (N.Y.: Sears, 1930), A Duet in Lyrics (published privately by Harrison S. Morris with co-author John Arthur Henry, 1883), Hannah Bye (Phila.: Penn Publishing Co., 1920), The Landlord's Daughter (Phila.: Penn Publishing Co., 1923), Lyrics and Landscapes (N.Y.: The Century Co., 1908), Odes (published privately by Harrison S. Morris, 1938), and Walt Whitman (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1929). Single copies may be made for research purposes. To cite or publish quotations that fall within Fair Use, as defined under U. S. Copyright Law, no permission is required. For instances beyond Fair Use, it is the responsibility of the researcher to determine whether any permissions related to copyright, privacy, publicity, or any other rights are necessary for their intended use of the Library's materials, and to obtain all required permissions from any existing rights holders, if they have not already done so. Princeton University Library's Special Collections does not charge any permission or use fees for the publication of images of materials from our collections, nor does it require researchers to obtain its permission for said use. The department does request that its collections be properly cited and images credited. More detailed information can be found on the Copyright, Credit and Citations Guidelines page on our website. If you have any questions, please feel free to contact us through the Ask Us! form. For preservation reasons, original analog and digital media may not be read or played back in the reading room. Users may visually inspect physical media but may not remove it from its enclosure. All analog audiovisual media must be digitized to preservation-quality standards prior to use. Audiovisual digitization requests are processed by an approved third-party vendor. Please note, the transfer time required can be as little as several weeks to as long as several months and there may be financial costs associated with the process. Requests should be directed through the Ask Us Form. This collection was processed by Judith Golden in 1988. Finding aid word-processed and upgraded by Traci Ballou in 2005. Boxes 334-339 in Series 10: Additional Papers were processed by Holly Mengel with folder inventory added by Nicholas Williams '15 in 2013. This collection was processed by Judith Golden in 1988. Finding aid word-processed and upgraded by Traci Ballou in 2005. Boxes 334-339 in Series 10: Additional Papers were processed by Holly Mengel with folder inventory added by Nicholas Williams '15 in 2013. Single copies may be made for research purposes. To cite or publish quotations that fall within Fair Use, as defined under U. S. Copyright Law, no permission is required. For instances beyond Fair Use, it is the responsibility of the researcher to determine whether any permissions related to copyright, privacy, publicity, or any other rights are necessary for their intended use of the Library's materials, and to obtain all required permissions from any existing rights holders, if they have not already done so. Princeton University Library's Special Collections does not charge any permission or use fees for the publication of images of materials from our collections, nor does it require researchers to obtain its permission for said use. The department does request that its collections be properly cited and images credited. More detailed information can be found on the Copyright, Credit and Citations Guidelines page on our website. If you have any questions, please feel free to contact us through the Ask Us! form. For preservation reasons, original analog and digital media may not be read or played back in the reading room. Users may visually inspect physical media but may not remove it from its enclosure. All analog audiovisual media must be digitized to preservation-quality standards prior to use. Audiovisual digitization requests are processed by an approved third-party vendor. Please note, the transfer time required can be as little as several weeks to as long as several months and there may be financial costs associated with the process. Requests should be directed through the Ask Us Form. Some of the manuscripts in this collection have been published. The following were published by J. B. Lippincott of Philadelphia: In the Yule-Log Glow (1892), Madonna and Other Poems (1894), Martial Notes (1929), Masterpieces of the Sea (1912), A Mosaic, Tales from Shakespeare (1893), and Tales from Ten Poets (1893). Also published were: Confessions in Art (N.Y.: Sears, 1930), A Duet in Lyrics (published privately by Harrison S. Morris with co-author John Arthur Henry, 1883), Hannah Bye (Phila.: Penn Publishing Co., 1920), The Landlord's Daughter (Phila.: Penn Publishing Co., 1923), Lyrics and Landscapes (N.Y.: The Century Co., 1908), Odes (published privately by Harrison S. Morris, 1938), and Walt Whitman (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1929).
wrong_mix_range_leader_00122	FactBench	1	27	https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/timor-leste	en	Timor-Leste	https://www.worldbank.or…social-share.jpg	https://www.worldbank.or…social-share.jpg	[ "https://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/sites/academy/img/2024/wbglogo.svg", "https://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/sites/corporate/img/global/wblive-logo-ENG-short_white2.png", "https://worldbank.scene7.com/is/image/worldbankprod/who-we-are", "https://worldbank.scene7.com/is/image/worldbankprod/what-we-do", "https://worldbank.scene7.com/is/image/worldbankprod/megamenu-photo-pakistan", "https://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/sites/corporate/img/global/wblive-logo-ENG-short_white2.png", "https://www.worldbank.org/etc/designs/wbrrdesign/clientlibs-wbrredsign/img/search-orange.svg", "https://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/photos/1440x300/2017/jun/TL-banner-300px.jpg", "https://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/photos/220x220/2017/may/TL-220px.jpg", "https://worldbank.scene7.com/is/image/worldbankprod/tler-2024?wid=780&hei=439&qlt=85,0&resMode=sharp", "https://worldbank.scene7.com/is/image/worldbankprod/Timor-Leste-Human-Capital-Review?wid=439&hei=439&qlt=85,0&resMode=sharp", "https://worldbank.scene7.com/is/image/worldbankprod/Timor-Leste-Drone?wid=439&hei=439&qlt=85,0&resMode=sharp", "https://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/photos/220x220/2017/may/tl-road-220px.jpg", "https://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/wbr-redesign/logos/ajax.gif", "https://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/wbr-redesign/logos/ajax.gif", "https://worldbank.scene7.com/is/image/worldbankprod/Satu-kahkonen?wid=220&hei=220&qlt=85,0&resMode=sharp", "https://worldbank.scene7.com/is/image/worldbankprod/Bernard-Final?wid=220&hei=220&qlt=85,0&resMode=sharp", "https://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/photos/439x439/2021/sep/Alief-profile--1-.png", "https://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/wbr-redesign/icons/twitter.svg", "https://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/wbr/stayconnected/icons-rss.svg", "https://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/wbr/stayconnected/sm-icons-newsletter.svg", "https://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/wbr-redesign/logos/ajax.gif", "https://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/wbr-redesign/logos/ajax.gif", "https://worldbank.scene7.com/is/image/worldbankprod/TL-logistic-780x439:780x439", "https://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/photos/780x439/2016/nov-2/TL-possible-780x439.jpg", "https://worldbank.scene7.com/is/image/worldbankprod/TL-project-map-780x439:780x439", "https://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/wbr/logo/ajax.gif", "https://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/wbr-redesign/icons/fb.svg", "https://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/wbr-redesign/icons/twitter.svg", "https://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/wbr-redesign/icons/linkedln.svg", "https://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/wbr-redesign/icons/instagram.svg", "https://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/wbr-redesign/icons/youtube.svg", "https://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/wbr-redesign/icons/flickr.svg", "https://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/wbr-redesign/icons/whatsup.svg", "https://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/wbr-redesign/logos/logo-wbg-footer-en.svg" ]	[]	[]	[ "Timor-Leste(TL)", "East Asia and Pacific(EAP)" ]	null	[]	null	In May 2002, Timor-Leste (formerly known as East Timor) gained independence	en	/content/dam/wbr-redesign/logos/wbg-favicon.png	World Bank	https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/timor-leste	This site uses cookies to optimize functionality and give you the best possible experience. If you continue to navigate this website beyond this page, cookies will be placed on your browser. To learn more about cookies, click here.
wrong_mix_range_leader_00122	FactBench	1	70	https://www.mcc.gov/where-we-work/country/timor-leste/	en	Timor	https://assets.mcc.gov/c…img-mcc-star.png	https://assets.mcc.gov/c…img-mcc-star.png	[ "https://www.mcc.gov/assets/uswds/img/us_flag_small.png", "https://www.mcc.gov/assets/uswds/img/icon-dot-gov.svg", "https://www.mcc.gov/assets/uswds/img/icon-https.svg", "https://assets.mcc.gov/content/themes/mcc-2016/img/sig-20th-anniv-horz-name.svg", "https://www.mcc.gov/assets/uswds/img/usa-icons/close.svg", "https://www.mcc.gov/assets/uswds/img/usa-icons-bg/search--white.svg", "https://assets.mcc.gov/content/uploads/2016/06/2011-017-0894-02_-_flag_btn_-_timor-leste-01.png", "https://assets.mcc.gov/content/uploads/2016/06/flag-timor-leste.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	MCC is an independent U.S. Government foreign aid agency based on the principle that aid is most effective when it reinforces good governance, economic freedom and investments in people.	en	https://assets.mcc.gov/c…h-icon-57x57.png	Millennium Challenge Corporation	https://www.mcc.gov/where-we-work/country/timor-leste/	The program aimed to reduce corruption by building a network of functioning and effective anti-corruption institutions and actors, and improve access to immunization services by creating a more capable and effective community health system. The Timor-Leste Compact aims to improve the health and skills of the Timorese people for a more sustainable economy.
wrong_mix_range_leader_00122	FactBench	3	69	https://apnews.com/article/east-timor-parliamentary-election-d0e4fcf786061f3bc49526ade399fdbe	en	East Timor’s opposition party wins most seats in parliamentary election	https://dims.apnews.com/dims4/default/79cabb7/2147483647/strip/true/crop/3000x1688+0+156/resize/1440x810!/quality/90/?url=https%3A%2F%2Fstorage.googleapis.com%2Fafs-prod%2Fmedia%2Fd562139f1cda4919986626bdf2494a52%2F3000.jpeg	https://dims.apnews.com/dims4/default/79cabb7/2147483647/strip/true/crop/3000x1688+0+156/resize/1440x810!/quality/90/?url=https%3A%2F%2Fstorage.googleapis.com%2Fafs-prod%2Fmedia%2Fd562139f1cda4919986626bdf2494a52%2F3000.jpeg	[ "https://assets.apnews.com/fa/ba/9258a7114f5ba5c7202aaa1bdd66/aplogo.svg", "https://dims.apnews.com/dims4/default/94c503b/2147483647/strip/true/crop/640x236+0+0/resize/320x118!/quality/90/?url=https%3A%2F%2Fassets.apnews.com%2Fc3%2F4c%2F65482a7b452db66043542c093eaf%2Fpromo-2x.png 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1x,https://dims.apnews.com/dims4/default/8be82d7/2147483647/strip/true/crop/3000x2000+0+0/resize/1198x798!/quality/90/?url=https%3A%2F%2Fstorage.googleapis.com%2Fafs-prod%2Fmedia%2Fa366f6ebac3248229bac8025b34b8eaf%2F3000.jpeg 2x", "https://dims.apnews.com/dims4/default/e13e351/2147483647/strip/true/crop/3000x2000+0+0/resize/599x399!/quality/90/?url=https%3A%2F%2Fstorage.googleapis.com%2Fafs-prod%2Fmedia%2F367a691eafbe45d5add8b4090e4ba2d1%2F3000.jpeg 1x,https://dims.apnews.com/dims4/default/8455671/2147483647/strip/true/crop/3000x2000+0+0/resize/1198x798!/quality/90/?url=https%3A%2F%2Fstorage.googleapis.com%2Fafs-prod%2Fmedia%2F367a691eafbe45d5add8b4090e4ba2d1%2F3000.jpeg 2x", "https://dims.apnews.com/dims4/default/39de210/2147483647/strip/true/crop/3000x2000+0+0/resize/599x399!/quality/90/?url=https%3A%2F%2Fstorage.googleapis.com%2Fafs-prod%2Fmedia%2Fd562139f1cda4919986626bdf2494a52%2F3000.jpeg 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1x,https://dims.apnews.com/dims4/default/8455671/2147483647/strip/true/crop/3000x2000+0+0/resize/1198x798!/quality/90/?url=https%3A%2F%2Fstorage.googleapis.com%2Fafs-prod%2Fmedia%2F367a691eafbe45d5add8b4090e4ba2d1%2F3000.jpeg 2x", "https://dims.apnews.com/dims4/default/8650001/2147483647/strip/true/crop/992x617+0+0/resize/225x140!/quality/90/?url=https%3A%2F%2Fassets.apnews.com%2Ffc%2F24%2F7ff11448446fb8500bc984551325%2Faplogo-with-tagline.png 1x,https://dims.apnews.com/dims4/default/6669a9d/2147483647/strip/true/crop/992x617+0+0/resize/450x280!/quality/90/?url=https%3A%2F%2Fassets.apnews.com%2Ffc%2F24%2F7ff11448446fb8500bc984551325%2Faplogo-with-tagline.png 2x", "https://sb.scorecardresearch.com/p?c1=2&c2=3005041&cv=4.4.0&cj=1" ]	[]	[]	[ "East Timor", "Indonesia government", "Xanana Gusmao", "United States", "Asia Pacific", "General news", "Politics" ]	null	[ "Gantry Meilana" ]	2023-05-23T15:00:09+00:00	The National Elections Commission says East Timor’s opposition party has won Sunday's parliamentary election. The result means independence fighter Xanana Gusmao is likely to return as prime minister in Asia’s youngest democracy. The figures released Tuesday show Gusmao's National Congress of the Reconstruction of East Timor won 41% of the votes and 31 of the 65 seats. The ruling Revolutionary Front for an Independent East Timor, or Fretilin, had 25% and 19 seats. It promised to accept the election outcome. East Timor’s transition to a democracy has been rocky, with leaders battling massive poverty, unemployment and corruption as the country continues to struggle with the legacy of its bloody independence battle and bitter factional politics.	en	/apple-touch-icon.png	AP News	https://apnews.com/article/east-timor-parliamentary-election-d0e4fcf786061f3bc49526ade399fdbe	DILI, East Timor (AP) — East Timor’s opposition party won Sunday’s parliamentary election, meaning independence fighter Xanana Gusmao is likely to return as prime minister in Asia’s youngest democracy. The final vote count released by the National Elections Commission on Tuesday showed Gusmao’s National Congress of the Reconstruction of East Timor, known as CNRT, won 41% of the votes and gained 31 seats out of 65 in the National Parliament. That is just short of the 33 needed for an outright majority, and Gusmao will have to join at least one other party in a coalition to form a government. Gusmao, 76, an icon of the country’s independence struggle from Indonesian occupation, became the nation’s first president between 2002 and 2007 and served as prime minister between 2007 and 2015. The CNRT’s victory followed a successful presidential campaign in 2022 in which its candidate, Nobel Peace Prize laureate Jose Ramos-Horta, returned to office. The ruling Revolutionary Front for an Independent East Timor, or Fretilin, received 25% of the votes and 19 seats. It promised to accept the election outcome. The Democratic Party won six seats, the rural-based Khunto Party five and the People’s Liberation Party four. A total of 17 parties ran in the election. They were required to have a woman in at least every third position in their party list, and seats were allocated for those with an electoral threshold of 4%. “I’m happy that we are going to respond to people’s concerns and anxiety of national construction that has always been defined in the strategic development plan that has not been carried out in the last six years,” Gusmao told a news conference after the final results were released by the electoral commission. He pledged to allow the development of the Greater Sunrise oil and gas project which aims to tap trillions of cubic feet of natural gas that could give East Timor 70% of the revenues if gas is piped to East Timor and 80% if the gas is piped to Australia. “Independence doesn’t mean only having flag, president, governor and parliament, but it means people able to get benefits from independence in terms of the economy,” he said. Under East Timor’s Constitution, the prime minister acts as the head of government and has more legislative power than the president, who is head of state. Fretilin and CNRT have blamed each other for years of political paralysis. Tensions between the two largest parties since 2018 led to the resignation of Prime Minister Taur Matan Ruak in 2020 after the government repeatedly failed to pass a budget. But he agreed to stay until a new government was formed and to oversee the battle against the coronavirus pandemic. His government has operated without an annual budget and has relied on monthly injections from its sovereign fund, called the Petroleum Fund. His governing coalition is currently made up of Fretilin, the PLP which he heads, and the Khunto Party. The former Portuguese colony was occupied by Indonesia for a quarter-century and gained independence after a U.N.-sponsored referendum in 1999. Indonesia’s military responded with scorched-earth attacks that devastated the East Timorese half of the island of Timor. East Timor’s transition to a democracy has been rocky, with leaders battling massive poverty, unemployment and corruption as the country continues to struggle with the legacy of its bloody independence battle and bitter factional politics that have occasionally erupted into violence. Its economy is reliant on dwindling offshore oil revenues. The Association of Southeast Asian Nations this year granted observer status to East Timor ahead of it becoming the regional bloc’s 11th member. The United States on Monday commended authorities in East Timor, which also called Timor-Leste, for administering a free, fair and transparent election. “This election reflects the commitment of the people of Timor-Leste to democracy and peaceful political processes and serves as an inspiration for democracy globally,” said Matthew Miller, the U.S. Department of State spokesperson. The U.N. estimates that nearly half of East Timor’s population lives below the extreme poverty line of $1.90 a day, and that 42 of every 1,000 babies die before their fifth birthday because of malnutrition.
wrong_mix_range_leader_00122	FactBench	0	1	https://foreignpolicy.com/events/tensions-beyond-the-strait/	en	Tensions Beyond the Strait	https://foreignpolicy.co…anner.png?w=1000	https://foreignpolicy.co…anner.png?w=1000	[ "https://foreignpolicy.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/Ones-and-Tooze-podcast-foreign-policy-logo-3000x3000-1.jpg?w=150?quality=90", "https://foreignpolicy.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/I_SPY-series-art_updated.png?w=150?quality=90", "https://foreignpolicy.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/FP-Live-podcast-logo-3000x3000-1.png?w=150?quality=90", "https://foreignpolicy.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/Europe-issue-FP-Summer-2024.jpg", "https://foreignpolicy.com/wp-content/themes/foreign-policy-2017/assets/src/images/new-subs-onboarding/newsletter-icons/Africa-Brief.png", "https://foreignpolicy.com/wp-content/themes/foreign-policy-2017/assets/src/images/new-subs-onboarding/newsletter-icons/China-Brief.png", "https://foreignpolicy.com/wp-content/themes/foreign-policy-2017/assets/src/images/new-subs-onboarding/newsletter-icons/Latin-America-Brief.png", "https://foreignpolicy.com/wp-content/themes/foreign-policy-2017/assets/src/images/new-subs-onboarding/newsletter-icons/South-Asia-Brief.png", "https://foreignpolicy.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/MARTENS_CENTRE_logo_600x400.png", "https://foreignpolicy.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/SENATOR-MURPHY-OFFICIAL-PORTRAIT-e1686677213771.jpg", "https://foreignpolicy.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/SENATOR-MURPHY-OFFICIAL-PORTRAIT-e1686677213771.jpg", "https://foreignpolicy.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/Laura_Rosenberger-e1686941917514.jpeg", "https://foreignpolicy.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/Laura_Rosenberger-e1686941917514.jpeg", "https://foreignpolicy.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/Welle-headshot.jpeg", "https://foreignpolicy.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/Welle-headshot.jpeg", "https://foreignpolicy.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/susan-a.-thornton-cropped-e1686170949109.jpg", "https://foreignpolicy.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/susan-a.-thornton-cropped-e1686170949109.jpg", "https://foreignpolicy.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/Dr.-Graham-Allison-color-e1707492111941.jpg", "https://foreignpolicy.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/Dr.-Graham-Allison-color-e1707492111941.jpg", "https://foreignpolicy.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/Agrawal-Ravi-2022-smile_-e1662006152675.jpg", "https://foreignpolicy.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/Agrawal-Ravi-2022-smile_-e1662006152675.jpg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Owen Phelps" ]	2024-07-24T00:00:00	How Taiwan's security is impacting the transatlantic alliance	en	https://foreignpolicy.co…/favicon-192.png	Foreign Policy	https://foreignpolicy.com/events/tensions-beyond-the-strait/	Chris Murphy is a United States Senator from Connecticut. He serves on the Foreign Relations Committee, the Health, Education, Labor and Pensions Committee, and the Appropriations Committee. Prior to the Senate, Murphy served for three terms in the U.S. House representing the state's fifth congressional district. In Congress, Murphy is acknowledged as a leading voice for stronger anti-gun violence measures, a smarter foreign policy, and reform of our nation's mental health system. Before being elected to Congress, Murphy served for eight years in the Connecticut state legislature. Murphy graduated with honors from Williams College in Massachusetts, and received his law degree from the University of Connecticut School of Law. He is married to Catherine Holahan, an attorney, and they have two sons, Owen and Rider. Ms. Rosenberger assumed her position as Chair of the Board of Trustees of the American Institute in Taiwan (AIT) in March 2023. AIT is a non-profit, private corporation established pursuant to the Taiwan Relations Act to manage the U.S. unofficial relationship with Taiwan. As Chair, she participates in senior-level policy discussions on Taiwan and represents the Administration in visits to Taiwan and in meetings with Taiwan representatives in the United States. Ms. Rosenberger has nearly two decades of deep, high-level experience on the Indo-Pacific, both in and out of government, including on Taiwan, China, cross-Strait, and broader national security issues. Ms. Rosenberger worked on these issues at senior levels in the U.S. government, most recently as Special Assistant to the President and Senior Director for China and Taiwan on the National Security Council (NSC) at the White House, where she advised the President and National Security Advisor on all matters related to the People’s Republic of China (PRC) and Taiwan, led development of the Biden Administration’s China Strategy, developed strategies to responsibly manage U.S.-PRC competition, and led the broadening and deepening of U.S. unofficial relations with Taiwan. Ms. Rosenberger also served in a range of positions at the State Department and the NSC. As Chief of Staff to then-Deputy Secretary of State Antony Blinken and as Senior Advisor to then-Deputy National Security Advisor Blinken, she provided counsel on the full range of national security policy. In her role as Senior Advisor at the NSC, she also managed the interagency Deputies Committee, the U.S. government’s senior-level interagency decision-making forum on our country’s most pressing national security issues. Her other assignments included NSC Director for China and Korea; Bilateral Political Unit Chief on the State Department’s Office of Chinese and Mongolian Affairs; Special Assistant for the Asia-Pacific to then-Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs Bill Burns; and Foreign Affairs Officer in the State Department’s Office of Korean Affairs. She first joined the State Department as a Presidential Management Fellow. Outside of government, Ms. Rosenberger founded and served as Director of the Alliance for Securing Democracy and as a Senior Fellow at the German Marshall Fund of the United States (GMF), where she focused on strategies to counter authoritarian threats to democracies. She also served as Foreign Policy Advisor to former Secretary of State Hillary Clinton during her 2016 presidential campaign. Ms. Rosenberger received her master’s degree in international peace and conflict resolution from American University’s School of International Service and received her bachelors’ degrees with honors from Penn State University’s Schreyer Honors College and College of Liberal Arts in sociology, psychology, and women’s studies. She is originally from Pittsburgh, PA, and is an avid Steelers fan. Susan A. Thornton is a retired senior U.S. diplomat with almost three decades of experience with the U.S. State Department in Eurasia and East Asia. She is currently a Senior Fellow and Visiting Lecturer in Law at the Yale Law School Paul Tsai China Center. She is also the director of the Forum on Asia-Pacific Security at the National Committee on American Foreign Policy and a nonresident senior fellow at the Brookings Institution. Until July 2018, Thornton was Acting Assistant Secretary for East Asian and Pacific Affairs at the Department of State and led East Asia policymaking amid crises with North Korea, escalating trade tensions with China, and a fast-changing international environment. In previous State Department roles, she worked on U.S. policy toward China, Korea and the former Soviet Union and served in leadership positions at U.S. embassies in Central Asia, Russia, the Caucasus and China. Thornton received her M.A. in International Relations from the Johns Hopkins University School of Advanced International Studies and her B.A. from Bowdoin College in Economics and Russian. She serves on several nonprofit boards and speaks Mandarin and Russian. Graham Allison is the Douglas Dillon Professor of Government at Harvard University where he has taught for five decades. Allison is a leading analyst of national security with special interests in nuclear weapons, Russia, China, and decision-making. Allison was the “Founding Dean” of Harvard’s John F. Kennedy School of Government, and until 2017, served as Director of its Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs which is ranked the “#1 University Affiliated Think Tank” in the world. As Assistant Secretary of Defense in the first Clinton Administration, Dr. Allison received the Defense Department's highest civilian award, the Defense Medal for Distinguished Public Service, for "reshaping relations with Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, and Kazakhstan to reduce the former Soviet nuclear arsenal." This resulted in the safe return of more than 12,000 tactical nuclear weapons from the former Soviet republics and the complete elimination of more than 4,000 strategic nuclear warheads previously targeted at the United States and left in Ukraine, Kazakhstan, and Belarus when the Soviet Union disappeared. Dr. Allison’s latest book, Destined for War: Can America and China Escape Thucydides’s Trap? (2017), is a national and international bestseller. His 2013 book, Lee Kuan Yew: The Grand Master’s Insights on China, the United States and the World, has been a bestseller in the U.S. and abroad. Nuclear Terrorism: The Ultimate Preventable Catastrophe, now in its third printing, was selected by the New York Times as one of the "100 most notable books of 2004." Dr. Allison's first book, Essence of Decision: Explaining the Cuban Missile Crisis (1971), ranks among the all-time bestsellers with more than 500,000 copies in print. As "Founding Dean" of the modern Kennedy School, under his leadership, from 1977 to 1989, a small, undefined program grew twenty-fold to become a major professional school of public policy and government. As Assistant Secretary of Defense under President Clinton and Special Advisor to the Secretary of Defense under President Reagan, he has been a member of the Secretary of Defense’s Advisory Board for every Secretary from Weinberger to Mattis. He has the sole distinction of having twice been awarded the Distinguished Public Service Medal, first by Secretary Cap Weinberger and second by Secretary Bill Perry. He has served on the Advisory Boards of the Secretary of State, Secretary of Defense, and the Director of the CIA. Dr. Allison was the organizer of the Commission on America's National Interests (1996 and 2000), a founding member of the Trilateral Commission, a Director of the Council on Foreign Relations, and has been a member of public committees and commissions, among them the Baker-Cutler DOE Task Force on Nonproliferation Programs with Russia, the IAEA’s Commission of Eminent Persons, and the Commission on Prevention of Weapons of Mass Destruction, Proliferation, and Terrorism. Dr. Allison has served as a Director of the Getty Oil Company, Natixis, Loomis Sayles, Hansberger, Taubman Centers, Inc., Joule Unlimited, and Belco Oil and Gas, as well as a member of the Advisory Boards of Chase Bank, Chemical Bank, Hydro-Quebec, and the International Energy Corporation. Dr. Allison was born and raised in Charlotte, North Carolina. He was educated at Davidson College; Harvard College (B.A., magna cum laude, in History); Oxford University (B.A. and M.A., First Class Honors in Philosophy, Politics, and Economics); and Harvard University (Ph.D. in Political Science).
wrong_mix_range_leader_00122	FactBench	2	64	https://jukebox.uaf.edu/interviews/301	en	Digital Branch of the University of Alaska Fairbanks Oral History Program			[ "https://jukebox.uaf.edu/sites/default/files/logo-blank.png", "https://jukebox.uaf.edu/sites/default/files/projects/gaar_header.jpg", "https://jukebox.uaf.edu/sites/default/files/styles/thumbnail/public/people/ann_edwards_elma_sam_1.jpg?itok=WJLASsjT", "https://jukebox.uaf.edu/sites/default/files/Library_sig_block_blue.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null		en	https://jukebox.uaf.edu/misc/favicon.ico		null	Section 1: born -- Alatna, in tent\ father\ Nictune, Oscar\ mother\ Tobuk, Cora\ Alatna River\ Hope, Putu\ Bosei, Mamie\ Kitty -- her younger sister\ fish camp -- seining\ Tobuk, Grandpa\ tents\ smokehouse\ Tinuk, Grandma\ Tobuk, Uncle Jim -- made smokehouse, cut fish\ grandmother -- divided fish\ fish -- salmon, whitefish\ Napoleon -- family\ babysitting -- when people went seining; only seven at time\ Bertha -- one year older\ Rosie -- kind one\ hunting -- didn't go, happy when they came home with meat\ sheep\ hunting\ father\ Tuvak, Grandpa\ Nictune, Wally -- small, seven years old, went too\ brother\ Alatna River\ boat -- brought home meat; dried\ moose -- lack of\ bear -- women ate meat\ hutlanee -- restrictions regarding bear; not enforced on Alatna side\ father -- hunted bear in summer\ girls -- ate it; no other meat\ husband -- didn't like her to eat bear, hutlanee for him\| Section 2: born -- four years younger than Elma\ Eskimo -- Alatna side\ Alatna River\ Hope, Putu\ Hope, Sammy -- Putu's brother\ Bettles\ Wiseman\ fish camp\ smoke house\ Sinyalik\ Tobuk, Uncle Jimmy\ Wiseman -- tent\ Ester, Auntie -- made rice pudding\ fish -- lived mostly from; late August\ pudding -- like candy, precious\ fishing -- good\ Tobuk, Uncle Frank -- 1938\ Tinuk, Grandma\ Dinook -- same as Tinuk\ Tobuk, Grandpa\ Sheep Mountain\ Tobuk, Frank and Dora\ Rocky Bottom -- moose\ Alatna\ Tinuk, Grandma -- gave little moose fat\ seining\ freeze-up\ moose -- had never seen before\ food -- plenty; fish; berries; roots; rabbits\ meat -- caribou, sheep, black bear, grouse\ mother -- snaring\ snaring -- ptarmigan, rabbits\ foods -- berries; flour; sugar\ berries -- blueberries, cranberries, wild currents; jam\ Black Jack\ Sam -- family\ Sam, Selawik\ spruce hen -- like the head\ Umiaq, Grandma -- gave it to me\ steamboat\ Peter, Grandpa\ Tikitchuaq, Grandma\ Digijuak -- same as Tikitchuaq\ Bertha -- stayed with them a lot\ Bertha -- taught me language\ Kay, Miss -- said talk English only; believed her, lost our understanding\ language -- loss of\ Iñupiaq -- grandmother taught\| Section 3: Hope -- family\ Beaver\ Wiseman\ Hope, Johnny -- used to carry me when only six\ Bosei, Mamie\ Umiaq, Grandma\ husband -- her grandma\ Black Jack -- lived there year-round\ grandma -- had stroke, crippled hands\ Ronny -- her baby\ Shishmaref -- grandma from there\ Tikitchuaq, Grandma\ Nulaiyuk -- grandma married to\ Kopkun -- son that died\ Kopkun -- my husband named after\ Akpik, Grandma -- not related\ Tobuk, Grandpa -- his cousin, her husband\ Kobuk\ Sam, Selawik\ Kobuk -- all grandma's from\| Section 4: Tobuk, Frank -- weak as child; sick\ mission -- he worked there\ spring camp -- moved mission lady down there when too much water\ firecracker -- blew his fingers off as child\ Tobuk, Dora\ Frank -- all the girls across river wanted him\ medicine men -- Frank feared them\ hutlanee -- intermarriage\ Alatna -- had four kids\ Evans, Wilfred\ Wien Airline\ Bettles\ Evansville\ hunting trapping\ Wien Airline -- made living working for\ boats -- pilot\ pilot -- boats\ Evans, Wilfred -- worked for him\ hauling freight\| Section 5: Evans, Wilfred\ freight -- hauled it up in June\ trading -- furs\ Nictune, Oscar -- dad worked for Wilfred\ River -- ran with boat all the way to Koyukuk Station\ Koyukuk Station -- freighting\ store -- father got clothes and food for children for working\ August -- back to nothing again\ Evans, Wilfred -- kind man\ store -- first in his father's house\ Huntington, Jim -- in his old Allakaket store\ Williams, Jenny -- near her house\ store -- new one at end of village\ house -- moving from bank; rollers, logs, jacks, winch\ open house -- upper floor collapsed\ old times -- they were smart, did things easy\ Evans, Wilfred -- married to our aunt; mother's sister, became our uncle\ cousins -- Evansville\ Evansville\ Tobuk, Clara -- aunt\ Gray, Millie -- cousin\ Stevens, Jeanne -- cousin\ Imp -- Wilfred Evans' boat\| Section 6: Alatna -- started when they came down for Christmas; started living on this side\ grandpa -- had house on other side; before the Indians came\ Indians\ Tobuk, Grandpa\ Peter, Grandpa\ mission\ South Fork -- Huslia\ Eskimos -- live on Alatna side\ communities -- today, share school\ river -- cross on foot in winter, boat in summer; stay home with homework during freeze and break-up\ government -- just one\ Post Office -- shared\ intermarriage\ Tobuk, Uncle David -- married girl from Tanana\ Indian -- Eva\ Eva -- Indian from Tanana\ Eva -- learned to talk Eskimo; treated as one of Eskimos\ Hannah -- her daughter, Health Aide in Evansville; Rhoda\ Tobuk, Uncle David -- two years older than father\| Section 7: hunting\ fishing\ school -- don't go out anymore since kids have school; 1940's and 1950's\ change\| Section 8: schooling -- most important thing today\ camping -- can't seem to get taken out even for one night\ hunting\ fishing\ snaring\ trapping -- people should do more\ animals -- marten, fox, beaver\ beaver -- overpopulated today, good meat and fur\ fish net\ grayling\ tanning -- don't get much help anymore; people should learn these things\|
wrong_mix_range_leader_00122	FactBench	1	31	https://www.cfr.org/blog/why-has-east-timor-built-strongest-democracy-southeast-asia	en	Why Has East Timor Built the Strongest Democracy in Southeast Asia?	https://cdn.cfr.org/site…orDemocracy.jpeg	https://cdn.cfr.org/site…orDemocracy.jpeg	[ "https://www.cfr.org/themes/custom/cfr_theme/src/assets/images/cfr-coc-icon.png", "https://www.cfr.org/themes/custom/cfr_theme/src/assets/images/cfr-tgh-icon.png", "https://www.cfr.org/themes/custom/cfr_theme/src/assets/images/cfr-store.png", "https://www.cfr.org/themes/custom/cfr_theme/src/assets/images/cfr-coc-icon.png", "https://www.cfr.org/themes/custom/cfr_theme/src/assets/images/cfr-tgh-icon.png", "https://www.cfr.org/themes/custom/cfr_theme/src/assets/images/cfr-store.png", "https://cdn.cfr.org/sites/default/files/styles/slide_3_2/public/image/2021/10/EastTimorDemocracy.webp" ]	[]	[]	[ "Southeast Asia", "Timor-Leste", "Diamonstein-Spielvogel Project on the Future of Democracy" ]	null	[ "Joshua Kurlantzick" ]	2021-10-04T14:51:17-04:00	Despite economic struggles, East Timor has built a vibrant democracy in Southeast Asia.	en	//cdn.cfr.org/themes/custom/cfr_theme/favicon-32x32.png	Council on Foreign Relations	https://www.cfr.org/blog/why-has-east-timor-built-strongest-democracy-southeast-asia	Part of a blog series on Southeast Asian and South Asian Democracy. On the face of it, East Timor would not seem like the most natural place to have built a democracy ranked by Freedom House, in its 2021 edition of Freedom in the World, as “Free.” In fact, this ranking makes East Timor the only country in Southeast Asia, where democracy has been regressing for over a decade, to be ranked “Free” by Freedom House. (I serve as a consultant for some Freedom House reports, but not for the report on East Timor.) More on: Southeast Asia Timor-Leste Diamonstein-Spielvogel Project on the Future of Democracy A wide range of other data and anecdotes suggests how far East Timor has come toward democracy. It has built a solidly free state some two decades after Timor was leveled in the conflict that erupted, in 1999, after over 78 percent of Timorese voted to separate from Indonesia after the end of the Suharto dictatorship. Asia Unbound CFR fellows and other experts assess the latest issues emerging in Asia today. 1-3 times weekly. Eyes on Asia Insights and analysis from CFR fellows on the latest developments across Asia. Monthly. Daily News Brief A summary of global news developments with CFR analysis delivered to your inbox each morning. Weekdays. The World This Week A weekly digest of the latest from CFR on the biggest foreign policy stories of the week, featuring briefs, opinions, and explainers. Every Friday. By entering your email and clicking subscribe, you're agreeing to receive announcements from CFR about our products and services, as well as invitations to CFR events. You are also agreeing to our Privacy Policy and Terms of Use. That 1999 conflict in Timor, led by ravaging militias backed by the Indonesian security forces, not only killed roughly 2,600 but also wrecked much of the infrastructure in tiny Timor, which already was one of the poorest places in Asia. Timor was ravaged again, in 2006, by clashes between its own soldiers and security forces. Timor did rebuild some of its infrastructure, and received significant amounts of foreign aid and a share of the revenues from the petroleum in the Timor Gap. Still, it remains the poorest country in Asia, a far cry from the high rises of Bangkok or Singapore. Indeed, an article by Jonas Guterres, a former advisor to the Office of the Commissioner at the Anti-Corruption Commission of Timor-Leste, notes that: “The 2017 Global Hunger Index categorized the country’s [East Timor’s] hunger levels as ‘serious,’ although over the past decade the hunger level has been reduced from 46.9 percent to 34.3 percent. Levels of malnutrition and stunting remain worryingly high.” And Timor certainly still has massive economic problems. With its share of the oil from the Timor Gap, its biggest earner, eventually going to dwindle, and the small size of Timor and remote location deterring tourism even before COVID-19, it is still searching for more sustainable drivers of the economy. The vast majority of the population is under age thirty, which could be a boon for the work force but also could lead the country to have large numbers of unemployed young men, always a dangerous situation. And yet it has taken several important initiatives to build a consolidated democracy. Timor has brought elections down to the community level as physical infrastructure has improved, and community level elections have increased popular participation in democracy. Overall, both the long independence struggle and more recent efforts by Timorese civil society and leaders have convinced many Timorese of the importance of democracy, and turnout for elections is extremely high. With such public interest, and increasingly improved electoral commissions, elections have been held in recent years with minimal or no violence, and minimal if any irregularities. More on: Southeast Asia Timor-Leste Diamonstein-Spielvogel Project on the Future of Democracy It also has worked hard to ensure that women play a major role in elections and governing. And its constitution and norms have strong protections for civil society and an independent media, a far cry from the recent crackdown on reporters in neighboring states like Myanmar, Thailand, the Philippines, and Cambodia, among other countries in the region. Shoestring but aggressive local media outlets put tough questions to politicians in Timor. Indeed, Freedom House notes that East Timor has held competitive elections and has undergone multiple transfers of power — something that cannot be said about many other Southeast Asian states these days. Freedom House also notes that East Timor boasts independent media, a vibrant civil society, and robust discussion among citizens about the government and other related issues. At a time when Myanmar has been taken over by the army, Indonesia is sliding away from democracy, Philippine president Rodrigo Duterte seems to want to extend his grip on power, and Thailand is run by a military-installed regime, perhaps these Southeast Asian regional powers should look to tiny Timor for how to run a democracy. This publication is part of the Diamonstein-Spielvogel Project on the Future of Democracy.
wrong_mix_range_leader_00122	FactBench	2	3	https://www.facebook.com/martenscentre/	en	Bei Facebook anmelden	https://static.xx.fbcdn.net/rsrc.php/yv/r/B8BxsscfVBr.ico	https://static.xx.fbcdn.net/rsrc.php/yv/r/B8BxsscfVBr.ico	[ "https://static.xx.fbcdn.net/rsrc.php/y1/r/4lCu2zih0ca.svg", "https://facebook.com/security/hsts-pixel.gif?c=3.2.5" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	Melde dich bei Facebook an, um dich mit deinen Freunden, deiner Familie und Personen, die du kennst, zu verbinden und Inhalte zu teilen.	de	https://static.xx.fbcdn.net/rsrc.php/yv/r/B8BxsscfVBr.ico	Facebook	https://www.facebook.com/login/web/
wrong_mix_range_leader_00122	FactBench	2	2	https://www.lobbyfacts.eu/datacard/wilfried-martens-centre-for-european-studies%3Frid%3D865557816122-74	en	lobbyfacts	https://www.lobbyfacts.eu/themes/custom/lobbyfacts/favicon.ico	https://www.lobbyfacts.eu/themes/custom/lobbyfacts/favicon.ico	[ "https://www.lobbyfacts.eu/themes/custom/lobbyfacts/images/logos/ceo-logo.svg", "https://www.lobbyfacts.eu/themes/custom/lobbyfacts/images/logos/lobbycontrol-logo.svg", "https://www.lobbyfacts.eu/themes/custom/lobbyfacts/images/logos/ceo-logo.svg", "https://www.lobbyfacts.eu/themes/custom/lobbyfacts/images/logos/lobbycontrol-logo.svg", "https://www.lobbyfacts.eu/themes/custom/lobbyfacts/images/logos/ceo-logo.svg", "https://www.lobbyfacts.eu/themes/custom/lobbyfacts/images/logos/lobbycontrol-logo.svg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null		en	/themes/custom/lobbyfacts/favicon.ico		null	Welcome to LobbyFacts - exposing lobbying in the European institutions LobbyFacts empowers journalists, activists, and researchers to search, sort, filter, and analyse data from the official EU Transparency Register, tracking lobbyists and their influence at the EU level over time. Use the search functions below to get the answers to these questions and more. Who are the biggest lobby spenders? Which lobby consultancies are working for which corporate interests? Are companies spending more on lobbying than last year? Who is lobbying on the latest EU hot topic?
wrong_mix_range_leader_00122	FactBench	1	67	https://rsf.org/en/country/timor-leste	en	Timor-Leste	https://rsf.org/themes/c…icon-192x192.png	https://rsf.org/themes/c…icon-192x192.png	[ "https://rsf.org/sites/default/files/styles/mobile_teaser/public/medias/image/2022/07/Timor%283%29_0.jpg?h=f860b134&itok=TynccsdD", "https://rsf.org/sites/default/files/styles/mobile_teaser/public/medias/image/2022/06/Pacifique_20200601.jpg?h=f860b134&itok=RafOzXNH", "https://rsf.org/sites/default/files/styles/mobile_teaser/public/rsf_drupal7/timor.jpg?h=f860b134&itok=juSOpjTU", "https://rsf.org/sites/default/files/2022-05/WRLD-EPS-02-0014_Asie-Pacifique.svg", "https://rsf.org/sites/default/files/styles/pre_footer/public/medias/image/2022/04/Capture%20d%E2%80%99%C3%A9cran%202022-04-26%20%C3%A0%2014.52.06.png?itok=68T_94Mj" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	2022-07-19T14:40:00+00:00	Reporters sans frontières assure la promotion et la défense de la liberté d'informer et d'être informé partout dans le monde. L'organisation, basée à Paris, compte des bureaux à l'international (Berlin, Bruxelles, Genève, Madrid, Stockholm, Tripoli, Tunis, Vienne et Washington DC) et plus de 150 correspondants répartis sur les cinq continents.	en	/themes/custom/rsf/favicons/apple-icon-57x57.png		https://rsf.org/en/country/timor-leste	This former Portuguese colony, invaded by Indonesia in 1975, obtained its independence following a self-determination referendum in 1999. Now, with many publications in the Tetum language, Portuguese and even English, including the leading weeklies Timor Post and Dili Post, and the dailies Suara Timor Lorosae and Independente, the country’s media are among the freest in the region. Radio Televisaun Timor Leste is the main broadcaster. Many online media have been created, including a news agency that competes with the traditional media. The Press Council and the journalists' association organise training and have their own fact-checking body, which is backed by UNESCO. During Timor-Leste’s short history as an independent nation, the executive power’s division between a president and prime minister has helped to limit press freedom violations. Nonetheless, politicians regard the media with some mistrust, which has been evidenced in several proposed laws hostile to press freedom, including one in 2020 under which defaming representatives of the state or Catholic Church would have been punishable by up to three years in prison. Journalists' associations and the Press Council often criticise politicisation of the public broadcaster and news agency, in particular, the fact that government appointees to key positions in these public media outlets have close ties to the ruling party. Articles 40 and 41 of the constitution protect freedom of the press and expression. Although the 2009 penal code decriminalised defamation, journalists involved in legal disputes are threatened by misuse of article 285, which penalises “slanderous denunciation.” The Press Council created in 2015 is intended to facilitate a peaceful resolution of disputes involving journalists, even if the process of electing its members lacks transparency. In 2021, the public prosecutor's office drafted a cybercrime bill that was submitted to parliament without consulting the Press Council and journalists' associations. Although the bill was ultimately not approved, media organisations denounced a lack of transparency in the procedure used. By law, Timorese media are required to be transparent about their ownership, and cannot be more than 30% foreign-owned. Outside the capital, Dili, print runs are very low. This is due in large part to the challenges of illiteracy, the high price of newspapers compared with a low average purchasing power and the difficulties of distributing across the country. Technical challenges and limited Internet access hinder the reach of TV and online media in rural areas, leaving radio as a crucial source of information. The lack of a robust private sector poses a significant challenge for media outlets, forcing many to rely on government advertising. A culture of deference and respect for hierarchy continues to permeate journalism, to the point that some editors are content to reproduce the official reports of press conferences. There are still cases where journalists are paid by the organisers to attend press conferences. The influence of the Catholic Church, followed by more than 95% of the population, deters journalists from covering some sensitive subjects, such as the emancipation of women, the right to abortion or paedophilia in the clergy. Journalists are usually free to report the news and are rarely the targets of harassment or physical attacks. However, they are exposed to many forms of pressure that limit their freedom, including legal proceedings, intimidation, police violence and public denigration of the media by politicians. Media freedom is a fundamental right, but nearly half of the world’s population has no access to freely reported news and information. We need you. Join our organisation! You support our activities when you buy our books of photos: all of the profits go to Reporters Without Borders. Thanks to you, we remain independent."
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Sunday's parliamentary election. The result means independence fighter Xanana Gusmao is likely to return as prime minister in Asia’s youngest democracy. The figures released Tuesday show Gusmao's National Congress of the Reconstruction of East Timor won 41% of the votes and 31 of the 65 seats. The ruling Revolutionary Front for an Independent East Timor, or Fretilin, had 25% and 19 seats. It promised to accept the election outcome. East Timor’s transition to a democracy has been rocky, with leaders battling massive poverty, unemployment and corruption as the country continues to struggle with the legacy of its bloody independence battle and bitter factional politics.	en	/apple-touch-icon.png	AP News	https://apnews.com/article/east-timor-parliamentary-election-d0e4fcf786061f3bc49526ade399fdbe	DILI, East Timor (AP) — East Timor’s opposition party won Sunday’s parliamentary election, meaning independence fighter Xanana Gusmao is likely to return as prime minister in Asia’s youngest democracy. The final vote count released by the National Elections Commission on Tuesday showed Gusmao’s National Congress of the Reconstruction of East Timor, known as CNRT, won 41% of the votes and gained 31 seats out of 65 in the National Parliament. That is just short of the 33 needed for an outright majority, and Gusmao will have to join at least one other party in a coalition to form a government. Gusmao, 76, an icon of the country’s independence struggle from Indonesian occupation, became the nation’s first president between 2002 and 2007 and served as prime minister between 2007 and 2015. The CNRT’s victory followed a successful presidential campaign in 2022 in which its candidate, Nobel Peace Prize laureate Jose Ramos-Horta, returned to office. The ruling Revolutionary Front for an Independent East Timor, or Fretilin, received 25% of the votes and 19 seats. It promised to accept the election outcome. The Democratic Party won six seats, the rural-based Khunto Party five and the People’s Liberation Party four. A total of 17 parties ran in the election. They were required to have a woman in at least every third position in their party list, and seats were allocated for those with an electoral threshold of 4%. “I’m happy that we are going to respond to people’s concerns and anxiety of national construction that has always been defined in the strategic development plan that has not been carried out in the last six years,” Gusmao told a news conference after the final results were released by the electoral commission. He pledged to allow the development of the Greater Sunrise oil and gas project which aims to tap trillions of cubic feet of natural gas that could give East Timor 70% of the revenues if gas is piped to East Timor and 80% if the gas is piped to Australia. “Independence doesn’t mean only having flag, president, governor and parliament, but it means people able to get benefits from independence in terms of the economy,” he said. Under East Timor’s Constitution, the prime minister acts as the head of government and has more legislative power than the president, who is head of state. Fretilin and CNRT have blamed each other for years of political paralysis. Tensions between the two largest parties since 2018 led to the resignation of Prime Minister Taur Matan Ruak in 2020 after the government repeatedly failed to pass a budget. But he agreed to stay until a new government was formed and to oversee the battle against the coronavirus pandemic. His government has operated without an annual budget and has relied on monthly injections from its sovereign fund, called the Petroleum Fund. His governing coalition is currently made up of Fretilin, the PLP which he heads, and the Khunto Party. The former Portuguese colony was occupied by Indonesia for a quarter-century and gained independence after a U.N.-sponsored referendum in 1999. Indonesia’s military responded with scorched-earth attacks that devastated the East Timorese half of the island of Timor. East Timor’s transition to a democracy has been rocky, with leaders battling massive poverty, unemployment and corruption as the country continues to struggle with the legacy of its bloody independence battle and bitter factional politics that have occasionally erupted into violence. Its economy is reliant on dwindling offshore oil revenues. The Association of Southeast Asian Nations this year granted observer status to East Timor ahead of it becoming the regional bloc’s 11th member. The United States on Monday commended authorities in East Timor, which also called Timor-Leste, for administering a free, fair and transparent election. “This election reflects the commitment of the people of Timor-Leste to democracy and peaceful political processes and serves as an inspiration for democracy globally,” said Matthew Miller, the U.S. Department of State spokesperson. The U.N. estimates that nearly half of East Timor’s population lives below the extreme poverty line of $1.90 a day, and that 42 of every 1,000 babies die before their fifth birthday because of malnutrition.
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Any other use, distribution or reproduction thereof without the express permission of the copyright holder, is subject to limitations imposed by law. Any commercial exploitation of the images is strictly prohibited.
wrong_mix_range_leader_00122	FactBench	1	51	https://www.etan.org/	en	East Timor & Indonesia Action Network (ETAN)	http://www.etan.org/news/2014/images/prabowohorse2.jpg		[ "https://www.etan.org/etan-aluta4a.jpg", "https://www.etan.org/graphics/facebook-icon-transparent.png", "https://www.etan.org/graphics/twitter-logo02.png", "https://www.etan.org/images/email.jpg", "https://www.etan.org/images/blogger-logo.jpg", "https://www.etan.org/graphics/transparent-Linkedin-logo.png", "https://www.etan.org/graphics/pinterest-logo.png", "https://www.etan.org/graphics/instagram_logo__transparent.png", "https://www.etan.org/images/currency-dollar-icon.png", "https://www.etan.org/Yes%20I%20support%20ETAN.jpg", "https://www.etan.org/news/kissinger/photo92.jpg", "http://www.etan.org/news/2014/images/prabowohorse2.jpg", "https://www.etan.org/news/2022/donaldweatherbee.jpg", "https://www.etan.org/etanphoto/photos2/SCviva.jpg", "https://www.etan.org/news/2022/ETAN%20Students%20Gathering.jpg", 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"https://www.etan.org/shattersilence/mechanics-of-mass-murder-jessmelvin-1.jpg", "https://www.etan.org/shattersilence/roosa.jpg", "https://www.etan.org/shattersilence/economists_with_guns_-_simpson.jpg", "http://www.google.com/logos/Logo_40wht.gif", "https://www.etan.org/ETAN%20-%20East%20Timor%20&%20Indonesia%20Action%20Network;%20East%20Timor%20Action%20Network_files/lg-share-en.gif", "https://www.etan.org/donate1.gif" ]	[]	[]	[ "East Timor", "Indonesia", "Jokowi", "Widodo", "Prabowo", "Timor-Leste", "Suharto", "military assistance", "East Timor", "human rights", "Aceh", "West Papua", "Jose Ramos-Horta", "UNMIT", "CAVR", "Alkatiri", "West Papua", "UNOTIL", "West Papua", "Aceh", "Indonesia", "SBY", "Nobel peace prize", "United Nations", "Xanana GusmÃÂ£o", "refugees", "East Timor", "torture", "ETAN", "military training", "Portugal", "United Nations", "genocide", "Indonesia", "tribunal", "invasion", "truth commission", "IMET", "arms trade", "military assistance", "Indonesia", "democracy", "Timor-Leste", "military assistance", "indigenous", "torture", "United Nations", "self-determination", "Australia", "Henry Kissinger", "democracy", "United Nations", "torture", "Bill Clinton", "Nobel peace prize", "war and famine", "ICRC", "tribunal", "sterilization", "military assistance", "United Nations", "security council", "fretilin", "falintil", "udt", "Jakarta", "fretilin", "Falintil", "military assistance", "humanitarian relief", "UNAMET", "United Nations", "West Papua", "Prabowo", "Kissinger", "Allan Nairn", "Xanana Gusmao", "peacekeeping", "Timor-Leste" ]	null	[]	null	ETAN/US provides information about and ways to help East Timor and Indonesia.				null	Sign ETAN's Petition Support Justice for Timor-Leste, End Impunity We must end impunity to ensure a future filled with justice and peace. -Pam, California, USA It was the international community which supported Indonesia in its brutal invasion and occupation of East Timor (Timor-Leste). It is the responsibility of the international community to now call Indonesia to account. -Sr. Susan Connelly, Australia ETAN is an incredible organization. It was an important part of our struggle for self-determination, struggle for the permanent Maritime Boundary with Australia, and during the last 19 years, it has been part of Timorese struggle to reconstruct and to rebuild its country. At this critical juncture of Timor's development, it is critical to walk together with Timorese to achieve our dream for better life where every citizen has the conditions to meet its basic rights, including the economic and social rights to have a dignified life. -Gute Neves
wrong_mix_range_leader_00122	FactBench	2	12	https://www.kas.de/en/web/nordmazedonien/veranstaltungsberichte/detail/-/content/cathedra-adenauer-2023-3	en	Cathedra Adenauer 2023	https://www.kas.de/o/ada…?t=1699350976803	https://www.kas.de/o/ada…?t=1699350976803	[ "https://www.kas.de/o/kas-de-theme/images/KAS_Logo_Original.png", "https://www.kas.de/o/kas-de-theme/images/KAS_Logo_Bildmarke.png", "https://www.kas.de/o/kas-de-theme/images/header/worldmap.png", "https://www.kas.de/o/kas-de-theme/images/header/worldmap.png", "https://www.kas.de/o/adaptive-media/image/29069087/hd-resolution/Photo+1-CA23+Bitola.jpg?t=1699350449342", "https://www.kas.de/o/adaptive-media/image/29069106/hd-resolution/Photo+2-CA23+Bitola.jpg?t=1699350550219", "https://www.kas.de/o/adaptive-media/image/29069125/hd-resolution/Photo+3-CA23+Bitola.jpg?t=1699350585152", "https://www.kas.de/o/adaptive-media/image/29069145/hd-resolution/Photo+4-CA23+Bitola.jpg?t=1699350620332", "https://www.kas.de/o/adaptive-media/image/29069164/hd-resolution/Photo+5-CA23+Bitola.jpg?t=1699350660129", "https://www.kas.de/o/adaptive-media/image/29069183/hd-resolution/Photo+6-CA23+Bitola.jpg?t=1699350695220", "https://www.kas.de/o/adaptive-media/image/29069202/hd-resolution/Photo+7-CA23+Bitola.jpg?t=1699350738847", "https://www.kas.de/o/adaptive-media/image/29069221/hd-resolution/Photo+8-CA23+Bitola.jpg?t=1699350774182", "https://www.kas.de/o/adaptive-media/image/29069240/hd-resolution/Photo+9-CA23+Bitola.jpg?t=1699350811795", "https://www.kas.de/o/adaptive-media/image/29069259/hd-resolution/Photo+1-CA23+Shtip.jpg?t=1699350854788", "https://www.kas.de/o/adaptive-media/image/29069279/hd-resolution/Photo+2-CA23+Shtip.jpg?t=1699350890659", "https://www.kas.de/o/adaptive-media/image/29069298/hd-resolution/Photo+3-CA23+Shtip.jpg?t=1699350937902", "https://www.kas.de/o/adaptive-media/image/29069350/hd-resolution/Photo+4-CA23+Shtip.jpg?t=1699350976803", "https://www.kas.de/o/adaptive-media/image/29069369/hd-resolution/Photo+5-CA23+Shtip.jpg?t=1699351022888", "https://www.kas.de/o/adaptive-media/image/29069388/hd-resolution/Photo+6-CA23+Shtip.jpg?t=1699351059524", "https://www.kas.de/o/adaptive-media/image/29069426/hd-resolution/Photo+7-CA23+Shtip.jpg?t=1699351103193", "https://www.kas.de/o/adaptive-media/image/29069468/hd-resolution/Photo+8-CA23+Shtip.jpg?t=1699351156999", "https://www.kas.de/o/adaptive-media/image/29069507/hd-resolution/Photo+9-CA23+Shtip.jpg?t=1699351245705", "https://www.kas.de/o/adaptive-media/image/29069551/hd-resolution/Photo+10-CA23+Shtip.jpg?t=1699351326983", "https://www.kas.de/o/kas-de-theme/images/icons/facebook_icon.png", "https://www.kas.de/o/kas-de-theme/images/icons/twitter_icon_new.png", "https://www.kas.de/o/kas-de-theme/images/icons/xing_icon.png", "https://www.kas.de/o/kas-de-theme/images/icons/linkedin_icon.jpg", "https://www.kas.de/o/adaptive-media/image/13618189/thumbnail-300x300/Daniel+Braun.jpg?t=1626260723584", "https://www.kas.de/o/adaptive-media/image/11937051/thumbnail-300x300/Davor+Pasoski.jpg?t=1615383362537", "https://www.kas.de/o/kas-de-theme/images/icons/facebook_icon.png", "https://www.kas.de/o/kas-de-theme/images/icons/twitter_icon_new.png", "https://www.kas.de/o/kas-de-theme/images/icons/xing_icon.png", "https://www.kas.de/o/kas-de-theme/images/icons/linkedin_icon.jpg" ]	[]	[]	[ "Homepage", "Overview page", "North Macedonia", "Event Reports", "Department of European and International Cooperation", "North Macedonia", "North Macedonia Office", "European and International Affairs", "Legal policy", "rule of law", "constitutional and international law", "Europe and North America", "Russian war of aggression in Ukraine", "Democracy and Law", "Education and Culture", "European policy and european integration", "Security and Defence", "2023", "European and transatlantic Security Policy" ]	null	[]	2023-11-07T00:00:00+00:00	detail	en	https://www.kas.de/o/kas…avicon-96x96.png	Foundation Office North Macedonia	https://www.kas.de/en/web/nordmazedonien/veranstaltungsberichte/detail/-/content/cathedra-adenauer-2023-3	Cathedra Adenauer is a scientific and educational platform where students, experts and academics discuss and share their views on current topics related to the impact of the Russian military aggression in Ukraine in regards to the Euro-Atlantic integration of the Western Balkans countries, as well as the security and external challenges in the region. The first lecture under the title “The Balkans revisited - Between the transatlantic alliance and foreign influence in light of the Russian aggression in Ukraine” was held at the University of St. Clement of Ohrid in Bitola on 17 October 2023. The event focused primarily on the security and external challenges faced by the region, especially regarding the Russian military aggression in Ukraine. Key discussion points included: Russian military aggression in Ukraine: The speakers analyzed the implications of Russian military aggression in Ukraine on the Western Balkans region, discussing potential diplomatic, economic, and security measures to address this challenge. Legal perspectives on security challenges: The speakers explored the legal frameworks and international conventions that could be utilized to enhance regional security and mitigate external threats. Economic dimensions of security challenges: In the framework of the discussion, an insight was given into the economic repercussions of security challenges, emphasizing the importance of sustainable economic policies and international cooperation in promoting stability. The discussion was followed by questions and comments from the students and other experts present at the event. The Second lecture under the title“EU and NATO in the Western Balkans in context of the new political and security developments” was organized on 19 October at the Faculty of Law at the University "Goce Delchev" in Stip. The event provided a platform for extensive discussions and analysis of the Russian military aggression in Ukraine and its implications on Euro-Atlantic integration in the Western Balkans, with a specific focus on North Macedonia. Also at this event, students, media representatives and other present experts had the opportunity to share their views on the topics.
wrong_mix_range_leader_00122	FactBench	0	27	https://www.linkedin.com/posts/maria-tadeo-0124b3207_msc2024-activity-7165259921729511424-9rQQ	en	Maria Tadeo on LinkedIn: #msc2024	https://media.licdn.com/dms/image/D4E22AQGsUHQaBxwIDQ/feedshare-shrink_2048_1536/0/1708331087767?e=2147483647&v=beta&t=BC5HMJs8U_WNW1jDIjlqKW-LI7WiTOoNB1SA_VESPGA	https://media.licdn.com/dms/image/D4E22AQGsUHQaBxwIDQ/feedshare-shrink_2048_1536/0/1708331087767?e=2147483647&v=beta&t=BC5HMJs8U_WNW1jDIjlqKW-LI7WiTOoNB1SA_VESPGA	[ "https://static.licdn.com/aero-v1/sc/h/5q92mjc5c51bjlwaj3rs9aa82" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Maria Tadeo" ]	2024-02-19T08:24:49.404000+00:00	At the Munich Security Conference - shocked from the start by the death of Navalny. Message as world leaders arrived at the largest security conference:…	en	https://static.licdn.com/aero-v1/sc/h/al2o9zrvru7aqj8e1x2rzsrca		https://www.linkedin.com/posts/maria-tadeo-0124b3207_msc2024-activity-7165259921729511424-9rQQ	Top jobs 2.0 - deal or no deal? European leaders get back to Brussels this week after a failed, early attempt to put together Team Europe. Cliché perhaps, but these are the names of the top policymakers that should - in principle - lead Europe’s political, economic and foreign policy efforts into the next cycle. So it matters. And it’s an interesting one. Giorgia Meloni, winner of the European election in Italy, was angered last week by the approach to the talks. No need for a diplomatic debrief, her body language said it all. The Italian premier went through a whirlwind week. She hosted her dream G7 surrounded by a sea of lameduck leaders- only to find herself out of the game in Brussels a few days later. The big names representing the consensus of centrist parties got into a room and started to trade jobs. She wasn’t in the picture. Those of us who follow Meloni in Brussels have come to know there is one thing she dislikes above all - being snubbed. Or at least the perception of it. Not being in the picture inevitably becomes a domestic story for her back in Rome and leads to unflattering comparisons with Mario Draghi, her predecessor. One of her personal obsessions is to show Italy isn’t relegated under her watch. The top jobs negotiations is a test for her. Overall, putting the Italians in a corner is a risky strategy. And Meloni makes a fair point; the results of the European elections show von der Leyen 2.0 cannot be a straight continuation of the first von der Leyen mandate. Macron and Scholz came out weaker. Pedro Sánchez came second losing to the conservatives in Spain. And yet - the photograph (without Meloni) is important because it shows the limits of her approach and institutionalization. Meloni claims she will talk to everyone - there is no Serie A and Serie B for member states. But if there is something Monday’s failed talks showed us is that she couldn’t simultaneously be photographed with Orban and then enter the room with Macron and Scholz. Two out of the main political groups - the Socialists and Liberals - have made it their policy, perhaps the only that sticks in this context with their voters, not to enter deals with the far right. Meloni aimed to be in both rooms but ultimately couldn’t. The European Council meets again this week. It’s not about the deal - but the how. Mario Draghi goes deep on industrial policy - but who, if anyone, will give him the platform to deliver? Interesting to see the amount of times China is mentioned. Ample evidence suggests «China’s progress owes to sizeable cost subsidies, trade protection and demand suppression, and that part will lead to lower employment for our economies» the biggest source of inequality for Europeans and among Europeans. On the much debated USA/ Europe productivity gap, Draghi notes, excluding tech and digital, both would be practically on par measured over a period of the past 20 years. But the modern economy is based largely on tech innovation and digitalization. Interestingly, Draghi looks to Sweden as a test case - tech sector twice as productive - can reinforce the social model. To close the gap across the Atlantic, lower energy costs, leverage single market, boost research and innovation budget and financing. The mother of all questions in Brussels. Draghi acknowledges level of financing required is and will be enormous. His support for joint funding is clear. The challenges ahead, he says, will require unprecedented level of cooperation among EU member states. But - and this is my addition - the political landscape following the European elections remains complex and the Draghi card is up in the air. Who, if anyone, can give him a platform now? Much is written these days about the surge of the far-right in Europe ahead of Sunday’s election. If that’s your take, you’re a cycle too late. What changes now is the institutionalization of power. Over the past two years, except for Spain, governments across the union have switched from left, progressive to conservatives with or without alliances. Europe itself has pivoted into much harder positions. Certainly when it comes to migration and green policies, partly societal, partly economic. I covered the 2019 campaign, the energy on the campaign was forward looking, young and climate focused. This campaign has been played on the defensive. Sunday is a vote on the institutionalization of the fringes and power from within. Top jobs, portfolios and working majorities. In that sense, it is a transcendental vote. And every European should be paying attention. European elections: Italy Giorgia Meloni is running as lead candidate for Brothers of Italy in the upcoming European elections. She will run as Giorgia, and her pitch is Italy will change Europe. Over the past year, the Italian premier has built a close working relationship with Ursula von der Leyen, who arguably now needs her more than Meloni needs her if she wants to secure a second term at the Commission. The balance of power will even out if VDL secures her Commission 2.0 but nonetheless the influence of Meloni is objectively growing on the Commission president. Meloni hasn’t endorsed von der Leyen’s candidacy - and don’t expect her to do to so while the campaign is underway. Giving too much, too soon, lowers your bargaining power in Brussels. And Meloni knows her MEPs will be key. There’s also a political component; among her base, von der Leyen is divisive. In fact, being seen as too close to VDL, is a net negative on the campaign. Let me explain: In France, Jordan Bardella and Marine Le Pen are vocal about their opposition to VDL and their determination to undo her policies. Both have challenged Meloni to do the same. She won’t, but she won’t applaud VDL either. As long as the campaign is on, they will maintain tactical distance. On May 23, there will be a televised debate between Meloni and Elly Schlein, head of the PD. This will be the first opportunity to learn about Meloni’s vision for Europe. Over the past month, we’ve had a myriad of reports about the future of the EU and the single market. Macron delivered his Sorbonne 2.0 speech and Mario Draghi is finalizing his report. When it comes to Meloni, details are scarce. The campaign has so far played out on national politics and she is facing growing criticism over her Government’s influence on the public broadcaster RAI, which looms large on the Italian public debate. While her party is polling first, support seems to have peaked lately. As I mentioned earlier, Meloni is running a campaign centered around her. She is running as Giorgia. By putting her name forward, she strategically maximizes her visibility: head of Government, host of the G7 and now election candidate (although it is clear she won’t swap Rome for Brussels after the election even if she leads it). It’s about dominating the public space. That’s of course, not without criticism. When covering Brussels, one thing becomes clear: if you’re able to facilitate deals at the European Council, your stock goes up. The question remains: to do what? Mario Draghi - cambiamento radicale. The speech that has galvanized the conversation in Brussels around competitiveness in a global race. «Radical change - that’s what is needed.» The Draghi report will be presented in July. In the meantime, a preview that’s not just technical, but highly political: “Restoring our competitiveness is not something we can achieve alone, or only by beating each other. It requires us to act as a European Union in a way we never have before. Our rivals are stealing a march on us because they can act as one country with one strategy and align all the necessary tools and policies behind it. If we are to match them, we will need a renewed partnership among Member States – a re-defining of our Union that is no less ambitious than what the Founding Fathers did 70 years ago with the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community.” Two key questions: Who will implement a vision that calls for fundamental changes to the way the Union is managed? And is there consensus? The European elections and - importantly - the nominations for top jobs across the institutions are the two main events to watch.
wrong_mix_range_leader_00122	FactBench	2	35	https://www.kas.de/en/eu-lateinamerika-gipfel-in-lima-2008/-/search/result%3F_SearchPortlet_structureKey%3DWCS_KASDE_PUBLIKATION%26_SearchPortlet_isSortDateAsc%3Dfalse%26_SearchPortlet_searchTerm%3D*%26_SearchPortlet_endDateDay%3D1%26_SearchPortlet_groupId%3D0%26_SearchPortlet_endDateYear%3D2020%26_SearchPortlet_startDateMonth%3D0%26_SearchPortlet_startDateYear%3D2019%26_SearchPortlet_endDateMonth%3D0%26_SearchPortlet_startDateDay%3D1%26_SearchPortlet_delta%3D20%26_SearchPortlet_resetCur%3Dfalse%26_SearchPortlet_cur%3D21	en	Gipfel in Lima 2008	https://www.kas.de/o/kas…mediaquadrat.png	https://www.kas.de/o/kas…mediaquadrat.png	[ "https://www.kas.de/o/kas-de-theme/images/leichte-sprache.svg", "https://www.kas.de/o/kas-de-theme/images/header/logo.png", "https://www.kas.de/o/kas-de-theme/images/header/ac__logo.png", "https://www.kas.de/o/kas-de-theme/images/leichte-sprache_light.svg", "https://www.kas.de/o/kas-de-theme/images/leichte-sprache_light.svg", "https://www.kas.de/o/kas-de-theme/images/leichte-sprache_light.svg", "https://www.kas.de/o/kas-de-theme/images/leichte-sprache_light.svg", "https://www.kas.de/o/kas-de-theme/images/leichte-sprache_light.svg", "https://www.kas.de/o/kas-de-theme/images/leichte-sprache_light.svg", "https://www.kas.de/o/kas-de-theme/images/leichte-sprache_light.svg", "https://www.kas.de/o/kas-de-theme/images/leichte-sprache_light.svg", "https://www.kas.de/o/kas-de-theme/images/leichte-sprache_light.svg", "https://www.kas.de/o/kas-de-theme/images/icons/facebook_icon.png", "https://www.kas.de/o/kas-de-theme/images/icons/twitter_icon_new.png", "https://www.kas.de/o/kas-de-theme/images/icons/xing_icon.png", "https://www.kas.de/o/kas-de-theme/images/icons/linkedin_icon.jpg", "https://www.kas.de/documents/252038/253254/080327_blomeier.mp3/4d40fbe8-321c-266d-c51e-f1c2a0f561b9?version=1.0&t=1539652561025", "https://www.kas.de/documents/252038/253254/080513_LA_Konferenz.mp3/c4892670-e31f-ccb3-9737-823e9d61d882?version=1.0&t=1539652507195", "https://www.kas.de/o/kas-de-theme/images/generic-fallback.png", "https://www.kas.de/o/kas-de-theme/images/generic-fallback.png", "https://www.kas.de/o/adaptive-media/image/31586990/teaser/Kristen+Michal.jpg?t=1721737827035", "https://www.kas.de/o/adaptive-media/image/31583462/teaser/IDS+2024+Proceeding+Cover+and+QR.jpg?t=1721718531492", "https://www.kas.de/o/adaptive-media/image/31588575/teaser/Biden.jpg?t=1721747417458", "https://www.kas.de/o/adaptive-media/image/31548569/teaser/Climate+Change+and+Geopolitical+Dynamics+in+the+Middle+East+and+North+Africa_Navigating+Challenges+and+Opportunities+for+Regional+Security.jpg?t=1721393067015", "https://www.kas.de/o/kas-de-theme/images/icons/facebook_icon.png", "https://www.kas.de/o/kas-de-theme/images/icons/twitter_icon_new.png", "https://www.kas.de/o/kas-de-theme/images/icons/xing_icon.png", "https://www.kas.de/o/kas-de-theme/images/icons/linkedin_icon.jpg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	EU-Lateinamerika-Gipfel in Lima 2008	en	https://www.kas.de/o/kas…avicon-96x96.png	www.kas.de	https://www.kas.de/de/eu-lateinamerika-gipfel-in-lima-2008/-/search/result%3F_SearchPortlet_structureKey=WCS_KASDE_PUBLIKATION&_SearchPortlet_isSortDateAsc=false&_SearchPortlet_searchTerm=*&_SearchPortlet_endDateDay=1&_SearchPortlet_groupId=0&_SearchPortlet_endDateYear=2020&_SearchPortlet_startDateMonth=0&_SearchPortlet_startDateYear=2019&_SearchPortlet_endDateMonth=0&_SearchPortlet_startDateDay=1&_SearchPortlet_delta=20&_SearchPortlet_resetCur=false&_SearchPortlet_cur=21	Nationally and internationally, the Konrad Adenauer Foundation is committed to achieving and maintaining peace, freedom and justice through political education. We promote and preserve free democracy, the social market economy, and the development and consolidation of the value consensus. Our mission
wrong_mix_range_leader_00122	FactBench	1	60	https://www.jesuits.global/2024/02/06/east-timor-jesuits-young-dynamic-creative/	en	East Timor Jesuits: Young, Dynamic, Creative	https://www.jesuits.glob…etr_featured.jpg	https://www.jesuits.glob…etr_featured.jpg	[ "https://www.jesuits.global/sj_files/2020/02/logo.svg", "https://www.jesuits.global/sj_files/2024/07/2024-07-22_annuario24-037_featured.jpg", "https://www.jesuits.global/sj_files/2024/07/2024-07-19_annuario24-034_featured.jpg", "https://www.jesuits.global/sj_files/2024/07/2024-07-17_annuario24-031_featured.jpg", "https://i.ytimg.com/vi/71Iw_peX_cY/hqdefault.jpg", "https://i.ytimg.com/vi/0PD5EoYRPIE/hqdefault.jpg", "https://i.ytimg.com/vi/Y_H90hlVQUQ/hqdefault.jpg", "https://www.jesuits.global/sj_files/2024/02/2024-02-06_fg-etr_portrait.jpg", "https://www.jesuits.global/sj_files/2024/02/2024-02-06_fg-etr_tree.jpg", "https://www.jesuits.global/sj_files/2020/02/logo.svg", "https://www.jesuits.global/sj_files/2024/07/2024-07-22_annuario24-037_featured.jpg", "https://www.jesuits.global/sj_files/2024/07/2024-07-08_myanmar_featured4.jpg", "https://www.jesuits.global/sj_files/2024/06/2024-06-12_common-home_featured.jpg", "https://www.jesuits.global/sj_files/2024/06/2024-06-12_sacred-heart-homily_featured.jpg", "https://www.jesuits.global/sj_files/2024/06/2024-06-06_ca-ecology_featured.jpg", "https://www.jesuits.global/sj_files/2024/06/2024-06-05_sj-at-frontiers-11_featured.jpg", "https://www.jesuits.global/sj_files/2022/12/2022-12-13_app-launch_tile-sq-en.jpg", "https://www.jesuits.global/sj_files/2022/02/2022-02-22_pe02-camino-ignaciano_tile.jpg", "https://www.jesuits.global/sj_files/2024/07/2024-07-22_annuario24-037_featured.jpg", "https://www.jesuits.global/sj_files/2024/07/2024-07-19_annuario24-034_featured.jpg", "https://www.jesuits.global/sj_files/2024/07/2024-07-17_annuario24-031_featured.jpg", "https://www.jesuits.global/sj_files/2020/02/logo_white.svg", "https://www.jesuits.global/sj_files/2024/07/2024-07-22_annuario24-037_featured.jpg", "https://www.jesuits.global/sj_files/2024/07/2024-07-19_annuario24-034_featured.jpg", "https://www.jesuits.global/sj_files/2024/07/2024-07-17_annuario24-031_featured.jpg" ]	[]	[]	[ "father general", "jcap" ]	null	[]	2024-02-06T00:00:00	What is unique about this Jesuit Region of Timor-Leste is its international character as it is composed of both local and foreign Jesuits who have been together for several years now. Another unique characteristic of the Region is its young age...	en	https://www.jesuits.glob…2020/02/logo.svg		https://www.jesuits.global/2024/02/06/east-timor-jesuits-young-dynamic-creative/	What place does East Timor occupy within the Jesuit landscape? First of all, let’s remember that this country won its independence twice: in 1975 from Portugal, then in 2002 from Indonesia, which had annexed it in 1976, without UN recognition. This independence came at a high price for the people, as it was marked by large-scale massacres and ransacking by the Indonesian army. These recent historical facts explain why East Timor, even if it counts only about forty Jesuits, is an independent Region. It would not be appropriate for it to be dependent on the Jesuit Province of Indonesia. In connection with the aforementioned history, Father General, having just arrived in the country, went to visit the Museum of Resistance and then - a rare occurrence during his visits - met the country’s Prime Minister, Mr Xanana Gusmåo, himself a Jesuit alumnus. Here are a few more facts about the Society of Jesus over there: out of just over 40 Jesuits, around ten are applied to East Timor and come mainly from the Philippines, but also from Japan, Malaysia and Vietnam. A dozen scholastics are studying abroad. The novitiate welcomes up to a dozen novices, a good number considering the total population of 1.4 million. It should be pointed out that this is the only country in the Asia-Pacific region, along with the Philippines, where the majority of the population is Catholic. The Region (ETR) has a brand new Superior, Erik John Gerilla - better known by his initials “EJ” - who took office on 3 January 2024. He is originally from the Philippines, but has worked for several years in East Timor. We asked him a few questions. Fr EJ, how would you say that the Region of Timor-Leste is “unique”, within the Jesuit environment? What is unique about this Jesuit Region of Timor-Leste is its international character as it is composed of both local and foreign Jesuits who have been together for several years now. Another unique characteristic of the Region is its young age and emerging character as an apostolic body. The Jesuits arrived here in 1899 but only in recent decades, after a long period of military and civil wars, has it been growing slowly and could eventually define its core mission in the local Church. I should add that, over the past few months, the Region has engaged in a process of discernment in common with the Australian Province. The proposal from the Curia in Rome has been to integrate ETR as a Dependent Region to the Australian Province. But the result of joint discernment and discussion proposed an alternative, a “formalized companionship” between ETR and ASL. After receiving our proposal, Fr. General is asking both ETR and ASL to define the terms of reference of such partnership, set targets and establish a timeline in order to make it fruitful for the mission of the Society of Jesus. In this context, what do you expect from Father General’s visit? The visit of Fr Sosa in Australia and East Timor is a sign of his serious intent to make this “formal companionship” work. I believe he wants to strengthen the internal capacities of the East Timor Region and at the same time the missionary character of the Australian Province. Fr General’s visit to both places is also an expression of interest and an opportunity to better know the context of both Australia and East Timor. We believe that his visit will inspire our young Timorese Jesuits to give themselves more dynamically to the mission. I am confident that Fr General’s presence and words will come across as messages of hope and encouragement to continue our struggle to give life to the mission amongst the local people of Timor. As Regional Superior, can you already identify some sources of consolation and how do you envision the future of ETR? I have been in office for just a couple of weeks... So far, I have been in an “orientation period”, getting to know the Region more deeply. I have not defined any particular vision for the Region, for its members and partners in mission. My concern at present is to get to know each Jesuit and to find the best ways to serve them as Superior, giving each one the care he needs. I draw consolation from the assurance that God calls me to this kind of service to the Society of Jesus; I know God is ultimately in-charge. My task is to help the discernment I talked about for our future, identifying how God is present. I also draw consolation from the support of my fellow Jesuits and lay collaborators. My Jesuit companions and some lay partners show their availability and support and that is enough for me to be motivated day after day. It is my profound desire that we grow in the knowledge and practice of the discernment in common within the Region. It will be only through discerning together that we will be united for the good of the mission. We have the example of the First Companions, Ignatius and the men who initiated the Society of Jesus: it is only through discernment in common that we can transcend our differences and nourish our shared passion for mission, making Christ the center of everything that we strive for.
wrong_mix_range_leader_00122	FactBench	3	79	https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/timor-leste/overview	en	Timor-Leste Overview: Development news, research, data	https://www.worldbank.or…social-share.jpg	https://www.worldbank.or…social-share.jpg	[ "https://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/sites/academy/img/2024/wbglogo.svg", "https://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/sites/corporate/img/global/wblive-logo-ENG-short_white2.png", "https://worldbank.scene7.com/is/image/worldbankprod/who-we-are", "https://worldbank.scene7.com/is/image/worldbankprod/what-we-do", "https://worldbank.scene7.com/is/image/worldbankprod/megamenu-photo-pakistan", "https://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/sites/corporate/img/global/wblive-logo-ENG-short_white2.png", "https://www.worldbank.org/etc/designs/wbrrdesign/clientlibs-wbrredsign/img/search-orange.svg", "https://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/photos/1440x300/2017/jun/TL-banner-300px.jpg", "https://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/photos/220x220/2017/may/TL-220px.jpg", "https://live.staticflickr.com/1142/1106906681_e2586cc71a_z.jpg", "https://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/wbr-redesign/icons/twitter.svg", "https://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/wbr/stayconnected/icons-rss.svg", "https://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/wbr/stayconnected/icons-newsletter.svg", "https://worldbank.scene7.com/is/image/worldbankprod/TL-logistic-780x439:780x439", "https://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/photos/780x439/2016/nov-2/TL-possible-780x439.jpg", "https://worldbank.scene7.com/is/image/worldbankprod/TL-project-map-780x439:780x439", "https://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/wbr-redesign/icons/fb.svg", "https://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/wbr-redesign/icons/twitter.svg", "https://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/wbr-redesign/icons/linkedln.svg", "https://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/wbr-redesign/icons/instagram.svg", "https://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/wbr-redesign/icons/youtube.svg", "https://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/wbr-redesign/icons/flickr.svg", "https://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/wbr-redesign/icons/whatsup.svg", "https://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/wbr-redesign/logos/logo-wbg-footer-en.svg" ]	[]	[]	[ "Timor-Leste(TL)", "East Asia and Pacific(EAP)" ]	null	[]	null	In May 2002, Timor-Leste (formerly known as East Timor) gained independence. Its economy continues to grow rapidly resulting in poverty reduction and improved social outcomes.	en	/content/dam/wbr-redesign/logos/wbg-favicon.png	World Bank	https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/timor-leste/overview	Emerging from decades of conflict, Timor-Leste became the first new sovereign state of the 21st century in May 2002. Faced with the task of rebuilding public infrastructure – including roads, ports and airports, water and sanitation systems, government facilities – and institutional frameworks, Timor-Leste has made significant progress in key areas since independence. Meanwhile, fragility remains a challenge as the country contends with the legacies of past conflict. Today, with a population of over 1.3 million people, Timor-Leste is a peaceful, democratic nation. While poverty levels remain high, progress has been made in improving living standards. The proportion of Timorese living in poverty, measured by the national poverty line, declined from 50% in 2007 to an estimated 42% in 2014. Buffeted by the twin shocks of COVID-19 and Tropical Cyclone Seroja, the non-oil economy grew by 1.5% in 2021. A record-high budget with expenditure of nearly 90% of GDP bolstered government consumption. A series of fiscal stimulus measures supported employment and incomes, allowing households to maintain their spending. However, this growth follows recessions in 2017, 2018, and 2020 which have left Timor-Leste’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) lower than it was in 2016. Investments in human capital are directly linked to Timor-Leste’s future growth, productivity, and competitiveness. In 2020, the Human Capital Index for Timor-Leste stood at 0.45, as compared to the East Asia and Pacific’s regional average of 0.59. A healthier and more skilled workforce is necessary to better meet future labor demands across the economy. Even before the pandemic, there were urgent human capital challenges; some 47% of children are stunted, for example, and many students had poor learning outcomes due to low levels of education service delivery. These challenges were compounded by the COVID-19 pandemic which disrupted education services, leading to school closures and learning losses affecting 45% of school children. While Timor-Leste has succeeded in saving the proceeds of its natural resource endowment, key remaining challenges include how to increase the productivity and effectiveness of government spending, and how to ensure the environment is preserved as an important economic and social resource for future generations. Encouraging private sector-led growth in the economy will be vital for job creation. In a young country with a fast-changing political and social landscape, there is also a need to focus on improving institutions that create the enabling environment for good policymaking, economic prosperity, and inclusion. Last Updated: Dec 01, 2022
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Executive Director, Adinya Arise Foundation (AAF) Nigeria Aiossa, Nicholas Director of Transparency International EU USA Akwetey, Emmanuel Executive Director of the Institute for Democratic Governance (IDEG Ghana) Ghana Al-Sahlani, Abir Member of the European Parliament Sweden Alemanno, Prof. Alberto Jean Monnet professor and Founder of The Good Lobby Italy Alexander, Jon Author of CITIZENS United Kingdom Alexander, Likhotal Professor at the Geneva School of Diplomacy and International Relations Switzerland Anand, Panyarachun Former Prime Minister of Thailand Thailand Anin-Yeboah, Kwasi Former Chief Justice of Ghana and Member of International IDEA's Board of Advisers Ghana Arias Sánchez, Óscar Nobel Peace Laureate and Former President of Costa Rica Costa Rica Awad, Taleb Researcher, Arab World Democracy and Electoral Monitor (Al Marsad) Palestine Ayvazyan, Sona Executive Director of Transparency International Anti-Corruption Center Armenia Armenia Bacani, Benedicto Executive Director of the Institute for Autonomy and Governance Philippines Bachelet, Michelle Former President of Chile and former United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights Chile Balkenende, Jan Peter Former Prime Minister of the Netherlands The Netherlands Bapna, Manish President and CEO of the Natural Resources Defense Council USA Barbarosie, Arcadie Executive Director of the Institute for Public Policies in the Republic of Moldova Moldova Bargiacchi, Fabio Founder & Director, European Centre for Electoral Support Belgium Baron, Maria Global Executive Director of the Directorio Legislativo Argentina Bautista, Amelia SUMAR Spain Belser, Prof. Eva Maria Co-director of the Institute of Federalism of the University of Fribourg, Chair for Constitutional and Administrative Law and UNESCO Chair in Human Rights and Democracy Switzerland Birkavs, Valdis Former Prime Minister of Latvia Latvia Boland, Séamus President of the Group of Organizations of Civil Society of the European Economic and Social Committee (EESC) Ireland Bolivar, Lamounier Director of Augurium Brazil Bozkurt, Emine Former Member of the European Parliament and former Chair of the Board of Advisors of International IDEA The Netherlands Braier, Walter President of the Party of the European Left and lead candidate for the 2024 European Elections Austria Bregadze, Gigi Democratic Governance Team Leader, UNDP (Georgia) Georgia Brinkhorst, Laurens Jan Former Deputy Prime Minister of the Netherlands The Netherlands Brouwer, Femke Candidate for the European Parliament, Groenlinks - Partij van de Arbeid Netherlands Brown, Gordon Former Prime Minister of the UK UK Bummel, Andreas Founder and Executive Director of Democracy Without Borders Germany Burak, Begüm Country Expert of V-Dem Institute and PhD Researcher Turkey Bushati, Ditmir Former Minister for Europe and Foreign Affairs of Albania Albania Butt, Tanveer Zia Butt Election Commission of Pakistan Pakistan Cafaro, Susanna Professor at Università del Salento, Association for Supranational Democracy Italy Cami, Geert Co-Founder and Secretary General of Friends of Europe Belgium Campbell, Kim Former Prime Minister of Canada Canada Chaffey, Paul Former State Secretary of Norway and Studio Manager of Halogen (Norway) Norway Chamorro, Carlos Fernando Founder and Director of Confidencial Nicaragua Chandirian, Stella Legal Expert in Gender Equality and Non-Discrimination Armenia Chinchilla, Laura Former President of Costa Rica Costa Rica Chowdhury, Shahadat Hossain Former Election Commissioner of Bangladesh Bangladesh Cleary, Sean Executive Vice Chair of the FutureWorld Foundation and Chairman of Strategic Concepts (Pty) Ltd South Africa Coleiro-Preca, Marie-Louise Former President of Malta Malta Costello, Patrick Former Head of Democracy and Election Observation division, EEAS United Kingdom Cretu, Veronica Innovating Governance Association, Moldova4EU Diaspora Task Force Moldova Cruz, Anabel OGP Steering Committee member and Director of the Institute for Communication and Development (ICD) Uruguay Daimi, Imad Founder and Chairman of the Raqabah Observatory and Former Member of Parliament Tunisia Debeuf, Koert Distinguished Adjunct Professor, Brussels School of Governance and Author Belgium Demirok, Muharrem Member of the Swedish Parliament and Leader of the Centre Party (Sweden) Sweden Diarra, Dr. Cheick Modibo Former Prime Minister of Mali Mali Dixit, Kunda Author and former former Editor and Publisher of Nepali Times Nepal Dvilinskas, Daumantas European Young Leader (EYL40) and CEO & Co-Founder of TransferGo UK Dziekoński, Łukasz European Young Leader (EYL40) and Founding partner and Chief executive officer of Montis Capital Poland Edouard, Lena Programme Director, Caritas Switzerland Switzerland Eickhout, Bas Member of the European Parliament and lead candidate for the European Greens Party for the 2024 European Elections Netherlands Eriksson, Daniel Chief Executive Officer of Transparency International Sweden Eyakuze, Aidan Executive Director, Twaweza East Africa Tanzania Eyskens, Mark Minister of State and former Prime Minister of Belgium Belgium Ferreira Rubio, Delia Open Government Partnership Envoy Argentina Franssen MEP, Cindy Member of the European Parliament Belgium Fuery, Prof. Dr Patrick Professor and Dean at Chapman Univeristy and Director of the Center for Creative and Cultural Industries USA Gad, Peter Human Rights Activist, CLEEN Foundation Nigeria Garrett, Thomas E. Community of Democracies, Secretary General USA Gilmore, Eamon Former EU Special Representative on Human Rights Ireland Glucksmann MEP, Raphaël Member of the European Parliament France Goodman, Nicole Director of the Centre for e-Democracy and Associate Professor at Brock University Canada Gozi MEP, Sandro Member of the European Parliament, Secretary-General of the European Democrat Party and lead candidate for the 2024 European Elections France Graudiņš, Māris Former Head of the European Parliament Information Office in Riga and former Member of Parliament of Latvia ad Chairman of "Progressives" Green party Latvia Groza, Iulian Executive Director of the Institute for European Policies and Reforms (IPRE) Moldova Grybauskaitė, Dalia Former President of Lithauania Lithuania Grzegorz, Ekiert Director of the Center for European Studies at Harvard University USA Gurría, Ángel Former Secretary General of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Mexico Gusenbauer, Alfred Former Chancellor of Austria Austria Güngör, Veyis Chairman of Turkevi (Turkish House) Netherlands Han, Seung-Soo Former Prime Minister of South Korea South Korea Harris, Geoff Former Head of Human Rights unit (European Parliament) Belgium Hautala MEP, Heidi Vice-President of the European Parliament and Chair of the Working Group on Responsible Business Conduct Finland Hefele, Dr Peter Policy Director at Wilfried Martens Centre for European Studies Belgium Heller, Nathaniel Vice-President and Managig Director at Geneva Global USA Heuberger, Frank Senior Advisor European Policy, BBE Germany Hevko, Andriy Member of the Central Election Commission of Ukraine Ukraine Hub, Rainer Chairman of the BBE Council of Spokespersons, National Network for Civil Society Germany Ibrahim, Dr. Mo Founder and Chair of Mo Ibrahim Foundation and OGP Ambassador UK Islam, Shada EU Affairs Specialist and Founder and Director of the New Horizon's Project Belgium James, Evelyn Women's Equality Network - WEN Wales United Kingdom Jansen, Maartje International Secretary at D66 and Stichting Internationaal Democratisch Initiatief (IDI) The Netherlands Jarvis, Michael Executive Director of Trust, Accountability and Inclusion Collaborative (TAI) USA Jerry, Jones Executive Vice-President and Chief Ethics and Legal Officer at LiveRamp USA Josipović, Ivo Former President of Croatia Croatia Jäärats, Klen European Young Leader (EYL40) and Executive director of the Estonian Centre for International Development (ESTDEV); Estonia Kalniņa-Lukaševica, Zanda European Young Leader (EYL40), Deputy Speaker of the Saeima and Head of the Latvian delegation to the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe (PACE) Latvia Kariuki, Nancy Independent Electoral and Boundaries Commission Kenya Kazentet, Maeregu Former State Minister of Federal Affairs of Ethiopia Ethiopia Khidasheli, Tinatin Former Minister of Defence of Georgia Georgia Klein, Ansgar Managing Director of the Bundesnetzwerk Bürgerschaftliches Engagement (BBE) Germany Koenders, Bert Former Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands and Professor at Leiden University The Netherlands Kota, Zukiswa Programme Head, Public Service Accountability Monitor South Africa Krafchik, Warren Former Executive Director of the International Budget Partnership USA Krasniqi, Alban Member of the Central Election Commission of Kosovo Kosovo Kuļikovska-Ķiesnere, Gunita European Young Leader (EYL40) and Founder of the New Building School at Vidzeme University of Applied Science; Latvia Lafer, Celso Former Minister of Foreign Affairs of Brazil and Founder of the Brazilian Center of International Relations (CEBRI) Brazil Lagos, Marta Founding Director of Corporación Latinobarómetro Chile Lagos, Ricardo Former President of Chile Chile Lambertz, Karl-Heinz Former President of the European Committee of the Regions and former Minister-President of the German-Speaking Community of Belgium Belgium Larserud, Stina Folke Bernadotte Academy Sweden Leffler, Christian Former Deputy Secretary-General of the European External Action Service (EEAS) and Chair of International IDEA's Board of Advisers Sweden Leininger, Julia Political Scientist and Head of the Research Programme “Transformation of political (dis-) order” at the German Institute of Development and Sustainability Germany Leterme, Yves Minister of State and Former Prime Minister of Belgium Belgium Lindberg, Staffan I Professor and Director of the V-Dem Institute (University of Gothenburg) Lindeman, Berit Secretary General, Norwegian Helsinki Committee Norway Lkhagvajav, Tur-Od Co-Founder & President of Transparency International Mongolia Loaeza Tovar, Dr María Soledad Writer and Former Member of International IDEA’s Board of Advisers Mexico Lobo, Rigoberto Human Rights Defender, Promedehum Venezuela Loesekrug-Pietri, André Chairman & Scientific Director, Joint European Disruptive Initiative (JEDI) France Ly, Aissata Alumna of the NIMD Democracy School in Mali Mali Löfven, Stefan Former Prime Minister of Sweden Sweden Maaten, Jules President of the European Network of Political Foundations (ENoP) Belgium Macovei, Petru Executive Director of the Association of Independent Press (API) from the Republic of Moldova Moldova Madueño, Luis Professor, Universidad de los Andes Venezuela Magno, Dr. Cielo Associate Professor at the University of the Philippines and Board Member of Publish What You Pay Philippines Malcorra, Susana Former Minister of Foreign Affairs and Worship of the Republic of Argentina Argentina Manole, Ion Executive Director of Promo-Lex Association (Moldova) Moldova Manzano, Cristina Director of esGlobal Spain Mara, Moussa Former Prime Minister of Mali Mali McCabe, Kevin GenForward Institute Poland Meckel, Markus Former Minister of Foreign Affairs of Germany and Member of the Bundestag Germany Meidani, Rexhep Former President of Albania Albania Mesa, Carlos Former President of Bolivia Bolivia Mhango, Desmond Executive Director, Centre for Youth and Children's Affairs (CEYCA) Malawi Moos, Christian National Network for Civil Society (BBE) Germany Mu, Sochua President of the Khmer Movement for Democracy Cambodia Muñiz, Manuel Provost of IE University Madrid and Professor of Practice of International Relations Spain Nanuashvili, Ucha Former Ombudsman of Georgia Georgia Navasardian, Boris Head of the Yerevan Press Club (Armenia) Armenia Navasardyan, Boris Chairman of Media Ethics Observatory (Armenia) Armenia Neralić, Goran President of the International Educational Center Croatia Nicolaïdis, Prof. Kalypso Professor and Chair in Global Affairs at the School of Transnational Governance (EUI) Greece Palihovici, Liliana President of Institutum Virtutes Civicus Moldova Panico, Ceslav People's Advocate (Moldova) Moldova Papandreou, George Former Prime Minister of Greece Greece Papuashvili, George Former President of the Constitutional Court and Minister of Justice of Georgia Georgia Pardavi, Márta Co-chair, Hungarian Helsinki Committee Hungary Pasa, Valeriu Chairman of the WatchDog.MD Community Moldova Piccone, Ted Project and Senior Non-resident Fellow at Brookings Foreign Policy USA Pilegaard, Lisbeth Civil society expert Denmark Piri, Kati Member of Parliament of the Netherlands The Netherlands Price, Megan Head of Conflict Research Unit at Clingendael and Member of the Board of Advisors at International IDEA The Netherlands Radicova, Iveta Former Prime Minister of Slovakia Slovakia Rahman, AHM Bazlur Chief Executive Officer and founder Secretary, Bangladesh NGOs Network for Radio and Communication (BNNRC) Bangladesh Ramos Horta, José President of the Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste and Nobel Peace Laureat Timor-Leste Reintke, Terry Member of the European Parliament and lead candidate for the European Greens Party for the 2024 European Elections Germany Richter, Angelika Programme Director, Caritas Switzerland Switzerland Rodriguez Echeverría, Miguel Ángel Former President of the Republic of Costa Rica Costa Rica Rodríguez Zapatero, José Luis Former President of the Government of Spain Spain Rogers, Tom Member of the Board of Advisors at International IDEA Australia Roman, Petre Former Prime Minister of Romania Romania Romero Moreno, José Manuel Vice-President of FRIDE Spain Rut C., Diamint Professor at Universidad Torcuato di Tella Argentina Röpke, Oliver President of the European Economic and Social Committee Austria Sabathil, Gerhard Professor, Ukrainische Freie Universität Germany Sakunts, Artur Head of Helsinki Citizens’ Assembly Vanadzor Office Armenia Salazar Q, Arturo ProVoto Venezuela Sani, Emmanuel Promad Foundation Nigeria Sasingian, Serena Chief Executive Officer of Digicel PNG Foundation and Former Member of the Board of Advisors at International IDEA Papua New Guinea Schmit, Nicolas Lead Candidate of the Party of European Socialists at the 2024 EU elections and European Commissioner for Jobs and Social Rights Luxembourg Schreiner, Barbara Executive Director of the Water Integrity Network and Member of the OGP Steering Committee South Africa Sharan, Burrow Former General Secretary of the International Trade Union Confederation Australia Spremo, Jovana Advocacy Director, Lawyer's Committee for Human Rights Serbia Strack-Zimmermann, Marie-Agnes Member of the Bundestag and ALDE´s lead candidate for the 2024 European Elections Germany Straface, Fernando Director of Center of International Strategies for Governments at Austral University Argentina Argentina Sudalenka, Leanid Human Rights Lawyer and former political prisoner Belarus Sukma, Rizal Senior Fellow of the Centre for Strategic and International Studies in Indonesia and member of International IDEA’s Board of Advisers Indonesia Supriadi, Ichal Secretary General, Asia Democracy Network South Korea Swinnen, Johan Honorary Ambassador of Belgium and Chair of the Board of the International Peace Information Service Belgium T. Anthony, Jones Vice-President and Executive Director of the Gorbachev Foundation of North America USA Tanase, Alexandru Former Chair of the Constitutional Court of Moldova Moldova Tatarėlytė, Laura Executive Director of Europiečių judėjimas (European Movement Lithuania) Lithuania Ter-Gabrielyan, Gevorg Chief Executive Officer of the Eurasia Partnership Foundation (Armenia) Armenia Thida Thun, Myat Chairperson of the Myanmar CRPH International Relations Committee Myanmar Thinley, Jigmi Yoser Former Prime Minister of Bhutan Bhutan Timmermans, Frans Member of the House of Representatives of the Netherlands and former Executive Vice President of the European Commission Netherlands Tsikhanouskaya, Sviatlana President-elect of Belarus Belarus van Daele, Frans Minister of State of Belgium Belgium Van Rompuy, Herman Minister of State of Belgium and Former President of the European Council Belgium Vandenkendelaere MEP, Tom Member of the European Parliament Belgium Wanto, Darwanto Former Head of the Secretariat of CSO Coalition for OGP Indonesia Indonesia Welle, Klaus Former Secretary-General of the European Parliament Germany Wienk, Zuzana Director of Bystriny (Currents) Slovakia Wiesner MEP, Emma Member of the European Parliament Sweden Yunus, Muhammed Nobel Peace Laureate and Founder of Grameen Bank Bangladesh Yuschchenko, Viktor Former President of Ukraine Ukraine Zebral Filho, Silverio Head of Governance Unit, Organization of American States (OAS) United States Zingeris, Emanuelis Member of Parliament of Lithuania, Vice-Chairman of the European Affairs Committee and Head of the Lithuanian Parliamentary delegation to CEPA Lithuania Aboelazm Mohamed Convening Council Member of the Congress of Nations and States Egypt Ade Mabel A. Executive Director, Adinya Arise Foundation (AAF) Nigeria Aiossa Nicholas Director of Transparency International EU USA Akwetey Emmanuel Executive Director of the Institute for Democratic Governance (IDEG Ghana) Ghana Al-Sahlani Abir Member of the European Parliament Sweden Alemanno Prof. Alberto Jean Monnet professor and Founder of The Good Lobby Italy Alexander Jon Author of CITIZENS United Kingdom Alexander Likhotal Professor at the Geneva School of Diplomacy and International Relations Switzerland Anand Panyarachun Former Prime Minister of Thailand Thailand Anin-Yeboah Kwasi Former Chief Justice of Ghana and Member of International IDEA's Board of Advisers Ghana Arias Sánchez Óscar Nobel Peace Laureate and Former President of Costa Rica Costa Rica Awad Taleb Researcher, Arab World Democracy and Electoral Monitor (Al Marsad) Palestine Ayvazyan Sona Executive Director of Transparency International Anti-Corruption Center Armenia Armenia Bacani Benedicto Executive Director of the Institute for Autonomy and Governance Philippines Bachelet Michelle Former President of Chile and former United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights Chile Balkenende Jan Peter Former Prime Minister of the Netherlands The Netherlands Bapna Manish President and CEO of the Natural Resources Defense Council USA Barbarosie Arcadie Executive Director of the Institute for Public Policies in the Republic of Moldova Moldova Bargiacchi Fabio Founder & Director, European Centre for Electoral Support Belgium Baron Maria Global Executive Director of the Directorio Legislativo Argentina Bautista Amelia SUMAR Spain Belser Prof. Eva Maria Co-director of the Institute of Federalism of the University of Fribourg, Chair for Constitutional and Administrative Law and UNESCO Chair in Human Rights and Democracy Switzerland Birkavs Valdis Former Prime Minister of Latvia Latvia Boland Séamus President of the Group of Organizations of Civil Society of the European Economic and Social Committee (EESC) Ireland Bolivar Lamounier Director of Augurium Brazil Bozkurt Emine Former Member of the European Parliament and former Chair of the Board of Advisors of International IDEA The Netherlands Braier Walter President of the Party of the European Left and lead candidate for the 2024 European Elections Austria Bregadze Gigi Democratic Governance Team Leader, UNDP (Georgia) Georgia Brinkhorst Laurens Jan Former Deputy Prime Minister of the Netherlands The Netherlands Brouwer Femke Candidate for the European Parliament, Groenlinks - Partij van de Arbeid Netherlands Brown Gordon Former Prime Minister of the UK UK Bummel Andreas Founder and Executive Director of Democracy Without Borders Germany Burak Begüm Country Expert of V-Dem Institute and PhD Researcher Turkey Bushati Ditmir Former Minister for Europe and Foreign Affairs of Albania Albania Butt Tanveer Zia Butt Election Commission of Pakistan Pakistan Cafaro Susanna Professor at Università del Salento, Association for Supranational Democracy Italy Cami Geert Co-Founder and Secretary General of Friends of Europe Belgium Campbell Kim Former Prime Minister of Canada Canada Chaffey Paul Former State Secretary of Norway and Studio Manager of Halogen (Norway) Norway Chamorro Carlos Fernando Founder and Director of Confidencial Nicaragua Chandirian Stella Legal Expert in Gender Equality and Non-Discrimination Armenia Chinchilla Laura Former President of Costa Rica Costa Rica Chowdhury Shahadat Hossain Former Election Commissioner of Bangladesh Bangladesh Cleary Sean Executive Vice Chair of the FutureWorld Foundation and Chairman of Strategic Concepts (Pty) Ltd South Africa Coleiro-Preca Marie-Louise Former President of Malta Malta Costello Patrick Former Head of Democracy and Election Observation division, EEAS United Kingdom Cretu Veronica Innovating Governance Association, Moldova4EU Diaspora Task Force Moldova Cruz Anabel OGP Steering Committee member and Director of the Institute for Communication and Development (ICD) Uruguay Daimi Imad Founder and Chairman of the Raqabah Observatory and Former Member of Parliament Tunisia Debeuf Koert Distinguished Adjunct Professor, Brussels School of Governance and Author Belgium Demirok Muharrem Member of the Swedish Parliament and Leader of the Centre Party (Sweden) Sweden Diarra Dr. Cheick Modibo Former Prime Minister of Mali Mali Dixit Kunda Author and former former Editor and Publisher of Nepali Times Nepal Dvilinskas Daumantas European Young Leader (EYL40) and CEO & Co-Founder of TransferGo UK Dziekoński Łukasz European Young Leader (EYL40) and Founding partner and Chief executive officer of Montis Capital Poland Edouard Lena Programme Director, Caritas Switzerland Switzerland Eickhout Bas Member of the European Parliament and lead candidate for the European Greens Party for the 2024 European Elections Netherlands Eriksson Daniel Chief Executive Officer of Transparency International Sweden Eyakuze Aidan Executive Director, Twaweza East Africa Tanzania Eyskens Mark Minister of State and former Prime Minister of Belgium Belgium Ferreira Rubio Delia Open Government Partnership Envoy Argentina Franssen MEP Cindy Member of the European Parliament Belgium Fuery Prof. Dr Patrick Professor and Dean at Chapman Univeristy and Director of the Center for Creative and Cultural Industries USA Gad Peter Human Rights Activist, CLEEN Foundation Nigeria Garrett Thomas E. Community of Democracies, Secretary General USA Gilmore Eamon Former EU Special Representative on Human Rights Ireland Glucksmann MEP Raphaël Member of the European Parliament France Goodman Nicole Director of the Centre for e-Democracy and Associate Professor at Brock University Canada Gozi MEP Sandro Member of the European Parliament, Secretary-General of the European Democrat Party and lead candidate for the 2024 European Elections France Graudiņš Māris Former Head of the European Parliament Information Office in Riga and former Member of Parliament of Latvia ad Chairman of "Progressives" Green party Latvia Groza Iulian Executive Director of the Institute for European Policies and Reforms (IPRE) Moldova Grybauskaitė Dalia Former President of Lithauania Lithuania Grzegorz Ekiert Director of the Center for European Studies at Harvard University USA Gurría Ángel Former Secretary General of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Mexico Gusenbauer Alfred Former Chancellor of Austria Austria Güngör Veyis Chairman of Turkevi (Turkish House) Netherlands Han Seung-Soo Former Prime Minister of South Korea South Korea Harris Geoff Former Head of Human Rights unit (European Parliament) Belgium Hautala MEP Heidi Vice-President of the European Parliament and Chair of the Working Group on Responsible Business Conduct Finland Hefele Dr Peter Policy Director at Wilfried Martens Centre for European Studies Belgium Heller Nathaniel Vice-President and Managig Director at Geneva Global USA Heuberger Frank Senior Advisor European Policy, BBE Germany Hevko Andriy Member of the Central Election Commission of Ukraine Ukraine Hub Rainer Chairman of the BBE Council of Spokespersons, National Network for Civil Society Germany Ibrahim Dr. Mo Founder and Chair of Mo Ibrahim Foundation and OGP Ambassador UK Islam Shada EU Affairs Specialist and Founder and Director of the New Horizon's Project Belgium James Evelyn Women's Equality Network - WEN Wales United Kingdom Jansen Maartje International Secretary at D66 and Stichting Internationaal Democratisch Initiatief (IDI) The Netherlands Jarvis Michael Executive Director of Trust, Accountability and Inclusion Collaborative (TAI) USA Jerry Jones Executive Vice-President and Chief Ethics and Legal Officer at LiveRamp USA Josipović Ivo Former President of Croatia Croatia Jäärats Klen European Young Leader (EYL40) and Executive director of the Estonian Centre for International Development (ESTDEV); Estonia Kalniņa-Lukaševica Zanda European Young Leader (EYL40), Deputy Speaker of the Saeima and Head of the Latvian delegation to the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe (PACE) Latvia Kariuki Nancy Independent Electoral and Boundaries Commission Kenya Kazentet Maeregu Former State Minister of Federal Affairs of Ethiopia Ethiopia Khidasheli Tinatin Former Minister of Defence of Georgia Georgia Klein Ansgar Managing Director of the Bundesnetzwerk Bürgerschaftliches Engagement (BBE) Germany Koenders Bert Former Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands and Professor at Leiden University The Netherlands Kota Zukiswa Programme Head, Public Service Accountability Monitor South Africa Krafchik Warren Former Executive Director of the International Budget Partnership USA Krasniqi Alban Member of the Central Election Commission of Kosovo Kosovo Kuļikovska-Ķiesnere Gunita European Young Leader (EYL40) and Founder of the New Building School at Vidzeme University of Applied Science; Latvia Lafer Celso Former Minister of Foreign Affairs of Brazil and Founder of the Brazilian Center of International Relations (CEBRI) Brazil Lagos Marta Founding Director of Corporación Latinobarómetro Chile Lagos Ricardo Former President of Chile Chile Lambertz Karl-Heinz Former President of the European Committee of the Regions and former Minister-President of the German-Speaking Community of Belgium Belgium Larserud Stina Folke Bernadotte Academy Sweden Leffler Christian Former Deputy Secretary-General of the European External Action Service (EEAS) and Chair of International IDEA's Board of Advisers Sweden Leininger Julia Political Scientist and Head of the Research Programme “Transformation of political (dis-) order” at the German Institute of Development and Sustainability Germany Leterme Yves Minister of State and Former Prime Minister of Belgium Belgium Lindeman Berit Secretary General, Norwegian Helsinki Committee Norway Lkhagvajav Tur-Od Co-Founder & President of Transparency International Mongolia - Lobo Rigoberto Human Rights Defender, Promedehum Venezuela Loesekrug-Pietri André Chairman & Scientific Director, Joint European Disruptive Initiative (JEDI) France Löfven Stefan Former Prime Minister of Sweden Sweden Madueño Luis Professor, Universidad de los Andes Venezuela Magno Dr. Cielo Associate Professor at the University of the Philippines and Board Member of Publish What You Pay Philippines - Malcorra Susana Former Minister of Foreign Affairs and Worship of the Republic of Argentina Argentina Manole Ion Executive Director of Promo-Lex Association (Moldova) Moldova Manzano Cristina Director of esGlobal Spain Mara Moussa Former Prime Minister of Mali Mali McCabe Kevin GenForward Institute Poland Meckel Markus Former Minister of Foreign Affairs of Germany and Member of the Bundestag Germany Meidani Rexhep Former President of Albania Albania Mesa Carlos Former President of Bolivia Bolivia Mhango Desmond Executive Director, Centre for Youth and Children's Affairs (CEYCA) Malawi Moos Christian National Network for Civil Society (BBE) Germany Mu Sochua President of the Khmer Movement for Democracy Cambodia Muñiz Manuel Provost of IE University Madrid and Professor of Practice of International Relations Spain Nanuashvili Ucha Former Ombudsman of Georgia Georgia Navasardian Boris Head of the Yerevan Press Club (Armenia) Armenia Navasardyan Boris Chairman of Media Ethics Observatory (Armenia) Armenia Neralić Goran President of the International Educational Center Croatia Nicolaïdis Prof. Kalypso Professor and Chair in Global Affairs at the School of Transnational Governance (EUI) Greece Palihovici Liliana President of Institutum Virtutes Civicus Moldova Panico Ceslav People's Advocate (Moldova) Moldova Papandreou George Former Prime Minister of Greece Greece Papuashvili George Former President of the Constitutional Court and Minister of Justice of Georgia Georgia Pardavi Márta Co-chair, Hungarian Helsinki Committee Hungary Pasa Valeriu Chairman of the WatchDog.MD Community Moldova Piccone Ted Project and Senior Non-resident Fellow at Brookings Foreign Policy USA Pilegaard Lisbeth Civil society expert Denmark Piri Kati Member of Parliament of the Netherlands The Netherlands Price Megan Head of Conflict Research Unit at Clingendael and Member of the Board of Advisors at International IDEA The Netherlands Radicova Iveta Former Prime Minister of Slovakia Slovakia Rahman AHM Bazlur Chief Executive Officer and founder Secretary, Bangladesh NGOs Network for Radio and Communication (BNNRC) Bangladesh Ramos Horta José President of the Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste and Nobel Peace Laureat Timor-Leste Reintke Terry Member of the European Parliament and lead candidate for the European Greens Party for the 2024 European Elections Germany Richter Angelika Programme Director, Caritas Switzerland Switzerland Rodriguez Echeverría Miguel Ángel Former President of the Republic of Costa Rica Costa Rica Rodríguez Zapatero José Luis Former President of the Government of Spain Spain Rogers Tom Member of the Board of Advisors at International IDEA Australia Roman Petre Former Prime Minister of Romania Romania Romero Moreno José Manuel Vice-President of FRIDE Spain Rut C. Diamint Professor at Universidad Torcuato di Tella Argentina Röpke Oliver President of the European Economic and Social Committee Austria Sabathil Gerhard Professor, Ukrainische Freie Universität Germany Sakunts Artur Head of Helsinki Citizens’ Assembly Vanadzor Office Armenia Salazar Q Arturo ProVoto Venezuela Sani Emmanuel Promad Foundation Nigeria Sasingian Serena Chief Executive Officer of Digicel PNG Foundation and Former Member of the Board of Advisors at International IDEA Papua New Guinea Schmit Nicolas Lead Candidate of the Party of European Socialists at the 2024 EU elections and European Commissioner for Jobs and Social Rights Luxembourg Schreiner Barbara Executive Director of the Water Integrity Network and Member of the OGP Steering Committee South Africa Sharan Burrow Former General Secretary of the International Trade Union Confederation Australia Spremo Jovana Advocacy Director, Lawyer's Committee for Human Rights Serbia Strack-Zimmermann Marie-Agnes Member of the Bundestag and ALDE´s lead candidate for the 2024 European Elections Germany Straface Fernando Director of Center of International Strategies for Governments at Austral University Argentina Argentina Sudalenka Leanid Human Rights Lawyer and former political prisoner Belarus Sukma Rizal Senior Fellow of the Centre for Strategic and International Studies in Indonesia and member of International IDEA’s Board of Advisers Indonesia Supriadi Ichal Secretary General, Asia Democracy Network South Korea Swinnen Johan Honorary Ambassador of Belgium and Chair of the Board of the International Peace Information Service Belgium T. Anthony Jones Vice-President and Executive Director of the Gorbachev Foundation of North America USA Tanase Alexandru Former Chair of the Constitutional Court of Moldova Moldova Tatarėlytė Laura Executive Director of Europiečių judėjimas (European Movement Lithuania) Lithuania Ter-Gabrielyan Gevorg Chief Executive Officer of the Eurasia Partnership Foundation (Armenia) Armenia Thida Thun Myat Chairperson of the Myanmar CRPH International Relations Committee Myanmar Thinley Jigmi Yoser Former Prime Minister of Bhutan Bhutan Timmermans Frans Member of the House of Representatives of the Netherlands and former Executive Vice President of the European Commission Netherlands Tsikhanouskaya Sviatlana President-elect of Belarus Belarus van Daele Frans Minister of State of Belgium Belgium Van Rompuy Herman Minister of State of Belgium and Former President of the European Council Belgium Vandenkendelaere MEP Tom Member of the European Parliament Belgium Wanto Darwanto Former Head of the Secretariat of CSO Coalition for OGP Indonesia Indonesia Welle Klaus Former Secretary-General of the European Parliament Germany Wienk Zuzana Director of Bystriny (Currents) Slovakia Wiesner MEP Emma Member of the European Parliament Sweden Yunus Muhammed Nobel Peace Laureate and Founder of Grameen Bank Bangladesh Yuschchenko Viktor Former President of Ukraine Ukraine Zebral Filho Silverio Head of Governance Unit, Organization of American States (OAS) United States Zingeris Emanuelis Member of Parliament of Lithuania, Vice-Chairman of the European Affairs Committee and Head of the Lithuanian Parliamentary delegation to CEPA Lithuania
wrong_mix_range_leader_00122	FactBench	0	94	https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/978-3-319-77401-5.pdf	en	Paleontological Collections of Germany, Austria and Switzerland	https://media.springerna…-319-77401-5.jpg	https://media.springerna…-319-77401-5.jpg	[ "https://link.springer.com/oscar-static/images/darwin/header/img/logo-springerlink-39ee2a28d8.svg", "https://media.springernature.com/w90/springer-static/cover-hires/book/978-3-319-77401-5?as=webp", "https://media.springernature.com/w92h120/springer-static/cover-hires/book/978-3-319-44321-8?as=webp", "https://media.springernature.com/w92h120/springer-static/cover-hires/book/978-3-319-44321-8?as=webp", "https://media.springernature.com/w92h120/springer-static/cover-hires/book/978-3-031-17491-9?as=webp", "https://link.springer.com/oscar-static/images/logo-springernature-white-19dd4ba190.svg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	This book provides an overview on paleontological collections in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland and summarizes the latest paleontological methods.	en	/oscar-static/img/favicons/darwin/apple-touch-icon-92e819bf8a.png	SpringerLink	https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-319-77401-5	This book is devoted to 250 years of collecting, organizing and preserving paleontological specimens by generations of scientists. Paleontological collections are a huge resource for modern research and should be available for national and international scientists and institutions, as well as prospective public and private customers. These collections are an important part of the scientific enterprise, supporting research, public education, and the documentation of past biodiversity. Much of what we are beginning to understand about our world, we owe to the collection, preservation, and ongoing study of natural specimens. Properly preserved collections of fossil marine or terrestrial plants and animals are archives of Earth's history and vital to our ability to learn about our place in its future. The approach employed by the editors involves not only an introduction to the paleontological collections in general, but also information on the international and national collection networks. Particular attention is given to new exhibition concepts and approaches of sorting, preserving and researching in paleontological collections and also their neglect and/or threat. In addition, the book provides information on all big public museums, on important state museums and regional Museums, and also on university collections. This is a highly informative and carefully presented book, providing scientific insight for readers with an interest in fossil record, biodiversity, taxonomy, or evolution, as well as natural history collections at large.
wrong_mix_range_leader_00122	FactBench	1	37	https://www.refworld.org/reference/annualreport/freehou/1999/en/53667	en	Freedom in the World 1999 - East Timor	https://www.refworld.org…/share-image.png	https://www.refworld.org…/share-image.png	[ "https://www.refworld.org/themes/custom/unhcr_rw/logo.svg", "https://www.refworld.org/themes/custom/unhcr_rw/images/logos/mobile-logo.svg", "https://www.refworld.org/themes/custom/unhcr_rw/logo-print.png", "https://www.refworld.org/themes/custom/unhcr_rw/images/logos/white-logo.svg", "https://www.refworld.org/themes/custom/unhcr_rw/images/logos/mobile-white-logo.svg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Refworld - UNHCR's Global Law and Policy Database" ]	2023-11-01T01:06:59+01:00		en	/themes/custom/unhcr_rw/favicon.svg	Refworld	https://www.refworld.org/reference/annualreport/freehou/1999/en/53667	1999 Scores Status: Partly Free Freedom Rating: 5.0 Civil Liberties: 4 Political Rights: 6 Ratings Change East Timor's political rights rating changed from 7 to 6, its civil liberties rating changed from 6 to 4, and it status changed from Not Free to Partly Free, after the United Nations began administering East Timor during its transition to full sovereignty, and as the UN administration and a multinational force generally respected personal freedoms. Overview In late 1999, East Timor began a fragile transition toward sovereignty following a tumultuous year that included the Indonesian army and state-backed militia's use of atrocities to deter and punish supporters of independence, a popular vote for independence, and the establishment of a United Nations interim administration. The Portuguese arrived on Timor around 1520, and in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries took formal control of the island's eastern half. In 1974, Lisbon agreed to hold a referendum on self-determination in East Timor. In November 1975 the leftist Revolutionary Front for an Independent East Timor (Fretilin) declared an independent republic. Indonesia invaded in December and in 1976 formally annexed East Timor as its 27th province. By 1979 civil conflict and famine had killed up to 200,000 Timorese. For the next two decades, the poorly equipped armed resistance waged a low-grade insurgency from the rugged interior. In November 1991, Indonesian soldiers killed dozens of civilians holding a peaceful pro-independence march in the territorial capital of Dili. In 1992, Indonesian soldiers captured the resistance leader Jose "Xanana" Gusmao. In 1993, a court sentenced Gusmao to life imprisonment, subsequently reduced to 20 years, in a sham trial. The 1996 award of the Nobel Peace Prize to East Timor Roman Catholic Bishop Carlos Felipe Ximenes Belo and Jose Ramos Jorta, the leading East Timorese exile activist, brought renewed international attention to Indonesian abuses in the territory. During and after the May 1997 Indonesian parliamentary election period, East Timorese National Liberation Army (Falintil) guerrillas killed at least nine suspected civilian collaborators and 33 soldiers and police. The army responded by arbitrarily detaining and often torturing hundreds of civilians and committing some killings and "disappearances." In January 1999, Indonesian President B. J. Habibie unexpectedly announced that he favored granting East Timorese their independence if they rejected autonomy in a referendum. Armed by the Indonesian military, pro-integration militia began systematically attacking pro-independence activists and suspected supporters. On May 5, Indonesia and Portugal, which the UN still recognized as the administering power in East Timor, agreed to a UN-run referendum on self-determination in the territory. Soldiers and militia forced some 40,000 to 60,000 people outside Dili to flee their homes and continued to commit rights violations with impunity in the weeks leading up to the August 30 referendum, which nonetheless took place under a 98.5 percent turnout. On September 4, the UN announced that 78.5 percent of participating voters had chosen independence over autonomy. That day, militia and soldiers began systematically driving several hundred thousand people into the mountainous interior and more than 200,000 people into West Timor and other parts of Indonesia, killing hundreds of civilians and looting and destroying property. On September 20, a 16-nation, Australian-led force entered East Timor under UN auspices and began restoring order. On October 20, the Indonesian parliament formally relinquished Jakarta's claim to East Timor after 24 years of rule. On October 22, resistance leader Gusmao, whom Indonesian authorities had moved from jail to house arrest in February, returned to the territory. Six days later, the UN Security Council approved a 9,150-strong peacekeeping operation and a 1,640-strong international police force to relieve the interim multilateral force in early 2000. Militia took control of most refugee camps in West Timor, pressured refugees to remain in Indonesia, and largely prevented humanitarian workers from delivering food, medical assistance, and other supplies. In early December, the UN estimated that 113,000 refugees had returned to East Timor, but said pro-Jakarta militias continued to deny aid groups full access to the camps. Political Rights and Civil Liberties East Timor began 1999 under Indonesian control and ended the year as a non-self-governing territory under a UN Transitional Administration in East Timor, headed by a senior UN official, Sergio Vierra de Mello. Formal independence is unlikely before 2001 at the earliest. The UN had never recognized Indonesia's 1976 annexation of East Timor, after which a Jakarta-appointed governor ran the territory. The country-in-waiting faces the challenge of holding free elections, drafting a constitution, building virtually all institutions from scratch, and bringing to justice soldiers and militia accused of crimes against humanity and war crimes. The World Bank estimated that militia and soldiers destroyed or rendered inoperable almost 70 percent of East Timor's physical infrastructure during their September rampage. Under Suharto, the former Indonesian president, the army, police, and militia groups committed arbitrary arrests, detention, torture, "disappearances," extrajudicial killings, rape, and other abuses against pro-independence activists and alleged supporters with near impunity. The militias included military-trained civil defense groups; military-armed groups that conducted operations with regular armed forces against Falintil; and several nominally independent groups armed by the military. In December 1998, numerous new, nominally independent, military-armed militia began emerging. Following Indonesia's January decision to hold a referendum on self-determination in East Timor, militia began a systematic campaign of extrajudicial killings, disappearances, rape, arbitrary detention, torture, destruction of homes, and other abuses against members of the National Council for Timorese Resistance – the political wing of the East Timorese resistance – and other pro-independence activists and alleged supporters, as well as human rights monitors, journalists, humanitarian workers, and later, UN staff. Amnesty International (AI) noted in a series of reports that the Indonesian armed forces, and to a lesser extent the police, in some cases either actively participated in killings and other attacks or refrained from intervening. After the attacks intensified in April and May, the Australian government accused the Indonesian military of being "actively involved in encouraging and supporting pro-integrationist militia in East Timor, including through the supply of arms." Prior to the August referendum, militia, the army, and local officials systematically harassed, intimidated, and at times attacked registered voters and UN staff. The violence and intimidation left thousands of internally displaced persons unable to participate in the referendum. Beginning on September 4, when the UN announced the referendum results, militia and soldiers began targeting independence activists and effectively forced journalists, human rights workers, and UN workers to leave East Timor. The militia and soldiers soon began a systematic campaign of extrajudicial executions, rape, disappearances, and other attacks against civilians that forced hundreds of thousands of people into the mountains or into West Timor and other parts of Indonesia. Militia subsequently seized control of most camps in West Timor and effectively denied many refugees the right to choose freely whether or not to return to East Timor by subjecting them to intimidation, harassment, and in some cases extrajudicial killings, abductions, rape, and forcible recruitment. The militia also frequently harassed and attacked international human rights workers attempting to visit displaced persons. Pro-independence groups charged that Jakarta-backed militias also murdered and raped numerous civilians in the East Timor enclave of Oecussi on the western half of the island. AI also noted several times during the year that it had received some reports of intimidation by pro-independence groups and allegations of abuses by Falintil, but stressed that pro-integration militia carried out the majority of rights violations. In previous years, Falintil had reportedly carried out some extrajudicial executions and other abuses against suspected civilian collaborators and informants. The UN is restructuring a judiciary that served as a tool of the state during the Suharto years, when courts regularly jailed dissidents for peaceful pro-independence activities. Following some liberalization in 1998, the militia and the army effectively curtailed many basic freedoms for much of 1999. The multinational force restored basic rights and liberties. Prior to the May agreement to hold a referendum, the only media in East Timor were the private Voice of East Timor newspaper (STT), Indonesian media, and Radio Timor Kmanek (RTK), which the Roman Catholic church established in 1998. Beginning in January 1999, militia threatened, intimidated, and physically attacked hundreds of domestic and foreign journalists, including many working for alternative print and broadcasting outlets that began operating after the May agreement. In April, a pro-integration militia ransacked the STT's office, two weeks after it reported on a massacre on the grounds of a church in the town of Liquica in which militia killed at least 25 people. In September, observers implicated soldiers in the murder of a Dutch journalist for the London-based Financial Times, and militia or soldiers killed a journalist and eight other people traveling in a van in the town of Com. Militia also burned down a student-run radio station and the STT's offices. According to the Paris-based Reporters sans Frontieres, as of November 1999, East Timor had no functioning newspapers and only three stations had resumed broadcasting – RTK and stations run by Fretilin and the UN. During the Suharto era, authorities tolerated few elements of civil society. In 1999, the army and militia intimidated and at times attacked nongovernmental organization activists and offices, as well as church workers and property in this predominantly Roman Catholic society. The Indonesian government's controversial transmigration program brought thousands of Indonesians to the territory in recent years despite charges that this reduced economic activity for East Timorese. The new authorities face the challenge of ensuring the safety of these migrants, as well as of East Timorese who favored autonomy. In March, the Associated Press reported that pro-independence groups and student activists had harassed and in some cases attacked many of the roughly 3,000 Indonesian teachers working in East Timor.
wrong_mix_range_leader_00122	FactBench	0	16	https://www.reaganlibrary.gov/archives/subject/whorm-countries	en	WHORM Countries	https://www.reaganlibrar…eagan-seal_0.png	https://www.reaganlibrar…eagan-seal_0.png	[ "https://www.reaganlibrary.gov/themes/custom/particle/apps/drupal/logo.svg", "https://www.reaganlibrary.gov/themes/custom/particle/apps/drupal/logo.svg", "https://www.reaganlibrary.gov/public/2023-01/map.png", "https://www.reaganlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/inline-images/national-archives.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	WHORM Countries. WHITE HOUSE OFFICE OF RECORDS MANAGEMENT SUBJECT FILE: COUNTRIES (CO) Research Availability:Open - all records in the subject category have been processed and are available for researchPartial - some of the records in the subject category have been processed and available for researchNone - no records in the subject category have been processed nor made available for research	en	/public/ronald-reagan-seal_0.png	Ronald Reagan	https://www.reaganlibrary.gov/archives/subject/whorm-countries	File Code Description Research Availability CO Countries – Geographic Areas (7 l.ft., Boxes 1-14; Boxes 1-2 Flat, Small; Boxes 1-2; Flat, Medium; Boxes 1-4; Flat-Restricted Access) This primary subject category contains material relating to long-term scheduling for working and official visits from foreign heads of state and foreign ministers; defining categories of head of state visits; presentation of diplomatic credentials; protection for diplomatic missions in the United States and US missions abroad; fiscal responsibility for diplomatic ceremonies and foreign mission protection; lists of head of state correspondence; and mailing lists with correct names and addresses for heads of state. Secondary subject categories for individual countries often contain material relating to visits to the White House by foreign heads of state. These may be state visits, official working visits, working visits or personal visits. We have not always made the distinction clear in each case. Material relating to these visits may include: welcoming, departure and toast speeches by President Reagan; review of current policies with that particular country; arrangements for air transportation; schedules for the visit; separate meetings with the Vice President; arrangements for Mrs. Reagan to host the first lady of the country; establishing the guest list for dinners/lunches; the formal schedule for the visiting Head of State; Mrs. Reagan briefings and talking points for her meetings with other First Ladies; thank-you notes to the entertainment at dinners; thank-you notes from the foreign heads of state and thank you notes to Mrs. Reagan from invitees to dinners and lunches. In 1981, foreign heads of state visits were coordinated by Craig Fuller, Director of Cabinet Affairs and Richard Darman, Staff Secretary. In some cases, categories contain full briefing books and background material developed under their coordination. This is relatively rare and occurs for 1981 visits only. The following Case Files from this Subject Category have been digitized: Begin-014499 030517 (3) 035808 (1) 043291 (1) 047858 (1) 048193 (2) 014500-019999 030518-031929 035808 (2) 043291 (2) 047858 (2) 048194-052999 020000-025999 031930-035806 035808 (3) 043291 (3) 047858 (3) 053000-056784 026000-030516 035807 (1) 035808 (4) 043291 (4) 047858 (4) 056785-056999 030517 (1) 035807 (2) 035809-039999 043291 (5) 047859-048192 057000-063413 030517 (2) 035807 (3) 040000-043290 043292-047857 048193 (1) Open CO001 Continental – Geographic Areas (.1 l.ft., Box 15) This secondary subject category contains material relating to geographic areas not covered by other specific CO001 categories. The material covers problems in the East Mediterranean – Cyprus, Turkey, Greece and Lebanon; concerns about Indo-China and relations with Vietnam; relations with Canada and Mexico; readjustment of legality and US diplomatic position regarding the seizure of the Baltic States, and promotion of the National Commission on Pacific Economic Cooperation. Open CO001-01 Africa (.7 l.ft.; Box 15-16) This secondary subject category contains material relating to African economic development; a World Bank 1981 report on African development; public/private aid and development efforts for African nations; foreign policy strategy for the Horn of Africa, and Southern Africa; dealing with Cuban soldiers in Angola; Namibian independence; opposition to apartheid in South Africa; reports on African conditions from multiple sources; US efforts to alleviate the sub-Saharan drought and widespread famine of the mid to late 1980s; the Presidents “Initiative for Africa” to deal with the famine, debt relief and African development; and Congressional efforts to ease the debt burden on African nations. Policy issues on Southern Africa were also filed in CO141 (South Africa). Please see CO141 for more information on Southern Africa, particularly the situation and policy in Namibia and Angola. Open CO001-02 Antarctica – Arctic (.3 l.ft.; Box 17) This secondary subject category contains material relating to 1982 statements issued on United States policies and programs in the Arctic and Antarctica; S.373, the Arctic Research Policy Act of 1984; 1986 and 1987; reports on Arctic research and plans for research as required by S.373; notification of research projects in Antarctica run by the United States Geological Survey and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency; United States negotiating positions for multiple meetings and consultations regarding Antarctic mineral resources held in 1986 (Hobart, Australia & Tokyo, Japan), 1987 (Montevideo, Uruguay) and 1988 (Wellington, New Zealand); Arctic sovereignty issues; and requests from Alaska natives to participate in the Arctic research planning. Open CO001-03 Asia (.1 l.ft.; Box 17) This secondary subject category contains material relating to meetings with Asian leaders; trade and economic issues with Japan, Hong Kong and ASEAN nations; a CSIS study on south Asia and the Pakistan/India conflict; a head of state letter to Rajiv Gandhi on regional issues; and ongoing concerns about POW/MIAs in Southeast Asia. Open CO001-04 Communist Bloc (1 folder; Box 18) This secondary subject category contains material relating to an editorial by Patrick Buchanan on the US Commodity Credit Corporation paying for grain sent to Poland and Rumania; a support letter passed on by Malcolm Forbes and his editorial on supporting eastern Europe states and responses to the efforts of the Lithuanian-American Community of the USA campaign to repudiate the Ribbentrop-Molotov Pact. The Office of Records Management appears not to have widely used this category and placed materials about the Warsaw Pact nations in CO001-05 (Europe). The Case Files in this Subject Category have been fully digitized: Entire Category Open CO001-05 Europe (.5 l.ft.; Box 18-19) This secondary subject category contains material relating to continuing efforts to gauge European public opinion of the United States; creating a public affairs program to improve the image of the United States in Europe; meetings with different Presidents and members of the European Parliament; encouraging and participating in promotion of democracy projects with the Council of Europe; suggestions for the President’s speech to the European Parliament in 1985; messages from various liberation groups on freeing the Captive Nations of the Baltic, Armenia, Central and Eastern Europe; comparisons of European and US employment patterns in the service sector; information on the European economy, agricultural trade and European belief in the western alliance. Open CO001-06 Far East (1 folder; Box 19) This secondary subject category contains material relating to a proposed visit to the President by multiple heads of Pacific Island countries and territories and a letter referring to a Charles Wick article regarding the continued problems with Kampuchean refugees in southeast Asia. This category appears to have been used for Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific Ocean island nations. The Charles Wick letter is a misfile, but we are retaining it in this category. For material on all other “Far East” issues, see CO001-03 (Asia). Open CO001-07 Middle East (1.4 l.ft.; Box 19-22) This secondary subject category contains material relating to the conflicts in the Middle East including the Israeli-Arab-Palestinian conflict and the Persian Gulf/Iran-Iraq War of the 1980s. Material includes support and protest letters from various domestic groups including Jewish advocacy groups and groups representing Arab-Americans. Material also includes Head of State letters to Middle East leaders on the situation in the Middle East and requests for help in establishing peace in the region; policy and public response to arms sales to Saudi Arabia and Jordan; establishing US Middle East policy and strategy; reviews of OPEC initiatives and their possible behavior in the oil market; and multiple offers of assistance in settling or negotiating Middle East peace and strategies for peace. Most of the material from 1981-1984 relates to Lebanon and the Israeli invasion of Lebanon. Most of the material from 1985-1989 relates to conflicts in the Persian Gulf and the US flagging of Kuwaiti tankers. Open CO001-08 North America (Empty) The Reagan Library currently has no case files for this secondary subject category. See CO028 (Canada) and CO104 (Mexico). Open CO001-09 South America – Central and Latin America (4.3 l.ft.; Box 22-36) This secondary subject category contains material relating to US missions to improve agriculture, trade and industry in Central America; passing and implementing the Caribbean Basin Initiative (CBI); the status of the Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico in relation to the CBI; head of state letters from various Caribbean nations on the CBI and its implementation; establishing the Central America Outreach Group; editing and publishing Central American papers covering human and civil rights violations in Nicaragua and Cuba, Communist influence in the area in the White House Digest and supply of arms to various groups by the Soviet Union and Cuba; establishing the State Department’s public diplomacy program; opposition and support for the US Central American policy; Catholic church group comments on Central America; funding for various Central American programs; renegotiating debt for Central and Latin American countries; Congressional inquiries to resolve the 1980 murder of churchwomen in El Salvador; the Contadora negotiations and letters to Contadora heads of state; and reaction to the Contadora “Guatemala City” agreement regarding Central America. The majority of this material is focused on Central America and the Caribbean Basin Initiative. South America material is usually in regards to the Contadora negotiations or economic issues. The following Case Files from this Subject Category have been digitized: 6000000-619399 619400 (1) 619400 (2) 619401-End Open CO002 Afghanistan, Democratic Republic of (.8 l.ft.; Box 36-38) This secondary subject category contains material relating to Reagan meetings with Afghan resistance leaders in 1983 and 1986; American humanitarian aid for Afghans; Armand Hammer involvement in assisting in Afghanistan solutions; Congressional and public support for Afghan rebels; instructions for Geneva negotiations on the Afghan settlement; and USIA documentaries and public relations efforts on the Afghanistan rebels.See also: CO119 (Pakistan) for additional material relating to Afghanistan. The Case Files in this Subject Category have been fully digitized: Begin-045999 365000-399999 529800-529999 562300-567999 046000-069999 400000-402999 530000-539999 568000-575199 070000-149999 403000-429999 540000-540999 575200-578999 150000-199999 430000-474999 541000-542999 579000-583799 200000-239999 475000-476999 543000-547999 583800-598999 240000-259999 477000-478999 548000-558849 599000-605999 260000-329999 479000-498140 558850-560999 606000-629999 330000-355999 498141 (1) 561000-562235 630000-End 356000-361999 498141 (2) 562236 362000-364999 498142-529799 562237-562299 Open CO003 Albania, People’s Socialist Republic of (3 folders.; Box 38) This secondary subject category contains material relating to Senator Jesse Helms urging the US government to recognize a free Albanian government in exile after the death of Albanian leader Enver Hoxha; correspondence with exiled King Leka I; the Greek minority in Albania; the Government-in-Exile ideas to free Albania; requests by certain Albanian citizens for US help in stopping the Soviets obtaining a Mediterranean seaport; and calls for the US to condemn human rights violations in Albania by the Albanian American community. Open CO004 Algeria, Democratic and Popular Republic of (.1 l.ft.; Box 38) This secondary subject category contains material relating to Algerian ambassadorial appointments to the United States; Vice-Presidential meetings with Algerian foreign ministers; the logistics, speeches, state dinner and schedule of the state visit of President Bendjedid in April 1985 and head of state correspondence from Bendjedid to both the President and the Vice President. Open CO005 Andorra (1 folder; Box 38) This secondary subject category contains material relating to the successful petition by Andorra to join the International Telecommunication Union. Open CO006 Angola, People’s Republic of (.4 l.ft.; Box 38-39) This secondary subject category contains material relating to ongoing complaints from Congress and conservative groups about Export-Import Bank loans and American oil companies involvement with the communist-backed Angolan government; requests to the United States government for assistance in release of various prisoners held in Angola due to the civil war; 1986 and 1988 meetings with Jonas Savimbi, leader of UNITA, by President Reagan, Vice President Bush, Chester Crocker and Herman Cohen; Congressional and conservative group concern for the well-being of UNITA and Savimbi during negotiations on settlement of South African issues including the expulsion of Cuban soldiers from Angola and Namibian independence. Open CO007 Antigua and Barbuda, State of (2 folders; Box 39) This secondary subject category contains material relating to 1981 remarks by Prime Minister Vere Bird urging the United States to provide leadership and assistance for the Caribbean nations against Communist encroachment; official US diplomatic relations and appointment of ambassador with newly independent Antigua; CARICOM nation’s concerns sent via Prime Minister Bird about United States extension of investigative procedures against illegal drug trafficking at the expense of CARICOM nations sovereignty and the United States response. Open CO008 Argentine Republic (.4 1.ft, Box 39-40) This secondary subject category contains material relating to United States relations with the Argentine Republic, correspondence between President Alfonsin and the President Reagan that are social in nature and not substantive, drafts of remarks made during Alfonsin’s State Visit in 1985, the Falkland Islands dispute with Great Britain, the state of democracy in Argentina, the state of the Argentine economy, and human rights issues. Open CO009 Australia (.8 l.ft.; Box 40-42) This secondary subject category contains material relating to multiple visits of Prime Minister Fraser and Prime Minister Hawke to the United States; head of state correspondence with PM Fraser and PM Hawke; completion of an anti-trust cooperative agreement with Australia; Congressional testimony provided by Australian doctors on the effects of Agent Orange on Australian Vietnam War veterans; and participation by the United States in the 1988 Australian bicentennial. Open CO010 Austria, Republic of (0.2 l. ft.; Box 42-43) This secondary subject category contains material relating to information and correspondence about the 1981 Cancun Summit; the visit of Austrian Chancellor Kreisky; the visit of Austrian President Kirchschlaeger; the visit of Libyia’s Colonel Gaddafi to Austria; and the proper representation of the United States Government at Kurt Waldheim’s presidential inauguration. Open CO011 Azores (Empty) The Reagan Library currently has no case files for this secondary subject category. Open CO012 Bahamas, Commonwealth of the (.1 l.ft.; Box 43) This secondary subject category contains material relating to attempts by a private citizen to facilitate a meeting between President Reagan and Prime Minister Lynden Pindling; accusations of corruption against Pindling; the 1984 establishment of a Bahamian Commission of Inquiry into the corruption allegations; head of state correspondence on US cooperation with the Commission’s investigation; F. Lee Bailey’s request for US Grand Jury testimony and displeasure over US relations with the Commission; reports on a 1985 trip to the Bahamas to determine Bahamian drug abuse and illegal drug control policies; the President’s 1988 submission to Congress of a Mutual Legal Assistance Treaty between the United States and the Bahamas. Open CO013 Bahrain, State of (.1 l.ft.; Box 43) This secondary subject category contains material relating to meetings between the Vice President and the Amir of Bahrain and other Bahrain officials; a state visit to the United States by Shaikh Hamad; head of state correspondence on general issues of the Persian Gulf and to acknowledge visits to Bahrain by Secretary of Defense Caspar Weinberger and Secretary of Energy John Herrington; and comments by the Shaikh made to a private citizen and passed on to President Reagan. Open CO014 Bangladesh, Peoples Republic of (.2 l.ft.; Box 43-44) This secondary subject category contains material relating to the state visit of Chief Marshal Law Administrator General Ershad in 1983 and the 1988 Reagan meeting with President Ershad; head of state correspondence regarding international aid institutions and aid to neediest countries, Bangladesh’s return to democratic processes, and appreciation for US assistance during and after the 1988 floods in Bangladesh; and human rights violations, particularly of American Christians in Bangladesh. Open CO015 Barbados (2 folders; Box 44) This secondary subject category contains material relating to the cancellation of the long term tax treaty between the United States and Barbados and the negotiations for a new treaty and concern about United States sugar quotas. Open CO016 Belgium (.3 l.ft.; Box 44) This secondary subject category contains material relating to the Presidential meetings with Prime Minister Wilfried Martens in 1982, 1985 and 1987; USIA Belgian public opinion polls on security issues and the basing of ICBM missiles; various requests from public citizens for US help with the Belgian legal system; and a request for a NATO-based army officer regarding imposition of Belgian customs and taxes on army personnel. Open CO017 Benin, Peoples Republic of (1 folder; Box 44) This secondary subject category contains material relating to the New Year’s greetings from President Mathieu Kerekou; Reagan’s letter of sympathy after an aircrash, request for help with a small Benin charity, and appointment of the ambassador to the United States. Open CO018 Bermuda (.1 l.ft.; Box 45) This secondary subject category contains material relating to visits to the United States by Premier J.D. Gibbons, and Premier John Swan; ongoing negotiations on a tax treaty between the United States and Bermuda; convention tax concessions; repealing the “triple tax” penalty for insurance companies, and information about an American incarcerated in Bermuda. Open CO019 Bhutan (1 folder, Box 45) This secondary subject category contains material relating to New Year’s greetings from the King of Bhutan and correspondence from Senator Larry Pressler urging a fuller diplomatic relationship between the United States and Bhutan. Open CO020 Bolivia, Republic of (.1 l.ft.; Box 45) This secondary subject category contains material relating to Bolivia’s call for re-normalization of relations at the opening of the Reagan administration; the re-installation of a US ambassador in La Paz in late 1981; continued concerns about human and political rights violations in Bolivia; reports on the Bolivian drug production and drug trafficking; release of US aid after Bolivia met certain illegal drug eradication conditions; the cooperative US/Bolivia drug eradication program Operation Blast Furnace; and head of state letters from President Paz regarding economic conditions in Bolivia and renegotiation of International Monetary Fund loans. Open CO021 Botswana, Republic of (3 folders; Box 45) This secondary subject category contains material relating to visits to the United States by President Quett Masire in 1981 and 1984; US aid being used as a subsidy for AMAX nickel mining in Botswana; request for US intervention for a prisoner in Botswana; placement of Voice of America relay stations; and head of state correspondence on continued raids by South African troops in the Botswana capital. Open CO022 Brazil, Federative Republic of (.6 l.ft.; Box 45-47) This secondary subject category contains material relating to meetings with officials of the Brazilian government, the state visit of President Figueiredo, trade, economic, and business issues with Brazil, the death of President-elect Neves, correspondence with President Sarney, the state visit of President Sarney, and US-Brazil science and technology cooperation. Open CO023 Belize (3 folders; Box 47) This secondary subject category contains material relating to the recognition of the newly independent state of Belize (formally British Honduras); the official working visit of Prime Minister George Price in 1983; public citizen efforts at private enterprise in Belize; congratulatory messages to new Prime Minister Manuel Esquivel in 1985 and reports on assisting Belize with drug abuse prevention programs and their cannabis spraying program. Open CO024 Bulgaria, People’s Republic of (3 folders; Box 47) This secondary subject category contains material relating to an international fishery governing agreement signed with Bulgaria; Congressional resolutions and public citizen groups against Bulgarian human rights violations, repression of the Turkish minority, narcotics trafficking, and involvement in international terrorism; notice to all government officials to limit travel to Bulgaria, and an appellate court ruling on the control of the Bulgarian Christian church in America. Open CO025 Burma, Socialist Republic of the Union of [Myanmar] (.1 l.ft., Box 47) This secondary subject category contains material relating to the return to Burma of stolen 15th century bronzes; appointment of ambassadors; numerous head of state letters from San Yu thanking Reagan for kind words or assistance; United States assistance in the opium crop eradication program; and reports on the student/democratic uprisings of late 1988 after the military seized power in September 1988. The Case Files in this Subject Category have been fully digitized: Begin-299999 453341 (2) 300000-453340 453342-599999 453341 (1) 600000-End Open CO026 Burundi, Republic of (3 folders; Box 48) This secondary subject category contains material relating to New Year’s greetings; appointment of an ambassador; head of state correspondence from Major Pierrie Buyoya on the bloodless coup of August 1987 and the Hutu uprisings in August 1988 against the ruling minority Tutsi. Open CO027 Cameroon, State of (.1 l.ft.; Box 48) This secondary subject category contains material relating to appointment of an ambassador; visits to the United States by President Ahidjo in 1982 and President and Mrs. Biya in 1986; head of state correspondence thanking the Reagans for hospitality and expressions of sympathy for a Cameroon natural disaster and an RSVP for a UN Reception in 1988. Open CO028 Canada ( 1.8 l.ft. Boxes 48-53) This secondary category contains material relating to appointment of ambassadors; U.S.-Canadian relations; border control; trade agreements; fishery agreements; acid rain and other environmental issues; Canadian regulation of investments; meetings with Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau, and the State Visits of Prime Minister Brain Mulroney in 1986 and 1988. Open CO029 Canary Islands (Empty) The Library currently has no case files for this secondary subject category. Open CO030 Cape Verde, Republic of (1 folder; Box 53) This secondary subject category contains material relating to the meeting of Vice President Bush and President Pereira in Africa; luncheon hosted by the Vice President for President Pereira; and a possible tea for Mrs. Pereira and her daughter hosted by Mrs. Bush. Open CO031 Central African Republic (1 folder, Box 53) This secondary subject category contains material relating to an ambassadorial appointment and comments on the trial of Jean-Bedel Bokassa. Open CO032 Chad, Republic of (.1 l.ft., Box 53) This secondary subject category contains material relating to ambassador appointments; President Reagan’s urging Nigeria to transfer food and oil to Chad; Reagan’s letter to France supporting Chad’s efforts against Libyan aggression; Senator Byrd’s request for the US to use the Organization of African Unity to assist Chad; preparations, speeches, briefing papers and logistics for the working visit of President Havre in June 1987; and NSDD 322 on US policy towards Chad issued in December 1988. Open CO033 Chile (.3 l.ft., Box 53-54) This secondary subject category contains material relating to the appointment of ambassadors; meetings with the Minister of Foreign Affairs and ambassadors; Chile’s social security system; human rights; democracy in Chile; UNGA resolution toward Chile; Chile certification; bilateral agreement between Chile and OPIC; Walter Rauff, accused Nazi war criminal; former Austrian Chancellor Kreisky; copper industry in Chile; Chilean Navy; World Bank loans; Letelier/Moffitt Case; Colleen Dewhurst and death threats to actors, writers and directors in Chile; and Generalized System of Preferences. Open CO034 China (2 folders, Box 54) This secondary subject category contains material relating to Chinese New Year’s greetings; studies of China policy; and suggestions for reunification of China. This category appears to have been used for “general” China material and reunification issues. Multiple case files were transferred to either CO034-01 (China-Taiwan) or CO034-02 (China-PRC). Material relating to Chinese reunification can also be found in CO034-02. Open CO034-01 China, Republic of (Formosa – Taiwan) (.4 l.ft., Box 54-55) This secondary subject category contains material relating to economic relations and sponsored US trips to the Republic of China by the US-Republic of China Economic Council; Maureen Reagan’s visit to the Republic of China in 1981; various reports on Taiwanese officials comments given to the White House via private citizens; concern for the status of Taiwan; enforcement of the Taiwan Relations Act; support for Taiwan to retain their position in the Asian Development Bank and Interpol; Congressional resolutions calling for the end of martial law on Taiwan; and requests for assistance with political prisoners held in Taiwan. Open CO034-02 China, People’s Republic of (Red China) (1.2 l.ft.; Box 55-58) This secondary subject category contains material relating to appointment of ambassadors; head of state congratulations on elections, and gratitude for hospitality; visits of Premier Zhao Zhang in 1983, President Li Xiannian in 1985 and Vice Premier Tian Jiyun in 1988; visits and photo opportunities for various Chinese officials and groups; requests from Chinese American citizens for help with issues in China; the United States-People’s Republic of China Joint Commission on Commerce and Trade; US-China Tax Treaty; human rights violations particularly religious persecution; the incarceration of Archbishop Kung; establishment of US-PRC Consular services; polls of Chinese attitudes regarding Americans; Chinese abortion policies and coercive family planning; sales of arms to China; grain sales to China; business ventures in China, and requests for help obtaining pandas from American zoos. Open CO035 Colombia (.3 l.ft.; Box 58-59) This secondary subject category contains material relating to ambassador appointments; the safety of Americans in Colombia; United States assistance in narcotics policing in Colombia including material support for herbicide eradication programs for cannabis and coca plants; ratification of the Saccio-Vazquez Treaty regarding Caribbean islets off the coast of Colombia; the status of the unfinished portion of the Pan American Highway; 1985 visit of President Betancur and 1986 meeting with President Barco; ratification of an extradition treaty with Colombia and extradition of Jeffrey Tamboer; protests against the release of known drug trafficker Jorge Ochoa by the Colombian judicial system; and enforcement of stricter searches of all Colombian import/export items by the US Customs. Open CO036 Congo, People’s Republic of the (1 folder, Box 59) This secondary subject category contains material relating to a head of state exchange of letters on the appointment of President Sassou-Nguesso to be Chairman of the Organization of African Unity; and an ambassador appointment. Open CO037 Costa Rica, Republic of (.4 l.ft., Box 59-60) This secondary subject category contains material relating to ambassador appointments; Vice President Bush meetings with Costa Rican Vice Presidents and Foreign Minister; President Reagan meetings with President Monge in October 1982, and President Arias in November 1986 and September 1987; economic problems in Costa Rica; concerns for American safety in Costa Rica; the conversation of President Reagan and Archbishop Arietta of Costa Rica; the conversation of President Arias with members of Congress; building the tourism industry in Costa Rica and assistance with the airline route between San Jose and Miami; Arias’s Peace Plan and the Guatemala Accord, and concerns about countervailing tariffs on Costa Rican exports. Open CO038 Cuba, Republic of (.6 l.ft., Box 60-62) This secondary subject category contains material relating to political prisoners held in Cuba; missing Americans believed to be prisoners in Cuba; Cuban-American exile groups and possible campaigns to overthrow Castro; Cuban-American meetings with the President; Cuban “Mariel” boat refugees; return to Cuba of the “undesirables” from the Mariel boat lift; penalties for private boat owners involved in the Mariel boat lift; Reagan position on Cuban troops in Angola; Radio Marti; United States resolution against Cuba at the Human Rights Commission; and Cardinal O’Connor’s request to lift the economic embargo against certain medicines needed in Cuba. Open CO039 Cyprus, Republic of (.3 l.ft.; Box 62-63) This secondary subject category contains material relating to bi-monthly reports to Congress on the progress of UN negotiations to settle inter-communal issues on Cyprus; President Reagan meetings with President Kypianou in December 1981 and President Vassiliou in August 1988; Vice President Bush meeting with Foreign Minister Rolandis in 1981; multiple requests for non-recognition of the 1983 unilateral declaration of independence by the “Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus”; Department of State comments on various Congressional resolutions condemning Turkey’s part in the Cyprus division; and concerns for the missing Greek Cypriots and political repression in the Turkish controlled part of Cyprus.See also CO163 (Turkey) for material relating to the Turkish occupation of northern Cyprus. Open CO040 Czechoslovakia, Socialist Republic (.1 l.ft.; Box 63) This secondary subject category contains material relating to ambassador appointments; concerns from Czechoslovakian-American organizations about the threat of Soviet annexation of Czechoslovakia, and US policy towards Czechoslovakia after the meetings of Reagan and Gorbachev; S.1946 – the Czechoslovakian Claims Settlement Act of 1981; appeals for redress in denial of claims under the Act; and requests for assistance with individuals held as political prisoners in Czechoslovakia. Open CO041 Denmark (.1 l.ft.; Box 63) This secondary subject category contains material relating to visits and official meetings with Foreign Ministers of Denmark and Prime Minister Schulter; a recommendation for US ambassador to Denmark; a request from the Virgin Islands to renegotiate parts of the 1916 treaty with Denmark giving the Virgin Islands to the US; a USIA public opinion poll of Danish attitudes on defense and nuclear issues; and the visit of Princess Benedikte. Open CO042 Dominican Republic (.3; Box 63-64) This secondary subject category contains material relating to ambassador appointments; meetings between the Vice President and Foreign Secretaries; the state visits of President Jorge Blanco and President Belaguer; United States sugar quotas and sugar exports from the Dominican Republic; a Caribbean Basin Initiative enterprise in the Dominican Republic by Dole Pineapple; Dominican economic problems including liquidity and debt; request for help in obtaining US visas and assistance needed by US citizens in the Dominican Republic. Open CO043 Dominion of Fiji (3 folders; Box 64) This secondary subject category contains material relating to ambassador appointments; official working visit of Prime Minister Ratu Mara in November 1988; reactions to the military coup in May 1987; declaration of the republic in November 1987; and comments on the Fiji political situation from Fiji-American groups. Open CO044 Ecuador (.2 l.ft.; Box 64-65) This secondary subject category contains material relating to ambassador appointments; official working visits of President Hurtado in 1983 and President Febres-Cordero in 1985; head of state exchanges of gratitude and introductions of visitors; proposal for “baseball diplomacy” to Ecuador; Febres-Cordero “Plan of Government” for Ecuador; Report from the United States Task Force on Ecuadoran agriculture; OPIC reviews of Ecuadoran economy for private investment in 1985 and 1986; reports on the March 1987 earthquake; and appeal for US protection of a political candidate in Ecuador. Open CO045 Egypt, Arab Republic of (.8 l.ft.; Box 65-67) This secondary subject category contains material relating to ambassador appointments; cancellation of President Sadat state dinner in April 1981; visits between Mrs. Sadat and Mrs. Reagan; State Visit of President Sadat in August 1981; commercial and business concerns in Egypt; application of US federal aid in Egypt; urging the release of Egyptian Christian Coptic Pope and priests from imprisonment and protection of rights for Egyptian Christians and Jews; reports on the Sinai Multinational Force and Observers; readjustment of US policy after the assassination of President Sadat; ratification of a tax treaty with Egypt; President Mubarak visits in 1982, 1983, 1985, 1986 and January 1988; 1983 Report on Human Rights in Egypt; Export-Import Bank financing for a nuclear power plant in Egypt; Egyptian financial crisis and FMS loans and debt relief; and the continuation of the Camp David peace accords. Open CO046 El Salvador, Republic of (1.6 l. ft.; Box 67-71) This secondary subject category contains material relating to ambassador appointments; murders of US citizens in El Salvador including four American churchwomen killed in December 1980; elections; human rights investigations, violations, and US certification of human rights practices in El Salvador; support or protests for US policy in El Salvador; U.S. aid to El Salvador; coffee export quotas; FMLN insurgents and status of civil war; government “death squads”; State Department testimony before Congress on the situation in El Salvador; visits with President Duarte in 1981, 1984, 1985, and 1987 visit with President Magana in June 1983; head of state correspondence with Presidents Magana and Duarte; and US Department of State publications including Communist Interference in El Salvador and El Salvador’s Presidential Elections. Open CO047 Equatorial Guinea (1 folder, Box 71) This secondary subject category contains material relating to ambassador appointments; attempts to set up a meeting with Vice President Bush and Vice President Florencio Maye Ela in 1981; and head of state letters on the National Independence Day for Equatorial Guinea. Open CO048 Estonia (1 folder; Box 71) This secondary subject category contains material relating to requests for the United States to recognize the independence of Estonia; and to urge the USSR to grant Estonian independence in accord with previous international agreements. Open CO049 Ethiopia (.2 l.ft.; Box 71-72) This secondary subject category contains material relating to refugee information about the communist government in Ethiopia; Ethiopian aggression towards its neighbors; multiple concerns from the public, non-governmental relief groups and Congress on the Ethiopian famine, delivery of food, protection of food delivery, and protection of famine refugee camps; emigration for the Falahsha Jews in Ethiopia; the imprisonment of Emperor Haile Selassie’s relatives still in Ethiopia; attempts by the Eritrean Peoples’ Liberation Front to contact President Reagan and disagreements between the Department of State, the White House, and Congress on designating Eritrea a “communist state.” The following Case Files from this Subject Category have been digitized: 398000-429999 430000-499999 500000-589999 590000-END Open CO050 Finland (3 folders; Box 72) This secondary subject category contains material relating to ambassador appointments; the visit of Prime Minister Koivisto in September 1983; the meeting with Prime Minister Holker in 1988; appeal from Finnish human rights group on behalf of Soviet Jewry; and proclamation of 1988 National Year of Friendship with Finland. The Case Files in this Subject Category have been fully digitized: BEGIN-199999 200000-569999 570000-END Open CO051 France (.8 l.ft.; Box 72-74) This secondary subject category contains material relating to multiple meetings between Vice President Bush and former leaders of France and cabinet level ministers during 1981; ambassador’s appointment; French involvement with the restoration of the Statue of Liberty; analysis of French economics; Presidential remarks for the Paris Air Show in 1983; State visits by President Mitterand in 1983 and working visit in September 1988; President Mitterand’s address to a joint session of Congress; France/US space and technology cooperation; the 40th anniversary of the Normandy invasion; US/French accords on exchange of prisoners and application of taxes for US citizens in France; negotiations over the patent rights for the AIDS test; Head of State correspondence containing congratulations and holiday greetings; numerous meetings with French officials at the cabinet level; Billy Graham’s evangelical crusade in France in the 1980s; Prime Minister Jacque Chirac’s address to the International Private Sector Conference held November 25, 1986 in Paris; and Prime Minister Chirac’s official working visit in March 1987. The Case Files in this Subject Category have been fully digitized: BEGIN-016999 154000-193999 360000-389999 485387-497999 017000-026999 194000-206999 390000-400999 498000-504999 027000-030999 207000-218999 401000-419999 505000-592999 031000-039999 219000-228999 420000-439999 530000-554999 040000-054999 229000-274999 440000-485383 555000-575461 055000-073999 240000-274999 485384 575462 074000-124999 275000-299999 485385 575463-601029 125000-153999 300000-359999 485386 601030-END Open CO052 Gabon Republic (.2 l.ft.; Box 74) This secondary subject category contains material relating to the Vice President’s meeting with President El Hadj Omar Bongo and photo opportunity with President Reagan in June 1981; ambassador appointments; invitation to Gabon for the Vice President in 1982; promotion of the International Center of Bantu Civilization in Libreville within the United States; lobbying by Triton Energy, Tenneco, Unocal and Congressmen to invite Bongo for a presidential visit; and the official working visit of the President Bongo in July 1987. The Case Files in this Subject Category have been fully digitized: BEGIN-119999 480000-494999 510000-513999 518000-519999 120000-479999 495000-509999 514000-517999 520000-END Open CO053 Gambia, The (1 folder, Box 74) This secondary subject category contains material relating to ambassador appointments and a visit by President Dawda Jawara with the Vice President in 1986. The Case Files in this Subject Category have been fully digitized: Entire Category Open CO054 Germany (.1 l.ft.; Box 74) This secondary subject category contains material relating to East Germany-West Germany exchange of spies; various ideas for the reunification of Germany; restitution for Nazi Holocaust and forced labor camp victims; validity of Soviet evidence used to convict Nazi war criminals; the 1983 German-American tricentennial; the 750th anniversary of Berlin and accusations against the Department of Justice’s actions against rocket scientist Arthur Rudolf and his loss of American citizenship. The Case Files in this Subject Category have been fully digitized: BEGIN-099999 100000-309999 310000-599999 600000-END Open CO054-01 Germany, Democratic Republic of (East) (3 folders, Box 74) This secondary subject category contains material relating to the proclamation of the consular convention between the United States and the German Democratic Republic (GDR); undue punishment for a US serviceman who assisted an East German family to escape; a media request to profile the military liaison at Potsdam; a report on some cultural exchanges with East Germany; possible legislative change to the claims made by US citizens against the GDR; potential settlement of Holocaust victim claims against the GDR; head of state Independence Day greeting from Erich Honecker and visa applications for a family wanting to be reunited with family in West Germany The Case Files in this Subject Category have been fully digitized: BEGIN-179999 180000-499999 500000-END Open CO054-02 Germany, Federal Republic of (West) (1.6 l.ft.; Box 75-79) This secondary subject category contains material relating to multiple visits to the United States by the German Federal Republic (FRG) Foreign Minister, Defense Minister, opposition political figures, Mayor of Berlin, President, President of States, and other cabinet level FRG government officials to the President, the Vice President and other U.S. cabinet officials; Memorandums of Conversation for some of these meetings; visits to the United States of Chancellor Schmidt and Chancellor Kohl; German television requests for interviews of the President; German-American cultural exchanges; celebration of the German-American tricentennial; public affairs efforts to improve U.S. image in West Germany; German economic issues and international monetary issues; commemoration of then Governor Reagan's part in returning German antiquities to Germany; potential German arms sales to Saudi Arabia; Presidential support for the German Marshall Fund of the United States and the 21st Century Fund; various requests for help for American citizens in Germany and requests to assist native Germans return to Germany from the Soviet Union. The Case Files in this Subject Category have been fully digitized: Entire Category Open CO055 Ghana, Republic of (3 folders, Box 79) This secondary subject category contains material relating to a White House briefing for a Ghanaian minister on management issues for a presidency; visit of Barbara Bush and Loret Ruppe to celebrate the 20th anniversary of the Peace Corps in Ghana and deliver Presidential and Vice-Presidential letters on this subject; use of a forged document alleging US involvement in anti-government activities; exile Ghanaian groups calling for a return to democracy and asking the United States withhold support for coup leader Jerry J. Rawlings. The Case Files in this Subject Category have been fully digitized: BEGIN-299999 300000-499999 500000-END Open CO056 Greece Hellenic Republic (.2 l.ft.; Box 79-80) This secondary subject category contains material relating to monitoring Greek elections; meetings with the Archbishop of the American Greek-Orthodox community; ambassador appointments; lobbying from various private citizens for an official Presidential invitation to Prime Minister Papandreou to visit the United States; Greek-American concerns for worsening of US-Greek relations; sharp US criticism of remarks by Prime Minister Papandreou regarding the KAL007 incident; resolutions condemning the Greek government’s lax security resulting in the hijacking of TWA Flight 847; difficulties in renegotiating US base and Voice of American agreements and requests for help with the Greek government. The following Case Files from this Subject Category have been digitized: BEGIN-049999 130000-169999 250000-279999 050000-129999 170000-249999 Open CO057 Greenland (1 folder, Box 80) This secondary subject category contains material relating to a public citizen’s concern about the Soviet Union establishing radar installations in southern Greenland. The Case Files in this Subject Category have been fully digitized: Entire Category Open CO058 Grenada (.8 l.ft.; Box 80-82) This secondary subject category contains material relating to correspondence with the deposed Prime Minister of Grenada Eric Gairy; concerns about US intentions towards Grenada; Department of Justice legal opinions on the invasion of Grenada under international law; private sector and United States government efforts to restore democracy and working capitalism to Grenada; release of communist documents seized on Grenada; quarterly and monthly reports from the Agency for International Development on progress in Grenada; reopening and expansion of the Point Salines Airport; White House ceremony for rescued US medical students in Grenada; head of state correspondence with the newly elected Prime Minister Blaize; and correspondence from Grenadians and Americans thanking the President for the Grenada mission. Open CO059 Guadeloupe (Empty) The Library currently has no case files for this secondary subject category. N/A CO060 Guatemala, Republic of (.4 l.ft; Box 82-83) This secondary subject category contains material relating to the investigation of the murder of Viet Nikolaus Stascheck by the Guatemalan government; assistance and protection for political prisoners; Congressional and Evangelical Christians urging the US to support President Rios Montt of Guatemala; complaints about human rights violations and “genocide” against Guatemalan Indian communities; ambassador appointments; head of state correspondence on the “twin plants” manufacturing idea and sugar quotas; observance of the 1985 presidential election; a report on US involvement in family planning services in Guatemala; the official working visit of President Vinicio Cerezo in May 1987; and problems with various aid programs and ventures in Guatemala. Open CO061 Guinea-Bissau, Republic of (2 folders, Box 83) This secondary subject category contains material relating to ambassador appointments; Head of State correspondence with President Joao Vieira regarding the general capital increase for the World Bank in 1988 and African representation on the World Bank board; and President Vieira’s visit with President Reagan in October 1988. Open CO063 Guyana, Republic of (2 folders, Box 83) This secondary subject category contains material relating to ambassador appointments; attempts by Prime Minister Forbes Burnham to meet with Reagan; concerns about the deteriorating conditions in Guyana in the mid-1980s; and the brief visit of Prime Minister Hugh Desmond Hoyte with President Reagan in September 1988. Open CO064 Haiti, Republic of (.5 l.ft.; Box 83-84) This secondary subject category contains material relating to the transition to democracy after President Jean-Claude Duvalier abdicates; 1987 election violence; correspondence informing the US government of two post-Duvalier coups; Executive Order 12588, “Action Against Certain Assets of Disputed Title”, freezing Duvalier’s assets held in the United States; solicitations from various Haitian political parties and candidates seeking US backing in elections; concerns for the deteriorating conditions in Haiti in 1986-1988; ambassador appointments; conditions and grounds for detaining Haitian immigrants; and assistance for Dupont Caribbean in a long standing dispute with the Haitian government. Open CO065 Honduras, Republic of (.5 l.ft.; Box 84-85) This secondary subject category contains material relating to ambassador appointments; head of state correspondence in gratitude for visits, conveying a Task Force on Agriculture to Honduras, aid to Honduras, and sugar exports; Reagan meeting with President Roberto Suazo in 1982; meetings with President Jose Azcona in 1986, 1988 and 1989; White House meeting with businessmen held hostage in Honduras; investment problems for US business ventures in Honduras; inquiries about missing relatives and the death of relatives in Honduras; the deployment of United States troops to Honduras in 1988; repeated requests for US assistance for land appropriated by the Honduran government for a military training camp; Christian missionary groups seeking aid and supplies for their assistance efforts; controversy over news reports of a CIA training manual provided to the Honduran police force; and human rights abuses. Open CO066 Hong Kong, Republic of (2 folders, Box 85) This secondary subject category contains material relating to President Reagan meeting with Sir Yue Kay Pao; Chinese remarks on the upcoming negotiations on Hong Kong; the situation in Hong Kong while negotiations are proceeding; US position on the Sino-British settlement regarding Hong Kong; and comments on the US Consular office in Hong Kong. The Case Files in this subject file have been fully digitized: BEGIN-299999 300000-END Open CO067 Hungary, Hungarian People’s Republic (.3 l.ft., Box 85-86) This secondary subject category contains material relating to American Hungarian groups protesting current situations in Hungary, urging relief for ethnic Hungarians in Romania, understanding US position on Eastern European captive nations, protesting the visit of General Secretary Grosz, report on the police brutality at a demonstration in Budapest; ambassador appointment; report on current Budapest embassy situation; Reagan greetings to the 27th American-Hungarian Congress; Reagan taping for Hungarian television; official working visit of General Secretary Grosz in July 1988; and possible briefing of American-Hungarian groups after Grosz visit. Open CO068 Iceland (0.2 l.ft.; Box 86-87) This secondary subject category contains material relating to shipping and defense treaties between the US and Iceland; meetings and state dinners involving Icelandic heads of state, their spouses, and President and Mrs. Reagan (including the Presidential speech drafted for the May 1988 visit of the Prime Minister); and the resignation of the US Ambassador to Iceland, and the appointment of a replacement. Open CO069 India (.7 l.ft., Box 87-88) This secondary subject category contains material relating to India’s concerns over United States arms sales to Pakistan; visit of Prime Minister Indira Gandhi in July 1982; head of state correspondence with the ceremonial President of India on holidays and official greetings; human rights complaints against the government of India by Sikhs and Muslims; requests from Sikh separatists for US recognition; support for US India policies from Asian Indian-American groups; review of birth control policies in India; the Bhopal Union Carbide chemical accident and United States involvement; reaction to assassination of Mrs. Gandhi; trade concerns by American movie industry in India and almond exporters; visits of Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi in June 1985 and October 1987; renewal of the United States-India Science and Technology Agreement; and establishing October 2, 1988 as a National Day of Recognition for Mahandas Gandhi. Open CO070 Indonesia, Republic of (.2 l.ft.; Box 88-89) This secondary subject category contains material relating to the visit of Indonesia’s Vice President Malik with Vice President Bush; the October 1982 state visit of Indonesian President Suharto; USIA promotion of the state visit in Indonesia; alleged human rights violations in East Timor and Indonesia in general; a Presidential meeting with Indonesian Defense Minister General Mohammad Jusuf; promotion of United States private investment in Indonesia; US aircraft provided to return the body of Sultan Hamengku Buwono IX to Indonesia; and ambassador appointments. The following Case Files from this Subject Category have been digitized: 128000-199999 300000-449999 200000-299999 450000-END Open CO071 Iran (2 l.ft.; Box 89-94) This secondary subject category contains material relating to continued US citizens and business claims against the Iranian government for confiscation of property; validation of agreement between Iran and the United States for the release of the US hostages and start of the Iran Claims Tribunal; legislation to streamline the way the Claims Tribunal works with the United States agencies; opinions and advice on US-Iran relations from exiled Iranians and Iranian-Americans; human rights abuses against members of the Baha’is faith; periodic reports to Congress on US/Iran relations; continuation and extension of the Iran-US National Emergency; request for use of old Iran embassy as an Iranian Cultural Center; freedom of navigation for the Persian Gulf; resolutions urging the end of the Iran-Iraq War; the shooting down of Iran Air 655 in July 1988; mostly negative opinions from US citizens regarding compensating the families of the victims of flight 655; and head of state condolences to nation’s with victims on board flight 655. The Case Files in this Subject Category have been fully digitized: Entire Category Open CO072 Iraq, Republic of (.1 l.ft.; Box 94) This secondary subject category contains material relating to the nationalization of Christian churches in Iraq; Vice President Meeting with Deputy Prime Minister/Foreign Minister Tariq Aziz in October 1984; President’s Meeting with Tariq Aziz in November 1984; resumption of diplomatic relations with Iraq; Iraq actions against the USS Stark; Iraqi compensation to the families of victims of the USS Stark incident; public requests for official condemnation of Iraqi gassing of Kurdish villages in Iraq and ambassador appointments. The Case Files in this Subject Category have been fully digitized: BEGIN-246899 270700-459899 592400-END 246900-270699 459900-592399 Open CO073 Ireland (.6 l.ft.; Box 94-96) This secondary subject category contains material relating to meetings with the Irish Prime Minister or Ambassador for the ceremonial presentation of the Irish shamrock and St. Patrick’s Day greetings; head of state correspondence acknowledging St. Patrick’s Day greetings; working visit of Prime Minister Garret FitzGerald in March 1984; Irish church comments on Central American liberation theology; multiple volumes and the final report from the New Ireland Forum dealing with unification or settlement of the question of Northern Ireland; support from Congress and the President for the New Ireland Forum movement and conclusions; protests against human rights violations in Northern Ireland; H.R. 3465, the Fair Employment Practices Act for Northern Ireland; opinions on the Anglo-Irish Agreement of November 1985; and photographs from of the President’s ancestral Irish home of Ballyporeen. Please note Northern Ireland is a part of the United Kingdom and the majority of material relating to Northern Ireland can be found in CO167 – United Kingdom. The Case Files in this Subject Category have been fully digitized: BEGIN-024999 130295-189999 206442 (4) 206442 (9) 213000-226999 446800-469999 025000-059999 190000-206441 206442 (5) 206442 (10) 227000-229999 470000-599999 060000-130293 206442 (1) 206442 (6) 206442 (11) 230000-249999 600000-699999 130294 (1) 206442 (2) 206442 (7) 206443-211999 250000-349999 700000-END 130294 (2) 206442 (3) 206442 (8) 212000-212999 350000-446799 Open CO074 Israel (2.1 l.ft.; Box 96-101) This secondary subject category contains material relating to the possibility of moving the U.S. embassy to Jerusalem; the Israeli settlements in the West Bank and Gaza; the state visit of Prime Minister Menachim Begin in September 1981 and his meeting with President Reagan on June 21, 1982; the working visit of Prime Minister Shimon Peres in October 1984; the official working visit of Prime Minister Yitzhak Shamir in February 1987 and March 1988; the Vice President’s speech to the Israeli Knesset in 1986; emigration of Soviet Jews; the Jonathan Pollard spy case; the deportation of John Demjanjuk to Israel for Nazi war crimes; the views of American Jewish groups on US-Israel relations; the ratification of a new protocol on income tax conventions between the US and Israel; the extension of Israeli municipal laws and administration in the Golan Heights; UN votes on Israeli-Arab issues; the views of Arab-American groups on US-Israel relations; the completion of the Camp David accords and the hand-over of the remaining land in the Sinai; the visit of President Navon in January 1983 and President Herzog in November 1987; comments on the Sabra/Shatila refugee camp massacres; Report of the International Commission on Israel in Lebanon; sales of arms to Jordan and Saudi Arabia; the signing of a Memorandum of Agreement with Israel in April 1988; and reactions to the “disturbances” in the West Bank and Gaza beginning in December 1987, now known as the first Intifada. Additional material regarding Soviet Jews and their emigration from the Soviet Union can be found in CO165 (Soviet Union). The following Case Files in the Subject Category have been digitized: BEGIN-018786 033231 (1) 033231 (7) 580000-583999 018787 (1) 033231 (2) 033232-037999 584000-587999 018787 (2) 033231 (3) 038000-038499 588000-594999 018788-019999 033231 (4) 038500-041999 595000-604999 020000-029999 033231 (5) 572800-575299 605000-614999 030000-033230 033231 (6) 575300-579999 615000-END Open CO075 Italy, Italian Republic (.8 l.ft., Box 101-103) This secondary subject category contains material relating to reports on Italian public opinion on defense, SCDI, and foreign policy issues; the Friends of America Club in Italy; ambassador appointments; Congressional resolutions to thank the Italian Republic for the rescue of kidnapped American General James Dozier; appeals for United States assistance for the police officers who rescued General Dozier; Italian purchase of American made airplanes; repeated correspondence on behalf of scientist Americo Mosca and his attempts to market and patent pesticides in America; Italian involvement in Lebanon; US basing in Italy; an updated extradition treaty to deal specifically with narcotics trafficking; notice of Italian hosting of international conferences; a new convention on income taxes with Italy; repeated visits from past and present Italian prime ministers (President of the Council of Ministers) including Amintore Fanfani, Giovanni Spadolini, Ciriaco de Mita, Bettino Craxi and Giovanni Goria; and arrangements for Bettino Craxi to address a joint session of Congress. The Case Files in this Subject Category have been fully digitized: BEGIN-019999 130000-149999 298000-329999 524000-534999 562516 (1) 020000-034999 150000-159999 330000-443999 535000-537999 562516 (2) 035000-064999 160000-180999 444000-474299 538000-549999 562517-579999 065000-070999 181000-241999 474300-476999 550000-555549 580000-589999 071000-079999 242000-242499 477000-497999 555550-561514 590000-599999 080000-104999 242500-269999 498000-506499 561515 (1) 600000-END 105000-119999 270000-294499 506500-506999 561515 (2) 120000-129999 294500-297999 507000-523999 561516-562515 Open CO076 Côte d’Ivoire (Ivory Coast) (3 folders, Box 103) This secondary subject category contains material relating to ambassador appointments; the state visit of President Felix Houphouet-Boigny to the United States in June 1983; reports from USIA on media events for Ivory Coast television commemorating the state visit; and correspondence from Houphouet-Boigny regarding US aid to Africa and asking reconsideration of US decision on supporting UNESCO. The Case Files in this subject file have been fully digitized: BEGIN-149999 150000-499999 500000-END Open CO077 Jamaica (.2 l.ft.; Box 103-104) This secondary subject category contains material relating to meetings with Prime Minister Edward Seaga in January 1981, February 1983, November 1983, April 1984, and October 1988; invitation to Iranian hostages to vacation in Jamaica at government expense; purchase of Jamaican bauxite for the National Defense Stockpile; the U.S. Business Commission on Jamaica periodic reports; involvement of David Rockefeller with the Business Commission; information on Jamaican economic reforms, tax reforms, and business investment opportunities; a Jamaican plan for dealing with international debt; implementation of a modern extradition treaty in 1983; and reports on the devastation of Hurricane Gilbert in Jamaica, September 1988. The following Case Files in the Subject Category have been digitized: BEGIN-007999 041895 080000-205999 008000-041894 041896-079999 Open CO078 Japan (4 l.ft.; Box 104-114) This secondary subject category contains material relating to ambassador appointments; meetings between Cabinet level members and their Japanese equivalents; defense spending burden sharing; Head of State US-Japan Agreement on Cooperation in Science and Technology; Japan and US studies of the Japanese education system; US-Japan Nuclear Cooperation agreement; protests against Japanese whaling industry; review of Japanese management practices and Japanese industrial policy; creation of the US-Japan Energy Working Group regarding export of US energy products to Japan particularly from Alaska; creation of the US-Japan Advisory Commission; the status of the yen in world financial markets; Japanese protests against US states using the worldwide unitary taxation method; commemorations of the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki; possible sanctions for Toshiba Corporation for the sale of sensitive machine tools to the Soviet Union; the Japanese FSX fighter plane; advise and assist Japanese government on establishment of a national security group and crisis intervention management; the visit of Prime Minister Suzuki in May 1981, the visits of Prime Minister Nakasone in January 1983, April 1986, and April 1987; the visits of Prime Minister Takeshita in January 1988; the visit of the Crown Prince and Princess of Japan; condolences on the death of Emperor Hirohito; and public opinions of Japanese elite on defense and trade issues. The majority of this secondary subject category contains material relating to international trade between the United States and Japan. Specific material relates to meetings with the head of MITI (Japan’s Ministry of International Trade and Industry) with the President and other White House staff members; President’s meeting with the Keidanren (CEOs from Japanese industries); reports from the US-Japan Economic Relations Group commonly known as the “Wisemen”; sanctions against Japan for “dumping” semiconductors; United States Trade Representative and Secretary of Commerce reports on the US trade deficit with Japan and particular grievances for the following industries/products: US cigarettes, financial industry, machine tools, construction, microchip processors, telecommunications, pharmaceutical and medical products, agricultural products particularly beef, citrus fruit and rice, paper, cargo air freight and trans-Pacific air routes; the establishment of “MOSS” (Market-Oriented, Sector-Selected) talks on trade with Japan; Japanese “Plans of Action” for the economy and responding to US concerns about fair trade in Japan. This secondary subject category also contains material relating to the internment of Japanese-Americans during World War II. The material relates to the passage of H.R. 442 (To Implement Recommendations of the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians) paying reparations to the internees and their families. The material was misclassified at the White House and the Library has decided to leave it within CO078 due to its volume. The majority of the material on this issue can be found in secondary subject category HU013-22 (Human Rights – Japanese-American Groups). Open CO079 Jordan, Hashemite Kingdom of (.4 l.ft; Box 114-115) This secondary subject category contains material relating to ambassador appointments; visits of King Hussein and Queen Noor to Washington in November 1981; visit of King Hussein with President Reagan in May 1983, May 1985, September 1985 and June 1986; copies of King Hussein speeches given in America; sale of arms to Jordan; comments on the Jordan-Palestinian Joint Action Agreement of 1985; President and Vice President meetings with Crown Prince Hassan; head of state letters on the Middle East peace process and the Amman Conference in 1987. Open CO080 Kenya (.1 l.ft.; Box 115) This secondary subject category contains material relating to ambassador appointments; visits by President Daniel Arap Moi in September 1981 and March 1987; international conferences held in Nairobi in 1982 and 1985; Reagan support to Moi after a coup attempt in August 1982; and human rights concerns for dissidents, particularly attorney Gibson Kamau Kuria. Open CO081 Kampuchea – Cambodia (.1 l.ft.; Box 115-116) This secondary subject category contains material relating to the UN recognition of the coalition exile government of Democratic Kampuchea; meetings by coalition leaders Prince Norodom Sihanouk and former Prime Minster Son Sann in September 1983 and September 1984; the occupation of Cambodia by Vietnam and policies and strategies for their removal; founding of a Cambodian Relief Association in 1984; Prince Sihanouk’s eight-point plan for peace and the official US reaction to the plan; conditions in Cambodian refugee camps; non-lethal US aid to non-Communist Cambodian groups; plight of Khmer Kampuchea Kron, ethnic Cambodians in South Vietnam; head of state correspondence with Thai Prime Minister Prem on Cambodian refugees and the occupation of Cambodia; presidential signing statement for H.J.R. 602, Support for a Free and Independent Cambodia and the visit of Prince Sihanouk in October 1988 and managing the withdrawal of the Vietnamese from Cambodia. Open CO082 Korea (3 folders; Box 116) This secondary subject category contains material relating to South Korean President Chun notification of 1982 talks with North Korea on reunification; the Advisory Council for the Peaceful Unification Policy for Korea and their legal status in the United States; a 1983 report on the general Korea situation by the Center for Strategic and International Studies; reports from exiled Korean leader Kim Dae Jung on possible reunification talks; reunification of Korean families; and establishing neutrality of a reunited Korea.The majority of material within this secondary subject category was misclassified at the White House and has been transferred to CO082-02 (Korea, Republic of (South). The Case Files in this Subject Category have been fully digitized: BEGIN-149999 150000-259999 260000-End Open CO082-01 Korea, People’s Democratic Republic of (North) (1 folder; Box 116) This secondary subject category contains material relating to the announcement of broadening US contacts with North Korea; and proposed changes in export control policy towards North Korea.The majority of material within this secondary subject category was misclassified at the White House and has been transferred to CO082-02 – Korea, Republic of (South). The Case Files in this Subject Category have been fully digitized: Entire Category Open CO082-02 Korea, Republic of (South) (.6 l.ft.; Box 116-117) This secondary subject category contains material relating to ambassador appointments; Kim Dae Jung – his imprisonment, release, exile in the United States, return to South Korea, and as a candidate for president; calls for release of other political prisoners, notably Shim Bon Lee; civil rights in general and democratization of South Korea; state visits of President Chun Doo Hwan in February 1981, and April 1985 and cancelled post-presidential visit of March 1988; visits with President Roh Tae Woo in September 1987 and October 1988; US trade sanctions against Korea for the insurance industry, tobacco products and intellectual property rights; security assistance for the 1988 Olympics; Seoul subway contract; possible Korean purchase of US helicopters; Senator Jay Rockefeller visit to South Korea in 1987; decision on assistance for Korean purchase of US cotton; and possible US economic sanctions for South Korea violation of Korean civil rights. Open CO083 Kuwait, State of (.3 l.ft.; Box 118) This secondary subject category contains material relating to US support for Kuwait’s newly elected assembly after a four-year suspension; Kuwait Petroleum Corporation investment in Santa Fe International; protection of Santa Fe subsidiary C.F. Braun; 1983 disqualification of Santa Fe International’s mineral land leasing rights due to discrimination against US firms in Kuwait; July 1988 official working visit of Crown Prince and Prime Minister Sheikh Sa’ad of Kuwait; and the reflagging and protection of Kuwaiti owned tankers in the Persian Gulf. The Case Files in this Subject Category have been fully digitized: BEGIN-059999 566000-583807 583809-585669 595643 (1) 600000-END 060000-499999 583808 (1) 585670 595643 (2) 500000-565999 583808 (2) 585671-595642 595644-599999 Open CO084 Laos, People’s Democratic Republic (2 folders; Box 118) This secondary subject category contains material relating to requests for information on POWs held in Laos, a Heritage Foundation report on POWs/MIAs possibly held in Laos; various Laotian exile groups asking for US help in overturning the Communist government of Laos; and assistance for Laotian refugees in the United States. The Case Files in this Subject Category have been fully digitized: BEGIN-499999 500000-END Open CO085 Latvia (1 folder; Box 118) This secondary subject category contains material relating to objections to US consular visits to Riga, Latvia in violation of the US diplomatic non-recognition policy; concerns for Latvian Catholics and religious persecution; Latvia-American associations calling for condemnation of Soviet oppression and Congressional resolutions in support of independence for the Baltic states. TThe Case Files in this Subject Category have been fully digitized: Entire Category Open CO086 Lebanon, Republic of (.8 l.ft.; Box 118-121) This secondary subject category contains material relating to the continuing crisis in Lebanon in the 1980s including the Syrian invasion and bombing of Christian strongholds, the Israeli invasion of 1982, the Shabra and Shatile refugee camp incidents, the Marines’ barracks bombing in 1983, removing the Palestine Liberation Organization from Lebanon, ongoing violence and terrorism, the hostage-taking and peril of the American University of Beirut, and the need for free and fair elections in 1981 and 1988; visits to the United States by President Amine Gemayel in October 1982, August 1983 and December 1983; war powers issues for the Marines in the US Multi-national peace-keeping forces; presidential meetings with the Maronite and Armenian Christian leaders of Lebanon; funding for American University; numerous head of state letters with Kenya, Kuwait, the USSR, Australia, Morocco, Israel, Saudi Arabia, France and Egypt on resolving the Lebanese crisis; public statement guidance on the US policy in Lebanon; a typed copy of Reagan’s notes on his speech regarding the Marine barrack’s bombing; and pleas from friends and relatives of the individual hostages taken in Lebanon to assist in freeing them. The Case Files in this Subject Category have been fully digitized: BEGIN-020059 035900-069999 103301 (2) 143000-159999 190000-196499 303000-304199 462000-479999 020060-021999 070000-081399 103302-107499 160000-161999 196500-202999 304200-310999 480000-568999 022000-031092 081400-089999 107500-111999 162000-169999 203000-209999 311000-315999 569000-589999 031093 (1) 090000-099999 112000-127499 170000-184999 210000-259999 316000-427999 590000-594999 031093 (2) 100000-103300 127500-129999 185000-189499 260000-279999 428000-439999 595000-598999 031094-035899 103301 (1) 130000-142999 189500-189999 280000-302999 440000-461999 599000-END Open CO087 Lesotho, Kingdom of (2 folders; Box 121) This secondary subject category contains material relating to routine letters with Constitutional monarch King Moshoeshoe II; photo opportunity with King Moshoeshoe II in 1987; ambassador appointments; and the 1986 coup installing Major General Justin Lekhanya and deposing Prime Minister Leabua Jonathan. The Case Files in this Subject Category have been fully digitized: BEGIN-349999 350000-END Open CO088 Liberia, Republic of (.1 l.ft.; Box 121) This secondary subject category contains material relating to the instability in Liberia in the immediate months after the coup by Commander in Chief Samuel K. Doe, problems in 1985 during the presidential election period and again in 1988 with economic problems; August 1982 meeting of Reagan and Samuel Doe; Liberian-Americans calling for US assistance for return to democracy in Liberia; report from Doe’s hand-picked “Special Election Commission” to verify his election in December 1985 as president of Liberia; Congressional resolution declaring the election a fraud; ambassador appointments and the pull-out of US AID economic advisors from Liberia in late 1988. The Case Files in this Subject Category have been fully digitized: BEGIN-044999 148000-259999 358311 (1) 358312-END 045000-147999 260000-358310 358311 (2) Open CO089 Libya, Socialist People’s Libyan Arab Jamahiriya (1.4 l.ft.; Box 121-125) This secondary subject category contains material relating to the May 1981 closing of the People’s Libyan Diplomatic Bureau; correspondence with exile Libyan pro-democracy movements; economic policy towards Libya and sanctions; semi-annual reports to Congress on the state of emergency with Libya (harsher 1986 sanctions); yearly renewal of the state of emergency in 1987, 1988; freedom of navigation exercises in the Gulf of Sidra and exchange of fire with Libya forces; Congressional concerns about the War Powers’ Act and US actions towards Libya; nearly 1 cubic foot of reactions to the US bombing of Libyan targets on April 15, 1986; personal injury/wrongful death lawsuits brought by the victims of the Libyan bombing attack; public guidance on Libyan ties to terrorist acts and US relations with Libya; USIA actions regarding the Gulf of Sidra event and the 1986 bombing; plan of action for the White House on April 15, 1986; and a letter from the President of Chad about his successful military victory over Libya. The following Case Files in the Subject Category have been digitized: BEGIN-079999 206040-219999 350000-364999 366538 (1) 366539-387439 080000-206039 220000-349999 365000-366537 366538 (2) 606413-End Open CO090 Liechtenstein (1 folder; Box 125) This secondary subject category contains material relating to the private visit to the White House on September 30, 1985 of Crown Prince Hans Adam and Princess Marie and their family and includes the President’s remarks at the dinner and thank you notes. The Case Files in this Subject Category have been fully digitized: Entire Category Open CO091 Lithuania (3 folders; Box 125) This secondary subject category contains material relating to requests for the United States to ask about the release of Lithuanian Catholic priests imprisoned in the Soviet Union; support for United States non-recognition policy of Soviet subjugation of Lithuania from Lithuanian-American groups; copies of underground Lithuanian anti-Soviet literature; and Congressional resolutions regarding oppression of Lithuanian Catholic church. The Case Files in this Subject Category have been fully digitized: BEGIN-289999 209000-299999 300000-END Open CO092 Luxembourg (.1 l.ft; Box 125) This secondary subject category contains material relating to meetings with Foreign Minister Collette Fleisch; scheduling the US visit for the Grand Duke and Duchess; state visit of the Grand Duke Jean and Grand Duchess in November 1984; correspondence from US ambassador John Dolibois and his resignation letter; ambassador appointments; short visit with the Grand Duke in October 1988; and farewell letters from Grand Duke Jean and Prime Minister Jacque Santer. The Case Files in this Subject Category have been fully digitized: BEGIN-179999 246000-269999 280000-499999 180000-245999 270000-279999 500000-END Open CO093 Macao (1 folder, Box 125) This secondary subject category contains material relating to requests for Presidential assistance with the release of Chuong Truong, a Vietnamese 15-year old in a refugee camp in Macao. The Case Files in this Subject Category have been fully digitized: Entire Category Open CO094 Madeira (Empty) The Library currently has no case files for this secondary subject category. Open CO095 Madagascar, Malagasy Republic of (1 folder, Box 125) This secondary subject category contains material relating to ambassador appointments; New Year’s and birthday greetings from the head of state; gratitude for the visit of President Ratisiraka in October 1985 and the US ambassador’s report of the State Department Inspector General report on the US embassy in Madagascar. The Case Files in this Subject Category have been fully digitized: Entire Category Open CO096 Malawi, Republic of (2 folders, Box 125) This secondary subject category contains material relating to ambassador appointments; head of state letters regarding the need for more US aid and US gratitude to President Banda and Malawi’s acceptance of Mozambique refugees. The Case Files in this Subject Category have been fully digitized: BEGIN-499999 500000-END Open CO097 Malaysia (.1 l.ft.; Box 125) This secondary subject category contains material relating to the Vice President’s meeting with Minister for Home Affairs Ghazali Shafie regarding trade and ASEAN issues; the official working visit of Prime Minister Seri Mahathir bin Mohamed in January 1984; possible visit of the King of Malaysia in August 1984; speech by the Prime Minister on Asian economics; and a request for aid in freeing North Borneo from the Malay federation. The Case Files in this Subject Category have been fully digitized: BEGIN-179999 180000-249999 250000-499999 500000-END Open CO098 Maldives, Republic of (1 folder; Box 126) This secondary subject category contains material relating to the delegation for the inauguration of President Maumoon Gayoom. Open CO099 Mali, Republic of (.1 l.ft.; Box 126) This secondary subject category contains material relating to US aid policy toward Mali; the Vice President’s meeting with President Traore in Mali; ambassador appointments; and the state visit of President and Mrs. Traore in October 1988. Open CO0100 Malta, Republic of (.1 l.ft.; Box 126) This secondary subject category contains material relating to ambassador appointments; transport of US Navy surplus items to Malta; request for diplomatic recognition of the Knights of Malta; concerns about the Eastern bloc affiliations of the Mintoff government by an exile group; attempts to see the President by President Agatha Barbara; request for US support of Maltese underwater preservation efforts; and the state visit of Prime Minister Eddie Fenech Adami in July 1988. Open CO101 Martinique (Empty) The Library currently has no case files for this secondary subject category. Open CO102 Mauritania, Islamic Republic of (1 folder; Box 126) This secondary subject category contains material relating to the Western Sahara/Morocco conflict; head of state correspondence on holiday greetings; and a letter from a Mauritian citizen supporting Reagan’s foreign policy. Open CO103 Mauritius (2 folders; Box 126) This secondary subject category contains material relating to concerns about 1981 developing political situation in Mauritius; Reagan meeting with Prime Minister Ramgoolam in 1981 and 1988 meeting with Prime Minister Jugnauth; ambassador appointments; and a request to name a library/school in Mauritius after Mrs. Reagan. Open CO104 Mexico (United Mexican States) (2.2 l.ft.; Box 126-132) This secondary subject category contains material relating to correspondence with border states officials, members of Congress and Governors, on immigration, maquiladora border labor/factory arrangements and border environmental issues; USIA reports on Mexican views of US-Mexican meetings; constructing a second San Diego border crossing at Otay Mesa; review of all US/Mexico border crossings; embargo on import of Mexican tuna and seizure of US tuna boats; meetings of the Interparliamentary Conference between Mexican and US legislators; organizing an association of Caribbean nations; Southwest Border Regulatory Commission; possible guest worker contracts; Mexican debt crisis, peso devaluation and nationalization of banks; economic policy statements for Mexico; annual meetings between Reagan and the presidents of Mexico Jose Lopez Portillo and Miguel de la Madrid; traveler safety in Mexico; the US-Mexican Bi-National Commission; Mexican Central America policy and the Contadora peace process; the October 1985 Mexico City earthquake; restriction of Mexican trucker licenses for the US; the murder of DEA agent Enrique S. Camarena; Bilateral Commission on the Future of US-Mexican Relations Report; Report of the Agricultural Trade and Development Mission to Mexico; and ambassador appointments. The following Case Files in this Subject Category have been digitized: 029600-029924 Open CO105 Monaco (2 folders; Box 132) This secondary subject category contains material relating to the death and funeral of Princess Grace; the visit of the Rainier family at the White House for the launch of the Princess Grace Foundation; and details of the private dinner for Prince Rainier on October 14, 1986. Open CO106 Mongolia (Outer Mongolia) People’s Republic (1 folder; Box 132) This secondary subject category contains a transfer sheet. All material within this category was regarding Morocco. See CO107. Open CO107 Morocco (.3 l.ft.; Box 132-133) This secondary subject category contains material relating to ambassador appointments; 1981 Vice President’s meeting with Foreign Minister Boucetta; President Reagan meetings with King Hassan in 1981 and 1982; 1984 Official Working Visit of Prime Minister Mohamed Karim-Lamrani; King Hassan report on 1981 actions in the Nairobi meeting of the Organization of African Unity; 1981 shoot down of two Moroccan aircraft; human rights concerns for political prisoners in Morocco especially M’Barek Touil; the Moroccan-American Foundation; report of David Rockefeller on Morocco trip; Caspar Weinberger trip to Morocco and the US-Moroccan Joint Military Commission; 1984 US-Moroccan Convention on Criminal Matters; the Oujda Treaty between Libya and Morocco of 1985; and the commemoration of the 200th anniversary of the US-Morocco friendship treaty. Open CO108 Mozambique, People’s Republic of (.2 l. ft.; Box 133-134) This secondary subject category contains material relating to a 1981 and 1987 review of events in Mozambique and US policy towards Mozambique; Reagan meeting with President Machal in 1985 and the controversy surrounding the meeting; conservative concerns over US policies towards Mozambique and support for RENAMO; President Machal’s death in an plane crash in 1986; 1987 Reagan meeting with President Chissano; and various reports on RENAMO atrocities. Open CO109 Nauru (1 folder, Box 134) This secondary subject category contains material relating to ambassador appointments and the Vice President’s meeting with President Hammer deRoburt in July 1981. Open CO110 Nepal (.1 l.ft.; Box 134) This secondary subject category contains material relating to the state visit of King Birenda in December 1983; the Vice President’s meeting with Prime Minister Thapa in February 1983 and head of state holiday greetings. Open CO111 Netherlands (.3 l.ft.; Box 134-135) This secondary subject category contains material relating to the official working visit of Prime Minister van Agt for March-April 1981. The Prime Minister met with the Vice President instead due to the assassination attempt on President Reagan on March 30, 1981. Additional material includes the 1982 state visit of Queen Beatrix to commemorate the bicentennial of Dutch-US relations; Queen Beatrix’s address to a Joint Session of Congress; ambassador appointments; the working visit of Prime Minister Rudd Lubbers in 1983; meetings throughout 1983 and 1984 with Dutch cabinet ministers on the question of INF basing in the Netherlands; and a new extradition treaty signed in September 1983. This secondary subject category also contains material relating to the Netherland Antilles and the renegotiation of a US/Netherland Antilles tax treaty. Open CO113 New Zealand (.2 l.ft; Box 135) This secondary subject category contains material relating to the visit of Prime Minister Muldoon in July 1981 and the working visit of Muldoon in February 1984; Vice President’s dinner with Muldoon in September 1983; maritime boundary treaties with Cook Islands and Tokelau under New Zealand administration; proclamation of new tax convention with New Zealand in 1983; ambassador appointments; refusal of port entry to US ships carrying nuclear weapons starting in 1986; US protests against New Zealand port entry policy; Congressional resolutions against New Zealand and USIA public diplomacy efforts in New Zealand. Open CO114 Nicaragua (3.6 l.ft.; Box 135-144) This secondary subject category contains material relating to ambassador appointments; 1987 expulsion of Nicaraguan diplomats from the US and later US refusal to issue non-immigrant visas to Embassy personnel; assistance in extracting Americans imprisoned or detained in Nicaragua; support for US policies in Nicaragua from citizens, officials and exiled Nicaraguans; offers of assistance with US policies in Nicaragua; general reports on the current situation in Nicaragua; concern for the persecution of the Miskito Indians of Nicaragua; opposition to US policies in Nicaragua primarily from church leaders and groups, citizens and US officials; US funding for both military and humanitarian support for the Contras/“Freedom Fighters” and Congressional refusal of funding; private funding for the Contras; the William J. Casey Freedom Fund for Nicaragua; linkage of drug trafficking to Nicaragua; semi-annual reports on the “state of emergency” with Nicaragua instituted in May 1985; pressing the State Department to call Nicaragua a communist state; the White House Outreach Group on Central America; the publication, “White House Digests” of the Outreach Group; the public diplomacy campaigns by the Department of State, 1983-1989; strategic memoranda on “how to win” in Nicaragua; polling information on US attitudes on Nicaragua and the Contras; reaction to 1984 Nicaraguan elections; the Nicaragua harbor mining and the World Court case; the Contadora Central American peace process; US problems with the Contadora process; the 1987 Guatemala City accord of the Contadora nations; head of state letters to Contadora countries; US bipartisan peace plan (President Reagan/Speaker of the House Jim Wright); president’s meetings with the UNO and DNR (Democratic Nicaraguan Resistance); statement of “beliefs and goals” of the United Nicaraguan Organization; and multiple publications on Nicaragua from the Department of State, the Department of Defense, and non-governmental opinion groups. Open CO115 Niger, Republic of (3 folders, Box 145) This secondary subject category contains material relating to Vice President’s meeting with Foreign Minister Diallo and President Kountche in 1981; President’s meeting with President Kountche in 1984; ambassador appointments; aid to Sahel countries and relief for the African drought/famine. Open CO116 Nigeria, Federal Republic of (.2 l.ft.; Box 145) This secondary subject category contains material relating to the Vice President’s meeting with the Vice President of Nigeria Alex Ekweume and Alhaji Shehu Musa for the bilateral US/Nigeria economic meetings; efforts to create a “special channel” of communication for Nigeria and the US; ambassador appointments; US assistance for Marie McBroom, imprisoned in Nigeria; Nigerian economic crisis and Nigerian Central Bank problems; possible establishment of School of Economics in Nigeria; Prairie International’s farming project in Nigeria; US visit of Chief Samuel Falae in October 1988; and possible US visit for President and Mrs. Babangida in late 1988. Open CO116-01 Biafra, Republic of (Empty) The Library currently has no case files for this secondary subject category. Open CO117 Norway (.2 l.ft.; Box 145-146) This secondary subject category contains material relating to Vice President meeting with Foreign Minister Svenn Stray in November 1981 and Norwegian foreign affairs Parliamentary committee; ambassador appointments; President and Mrs. Reagan social meetings with King Olav in 1982 and 1988; President Reagan 1983 meeting with Prime Minister Kaare Willoch and April 1987 meeting with Prime Minister Brundtland; revision and renewal of Norway/US Cooperative Agreement on Uses of Nuclear Energy; memorandum of conversation with Norwegian State Secretary regarding leases in the Troll gas field; objections to Norway’s compliance with the international whaling conventions; and negotiations on Norway’s lease of I-Hawk missiles. Open CO118 Oman, Sultanate of (3 folders; Box 146) This secondary subject category contains material relating to the invitation and state visit of the Sultan of Oman to the United States in April 1983; the Vice President’s meeting with the Sultan in 1983; the Smithsonian request to host the Sultan to view the new Near Eastern cultural exhibits; ambassador appointments and meetings with the National Security Advisor and the Omani Foreign Minister Yusuf bin Alawi. Open CO119 Pakistan, Islamic Republic of (.5 l.ft.; Box 146-147) This secondary subject category contains material relating to ambassador appointments; the state visit of President Zia in December 1982; requests to allow Mrs. Nusrat Bhutto to leave Pakistan for cancer treatment; human rights abuses in Pakistan and support for political prisoners particularly academic prisoners; establishment of the US-Pakistan Joint Committee; Vice President meetings with President Zia and Foreign Minister Yaqub Khan; USIA report on Kirk Douglas visit to Pakistan and Afghanistan; US efforts to assist Pakistan in fighting the narcotics and drug trafficking in Pakistan; establishment of US-Pakistan Working Group on Narcotics; lending our customs assistance to Pakistan for control of drug trafficking; the state visit of Prime Minister Mohammed Khan Junejo in July 1986; head of state correspondence on military assistance to Pakistan, nuclear proliferation, restoration of representative government in late 1985; and the situation in Afghanistan; Indian and Indian-American protests against providing Pakistan with AWACS; President Zia cancellation of June 1988 visit due to domestic unrest; death of President Zia, Ambassador Raphel and Brigadier General Wasson in a August 17, 1988 plane crash; and Pakistan positions regarding the negotiations of Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan. The Case Files in this Subject Category have been fully digitized: Begin-029999 128300-189999 400621 (1) 400773 (1) 429000-434999 490000-559999 030000-099999 190000-259999 400621 (2) 400773 (2) 435000-449999 560000-579999 100000-124999 260000-309999 400621 (3) 400774-416999 450000-473999 580000-604999 125000-128299 310000-400620 400622-400772 417000-428999 474000-489999 605000-END Open CO120 Palestine, Islamic Republic of (.4 l.ft.; Box 147-148) This secondary subject category contains material relating to establishing a Reagan foreign policy for the West Bank and Palestinian issues; public citizens and groups urging the US to recognize the PLO as the legitimate representative of the Palestinian people and to negotiate directly with them; positive and negative response to the direct talks with the PLO in 1988; human rights violations within the occupied territories; American Jewish organizations protesting the perceived “rehabilitation” of Yasser Arafat by President Mubarak; reports on private conversations with Arafat; the Anti-Terrorism Act of 1987 and the its requirement to close the PLO Information Office in Washington, DC and the Palestinian UN Observer’s Office; the decision not to appeal the District Court’s over-ruling of the closure of the Palestine UN Observation Office and opinions on the legal status of an independent Palestine state. Open CO121 Panama, Republic of (.6 l.ft.; Box 148-150) This secondary subject category contains material relating to Congressman Eldon Rudd’s reports on talks with General Manuel Noriega in 1981 and his accession to head of the Panamanian National Guard in 1984; concerns about the Canal Zone and the School of the Americas under the 1977 Panama Canal Treaty; formal resolution of the dual wage scales in the Canal area by US government agencies; calls for the US to support a coup in Panama and return democracy; ambassador appointments; Reagan meeting with President de la Espriella in 1982; Reagan meeting with President-elect Barletta in July 1984; Barletta request to meet President Reagan after being deposed; human rights violations and general loss of civic rights in Panama; accusations of poor treatment of Americans and opposition parties by the Panama National Guard; piracy of videocassettes by Panama; resignation of Ambassador Briggs in 1986; October 1986 request for Congressional testimony of Oliver North and Bill Perry on drug trafficking in Panama; increasing alarm about the Panamanian situation in 1987-1988 and the safety of Canal Zone employees; Executive Order 12635 establishing a state of emergency with Panama and allowing the President to impose economic sanctions; Panama Canal Commission and the business community objections to certain aspects of EO 12635; May 1988 negotiations for the removal of General Noriega; protests against the possible removal of criminal drug charges against Noriega; legal opinions regarding a General Accounting Office proposed investigation of government involvement with Noriega and awareness of drug trafficking by foreign governments; proposed Congressional amendment to force the White House to cooperate with the GAO investigation; White House press release on decision to not cooperate with the GAO and financial and economic measures for post-Noriega Panama. The following Case Files in the Subject Category have been digitized: 597000-605999 611000-618999 606000-610999 619000-END Open CO122 Papua New Guinea (2 folders; Box 150) This secondary subject category contains material relating to negotiations regarding American tuna fishing within Papua New Guinea adjacent seas; cancelled drop-by with Prime Minister Michael Somare; ambassador appointments; Caspar Weinberger interest in setting up a visit for Prime Minister Somare in 1985; and pleas to President Reagan to assist the “West Papua New Guinea” (West Irian) gain freedom from Indonesia. The Case Files in this Subject Category have been fully digitized: BEGIN-399999 400000-END Open CO123 Paraguay, Republic of (1 folder; Box 150) This secondary subject category contains material relating to a possible Reagan meeting with President Alfredo Stroessner in May 1981; ambassador appointments; an invitation to Reagan to visit Paraguay and Paraguay participation in international drug abuse conferences and meetings sponsored by the White House. The Case Files in this Subject Category have been fully digitized: Entire Category Open CO124 Peru, Republic of (.2 l.ft.; Box 150) This secondary subject category contains material relating to the Vice President’s meeting with a Peruvian Senator in March 1981; discussion of the Peru/Ecuador border dispute; support for Perez de Cuellar as UN General Secretary; the visit to Peru of an American Agricultural Task Force; assistance for Americans incarcerated in Peru; Carlton Turner involvement in drug abuse and trafficking issues in Peru; Reagan meeting with Prime Minister Belaunde in September 1984; celebration of 40th anniversary of the Food for Peace program; civic aviation dispute with Peru and the suspension of AeroPeru flights; concern about the worsening domestic situation in Peru in 1987-1988; and President Reagan’s honoring Peruvian economist Hernando de Soto. The Case Files in this Subject Category have been fully digitized: Begin - 069999 270000 - 389999 070000 - 075999 390000 - 499999 076000 - 199999 500000 - End 200000 - 269999 Open CO125 Philippines This secondary subject category contains material relating to human and civil rights abuses and political murders of Benigno Aquino and Cesar Clemaco under the Marcos presidency; Filipino-American groups protesting the Marcos government; support for Marcos from World War II retirees and Philippine based American business; ambassador appointments; requests for US funding for various projects in the Philippines; Vice-President’s meeting with Imelda Marcus in August 1981; the State visit of President and Mrs. Marcos in September 1982; the Philippines statehood movement; the charges and trial of Catholic priests Niall O’Brian and Vicente Dagan; condemnation of the fraud in the February 1986 presidential elections by observer groups; Congress; and Filipino and American citizens; the transportation of the Marcos family to Hickham Air Force Base after his resignation; protests against costs incurred by the US government in extracting the Marcos family; the indictment of Imelda and Ferdinand Marcos for fraud; and support for a “Marshall Plan” for the Philippines to help with economic problems after President Marcos resigns. The Case Files in this Subject Category have been fully digitized: Entire Category Open CO126 Poland, Polish People’s Republic (1.8 l.ft.; Box 153-158) This secondary subject category contains material relating to U.S.-Polish relations; possible US visit by Solidarity leader Lech Walesa; correspondence with Reagan by Lech Walesa; the Polish economic crisis of the 1980s including Poland’s international debts and food shortages; sending food and humanitarian relief to Poland through private groups and the Polish Catholic Church; the imposition of economic sanctions against Poland and the Soviet Union after martial law declared in December 1981; the Worldnet airing of USIA production, “Let Poland be Poland”; continued contact with Solidarity support groups; 1988 Reagan meeting with Solidarity leaders; Solidarity reports on human rights violation and political prisoners held in Poland; drafts of Presidential statements regarding Poland; the imposition and ending of martial law in Poland; Congressional resolutions in support of Solidarity and Polish resistance to Soviet rule; and relaxation of immigration laws for Polish exiles. The following Case Files from this Subject Category have been digitized: BEGIN-021999 028000-035475 022000-027999 035476 Open CO127 Portugal, Republic of (.3 l.ft.; Box 158-159) This secondary subject category contains material relating to ambassador appointments; US basing negotiations; Portuguese insight to African issues especially regarding Angola, and Mozambique; Portugal State visit of Presidents Eanes in 1983; Reagan meeting with President Soares in 1987; Reagan meeting wit
wrong_mix_range_leader_00122	FactBench	3	0	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_East_Timor	en	Politics of East Timor	https://upload.wikimedia…st_Timor.svg.png	https://upload.wikimedia…st_Timor.svg.png	[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png", "https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg", "https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/40px-Ambox_important.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Translation_to_english_arrow.svg/50px-Translation_to_english_arrow.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Coat_of_arms_of_East_Timor.svg/160px-Coat_of_arms_of_East_Timor.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/28px-Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/DSCI2934_Gr%C3%BCne_Flagge_am_Regierungspalast.jpg/220px-DSCI2934_Gr%C3%BCne_Flagge_am_Regierungspalast.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/East_timor_parliament-davidrobie.jpg/220px-East_timor_parliament-davidrobie.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Parlement_Timor_oriental_2018.svg/360px-Parlement_Timor_oriental_2018.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/East_Timor_municipalities_numbers_2003-2015.png/240px-East_Timor_municipalities_numbers_2003-2015.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_current_red_Asia_Australia.svg/42px-Ambox_current_red_Asia_Australia.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Coat_of_arms_of_East_Timor.svg/80px-Coat_of_arms_of_East_Timor.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png", "https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1", "https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg", "https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/footer/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Contributors to Wikimedia projects" ]	2002-12-23T15:33:42+00:00		en	/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png		https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_East_Timor	The political system in East Timor is a unitary semi-presidential representative democratic republic,[1][2][3] whereby the Prime Minister of East Timor is the head of government and the President of East Timor functions as head of state. East Timor has a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the president and the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the National Parliament. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. The East Timorese constitution was modelled on that of Portugal, with lesser power given to the president.[2] The country is still in the process of building its administration and governmental institutions. The Economist Intelligence Unit rated East Timor a "flawed democracy" in 2022.[4][needs update] Executive branch [edit] The head of state of the East Timorese republic is the President, who is directly elected by popular vote for a five-year term, and whose executive powers are somewhat limited by the constitution, the president is able to veto legislation, however this action can be overridden by the parliament. Following elections, the president usually appoints the leader of the majority party or majority coalition as the prime minister,. As head of government the prime minister presides over the cabinet. Main office-holders Office Name Party Since President José Ramos-Horta CNRT 20 May 2022 Prime Minister Xanana Gusmão CNRT 1 July 2023 Legislative branch [edit] The unicameral Timorese National Parliament (Parlamento Nacional) has 65 members elected by proportional representation (d'Hondt method) for a five-year term. The number of seats can vary from a minimum of 52 to a maximum of 65, with the exception of the first parliament, which included 88 members who previously served as the Constitutional Assembly six years rather than five (2001-2007). The longer term was in part due to the constitustion being put in place in 2002.[5] The East Timorese constitution was modelled after that of Portugal.[6] The country is still in the process of building its administration and governmental institutions. Political parties and elections [edit] Presidential elections [edit] CandidatePartyVotes%Francisco GuterresFretilin295,04857.08António da ConceiçãoDemocratic Party167,79432.46José Luís GuterresFrenti-Mudança13,5132.61José NevesIndependent11,6632.26Luís Alves TilmanIndependent11,1252.15Antonio Maher LopesSocialist Party of Timor9,1021.76Ángela FreitasTimorese Labor Party4,3530.84Amorim VieiraIndependent4,2830.83Total516,881100.00Valid votes516,88197.74Invalid/blank votes11,9322.26Total votes528,813100.00Registered voters/turnout743,15071.16Source: CNE Parliamentary elections [edit] PartyVotes%Seats+/–Alliance for Change and Progress (CNRT–PLP–KHUNTO)309,66349.5834–1Fretilin213,32434.16230Democratic Party50,3708.075–2Democratic Development Forum (PUDD–UDT–FM–PDN)34,3015.493+3Hope of the Fatherland Party5,0600.8100National Development Movement (APMT–PLPA–MLPM–UNDERTIM)4,4940.7200Republican Party4,1250.6600Social Democratic Movement (CASDT–PSD–PST–PDC)3,1880.5100Total624,525100.00650Valid votes624,52598.33Invalid/blank votes10,5911.67Total votes635,116100.00Registered voters/turnout784,28680.98Source: CNE Recent developments [edit] Francisco Guterres, known as Lú-Olo, of the Revolutionary Front for an Independent East Timor (Fretilin) was elected president in 2017 and held the position until May 2022.[7] The Alliance for Change and Progress (AMP), a three-party alliance, attempted to form a coalition with National Congress for Timorese Reconstruction, led by former president Xanana Gusmao, but the talks failed and Fretilin formed a minority government with the Timorese Democratic Party (DP) in September 2017. In October that year, the three opposition parties formed an alliance called Parliamentary Majority Oppositional Alliance (AOMP), and following pressures from this opposition alliance, president Guterres decided to dissolve the parliament in January 2018. This led to the second general election in May 2018.[8] In June 2018, former president Jose Maria de Vasconcelos known as Taur Matan Ruak of the Alliance of Change for Progress (AMP), became the new prime minister.[9] José Ramos-Horta of the centre-left CNRT has served as the president of East Timor since 20 May 2022 after winning the April 2022 presidential election runoff.[10] In parliamentary elections held on Sunday, May 21, 2023, the opposition party led by Xanana Gusmao won 41% of the vote, making him likely to return as prime minister of the country in a coalition with at least one other party.[11] Judicial branch [edit] The Supreme Court of Justice has one judge appointed by the National Parliament and the rest appointed by the Superior Council for the Judiciary. As mentioned in a 2010 source, the country was in the process of developing a legal system that includes private practice attorneys.[12] Administrative divisions [edit] Main article: Municipalities of East Timor East Timor is divided into thirteen municipalities: The districts are subdivided into 65 subdistricts, 443 sucos and 2,336 towns, villages and hamlets. "Ministerial Order" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 January 2005. (213 KiB) Cabinet [edit] Gusmão III (2023–present) Official Gazette of Announced Council of Ministers Matan Ruak (2018–2023)[13] Minister Name Prime Minister Minister of the Interior Taur Matan Ruak Deputy Prime Minister Minister of Social Solidarity and Inclusion Armanda Berta dos Santos Deputy Prime Minister Minister of Planning and Territory Jose Reis Minister of the Presidency of the Council of Ministers Fidelis Leite Magalhães Coordinating Minister of Economic Affairs Joaquim Amaral Minister for Legislative Reform and Parliamentary Affairs Francisco Martins da Costa Pereira Jerónimo Minister of Finance Fernando Hanjam Minister for Foreign Affairs and Cooperation Adaljiza Magno Minister of Justice Manuel Cárceres da Costa Minister of State Administration Miguel Pereira de Carvalho Minister of Health Odete Maria Belo Minister of Education, Youth and Sports Armindo Maia Minister of Higher Education, Science and Culture Longuinhos dos Santos Minister for the Affairs of National Liberation Combatants Júlio Sarmento da Costa "Meta Mali" Minister of Public Works Salvador Soares dos Reis Pires Minister of Transport and Communications José Agustinho da Silva Minister of Tourism, Trade and Industry José Lucas do Carmo da Silva Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries Pedro dos Reis Minister of Defense Filomeno da Paixão de Jesus Minister of Petroleum and Mineral Víctor da Conceição Soares Alkatiri II (2017–2018) [14] Minister Name Prime Minister Mari Alkatiri Minister of Development and Institutional Reform Minister of State José Ramos-Horta Rui Maria de Araújo Estanislau da Silva Mariano Assanami Sabino Deputy Minister of the Prime Minister Hermenegildo Augusto Cabral Pereira José Maria dos Reis Counselor for National Security José Ramos-Horta Presidency of the Council of Ministers Adriano do Nascimento Minister of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation Aurélio Guterres Minister of Defence and Security José Agostinho Sequeira ("Somotxo") Minister of Interior Minister of Planning and Finance Rui Gomes Deputy Minister of Housing, Planning and Environment Abrão Gabriel Santos Oliveira Minister of Justice Deputy Minister of Justice Sebastião Dias Ximenes Minister of Health Rui Maria de Araújo Deputy Minister of Health Luís Maria Ribeiro Freitas Lobato Minister of Education and Culture Fernando Hanjam Vice Minister of Education and Culture Lurdes Bessa Deputy Minister of Education and Culture José António de Jesus das Neves Minister of State Administration Valentim Ximenes Deputy Minister of State Administration José Anuno Minister of Commerce, Industry and Environment António Conceição Deputy Minister of Commerce and Industry Jacinto Gusmão Minister of Social Solidarity Florentina da Conceição Pereira Martins Smith Minister of Public Works, Transport and Communications Deputy Minister of Public Works Mariano Renato Monteiro da Cruz Deputy Minister of Transport and Communications Inácio Freitas Moreira Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries Estanislau da Silva Deputy Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries Cipriano Esteves Doutel Ferreira Minister of Tourism and Art Minister of Petroleum Hernani Filomena Coelho da Silva Minister of Mineral Resources Mariano Assanami Sabino Araújo (2015–2017)[15] Minister Name Prime Minister Rui Maria de Araújo Minister of State Hermenegildo Ágio Pereira Fernando La Sama de Araújo (Coordinating Minister of Social) Estanislau da Conceição Aleixo Maria da Silva (Coordinating Minister of Economy) Dionísio da Costa Babo Soares (Coordinating Minister of State Administration Affairs and Justice) Presidency of the Council of Ministers Hermenegildo Ágio Pereira Minister of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation Hernâni Coelho Vice-Minister of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation Roberto Sarmento de Oliveira Soares Minister of Defence Cirilio José Cristóvão Vice-Minister of Defence N/A Minister of Interior Longuinhos Monteiro Vice-Minister of Interior N/A Minister of Finance Santina Cardoso Vice-Minister of Finance Hélder Lopes Minister of Justice Ivo Jorge Valente Vice-Minister of Justice N/A Minister of Health Maria do Céu Sarmento Vice-Minister for Health Ana Isabel Soares [de] Minister of Education Fernando La Sama de Araújo Vice-Minister of Education I Dulce Soares [de] Vice-Minister of Education II Abel da Costa Freitas Ximenes Minister of State Administration Dionísio da Costa Babo Soares Vice-Minister of State Administration Tomás do Rosário Cabral Minister of Commerce, Industry and Environment António da Conceição Vice-Minister of Commerce, Industry and Environment Constâncio da Conceição Pinto Minister of Social Solidarity Isabel Amaral Guterres [de] Vice-Minister of Social Solidarity Miguel Marques Gonçalves Manetelu Minister of Public Works, Transport and Communications Gastão Francisco de Sousa Vice-Minister of Public Works, Transport and Communications I Januário da Costa Pereira Vice-Minister of Public Works, Transport and Communications II Inácio Moreira Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries Estanislau da Conceição Aleixo Maria da Silva Vice-Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries Marcos da Cruz Minister of Tourism, Art and Culture Francisco Kalbuadi Lay Vice-Minister of Tourism, Art and Culture N/A Minister of Petroleum and Mineral Resources Alfredo Pires Vice-Minister of Petroleum and Mineral Resources N/A Minister of Planning and Strategic Investment Xanana Gusmão Vice-Minister of Planning and Strategic Investment N/A Gusmão II (2012-2015)[16] Minister Name Prime Minister Kay Rala Xanana Gusmão Vice Prime Minister Fernando La Sama de Araújo Minister of State Agio Pereira José Luís Guterres Presidency of the Council of Ministers Agio Pereira Minister of Coordinator of Social Affairs Fernando La Sama de Araújo Minister of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation José Luís Guterres Vice-Minister of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation Constâncio da Conceição Pinto Minister of Defence and Security Xanana Gusmão Vice-Minister of Defence and Security N/A Minister of Finance Emília Pires Vice-Minister of Finance Santina Cardoso Minister of Justice Dionísio Babo Soares Vice-Minister of Justice Ivo Jorge Valente Minister of Health Sérgio Lobo Vice-Minister for Ethnics and Service Delivery Natália de Araújo [de] Vice-Minister for Management, Support and Resources Maria do Céu Sarmento Minister of Education Bendito Freitas Vice-Minister of Basic/Primary Education Dulce Soares [de] Vice-Minister of Secondary Education Virgílio Simith Vice-Minister of Higher Education Marçal Avelino Ximenes Minister of State Administration Jorge Teme Vice-Minister of State Administration N/A Minister of Commerce, Industry and Environment António da Conceição Vice-Minister of Commerce, Industry and Environment Abel da Costa Ximenes Minister of Social Solidarity Isabel Amaral Guterres [de] Vice-Minister of Social Solidarity Jacinto Rigoberto de Deus Minister of Public Works Gastão Francisco de Sousa Vice-Minister of Public Works N/A Minister of Transport and Communications Pedro Lay Vice-Minister of Transport and Communications Flávio Cardoso Neves Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries Mariano Assanami Sabino Vice-Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries Marcos da Cruz Minister of Tourism Francisco Kalbuadi Lay Vice-Minister of Tourism N/A Minister of Petroleum and Mineral Resources Alfredo Pires Vice-Minister of Petroleum and Mineral Resources N/A Gusmão I (2007-2012)[17] Minister Name Prime Minister Kay Rala Xanana Gusmão Vice Prime Minister José Luís Guterres (Social Affairs) ? (Management and State Administration) Minister of Defence and Security Xanana Gusmão Vice-Minister of Defence and Security N/A Minister of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation Zacarias da Costa Vice-Minister of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation N/A Minister of Finance Emília Pires Vice-Minister of Finance Rui Manuel Hajam Minister of Justice Lúcia Lobato Vice-Minister of Justice N/A Minister of Health Nelson Martins Vice-Minister of Health Madalena Hanjam [de] Minister of Education João Câncio Freitas Vice-Minister of Education Paulo Assis Belo Minister of Internal Administration Arcângelo Leite Vice-Minister of Internal Administration N/A Minister of Economy and Development João Gonçalves Vice-Minister of Economy and Development Cristiano da Costa Minister of Social Solidarity Maria Domingas Alves Vice-Minister of Social Solidarity N/A Minister of Public Works Gastão Francisco de Sousa Vice-Minister of Public Works N/A Minister of Infrastructure Pedro Lay Vice-Minister of Infrastructure José Manuel Carrascalão Minister of Transport, Communications and Public Works Ovidio D. J. Amaral Vice-Minister of Transport, Communications and Public Works N/A Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries Mariano Assanami Sabino Vice-Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries N/A Minister of Tourism, Commerce and Industry Gil Alves Vice-Minister of Tourism, Commerce and Industry N/A Alkatiri I (2002-2007)[18] Minister Name Prime Minister Marí Bim Amude Alkatiri Vice Prime Minister N/A Minister of State Anna Pessoa Pinto Jose Ramos Horta Vice-Minister of State Olimpio Branco Presidency of the Council of Ministers Anna Pessoa Pinto Minister of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation Jose Ramos Horta Vice-Minister of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation Olimpio Branco Minister of Internal Affairs Rogerio Tiago Lobato Vice-Minister of Internal Affairs Alcino Baris Minister of Planning and Finance Maria M. B. Boavida Vice-Minister of Planning and Finance Aicha Bassarewan Minister of Justice Domingos Maria Sarmento Vice-Minister of Justice Manuel Abrantes Minister of Health Rui Maria de Araujo Vice-Minister of Health Luis Maria Lobato Minister of Education, Culture, Youth and Sports Armindo Maia Vice-Minister of Education, Culture, Youth and Sports Rosaria Corte-Real Minister of Internal Administration Anna Pessoa Pinto Vice-Minister of Internal Administration Ilda M. da Conceicao Minister of Development and Environment ? Vice-Minister of Development and Environment Abel Da C. F. Ximenes Minister of Transport, Communications and Public Works Ovidio D. J. Amaral Vice-Minister of Transport, Communications and Public Works Arq Cesar V. Moreira Minister of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries Estanislau A. da Silva Vice-Minister of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries F. De Sa Benevides References [edit] Further reading [edit]
wrong_mix_range_leader_00122	FactBench	0	98	https://bioone.org/journals/bulletin-of-the-american-museum-of-natural-history/volume-2013/issue-381/832.1/Type-Specimens-Of-Birds-In-The-American-Museum-Of-Natural/10.1206/832.1.full	en	Type Specimens Of Birds In The American Museum Of Natural History Part 11. Passeriformes: Parulidae, Drepanididae, Vireonidae, Icteridae, Fringillinae, Carduelinae, Estrildidae, And Viduinae	https://bioone.org/image…l-ShareImage.jpg	https://bioone.org/image…l-ShareImage.jpg	[ "https://bioone.org/images/Bio%20One%20Images/Header_sm_BioOne.png", "https://bioone.org/images/Bio%20One%20Images/Header_sm_Complete_Logo.png", "https://bioone.org/images/Bio%20One%20Images/BioOne_EBOOKS_ColorLogomark_WhiteText.png", "https://bioone.org/Content/themes/SPIEImages/Loading.gif", "https://bioone.org/Content/themes/SPIEImages/InformationQuestionMark.png", "https://bioone.org/Content/themes/SPIEImages/Loading.gif", "https://bioone.org/images/Bio%20One%20Images/BioOne_DL_OneLine_rgb_292x30.png", "https://bioone.org/Content/themes/SPIEImages/OpenAccessIcon.svg", "https://bioone.org/content/themes/spieimages/GetCitation.png", "https://bioone.org/ContentImages/journals/amnb/2013/381/381/WebImages/00030090-381.cover.jpg", "https://bioone.org/Content/themes/SPIEImages/Subscribe_Check.png", "https://bioone.org/Content/themes/SPIEImages/Alerts_Mark.png", "https://bioone.org/Content/themes/SPIEImages/Citation_Alert.png", "https://bioone.org/Images/Bio One Images/Back-Top_Icon.png", "https://bioone.org/images/Bio%20One%20Images/BioOne_DL_OneLine_rgb_234x24.png", "https://bioone.org/images/Global/Footer_YouTube.png", "https://bioone.org/images/Global/Footer_Facebook.png", "https://bioone.org/images/Global/Footer_Twitter.png", "https://bioone.org/images/Global/Footer_LinkedIn.png", "https://bioone.org/images/Bio%20One%20Images/BioOne_DL_OneLine_white_292x30.png", "https://bioone.org/prebuilt/img/cross.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Mary LeCroy" ]	2013-09-26T00:00:00-07:00	Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History contains new discoveries in the field of natural sciences relating to zoology, paleontology, and geology.		/favicon.ico	BioOne Complete	https://bioone.org/journals/bulletin-of-the-american-museum-of-natural-history/volume-2013/issue-381/832.1/Type-Specimens-Of-Birds-In-The-American-Museum-Of-Natural/10.1206/832.1.full	Holotype: AMNH 138547, adult male, collected at Yungas, 3600 ft, 16.20S, 66.45W (Paynter, 1992), Cochabamba, Bolivia, on 3 June 1915, by Leo Miller (no. 12186) and Howarth Boyle. Comments: Chapman cited the AMNH number of the holotype in the original description and listed (on pp. 27–28) specimens that he included in maculosus. Of the 12 male (in addition to the type) and eight female Bolivian specimens he included, I found the following nine male and six female paratypes cataloged in AMNH: Yungas, AMNH 138546, 138548–138554, four males and four females, June 1915, by Miller and Boyle; Locotal, AMNH 138556, 138557, two females, May 1915, by Miller and Boyle; Todos Santos, AMNH 138544, 138545, two males, July 1915, by Miller and Boyle; Mission San Antonio, Rio Chimoré, AMNH 138555, male, August 1915, by Miller and Boyle; Tres Arroyas, Rio Espiritu Santo, AMNH 148980, male, February 1915, by G.K. Cherrie; Beni River, AMNH 30651, male, August 1886, by H.H. Rusby. Of these I did not find AMNH 138550 in the collection. I found only one of the Peruvian paratypes in AMNH: Chauillay, Urubamba Cañon, AMNH 145816, male, July 1916, by Chapman and Cherrie. I found 32 of the 33 Brazilian paratypes in AMNH: Urucum near Corumbá, AMNH 128324–128327, two males and two females, December 1913, by Miller and Cherrie; Chapada, AMNH 32804–32827, 32829–32832, 16 males, 12 females, by H.H. Smith, 1882–1885. While 13 females were indicated, only 12 were entered in the AMNH catalog. AMNH 32832bis was not considered a paratype because all of the listed males were found and because the “bis” number was added after the other specimens were cataloged and the specimen label did not bear Chapman's measurements, as had all of the other specimens. AMNH 32828, also a male, had been mounted for exhibition in 1905 and would not have been available to Chapman when he named maculosus. Other paratypes were borrowed by Chapman, but he did not indicate which specimens they were. Fraga (2011: 754) noted that recent DNA studies do not support recognition of maculosus and he synonymized it with nominate decumanus. Ostinops sincipitalis neglectus Chapman Ostinops sincipitalis neglectus Chapman, 1914: 190 (Monteredondo, eastern slope of Eastern Andes, alt. 5800 ft). Now Psarocolius angustifrons neglectus (Chapman, 1914). See Hellmayr, 1937: 23; Blake, 1968: 141; Dickinson, 2003: 768; and Fraga, 2011: 753–754. Holotype: AMNH 123115, adult male, collected at Monteredondo, ca. 04.17N, 73.48W (Paynter, 1997), Cundinamarca, eastern slope of the eastern Andes, Colombia, on 1 March 1913, by T.M. Ring. Comments: Chapman cited the AMNH number of the holotype in the original description and gave details for three paratypes. I can verify only one of the paratypes: AMNH 100917, male, collected near Mérida, Pedregosa, 2000 m, 30 November 1902, by S. Briceño Gabaldón. Chapman (1914: 190) listed two additional paratypes, “an adult male and female from the eastern slope below Andalucia (5000 ft).” There are three specimens, AMNH 117486–117488, labeled as from Andalucia, 5000 ft, one unsexed and two sexed as females, but judging by size, one female and two males, all three collected on 10 June 1912 by Miller. They were all labeled neglectus with one additionally marked “near alfredi.” AMNH 117489, sexed as a male, was collected on the eastern slope below Caquetá, 2500 ft, on 22 June 1912 by Miller. It has no yellow on the forehead and is labeled “angustifrons + neglectus” and is discussed as a possible intergrade by Chapman (1917: 627). Chapman (1917: 50–58) gave details of this expedition. Ring was collecting at Monteredondo while the rest of the expedition personnel were based at Quetame, which name appears on the AMNH label of this specimen. However, Ring's field label gives the correct locality, as did Chapman in the description of neglectus. Cassicus (sic) vitellinus Lawrence Cassicus (sic) vitellinus Lawrence, 1864: 107 (New Granada, Isthmus of Panama). Now Cacicus cela vitellinus (Lawrence, 1864). See Hellmayr, 1937: 28–29; Blake, 1968: 144; Wetmore et al., 1984: 346–349; Dickerman, 2003: 769; and Fraga, 2011: 749–750. Syntypes: AMNH 41901, male, and AMNH 41902, female, collected in New Granada, Isthmus of Panama, in the “winter” of 1860–1861, by James McLeannan and John R. Galbraith. From the George N. Lawrence Collection. Comments: When Lawrence (1861a: 297) first received the the first of these specimens, he misidentified it as Cassiculus icteronotus Vieillot, 1816, but without giving any details. Later, after receiving a second specimen he realized his mistake, and named Cassicus vitellinus, describing both male and female but without specifying the number of specimens he had. The wing and tail measurements published with his description of the male and female are the same as those written on the labels of the syntypes, and both are marked “Type” by Lawrence. Apparently, the female syntype is the specimen that Lawrence had originally, as it bears one label marked “Cassicus icteronotus” in Lawrence's hand, with a second label marked “Cassicus vitellinus” and “Type” by Lawrence. It is possible for Lawrence to have received this specimen from the joint collectors prior to his publication of Part 1 of his catalog in January 1861, as their collecting was done in the “winter” of 1860–1861. There are two additional, undated, specimens of this form from the Lawrence Collection, collected by McLeannan. McLeannan collected alone both before and after his joint collecting with Galbraith, and these two specimens, AMNH 41903 and 41904, were probably collected later, as both have labels bearing only the name C. vitellinus. They are not marked “Type.” Fraga (2011: 749) suggested that subspecies vitellinus and flavicrissus may represent a species separate from C. cela based on differences in plumage color and voice, but retained them in the one species. Cacicus uropygialis pacificus Chapman Cacicus uropygialis pacificus Chapman, 1915: 657 (Alto Bonito, R. Sucio, Chocó, Colombia). Now Cacicus uropygialis pacificus Chapman, 1915. See Hellmayr, 1937: 33–34; Blake, 1968: 145–146; Dickinson, 2003: 769; and Fraga, 2011: 748–749. Holotype: AMNH 134533, adult male, collected at Alto Bonito, 1500 ft, ca. 07.05N, 76.30W (Paynter, 1997), Antioquia, Colombia, on 17 February 1915, by Leo Miller (no. 11227) and Howarth Boyle. Comments: Chapman gave the AMNH number of the holotype in the original description and gave measurements for 13 males (including the type) and seven females from Colombia and Ecuador. The following specimens are considered paratypes of pacificus: Colombia, Rio Salaqui, AMNH 113363, male, 23 February 1912, by Kerr; Alto Bonito, AMNH 134534, male [female], 18 February, AMNH 134535, 134537, males, 23 February, AMNH 134538, sex?, 17 February, AMNH 134539, female, 23 February, all collected in 1915 by Miller and Boyle; Baudo, AMNH 123504, male, 29 June, AMNH 123505, male, 17 June, both collected in 1912 by Kerr, the latter specimen exchanged to O. Bangs in 1918, now in MCZ; Barbacoas, AMNH 118349, male, 3 September, AMNH 118350, female?, 1 September (measurments on label), AMNH 118353, female, 5 August (no measurementson label), all collected in 1912 by W.B. Richardson; Puerto Valdivia, AMNH 134531, 134532, males, 14 December 1914, by Miller and Boyle, the latter specimen exchanged with Bangs in September 1918 and now in MCZ; La Vieja, AMNH 123506, female, 2 October 1912, by Kerr. Ecuador, Esmeraldas, AMNH 119038, male, 27 October, AMNH 119039, female, 24 October (exchanged to ANSP in 1928), AMNH 119040, female, 25 October (exchanged to MCZ in 1928), AMNH 119041, male, 24 October, AMNH 119042, male, 20 November, AMNH 119043, male, 27 November, all collected by Richardson in 1912. I was not able to verify that the following specimens should be considered paratypes: AMNH 134536, male, Alto Bonito, 19 February 1915 was exchanged with USNM, no date, and was perhaps not available to Chapman. AMNH 118351, female, Barbacoas, 22 August 1912, was exchanged to USNM, no date, and I did not find AMNH 118352, male, Barbacoas, 18 August 1912 in the collection. AMNH 155193, although collected by Richardson on 24 August 1912 at Barbacoas, was not cataloged until 1920, and then only to genus. It is not a paratype. Chapman (1917: 58–68, 640) gave more information on the Miller and Boyle expedition and the locality Alto Bonito. The subspecies pacificus is usually considered a subspecies of C. uropygialis, but Fraga (2011: 749) has separated the subspecies pacificus and microrhynchus as the separate species C. microrhynchus based on vocal differences. He also suggested that pacificus may merit treatment as a full species based on vocal differences, but that more research is required. Amblycercus holosericeus flavirostris Chapman Amblycercus holosericeus flavirostris Chapman, 1915: 659 (Barbacoas, Nariño, Colombia). Now Amblycercus holosericeus flavirostris Chapman, 1915. See Chapman, 1917b; Hellmayr, 1937: 43–44; Blake, 1968: 148; AOU, 1998: 656; Dickinson, 2003: 769; and Fraga, 2011: 747. Holotype: AMNH 118354, adult female, collected at Barbacoas, sea level, 01.21N, 78.09W (Paynter, 1997), Nariño, Colombia, on 13 August 1912, by W.B. Richardson. Comments: In the original description, Chapman cited the AMNH number of the holotype and listed the specimens he had measured. There are also a few additional specimens in the same series that would have been accessible to Chapman but may not have been measured. These are also included as paratypes, as is a specimen from Guineo, Rio Calima, Colombia, recorded by Hellmayr (1911: 1122) and included in flavirostris by Chapman. Paratypes in AMNH: Colombia, “Bogotá,” AMNH 41929, 41930, sex?, undated, from the G.N. Lawrence Collection; El Piñon, AMNH 123122, female, 6 April 1913, by Chapman et al.; Rio Toché, AMNH 113198, female, 26 October 1911, by Allen and Miller; Los Tambos, AMNH 71624, male, 18 August 1898, by J.H. Batty; Alto Bonito, AMNH 134540, female, 17 February 1915, by Miller and Boyle. Ecuador, Esmeraldas, AMNH 119044–119046, males, AMNH 119047, 119048, females, 21 October–8 November 1912, by Richardson; Naranjo, AMNH 125220–125222, one male, two females, 8–11 May 1913, by Richardson; Santa Rosa, AMNH 130542, 130543, two females, 8–11 September 1913, by Richardson; Guayaquil, AMNH 130544, male, 15 August 1913, by Richardson. AMNH 119044 was exchanged to ANSP in 1928, and AMNH 119046 was exchanged to MCZ in 1928. The affiliation of this species with the Icteridae is uncertain and more than one species may be involved (See AOU, 1998: 656, and Fraga, 2011: 747). Amblycercus holosericeus australis Chapman Amblycercus holosericeus australis Chapman, 1919: 333 (Incachaca (alt. 7700 ft), Prov. Cochabamba, Bolivia). Now Amblycercus holosericeus australis Chapman, 1919. See Hellmayr, 1937: 44–45; Blake, 1968: 149; Dickinson, 2003: 769; and Fraga, 2011: 747. Holotype: AMNH 138594, adult male, collected at Incachaca, 7700ft, 17.14S, 65.49W (Paynter, 1992), Cochabamba, Bolivia, on 12 May 1915, by Leo E. Miller (no. 11714) and Howarth Boyle. Comments: Chapman cited the AMNH number of the holotype in the original description and examined an additional two Peruvian specimens from the Urubamba Valley. Chapman (1921b) did not include this species in his list of Urubamba Valley specimens and there are no Urubamba Valley specimens in AMNH or USNM (C. Milensky, personal commun.) that might have been part of the Yale University–National Geographic Society Expedition to the Urubamba Valley that Chapman had been studying when he described this subspecies. Most of the specimens from that expedition are in USNM, with a subset deposited at AMNH. Therefore, I have not been able to identify his paratypes. There are four Peruvian specimens that would have been available to Chapman when he described australis. AMNH 166625, male, and AMNH 170769, female, collected by Watkins on 11 March 1917, from Limbani, Puno, Peru, have “Nat. Geog. Soc.” stamped on Watkins' field label; the male was cataloged with specimens from that expedition. AMNH 146600, male, and AMNH 146601, female, were collected by Watkins at Santo Domingo, Puno, Peru, on 24 September 1916 and purchased by AMNH from Watkins in 1918. Both of these localities are near the Bolivian border and far from the Urubamba Valley, and nothing on the labels of these specimens indicates that either pair might have been part of Chapman's description. Icterus hondae Chapman Icterus hondae Chapman, 1914: 191 (Honda, alt. 600 ft, Magdalena River, Colombia). Now Icterus chrysater hondae Chapman, 1914. See Hellmayr, 1937: 131–132; Blake, 1968: 151; Olson, 1981: 369–370; Omland et al., 1999; Dickinson, 2003: 771; and Fraga, 2011: 759. Holotype: AMNH 123163, adult male, collected at Honda, 600 ft, 05.12N, 74.45W (Paynter, 1997), Magdalena River, Colombia, on 3 February 1913, by Frank M. Chapman and George K. Cherrie. Comments: Chapman gave the AMNH number of the holotype in the original description and noted that he had only one additional specimen. The paratype is: AMNH 123162, adult male, collected at Honda on 4 February 1913 by Chapman and Cherrie. Olson (1981: 369–370) and Dickinson (2003: 771) recognized hondae; Fraga (2011: 759) synonymized it with I. chrysater giraudii. Olson (1981: 370) gave characters for recognition of hondae based on the above two specimens, and noted that additional specimens of hondae from the upper Magdalelna River Valley are needed. Icterus xanthornus trinitatis Hartert Icterus xanthornus trinitatis Hartert, 1913: 76 (Savannah Grande, Trinidad). Now Icterus nigrogularis trinitatis Hartert, 1913. See Hellmayr, 1937: 134; Blake, 1968: 152; Omland et al., 1999; Dickinson, 2003: 771; and Fraga, 2011: 764–765. Holotype: AMNH 521859, adult male, collected at Savannah Grande, Trinidad, on 13 February 1897, by Percy Rendall (no. 56). From the Rothschild Collection. Comments: This is the single specimen from the Rothschild Collection with these data and it was listed by Hartert (1919a: 136) as the type. In addition, specimens of this form in the Rothschild Collection, collected by André, were included. The paratypes, all collected by André, are: Trinidad, Caparo, AMNH 521836–521846, eight males, one immature male, two females, March–April 1902; “Trinidad,” original label lost, AMNH 521847, 1902; Pointe Gourde, AMNH 521848–521850, males, January 1903; Lavantill, AMNH 521851, 521852, males, March and April 1903; Chaguaramas, 521853–521855, males, January 1903; Leelet, AMNH 521858, male, July 1903. Two specimens, AMNH 521856 and 521857, collected by Carr at Caguaranas in May and June 1894, were not mentioned by Hartert and are not considered paratypes. Icterus pectoralis anthonyi Griscom Icterus pectoralis anthonyi Griscom, 1930: 18 (Finca El Cipres, near Ocos, Pacific coast of Guatemala [error]). Now Icterus pectoralis guttulatus Lafresnaye, 1844. See Griscom, 1932: 398–399; Hellmayr, 1937: 145; Blake, 1968: 154–155; Dickerman, 1981; and Dickinson, 2003: 770. Holotype: AMNH 398802, adult male, collected at Finca El Cipres, 9 mi from Mazatenango, Pacific slope, at base of Volcan Zumail, Suchitepequez (Griscom, 1932: 417, map), Guatemala, on 28 July 1924, by A.W. Anthony (no. 473). From the Jonathan Dwight Collection (no. 58330). Comments: Griscom cited the Dwight Collection number of the holotype in the original description and noted that he had 48 specimens (including the type) from Guatemala and three from Nicaragua. Later, Griscom (1932: 398) listed the localities from which his Guatemalan specimens had come, but by that time did not include Nicaragua in the range. Of the 47 Guatemalan paratypes, 35 came to AMNH: Finca El Cipres, AMNH 398801, 398803–398806, 398808–398811, five males, four females, 27 July–1 August 1924; Finca El Espino, AMNH 398807, female, 23 July 1926; Hacienda California, AMNH 398812–398824, 398826–398828, eight males, eight females, 5–27 June 1926, 25 September–10 November 1927; Ocos, AMNH 398825, 398829, males, 24 October 1927, all by A.W. Anthony; Pantaleon, AMNH 399361–399366, two males, four females, 22 October–2 November 1919; San Felipe, AMNH 399367, male, 4 December 1919, all by Austin Paul Smith. I did not find paratypes AMNH 398816 and 398819 from Hacienda California in the AMNH collection and they were perhaps exchanged later, without the catalog having been marked. The Guatemalan collection was divided with MCZ before it was cataloged at AMNH and the other paratypes are probably there. I also did not find the three Nicaraguan specimens from Leon, Chinandega, and Volcan Viejo; these were perhaps borrowed from other institutions by Griscom. Dickerman (1987: 84) called attention to the error in the location of the type locality given in the original description. Griscom (1932: 398) did not correct this in his text, but he did make a correction (Griscom, 1932: 417, map) without calling attention to the earlier error. Mazatenango is at 14.31N, 91.30W (Times atlas). The subspecies anthonyi was recognized by Hellmayr (1937: 145), synonymized with I. pectoralis pectoralis by Blake (1968: 154–155), and synonymized with I. pectoralis guttlatus by Dickerman (1981), Dickinson (2003: 770), and Fraga (2011: 766). Icterus gularis troglodytes Griscom Icterus gularis troglodytes Griscom, 1930: 13 (San Felipe, Retalhuleu, Pacific slope of Guatemala). Now Icterus gularis mentalis Lesson, 1831. See Griscom, 1932: 396; Hellmayr, 1937: 148; Blake, 1968: 156; Dickinson, 2003: 771; Dickerman, 2007: 35–38; and Fraga, 2011: 765. Holotype: AMNH 399358, adult male, collected at San Felipe, 2500 ft, 14.40N, 91.30W (Times atlas), Retalhuleu, Pacific slope of Guatemala, on 7 December 1919, by Austin Paul Smith (no. 19209). From the Johathan Dwight Collection (no. 56504). Comments: Griscom cited the Dwight number of the holotype in the original description, and noted (on p. 14) that he had 29 specimens from Ocos to San José (including the type), one male from Antigua and one male from San Lucas. Later, he (Griscom, 1932: 396) listed these 31 specimens by locality. Of the 30 paratypes, the following 21 are in AMNH: Finca El Cipres, AMNH 398723, 398725–398730, two males, one immature male, four females, 23 July–24 August 1924; Antigua, AMNH 398724, male, 6 June 1924; Hacienda California, AMNH 398731–398736, 398738, two males, four females, one immature female, 7 June–3 July 1926, 29 September 1927; Ocos, AMNH 398739, male (as on label), AMNH 398740, female, 14–16 October 1927; San Lucas, AMNH 398737, male, 27 May 1927, all collected by A.W. Anthony. Pantaleon, AMNH 399356, male, 18 October 1919; San Felipe, AMNH 399357, female, 5 December 1919; San José, AMNH 399359, male, 29 January 1920, all collected by Austin Paul Smith. Hellmayr (1937: 148) noted that Icterus mentalis Lesson, 1831, could not be identified with certainty because the type locality was not recorded and recognized instead I. g. tamaulipensis Ridgway, 1901. Blake (1968: 156) and Dickinson (2003: 771) apparently accepted Hellmayr's analysis and listed tamaulipensis, yucatanensis, and troglodytes as valid subspecies of Icterus gularis without mentioning mentalis; Dickerman (2007: 35–38) accepted mentalis Lesson, 1831, as a valid name, restricted the type locality to the city of Veracruz and considered yucatanensis, tamaulipensis, and troglodytes to be synonyms of mentalis. This was accepted by Fraga (2011: 765). As in the previous form, the collection was divided between AMNH and MCZ before it was cataloged. The remaining paratypes are probably at MCZ. See Casto and Burke (2010: 13) for information on Austin Paul Smith. Icterus gularis gigas Griscom Icterus gularis gigas Griscom, 1930: 13 (Sacapulas, Rio Negro Valley, central Guatemala). Now Icterus gularis gularis (Wagler, 1829). See Griscom, 1932: 396; Hellmayr, 1937: 148–149; Blake, 1968: 156; Dickinson, 2003: 771; Dickerman, 2007: 38; and Fraga, 2011: 765. Holotype: AMNH 398742, adult male, collected at Sacapulas, Río Negro Valley, central Guatemala, on 4 February 1928, by A.W. Anthony (no. 6513). From the Jonathan Dwight Collection. Comments: Griscom cited Anthony's unique field number for the holotype in the original description; it had no Dwight Collection number. Griscom (1932: 396) noted that he had eight males and 10 females, including the type, from Sacapulas. Of the 17 paratypes, there are 11 at AMNH: AMNH 398741, 398743–398752, four males, seven females, 4 February–13 March 1928, by A.W. Anthony. This collection was divided with MCZ before cataloging, and the remaining paratypes may be in that institution. Hellmayr (1937: 148–149) recognized gigas and considered xerophilus a synonym of it. Both Blake (1968: 156) and Dickinson (2003: 771) followed him. More recently both Dickerman (2007: 38) and Fraga (2011: 765) synonymized gigas and xerophilus with nominate gularis. Sacapulas is on the Río Negro, 25 mi north of Quiché, at ca. 15.15N, 91.10W (Griscom, 1932: 421 and map). See Griscom (1932: 11–15) for a summary of Anthony's collecting localities. Icterus gularis xerophilus Griscom Icterus gularis xerophilus Griscom, 1930: 14 (Progreso, Motagua River Valley, central Guatemala). Now Icterus gularis gularis (Wagler, 1829). See Griscom, 1932: 396; Hellmayr, 1937: 148–149; Blake, 1968: 156; Dickinson, 2003: 771; Dickerman, 2007: 38; and Fraga, 2011: 765. Holotype: AMNH 398756, adult male, collected at Progreso, 17.18N, 90.08W (Times atlas), Motagua River Valley, central Guatemala, on 5 July 1924, by A.W. Anthony (no. 287). From the Jonathan Dwight Collection (no. 58303). Comments: Griscom cited the Dwight Collection number in the original description and said that he had 21 specimens, including the type, from Progreso; Griscom (1932: 396) noted that there were 16 males and five females. Of the 20 paratypes, the following 14 are cataloged in AMNH: AMNH 398753–398755, 398757–398767, eight males, two immature males, four females. I did not find AMNH 398762 in the collection and it is possible that it has been exchanged to another institution without the catalog having been marked. Part of this collection went to MCZ before cataloging and the remaining paratypes may be in that institution. Hellmayr (1937: 148) recognized I. gularis gigas and synonymized xerophilus with it. Blake (1968: 156) and Dickinson (2003: 771) accepted that. More recently, Dickerman (2007: 38) synonymized both xerophilus and gigas with nominate gularis, and Fraga (2011: 765) agreed. Dickerman (2007: 38) incorrectly gave the original citation to I. g. xerophilus as Griscom (1930: 4); the description was on page 14. See Griscom (1932: 11–15, 415, map) for more information on Anthony's collecting localities. Icterus pustulatus yaegeri Phillips Icterus pustulatus yaegeri Phillips, 1995: 101 (8 km north of crossing of Rio San Pedro at Peñitas, northwestern Nayarit). Now Icterus pustulatus yaegeri Phillips, 1995. See Dickerman and Parkes, 1997: 231; Dickinson, 2003: 771; and Fraga, 2011: 763. Holotype: AMNH 831716, immature male, collected 8 km (5 mi on label) north of crossing of Rio San Pedro at Peñitas, northwestern Nayarit, Mexico, on 16 December 1956, by Allan R. Phillips. From the Allan R. Phillips Collection (no. 4443). Comments: Phillips gave his no. 4443 for the holotype in the original description. There is no indication on any specimens of pustulatus in AMNH that Phillips considered them paratypes of yaegeri. Dickerman and Parkes (1997: 231) and Dickinson (2003: 771) accepted yeageri, but Fraga (2011: 763) considered the diagnostic characters uncertain. Icterus pustulatus dickermani Phillips Icterus pustulatus dickermani Phillips, 1995: 101 (Joluchuca, 17°21½′ N, 101°12½′ W, southeast of Petatlán, southwestern Guerrero). Now Icterus pustulatus dickermani Phillips, 1995. See Dickerman and Parkes, 1997: 231; Dickinson, 2003: 771; and Fraga, 2011: 763. Holotype: AMNH 831717, [immature?] female, collected at Joluchuca, 17.215N, 101.125W, southeast of Petatlán, southwestern Guerrero, Mexico, on 18 December 1968, by Santos Farfán B. (no. 27). From the Allan R. Phillips Collection. Comments: In the original description, Phillips gave Farfán's field number of the holotype. There is no indication on any AMNH specimens of pustulatus that Phillips considered them paratypes of dickermani. Dickerman and Parkes (1997: 231) and Dickinson (2003: 771) accepted dickermani as valid; Fraga (2011: 763) thought the diagnostic characters uncertain. Icterus pustulatus interior Phillips Icterus pustulatus interior Phillips, 1995: 101 (Cañón de Lobos 20 km east of Cuernavaca, Morelos). Now Icterus pustulatus interior Phillips, 1995. See Dickerman and Parkes, 1997: 231; Dickinson, 2003: 771; and Fraga, 2011: 763. Holotype: AMNH 831715, adult female, collected at Cañón de Lobos, 20 km east of Cuernavaca, 18.57N, 99.15W (Times atlas), Morelos, Mexico, on 4 November 1972, prepared by Santos Farfán B. From the Allan R. Phillips Collection (no. 10650). Comments: In the original description, Phillips gave his collection number of the holotype. There is no indication on any AMNH specimens of pustulatus that Phillips considered them paratypes of interior. Dickerman and Parkes (1997: 231) and Dickinson (2003: 771) accepted interior as a valid subspecies of pustulatus; Fraga (2011: 763) thought the diagnostic characters uncertain. Icterus sclateri alticola Miller and Griscom Icterus sclateri alticola Miller and Griscom, 1925: 4 (Progreso, Guatemala). Now Icterus pustulatus alticola Miller and Griscom, 1925. See Griscom, 1932: 397; Hellmayr, 1937: 155–156; Blake, 1968: 157; Dickinson, 2003: 771; and Fraga, 2011: 763. Holotype: AMNH 398792, adult male, collected at Progreso, 17.18N, 90.08W (Times atlas), Guatemala, on 17 September 1924, by A.W. Anthony (no. 830). From the Jonathan Dwight Collection (no. 58978). Comments: Miller and Griscom gave the Dwight Collection number of the holotype in the original description and listed one Guatemalan specimen collected by von Patten, three males, three females, one sex?, collected at Progreso, one female from Volcan Zunil, and one male from El Tanque, Nicaragua. At the time of publication of this name, Miller and Griscom (1925: 1) were working on their Nicaraguan collection and had borrowed specimens from Dwight and others for comparison. It is not now possible to tell which specimens from Progreso are paratypes of alticola as all of the Dwight specimens were cataloged together and Griscom identified and initialed them all as alticola. As the description was published in 1925, it seemed possible that only specimens collected in July 1924 were available. But this is not correct, because the type was collected in September 1924. Later, Griscom (1932: 397), when working with the entire Dwight Collection, noted that he had 22 specimens of alticola; there are 15 alticola, including the type, in AMNH. Because the collection was divided with MCZ, the remaining specimens may be in that institution and some of them may be paratypes. There are, however, two definite paratypes in AMNH: AMNH 42020, male, Guatemala, from Dr. v[on] P[atten], from the Lawrence Collection; and AMNH 144752, male, El Tanque, Nicaragua, 11 April 1917, by Miller, Griscom and Richardson (now considered a specimen of I. pustulatus sclateri). I did not find the female specimen from Volcan Zunil, Guatemala, listed by Miller and Griscom (1925: 4), and it was perhaps also borrowed. See Griscom (1932: 11–15, 420, map) for a summary of Anthony's collecting localities. Icterus sclateri maximus Griscom Icterus sclateri maximus Griscom, 1930: 15 (Sacapulas, Rio Negro Valley, interior of Guatemala). Now Icterus pustulatus maximus Griscom, 1930. See Griscom, 1932: 397; Hellmayr, 1937: 155–156; Blake, 1968: 157; Howell and Webb, 1995: 748–749; Dickinson, 2003: 771; and Fraga, 2011: 763. Holotype: AMNH 398772, adult male, collected at Sacapulas, Río Negro Valley, interior of Guatemala, on 12 February 1928, by A.W. Anthony (no. 6563). From the Jonathan Dwight Collection. Comments: Griscom cited Anthony's unique field number of the holotype in the original description (the specimen had no Dwight number), and (on p. 17) noted that he had 17 specimens. Griscom (1932: 397) gave these as 14 males and three females; the 11 paratypes, all from Sacapulas, in AMNH are: AMNH 398769–398771, 398773–398780, eight males, three females, 4 February–24 March 1928, by A.W. Anthony. Part of the collection was sent to MCZ before cataloging, therefore, the additional paratypes may be in that institution. Hellmayr (1937: 156) considered maximus a synonym of alticola, and was followed by Blake (1968: 157). Howell and Webb (1995: 748) recognized maximus, as did Dickinson (2003: 771) and Fraga (2011: 763). Griscom (1932: 421, map) noted that Sacapulas was 25 mi north of Quiché, at ca. 15.15N, 91.10W. Icterus cucullatus masoni Griscom Icterus cucullatus masoni Griscom, 1926: 18 (Manatee, British Honduras). Now Icterus cucullatus igneus Ridgway, 1885. See Hellmayr, 1937: 152; Blake, 1968: 158; Omland et al., 1999; Dickinson, 2003: 770; and Fraga, 2011: 769. Holotype: AMNH 59876, adult male, collected at Manatee, Belize ( = British Honduras), on 26 December (not February) 1889, by D.C. Ingraham. Comments: The AMNH number of the holotype was given in the original description, although AMNH was not mentioned. There are four paratypes: Mexico, Quintana Roo, AMNH 254755, Chunyaxche, adult male, 30 January; AMNH 254756, immature male, Palmul, 9 February; AMNH 254757, female, Vigia Chica, 27 January, all collected in 1926 by Griscom. “Honduras,” AMNH 42001, male, from the Lawrence Collection. Xanthornus icterus ridgwayi Hartert Xanthornus icterus ridgwayi Hartert, 1902b: 299 (Aruba). Now Icterus icterus ridgwayi (Hartert, 1902). See Hartert, 1919a: 137; Hellmayr, 1937: 138–139; Blake, 1968: 159; Omland et al., 1999; Dickinson, 2003: 769–770; and Fraga, 2011: 766–767. Holotype: AMNH 521891, adult male, collected on Aruba Island, Dutch West Indies, on 26 June 1892, by Ernst Hartert (no. 105). From the Rothschild Collection. Comments: In the original description, Hartert designated as holotype the male specimen he collected on Aruba on 26 June 1892 and said that he had five specimens from Aruba and Curaçao. Only four specimens from those two islands came to AMNH with the Rothschild Collection, and they were, in fact, the only four specimens listed by Hartert (1893a: 297), although the date for the Aruba specimens was incorrectly given as 27 June. The whereabouts of the fifth specimen is not known. Paratypes in AMNH: Curaçao, near Beekenburg, AMNH 521889, female, AMNH 521890, male, 2 August 1892, by Ernst Hartert (nos. 264 and 266, respectively); Aruba, AMNH 521892, female, 26 June 1892, by Ernst Hartert (no. 106). Hartert (1893a) had earlier reported on his visit to the Dutch West Indies. Psarocolius auricollis Wied Psarocolius auricollis Wied, 1839: 367 (Fort Pierre, South Dakota). Now Icterus bullockii (Swainson, 1827). See Hellmayr, 1937: 104–105; Blake, 1968: 161; Dickinson, 2003: 771; and Fraga, 2011: 763–764. Type: AMNH 2230. Information regarding this specimen is here summarized, but no decision on its type status could be reached. In the mid-19th century, D.G. Elliot owned one of the most complete collections of species of birds from North America. In 1868, when Elliott was planning a lengthy but indefinite stay in Europe, he became concerned for the safety of his collection while he was away and offered it to the then-forming AMNH. The approximately 1100 specimens were purchased as the first collection for the new museum. His specimens were mounted for exhibit by John G. Bell, a New York taxidermist, and were put on display in the Arsenal in Central Park, headquarters for the new museum until a permanent home could be provided (Anon., 1915: 133). At the same time, Elliot was authorized to purchase in Europe for the new museum several collections of specimens of birds and mammals. His selections included a large number of Maximilian, Prince of Wied, specimens from Brazil. These were mounted specimens also intended for display. It was not until 1883 that the AMNH bird catalog was begun with, at that time, separate volumes for mounted specimens and study skins. The Elliot and Wied collections, along with several other collections of mounted birds were combined and arranged systematically before they were entered in the catalog. AMNH 2230 was originally entered in the catalog as a male from the upper Missouri River from the Elliot Collection. In addition to his collections in Brazil, Wied led an expedition to the upper Missouri River in 1832–1834. It is entirely possible that Elliot had this specimen, which appears to be a Wied specimen, in his North American collection and had purchased it long before he purchased the Wied South American specimens for AMNH. Later, someone has overwritten “Elliot Collection” with “Maximilian Coll.” On the type label is a note “See mounted catalogue for note by J.T.Z.” Zimmer, opp. #2230, noted “Type of Psarocolius auricollis Wied?” There is no longer an original label on the specimen, only an exhibit label, which is printed as being from the Elliot Collection. The locality on these exhibit labels is usually printed, but in this case, a strip of paper has been glued over the printed locality and “western North America” added in pen. It probably originally said “Upper Missouri” as in the catalog. Apparently, this specimen had been chosen, and the catalog so stamped, to be sent on exchange to Queens College in August 1953. It was probably investigated by Zimmer at that time and found to be a possible type. Hellmayr (1937: 104) had noted that the type was in AMNH. The catalog was then marked “Dismounted for Study Collection” and a “type?” label added by Zimmer. Hellmayr (1937: 104) gave the type locality as Fort Pierre, South Dakota, and Wied (1839: 367) described P. auricollis in Chapter 11, “Reise von Catonment Leavenworth bis zu den Punca-Indianern, vom 22. April bis zum 12. Mai.” The above specimen may well be one of the specimens collected by Wied at that time, but because of lack of definite information on its provenance, it seems impossible to be sure of its status. Xanthornus affinis Lawrence Xanthornus affinis Lawrence, 1851: 113 (Rio Grande, Texas). Now Icterus spurius spurius (Linnaeus, 1766). See Hellmayr, 1937: 105–107; Blake, 1968: 161–162; Scharf and Kren, 1996: 3; Omland et al., 1999; Dickinson, 2003: 770; and Fraga, 2011: 770. Syntypes: AMNH 41954 (Lawrence no. a414a), adult male, AMNH 14958 (c414a), immature male, AMNH 41960 (b414a), all collected at Brownsville, 25.54N, 97.30W (Times atlas), Rio Grande, Texas, by J.P. McCown. From the George N. Lawrence Collection. Comments: Lawrence did not designate a type in the original description and described both the adult male and immature male. Five specimens, all male, of this form were cataloged with the Lawrence Collection at AMNH, but I have found only three, two adult males and one immature male, still present in the collection. Only AMNH 41954 is marked “Type” by Lawrence and is the only specimen that had been included in the AMNH type collection. AMNH type labels have been added to the other two specifomens and they have been added to the type collection. The other two specimens, AMNH 41956, 41962, males, collected in Texas by McCown, if found, should also probably be considered syntypes, although none of the specimens is dated. If either of these specimens had been exchanged, the most likely recipients would have been ANSP or USNM, but neither N. Rice (personal commun.), ANSP, nor C. Milensky (personal commun.), USNM, found them in those collections. Although some authors record this name as having been introduced in 1852, it appeared in the section of volume 5 of the Annals published in May 1851 (not 1881, Foster, 1892: 2). In the original description, Lawrence said that affinis was found breeding in April and that his specimens had been collected in “the past year,” i.e., 1850. On the labels of all three syntypes, Lawrence recorded the collecting locality as Brownsville. Fraga (2011: 770) treated I. spurius as monotypic. Icterus spurius phillipsi Dickerman and Warner Icterus spurius phillipsi Dickerman and Warner, 1962: 311 (1 mile west of Acámbaro, Guanajuato, México). Now Icterus spurius phillipsi Dickerman and Warner, 1962. See Blake, 1968: 162; Scharf and Kren, 1996: 3; Dickinson, 2003: 770; Dickerman, 2007: 34; and Fraga, 2011: 770. Holotype: AMNH 817691, adult male, collected 1 mi west of Acámbaro, 20.01N, 101.42W (Times atlas), Guanajuato, Mexico, on 7 May 1958, by Robert W. Dickerman (no. 8746). From the James Ford Bell Museum of Natural History (no. 14167, formerly Minnesota Museum of Natural History, MMNH). Comments: In the original description, Dickerman and Warner gave the MMNH number of the holotype and noted (on p. 312) that they examined 80 specimens of phillipsi. Because Dickerman and Warner borrowed widely for their study and because none of the AMNH specimens have an indication that they were considered paratypes of phillipsi, I have been unable to verify that any of the paratypes are in AMNH. Fraga (2011: 770) treated I. spurius as monotypic. Icterus fuertesi Chapman Icterus fuertesi Chapman, 1911: 3 (Paso del Haba, south shore of Tamesi River, 35 miles northwest of Tampico, Mexico). Now Icterus spurius fuertesi Chapman, 1911. See Hellmayr, 1937: 107; Blake, 1968: 162; Scharf and Kren, 1996: 3; Omland et al., 1999; Dickinson, 2003: 770; and Fraga, 2011: 770–771. Holotype: AMNH 95909, adult male, collected at Paso del Haba, south shore of Tamesi River, 35 mi northwest of Tampico, 22.18N, 97.52W (Times atlas), Mexico, on 6 April 1910, by Louis A. Fuertes (no. 2200). Comments: Chapman gave the AMNH number of the holotype in the original description and noted that he had four specimens. Two of the three paratypes are in AMNH: AMNH 95907, immature male, AMNH 95908, female, collected at the type locality on 7 April 1910 by F.M. Chapman. The fourth paratype remained in Fuertes' Collection (no. 2201). This new form was illustrated by Fuertes in plate 1, opposite page 1 of the description. Scharf and Kren (1996: 3) and Fraga (2011: 770) treated I. fuertesi as a separate monotypic species, but other authors have maintained it as a subspecies of Icterus spurius. Icterus prosthemelas praecox Phillips and Dickerman Icterus prosthemelas praecox Phillips and Dickerman, 1965: 298 (Almirante, Bocas del Toro Province, western Panamá). Now Icterus prosthemelas praecox Phillips and Dickerman, 1965. See Blake, 1968: 162; Wetmore et al., 1984: 367–368; Dickerman and Parkes, 1997: 231; Omland et al., 1999; Dickinson, 2003: 770; and Fraga, 2011: 770. Holotype: AMNH 248065 (not 392316), juvenile male, collected at Almirante, 09.20N, 82.18W (Siegel and Olson, 2008), Bocas del Toro Province, western Panamá, on 22 August 1927, by R.R. Benson (no. 797). Comments: As noted by Charles O'Brien on the AMNH type card, the AMNH number of the holotype was erroneously recorded as AMNH 392316; Dickerman and Parkes (1997: 231) also call attention to this error. The holotype is AMNH 248065. There were four paratypes recorded from Costa Rica, only two of which are in AMNH: Estrella Valley, Atalanta, AMNH 392315, 392316, immature males, both collected on 1 July 1921, by Austin Paul Smith. Icterus northropi Allen Icterus northropi Allen, 1890: 344 (Andros Island, Bahamas). Now Icterus northropi Allen, 1890. See Hellmayr, 1937: 117; Blake, 1968: 163; Omland et al., 1999; Dickinson, 2003: 770; Garrido et al., 2005; and Fraga, 2011: 771. Syntypes: AMNH 49911, adult male, AMNH 49912, adult female, collected on Andros Island, Bahamas, on 3 June and 14 April 1890, by John I. Northrop. Comments: Because syntypes were designated in the original description, other specimens have no nomenclatural standing. Northrop (1891) published on his specimens and observations of the birds on Andros and illustrated I. northropi in a plate. I. northropi has usually been considered a subspecies of I. dominicensis, but most recent authors support full species status for it. Agelaius phoeniceus arthuralleni Dickerman Agelaius phoeniceus arthuralleni Dickerman, 1974: 8 (Lago Peten Itza, Departamento Peten, Guatemala). Now Agelaius phoeniceus arthuralleni Dickerman, 1974. See Dickinson, 2003: 774; and Fraga, 2011: 789. Holotype: AMNH 803755, female, collected at Lago Petén Itzá, ca. 17.00N, 89.30W, Petén, Guatemala, on 20 February 1968, by Robert W. Dickerman (no. 14026). Comments: Dickerman cited the AMNH number of the holotype in the original description and said that he examined specimens from Lago Petén Itzá, Laguna Perdida, and L. de Zolz. The following AMNH specimens from Petén Itzá, sexed as females, are considered paratypes: AMNH 803748, 803750, 803752, 803754, 803756–803758, 803760, all collected on 19–20 February 1968, by Dickerman. The AMNH number of this holotype is AMNH 803755, not 805755 as cited by Dickerman (1987: 83). Agelaius xanthophthalmus Short Agelaius xanthophthalmus Short, 1969: 1 (15 km north-northeast of Tingo María, 4 km north of the Tulumayo River, and about 2 km northwest of the village of Pumahuasi, elevation approximately 2150 feet, Depto. Huánuco, Perú). Now Agelasticus xanthophthalmus (Short, 1969). See Johnson and Lanyon, 1999; Dickinson, 2003: 772; Eaton, 2006; Schulenberg et al., 2010: 628; and Fraga, 2011: 797. Holotype: AMNH 789778, adult male, collected at 15 km north-northeast of Tingo María, 4 km north of the Tulumayo River, and ca. 2 km northwest of Pumahuasi, ca. 2150 ft, ca. 09.04S, 75.40W (Stephens and Traylor, 1983), Huánuco, Peru, on 17 August 1968, by Lester L. Short (no. 2999). Comments: The AMNH number of the holotype was cited in the original description. The type series comprised two specimens; the second specimen, the paratype, is AMNH 789779, female, collected on the same day at the type locality. In the original description, Short designated this bird an allotype of xanthophthalmus. According to the Code (ICZN, 1999: 75), “The term ‘allotype’ may be used to indicate a specimen of opposite sex to the holotype; an ‘allotype’ has no name-bearing function.” In addition to Agelaius, this species has been included in the genera Chrysomus (Dickinson, 2003: 772) and Agelasticus (Fraga, 2011: 797). Agelaius icterocephalus bogotensis Chapman Agelaius icterocephalus bogotensis Chapman, 1914: 191 (Suba Marshes, Bogotá Savanna, Colombia). Now Chrysomus icterocephalus bogotensis (Chapman, 1914). See Hellmayr, 1937: 179; Blake, 1968: 173; Johnson and Lanyon, 1999; Dickinson, 2003: 772; Cadena et al, 2011: 540–545; and Fraga, 2011: 798. Holotype: AMNH 123126, adult female, collected in the Saba Marshes, 8750 ft, 04.45N, 74.05W (Paynter, 1997), Bogotá Savanna, Colombia, on 21 February 1913, by Frank M. Chapman. Comments: Chapman cited the AMNH number of the holotype in the original description and noted that he had a series of seven males and nine females. The 15 paratypes are: Bogotá Savanna, AMNH 123124, 123125, 123127, 123128, two males, two females, collected in February 1913, by Chapman et al.; La Holando, AMNH 126891–126897, four males, three females, collected in May 1913 by M. Gonzalez; Puente Andalucia, AMNH 126898, female, AMNH 126899, male in female plumage, AMNH 126900, male, collected in April 1913, by M. Gonzalez; La Herrera, AMNH 126901, female, collected in May 1913,by M. Gonzalez. Of these, the following were exchanged: AMNH 126892, male, to O. Bangs in 1918, now in MCZ; AMNH 126894, male, to USNM; AMNH 126895, female, AMNH 126900, male, to BMNH in 1921. I did not find AMNH 126896 in the collection and it was perhaps exchanged without the catalog having been marked. Icterus atro-olivaceus Wied Icterus atro-olivaceus Wied, 1831: 1216 (an der Ostküste von Brasilien, in der Gegend von Coral de Batuba, bei der Lagoa Feia). Now Agelasticus cyanopus atroolivaceus (Wied, 1831). See Allen, 1889c: 226; Hellmayr, 1937: 180; Parkes, 1966: 1–12; Blake, 1968: 174; Dickinson, 2003: 772; and Fraga, 2011: 797–798. Syntype: AMNH 4731, female, Curral Ubatuba ( = Coral de Batuba), near Lagõa Feia, ca. 22.10S, 41.20W (Paynter and Traylor, 1991), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. From the Maximilian Collection. Comments: In the original description, Wied (p. 1218) noted that he had not seen a male and that his hunters had shot two females upon which he based his description. Allen's listing of this specimen as Wied's type of atro-olivaceus was questioned by Hellmayr (1937: 180), who thought that Wied's description did not fit well with A. cyanopus and that the collecting locality was far removed from the range of the species. Parkes (1966: 1–12) made a detailed study of A. cyanopus, including a study of the type of atroolivaceus at AMNH. He was able to compare this type to other specimens of cyanopus from Rio de Janeiro sent him on loan by Helmut Sick and commented: “Comparison of this series with Wied's type makes it clear that all of these birds belong to an isolated population of Agelaius cyanopus, whose distinctive characters account for the discrepancies noted by Hellmayr” (Parkes, 1966: 6). Parkes also noted Hellmayr's inadvertant listing of the name as atro-violaceus, a misspelling that has been repeated in a number of subsequent publications. Currently it is accepted as a valid subspecies, atroolivaceus, in the species cyanopus, but included by some authors in the genus Chrysomus (e.g., Dickinson, 2003: 772), and by others in the genus Agelasticus (e.g., Fraga, 2011: 797–798). Bokerman (1957: 215) gave 20 September 1815 as the date of Wied's visit to Curral Ubatuba. Sturnella magna saundersi Dickerman and Phillips Sturnella magna saundersi Dickerman and Phillips, 1970: 308 (9 km S of Niltepec, Oaxaca, at an elevation of 5–25 m). Now Sturnella magna saundersi Dickerman and Phillips, 1970. See Dickerman and Parkes, 1997: 231; Dickinson, 2003: 775; and Fraga, 2011: 806–807. Syntypes in AMNH: AMNH 801592 (RWD no. 13260), adult male, AMNH 801595 (RWD no. 13258), immature male, collected 9 km S. Niltepec, 16.33N, 94.35W (Times atlas), Oaxaca, Mexico, on 15 January 1966, by R.W. Dickerman. Comments: In the original description, Dickerman and Phillips designated 11 syntypes of saundersi, based on their field numbers. Three of the syntypes collected by Dickerman originally came to AMNH. The third syntype, AMNH 801593 (RWD no. 13262), was sent to USNM in November 1973. AMNH 801595 was thought to be uncataloged as the number had not been written on the label, so it was recataloged with the number AMNH 810401. The earlier number is the correct one. Dickerman and Parkes (1997: 231) listed AMNH 801594 as a syntype of saundersi, but this is incorrect. That specimen bears RWD no. 13263, which was not given for any of the syntypes. Because syntypes were specifically designated, other specimens have no nomenclatural standing. Sturnella magna quinta Dickerman Sturnella magna quinta Dickerman, 1989: 161 (Frechal, Rio Surumu, Amapa, Brazil). Now Sturnella magna quinta Dickerman, 1989. See Joseph, 2001: 69–71; Dickinson, 2003: 775; and Fraga, 2011: 806–807. Holotype: AMNH 237404, adult male, collected at Flexal ( = Frechal), 03.50N, 60.32W (Paynter and Traylor, 1991), Rio Surumu, Roraima (not Amapa), northeastern Brazil, on 10 September 1927, by T. Donald Carter (no. 268, not 208) on the Lee Garnett Day Expedition. Comments: Dickerman cited the AMNH number of the holotype in the original description and listed (on p. 162) 20 paratypes from Surinam and 14 from Amapá, Brazil. Paratypes in AMNH are: Surinam, Zanderij, AMNH 348596–348603, 388079–388089, eight males, nine females, two juveniles, by Haverschmidt in 1948–1949; in the interior, AMNH 521462, female, 1 November 1905, by H.R. Putscher. Brazil, state of Roraima, Flexal, AMNH 237400–237403, 237405, 237406, four males, two females, 4–15 September 1927, on the Day Expedition; Limão (not Lima), Rio Cotinga, AMNH 237407–237410, two males, two females, 30 September–1 October 1927, on the Day Expedition. I did not find specimens from Porto Platon in AMNH. Joseph (2001: 69–71) discussed the type locality of “Frechal” and showed that it must be the locality “Flexal” in Roraima given by Paynter and Traylor (1991). Paynter and Traylor (1991) did not locate a Flexal in Amapá, but subsequent to their publication, Vanzolini (1992) gave the coordinates for such a place as 00.05N, 52.11W, certainly not in the vicinity of the Rio Surumu. Tate (1930) provided a map of the Lee Garnett Day Expedition, showing it approaching Mount Roraima from the south, through the state of Roraima in Brazil. As Joseph (2001: 70) commented, “Frechal” and Limão are close together in the Savannas south of Mount Roraima. Chapman (1931: 133–134) assigned the same 11 specimens to S. m. monticola Chubb, 1921, type locality Mount Roraima. Hellmayr (1937: 218–219), while he saw no differences between monticola and praticola, reluctantly recognized monticola, but Blake (1968: 180) considered it a synonym of praticola. Haverschmidt and Mees (1994: 537) assigned Surinam birds to the subspecies praticola, where it is said to occur in Surinam only in the area around the Zanderij airport (ca. 05.26N, 55.08W, Stephens and Traylor, 1985). Because of the error regarding the type locality, the subspecies quinta should be reexamined. Cassidix mexicanus loweryi Dickerman and Phillips Cassidix mexicanus loweryi Dickerman and Phillips, 1966: 129 (Chicxulub Puerto, Yucatán). Now Quiscalus mexicanus loweryi (Dickerman and Phillips, 1966). See Blake, 1968: 189; Dickerman and Parkes, 1997: 230; Dickinson, 2003: 775; and Fraga, 2011: 780. Holotype: AMNH 803125, adult female, collected at Chicxulub Puerto, Yucatán, Mexico, on 25 January 1965, by Robert W. Dickerman (no. 12595). From Cornell University (no. CU 30456). Comments: Both the Cornell University number and the Dickerman field number of the holotype were given in the original description, and 10 paratypes were listed from the vicinity of Progreso, Yucatán. None of the paratypes is in AMNH. Quiscalus quiscula stonei Chapman Quiscalus quiscula stonei Chapman, 1935: 25 (Lakehurst, New Jersey). Now Quiscalus quiscula stonei Chapman, 1935. See Blake, 1968: 191; Dickinson, 2003: 775; and Fraga, 2011: 778. Holotype: AMNH 99687, adult male, collected at Lakehurst, 40.01N, 74.19W (Times atlas), New Jersey, on 8 June 1907, by W. DeW. Miller and James P. Chapin. Comments: Chapman gave the AMNH number of the holotype in the original description. This form was based on intergrade individuals that have a breeding range from southern Louisiana to southern New York in the area between the breeding ranges of Q. quiscula quiscula and Q, quiscula ridgwayi. As the specimens were not labeled by Chapman and the area involved is not well-defined, I have not been able to decide which other specimens Chapman considered part of his type series. Quiscalus fortirostris Lawrence Quiscalus fortirostris Lawrence, 1868: 360 (Barbadoes). Now Quiscalus lugubris fortirostris Lawrence, 1868. See Hellmayr, 1937: 87; Blake, 1968: 193; Dickinson, 2003: 774; and Fraga, 2011: 779. Syntypes: AMNH 42098, female, AMNH 42099, male, collected on Barbados ( = Barbadoes) Island, West Indies, undated, by A.H. Alexander. From the George N. Lawrence Collection. Comments: Lawrence described both male and female in the original description and said that the types were in his collection. Both of these specimens are marked “Type” by Lawrence, and they are the only two specimens of this form in AMNH from the Lawrence Collection. A.H. Alexander was a New York taxidermist (Wynne, 1969: 4) from whom Lawrence received specimens on occasion. Molothrus (Lampropsar) Cabanisii Cassin Molothrus (Lampropsar) Cabanisii Cassin, 1866: 22 (Guiana and Santa Martha, New Grenada). Now Molothrus bonariensis cabanisii Cassin, 1866. See Stone, 1891: 346; Stone, 1899: 34; Chapman, 1917: 361; Hellmayr, 1937: 65–66; Blake, 1968: 197; Dickinson, 2003: 773; and Fraga, 2011: 786–787. Syntype: AMNH 42067, unsexed, collected in Santa Marta, Colombia ( = New Grenada), undated, by “J.A.” From the George N. Lawrence Collection. Comments: In the original description, Cassin said that he had one specimen from “Guiana” in PNAS, and a second specimen from “Santa Martha, New Grenada” in the Lawrence Collection along with others in PNAS without locality data. Chapman (1917: 631) listed as type the Santa Marta specimen in AMNH labeled “Lampropsar cabanisii” by Cassin. AMNH 42067 is so labeled and is marked “Type” by Lawrence. Stone (1891: 346) in his revision of species allied to M. bonairensis, listed the range of cabanisii as Colombia and Venezuela, with birds from Guiana included in atronitens ( = minimus) and later (Stone, 1899: 34) listed the type of cabanisii as PNAS no. 3651 from the Rivoli Collection but without a locality. Hellmayr (1937: 65) noted that the locality “Guiana” was an error. Cassin's type is not listed by Meyer de Schauensee (1957: 239). Molothrus bonairensis aequatorialis Chapman Molothrus bonairensis aequatorialis Chapman, 1915: 661 (Barbacoas, Narino, southwestern Colombia). Now Molothrus bonairensis aequatorialis Chapman, 1915. See Hellmayr, 1937: 66; Blake, 1968: 197; Dickinson, 2003: 773; and Fraga, 2011: 786–787. Holotype: AMNH 118355, adult female, collected at Barbacoas, 01.41N, 78.09W (Paynter, 1997), Nariño, southwestern Colombia, on 5 August 1912, by William B. Richardson. Comments: Chapman cited the AMNH number of the holotype in the original description and listed measurements for six males and four females in addition to the holotype. In addition to the birds Chapman measured, there are four specimens that would have been available to him but were either missexed or immature. These 14 specimens, all collected by William B. Richardson, are considered paratypes of aequatorialis: Barbacoas, AMNH 118356, immature sex?, 5 October 1912; Tumaco, AMNH 118357–118359, one male, one female?, one immature male, 28–30 July 1912; Esmeraldas, AMNH 119049–119054, three males, three females, 5 November to 1 December 1912; Manavi, AMNH 120246, male, 16 December 1912, AMNH 120247, male, 14 February 1913, AMNH 125225, “female” in male plumage, 7 March 1913; Daule, AMNH 125224, female, 28 April 1913. Of these AMNH 119053, female from Esmeraldas, was exchanged to ANSP in July 1928. Two additional specimens, AMNH 155194 and 155195, females, were collected by Richardson at Esmeraldas on 26 October and 4 December 1912, but these two specimens were not cataloged until August 1920, after aequatorialis was described, and they are not paratypes; one of these, AMNH 155194, was exchanged to MCZ in July 1928. See Chapman (1917b: 49–50) for an account of Richardson's expedition. Molothrus occidentalis Berlepsch and Stolzmann Molothrus occidentalis Berlepsch and Stolzmann, 1892: 378 (Peru occ. (Lima etc.)). Now Molothrus bonariensis occidentalis Berlepsch and Stolzmann, 1892. See Hartert, 1919a: 137; 1928: 192–193; Hellmayr, 1937: 66–67; Blake, 1968: 197; Dickinson, 2003: 773; and Fraga, 2011: 786–787. Syntypes: AMNH 521045, male, collected at Lima, 12.03S, 77.03W (Stephens and Traylor, 1983), Peru, on 10 November 1889, by J. Kalinowski (no. 258); AMNH 521046, female, collected at Lima, Peru, on 18 October 1889, by J. Kalinowski (no. 179); AMNH 521047, female, collected at Lima, Peru, on 6 October 1889, by J. Kalinowski (no. 140). From the Rothschild Collection. Comments: No type was designated in the original description, Berlepsch and Stolzmann describing male and female and noting only that Kalinowski had collected “nombreux exemplaires; octobre et novembre 1889, janvier 1890.” Hartert (1919a: 137) at first listed only the adult male specimen as a cotype ( = syntype), giving its Kalinowski no. 258, and it is marked “Typus” on the original label. This specimen came to AMNH bearing a Rothschild type label and was cataloged at that time as the type. Hartert (1928: 192–193) later added the female collected on 18 October as a syntype, but it bears no Rothschild type label; it is also marked “Typus” on the original label. AMNH 521047 was not listed by Hartert and is not marked “Typus,” but is part of the same series and should also be considered a syntype. AMNH type labels have been added to the two additional syntypes. There are four more syntypes in MIZ (Mlíkovský, 2009: 128). Molothrus minimus Dalmas Molothrus minimus Dalmas, 1900: 138 (Ile de Tobago). Now Molothrus bonariensis minimus Dalmas, 1900. See Hellmayr, 1937: 57–59; Blake, 1968: 197–198; Dickinson, 2003: 773; and Fraga, 2011: 786–787. Syntype: AMNH 521003, adult male, collected on Tobago Island, Trinidad and Tobago, in 1898, by Comte de Dalmas. From the Rothschild Collection. Comments: Dalmas, in the original description, did not say how many specimens he had but described the male, female, and young. Rothschild bought part of the Dalmas Collection, other parts going to Munich and Paris (Hartert, 1919a: 151; Hellmayr, 1931: 163; Phelps, 1945: 333). Specimens that Rothschild purchased bear labels printed “E Museo Dalmas,” as this syntype does. Other syntypes, if extant, may be in one of the other collections. The original tag on this specimen is stamped Tobago 1898, and on the reverse is written: “Molothrus n. sp., ♂.” Dalmas (1900: 132) noted that he was on Tobago in the months of November and December 1898. A separate small tag bears the number “110.1.13” of unknown significance. A wing measurement of the male was given by Dalmas as “112 [mm],” but I measure it as 102 mm, indicating a misprint in Dalmas' account. Six additional males from Tobago in AMNH had wing measurements of 98–101 mm. Icterus violaceus Wied Icterus violaceus Wied, 1831: 1212 (Rio Parahyba and Cabo Frio, Rio de Janeiro). Now Molothrus bonariensis bonariensis (Gmelin, 1789). See Allen, 1889c: 226; and Hellmayr, 1937: 59–64. Syntypes: AMNH 6771, female, AMNH 6772, male, and AMNH 4719, male, collected in “Brasilia” by Maximilian, Prince of Wied. From the Maximilian Collection. Comments: Allen (1889c: 226) listed two Wied names under Molothrus bonariensis: Oriolus violaceus Wied (1820: 53) and Icterus violaceus Wied (1831: 1212). The earlier name appears in Wied's text but is a nomen nudum there. It is not mentioned by Hellmayr (1937: 59–64). As syntypes of Icterus violaceus Wied, Allen (1889c: 226) listed only AMNH 6771 and 6772 (incorrectly given as 6671 and 6672). The original Wied label that is glued to the back of the AMNH label on AMNH 6772 was marked “Icterus violaceus mihi” in Wied's hand and had applied to two specimens, a male and female. The female is AMNH 6771, and it was labeled “female” by Allen. The two specimens had probably been tied together originally. There is a third syntype in AMNH, a Wied specimen of violaceus in male plumage that was on exhibit and perhaps because of this was overlooked by Allen. It is AMNH 4719, male, also with an original Wied label bearing the name “Icterus violaceus mihi” in Wied's hand and applying to two specimens, a male and a male juvenile. I did not find the male juvenile in the collection although there is an entry in the AMNH catalog at number 4721 of a “male juv?” without other data. Molothrus bonariensis milleri Naumburg and Friedmann Molothrus bonariensis milleri Naumburg and Friedmann, 1927: 494 (Urucum, near Corumbá, Matto Grosso, Brazil). Now Molothrus bonariensis bonariensis (Gmelin, 1789). See Naumburg, 1930: 394; Hellmayr, 1937: 59–64; Blake, 1968: 198; Dickinson, 2003: 773; and Fraga, 2011: 786–787. Holotype: AMNH 128345, female, collected at Urucum, 19.09S, 57.38W (Paynter and Traylor, 1991), near Corumbá, Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil, on 12 December 1913, by George K. Cherrie (no. 17389) on the Roosevelt Rondon Expedition. Comments: Naumburg and Friedmann cited the AMNH number of the holotype in the original description, giving measurements of four adult males, three adult females and describing the juvenile plumage of the male and the female. They had specimens from Corumbá, Descalvados, and Cuyabá. Paratypes are: Urucum near Corumbá, AMNH 128339–128344, 128346, four males, one immature male, two females; Cuyabá, AMNH 128347, immature male, all collected by Cherrie in November and December 1913 on the Roosevelt Rondon Expedition; Descalvados, AMNH 149800, female, collected on 27 December 1916, collected by Cherry on a later expedition supplemental to the Roosevelt Rondon Expedition. Syntype: AMNH 456744, juvenile male, collected in Vienna ( = Wien), 48.13N, 16.22E (Times atlas), Austria, on 8 August 1824. From the Brehm Collection via the Rothschild Collection. Comments: S. orientalis Brehm was not among the Brehm types listed by Hartert (1918) and was only discovered in the general collection at AMNH after enquiries by E. Dickinson in 2008. In the original description Brehm described male, female, and young. The above specimen bears the original Brehm label, marked “Serinus flavescens orientalis, ♂ juv. 8. August 1824 Wien.” A juvenile female, collected on the same day in “Wien” is labeled meridionalis by Brehm (see below). Because of the conflicting evidence, I have not considered it a syntype of either name. Other specimens labeled orientalis by Brehm were collected after the publication of the name. Kinzelbach et al. (2009) found that Serinus estherae orientalis Chasen was preoccupied by Serinus orientalis C.L. Brehm, 1831, and provided a replacement name for that of Chasen. Serinus meridionalis C.L. Brehm Serinus meridionalis C.L. Brehm, 1831: 255 (in Tyrol und der Schweiz). Now Serinus serinus (Linnaeus, 1766). See Hartert, 1903: 83; Vaurie, 1959: 599; Howell et al., 1968: 210; Dickinson, 2003: 746; and Clement, 2010: 516–517. Syntypes: AMNH 456733, adult male, AMNH 456734, adult female, both collected on 15 July 1820, in Tyrol. From the Brehm Collection via the Rothschild Collection. Comments: S. meridionalis Brehm was not among the Brehm types listed by Hartert (1918). Three specimens labeled meridionalis by Brehm were discovered in the AMNH general collection when looking for the syntype of S. orientalis (above). The adult male and female were tied together and are labeled as from Tyrol, given as a locality for this form by Brehm. They are considered syntypes of meridionalis. The third specimen, AMNH 456745, juvenile female, 8 August 1824, Wien, while labeled meridionalis is from a locality given for orientalis. It was also collected on the same day as a juvenile male of orientalis (see above). I have not considered it a syntype of either name. Spinus citrinelloides kikuyensis Neumann Spinus citrinelloides kikuyensis Neumann, 1905: 356 (Kikuyu). Now Serinus citrinelloides kikuyensis (Neumann, 1905). See Hartert, 1919a: 156; Howell et al., 1968: 212; Fry and Keith, 2004: 460–462; and Clement, 2010: 521. Lectotype: AMNH 710620, adult male, collected in the Kikuyu Mountains, Kenya, undated, by William Doherty. From the Rothschild Collection. Comments: In the original description, Neumann said that the type was an adult male in the Rothschild Collection, collected by Doherty at Kikuyu, and added that he had six such specimens. There are, in addition to the type, six adult male specimens in AMNH from the Rothschild Collection, collected by Doherty in the Kikuyu Mountains. Neumann's designation of the type did not serve to distinguish it from one additional undated Doherty specimen, nor did Hartert (1919a: 156) further distinguish the type. Neumann has written his new name and “Typus” on AMNH 710620, and that is the specimen that bears the Rothschild type label and was cataloged as the type when the Rothschild Collection came to AMNH. In order to remove the ambiguity from Neumann's intended type, I hereby designate AMNH 710620 the lectotype of Spinus citrinelloides kikuyensis. Neumann, in the original description also compared females and immature males from the Kikuyu Mountains, of which there are four, with specimens of S. c. citrinelloides. I consider all of Doherty's specimens from the Kikuyu Mountains in addition to the lectotype to be paralectotypes: AMNH 710613, male, October 1900; AMNH 710614, immature male, November 1900; AMNH 710615, immature male, November 1900; AMNH 710616, male, December 1900; AMNH 710617, male, January 1901; AMNH 710618, male, January 1901; AMNH 710619, male, March 1901; AMNH 710621, male, undated; AMNH 710622, female, November 1900; AMNH 710623, female, March 1901. Neumann also included in kikuyensis an example from Naiwascha-See collected by Fischer in ZMB and Kenyan examples collected by Lord Delamere. This subspecific name is frequently misspelled as kikuyuensis (e.g., Fry and Keith, 2004: 461), but it was spelled kikuyensis in the original description. Hartert (1902g: 620) provided information on this collecting locality. Serinus leucopygius riggenbachi Neumann Serinus leucopygius riggenbachi Neumann, 1908a: 44 (Thiés near Dakar). Now Serinus leucopygius riggenbachi Neumann, 1908. See Hartert, 1919a: 160; Vaurie, 1956a: 5–6; Howell et al., 1968: 215; Fry and Keith, 2004: 470–471; and Clement, 2010: 522–523. Lectotype: AMNH 713382, adult male, collected at Thiés, 14.49N, 16.52W (Times atlas), Senegal, on 24 May 1907, by F.W. Riggenbach (no. 519). From the Rothschild Collection. Comments: In the original description, Neumann said that the male type, in the Rothschild Collection, was collected on 24 May 1907 at Thiés, but there are two Riggenbach specimens collected on that date, therefore the type designation is ambivalent. Hartert (1919a: 160) listed this type, giving Riggenbach's unique field number of 519, thus designating the specimen that is now AMNH 713382 the lectotype. The following specimens are paralectotypes: Senegal, Thiés, AMNH 713383 (Riggenbach no. 515), AMNH 713384 (518), 713385 (514), males; AMNH 713386 (516), 713387 (517), 713388 (513), 713389 (521), females, collected in May and June 1907; Gassam, AMNH 713390 (1292), 713391 (1264), 713392 (1253), males; AMNH 713393 (1243), female, collected in August and September 1907; Onomim, AMNH 713394 (872), male, collected in September 1907. There are two additional undated Rothschild specimens from Gambia that are probable paralectotypes: AMNH 713395, ex Bartlett Collection; AMNH 713396, ex Boucard Collection. Serinus leucopygius pallens Vaurie Serinus leucopygius pallens Vaurie, 1956a: 6 (Azzal, north of Agadés, Aïr Massif). Now Serinus leucopygius pallens Vaurie, 1956. See Hartert, 1921: 135; Howell et al., 1968: 215; Dickinson, 2003: 746–747; Fry and Keith, 2004: 470–471; and Clement, 2010: 522–523. Holotype: AMNH 713404, adult female, Azzal, north of Agadéz ( = Agadés), 17.00N, 07.56E (Times atlas), Aïr Massif, Niger, on 14 July 1920, by A. Buchanan. From the Rothschild Collection. Comments: Vaurie gave the AMNH number of the holotype in the original description and (on pp. 5–6) listed the 10 specimens of the new subspecies that he examined. These were the same Buchanan specimens listed by Hartert (1921: 135). The nine paratypes of pallens are: Tatukut, Damergou, AMNH 713397–713399, three males, 22–24 March 1920; Zinder, AMNH 713400–713402, two males, one female?, 30 June 1920; Azzal, AMNH 713403, female, 14 July 1920; Kano, AMNH 713405, male juvenile, 5 December 1919; Farniso, near Kano, AMNH 713406, male juvenile, 23 December 1919. The subspecies pallens has been recognized by most recent authors, but Fry and Keith (2004: 470) include it in riggenbachi without explanation. Serinus flavigula Salvadori Serinus flavigula Salvadori, 1888: 272 (Malca-ghebdu). Now Serinus flavigula Salvadori, 1888. See Rand, 1968: 116–119; Erard, 1974; Dickinson, 2003: 747; Fry and Keith, 2004: 484–485; Ash and Atkins, 2009: 365; and Clement, 2010: 524–525. Syntype: AMNH 713268, unsexed, collected at Melka Ghebdu ( = Malca-Ghebdu), 09.31N, 39.56E (Ash and Atkins, 2009: 417), Shewa ( = Shoa), Ethiopia, on 19 February 1885 (not 1886), by Vincenzo Ragazzi (no. 512). From the Rothschild Collection. Comments: This specimen was listed by Salvadori (1888: 272) as one of his three specimens of S. flavigula, although he misread the date as 1886. It bears the original label with the number 512 on it. On the reverse of this label, Salvadori has written: “Serinus flavigula Salvad., nov. sp. ?” (with the ? marked out) “Typical specimen,” “b,” and “7.a.” The “b” refers to the letter opposite this specimen in the original description. I do not know the significance of the “7a.” This type was not mentioned by Hartert in any of his Rothschild type lists and was apparently first referred to as in AMNH by Erard (1974: 308), after which it was found in the collection by Carlo Violani and added to the AMNH types. Rand (1968) considered S. flavigula to be “yellow-throated aberrant specimens or mutants” of S. atrogularis xanthopygius. Erard (1974: 320–322) thought it was best considered a full species as Irwin (1961: 138–139) had suggested. Subsequent authors have followed them for this very rare species. Serinus angolensis somereni Hartert Serinus angolensis somereni Hartert, 1912: 63 (Toro, Uganda). Now Serinus atrogularis somereni Hartert, 1912. See Hartert, 1919a: 160, Howell, et al., 1968: 216; Dickinson, 2003: 747; Fry and Keith, 2004: 471–473; and Clement, 2010: 523. Syntypes: AMNH 713306, AMNH 713307, male and female, collected at Bwezu, Toro, Uganda, in November 1910, by R.A.L. van Someren (nos 69 and 70 B.G.). From the Rothschild Collection. Comments: In the original description, Hartert designated as types the male and female bearing the numbers 69 and 70 B.G. Because syntypes were designated, other specimens mentioned by Hartert have no nomenclautral standing. Apparently only one label originally served for both birds; this label was copied and the copy tied on the other specimen. Only specimen AMNH 713306 bore a Rothschild type label, which had been marked “syntypes of Serinus angolensis somereni” by Hartert, and he (Hartert, 1919a: 160) listed both as types. A type label has been added to the second specimen and it is now included in the type collection. Serinus pseudobarbatus van Someren Serinus pseudobarbatus van Someren, 1919: 56 (Fort Ternan, Kavirondo). Now Serinus mozambicus barbatus (Heuglin, 1864). See van Someren, 1922: 172; Hartert, 1928: 199; Howell, et al., 1968: 218; Fry and Keith, 2004: 479–482; and Clement, 2010: 527–528. Holotype: AMNH 713851, adult male, collected at Fort Ternan, 00.12S, 35.205E (Polhill, 1988), Kavirondo, Kenya, on 24 August 1918. From the V.G.L. van Someren Collection via the Rothschild Collection. Comments: In the original description, van Someren said that the type, bearing the above data, was in the Rothschild Collection; he gave inclusive measurements but did not enumerate his specimens. Van Someren (1922: 172) gave eight measurements, mentioned young specimens, and listed the following localities: Kisumu, Fort Ternan, Kibigori, and Kibingei. Only one of the paratypes came to AMNH with the Rothschild Collection: AMNH 713852, female, collected at Fort Ternan on 24 August 1918, from van Someren. The type locality is Fort Ternan, not Fort Fernan, misread by Hartert (1928: 199) from the original label. Serinus buchanani Hartert Serinus buchanani Hartert, 1919b: 50 (Maktan, British East Africa). Now Serinus buchanani Hartert, 1919. See Hartert, 1928: 199; Howell, et al., 1968: 221; Zimmerman et al., 1999: 562; Dickinson, 2003: 747; Fry and Keith, 2004: 488–489; and Clement, 2010: 528. Holotype: AMNH 713518, adult male, collected at Maktau (not Maktan), 03.25S, 38.07E (Polhill, 1988), Teita, Kenya, on 18 September 1915, by Angus Buchanan (no. 1). From the Rothschild Collection. Comments: In the original description, Hartert gave Buchanan's field number of the holotype and noted that he had one male, one female, and a nest with eggs. The paratype in AMNH is: AMNH 713519, female, collected at Maktau on 19 October 1915 by A. Buchanan (no. 26). The nest and eggs did not come to AMNH. This form had been treated as a subspecies of S. donaldsoni, but Zimmerman et al. (1999: 562) treated it as a full species, and subsequent authors have agreed. Serinus maculicollis taruensis van Someren Serinus maculicollis taruensis van Someren, 1921a: 114 (M'buyuni). Now Serinus dorsostriatus maculicollis Sharpe, 1895. See Hartert, 1928: 199; Howell et al., 1968: 221; Dickinson, 2003: 747; Fry and Keith, 2004: 483–484; and Clement, 2010: 529. Holotype: AMNH 713666, adult male, collected at M'buyuni, 03.14S, 38.30E (Polhill, 1988), Kenya, 27 June 1918. From the V.G.L. van Someren Collection via the Rothschild Collection. Comments: In the original description, van Someren said that his type was a male collected on 17 June 1918 at M'buyuni and that he had five male and three female specimens. Four specimens of taruensis came to AMNH in addition to the type. The following two specimens are paratypes: AMNH 713667, female, M'buyuni, 3 July 1918, and AMNH 713669, male, Manugu, 8 August 1918. AMNH 713668, male, 2 July 1918 from Masongaleni is a probable paratype but this locality was not mentioned, and AMNH 713670, unsexed, Manugu, 3 August 1918, is also a probable paratype, but unsexed specimens were not mentioned in the description. Of recent authors, only Clement (2010: 529) recognized taruensis. Serinus (? flaviventris) loveridgei van Someren Serinus (? flaviventris) loveridgei van Someren, 1921a: 114 (Lumbo, North Mozambique). Now Serinus sulphuratus sharpii Neumann, 1900. See Hartert, 1928: 199; Howell et al., 1968: 223; Dickinson, 2003: 747; Fry and Keith, 2004: 489–491; and Clement, 2010: 529–530. Holotype: AMNH 713613, adult male, collected at Lumbo, 15.00S, 40.40E (Times atlas), Mozambique, on 10 July 1918, by Arthur Loveridge. From the Rothschild Collection. Comments: In the original description, van Someren designated as the holotype a male in the Rothschild Collection collected at Lumbo on 10 July 1918 by Loveridge. He apparently had two males, but the second male, a paratype, did not come to AMNH. Howell et al. (1968: 223) recognized S. sulphuratus shelleyi, with loveridgei a synonym. More recent authors have synonymized shelleyi and loveridgei with S. s. sharpii (not sharpei). Loveridge (1922: 837) listed his localities for collections made during the years 1915–1919 and noted that new forms had been named by van Someren. Poliospiza striolata ugandae van Someren Poliospiza striolata ugandae van Someren, 1921a: 114 (Mt. Elgon). Now Serinus striolatus striolatus (Rüppell, 1840). See van Someren, 1922: 168; Hartert, 1928: 199; Howell et al., 1968: 227; Dickinson, 2003: 748; Fry and Keith, 2004: 495–497; and Clement, 2010: 535. Holotype: AMNH 714161, female, collected on Mount Elgon, ca, 01.08N, 34.33E (Polhill, 1988), Uganda, on 18 July 1916. From the V.G.L. van Someren Collection via the Rothschild Collection. Comments: In the original description, van Someren noted that his type, in the Rothschild Collection, was a female, collected on Mount Elgon on 18 July 1916, and said that he had seven males and three females from Mount Elgon and South Ankole and that “Specimens from the Kivu districts appear to be indistinguishable from ugandae.” Paratypes in AMNH are: AMNH 714163, male, AMNH 714164, female, and AMNH 714165, male, collected in July 1907 by collectors for van Someren. AMNH 714167–714181, seven males, eight females, collected in the Kivu district, in August and November/December 1907 by Grauer would have been seen by van Someren in the Rothschild Collection and are also paratypes of ugandae. Howell et al. (1968: 227) recognized S. striolatus affinis and considered ugandae a synonym of it. Recent authors have considered affinis a synonym of nominate striolatus. Serinus striolatus graueri Hartert Serinus striolatus graueri Hartert, 1907: 84 (Ruwenzori, 7000 feet). Now Serinus striolatus graueri Hartert, 1907. See Hartert, 1919a: 159; Howell et al., 1968: 227; Dickinson, 2003: 748; Fry and Keith, 2004: 495–497; and Clement, 2010: 535. Holotype: AMNH 714162, adult female, collected in the Ruwenzori Mountains, 7000 ft, ca. 00.05–00.50N, 29.45–30.25E (Polhill, 1988), Uganda-Congo (Kinshasa) border, undated, by Rudolf Grauer (no. 3571). From the Rothschild Collection. Comments: Hartert cited Grauer's no. 3571 in the original description, and noted that Grauer collected two specimens. The paratype is: AMNH 714166, male, from the Ruwenzori Mountains, 7000 ft, undated, by Grauer. The number “3571” appears to have been added by Hartert, the paratype has no Grauer number. Linurgus elgonensis van Someren Linurgus elgonensis van Someren, 1918b: 283 (forests on Elgon). Now Linurgus olivaceus elgonensis van Someren, 1918. See Hartert, 1928: 199; Howell et al., 1968: 282; Fry and Keith, 2004: 531–533; Arnaiz-Villena and Moscoso, 2007: 826–834; and Clement, 2010: 541. Lectotype: AMNH 714358, adult male, collected on Mount Elgon, ca. 01.08N, 34.33E (Polhill, 1988), Kenya/Uganda border, on 16 November 1916. From the V.G.L. van Someren Collection via the Rothschild Collection. Comments: In the original description, van Someren did not designate a type but noted that he had three male and two female specimens. Van Someren (1922: 156) later mentioned that the type was in the Rothschild Collection without giving further information; by that time he had acquired an additional male, but only the three cited in the original description were part of his type series. Hartert (1928: 199) listed the male collected on 16 November 1916 as the type, thereby designating it the lectotype. This specimen, now AMNH 714358, is marked on the original label “TYPE Linurus elgonensis vS” and bears a Rothschild type label. No paralectotypes of elgonensis came to AMNH. Chloris curvirostris C.L. Brehm Chloris curvirostris C.L. Brehm, 1855: 95 (in Schweden und Deutschland). Now Carduelis chloris chloris (Linnaeus, 1758). See Hartert, 1903: 61; Hartert, 1918: 10; Howell et al., 1968: 235; Dickinson, 2003: 749; and Clement, 2010: 542–543. Lectotype: AMNH 456671, female, collected in Stockholm, 59.20N, 18.95E (Times atlas), Sweden, on 30 April 1849. From the Brehm Collection via the Rothschild Collection. Comments: Hartert (1918: 10) listed the Brehm specimen collected in Stockholm on 30 April 1849 as the type, thereby designating it the lectotype of C. curvirostris. He also listed a pair and a nestling from Renthendorf as labeled curvirostris by Brehm. These three specimens were perhaps AMNH 456668, male, 20 June 1817, AMNH 456669, male, AMNH 456670, female, 4 September 1837, cataloged as curvirostris but exchanged to ZFMK. They may be paralectotypes of curvirostris. Hartert (1918: 10) listed W. Meves as the collector of this lectotype. Hartert (1903: 61) restricted the type locality of Carduelis chloris to Sweden and listed C. curvirostris Brehm as a synonym, as have subsequent authors. Chloris septentrionalis C.L. Brehm Chloris septentrionalis C.L. Brehm, 1831: 261 (Er bewohnt schon Nord-deutschland, z.B. die Gegend bei Kiel geht aber warscheinlich viel höher nördlich hinauf, lebt vom November bis zum April in Mitteldeutschland). Now Carduelis chloris chloris (Linnaeus, 1758). See Hartert, 1903: 61; Hartert, 1918: 10; Dickinson, 2003: 749; and Clement, 2010: 542–543. Lectotype: AMNH 456673, adult male, collected at Kiel, 54.20N, 10.08E (Times atlas), Germany, in 1824. From the Brehm Collection via the Rothschild Collection. Comments: Hartert (1918: 10) listed the Brehm specimen collected in Kiel in 1824 as the type of septentrionalis, thereby designating it the lectotype and said that the specimen was the only one in the Brehm collection from Kiel and was probably collected by Boie. Other Brehm specimens in AMNH labeled septentrionalis by him were collected after 1831. Chloris chloris smithae Koelz Chloris chloris smithae Koelz, 1939: 74 (Balkh, Afghanistan). Now Carduelis chloris turkestanica (Zarudny, 1907). See Vaurie, 1956a: 8–10; Vaurie, 1959: 601–602; Howell et al., 1968: 236; Dickinson, 2003: 749; and Clement, 2010: 542–543. Holotype: AMNH 466940, adult male, collected at Wazirabad ( = Balkh), 36.46N, 66.50E (Times atlas), Afghanistan, on 1 December 1937, by Walter Koelz. Comments: Koelz, in the original description, said that the type was an adult male (wing 91 mm), collected at Balkh, Afghanistan, 1 December 1937, and that he had an additional male and two females with the same data. AMNH 466940 bears the AMNH type label and Koelz's original label is marked “type” by him; I measure its wing at 91. Paratypes are: AMNH 466939, male, AMNH 466941, 466942, females, collected at Balkh on 1 December 1937, by Koelz. Chloris sinica tschiliensis Jacobi Chloris sinica tschiliensis Jacobi, 1923: 25 (Peking, Jingschujingtsze, Balihandiën). Now Carduelis sinica sinica (Linnaeus, 1766). See Vaurie, 1959: 602; Howell et al., 1968: 236; Dickinson, 2003: 749; and Clement, 2010: 543–544. Syntypes: AMNH 709209, adult male, AMNH 709210, female, collected at Westgräben bei Beijing ( = Peking) 39.55N, 116.25E (Times atlas), on 11 March 1916, by H. Weigold on the Stoetzner'sche Szetschwan-Expedition. From the Rothschild Collection. Comments: In the original description, Jacobi said that he had six males and five females collected at Peking, Jingschujingtsze, and Balihandiën, on 11 March, 2 May, and 26 June, and a juvenile female collected at Peking on 26 June. The above specimens were both collected near Beijing on 11 March 1916 and are both marked “Cotypus.” Wing measurements in pencil on the reverse of the original labels are: male 82, female 77.5, both measurements being given in the original description. These syntypes were not listed by Hartert in his lists of types in the Rothschild Collection and had not previously been included with AMNH types. Töpfer (2013) has recently discovered the whereabouts of the remaining 10 syntypes: six, with an additional one lost in World War II, SNSK; one, ZFMK; two, MCZ. Chloris sinica ussuriensis Hartert Chloris sinica ussuriensis Hartert, 1903: 64 (Sidemi-Mündung, Ostsibirien (Ussuri)). Now Carduelis sinica ussuriensis (Hartert, 1903). See Vaurie, 1959: 602–603; Howell et al., 1968: 236–237; Dickinson, 2003: 749; and Clement, 2010: 543–544. Holotype: AMNH 709174, adult male, collected at the mouth of the Sedimi ( = Sidemi) River, 43.00N, 131.29E (USBGN, 1959), Ussuri, eastern Siberia, Russia, on 30 April 1884. From the Dörries Collection (no. 2116) via the Rothschild Collection. Comments: In the original description, Hartert gave the Dörries Collection number of the holotype and the range from eastern Siberia to Amur, Korea, and Sachalin and Askold islands. Paratypes in AMNH are: AMNH 709169–709173, 709175–709194, 14 males, seven females, four unsexed, collected on the Sedimi River, Amur Bay, 1884–1886, from the Dörries Collection; AMNH 709195–709208, 12 males, two females, from Gensan, Korea, collected by Robert Hall in April and May 1903. Of these, I did not find AMNH 709187 in the collection. The name ussuriensis was published in November 1903 (Hartert, 1910: XIII). Rothschild noted in his unpublished and incomplete list of purchases (Archives, Department of Ornithology, AMNH) that he had received 212 specimens of Korean birds from Hall in August 1903, so those specimens would have been in Hartert's hand before the publication of ussuriensis. Spinus obscurus C.L. Brehm Spinus obscurus C.L. Brehm, 1855: 108 (Aeusserst selten in Deutschland). Now considered an aberrant specimen of Carduelis spinus (Linnaeus, 1758). See Hartert 1903: 71; and Hartert, 1918: 10. Holotype: AMNH 456881, female, collected in the Thüringer Wald, Germany, on 6 April 1819. From the Brehm Collection via the Rothschild Collection. Comments: Brehm described only the female and said that it was very rare in Germany. He probably had a single specimen, which is apparently lacking all yellow pigment in the plumage. Spinus nigricauda Chapman Spinus nigricauda Chapman, 1912: 160 (Paramo, Santa Isabel, alt. 12700 ft, Central Andes, Colombia). Now Carduelis spinescens nigricauda (Chapman, 1912). See Hellmayr, 1938: 273; Howell, et al., 1968: 240; Dickinson, 2003: 750; and Clement, 2010: 549. Holotype: AMNH 112752, adult male, collected on the Paramo of Santa Isabel, 12,700 ft, ca. 04.47N, 75.26W (Paynter, 1997), Central Andes, Colombia, on 15 September 1911, by Arthur A. Allen and Leo E. Miller (no. 392). Comments: Chapman based his description on two specimens which he listed as adult males and gave the AMNH number of the holotype as AMNH 112752. This holotype was unsexed by the collectors. The paratype is AMNH 112753, adult male, collected at the type locality on 20 September 1911 by Allen and Miller (no. 515). Chapman (1917b: 32–40) described this expedition and the collecting localities. Spinus crassirostris amadoni George Spinus crassirostris amadoni George, 1964: 249 (about 20 kilometers northeast of Tarata (via Tacna-Puno road), 12,000 feet elevation, Departamento de Tacna, southern Perú). Now Carduelis crassirostris amadoni (George, 1964). See Howell et al., 1968: 241; Schulenberg et al., 2010: 630; and Clement, 2010: 553. Holotype: AMNH 789486, adult male, collected ca. 20 km northeast of Tarata (via Tacna-Puno road), 12,000 ft, Tacna, Peru, on 28 March 1963, by William George (no. 1995). Comments: George cited the AMNH number of the holotype in the original description and noted that he had collected an additional eight specimens (one of which was preserved in spirits). He also included in his new subspecies three specimens collected by Dorst (1962: 433) in 1960. Paratypes in AMNH: 117 km NE Tacna, AMNH 489481, female, 6 January 1963; 20 km NE Tarata, AMNH 489482, 489483, 489485, 489487, 489488, three males, two females, 28 March 1963; 8 km N Lampa, AMNH 489484, male, 19 October 1962, all collected by W. George. AMNH 1640 (alcohol collection), male, Tarata, 28 March 1963, collected by George, is also a paratype. Tarata is at 17.28S, 70.02W (Stephens and Traylor, 1983). Spinus peruanus paulus Todd Spinus peruanus paulus Todd, 1926: 51 (Zamora (3250 ft), Loja, Ecuador). Now Carduelis magellanica paula (Todd, 1926). See Hellmayr, 1938: 278; Howell et al., 1968: 241; Dickinson, 2003: 750; and Clement, 2010: 553. Holotype: AMNH 168124, adult male, collected at Zamora, 3250 ft, Rio Zamora, Loja, Ecuador, on 29 November 1920, by George K. Cherrie (no. 22655). Comments: Todd gave the AMNH number of the holotype in the original description and typed (!) and initialed (WECT) his new name on the back of the AMNH label of the specimens he included as part of his type series. Of the 50 paratypes Todd (1926: 52) listed, the following were in AMNH: Ecuador, Calasnique, AMNH 41838, male, 30 September 1874; Alamor, AMNH 152925, 152926, male, female, 10, 13 July 1919, AMNH 172407, 172408, males, 23, 30 August 1921; Portovelo, AMNH 168122, female, 3 September 1923; Zamora, AMNH 168125–168127, two males, one female, 1–4 December 1920; Punta Santa Ana, AMNH 168128, male, 19 December 1920; El Paso, AMNH 168129–168138, seven males, three females, 9–14 January 1921; Bucay, AMNH 172410, male, 1 December 1921; Pallatanga, AMNH 173554, male, 29 July 1922. Peru, Milagros, AMNH 152923, 152924, male, female, 3–5 July 1919; Huancabamba, AMNH 175632–175638, four males, three females, 20 November–11 December 1922; Palamba, AMNH 175639–175642, two males, two females, 20 September–28 October 1922. Of these, AMNH 168130 and 168136 were exchanged to ANSP and AMNH 168133, 168134, and 168138 were exchanged to MCZ in July 1928. I did not find AMNH 175633 in the collection and it was perhaps exchanged without the catalog having been marked. Spinus magellanicus urubambensis Todd Spinus magellanicus urubambensis Todd, 1926: 65 (Cuzco (11,000 ft), Peru). Now Carduelis magellanica urubambensis (Todd, 1926). See Hellmayr, 1938: 279–280; Howell et al., 1968: 241; Dickinson, 2003: 750; and Clement, 2010: 553. Holotype: AMNH 129181, adult male, collected at Cuzco, 11,000 ft, 13.31S, 71.59W (Stephens and Traylor, 1983), Cuzco, Peru, on 16 October 1914, by Harry and Casimir Watkins. Comments: Todd cited the AMNH number of the holotype in the original description and listed 33 specimens in his type series. Of the 32 paratypes, the following 12 were in AMNH: Peru, Cuzco, AMNH 129182, 129185, male, female, 18–26 November 1914; Tica-Tica, AMNH 145594–145596, three males, 2–3 July 1916; Lauramarca, AMNH 99181, male, 24 June 1899; Lucre, AMNH 99182, sex?, 10 July 1899; Oroya, AMNH 166138–166142, three males, two females, 3–7 March 1913. These paratypes had Todd's name typed on the AMNH label and initialed by him. Spinus magellanicus tucumanus Todd Spinus magellanicus tucumanus Todd, 1926: 62 (Lavalle (1800 ft), Santiago del Estero, Argentina). Now Carduelis magellanica tucumana (Todd, 1926). See Hellmayr, 1938: 283–284; Howell et al., 1968: 242; Dickinson, 2003: 750; and Clement, 2010: 553. Holotype: AMNH 142201, adult male, collected at Lavalle, 1800 ft, 28.12S, 65.08W (Paynter, 1995), Santiago del Estero, Argentina, on 17 June 1916, by Leo E. Miller (no. 17041) and Howarth S. Boyle. Comments: In the original description, Todd gave the AMNH number of the holotype and listed his 45 specimens, including the type. Of the 44 paratypes, the following 12 are in AMNH: Tilcara, AMNH 142210, 142211, male, female, 8–12 February 1916; Rosario de Lerma, AMNH 142199, 142200, males, 9–12 January 1916; Tafe del Valle, AMNH 142205, male, 6 April 1916; above San Pablo, AMNH 142206, male, 3 March 1916; AMNH 142207, male 19 May 1916; Lavalle, AMNH 142202–142204, female, two males, 17–26 June 1916; Angaco Sud, AMNH 142208, 142209, male, female, 7–9 August 1916. These paratypes had Todd's new name typed on the back of the AMNH label and were initialed by him. Spinus alleni Ridgway Spinus alleni Ridgway, 1899: 37 (Chapada, Matto Grosso, Brazil). Now Carduelis magellanica alleni (Ridgway, 1899). See Hellmayr, 1938: 282–283; Todd, 1926: 52–54; Howell et al., 1968: 242; Dickinson, 2003: 750; and Clement, 2010: 553. Holotype: AMNH 32618, adult male, collected at Chapada dos Guimarães ( = Chapada), 15.26S, 55.45W (Paynter and Traylor, 1991), Mato Grosso, Brazil, on 21 May 1883, by H.H. Smith. Comments: When Allen (1891: 375) published on the Herbert H. Smith collection from Chapada, Mato Grosso, he identified his siskins as Spinus yarrelli (Audubon) and noted that he had two males, two young males and a female. Ridgway (1899: 37) found that this was not the correct identification and named the Chapada birds Spinus alleni with the type specimen listed as AMNH 32618, data cited as above. Hellmayr (1938: 282–283) accepted this name, included it as a subspecies of his Spinus magellanicus and gave an expanded range for the form, as did Todd (1926: 53). Both authors (Hellmayr, 1938: 273, Todd, 1926: 30–32) considered Spinus yarrellii a separate species with a range in eastern Brazil and northern Venezuela. This was also followed by Howell et al. (1968: 240, 242), both forms by then included in the genus Carduelis. Dickinson (2003: 750) and Clement (2010: 553) did not include Mato Grosso in the range of alleni, probably an inadvertant omission, as the type locality is Chapada. Ridgway, by mentioning Allen's (1891) paper, made bibliographic reference to all of the specimens Allen had and the other four specimens are paratypes of Ridgway's name (ICZN, 1999: 76, Art. 72.4.1): Chapada, AMNH 31524, 32619–32621, one adult male, two young males, one female, colleted at Chapada dos Guinarães, in May and June 1883 (one dated June 1885), by H.H. Smith. Spinus olivaceus Berlepsch and Stolzmann Spinus olivaceus Berlepsch and Stolzmann, 1894: 387 (Vitoc). Now Carduelis olivacea (Berlepsch and Stolzmann, 1894). See Todd, 1926: 46–47; Hellmayr, 1938: 287; Howell et al., 1968: 243; Dickinson, 2003: 750; Schulenberg et al., 2010: 630; and Clement: 2010: 554. Syntype: AMNH 516205, adult male, collected at Vitoc, Garita del Sol, ca. 11.17S, 75.21W (Vaurie, 1972), Junin, Peru, on 13 February 1893, by Jean Kalinowski (no. 1872). From the Rothschild Collection. Comments: In the original description, Berlepsch and Stolzmann said that Kalinowski collected three males and one female on 24 July and 13 February 1893 at Vitoc and also included two specimens in the Berlepsch Collection, collected by G. Garlepp at Huayabamba, in their type series; they did not designate a type. Hartert (1919a: 157) recorded the above syntype in the Rothschild Collection, now AMNH 516205; it is marked “Typus” by Berlepsch and Stolzmann and bears a Rothschild type label. Mlíkovský (2009: 141) reported two additional syntypes in MIZ. Mlíkovský (2009: 140) noted that Wolters (1953: 280) had provided a replacement name for Spinus olivaceus Berlepsch and Stolzmann, 1894 [preoccupied by Fringilla olivacea Rafinesque, 1810, now Carpodacus erythrinus (Pallas, 1770), if Carpodacus is merged with Carduelis]. Spinus tristis pallidus Mearns Spinus tristis pallidus Mearns, 1890: 244 (Fort Verde, Yavapai County, in central Arizona). Now Carduelis tristis pallida (Mearns, 1890). See Hellmayr, 1938: 296; Howell et al., 1968: 245; Middleton, 1993; Dickinson, 2003: 750; and Clement, 2010: 559. Holotype: AMNH 52666, adult male, collected at Fort Verde, Arizona, on 3 May 1888, by Edgar A. Mearns. From the Mearns Collection (no. 6311). Comments: In the original description, Mearns designated as holotype his no. 6311; this specimen bears an AMNH type label and the original label is marked “Type” by Mearns. He gave measurements for 10 males and 11 females from Arizona and his type series included a “quite large series of winter specimens of both sexes” and six specimens in winter plumage collected by Scott, on which Allen had commented (in Scott, 1887: 198). Mearns' paratypes from his series in AMNH are: Fort Verde, Arizona, AMNH 52667 (Mearns no. 5987), AMNH 52668 (5986), males, 20 January 1888; AMNH 52669 (4577), female, AMNH 52670 (4576), male, 6 March 1886; AMNH 52671 (3666) male, 30 December 1884; AMNH 52672 (3672), AMNH 52673 (3673), AMNH 52674 (3674), AMNH 52675 (3675), four females, 3 January 1885; AMNH 52676 (4342), AMNH 52677 (4344), AMNH 52678 (4346), AMNH 52679 (4348), two females, two males, 23 December 1885; AMNH 52680 (4559), female, 5 March 1886. Two additional Mearns specimens from this series came to AMNH with the Sennett Collection and are also paratypes of pallida: AMNH 83211 (4518, Sennett no. 5971), AMNH 83212 (4519, 5970), female, male, 1 March 1886. Of these paratypes, AMNH 52667 also bears an AMNH type label and is marked “Type of pallidus” by Mearns; it remains in the type collection with a label attached to explain its paratype status. AMNH 52676 is also marked “Type of pallidus” by Mearns, but had no AMNH type label attached; it is a paratype and remains in the regular collection. The six paratypes collected by W.E.D. Scott are the following: Catalina Mills, Arizona, AMNH 83205 (Scott no. 994, Sennett no. 3354, old AMNH no. 28731), female, 3 February 1886; AMNH 83206 (989, 3349, 28726),; AMNH 83207 (991, ?, 28728), males, 19 December 1885; AMNH 83208 (993, 3353, 28730),; AMNH 83209 (992, 3352, 28729), males, 30 December 1885; AMNH 83210 (990, 3350, 28727), female, 19 December 1885. These six specimens had inadvertently been cataloged with the W.E.D. Scott Collection when it was purchased by AMNH ( = old AMNH no.) and the catalog is marked “Belong to Mr. Sennett—cataloged here by mistake.” When the Sennett Collection came to AMNH, they were then cataloged with the rest of the Sennett specimens. AMNH 83207 has both legs missing and neither a Scott nor a Sennett label is present; the AMNH label is tied on around the neck. Scott's number was ascertained from the old catalog entry. The holotype of pallidus is the only specimen among all of the above in AMNH that is in full breeding plumage. [Acanthis carduelis britannica Hartert] Acanthis carduelis britannica Hartert, 1903: 68 (Rottingdean, Sussex). Now Carduelis carduelis britannica (Hartert, 1903). See Hartert, 1919a: 156; Hellmayr, 1938: 264; Vaurie, 1959: 608; Dickinson, 2003: 751; and Clement, 2010: 561–562. Comments: In the original description, Hartert gave the number “1100” for the type in the Rothschild Collection, a male, collected at Rottingdean, Sussex, England, in April 1902, by the Brazenor Brothers. Later, he (Hartert, 1919a: 156) listed this type, but omitted any mention of the number “1100.” Hellmayr (1938: 264) noted that the type, formerly in the Rothschild Collection, was in the AMNH, New York, but did not say that he had examined it. As a matter of fact, the holotype did come to AMNH with the Rothschild Collection in 1932, but was one of the types of British birds that was presented to BMNH in 1936. It had been cataloged as AMNH 450918 and now bears BMNH Reg. no. 1936.10.15.14 (Warren and Harrison, 1971: 77). Hartert (1903: 68) noted that he had 66 specimens of britannica but did not give further information that would assist in recognizing them. Certainly the 32 specimens in AMNH collected in Sussex by the Brazenors between December 1888 and April 1902 are paratypes: AMNH 710231–710235, 710237–710260, 710264–710266. Acanthis carduelis africanus Hartert Acanthis carduelis africanus Hartert, 1903: 69 (Mhoiwla bei Mazagan in Marokko). Now Carduelis carduelis parva Tschusi, 1901. See Hartert, 1919a: 156; Vaurie, 1959: 608; Thévenot et al., 2003: 432–434; Dickinson, 2003: 751; Fry and Keith, 2004: 541–543; and Clement, 2010: 561–562. Holotype: AMNH 710336, adult male, collected at Mhoiwla, near Mazagan, 33.15N, 08.30W (Thévenot et al., 2003), Morocco, on 1 February 1902, by F.W. Riggenbach (no. 78). Comments: In the original description, Hartert cited Riggenbach's no. 78 for the holotype and said that he had 17 specimens collected by Riggenbach and himself in Morocco, five from Tunis, one from Aguilas, Spain, and others from Algiers. The following paratypes, collected prior to 1903, came to AMNH with the Rothschild Collection: Mhoiwla, AMNH 710337–710341, five males, February and May 1902, by Riggenbach, AMNH 710345, female, 8 April 1901, by Hartert; Tunis, AMNH 710391, sex?, 19 April 1858, from the Jardine Collection. Spain, Alguilas, AMNH 710326, male, 3 February 1898, Gray Coll. See Hartert (1902c: 310–322; 1902d: 322–339) for an account of his trip. [Linaria americana Wied] Hellmayr (1938: 265) listed this name, introduced by Wied (1858: 338), and said that the type, from the upper Missouri River (winter) in the Wied Collection, was now in AMNH. Allen's (1889c) study of Wied types was based on Wied's Brazilian collection, specimens from which had been purchased for the newly founded AMNH and Linaria americana was thus not mentioned by him. There is an AMNH catalog entry of a mounted bird from the Wied Collection from Missouri at AMNH 3063, with no indication that there was any reason to consider it a type. I have been unable to find this specimen. Linaria Holboellii C.L. Brehm Linaria Holboellii C.L. Brehm, 1831: 280 (Er kommt nur Selten…in das mittlere Deutschland). Now Carduelis flammea flammea (Linnaeus, 1758). See Hartert, 1918: 10; Vaurie, 1959: 617–618; Dickinson, 2003: 751; and Clement, 2010: 564–565. Syntypes: AMNH 456888, male, 21 December 1825; AMNH 456889, adult female, 15 Dcember 1825; AMNH 456890,
wrong_mix_range_leader_00122	FactBench	3	59	https://www.cfr.org/blog/why-has-east-timor-built-strongest-democracy-southeast-asia	en	Why Has East Timor Built the Strongest Democracy in Southeast Asia?	https://cdn.cfr.org/site…orDemocracy.jpeg	https://cdn.cfr.org/site…orDemocracy.jpeg	[ "https://www.cfr.org/themes/custom/cfr_theme/src/assets/images/cfr-coc-icon.png", "https://www.cfr.org/themes/custom/cfr_theme/src/assets/images/cfr-tgh-icon.png", "https://www.cfr.org/themes/custom/cfr_theme/src/assets/images/cfr-store.png", "https://www.cfr.org/themes/custom/cfr_theme/src/assets/images/cfr-coc-icon.png", "https://www.cfr.org/themes/custom/cfr_theme/src/assets/images/cfr-tgh-icon.png", "https://www.cfr.org/themes/custom/cfr_theme/src/assets/images/cfr-store.png", "https://cdn.cfr.org/sites/default/files/styles/slide_3_2/public/image/2021/10/EastTimorDemocracy.webp" ]	[]	[]	[ "Southeast Asia", "Timor-Leste", "Diamonstein-Spielvogel Project on the Future of Democracy" ]	null	[ "Joshua Kurlantzick" ]	2021-10-04T14:51:17-04:00	Despite economic struggles, East Timor has built a vibrant democracy in Southeast Asia.	en	//cdn.cfr.org/themes/custom/cfr_theme/favicon-32x32.png	Council on Foreign Relations	https://www.cfr.org/blog/why-has-east-timor-built-strongest-democracy-southeast-asia	Part of a blog series on Southeast Asian and South Asian Democracy. On the face of it, East Timor would not seem like the most natural place to have built a democracy ranked by Freedom House, in its 2021 edition of Freedom in the World, as “Free.” In fact, this ranking makes East Timor the only country in Southeast Asia, where democracy has been regressing for over a decade, to be ranked “Free” by Freedom House. (I serve as a consultant for some Freedom House reports, but not for the report on East Timor.) More on: Southeast Asia Timor-Leste Diamonstein-Spielvogel Project on the Future of Democracy A wide range of other data and anecdotes suggests how far East Timor has come toward democracy. It has built a solidly free state some two decades after Timor was leveled in the conflict that erupted, in 1999, after over 78 percent of Timorese voted to separate from Indonesia after the end of the Suharto dictatorship. Asia Unbound CFR fellows and other experts assess the latest issues emerging in Asia today. 1-3 times weekly. Eyes on Asia Insights and analysis from CFR fellows on the latest developments across Asia. Monthly. Daily News Brief A summary of global news developments with CFR analysis delivered to your inbox each morning. Weekdays. The World This Week A weekly digest of the latest from CFR on the biggest foreign policy stories of the week, featuring briefs, opinions, and explainers. Every Friday. By entering your email and clicking subscribe, you're agreeing to receive announcements from CFR about our products and services, as well as invitations to CFR events. You are also agreeing to our Privacy Policy and Terms of Use. That 1999 conflict in Timor, led by ravaging militias backed by the Indonesian security forces, not only killed roughly 2,600 but also wrecked much of the infrastructure in tiny Timor, which already was one of the poorest places in Asia. Timor was ravaged again, in 2006, by clashes between its own soldiers and security forces. Timor did rebuild some of its infrastructure, and received significant amounts of foreign aid and a share of the revenues from the petroleum in the Timor Gap. Still, it remains the poorest country in Asia, a far cry from the high rises of Bangkok or Singapore. Indeed, an article by Jonas Guterres, a former advisor to the Office of the Commissioner at the Anti-Corruption Commission of Timor-Leste, notes that: “The 2017 Global Hunger Index categorized the country’s [East Timor’s] hunger levels as ‘serious,’ although over the past decade the hunger level has been reduced from 46.9 percent to 34.3 percent. Levels of malnutrition and stunting remain worryingly high.” And Timor certainly still has massive economic problems. With its share of the oil from the Timor Gap, its biggest earner, eventually going to dwindle, and the small size of Timor and remote location deterring tourism even before COVID-19, it is still searching for more sustainable drivers of the economy. The vast majority of the population is under age thirty, which could be a boon for the work force but also could lead the country to have large numbers of unemployed young men, always a dangerous situation. And yet it has taken several important initiatives to build a consolidated democracy. Timor has brought elections down to the community level as physical infrastructure has improved, and community level elections have increased popular participation in democracy. Overall, both the long independence struggle and more recent efforts by Timorese civil society and leaders have convinced many Timorese of the importance of democracy, and turnout for elections is extremely high. With such public interest, and increasingly improved electoral commissions, elections have been held in recent years with minimal or no violence, and minimal if any irregularities. More on: Southeast Asia Timor-Leste Diamonstein-Spielvogel Project on the Future of Democracy It also has worked hard to ensure that women play a major role in elections and governing. And its constitution and norms have strong protections for civil society and an independent media, a far cry from the recent crackdown on reporters in neighboring states like Myanmar, Thailand, the Philippines, and Cambodia, among other countries in the region. Shoestring but aggressive local media outlets put tough questions to politicians in Timor. Indeed, Freedom House notes that East Timor has held competitive elections and has undergone multiple transfers of power — something that cannot be said about many other Southeast Asian states these days. Freedom House also notes that East Timor boasts independent media, a vibrant civil society, and robust discussion among citizens about the government and other related issues. At a time when Myanmar has been taken over by the army, Indonesia is sliding away from democracy, Philippine president Rodrigo Duterte seems to want to extend his grip on power, and Thailand is run by a military-installed regime, perhaps these Southeast Asian regional powers should look to tiny Timor for how to run a democracy. This publication is part of the Diamonstein-Spielvogel Project on the Future of Democracy.
wrong_mix_range_leader_00122	FactBench	1	40	https://www.oxfam.org/en/what-we-do/countries/timor-leste-east-timor	en	Timor-Leste (East Timor)	https://oi-files-d8-prod…52&itok=YPO2xA2L	https://oi-files-d8-prod…52&itok=YPO2xA2L	[ "https://oi-files-d8-prod.s3.eu-west-2.amazonaws.com/s3fs-public/styles/hero_image_small/public/2019-10/OAU_RS97306_Timor-Leste_1218X812.jpg?h=2eab0552&itok=HhixlqRk", "https://oi-files-d8-prod.s3.eu-west-2.amazonaws.com/s3fs-public/styles/node_teaser_medium/public/summary_pictures/tomatoes-ogb-3000-gilvan-barreto-oxfam-660x440.jpg?h=fadd0d06&itok=ePWBs8Bs" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	2022-05-25T08:20:54+00:00		en	/favicon.ico	Oxfam International	https://www.oxfam.org/en/what-we-do/countries/timor-leste-east-timor	Timor-Leste is the newest country in Asia. A small nation with a young population, this country’s future could be bright – if the challenges of inequality, rural poverty and vulnerability to climate change can be overcome. Timor-Leste is largely an agricultural nation with 75 per cent of its people living in rural areas and reliant on small-scale, subsistence farming for their food and income. Land is largely governed by customary mechanisms and is fundamental to social identity and local worldview. At the national level, while natural oil and gas resources are growing the nation’s economy, the benefits do not always reach where it is most needed. Inequality is most prevalent between rural and urban areas. Many families grow just enough corn, soy beans, fruit or rice to feed themselves, with limited surplus for markets. Deforestation has led to erosion, and climate change is resulting in high temperatures, longer dry seasons and more severe rainfalls in the wet season. Malnutrition and poor health are widespread and most households suffer from food shortages at least one month of the year. We focus on Timor-Leste’s need for rural development to address the issue of poverty and the inequality between rural and urban areas. Oxfam in Timor-Leste For over 40 years during times of crisis, recovery and change, Oxfam has supported the people of Timor-Leste in their journey towards a more prosperous and equal Timor-Leste. Active Citizenship We work with over 20 partners in Timor-Leste to improve the well-being of rural women and men by promoting active citizenship. This is achieved through the strengthening of civil society. We support partners to be part of government consultations and processes, to ensure national policies and practices help poor populations. Sustainable Livelihoods We work with women and men in rural communities across Timor-Leste to adapt their farming techniques to improve their yields of crops, and be better prepared for agriculture in times of disasters brought about by climate change. We help farmers to get their surplus produce to market and increase their incomes. Oxfam’s Savings for Change groups helps women and men to save money, access finance and plan for their futures. Land Inclusive Development We advocate for development processes that provide services and opportunities in a way that lowers inequality, and respect the rights of the poor, marginalized, and vulnerable people of Timor-Leste. Disaster Risk Reduction Communities across Timor-Leste are highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. We are working with our partners to be ready to respond to disasters such as flooding, drought or landslides. When disasters occur, we will ensure vulnerable communities receive timely, appropriate and quality humanitarian assistance.
wrong_mix_range_leader_00122	FactBench	2	9	https://www.facebook.com/schuman.institute/	en	Bei Facebook anmelden	https://static.xx.fbcdn.net/rsrc.php/yv/r/B8BxsscfVBr.ico	https://static.xx.fbcdn.net/rsrc.php/yv/r/B8BxsscfVBr.ico	[ "https://static.xx.fbcdn.net/rsrc.php/y1/r/4lCu2zih0ca.svg", "https://facebook.com/security/hsts-pixel.gif?c=3.2.5" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	Melde dich bei Facebook an, um dich mit deinen Freunden, deiner Familie und Personen, die du kennst, zu verbinden und Inhalte zu teilen.	de	https://static.xx.fbcdn.net/rsrc.php/yv/r/B8BxsscfVBr.ico	Facebook	https://www.facebook.com/login/web/
wrong_mix_range_leader_00122	FactBench	1	56	https://mj.gov.tl/jornal/lawsTL/index-e.htm	en	East Timor Legislation			[]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null					null
wrong_mix_range_leader_00122	FactBench	1	57	https://www.kas.de/en/web/indonesien/about-us	en	Foundation Office Indonesia and East Timor	https://www.kas.de/o/kas…mediaquadrat.png	https://www.kas.de/o/kas…mediaquadrat.png	[ "https://www.kas.de/o/kas-de-theme/images/KAS_Logo_Original.png", "https://www.kas.de/o/kas-de-theme/images/KAS_Logo_Bildmarke.png", "https://www.kas.de/o/kas-de-theme/images/header/worldmap.png", "https://www.kas.de/o/kas-de-theme/images/header/worldmap.png", "https://www.kas.de/o/adaptive-media/image/29623810/hd-resolution/KAS+Indonesia+and+East+Timor+Team.jpg?t=1707308019752", "https://www.kas.de/o/kas-de-theme/images/icons/facebook_icon.png", "https://www.kas.de/o/kas-de-theme/images/icons/twitter_icon_new.png", "https://www.kas.de/o/kas-de-theme/images/icons/xing_icon.png", "https://www.kas.de/o/kas-de-theme/images/icons/linkedin_icon.jpg", "https://www.kas.de/o/adaptive-media/image/29888923/hd-resolution/Kemendagri.jpg?t=1709257143976", "https://www.kas.de/o/adaptive-media/image/512701/hd-resolution/7_partner_bild_941.jpg?t=1539635332997", "https://www.kas.de/o/adaptive-media/image/512639/hd-resolution/7_partner_bild_949.jpg?t=1539635331879", "https://www.kas.de/o/adaptive-media/image/518777/hd-resolution/7_partner_bild_38.jpg?t=1539635443197", "https://www.kas.de/o/adaptive-media/image/29890744/hd-resolution/Jimly.jpg?t=1709273479262", "https://www.kas.de/o/adaptive-media/image/29889326/hd-resolution/YPB.jpg?t=1709259078890", "https://www.kas.de/o/adaptive-media/image/3135695/hd-resolution/logo+CSIS.jpg?t=1540865848554", "https://www.kas.de/o/adaptive-media/image/29488598/hd-resolution/FPCI.jpg?t=1705384737190", "https://www.kas.de/o/adaptive-media/image/29480656/hd-resolution/B-Trust.jpg?t=1705299050395", "https://www.kas.de/o/adaptive-media/image/29753843/hd-resolution/PIER+%281%29.jpeg?t=1708324679962", "https://www.kas.de/o/adaptive-media/image/30190052/hd-resolution/The+Habibie+Center.jpg?t=1711327814313", "https://www.kas.de/o/kas-de-theme/images/icons/facebook_icon.png", "https://www.kas.de/o/kas-de-theme/images/icons/twitter_icon_new.png", "https://www.kas.de/o/kas-de-theme/images/icons/xing_icon.png", "https://www.kas.de/o/kas-de-theme/images/icons/linkedin_icon.jpg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	About us	en	https://www.kas.de/o/kas…avicon-96x96.png	Foundation Office Indonesia and East Timor	https://www.kas.de/en/web/indonesien/about-us	Welcome Freedom, justice and solidarity are the basic principles underlying the work of the Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung (KAS). The KAS is a political foundation associated with the Christian Democratic Union of Germany (CDU). As co-founder of the CDU and the first Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany, Konrad Adenauer (1876-1967) united Christian-social, conservative and liberal traditions. His name is synonymous with the democratic reconstruction of Germany, the firm alignment of foreign policy with the trans-Atlantic community of values, the vision of a unified Europe and an orientation towards the social market economy. His intellectual heritage continues to serve both as our aim as well as our obligation today. In our European and international cooperation efforts we work for people to be able to live self-determined lives in freedom and dignity. We make a contribution underpinned by values to helping Germany meet its growing responsibilities throughout the world. We encourage people to lend a hand in shaping the future along these lines. With more than 80 offices abroad and projects in over 120 countries, we make a unique contribution to the promotion of democracy, the rule of law and a social market economy. To foster peace and freedom we encourage a continuous dialog at the national and international levels as well as the exchange between cultures and religions. Human beings in their distinctive dignity and with their rights and responsibilities are at the heart of our work. We are guided by the conviction that human beings are the starting point in the effort to bring about social justice and democratic freedom while promoting sustainable economic activity. By bringing people together who embrace their responsibilities in society, we develop active networks in the political and economic spheres as well as in society itself. The guidance we provide on the basis of our political know-how and knowledge helps to shape the globalization process along more socially equitable, ecologically sustainable and economically efficient lines. We cooperate with governmental institutions, political parties, civil society organizations and handpicked elites, building strong partnerships along the way. In particular we seek to intensify political cooperation in the area of development cooperation at the national and international levels on the foundations of our objectives and values. Together with our partners we make a contribution to the creation of an international order that enables every country to develop in freedom and under its own responsibility. The KAS Indonesia Office has been established in 1968 and looks back on a long history of bilateral cooperation and understanding. In 2002 we have expanded our activities and are since then covering East-Timor/Timor-Leste from our office in Jakarta. The KAS Indonesia and East-Timor currently focuses on three areas of operation: Political Parties and Parliament Democracy, the Rule of Law and Civil Society Social Market Economy In our work we feel committed to three guiding principles: Firstly, we strive to conduct activities in all 33 provinces of the county. This decentralised approach helps us to take the country’s geographic, religious, ethnic and cultural heterogeneity and diversity into account. Secondly, every activity (seminar, workshop etc.) is being held in close cooperation with a local partner organization such as Think Tanks, NGOs, universities and state/official authorities. Tremendously adding to our knowledge this ensures that specific needs and necessities of the respective place and people/participants are met in our activities. At last this leads to increased efficiency of the work of KAS in Indonesia. Thirdly, while democracy promotion being the overall aim of KAS Indonesia and Timor-Leste, we do not try to copy and paste any forms of government or social and political systems that might be working in Europe or the western world. Trough its activities, seminars and workshops KAS rather submits an offer to cooperatively work on the further democratic and constitutional development of Indonesia taking into account the country’s very own preconditions. KAS Indonesia and Timor-Leste would like to extend a warm welcome to all of you. Should you have any questions, please do not hesitate to contact us anytime.
wrong_mix_range_leader_00122	FactBench	2	14	https://www.encyclopedia.com/books/politics-and-business-magazines/marten-transport-ltd	en	Marten Transport, Ltd.			[ "https://www.encyclopedia.com/themes/custom/trustme/images/header-logo.jpg" ]	[]	[]	[ "Marten Transport", "Ltd.\n129 Marten StreetMondovi", "Wisconsin 54755U.S.A.Telephone: (715) 926-4216Toll Free: (800) 395-3000Fax: (715) 926-5609Web site: https://www.marten.com" ]	null	[]	null	Marten Transport, Ltd. 129 Marten StreetMondovi, Wisconsin 54755U.S.A.Telephone: (715) 926-4216Toll Free: (800) 395-3000Fax: (715) 926-5609Web site: https://www.marten.com Source for information on Marten Transport, Ltd.: International Directory of Company Histories dictionary.	en	/sites/default/files/favicon.ico		https://www.encyclopedia.com/books/politics-and-business-magazines/marten-transport-ltd	129 Marten Street Mondovi, Wisconsin 54755 U.S.A. Telephone: (715) 926-4216 Toll Free: (800) 395-3000 Fax: (715) 926-5609 Web site: http://www.marten.com Public Company Incorporated: 1946 Employees: 2,440 Sales: $460.2 million (2005) Stock Exchanges: NASDAQ Ticker Symbol: MRTN NAIC: 484230 Specialized Freight (Except Used Goods) Trucking, Long-Distance Marten Transport, Ltd., is a long-haul trucking company that concentrates on temperature-sensitive shipments of food and consumer packaged goods, operating in parts of Canada and throughout the United States. Based in Mondovi, Wisconsin, Marten mostly makes trips averaging 950 miles from the Midwest to the East Coast, Southeast, Southwest, and West Coast. In addition, the company's Ontario, California, terminal handles shipments to the Pacific Northwest. Other terminals are located in Wilsonville, Oregon; Indianapolis, Indiana; and Forest Park, Georgia. Customers include many Fortune 500 companies, such as General Mills, Kraft, and Procter & Gamble. Marten's company-owned and independent contractor fleet is comprised of more than 2,600 tractors and 3,400 trailers. The company is known for the high quality of its equipment and a willingness to invest in state-of-the-art equipment, which includes an advanced satellite tracking system that helps Marten to not only keep tabs on the location of its trucks but also remotely monitor the temperature of the loads. In addition, Marten offers logistics services and works with customers to find ways to cut down on driver detention at loading docks. Customers that work with Marten to reduce those times are given price breaks, while others are subject to price increases. The company also operates its own video production unit to create promotion, safety, and training videos. While Marten is a public company listed on the NASDAQ, it remains family run and is known for its fair treatment of drivers and independent contractors, resulting in driver retention rates significantly higher than the industry average. Chairman and chief executive Randy Marten owns about one-quarter of the business, and his sister, Christine K. Marten, is the other large shareholder and a director of the company. POST–WORLD WAR II ROOTS Marten Transport was founded in Mondovi by 17-year-old Wisconsin native Roger R. Marten in 1946 when he borrowed $400 from his mother to buy a 1940 Chevrolet truck and begin hauling milk for the Modena Co-Op Creamery. A hard worker with an entrepreneurial spirit, Marten not only expanded his milk delivery routes, he bought and drove school buses. In 1956 he purchased his first tractor-trailer and began hauling petroleum products out of Durand, Wisconsin, for Bauer Built. He essentially doubled the size of his business in one stroke in 1959 by acquiring Mondovi Trucking Inc. A turning point for Marten came in 1962 when the Land O'Lakes milk cooperative closed its drying operation in Mondovi, forcing the cooperative to haul milk produced in the area to other locations. Marten won the contract, added a pair of tractor-trailers, and enjoyed the fruits of what would become a long-term relationship between the two companies. Around this time, Marten looked to build on its success as a regional carrier and began taking on interstate jobs, at first serving Midwest customers that needed to make shipments to the West Coast. To support its growth the company opened a one-bay garage in Mondovi in 1965 to service the trucks, thus laying the foundation for Marten's first terminal. Dry vans were also purchased around this time to haul dry milk products. It was also in 1965 that 13-year-old Randy Marten began working for his father. At first he washed trucks. He then took on other maintenance chores, such as changing oil and repairing tires. He also did some dispatch work, and when he was not busy at the terminal, he would go to his grandfather's farm to milk cows, bale hay, and cultivate corn. "I got to know what it was like to be real broke," he recalled in an interview with Heavy Duty Trucking. He continued, "I got to know what it was like to live with people who bet everything they had and worked 20 hours a day to make their company go. I was brought up with that." Randy Marten enrolled at the University of Wisconsin in Eau Claire, graduating in 1974 with a degree in business management. He immediately went to work for his father, who provided him with an MBA. "That stands for major boot in the ass in Wisconsin," Marten told Heavy Duty Trucking, noting that his father was forever telling him that he had no idea what really tough times were like, prompting the son to reply, "What do you want me to do, create a depression so I can have a hard time?" Nevertheless, the two worked well together in growing the family trucking business, with the younger man filling in wherever necessary, whether that meant calling on customers or driving a truck. Two years before the younger Marten returned home from college, the company acquired six new trucks and expanded its long-distance milk hauling business, adding runs to the east to Ohio and Pennsylvania, and the southeast to Florida. In 1976 Marten moved beyond milk to become involved in the long-haul business for perishable foods using refrigerated trailers. This was accomplished through the acquisition of Winona, Minnesota-based Hiawatha Produce, laying the foundation for the company's current temperature-sensitive shipping business. Because the company had been a shoestring affair in the beginning and could not afford the services of lawyers, Roger Marten did not seek operating authority to haul regulated commodities, nor did his company have the size to compete against the protective trucking outfits that had operating authority. As a result, Marten Transport made its way in what Randy Marten would call the jungle of unregulated trucking, but when deregulation of the trucking industry arrived in 1980, the company was well prepared to prosper under the new competitive conditions. As deregulation approached, Marten bought operating authority from other companies and jump-started the business. The hauler also benefitted from consolidation in the grocery field, which gave rise to large supermarket chains and the advent of warehouse clubs and other large discounters. Rather than being contracted to haul a few pallets, Marten could contract entire truckloads. Just to accommodate the needs of one customer, Marten bought 15 47-foot trailers in 1983. With business to the West Coast expanding, the company opened its Ontario, California, terminal in 1985. IPO: 1986 As a way to support further growth, Marten went public in September 1986, selling $13 million in stock. Some of that money would be put to use the next year to install an Electronic Data Interchange system that allowed Marten to better exchange information with its high-volume customers. Randy Marten, who had been a director and vice president of the company since 1980, was named president of the newly public company, while his father remained very much involved as chairman of the board. COMPANY PERSPECTIVES With more than half a century of experience Marten Transport, Ltd., continues to push forward. The company has grown from a small, regional carrier into one of today's leading national protective service transportation companies. The 1980s offered a strong period of growth for the company, with revenues increasing from $8.8 million in 1981 to $73.3 million in 1989. Marten tried to expand its dry transport business in the second half of the decade, but this strategy proved unwise and a drag on earnings. It was also a major factor in the company posting a $1.4 million loss in 1989. Marten exited the dry haul business, electing instead in 1989 to concentrate on the temperature-sensitive shipping business, which was generally immune to downturns in the economy. After all, whether times were good or bad, people still had to eat. The year 1989 also saw the opening of a terminal in Aurora, Oregon. At the start of the 1990s Marten's fleet included some 600 tractors and 800 trailers. Although the price of the company's stock slipped, the company continued to grow revenues, which topped the $100 million mark in 1993. In the meantime, Roger Marten's health became a concern. In the fall of 1992 he became noticeably forgetful and began exhibiting troubling symptoms, soon losing control of movement and speech. He went to Reno, Nevada, for treatment, where he died in August 1993 at the age of 66. His death was attributed to Pick's disease, a rare brain disorder, but a decade later the circumstance of his death would come under question. One of Marten's hunting companions, with whom he enjoyed wild-game feasts, died of an even rarer brain disorder in 1993, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD), which could easily be misdiagnosed as Pick's disease. When a third friend died of CJD six years later, rumors began to spread that there was a connection to the three deaths. All three men had shared venison that could have been affected by chronic wasting disease carried in Wisconsin deer. By 2002 the concern was so great that the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention believed the matter warranted an investigation. However, the agency eventually ruled that none of the men died of chronic wasting disease. Randy Marten and his sister, Christine, inherited their father's share in the business, and Randy assumed the chairmanship in addition to his role as CEO. He oversaw the continued growth of the company. The corporate offices added 15,000 square feet of space in 1993, the same year that the Jonesboro, Georgia, terminal opened. He also continued to take steps to improve efficiency and thereby increase profitability. In particular, the company wanted to determine the complete time involved in completing a shipment, including load time, which is especially important when a shipping company uses expensive refrigerated trailers. What was lacking in the effort to calculate the time was accurate live data. In 1993 Marten installed satellite tracking in all of its vehicles. Finally the company had all the information necessary, and once it was gathered and analyzed, Marten was able to approach customers with the data and offer to work with them to eliminate wasteful practices that cost both parties money, and penalized drivers who had to wait around instead of putting on miles and earning their pay. Although it took several years before Marten was able to iron out all the details in this logistical consulting business, it was worth the effort, despite the loss of some customers who resisted changing their practices. Eliminating detention time during delivery became a major factor in Marten's excellent record of driver retention, another factor that helped improved profitability. Marten acquired an Oregon maintenance facility in 1995 to strengthen its presence in the Northwest. The company's fleet of tractors also topped the 1,000 mark. Business grew at a steady clip in the second half of the 1990s. Revenues totaled $137.7 million in 1995, with $5 million in net income. In 1999 those numbers improved to $219.2 million in sales and nearly $8.5 million in net income. All the while, Marten made significant investments in new equipment, continually modernizing the fleet, and installing new high-tech systems. In 1995 the company made the decision to begin using 53-foot trailers, and by the end of the 1990s almost all of the fleet had been converted and averaged just two years of age. The company-owned tractors were only 1.6 years old on average. In 1999 Marten spent $40 million in improvements, mostly related to equipment. Also in 1999, Marten installed a new optimization system to improve routing to supplement its satellite tracking systems, global positioning equipment, and networked computer systems. KEY DATES 1946: Roger Marten starts a delivery business. 1956: Marten buys his first tractor-trailer. 1965: The company's first terminal opens in Mondovi, Wisconsin. 1974: Randy Marten joins the company full time. 1986: The company goes public. 1993: Roger Marten dies. 2002: Bluebird Productions is established. 2004: Marten's Indianapolis terminal opens. NEW GEORGIA TERMINAL: 2000 In 2000 Marten relocated its Jonesboro, Georgia, terminal to a larger and better equipped facility in Forest Park, Georgia. For the year Marten invested nearly $46 million in upgrading the company, with most of the money again devoted to new revenue-producing equipment. Revenues continued to increase at a healthy pace, growing 19 percent to $260.8 million in 2000. Perhaps the most significant problem the company faced was finding enough qualified drivers, a situation confronting the trucking industry in general. Marten did better than most in this regard, by offering better than average terms and making a concerted effort to maintain good relationships with company drivers and private contractors. Marten spent more money on high-tech equipment in 2001, adding video conferencing equipment in order to provide orientation, training, and seminars to drivers at its various terminal locations. A year later Marten launched Bluebird Products, an in-house video production unit stocked with the latest digital equipment and computer-based nonlinear editing systems, to produce the company's own training and promotional materials. While many trucking companies suffered from a downturn in the economy in the early 2000s, Marten's focus on the temperature-sensitive business provided a buffer. The company had one of the highest equipment utilization levels in the industry, allowing it to continue to post revenue records each year. Sales reached $380 million in 2004 while net income improved to $17.5 million. The average age of the fleet also decreased, with the average age of tractor falling from 1.9 years at the start of the year to 1.4 years by the end. The year also saw another 11,000 square feet added to the corporate headquarters and the opening of new terminal in Indianapolis, a move that helped spur business in the region and aided the company in a bid to recruit drivers in the area. A driver shortage, in fact, was about the only thing slowing down Marten's growth. Nevertheless, the company again posted record results in 2005, when it generated $460.2 million in revenues and $25.1 million in earnings. There was no third generation of the Marten family being groomed to one day take charge, because neither Randy Marten nor his sister had children. To prepare for the future, the company conducted a secondary offering of stock to put more shares in the public's hands. Randy Marten also took steps to make sure that all key positions in the company were well staffed, generally with people in their 50s and 60s in charge and backups in their 30s preparing for future responsibilities. Still in his early 50s, Randy Marten had no plans on retiring for some time to come. Ed Dinger PRINCIPAL SUBSIDIARIES MW Logistics, LLC (45%); Bluebird Productions. PRINCIPAL COMPETITORS C. R. England, Inc.; Frozen Food Express Industries, Inc.; Prime Inc. FURTHER READING "CEO Interview: Marten Transport Ltd.," Wall Street Transcript, December 27, 1993. Doherty, Chuck, "Marten Transport Trucks Toward Profitable Future," Milwaukee Sentinel, November 21, 1990, p. 4-1. Lockridge, Deborah, "Randy Marten," Heavy Duty Trucking, January 2005. Machalaba, Daniel, "Trucking Firm Rewards Clients' Good Behavior," Startup Journal (Wall Street Journal Online), Enterprise Section, September 11, 2003.
wrong_mix_range_leader_00122	FactBench	3	58	https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/East_Timor_2002	en	Leste 2002 Constitution	https://www.constitutepr…social-bgs/1.jpg	https://www.constitutepr…social-bgs/1.jpg	[]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	Timor-Leste's Constitution of 2002	en	/static/v1-2-7-1693309671/images/favicon.ico		https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/East_Timor_2002	TITLE I. GENERAL PRINCIPLES Article 16. Universality and Equality All citizens are equal before the law, shall exercise the same rights and shall be subject to the same duties. General guarantee of equality, Equality regardless of nationality, Equality regardless of race, Equality regardless of gender, Equality regardless of origin, Equality regardless of religion, Equality for persons with disabilities No one may be discriminated against on grounds of color, race, marital status, gender, ethnic origin, social or economic status, political or ideological convictions, religion, education or physical or mental condition. Equality regardless of gender Article 17. Equality Between Women and Men Women and men have the same rights and duties in all areas of political, economic, social, cultural and family life. Article 18. Child Protection Rights of children, State support for children Children are entitled to special protection by the family, the community and the State, particularly against all forms of abandonment, discrimination, violence, oppression, sexual abuse and exploitation. International law Children shall enjoy all rights that are universally recognized, as well as all those that are enshrined in international conventions normally ratified or approved by the State. Rights or duties of parents Every child born in or outside wedlock shall enjoy the same rights and social protection. Article 19. Youth The State shall promote and encourage youth initiatives towards the consolidation of national unity, reconstruction, defense and development of the country. The State shall promote education, health and vocational training for the youth as may be practicable. State support for the elderly Article 20. Old Age All old age citizens have the right to special protection by the State. The old age policy entails measures of economic, social and cultural nature designed to provide the elderly with opportunities for personal achievement through active and signifying participation in the community. State support for the disabled Article 21. Disabled Citizen A disabled citizen shall enjoy the same rights and shall be subject to the same duties as all other citizens, except for the rights and duties which they are unable to exercise or fulfill due to their disability. The State shall promote the protection of disabled citizens as may be practicable and in accordance with the law. Article 22. East Timorese Citizens Overseas East Timorese citizens who are or live overseas enjoy protection by the State for the exercise of their rights and are subject to duties not incompatible with their absence from the country. International human rights treaties Article 23. Interpretation of Fundamental Rights Fundamental rights enshrined in the Constitution shall not exclude any other rights provided for by the law and shall be interpreted in accordance with the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Article 24. Restrictive Laws Restriction of rights, freedoms and guarantees can only be imposed by law in order to safeguard other constitutionally protected rights or interests and in cases clearly provided for by the Constitution. Laws restricting rights, freedoms and guarantees have necessarily a general and abstract nature and may not reduce the extent and scope of the essential contents of constitutional provisions and shall not have a retroactive effect. Emergency provisions Article 25. State of Exception Suspension of the exercise of fundamental rights, freedoms and guarantees shall only take place if a state of siege or a state of emergency has been declared as provided for by the Constitution. A state of siege or a state of emergency shall only be declared in case of actual or impending aggression by a foreign force, of serious disturbance or threat of serious disturbance to the democratic constitutional order, or of public calamity. A declaration of a state of siege or a state of emergency shall be substantiated, specifying rights, freedoms and guarantees the exercise of which is to be suspended. A suspension cannot be extended for more than thirty days, without prejudice of possible justified renewal, when absolutely necessary, for equal periods of time. In no case shall a declaration of a state of siege affect the right to life, physical integrity, citizenship, non-retroactivity of the criminal law, defense in a criminal case and freedom of conscience and religion, the right not to be subjected to torture, slavery or servitude, the right not to be subjected to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment, and the guarantee of non-discrimination. Authorities are obligated to restore constitutional normality as soon as possible. Article 26. Access to Courts Access to courts is guaranteed to all for the defense of their legally protected rights and interests. Justice shall not be denied for insufficiency of economic means. Ombudsman Article 27. The "Ombudsman" (The Defender of Human Rights and Justice) The Ombudsman is an independent organ in charge to examine and seek to settle citizens' complaints against public bodies, certify the conformity of the acts with the law, prevent and initiate the whole process to remedy injustices. Citizens may present complaints concerning acts or omissions on the part of public bodies to the Ombudsman, who shall undertake a review, without power of decision, and shall forward recommendations to the competent organs as deemed necessary. The Ombudsman shall be appointed by the National Parliament by absolute majority votes of its members for a term of office of four years. The activity the Ombudsman shall be independent from any means of grace and legal remedies as provided for in the Constitution and the law. Administrative organs and public servants have the duty to collaborate with the Ombudsman. Article 28. Right to Resistance and Self-Defense All citizens have the right to disobey and to resist illegal orders or orders that affect their fundamental rights, freedoms and guarantees. The right to self-defense is guaranteed to all, in accordance with the law. TITLE II. RIGHTS, FREEDOMS AND PERSONAL GUARANTEES Article 29. Right to Life Human life is inviolable. Right to life The State recognizes and guarantees the right to life. Prohibition of capital punishment There is to be no death penalty in the Democratic Republic of East Timor. Article 30. Right to Freedom, Security and Personal Integrity All have the right to freedom, security and personal integrity. No one shall be arrested or detained, except under the terms clearly provided for by applicable law, and the order of arrest or detention should always be presented for consideration by the competent judge within the legal time frame. Right to counsel Any individual who is deprived of freedom shall be immediately informed, in a clear and precise manner, of the reasons for the detention or arrest, as well as of their rights, and allowed to contact a lawyer, directly or through a relative or a trusted person. Prohibition of torture, Prohibition of cruel treatment No one shall be subjected to torture and cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment. Article 31. Application of Criminal Law Principle of no punishment without law No one can be subjected to trial, except in accordance with the law. Protection from ex post facto laws No one can be tried and convicted for an act that does not qualify in the law as a criminal offence at the moment it was committed, nor endure security measures the provisions of which are not expressly established in previous law. Protection from ex post facto laws Penalties or security measures not expressly provided for by law at the moment the criminal offence was committed cannot be enforced. Prohibition of double jeopardy No one can be tried and convicted for the same criminal offense more than once. Criminal law cannot be enforced retroactively, except when the new law is in favor of the accused. Protection from false imprisonment Anyone who has been unjustly convicted has the right to a fair compensation in accordance with the law. Article 32. Limits on Sentences and Security Measures In the Democratic Republic of East Timor, there is no perpetual imprisonment nor security measures for unlimited or indefinite duration. In case of danger as a result of mental illness, security measures may be successively extended by judicial decision. Criminal liability is not susceptible to transmission. Persons who are subjected, on conviction, to a sentence or a security measure involving loss of freedom remain entitled to fundamental rights, subject to the limitations that necessarily derive from that conviction and from the requirements for its enforcement. Article 33. Habeas Corpus Protection from unjustified restraint Any person who is illegally deprived of freedom has the right to apply for habeas corpus. An application for habeas corpus shall be made in accordance with the law by the detainee or by any other person in the exercise of their civil rights. The court shall rule on the application for habeas corpus within eight days at a hearing in the presence of both parties. Article 34. Guarantees in Criminal Proceedings Presumption of innocence in trials Everyone charged with an offence is presumed innocent until convicted. Right to counsel An accused person has the right to select, and be assisted by a lawyer at all states of the proceedings and the law shall determine the circumstances for which the presence of the lawyer is obligatory. Right to fair trial, Right to counsel Every individual is guaranteed the inviolable right of a hearing and defense in criminal proceedings. Regulation of evidence collection Evidence is of no effect if obtained by torture, coercion, infringement of the physical or moral integrity of the individual, or wrongful interference with private life, the domicile, correspondence or other forms of communication. Extradition procedure Article 35. Extradition and Expulsion Extradition shall only take place based on a court decision. Extradition on political grounds is prohibited. Extradition in respect of offences punishable, under the law of the requesting State, by death penalty or life imprisonment or whenever there are grounds to assume that the person to be extradited may be subjected to torture and inhuman, degrading and cruel treatment, shall not be permitted. An East Timorese national shall not be expelled or expatriated from the national territory. Right to privacy, Right to protect one's reputation Article 36. Right to Honor and Privacy All individuals have the right to honor, good name and reputation, protection of their public image and privacy of their personal and family life. Article 37. Inviolability of the Domicile and Correspondence Regulation of evidence collection The domicile, the correspondence and the privacy of and other means of communication are inviolable, except in cases provided for by law as a result of criminal proceedings. Any person's home shall not be entered against their will, except under the written order of a competent judicial authority and in the cases and manner prescribed by law. Entry into any person's home at night against their will is expressly prohibited, except in case of serious threat to life or physical integrity of somebody inside the home. Article 38. Protection of Personal Data All citizens have the right to access personal data stored in a computer system or entered into mechanical or manual records regarding them, and may require their rectification and actualization, and have the right to know their purpose. The law determines the concept of personal data, as well as the conditions applicable to the processing thereof. The processing of personal data on private life, political and philosophical convictions, religious faith, party or trade union membership and ethnical origin, without the consent of the interested person, is prohibited. Article 39. Family, Marriage and Maternity The State protects the family as the society's basic unit and condition for the harmonious development of the person. Right to found a family All have the right to establish and live in a family. Provision for matrimonial equality Marriage is based upon free consent by the parties and on terms of full equality of rights between spouses, in accordance with the law. Maternity is dignified and protected, and special protection shall be guaranteed to all women during pregnancy and after delivery and working women shall have the right to be exempted from the workplace for an adequate period before and after delivery, without loss of remuneration or any other benefits, in accordance with the law. Article 40. Freedom of Expression and Information Freedom of expression All persons have the right to freedom of expression and the right to inform and be informed impartially. Freedom of expression, Freedom of press The exercise of freedom of expression and information cannot be limited by any type of censorship. The exercise of rights and liberties referred to in this Article is regulated by law based on the imperative of respect for the Constitution and the dignity of the human person. Article 41. Freedom of the Press and Means of Social Communication Freedom of press Freedom of the press and other means of social communication is guaranteed. Freedom of press Freedom of the press comprises, namely, the freedom of expression and creativity for journalists, the access to information sources, editorial freedom, protection of independence and professional confidentiality, and the right to create newspapers, publications and other means of diffusion. A monopoly on the means of social communication is not permitted. The State guarantees the freedom and independence of the public organs of social communication from political and economic powers. Television, Radio The State guarantees the existence of a public radio and television service that is impartial in order to, among other objectives, protect and disseminate the culture and the traditional values of the Democratic Republic of East Timor and guarantee the expression of different opinions. Radio and television stations can operate only under a license, in accordance with the law. Freedom of assembly Article 42. Freedom of Assembly and Manifestation All are guaranteed the freedom to assemble peacefully and unarmed, without a need of prior authorization. To all is recognized the right of manifestation in accordance with the law. Freedom of association Article 43. Freedom of Association To all is guaranteed the freedom of association provided that the association is not intended to promote violence and is in accordance with the law. No one can be compelled to join an association or to remain in it against their will. Terrorism The establishment of armed, military or paramilitary associations, including organizations of a racist or xenophobic nature or that promote terrorism, is prohibited. Freedom of movement Article 44. Freedom of Movement Every individual has the right to move freely and to settle anywhere in the national territory. Every citizen is guaranteed the right to emigrate freely, as well as the rights to return to the country. Article 45. Freedom of Conscience, Religion and Worship Separation of church and state, Freedom of religion, Freedom of opinion/thought/conscience To all is guaranteed the freedom of conscience, religion and worship and the religious denominations that are separated from the State. Freedom of religion No one can be persecuted or discriminated against on the basis of their religious convictions. Right to conscientious objection The right to be a conscientious objector is guaranteed in accordance with the law. The freedom to teach any religion in the framework of the respective religious denomination is guaranteed. Article 46. Right to Political Participation Every citizen has the right to participate in the political life and in the public affairs of the country, either directly or through democratically elected representatives. Right to form political parties Every citizen has the right to establish and to participate in political parties. The establishment and organization of political parties shall be regulated by law. Article 47. Right to Vote Restrictions on voting Every citizen over the age of seventeen has the right to vote and to be elected. The exercise of the right to vote is personal and constitutes a civic duty. Right of petition Article 48. Right to Petition Every citizen has the right to present, individually or jointly with others, petitions, complaints and claims to organs of sovereignty or any authority for the purpose of defending their rights, the Constitution, the law or general interests. Article 49. Defense of Sovereignty Every citizen has the right and the duty to contribute towards the defense of independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity of the country. Service in the army takes place in accordance with the law. TITLE III. ECONOMIC, SOCIAL AND CULTURAL RIGHTS AND DUTIES Article 50. Right to Work Right to choose occupation, Right to work, Duty to work Every citizen, regardless of gender, has the right and the duty to work and to choose freely his or her profession. Right to safe work environment, Right to rest and leisure The worker has the right to labor safety and hygiene, remuneration, rest and vacation. Dismissal without just cause or on political, religious and ideological grounds is prohibited. Prohibition of slavery Compulsory work, without prejudice to the cases provided for under penal legislation, is prohibited. The State shall promote the establishment of co-operatives of production and shall lend support to household businesses as sources of employment. Right to strike Article 51. Right to Strike and Prohibition of Lock-Out The workers have the right to resort to strike, the exercise of which shall be regulated by law. The law defines the conditions under which services are provided, during a strike, that are necessary for the safety and maintenance of equipment and facilities, as well as minimum services that are necessary to meet essential social needs. Lock-out is prohibited. Right to join trade unions Article 52. Trade Union Freedom Every worker has the right to form or join trade unions and professional associations in defense of their rights and interests. Trade union freedom is sub-divided, namely, into freedom of establishment, freedom of membership and freedom of organization and internal regulation. Trade unions and trade union associations shall be independent of the State and the employers. Protection of consumers Article 53. Consumer Rights Consumers have the right to goods and services of good quality, to truthful information and protection of their health, safety and economic interests, and to reparation for damages. Advertising is regulated by law, and all forms of concealed, indirect or misleading advertising are prohibited. Article 54. Right to Private Property Right to transfer property, Right to own property Every individual has the right to private property and can transfer it during their lifetime or on death, in accordance with the law. Private property shall not be used to the detriment of its social function. Protection from expropriation The requisitioning and expropriation of property for public purposes shall only take place following fair compensation in accordance with the law. Only national citizens have the right to ownership of land. Duty to pay taxes Article 55. Obligations of the Taxpayer Every citizen with a certified income has the duty to pay tax in order to contribute to public revenues, in accordance with the law. Article 56. Social Security and Assistance All citizens are entitled to social assistance and security in accordance with the law. The State shall promote, in accordance with its national resources, to the organization of a social security system. The State supports and supervises the activity and the functioning of institutions of social solidarity and other non-profit institutions of recognized public interest, in accordance with the law. Right to health care Article 57. Health All have the right to health and medical care, and the duty to protect and promote them. The State promotes the establishment of a national health service that is universal and general. The national health service shall be free of charge in accordance with the possibilities of the State and in conformity with the law. The national health service shall have, as much as possible, a decentralized participatory management. Right to shelter Article 58. Housing All have the right to housing for themselves and their family, of adequate size that meets satisfactory standards of hygiene and comfort and preserves personal intimacy and family privacy. Article 59. Education and Culture Compulsory education, Free education The State recognizes and guarantees that every citizen has the right to education and culture, and it is incumbent upon it to promote the establishment of a public system of universal and compulsory basic education that is free of charge in accordance with its possibilities and in conformity with the law. Everyone has the right to equal opportunities and education and vocational training. The State recognizes and supervises private and co-operative education. Reference to art The State shall ensure the access of every citizen, in accordance to their abilities, to the highest levels of education, scientific research and artistic creativity. Right to culture Everyone has the right to cultural enjoyment and creativity and the duty to preserve, protect and value cultural heritage. Provisions for intellectual property Article 60. Intellectual Property The State guarantees and protects the creation, production and commercialization of literary, scientific and artistic work, including the legal protection of the rights of authors. Protection of environment Article 61. Environment All have the right to a humane, healthy, and ecologically balanced environment and the duty to protect it and improve it for the benefit of the future generations. The State recognizes the need to preserve and rationalize natural resources. The State shall promote actions aimed at protecting the environment and safeguarding the sustainable development of the economy. TITLE I. GENERAL PRINCIPLES Article 62. Source and Exercise of Political Power Political power emanates from the people and is exercised in accordance with the terms of the Constitution. Article 63. Participation by Citizens in Political Life Direct and active participation by men and women in political life constitutes a requirement of, and a fundamental instrument for, the democratic system. The law promotes equality in the exercise of civil and political rights and nondiscrimination on the basis of gender for access to political positions. Article 64. Principle of Renewal No one shall hold any political office for life, or for indeterminate periods of time. Article 65. Elections Secret ballot, Municipal government, Claim of universal suffrage Elected organs of sovereignty and of local government shall be chosen by free, direct, secret, personal and regular universal suffrage. Registration of voters is compulsory and officially initiated, single and universal, to be updated for each election. Electoral campaigns shall be conducted in accordance with the following principles: freedom to canvass (liberdade de propaganta eleitoral); equality of opportunity and of treatment for all candidacies; impartiality towards candidacies on the part of public entities; transparency and supervision of electoral expenditures. Conversion of the votes into mandates shall observe the principle of proportional representation. The electoral process is regulated by law. The supervision of voters' registration and electoral acts shall be incumbent upon an independent organ, whose competences, composition, organization and functioning shall be established by law. Referenda Article 66. Referendum Voters who are registered in the national territory may be called upon to express their opinions in a referendum on issues of relevant national interest. A referendum is called by the President of the Republic, following a proposal by one- third, and deliberation approved by a two-thirds majority, of the Members of the National Parliament, or following a well-founded proposal by the Government. Matters falling under the exclusive competence of the Parliament, the Government and the Courts as defined by the Constitution cannot be the subject of a referendum. A referendum shall only be binding where the number of voters is higher than half of the registered electors. The process of a referendum is defined by law. Article 67. Organs of Sovereignty The organs of sovereignty shall comprise the President of the Republic, the National Parliament, the Government and the Courts. Outside professions of legislators Article 68. Incompatibilities The holding of the offices of President of the Republic, Speaker of the National Parliament, President of the Supreme Court of Justice, President of the High Administrative, Tax and Audit Court, Prosecutor-General and member of Government are incompatible with one another. The law shall define other incompatibilities. Article 69. Principle of Separation of Powers The organs of sovereignty, in their reciprocal relationship and exercise of their functions, shall observe the principle of separation and interdependence of powers established in the Constitution. Article 70. Political Parties and the Right of Opposition Political parties shall participate in organs of political power in accordance with their democratic representation based on direct and universal suffrage. The right of political parties to democratic opposition, as well as the right to be informed regularly and directly on the progress of the main issues of public interest, shall be recognized. Article 71. Administrative Organization The central government shall be represented at the different administrative levels of the country. Subsidiary unit government Oetcussi Ambeno is governed by a special administrative policy and economic regime. Subsidiary unit government Ataúra enjoys an appropriate economic status. The political and administrative organization of the territory of the Democratic Republic of East Timor is defined by law. Municipal government Article 72. Local Government Local government is constituted by corporate bodies endowed with representative organs, with the objective of organizing the participation by citizens in solving the problems of their own community and promoting local development without prejudice to the participation by the State. The organization, competence, functioning and composition of the organs of local government shall be defined by law. Publication of deliberations Article 73. Publication of Acts The normative acts shall be published by the organs of sovereignty in the official gazette. Failure to publish any of the legislation referred to in number 1 above or decisions of a general nature taken by the organs of sovereignty or local government render them null and void. The form of publication of other acts and decisions, and the consequences of the failure to do so, shall be determined by law. TITLE II. PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC Chapter One. STATUS, ELECTION AND APPOINTMENT Article 74. Definition Name/structure of executive(s) The President of the Republic is the Head of State and the symbol and guarantor of national independence and unity of the State and of the regular functioning of democratic institutions. Designation of commander in chief The President of the Republic is the Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces. Article 75. Eligibility Eligibility for head of state To qualify as presidential candidates, East Timorese citizens must meet cumulatively the following requirements: original citizenship; Minimum age of head of state at least 35 (thirty-five) years of age; to be in possession of his or her full faculties; to be proposed by a minimum of five thousand voters. Head of state term length The President of the Republic has a term of office of five years and shall cease functioning with the swearing-in of the new President-elect. Head of state term limits The President of the Republic's term of office may be renewed only once. Head of state selection Article 76. Election Claim of universal suffrage, Secret ballot The President of the Republic is elected by universal, free, direct, secret and personal suffrage. The election of the President of the Republic shall be conducted through the system based on the majority of validly expressed votes, excluding blank votes. If no candidate obtains more than half of the votes, a second round shall take place on the thirtieth day following the first voting. Only the two candidates obtaining the highest number of votes shall be eligible to stand in a run-off election, provided they have not withdrawn their candidacies. Article 77. Inauguration and Swearing-In Article 78. Incompatibilities The President of the Republic cannot hold any other political position or public office at the national level, and under no circumstances undertake private assignments. Head of state removal Article 79. Criminal Responsibility and Constitutional Obligations Head of state immunity The President of the Republic enjoys immunity in the exercise of his or her functions. The President of the Republic is responsible before the Supreme Court of Justice for crimes committed in the exercise of his or her functions and for clear and serious violation of constitutional obligations. It is the incumbent upon the National Parliament to initiate the criminal proceedings, following a proposal made by one-fifth, and deliberation approved by a two-third majority, of its Members. The Plenary of the Supreme Court of Justice shall issue a judgment within a maximum of 30 days. Conviction shall result in forfeiture of office and disqualification from re-election. For crimes not committed in the exercise of his or her functions, the President of the Republic shall also be answerable before the Supreme Court of Justice, and forfeiture of office shall only occur in case of sentence to prison. In the cases provided for under the previous number, immunity shall be withdrawn at the initiative of the National Parliament in accordance with provisions of number 3 of this Article. Article 80. Absence The President of the Republic cannot be absent from the national territory without the previous consent of the National Parliament or of its Standing Committee, if Parliament is in recess. Failure to observe provision of number 1 of the present Article shall imply forfeiture of the office, as provided for by the previous Article. The President of the Republic's private visits not exceeding fifteen days shall not require the consent of the National Parliament. Nonetheless, the President of the Republic should notify the National Parliament of such visits in advance. Article 81. Resignation from Office The President of the Republic may resign from office by a message addressed to the National Parliament. Resignation shall take effect once the message is made known to the National Parliament without prejudice to its subsequent publication in the official gazette. If the President of the Republic resigns from office, he or she cannot be eligible to stand for presidential elections immediately after resignation nor in the regular elections to be held after five years. Head of state replacement Article 82. Death, Resignation or Permanent Incapacity In case of death, resignation or permanent incapacity of the President of the Republic, his or her functions shall be taken over on an interim basis by the President of the National Parliament, who shall be sworn in by the President of the National Parliament before the Members of the National Parliament and representatives of the organs of sovereignty. Permanent incapacity shall be declared by the Supreme Court of Justice, which shall also have the responsibility to confirm the death of the President of the Republic and the vacancy of office resulting therefrom. The election of a new President of the Republic in case of death, resignation or permanent incapacity should take place within the subsequent ninety days, after certification or declaration of death, resignation or permanent incapacity. The President of the Republic shall be elected for a new term of office. In case of refusal by the President-elected to take office or in case of his or her death or permanent incapacity, the provisions of this Article shall apply. Head of state replacement Article 83. Exceptional Cases When death, resignation or permanent incapacity occur at the imminence of exceptional situations of war or prolonged emergency, or of an insurmountable difficulty of a technical or material nature, to be defined by law, preventing the holding of a presidential election by universal suffrage as provided for by Article 76, the new President of the Republic shall be elected by the National Parliament from among its members within the ninety subsequent days. In the cases referred to in the previous number, the President-elect shall serve for the remainder of the interrupted term and he or she may run in the new election. Article 84. Replacement and Interim Office During temporary impediment of the President of the Republic, the presidential functions shall be taken over by the President of National Parliament or, in case of impediment of the latter, by his or her replacement. The parliamentary mandate of the President of the National Parliament or of his or her replacement shall be automatically suspended over the period of time in which he or she holds the office of President of the Republic on an interim basis. The parliamentary functions of the replacing or interim President of the Republic shall be temporarily taken over in accordance with the Rules of Procedures of the National Parliament. Chapter Two. COMPETENCES Head of state powers Article 85. Competences It is exclusively incumbent upon the President of the Republic: to promulgate statutes and order the publication of resolutions by the National Parliament approving agreements and ratifying international treaties and conventions; exercise competences inherent in the functions of Supreme Commander of the Defense Force; to exercise the right of veto regarding any statutes within 30 days from the date of their receipt; to appoint and swear in the Prime Minister designated by the party or alliance parties with parliamentary majority after consultation with the political parties sitting in the National Parliament; to request the Supreme Court of Justice to undertake a preventive appraisal and abstract review of the constitutionality of the rules, as well as verification of unconstitutionality by omission; to submit relevant issues of national interest to a referendum provided in Article 66; Emergency provisions to declare the state of siege or a state of emergency following authorization by the National Parliament, after consultation with the Council of State, the government and the Supreme Council of Defense and Security; Power to declare/approve war to declare war and make peace following a Government proposal, after consultation with the Council of State and the Supreme Council of Defense and Security, under authorization of the National Parliament; Power to pardon to grant pardons and commute sentences after consultation with the Government; to award honorary titles, decorations and merits in accordance with the law. Article 86. Competences with Regard to Other Organs It is incumbent upon the President of the Republic, with regard to other organs: to chair the Supreme Council of Defense and Security; to chair the Council of State; to set dates for elections of the President and the National Parliament in accordance with the law; to request the convening of extraordinary sessions of the National Parliament, whenever imperative reasons of national interest justify it; to address messages to the National Parliament and the country; Dismissal of the legislature to dissolve the National Parliament in case of a serious institutional crisis preventing the formation of a government or the approval of the State Budget and lasting more than sixty days, after consultation with political parties sitting in the Parliament and with the Council of State, on pain of rendering the act of dissolution null and void, taking into consideration provisions of Article 100; to dismiss the Government and remove the Prime Minister from office after the National Parliament has rejected his or her program for two consecutive times; to appoint, swear in and remove Government Members from office, following a proposal by the Prime Minister, in accordance with number 2, Article 106; to appoint two members of the Supreme Council of Defense and Security; to appoint the President of the Supreme Court of Justice and swear in the President of the High Administrative Court, the Tax Court and the Court of Accounts; to appoint the Prosecutor-General for a term of four years; to appoint and dismiss the Deputy Prosecutor-General in accordance with number 6, Article 133; to appoint and dismiss, following proposal by the Government, the General Chief of Staff of the Defense Force, the Deputy General Chief of Staff of the Defense Force, and the Chiefs of Staff of the Defense Force, after consultation with the General Chief of Staff regarding the latter two cases; to appoint five Members for the Council of State; to appoint one member for the Superior Council of the Judiciary and for the Superior Council for the Public Prosecution. Foreign affairs representative, Head of state powers Article 87. Competences with Regard to International Relations It is incumbent upon the President of the Republic, in the field of international relations: Power to declare/approve war to declare war in case of actual or imminent aggression and to make peace, following proposal by the Government, after consultation with the Supreme Council for Defense and Security and following authorization of the National Parliament or of its Standing Committee; to appoint and dismiss ambassadors, permanent representatives and special envoys, following proposal by the Government; to receive credential letters of accreditation and accredit foreign diplomatic representatives; conduct, in consultation with the Government, any process of negotiation towards the completion of international agreements in the field of defense and security. Article 88. Promulgation and Veto Approval or veto of general legislation Within thirty days after receiving any draft law from the National Parliament for the purpose of its promulgation as law, the President of the Republic shall either promulgate the law or exercise the right of veto, based on substantive grounds, send a message to the National Parliament requesting a new appraisal of the statute. Veto override procedure If, within ninety days, the National Parliament confirms its vote by an absolute majority of its Members in full exercise of their functions, the President of the Republic shall promulgate the law within eight days after receiving it. However, a majority of two-thirds of the Members present shall be required to ratify laws on matters provided for in Article 95 when that majority exceeds an absolute majority of the Members in full exercise of their functions. Within forty days after receiving any draft law from the Government for the purpose of its promulgation as law, the President of the Republic shall either promulgate it or exercise the right of veto by way of a written communication to the Government containing the reasons for the veto. Article 89. Powers of an Interim President of the Republic An interim President of the Republic cannot exercise the powers specified in letters f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n and o of Article 86. Chapter Three. COUNCIL OF STATE Advisory bodies to the head of state Article 90. Council of State The Council of State is the political consultative organ of the President of the Republic who presides over it. The Council of State comprises: former Presidents of the Republic who were not removed from office; the President of the National Parliament; the Prime Minister; five citizens elected by the National Parliament in accordance with the principle of proportional representation and for the period corresponding to the legislative term, provided that they are not members of the organs of sovereignty; five citizens designated by the President of the Republic for the period corresponding to the term of office of the President, provided that they are not members of the organs of sovereignty. Advisory bodies to the head of state Article 91. Competence, Organization and Functioning of the Council of State It is incumbent upon the Council of State: express its opinion on the dissolution of the National Parliament; express its opinion on the dismissal of the Government; express its opinion on the declaration of war and the making of peace; express its opinion on any other cases set out in the Constitution and advise the President of the Republic in the exercise of his or her functions, when requested by the President; to draft its Rules of Procedure. The meetings of the Council of State shall not be open to the public. The law defines the organization and functioning of the Council of State. TITLE III. NATIONAL PARLIAMENT Chapter One. STATUS AND ELECTION Structure of legislative chamber(s) Article 92. Definition The National Parliament is organ of sovereignty of the Democratic Republic of East Timor that represents all Timorese citizens with legislative supervisory and political decision making powers. Article 93. Election and Composition Secret ballot, First chamber selection, Claim of universal suffrage The National Parliament is elected by universal, free, direct, equal, secret and personal suffrage. Size of first chamber The National Parliament is constituted by a minimum of fifty-two and a maximum of sixty-five Members. The law establishes the rules relating to constituencies, eligibility conditions, nominations and electoral procedures. Term length for first chamber Members of the National Parliament have a term of office of five years. Article 94. Immunities Immunity of legislators The Members are not responsible for civil, criminal or disciplinary matters in regard to votes and opinions expressed by them while performing their functions. Parliamentary immunities may be withdrawn in accordance with the Rules of Procedure of the National Parliament. Chapter Two. COMPETENCE Article 95. Competence of the National Parliament It is incumbent upon the National Parliament to make laws on basic issues of the country's domestic and foreign policy. First chamber reserved policy areas It is exclusively incumbent upon the National Parliament to make laws on: the borders of the Democratic Republic of East Timor, in accordance with Article 4; the limits of territorial waters, of the exclusive economic zone and of the rights of East Timor to the adjacent area and the continental shelf; national symbols, in accordance with number 2 of Article 14; citizenship; rights, freedoms and guarantees; the status and capacity of people, family law and inheritance law; territorial division; the electoral law and the referendum system; political parties and associations; the status of Members (of the National Parliament); the status of office holders in the organs of State; the bases for the education system; the bases for the social security system, and health; the suspension of constitutional guarantees and the declaration of the state of siege and the state of emergency; the policy of defense and security; Tax bills the tax policy; Budget bills the budget system. First chamber reserved policy areas It is also incumbent upon (the National Parliament): to ratify the appointment of the President of the Supreme Court of Justice and of the High Administrative, Tax and Audit Court; to deliberate on progress reports by the Government; to elect one member for the Superior Council for the Judiciary and the Superior Council for the Public Prosecution; Budget bills to deliberate on the State Plan and Budget and its execution report; Budget bills to monitor the execution of the State budget; Treaty ratification to approve and renounce agreements and to ratify treaties and international conventions; to grant amnesty; to give consent to trips by the President of the Republic on State visits; to improve revisions of the Constitution by a majority of two-thirds of the Members of Parliament; to authorize and confirm to propose to the President of the Republic the submission to referendum of issues of national interest. It is also incumbent upon the National Parliament: Leader of first chamber to elect its Speaker and other members of the Chair; to elect five members for the Council of State; to prepare and approve its Rules of Procedure; Legislative committees, Standing committees to set up the Standing Committee and establish the other parliamentary Committees. Article 96. Legislative Authorization The National Parliament may authorize the government to make laws concerning the following matters: definition of crimes, sentences, security measures and respective prerequisites; definition of civil and criminal procedure; organization of the Judiciary and status of magistrates; general rules and regulations for the public service, the status of the civil servants and the responsibility of the State; general bases for the organization of public administration; monetary system; banking and financial system; definition of the bases for a policy of protection of the environment and sustainable development; Television, Radio, Telecommunications general rules and regulations for radio and television broadcasting and other mass media communication; military or civic service; general rules and regulations for the requisition and expropriation for public utility; means and ways of intervention, expropriation, nationalization and privatization of means of production and soils on grounds of public interest, as well as criteria for the establishment of compensation in such cases. Laws on legislative authorization shall define the subject, sense, scope and duration of the authorization, which may be renewed. Laws on legislative authorization cannot be used more than once and shall lapse with the dismissal of the Government, with the end of the legislative term or with the dissolution of the National Parliament. Article 97. Legislative Initiative Initiation of general legislation The power to initiate laws belongs to: The Members (of Parliament); The Parliamentary Groups; The Government. Budget bills There cannot be any presentation of bills, draft legislation or amendments involving, in any given fiscal year, any increase in State expenditure or any reduction in State revenues provided for in the Budget or Rectifying Budgets. Bills and draft legislation that have been rejected cannot be re-introduced in the same legislative session in which they have been presented. Bills and draft legislation that have not been voted on shall not need to be reintroduced in the ensuing legislative session, except in case of end of the legislative term. Draft legislation shall lapse with the dismissal of the Government. Article 98. Parliamentary Appraisal of Legislative Acts The legislative acts other than those approved under the exclusive legislative powers of the Government may be submitted to the National Parliament for appraisal, for purposes of terminating their validity or for amendment, following a petition of one-fifth of the Members of Parliament and within thirty days following their publication, excluding the days when he functioning of the National Parliament is suspended. The National Parliament may suspend, in part or in full, the force of a law until it is appraised. The suspension shall lapse after the National Parliament has held 10 plenary meetings without taking a final decision. If the termination of validity is approved, the law shall cease to be in force from the date of the publication of the resolution in the Official Gazette, and it shall not be published again in the same legislative session. The process shall lapse if, after a statute has been submitted for appraisal, the National Parliament takes no decision on it, or, having decided to make amendments, it does not approve a law to that effect before the corresponding legislative session ends, provided fifteen plenary meetings have been held. Chapter Three. ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTIONING Article 99. Legislative Term The legislative term comprises five legislative sessions, and each legislative session shall have the duration of one year. The regular period of functioning of the National Parliament is defined by the Rules of Procedure. The National Parliament convenes on a regular basis following notice by its President. Extraordinary legislative sessions The National Parliament convenes on an extraordinary basis whenever so decided by the Standing Committee, at the request of one-third of Members or following notice of the President of the Republic with a view to addressing specific issues. In case of dissolution, the elected National Parliament shall commence a new legislative term, the length of which shall be increased by the time needed to complete the legislative session in progress at the date of the election. Dismissal of the legislature Article 100. Dissolution The National Parliament shall not be dissolved during the six months immediately following its election, during the last half-year of the term of office of the President of the Republic or during a state of siege or a state of emergency, on pain of rendering the act of dissolution null and void (inexistêncía jurdica). The dissolution of the National Parliament does not affect the continuance of the mandates of its Members until the first meeting of the National Parliament after the ensuing election. Article 101. Attendance by Members of the Government The Members of the Government have the right to attend plenary sessions of the National Parliament and may take the floor as provided for in the rules of procedures. Sittings shall be scheduled at which members of the Government shall be present to answer questions from Members of Parliament in accordance with the Rules of Procedure. The National Parliament or its Committees may request members of the Governments to take part in their proceedings. Chapter Four. STANDING COMMITTEE Standing committees Article 102. Standing Committee The Standing Committee shall sit when the National Parliament is dissolved or in recession and in the other cases provided for in the Constitution; The Standing Committee shall be presided over by the President of the National Parliament and shall be comprised of Vice-Presidents and Parliament Members designated by the parties sitting in the Parliament in accordance with their respective representation. It is incumbent upon the Standing Committee: to follow-up the activities of the Government and the Administration; to co-ordinate the activities of the Committees of the National Parliament; to take steps for the convening of Parliament whenever deemed necessary; to prepare and organize sessions of the National Parliament; to give its consent regarding trips by the President of the Republic in accordance with Article 80; to direct relations between the National Parliament and similar parliaments and institutions of other countries; to authorize the declaration of the state of siege or the state of emergency. TITLE IV. GOVERNMENT Chapter One. DEFINITION AND STRUCTURE Article 103. Definition The Government is the organ of sovereignty responsible for conducting and executing the general policy of the country and is the supreme organ of Public Administration. Article 104. Composition Name/structure of executive(s) The Government is constituted by the Prime Minister, the Ministers and the Secretaries of State. Deputy executive The Government may include one or more Deputy Prime Ministers and Deputy Ministers. The number, titles and competences of ministries and secretariats of State shall be defined in a legislative act by the Government. Establishment of cabinet/ministers Article 105. Council of Ministers The Council of Ministers is constituted by the Prime Minister, the Deputy Prime Ministers, if any, and the Ministers. The Council of Ministers shall be convened and chaired by the Prime Minister. The Deputy Ministers, if any, and the Secretaries of State may be summoned to attend meetings of the Council of Ministers, without a right to vote. Chapter Two. FORMATION AND RESPONSIBILITY Article 106. Appointment Head of government selection The Prime Minister shall be designated by the political party or alliance of political parties with parliamentary majority and shall be appointed by the President of the Republic, after consultation with the political parties sitting in the National Parliament. Cabinet selection The remaining members of the Government shall be appointed by the President of the Republic on the proposal by the Prime Minister. Legislative oversight of the executive Article 107. Responsibility of the Government The Government shall be accountable to the President of the Republic and to the National Parliament for conducting and executing the domestic and foreign policy in accordance with the Constitution and the law. Article 108. The Program of the Government Once appointed, the Government must develop its program, which shall include the objectives and tasks proposed, the actions to be taken and the main political guidelines to be followed in the fields of government activity. Once approved by the Council of Ministers, the Prime Minister shall, within a maximum of thirty days after appointment of the Government, submit the Program of Government to the National Parliament for consideration. Article 109. Consideration of the Program of Government The Program of the Government shall be submitted to the National Parliament for consideration. When the National Parliament is not in session, its convening for this purpose shall be mandatory. The debate on the program of the Government shall not exceed five days and, prior to its closing, any parliamentary group may propose its rejection or the Government may request the approval of a vote of confidence. Rejection of the program of the Government shall require an absolute majority of the Members in full exercise of their functions. Article 110. Request for Vote of Confidence The Government may request the National Parliament to take a vote of confidence on a statement of general policy or on any relevant matter of national interest. Article 111. Vote of No Confidence (Censura) Cabinet removal, Head of government removal The National Parliament may, following proposal by one-quarter of the Members in full exercise of their functions, pass a vote of no confidence on the Government with respect to the implementation of its program or any relevant matter of national interest. Limits on removing head of government When a vote of no confidence is not approved, its signatories shall not move another vote of no confidence (censura) during the same legislative session. Article 112. Dismissal of the Government Cabinet removal, Head of government removal The dismissal of the Government shall occur when: at the beginning of a new legislative; by the acceptance by the President of the Republic of the resignation of the Prime Minister; by the death of the Prime Minister or by suffering a permanent physical incapacity; by the rejection of its program for the second consecutive time; by the non-approval of a vote of confidence; by the approval of a vote of no confidence by an absolute majority of the Members in full exercise of their functions; Head of government removal The President of the Republic can only dismiss the Prime Minister in accordance with the cases provided for in the previous number and when it is deemed necessary to ensure the regular functioning of the democratic institutions, after consultation with the Council of State. Article 113. Criminal Responsibility of the Members of Government When a member of the Government is charged with a criminal offence punishable with a sentence of imprisonment for more than two years, he or she shall be suspended from his or her functions so that the proceedings can go forward. When a member of the government is charged with a criminal offence punishable with a sentence of imprisonment for a maximum of two years, he or she shall be suspended from his or her functions so that the proceedings can go forward. Head of government immunity Article 114. Immunities of Members of the Government No member of the Government may be detained or imprisoned without the permission of the National Parliament, except for a felonious crime punishable with a maximum sentence of imprisonment for more than two years and in flagrante delicto. Chapter Three. COMPETENCES Powers of cabinet Article 115. Competence of the Government It is incumbent upon the Government: to define and implement the general policy of the country, after its approval by the National Parliament; to guarantee the exercise of the fundamental rights and freedoms of the citizens; to ensure public order and social discipline; to prepare the State Plan and the State Budget and to execute them after their approval by the National Parliament; to regulate economic and social sector activities; Treaty ratification to prepare and negotiate treaties and enter into, approve, accede and renounce international agreements which do not fall within the competence of the National parliament or of the President of the Republic; to define and implement the foreign policy of the country; to ensure the representation of the Democratic Republic of East Timor in international relations; to direct the social and economic sectors of the State; to direct the labor and social security policy; to guarantee the defense and consolidation of the public domain and the property of the State; to direct and co-ordinate the activities of the ministries as well as the activities of the remaining institutions subordinate to the Council of Ministers; to promote the development of the co-operative sector and the support for household production; to support private enterprise initiatives; to take actions and make all the arrangements necessary to promote economic and social development and to satisfy the needs of the Timorese people; to exercise any other competencies as provided for by the Constitution and the law. Powers of cabinet It is also incumbent upon the Government in relation to other organs: to submit bills and draft resolutions to the National Parliament; to propose to the President of the Republic the declaration of war or the making of peace; to propose to the President of the Republic the declaration of the state of siege or the state of emergency; to propose to the President of the Republic the submission to referendum of relevant issues of national interest; to propose to the President of the Republic the appointment of ambassadors, permanent representatives and special envoys; The Government has exclusive legislative competence on matters concerning its own organization and functioning, as well as on the direct and indirect administration of the State. Article 116. Competences of the Council of Ministers It is incumbent upon the Council of Ministers: to define the general guidelines of the government policy, as well as those for its execution; to deliberate on a request for a vote of confidence from the National Parliament; to approve bills and draft resolutions; to approve legislative drafts, as well as international agreements that are not required to be submitted to the National parliament; to approve actions by the Government that involve an augmentation of diminution of public revenues or expenditures; to approve plans. Article 117. Competences of Members of the Government Head of government powers It is incumbent upon the Prime Minister: to be the Head of Government; to preside over the Council of Ministers; to direct and guide the general policy of the Government and to co-ordinate the activities of all Ministers, without prejudice to the direct responsibility of each Minister for their respective governmental department; to inform the President of the Republic on matters of domestic and foreign policy of the Government; to perform other duties attributed to it by the Constitution and the law. Powers of cabinet It is incumbent upon the Ministers: to implement the policy defined for their respective Ministries; to ensure the relations between the Government and the other organs of the State in the area of responsibility of their respective Ministries. Government bills must be signed by the Prime Minister and the competent Ministers in their respective subject matter. TITLE V. COURTS Chapter One. COURTS AND THE JUDICIARY (Tribunais e Magistratura Judicial) Article 118. Jurisdictional Function The courts are organs of sovereignty with competences to administer justice in the name of the people. In exercising their functions, the courts have the right to the assistance of other authorities. The courts decisions shall be binding and shall prevail over the decisions of any other authorities. Judicial independence Article 119. Independence The courts are independent and subject only to the Constitution and to the law. Article 120. Review of Unconstitutionality The courts shall not apply rules that contravene the Constitution or the principles contained therein. Article 121. Judges Jurisdiction rests exclusively with the judges invested in accordance with the law. In exercising their functions, the judges are independent and owe obedience only to the Constitution, to the law and to their conscience. Supreme/ordinary court judge removal Judges shall be irremovable, may not be suspended, transferred, retired or removed from office except as provided for by law. The law shall regulate the judicial organization and the status of the judicial magistrates. Article 122. Exclusiveness Judges in office may not perform any other public or private functions, except teaching or legal research, in accordance with the law. Article 123. Categories of Courts Structure of the courts In the Democratic Republic of East Timor, there shall be the following categories of courts: the Supreme Court of Justice and other courts of law; Establishment of administrative courts, Establishment of tax courts the High Administrative, Tax and Audit Court and other administrative courts of first instance; Establishment of military courts Military Courts. Courts of exception shall be prohibited and there shall be no special courts to judge certain categories of criminal offence. There may be Maritime Courts and Arbitration Courts. Structure of the courts The law shall determine the establishment, organization and the functioning of the courts referred to in the preceding numbers. The law may institutionalize means and forum of the non-jurisdictional resolution of disputes. Article 124. Supreme Court of Justice Supreme court powers, Structure of the courts The Supreme Court of Justice is the highest court of law and the guarantor of a uniform enforcement of the law, and has jurisdiction in the entire national territory. Supreme court powers It is also incumbent on the Supreme Court of Justice to administer justice on matters of juridical, constitutional and electoral nature. Supreme court selection, Supreme court term length The President of the Supreme Court of Justice is appointed by the President of the Republic from among the judges of the Supreme Court of Justice for a term of office of four years. Supreme court selection Article 125. Functioning and Composition The Supreme Court of Justice functions: in sections, as a court of first instance, in the cases provided for in the law; in plenary, as a court of second and single instance, in the cases expressly provided for in the law. Supreme court selection The Supreme Court of Justice is composed of career judges, magistrates of the Public Prosecution or jurists of recognized merit in number to be established by law, as follows: one elected by the National Parliament; and all the others designated by the Superior Council for the Judiciary (Magistratura Judicial). Constitutional interpretation, Supreme court powers Article 126. Constitutional and Electoral Competence It is incumbent upon the Supreme Court of Justice, in the domain of juridico-constitutional questions: Constitutionality of legislation to review and declare the unconstitutionality and illegality of normative and legislative bills by the organs of the State; to provide an anticipatory verification of the legality and constitutionality of the bills and referenda; Constitutionality of legislation to verify cases of unconstitutionality by commission; Constitutionality of legislation to verify cases of unconstitutionality by omission; to verify the legality of the establishment of political parties and their coalitions and order their registration or dissolution, in accordance with the Constitution and the law; to exercise all other competences provided for by the Constitution or the law. In the specific field of elections, it is incumbent upon the supreme Court of Justice: to verify the legal requirements for candidates for the office of President of the Republic; to certify at last instance the regularity and validity of the acts of the electoral process, in accordance with the respective law; to validate and proclaim the results of the electoral process. Eligibility for supreme court judges Article 127. Eligibility Only career judges or magistrates of the Public Prosecution or jurists of recognized merit of East Timorese nationality may become members of the Supreme Court of Justice. In addition to the requirements referred to in the preceding number, the law may define other requirements. Establishment of judicial council Article 128. Superior Council for the Judiciary The Superior Council for the judiciary is the organ of conduct and discipline of the judges of the courts and it is incumbent upon it to appoint, assign, transfer and promote the judges. The Superior Council for the Judiciary is presided over by the President of the supreme Court of Justice and is composed of the following members: one designated by the President of the Republic; one elected by the National Parliament; one designated by the Government; one elected by the judges of the courts of law from among their peers. The law regulates the competence, organization and functioning of the Superior Council for the Judiciary. Article 129. High Administrative, Tax and Audit Court Establishment of tax courts, Establishment of administrative courts The High Administrative, Tax and Audit Court is the highest body in the hierarchy of the administrative, tax and audit courts, without prejudice to the competence of the Supreme Court of Justice. Administrative court term length The President of the High Administrative, Tax and Audit Court is elected for a term of office of four years from among and by respective judges. It is incumbent upon the High Administrative, Tax and Audit Court as a single instance to monitor the legality of public expenditure and to audit State accounts. It is incumbent upon the High Administrative, Tax and Audit court and the administrative and tax courts of first instance: to judge actions aiming at resolving disputes arising from legal, fiscal and administrative relations; to judge contentious appeals against decisions made by State organs, their respective office holders and agents; to exercise all the other functions as attributed by law. Article 130. Military Courts Establishment of military courts It is incumbent upon military courts to judge in first instance crimes of a military nature. The competence, organization, composition and functioning of military courts shall be established by law. Right to public trial Article 131. Court Hearings Court hearings shall be public, unless the court hearing a matter, rules otherwise through a well-founded order to safeguard personal dignity or public morality and national security, or guarantee its own normal operation. Chapter Two. OFFICE OF PUBLIC PROSECUTORS Article 132. Functions and Status Public Prosecutors represent the State, taking criminal action, ensuring the defense of the minors, absentees and the disabled, defending the democratic legality, and promoting the enforcement of the law. Public Prosecutors constitute a hierarchically organized Magistrature, and be accountable to the Prosecutor-General of the Republic. In performing their function, Public Prosecutors shall be subject to the criteria of legality, objectivity and impartiality criteria, and obedience to the directives and orders as established by law. Public Prosecutors shall be governed by their own statute, and shall only be suspended, retired or dismissed under the circumstances provided for in the law. It is incumbent upon the Office of the Prosecutor-General to appoint, assign, transfer and promote public prosecutors and to exercise disciplinary actions. Attorney general Article 133. Office of the Prosecutor-General The Office of the Prosecutor-General is the highest authority in public prosecution, and its composition and competencies is defined by law. The Office of the Prosecutor-General is directed by the Prosecutor-General, in whose absence or inability to act, shall be replaced in accordance with the law. The Prosecutor-General shall be appointed by the President of the Republic for a term of office of six years, in accordance with the terms established by law. The Prosecutor-General is accountable to the Head of State and shall submit annual reports to the National Parliament. Constitutionality of legislation The Prosecutor-General shall request the Supreme Court of Justice to make a generally binding declaration of unconstitutionality of any law ruled unconstitutional in three concrete cases. The Deputy Prosecutor-General shall be appointed, dismissed or removed from office by the President of the Republic after consultation with the Superior Council for the Public Prosecution. Article 134. Superior Council for the Public Prosecution The Superior Council for the Public Prosecution is an integral part of the office of the Prosecutor-General. The Superior Council for the Public Prosecution is presided over by the Prosecutor-General and is composed of the following members: one designed by the President of the Republic; one elected by the National Parliament; one designated by the Government; one elected by the magistrates of the Public Prosecution from among their peers. The law regulates the competence, organization and the functioning of the Superior Council for the Public Prosecution. Chapter Three. LAWYERS Article 135. Lawyers Legal and judicial aid is of social interest, and lawyers and defenders shall be governed by this principle. The primary role of lawyers and defenders is to contribute to the good administration of justice and the safeguarding of the rights and legitimate interests of the citizens. The activity of lawyers is regulated by law. Article 136. Guarantees in the Activity of Lawyers Regulation of evidence collection The State shall, in accordance with the law, guarantee the inviolability of documents related to legal proceedings, no search, seizure, listing or other judicial measures shall be permitted without the presence of the competent magistrate and, whenever possible, of the lawyer concerned. The lawyers have the right to contact their clients personally with guarantees of confidentiality, especially where the clients are under detention or arrest in military or civil prison centers.
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wrong_mix_range_leader_00122	FactBench	3	62	https://www.refworld.org/reference/annualreport/freehou/2004/en/77855	en	Countries at the Crossroads 2004 - East Timor	https://www.refworld.org…/share-image.png	https://www.refworld.org…/share-image.png	[ "https://www.refworld.org/themes/custom/unhcr_rw/logo.svg", "https://www.refworld.org/themes/custom/unhcr_rw/images/logos/mobile-logo.svg", "https://www.refworld.org/themes/custom/unhcr_rw/logo-print.png", "https://www.refworld.org/themes/custom/unhcr_rw/images/logos/white-logo.svg", "https://www.refworld.org/themes/custom/unhcr_rw/images/logos/mobile-white-logo.svg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Refworld - UNHCR's Global Law and Policy Database" ]	2023-11-02T12:04:36+01:00		en	/themes/custom/unhcr_rw/favicon.svg	Refworld	https://www.refworld.org/reference/annualreport/freehou/2004/en/77855	(Scores are based on a scale of 0 to 7, with 0 representing weakest and 7 representing strongest performance.) Executive Summary Author Ellen Bork has worked on and written about democracy in Asia in several positions including at the International Republican Institute, the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, and most recently the Project for the New American Century. East Timor regained its independence in 2002 after hundreds of years of Portuguese colonial rule, a quarter century of Indonesian occupation, and devastation by the Indonesian military and its sponsored anti-independence militias in the wake of the September 1999 referendum on autonomy. As a result, East Timor is at a very early stage of political and legal development and faces considerable obstacles to establishing good governance, protecting civil liberties, and developing an effective legal system. The government of East Timor took office on May 20, 2002, succeeding the UN Transitional Authority for East Timor (UNTAET), which had administered East Timor since October 1999. East Timor's government was appointed by UNTAET from among the ranks of Freitilin, the party that won elections for 55 of the 88 seats in the constituent assembly that drafted the constitution. The constituent assembly itself was transformed into a parliament by a provision in the constitution; no date has been set for parliamentary elections. The president was chosen by direct elections on April 14, 2002. Despite independence, the United Nations (UN) continues to play an important role in East Timor's affairs. The United Nations Mission for Support in East Timor (UNMISET) is the lead international force, providing security and advisory services for the new democracy. UNMISET is currently scheduled to end its mission on May 20, 2004, although talks are reportedly under way with the aim of extending the mission. East Timor's parliament has passed only a handful of laws. UN regulations that have not been superseded by new legislation and that do not conflict with the new constitution are still in effect. East Timor lacks experienced and trained personnel in virtually all fields, including the judiciary, police, prison service, executive and legislative branches, and the media. Anticorruption and transparency efforts do not have a sufficient basis in law, and East Timor has yet to create a constitutionally mandated ombudsman for corruption and human rights. During the violence that followed the country's vote for independence in 1999, more than 75 percent of the population was displaced and thousands were killed; about 85 percent of the country's infrastructure was destroyed during the Indonesian military's withdrawal. In addition, under Indonesian rule few Timorese were allowed to rise to positions of influence, and therefore East Timor lacks skilled civil servants. The country's poverty, high illiteracy, and geographic isolation present additional development challenges; East Timor is Asia's poorest country, with per capita gross domestic product (GDP) of $478 per year.1 However, the country has received strong international support.2 The UN sponsored the referendums for independence, twice rescheduled because of violent clashes, and international actors became increasingly involved in 1999, primarily in response to the violent atrocities committed by the Indonesian military and the acknowledgment that international forces were needed to halt further violence and maintain stability in the region. Bringing to justice those responsible for the atrocities associated with the 1999 referendum is the top priority of the country's nascent judicial system. The Serious Crimes Investigation Unit (SCIU), staffed primarily by UN-appointed international prosecutors and judges, was established in 2000 to concentrate on serious crimes and those committed against humanity in 1999 after the referendum for independence. Approximately 50 percent of the murders have been investigated and prosecuted to date. The courts and judicial system are a particular concern for the functioning of the new state. Excessive detention, delays, and failure to follow proper procedure are common. Moreover, the establishment of Portuguese as an official language of the court creates further difficulties as most East Timorese, including many with responsibilities in the judiciary, do not speak it. The official languages are Tetum and Portuguese, but Tetum is more widespread, spoken by approximately 60 percent of the population.3 In addition, 15 indigenous languages are also spoken. Considering its recent past, East Timor has a robust civil society and a healthy media climate. Still, isolation, occupation, and societal strife have deprived East Timor's people of the ingrained habits of a free and democratic society. It will take time for the rule of law, respect for separation of powers, and other notions of democracy to become entrenched in East Timor. Civil Liberties – 4.77 The constitution of East Timor was written under the guidance of the United Nations and approved on March 22, 2002. It was modeled roughly on the Portuguese constitution. East Timor's constitution, laws, and regulations guarantee civil liberties, including freedoms of conscience and belief, and prohibit abusive exercise of state power, including arbitrary arrest, unjustified imprisonment, and torture. The constitution "provides that all persons undertaking public duties or holding public office shall observe internationally recognized human rights standards, as reflected in the U.N. Convention against Torture and other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment."4 Evidence obtained through torture is excluded from judicial proceedings, and no extradition is permitted to jurisdictions where there are grounds to believe an individual will be subject to torture or cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment. Challenges to the development of the judicial system include lack of competence and professionalism in the institutions of justice and law enforcement. Since independence, two violent demonstrations have resulted in deaths. In Baucau on November 23, 2002, one rioter was shot and subsequently died during a demonstration in reaction to police investigations after an allegation that a resident had stolen a pistol from the police station. On December 4, 2002, a violent demonstration developed out of a protest at the parliament building in Dili, and 2 students were killed and 15 injured by gunfire during a subsequent clash between security forces and rioters. According to Human Rights Watch (HRW), the police are increasingly the subject of complaints, but an effective mechanism for hearing and adjudicating these complaints does not exist.5 In the Baucau incident, community residents asserted that the police threatened and assaulted them while searching for suspects and gathering evidence.6 Excessive detention without trial is a serious problem. Regulations require systematic review of detentions and place precise limits on their duration. In practice, however, the lack of capacity in the justice sector has resulted in severe delays within the prison system. According to the U.S. State Department, at the end of 2002 pretrial detainees comprised two-thirds of the prison population, which as of April 2003 numbered 344 inmates.7 Approximately one-quarter of all detainees had been held beyond the date for review of their detention. According to the U.S. State Department, "Some detainees were in pretrial detention for periods longer than the maximum sentences for the crimes with which they had been charged."8 While excessive detention continues to be a major problem, in September 2003 the court of appeal ruled for the first time that a detention order by the special panel for serious crimes violated pretrial detention standards; it ordered the release of a defendant accused of crimes against humanity in connection with killings during the violence following the September 1999 referendum.9 In July 2003, a Chinese-Malaysian businessman held during investigation of criminal and border-control offenses was released on a habeas corpus petition before the Dili district court. Periodic cross-border militia attacks by pro-Indonesia forces pose security threats for citizens, particularly in the western districts of the country. Incidents from January through March 2003 – such as an attack by a group of men armed with semiautomatic weapons on a shuttle bus traveling from Maliana to the capital in February – raise concerns that former militias and armed groups are seeking to establish support within the country, especially near the provisional border with Indonesia. Currently, protection against such attacks is provided by UNMISET security forces. In addition, the establishment of the East Timor Defence Force (Falintil-FDTL) subsequent to the 2001 UN demobilization of the Armed Forces for the National Liberation of East Timor (Falintil) guerrillas is estimated to have excluded 1,300 former Falintil guerrillas, leaving many disgruntled and constituting another potential threat. Since the Falintil-FDTL is seen as loyal to President Jose Alexandre "Xanana" Gusmao, opposition parties have been able to capitalize on this tension, fostering paramilitary activities.10 Two commissions have been created to study the issue of the former soldiers and to make recommendations.11 The constitution guarantees the right of citizens, individually or in cooperation with others, to petition the state for the purpose of defending the constitution, rights, or private interests. The right is routinely exercised. East Timor guarantees all persons equal rights and equal treatment under the law. Domestic violence against women is considered a high priority, and the parliament is considering a draft law covering physical, psychological, sexual, and economic violence. Truth and reconciliation commissions have documented women's testimonies of rape, forced marriages, and sterilization programs during the 24-year Indonesian occupation. Dozens of women have testified to being held as sex slaves for the Indonesian military.12 East Timor has ratified the UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women. The Gender Affairs Unit created by UNTAET and maintained within the office of the prime minister under the new independent government promotes the role of women in government and civil society and offers training for women working in government.13 Trafficking in women and children is prohibited, although the problem is generally perceived to be growing. The UN police launched a crackdown on organized prostitution rings in the spring of 2003, partly in response to allegations that UN personnel frequent brothels.14 In practice, East Timorese society is male-dominated and patriarchal. While significant advances have been made in adopting international law and creating a constitution that guarantees human rights and the fundamental rights of the citizen, the state recognizes customary law that is not contradictory to the constitution. With the judicial system lacking capacity and concentrating heavily on serious crimes, local judicial decisions, especially in rural areas, are often based on traditional rules of conduct. Thus, those who traditionally face discrimination – women and minorities – may lack access to the equal rights declared in the new constitution. Customary practices discriminate against women. For example, men are given preference over women in job hiring, and in some places the right to inherit or own property is denied to women. Even rape and domestic violence cases have routinely been handled according to traditional customary law rather than the judicial system, ensuring a lack of due process. East Timor's constitution guarantees the freedoms of religion, conscience, and worship, as well as the separation of religious denominations from the state. In addition, it contains specific prohibitions against discrimination on the basis of religion, as well as ensuring the right to conscientious objection and the freedom to teach religion. Approximately 90 percent of East Timor's people are Roman Catholic, and the church plays an influential role in society. During the drafting of the constitution, East Timor's highest ranking Catholic official, Bishop Belo, opposed the establishment of a national religion. Minorities include a small Muslim population, comprising both the descendants of Arab traders and Malay migrants from Indonesian islands. Chinese migrants make up less than 1 percent of the population. A Protestant population also exists as a result of the Indonesian occupation. Reportedly, the Protestant population and Malay Muslim populations declined after 1999, while the small Arab-origin Muslim population, which was well integrated into East Timor society, remains.15 East Timor's ethnic and religious minorities are guaranteed protection under the constitution. There have, however, been incidents of violence and harassment, including the November 2002 burning of the Baucau mosque and the December 2002 vandalism of the Dili mosque. Ethnic Chinese also experience discrimination and harassment. The U.S. State Department cites a lack of law enforcement resources and prison space and an emphasis on extralegal reconciliation for nonprosecution of perpetrators.16 The state guarantees the right of association so long as "the association is not intended to promote violence, and is in accordance with the law" (Article 43.1). Armed military and paramilitary groups that promote racism, xenophobia, or terrorism are specifically prohibited. The constitution also protects citizens against forced membership in organizations. East Timor has dozens of nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and several political parties. East Timor's people are free to demonstrate and do so frequently. The government has adopted a labor code based on International Labour Organisation (ILO) standards, and the country became a member of the ILO on August 19, 2003. The right to form trade unions is guaranteed under the constitution and has been exercised. However, two-thirds to three-quarters of the country's workforce is engaged in subsistence agriculture.17 In 2002, East Timor's lawyers went on strike to protest the refusal of border control officials to cooperate with court proceedings in a smuggling case. In October 2003, employees of an Australian firm went on strike to protest the firing of two workers. Controversy later erupted over the arrest of an Australian union organizer by the UN police – still in authority in Dili – who claim he struck an officer. Recommendations Efforts should be made to address deficiencies in the legal sector, including inadequate language skills and professional training. Such efforts should include recruitment of additional prosecutors, training in administrative skills and records management, and increased funds to the office of public defenders. The East Timor government must expand legal representation for suspects through increased legal aid programs. More steps are needed to reduce detentions, including a systematic review of existing prisoners and expedited hearings for cases that have extended beyond a reasonable standard of detention. Judges, prosecutors, legal clerks, police officers, and lawyers need more training in the processing of cases and fair treatment of suspects. In cooperation with civil society, the East Timor government should invest in workshops to promote mutual understanding among ethnic groups to reduce future conflict and address existing prejudices. High priority must be given to intensive civic education for young people both in school and in their communities. Such education should include exposure to democratic societies in the region and around the world from which, by virtue of geography and recent events, East Timor has been isolated. Rule of Law – 4.76 The independence of the judiciary is guaranteed under multiple provisions of the constitution. However, the independence and competence of the judiciary have been questioned because of poor funding, delays and backlogs, and failure to follow legal procedures. East Timor's judicial system is weak, inexperienced, and hampered by insufficient funds and the lack of trained personnel. Under the Indonesian occupation, East Timorese were not allowed to hold any civil service positions or become trained lawyers or judges; hence, East Timor's people and government officials have limited experience with administering the rule of law. The commitment to prosecute serious crimes from the period of the 1999 referendum places large demands on the criminal law sector. The establishment of Portuguese as an official language has caused serious problems, as many members of the judiciary and legal community, as well as the general public, cannot read Portuguese. Moreover, the transitions from both Indonesian rule and UN authority have created confusion and difficulties as new and inexperienced judicial authorities cope with questions of which law applies. There have been some concerns about the impartiality of the courts, and in particular a perceived bias against foreign parties in court cases.18 The parliament was scheduled to vote in October 2003 to make East Timor's applicable subsidiary law Indonesian, rather than Portuguese. The court of appeals had ruled in July that, in the absence of new legislation, Portuguese law was the de facto law of the country. This was then disputed by the legislature, causing confusion that hindered capacity-building efforts within the judiciary system. The new decision holds important implications for both civil and criminal law, especially in prosecuting the serious crimes of 1999. Courts do not function in a timely and effective manner, and delays are common. Some district courts have barely functioned, and logistical problems forced one to relocate its proceedings to Dili. Improper procedures including misapplication of laws and reference to the wrong sources of legal authority cause excessive pretrial detentions. Other problems include the failure to transcribe proceedings and improper communication among judges and between judges and lawyers. East Timor's judges are not adequately trained before assuming the bench. When Indonesian troops left East Timor at the end of 1999, very few East Timorese were qualified in law and none had experience as judges. The first judges were appointed by UNTAET for a probationary period of two years. In 2002, the parliament passed the Judicial Magistrates Law to regulate the judiciary. It creates a Superior Council of the Judiciary to oversee the judiciary and appoint, promote, discipline, and dismiss judges. The UN Special Rapporteur on the Independence of the Judiciary criticized the law as "inconsistent with the principles of judicial independence as set out in international standards."19 Concerns about the law include the vague standards of conduct and the lack of a detailed code of ethics.20 Insufficient experience and training of personnel frequently results in mistakes in procedure and the law. All persons accused of a crime are presumed innocent until proven guilty according to law. Trial proceedings are public, except that the court may exclude the public in cases in which the court determines that national security or the privacy of minors or victims of sex offenses warrants it. The constitution provides a defendant the right to be informed of charges and to contact an independent lawyer. Criminal law regulations require the state to provide a legal representative if the defendant cannot afford one. According to HRW, however, the public defender's office is "drastically under-resourced and inexperienced."21 Some concerns have been expressed about the attitude of the courts toward foreign investors. President Gusmao has called on members of the legal system to "strip themselves of all kinds of xenophobia," adding that East Timor's development depends "on a policy of openness to foreign investment and on the application of a justice system that is honest, impartial and professional."22 The unexplained involvement of East Timor officials in a business dispute that led to the arrest, detention, release, and re-arrest of a Chinese-Malaysian businessman attracted concern; the businessman was subsequently released on a writ of habeas corpus.23 East Timor is only in the early stages of establishing defense, police, and other security forces. An international force led by Australia and supported by the UN Security Council arrived in East Timor in September 1999 and was handed over to UNTAET in February 2000. Since then, UNMISET has been in the process of transferring authority for policing and security to East Timorese authorities, although it still retains a significant advisory role. As of September 2003, the National Police of Timor-Leste (PNTL) has trained 2,778 police officers of a projected total strength of 3,062. The constitution requires the security and police forces to be supervised by law and accountable to civilian authorities. A new internal security law has drawn criticism for delegating certain responsibilities to the executive. Meanwhile, the creation of a special police unit that would report to the prime minister is raising concerns that it might become a politicized rival force to the defense forces and police. Both UNMISET security forces and the East Timor police have been criticized for their conduct during the December 2002 Dili riot. The riot demonstrates the potential for grave civil unrest that challenges the capacity of the new police and security forces. Paramilitary activity also poses significant challenges to the new security forces.24 Much emphasis is placed on prosecuting those involved in the serious crimes and crimes against humanity committed during the 1999 withdrawal of the Indonesian military. Approximately 50 percent of the 1,300 murders recorded between August and November 1999 have been investigated and prosecuted to date, and trials for 10 priority cases and 5 widespread patterns of violence are expected to be completed by June 2004. The SCIU has indicted more than 230 people; however, a great majority of those indicted for serious crimes and nearly 90 percent of those indicted for crimes against humanity remain outside the country, primarily in Indonesia. Amnesty International has criticized the UN for not creating an international tribunal and instead allowing Indonesia to administer its own ad hoc human rights tribunal. The latter has been criticized internationally for failing to serve severe indictments; most defendants have been charged only with failing to prevent the atrocities rather than playing a direct role in them. As of August 11, 2003, the Indonesian tribunal had sentenced 6 military officers to prison and acquitted 11. The constitution guarantees equal treatment under the law for all persons and guarantees respect for private property. However, the country must resolve land disputes resulting from its recent turbulent history as a Portuguese colony, then as a territory of Indonesia, and finally as an independent nation. In addition, because of the burning of government documents during the Indonesian military's withdrawal, little public record remains of land-ownership history. Recommendations Improvements in the performance and professionalism of East Timor's courts and law enforcement personnel are essential. Police officers and military forces should have human rights training and greater exposure to professional security forces. Greater attention needs to be given to the training of recruits, especially in the riot-police force. The use of Portuguese as the official language of the legal system – at least in the short term – should also be reconsidered. Moreover, the advice of some international experts to give a greater role to international personnel in the judicial system on a temporary basis should be considered, but only if care is taken to promote the transfer of skills to East Timorese. More effort needs to be directed to educating the population on new laws, and incidents of bias need to be strongly condemned. Anticorruption and Transparency – 2.42 East Timor's underdeveloped legal system has not yet created anticorruption laws and practices. The constitution provides for an ombudsman, or Provedor Direitos Humanos e Justica, to investigate allegations of human rights abuse, corruption, and abuse of power. A draft law creating the post has not been passed. There are concerns about a rise in corruption and its effect on the development of East Timor's economy, especially after future oil and gas revenues begin to flow in. Low-level corruption, such as demands for bribes by civil servants issuing permits and kickbacks for state contracts, adversely affects businesses.25 Cabinet officers must make written declarations of their commercial and financial assets and those of their spouses. These declarations are maintained in a registry. However, according to regulation, these declarations are to be kept confidential and only made public by law.26 The constitution provides for parliamentary approval of the budget, laws precluding secret appropriations and funds, and monitoring by both the parliament and specialized courts of the judiciary. Training of the parliament in oversight is a priority of the international community; however, East Timor is still at the very earliest stages of development of separation of powers and the necessary skills for monitoring public expenditure. The continued deep involvement of international organizations in distributing funds makes it difficult to assess the government's performance on many of these issues. The right to petition is guaranteed by the constitution and is freely exercised. Recommendations The establishment of the constitutionally mandated ombudsman, or Provedor de Justicia, and the resources necessary to support the office are urgently needed. If, as is the case in the judicial system, personnel are insufficiently trained, the government of East Timor should request international assistance to help run the office of the ombudsman, with a special emphasis on training East Timorese as soon as possible. The government should introduce tougher measures to address corruption and introduce protection for whistle-blowers. Open bidding should be used in all government contracts and the terms of public contracts should be made available to the public. Strict measures should be introduced into the bureaucracy involving conflicts of interest and nepotism. The government should set up an anticorruption agency. Accountability and Public Voice – 4.72 East Timor's constitution provides for "free, direct, secret personal and regular universal suffrage" (Article 93). The great sensitivity to power and authority among East Timor's people, bred by decades of brutal occupation and the lingering divisions in society dating back to the 1970s, places special demands on East Timor's leaders. East Timor's executive branch was appointed by UNTAET prior to independence and is dominated by members of Freitilin, the party that won the majority of seats in elections to the constituent assembly. Mari Alkatiri, the secretary-general of Freitilin, who had served as economics minister and then chief minister in unelected bodies that advised and collaborated with UNTAET, became prime minister in the independent government. President Gusmao was elected on April 14, 2002, in balloting widely credited as being free and fair. Members of East Timor's parliament were elected as delegates to the constituent assembly in voting also widely credited as being free and fair. The elections were held under UNTAET regulations, which also established electoral offenses and a mechanism to hear complaints. New laws for future elections have not yet been passed by independent East Timor. On January 31, 2002, the constituent assembly voted to convert itself into a full parliament. The term of office was not decided, and no further elections are scheduled. Nevertheless, the constitution prohibits the holding of any political office for life or for an indefinite period. A public service commission, established by UNTAET in March 2000, oversees the appointment and operation of the civil service. A bureau based in the prime minister's office is concerned with extending opportunities for women. Although official information is made public, the methods of publication are not adequate. East Timor's official gazette disseminates laws and other material mainly in Portuguese, which only a tiny percentage of East Timor's people understand, and many UNTAET regulations are not available in Tetum or even in Portuguese. East Timor's government and NGOs provide information and in many cases the text of draft laws. However, often material is available only in languages not spoken by the vast majority of East Timorese, such as English and Portuguese. East Timor's independent civic sector is active; the government does not interfere with it in any obvious way. Prior to independence, there was some consideration given to regulations on noncommercial organizations, but no action was taken. However, the Immigration and Asylum Law contains provisions that could limit the rights of foreigners involved in NGO activities, especially those organizations active in promoting democracy and training political parties. The constitution provides and government regulations guarantee freedom of speech, information, press, and the media. The constitution has been criticized for a provision declaring the right to inform and be informed impartially as a violation of the prohibition on censorship. Concerns have also been expressed about the constitution's provision allowing suspension of rights of freedom of expression to protect human dignity. East Timor has daily newspapers, weekly magazines, and state radio and television stations, which operate freely in general. East Timor's television and the council of administration that governs it are officially government-funded, but in practice they are overwhelmingly supported by contributions from international donors. Some journalists fear intimidation from the ruling party through complaints about their reporting. There have been no reported incidents of violent intimidation of journalists, but the judicial system is still dealing with the murders of journalists in East Timor during the referendum violence of 1999. Some powerful state and non-state actors have engaged in criticism of the media for the content of their reporting, but this has elicited strong declarations from top East Timor officials rejecting censorship or other actions against journalists. Government criticism and interference with media are a matter of some concern. A letter dated August 4, 2003, from a cabinet-rank official to the supervisory authority of the public broadcasting board criticizing journalists for "a lack of ethics" in reporting that he claimed was irresponsible and partial elicited criticism from the opposition and from the broadcasting board. The letter stated that reporters of the public broadcasting authority "cannot transform the same body into an instrument of propaganda against the government or other sovereign body, let alone broadcast rumors and misinformation with a view to agitate the population."27 An opposition lawmaker called the letter a dangerous attempt to control the public media, and the president of the public broadcasting system and interim director of Radio and TV Timor-Leste rejected any effort at interference as incompatible with the regulation on broadcasting.28 On another occasion, Archbishop Belo called for the deportation of a correspondent of the Portuguese news service, Lusa, for being "against the Timorese people and against the Catholics of Dili."29 Both East Timor's prime minister and foreign minister countered the cleric's remarks with statements of support for freedom of speech, press, and information.30 Recommendations Top priority must be given to setting a date, or date range, for the first parliamentary election and to passing laws to govern the electoral process. The government should set up a professional independent body accountable to parliament to administer the election. The new election body should evaluate the previous election to highlight specific problems that need to be addressed. In addition, East Timor's leaders must be extremely vigilant about their conduct and their respect for separation of powers, the independence of the judiciary, and freedoms of speech and media. The strength and independence of weaker parts of the political system – judiciary, parliament, and the media – need to be enhanced through precedents and new initiatives. For example, a journalists' media commission should be encouraged in order to provide a voice for the media, and laws to project journalists should be introduced. Transparency, accessibility, and rigorous respect for the different branches and functions of government, as well as the role of the media in a free society, are essential to the success of East Timor's democracy. Notes 1 "About Timor-Leste, Timor-Leste Today" (Darwin, Australia and Dili: UNDP Timor-Leste), http://www.undp.east-timor.org/timor_leste/today.html. 2 "East Timor: Under Indonesian Rule," Online Newshour, PBS, April 2002, http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/asia/july-dec99/timor_background.html. 3 "Timor Today, About East Timor" (Dili: Timor Aid, n.d.), http://www.timoraid.org/timortoday/html/about_east_timor.htm. 4 East Timor, Country Reports on Human Rights Practices – 2002 (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, 31 March 2003). 5 World Report 2002 (New York: Human Rights Watch [HRW]). 6 Country Reports (U.S. Dept. of State). 7 Report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Mission of Support in East Timor (New York: United Nations Security Council, 6 October 2003). 8 Country Reports (U.S. Dept. of State). 9 Press Release (Darwin, Australia, and Dili: Judicial System Monitoring Program [JSMP], 29 September2003). 10 Edward Rees, National Security Adviser, UMTAET, "The UN's failure to integrate Falintil veterans may cause East Timor to fail," On Line Opinion, Australia's e-journal of social and political debate, 2 September 2003, http://www.onlineopinion.com.au/view.asp?article=666; Torben Retbøll, "The Women of East Timor" (Stockholm: East Timor Conference, 21 May 2002). 11 Local Media Monitoring, UNMISET, 4 August 2003; Daily Media Review, UNMISET, 20 June 2003; Press Release (Washington, DC: World Bank, 10 February 2003). 12 Guido Guilart, "Indonesian military forced women to become sex slaves," Associated Press Worldstream, 29 April 2003; Retbøll, "The Women of East Timor." 13 Ibid. 14 "Police Launch Prostitution Crackdown in East Timor," ABC Radio Australia News, 3 July 2003. 15 East Timor, International Religious Freedom Reports – 2002 (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, 2003). 16 Ibid. 17 Country Reports (U.S. Dept. of State). 18 "JSMP Expresses Concern about Personal Attacks upon Court of Appeal Judges," Press Release (JSMP, 23 July 2003). 19 "New Judicial Magistrates Law Passed but Concerns Ignored," Press Release (JSMP, 11 September 2003). 20 Ibid. 21 World Report 2002 (New York: HRW). 22 Rowan Callick, "Bright Dawn, Dark Days in Timor," Australian Financial Review, 23 June 2003. 23 "Foreign Businessman Released from Detention in East Timor" Press Release (JSMP, 11 July 2003). 24 Special Report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Mission of Support in East Timor (UN, 3 March 2003). 25 Joe Cochrane, "A Dangerous Windfall," Newsweek, 12 May 2003. 26 On the Establishment of a Cabinet of the Transitional Government of East Timor, UNTAET Regulation 2000/23. 27 UNMISET Local Media monitoring, courtesy ETAN. 28 Ibid. 29 East Timor Annual Report (Paris: Reporters Without Borders [RSF], 2003).
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"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Norway.svg/15px-Flag_of_Norway.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Flag_of_San_Marino.svg/15px-Flag_of_San_Marino.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg/15px-Flag_of_Ukraine.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png", "https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1", "https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg", "https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/footer/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Contributors to Wikimedia projects" ]	2003-11-07T07:23:13+00:00		en	/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png		https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilfried_Martens	Belgian politician (1936–2013) Wilfried Achiel Emma Martens (Dutch: [ˈʋɪlfrit ˈmɑrtə(n)s] ⓘ; 19 April 1936 – 9 October 2013) was a Belgian politician who served as prime minister of Belgium from 1979 to 1981 and from 1981 to 1992. A member of the Flemish Christian People's Party, during his premiership he oversaw the transformation of Belgium into a federal state.[1] He was one of the founders of the European People's Party. Martens was born on 19 April 1936 in the village of Sleidinge, East Flanders, the son of small farmers.[1] He studied law at the Catholic University of Leuven, graduating in 1960.[1] Martens became active in the Flemish Movement as a student.[1] He began to draw public attention in 1957 when, as president of the Flemish Youth Committee, he organized a march to protest the lack of Flemish presence in the 1958 Brussels World's Fair, and was subsequently arrested while protesting the opening of the exposition.[1] In 1965, Martens joined the Christian People's Party or CD&V, (since renamed to Christian Democratic and Flemish).[1] He served as the party's chairman from 1972 to 1979, sitting as a deputy in the Chamber of Representatives from 1974 to 1991,[1] and serving as a Senator from 1991 to 1994. Wilfried Martens served as Prime Minister in nine coalition governments (Martens I-IX) from 3 April 1979 to 6 April 1981 and 17 December 1981 to 7 March 1992. His period in office was dominated by the economic crisis of the 1980s and the state reforms of 1980 and 1988 which set Belgium on a path to federalism. He co-founded the European People's Party (EPP) in 1976 and was EPP President from 1992 until his death. From 1993 he was President of the European Union of Christian Democrats (EUCD), until its merger with the EPP in 1996. Martens also negotiated with Finnish politician Sauli Niinistö the merger of the European Democrat Union (EDU) into the EPP (formally concluded in 2002). The successful fusion of all centre-right European organisations into the EPP – currently the largest transnational European political party with 75 member-parties from 40 countries – is widely recognised as an important achievement of his European political legacy. From 1994 to 1998, he was a Member of the European Parliament, chairing the EPP Group. From October 2000 to November 2001 he was also the President of the Christian Democrat International (CDI). He re-appeared on the Belgian political stage on 22 December 2008 to help in the 2007–2011 Belgian political crisis. Martens held a doctorate in law, a degree in notarial studies, as well as a baccalaureate in Thomistic philosophy from the Catholic University of Louvain. He also studied international political science at Harvard University. He practised law at the Ghent court of appeal. Among numerous national and international distinctions, he was honoured in 1998 with the Charles V European Award for his contribution to European integration. Martens had five children: two from his first marriage with Lieve Verschroeven (Kris and Anne) and three with Ilse Schouteden (Sarah, Sophie and Simon). After the birth of their twins in 1997 they married on 13 November 1998. Ilse Schouteden has a son from her previous marriage. In 2007 he divorced his second wife. On 27 September 2008 he married Miet Smet, a former Belgian minister. It was his third marriage and her first. After the death of his first wife, Martens was able to celebrate the marriage to Miet Smet in the Catholic Church, on 27 April 2013. Martens suffered from pancreatic cancer and ended his life via euthanasia on the 9th of October, 2013[2] at his home in Lokeren; he was 77.[3][4] Elio Di Rupo, the Belgian prime minister, described him as a "true statesman and one of the fathers of federal Belgium".[4] Martin Schulz, president of the European Parliament, paid tribute to him as a "statesman of Belgium, Europe and an outstanding leader of European Parliament".[4] Jerzy Buzek, EPP MEP and former prime minister of Poland, described him as "irreplaceable".[4] He received a state funeral he was buried in the cemetery of Campo Santo. The EPP think tank Centre for European Studies has been renamed after him, now being the "Wilfried Martens Centre for European Studies", a decision taken during the EPP Congress in Dublin held on 9 March 2014.[5] Belgium: Minister of State, by Royal Decree. Grand officer in the Order of Leopold Grand Cross in the Order of Leopold II Grand Cross in the Order of the Crown Austria:Grand Decoration of Honour in Gold, Decoration of Honour for Services to the Republic of Austria (30 May 1985)[6] France: Knight Grand Cross in the National Order of Merit (28 February 1983)[7] Grand Officer in the Legion of Honour.[8] Germany: Knight Grand Cross in the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany (7 February 1984)[9] Greece: Knight Grand Cross in the Order of the Phoenix Iceland : Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Falcon (16 October 1979)[10] Italy: Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic (20 February 1986)[11] Mexico:"Banda" of the Order of the Aztec Eagle (14 June 1985)[12] Portugal: Grand Cross of the Order of Christ (10 December 1982)[13] Grand Cross in the Order of Prince Henry (31 October 1987)[13] Spain: Knight Grand Cross in the Order of Isabella the Catholic (March 1980)[14] Netherlands:Knight Grand Cross in the Order of Orange-Nassau.[8] Luxemburg: Knight Grand Cross in the Order of the Oak Crown (20 June 1984)[8] Grand Officer in the Ordre du Croissant vert, Commores (9 June 1982)[15] Pierre Carette Wilfried Martens Centre for European Studies Een gegeven woord, Lannoo, Tielt, 1985. Europa voorbij Oost en West, Lannoo, Tielt, 1995. De Memoires, Luctor et Emergo, Lannoo, Tielt, 2006. Europe: I Struggle, I Overcome, Springer Science+Business Media, 2009.[16] Wilsford, David, ed. Political leaders of contemporary Western Europe: a biographical dictionary (Greenwood, 1995) pp. 306–13. epp.eu Wilfried Martens in ODIS - Online Database for Intermediary Structures
wrong_mix_range_leader_00122	FactBench	0	17	https://www.cadtm.org/In-memory-of-Patrice-Lumumba-assassinated-on-17-January-1961	en	In memory of Patrice Lumumba, assassinated on 17 January 1961	https://www.cadtm.org/lo…653961-48a7d.jpg	https://www.cadtm.org/lo…653961-48a7d.jpg	[ "https://piwik.domainepublic.net/piwik.php?idsite=9", "https://www.cadtm.org/IMG/siteon0.png?1522266780", "https://www.cadtm.org/images/printer.png", "https://www.cadtm.org/images/pdf16.jpg", "https://www.cadtm.org/images/texteclair.jpg", "https://www.cadtm.org/local/cache-vignettes/L640xH381/arton19390-4f8e0.jpg?1680789127", "https://www.cadtm.org/local/cache-vignettes/L245xH386/41h75p484xl-2cec6.jpg?1680783196", "https://www.cadtm.org/local/cache-vignettes/L640xH358/discours-ea685.png?1680783196", "https://www.cadtm.org/local/cache-vignettes/L500xH376/arton734-e0b1f-d2c54.jpg?1680783196", "https://www.cadtm.org/local/cache-vignettes/L640xH641/lumumbabruxelles1960-b90fd.jpg?1680783196", "https://www.cadtm.org/local/cache-vignettes/L640xH374/arton2727-5b11f-8951f.jpg?1680783196", "https://www.cadtm.org/local/cache-vignettes/L393xH213/image1-6-9f1c8.png?1680783196", "https://www.cadtm.org/local/cache-gd2/6e/f28d005140af9477ab3fcbaffc18f0.png?1680773115", "https://www.cadtm.org/IMG/moton736.png?1430120656", "https://www.cadtm.org/images/cc.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "CADTM", "Comité pour l'Annulation des dettes illégitimes", "dette", "dette tiers monde", "dette du tiers monde", "la dette du tiers monde", "dette publique", "dette externe", "dette illégitime", "dette odieuse", "odieuse", "G8", "FMI", "IMF", "club de paris", "banque mondiale", "banque du sud", "PPTE", "IADM", "créanciers", "afrique", "néolibéralisme", "finance", "Nord-Sud", "globalisation", "multinationales", "Comité para la Anulación de las deudas ilegítimas", "deuda", "la deuda", "la deuda del tercer mundo", "tercer mundo", "deuda pública", "deuda externa", "la deuda odiosa", "el G8", "el FMI", "el Club de París", "Banco Mundial", "el\nBanco del Sur", "países pobres muy endeudados", "acreedores", "África", "el neoliberalismo", "las\nfinanzas", "las relaciones Norte-Sur", "la globalización", "las multinacionales", "Committee for\nthe Abolition of Illegitimate Debt", "debt", "Illegitimate Debt", "third world debt", "odious debt", "public debt", "external debt", "G8", "IMF", "Paris Club", "World Bank", "South Bank", "HIPC", "MDRI", "creditors", "Africa", "neoliberalism", "finance", "North-South relations", "globalization", "multinational", "Comité para a Anulação das dívidas ilegítimas", "dívida", "dívida do\nterceiro mundo", "dívida odiosa", "dívida ilegítima", "dívida pública", "dívida\nexterna", "o G8", "o FMI", "Clube de Paris", "o Banco Mundial", "Banco do Sul", "países pobres\naltamente endividados", "credores", "a África", "o neoliberalismo", "finanças", "relações Norte-Sul", "a globalização", "multinacional" ]	null	[ "Eric Toussaint" ]	2024-07-24T00:00:00	On 17 January 2021, we commemorate the 60th anniversary of the assassination of Patrice Lumumba (1925-1961). After a resounding victory in the (...)	en	favicon.ico	CADTM	https://www.cadtm.org/In-memory-of-Patrice-Lumumba-assassinated-on-17-January-1961	After a resounding victory in the first real elections in which the Congolese participated, Patrice Lumumba became Prime Minister of Congo from 24 June 1960 until his overthrow and imprisonment on 14 September of the same year by Colonel Joseph-Désiré Mobutu and his supporters. Mobutu then ruled the country, first in the shadow, then directly from 1965 until his overthrow in 1997. Ludo De Witte : Lumumba was a victim of imperialism. Actually the powers that wanted to continue imperial rule in Congo, replace a colonial system with a neocolonial system, a system in which Africans would wield political power but controlled by Western powers and their corporations. This is the neocolonialism Lumumba wanted to fight and this is why he was assassinated On 17 January 1961, Lumumba, this great fighter for Congo’s independence, for social justice and for internationalism, was tortured and then executed, along with several of his comrades, by Congolese leaders complicit with Western powers, as well as by Belgian police and soldiers. Lumumba was only 35 years old and could have continued to play a very important role in his country, in Africa and at a global level. As journalist Colette Braeckman wrote, “Patrice Lumumba, the Congolese Prime Minister who was illegally removed from office in September, placed under house arrest and then detained in Thysville, had been sent to Katanga on 17 January 1961. Five hours after his arrival on Katangan soil, he was put to death with his two companions Maurice M’Polo and Robert Okito." [1] Among the Congolese leaders who directly participated in the killing of Lumumba, we find Moïse Tshombé, self-proclaimed president of the Congolese province of Katanga, which seceded on 11 July 1960, less than two weeks after the independence of Congo on 30 June 1960. The Katangan secession proclaimed by Moïse Tshombe was supported by Belgium and the large Belgian mining corporations that controlled that part of Congo (see below) with a view to destabilizing the government led by Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba. At least five Belgian policemen and soldiers were present at the assassination. Joseph-Désiré Mobutu, one of the major Congolese leaders responsible for the assassination of Lumumba, did not attend the murder as he was in in the capital city in the West of the country. Belgium’s responsibility in the assassination of Lumumba in January 1961 was established by several historians, among whom Ludo De Witte in The assassination of Lumumba and was was the subject of a commission of inquiry within the Belgian Parliament in 2001-2002. See also Ludo De Witte’s interview in 2018,(in French). In it De Witte sums up in simple words the causes that led to the assassination of Lumumba: “Lumumba was a victim of imperialism. Actually the powers that wanted to continue imperial rule in Congo, replace a colonial system with a neocolonial system, a system in which Africans would wield political power but controlled by Western powers and their corporations. This is the neocolonialism Lumumba wanted to fight and this is why he was assassinated.” We should remember the speech delivered by the the Prime Minister of the Republic of Congo, Patrice Lumumba, in reply to what Baudouin, King of the Belgians had said, namely, “Congo’s independence is the culmination of the Belgian ‘civilising mission’ devised by the genius of Leopold II, which he launched with tenacious courage and which was continued with perseverance by Belgium.” During the proclamation of Congo’s independence on June 30, 1960, the Prime Minister of Congo, Patrice Emery Lumumba, gave a memorable speech (Click on the image to listen to the speech). In his speech Lumumba insisted that justice be done for the Congolese people. Here is an English translation of it. Speech delivered in Parliament after those by King Baudouin and President Joseph Kasavubu, on the day of the proclamation of the independence of the Republic of Congo. “Men and women of the Congo, Victorious independence fighters, I salute you in the name of the Congolese Government. I ask all of you, my friends, who tirelessly fought in our ranks, to mark this June 30, 1960, as an illustrious date that will be ever engraved in your hearts, a date whose meaning you will proudly explain to your children, so that they in turn might relate to their grandchildren and great-grandchildren the glorious history of our struggle for freedom. Although this independence of the Congo is being proclaimed today by agreement with Belgium, an amicable country, with which we are on equal terms, no Congolese will ever forget that independence was won in struggle, a persevering and inspired struggle carried on from day to day, a struggle, in which we were undaunted by privation or suffering and stinted neither strength nor blood. It was filled with tears, fire and blood. We are deeply proud of our struggle, because it was just and noble and indispensable in putting an end to the humiliating bondage forced upon us. That was our lot for the eighty years of colonial rule and our wounds are too fresh and much too painful to be forgotten. We have experienced forced labour in exchange for pay that did not allow us to satisfy our hunger, to clothe ourselves, to have decent lodgings or to bring up our children as dearly loved ones. Morning, noon and night we were subjected to jeers, insults and blows because we were ‘Negroes’. Who will ever forget that the black was addressed as ‘tu’ not because he was a friend, but because the polite ‘vous’ was reserved for the white man? We have seen our lands seized in the name of ostensibly just laws, which gave recognition only to the right of might. We have not forgotten that the law was never the same for the white and the black, that it was lenient to the ones, and cruel and inhuman to the others. We have experienced atrocious sufferings, being persecuted for political convictions and religious beliefs, and exiled from our native land: our lot was worse than death itself. We have not forgotten that in the cities the mansions were for the whites and the tumbledown huts for the blacks; that a black was not admitted to the cinemas, restaurants and shops set aside for ‘Europeans’ that blacks travelled in the barge’s holds, under the feet of the whites in their luxury cabins. Who will ever forget the shootings which killed so many of our brothers, or the cells into which were mercilessly thrown those who no longer wished to submit to the regime of injustice, oppression and exploitation used by the colonialists as a tool of their domination? Patrice Lumumba : Who will ever forget that the black was addressed as ‘tu’ not because he was a friend, but because the polite ‘vous’ was reserved for the white man? [...] We have not forgotten that the law was never the same for the white and the black All that, my brothers, brought us untold suffering. But we, who were elected by the votes of your representatives, representatives of the people, to guide our native land, we, who have suffered in body and soul from colonial oppression, we tell you that henceforth all that is finished with. The Republic of Congo has been proclaimed and our beloved country’s future is now in the hands of its own people. Brothers, let us commence together a new struggle, a sublime struggle that will lead our country to peace, prosperity and greatness. Together we shall establish social justice and ensure for everyone a fair remuneration for their labour. We shall show the world what the black man can do when working in liberty, and we shall make the Congo the pride of Africa. We shall see to it that the lands of our native country truly benefit its children. We shall revise all the old laws and make them into new ones that will be just and noble. We shall stop the persecution of free thought. We shall see to it that all citizens enjoy to the fullest extent the basic freedoms provided for by the Declaration of Human Rights. We shall eradicate all discrimination, whatever its origin, and we shall ensure for everyone a station in life befitting their human dignity and worthy of their labour and their loyalty to the country. We shall institute in the country a peace resting not on guns and bayonets but on concord and goodwill Goodwill The difference between the assets on a company’s balance-sheet and the sum of its tangible and intangible assets. When one company takes control of another company, the acquiring company generally pays a price that is higher than the value of the net assets. Goodwill generally consists of intangible elements, such as brands, which are evaluated subjectively. . And in all this, my dear compatriots, we can rely not only on our own enormous forces and immense wealth, but also on the assistance of the numerous foreign states, whose co-operation we shall accept when it is not aimed at imposing upon us an alien policy, but is given in a spirit of friendship. Even Belgium, which has finally learned the lesson of history and need no longer try to oppose our independence, is prepared to give us its aid and friendship; to that end an agreement has just been signed between our two equal and independent countries. I am sure that this co-operation will benefit both countries. For our part, we shall, while remaining vigilant, try to observe the engagements we have freely made. Thus, both in the internal and the external spheres, the new Congo, our beloved Republic to be created by my government, will be rich, free and prosperous. But to attain our goal without delay, I ask all of you, legislators and citizens of the Congo, to give us all the help you can. I ask you all to forget your tribal quarrels: they weaken us and may cause us to be despised abroad. I ask you all not to shrink from any sacrifice that might ensure the success of our grand undertaking. Finally, I ask you unconditionally to respect the life and property of fellow-citizens and foreigners who have settled in our country. If the conduct of these foreigners leaves much to be desired, our Justice will promptly expel them from the territory of the Republic; if, on the contrary, their conduct is good, they must be left in peace, for they, too, are working for our country’s prosperity. The Congo’s independence is a decisive step towards the liberation of the whole African continent. Our government, a government of national and popular unity, will serve its country. I call on all Congolese citizens, men, women and children, to set themselves resolutely to the task of creating a national economy and ensuring our economic independence. Eternal glory to the fighters for national liberation! Long live independence and African unity! Long live the independent and sovereign Congo!” (Source : https://www.marxists.org/subject/africa/lumumba/1960/06/independence.htm) Lumumba, a fighter for internationalism Before becoming Prime Minister, Lumumba had woven steadfast connections with a number of anti-imperialist, panafricanist and internationalist movements and people. In December 1958, he attended the All African Peoples’ Conference in Accra where he met among others the Caribbean-Algerian psychiatrist and freedom fighter Frantz Fanon, the Ghanaian president Kwame Nkrumah and the Cameroonian anti-colonialist leader Félix-Roland Moumié. [2] He made a speech in which he said, “The fundamental aim of our movement is to free the Congolese people from the colonialist regime and earn them their independence. We base our action on the Universal Declaration of the Rights of Man — rights guaranteed to each and every citizen of humanity by the United Nations Charter — and we are of the opinion that the Congo, as a human society, has the right to join the ranks of free peoples.” He concluded with the following words, “This is why we passionately cry out with all the delegates: Down with colonialism and imperialism! Down with racism and tribalism! And long live the Congolese nation, long live independent Africa!” It is important to point out that during the year 1959, the repression organised by colonialist Belgium resulted in the deaths of dozens if not hundreds of people. At the end of the All African Peoples’ Conference, Lumumba was appointed a permanent member of the co-ordinating committee, as Saïd Bouamama recalls in his Figures de la révolution africaine. [3] Lumumba was also in close contact with Belgian anticolonialist and anticapitalist militants such as Jean Van Lierde, who worked in support of the revolution in Algeria and who maintained close ties [4] with the weekly La Gauche and its main driving force, Ernest Mandel. A few weeks after the conference in Accra, Lumumba and his movement held a meeting to report on the proceedings of the anticolonialist summit in Léopoldville, then capital of the Belgian Congo. He called for the independence of Congo before an audience of 10,000. He described the goal of the Mouvement National Congolais as “to liquidate the colonialist regime and the exploitation of men by men.” [5] According to Le Monde Diplomatique of February 1959, a riot broke out in Léopoldville following the conference, beginning 4 January1959. This is what the French monthly had to say: “The origin of the riot is directly related to the All-Africa Peoples’ Conference in Accra. It was as the leaders of the Mouvement National Congolais — headed by the president of the movement, Mr. Lumumba — were preparing to hold a public meeting on the subject that the unrest first broke out. With the authorisation of the Governor General of the Belgian Congo, Mr. Cornelis, a delegation of Congolese nationalists, led by Mr. Lumumba, had travelled to Ghana in December. It was as the delegation was preparing to report on its visit and its work, on 4 January, that the police gave the conference attendees and those who had come to hear them the order to disperse.” [6] It is important to point out that during the year 1959, the repression organised by colonialist Belgium resulted in the deaths of dozens if not hundreds of people. One example of the extent of the repression: in October 1959, during the national congress of the Mouvement National Congolais (MNC) in Stanleyville, police fired into the crowd, killing 30 and wounding hundreds. Lumumba was arrested a few days later, tried in January 1960 and sentenced to six months in prison on 21 January 1960. But protest was so intense that out of fear, the regime in Brussels decided to defuse the situation by calling local elections in which the Congolese were allowed to participate. Lumumba was freed on 26 January, only a few days after his sentencing. Finally, following the local elections, a general election was held in May 1960, the first in the history of the Belgian Congo. The Mouvement National Congolais (MNC) won the election and as a result Lumumba was appointed prime minister. The sequence of events that led to the coup against Lumumba and to his assassination Following Lumumba’s speech of 30 June, the Belgian government, the monarchy and the heads of the major Belgian companies present in Congo decided to destabilize Lumumba and provoke the secession of Katanga, the province where most of the raw materials (copper, cobalt, radium) were extracted. Congolese accomplices immediately stepped up in the form of Moïse Tshombé, proclaimed president of Katanga on 11 July 1960, President Joseph Kasa-Vubu, who revoked Lumumba in September 1960 despite having no constitutional authority to do so, and Joseph-Désiré Mobutu, who led a coup d’état a few days later and had Lumumba arrested, despite the fact that his ministers had expressed their confidence in him and that his party was the leading party in the parliament. Mobutu, who had had a military career during the colonial period and was a former journalist for the pro-colonial press in Congo, had managed to be appointed to the rank of colonel in the new army and quickly turned against Congo’s elected government. The operation leading to Lumumba’s execution was directly accompanied and directed by Belgians on orders from Brussels. On 17 January 1961, Lumumba, Maurice Mpolo and Joseph Okito were taken in an airplane piloted by a Belgian crew to Élisabethville, the capital of Katanga, and handed over to the local authorities. They were then tortured by Katangese leaders, including Moïse Tshombé, and by Belgians. They were shot that evening by soldiers under the command of a Belgian officer. Belgium, as a member of NATO NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization NATO ensures US military protection for the Europeans in case of aggression, but above all it gives the USA supremacy over the Western Bloc. Western European countries agreed to place their armed forces within a defence system under US command, and thus recognize the preponderance of the USA. NATO was founded in 1949 in Washington, but became less prominent after the end of the Cold War. In 2002, it had 19 members: Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, the UK, the USA, to which were added Greece and Turkey in 1952, the Federal Republic of Germany in 1955 (replaced by Unified Germany in 1990), Spain in 1982, Hungary, Poland and the Czech Republic in 1999. , had a heavily-equipped military zone in Western Germany extending from the Belgian border to that of the Soviet-aligned countries. The Belgian general staff had at its disposal a considerable military arsenal, at least partly originating in the USA, and NATO allowed them to deploy aircraft, troop transports and even warships which bombarded Congolese positions in the Congo estuary. The US government and CIA were also at the controls “alongside” the Belgians, with whom they had decided to assassinate Lumumba. [7]. France was also on board. In a telegram dated 26 August 1960, the director of the CIA, Allen Dulles, told his agents in Léopoldville, concerning Lumumba: “Consequently, we concluded that his removal must be an urgent and prime objective and that under existing conditions this should be a high priority of our covert action.” [8] We should mention that on 12 August 1960, Belgium had signed an accord with Tshombé, recognising de facto the independence of Katanga. The attempts made by Lumumba’s government to deal with the secession were fully legitimate, but were fought against by the major Western powers. Despite his arrest by Mobutu, Lumumba did not capitulate and maintained contact with the ministers who remained faithful to their commitments, and with his comrades. A clandestine government led by Antoine Gizenga was established in Stanleyville. Lumumba managed to escape from his jailers on 27 November 1960 and attempted to join up with the government in Stanleyville, but was arrested a few days later in transit. In January 1961, with Lumumba still highly popular, Mobutu and the Western powers feared that a popular revolt would lead to the leader’s liberation and decided to have him executed. The operation leading to Lumumba’s execution was directly accompanied and directed by Belgians on orders from Brussels. On 17 January 1961, Lumumba, Maurice Mpolo and Joseph Okito were taken in an airplane piloted by a Belgian crew to Élisabethville, the capital of Katanga, and handed over to the local authorities. They were then tortured by Katangese leaders, including Moïse Tshombé, and by Belgians. They were shot that evening by soldiers under the command of a Belgian officer. According to the testimony of Belgian Gerard Soete, then police commissioner in charge of setting up a “Katangese national police force”, the three bodies were transported 220 kilometres from the place of execution, and were buried in the earth behind a termite mound, in the middle of a wooded savannah. The AFP, which had collected this testimony, reports that three days later the bodies were moved again to delete any possibility of tracking them. Soete said he was accompanied by “another white man” and a few Congolese when they cut up the corpses with saws and dissolved them in acid. [9] Mobutu and Ronald Reagan Belgium’s support for the Mobutu dictatorship The Belgian army intervened twice in the Congo to help Mobutu and his dictatorial regime to crush the resistance of Lumumbist organizations, first in November 1964 with the operation Red Dragon and Black Dragon, respectively at Stanleyville and at Paulis. On this occasion, the operation was jointly led by the Belgian army, Mobutu’s army, the General Staff of the US army and mercenaries, among whom some anti-Castro Cubans. In a speech delivered at the UN General Assembly in November 1964, Ernesto Che Guevara condemned this intervention, as he also did in a speech delivered in Santiago de Cuba, “today, the most poignant and pervasive memory that stays with us is that of the Congo and of Lumumba. Today, in that country that is both so distant and so near to our hearts, historical events have occurred which we have to know about, as we have to learn from what has been experienced. The other day, Belgian parachutists assaulted the city of Stanleyville.” (excerpt from Che Guevara’s speech in Santiago de Cuba on 30 November 1964, on the occasion of the 8th anniversary of the town’s uprising led by Frank País (translation CADTM, from the French version). The second intervention of the Belgian army occurred in Kolwezi in the heart of the mining area of Shaba (Katanga) in May 1978 in collaboration with the French army and Mobutu’s army. Litigation still in progress in Belgium concerning the assassination of Lumumba The Belgian courts have not yet handed down a judgment concerning the murder of Lumumba. If the case has remained open, it is only due to the ongoing actions of all those who are determined to see justice done. The Lumumba family continues its actions toward revealing the truth. A Belgian examining magistrate is still in charge of the case since it has been classified as a war crime to which no statute of limitations applies. And as the family’s attorney, Christophe Marchand, pointed out to Belgian television on 23 June 2011 “the main instigators are all dead today (…) but former advisors and attachés of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs are still alive.” Lumumba in Brussels (1960) (CC - Wikimedia) Lumumba has become an emblematic figure The figure of Patrice Lumumba has traversed history and still serves today as an example for all who champion the emancipation of peoples. Lumumba never surrendered. Such was his popularity under the regime of the dictator Mobutu that the latter decreed Patrice Lumumba a national hero in 1966. Not satisfied with having overthrown him in September 1960 and with being one of the main organizers of his murder, Mobutu attempted to steal a part of his aura. The day of his execution, 17 January, is a bank holiday in Congo-Kinshasa. In Brussels, after years of actions by anticolonialist militants, the municipal council voted on 23 April 2018 to create a square, the Place Patrice-Lumumba, which was officially inaugurated on 30 June of the same year, the date of the 58th anniversary of the independence of the Democratic Republic of Congo. But all of that amounts to very little. Beyond the need to disseminate the truth about Lumumba’s struggle and to demand that justice be done him, his struggle and that of all the women and men of Congo who fought against all forms of spoliation, oppression and exploitation must be continued. That is why the CADTM feels that the Belgian authorities must: Recognise publicly and name all of the abuses and crimes committed against the people of Congo by Léopold II and the Belgian monarchy, and make official excuses; Deepen and extend the task of remembrance by involving the appropriate personnel both in public education and popular educational activities and including in institutional areas; Restore all Congolese cultural property to the Congolese; Actively support the review of all colonialist symbols in public spaces in Belgium; Conduct a historical audit of debt in order to make unconditional financial reparation and retrocession for the amounts extracted during the colonisation of Congo; Take action within the multilateral institutions (World Bank World Bank WB The World Bank was founded as part of the new international monetary system set up at Bretton Woods in 1944. Its capital is provided by member states’ contributions and loans on the international money markets. It financed public and private projects in Third World and East European countries. It consists of several closely associated institutions, among which : 1. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD, 189 members in 2017), which provides loans in productive sectors such as farming or energy ; 2. The International Development Association (IDA, 159 members in 1997), which provides less advanced countries with long-term loans (35-40 years) at very low interest (1%) ; 3. The International Finance Corporation (IFC), which provides both loan and equity finance for business ventures in developing countries. As Third World Debt gets worse, the World Bank (along with the IMF) tends to adopt a macro-economic perspective. For instance, it enforces adjustment policies that are intended to balance heavily indebted countries’ payments. The World Bank advises those countries that have to undergo the IMF’s therapy on such matters as how to reduce budget deficits, round up savings, enduce foreign investors to settle within their borders, or free prices and exchange rates. , IMF IMF International Monetary Fund Along with the World Bank, the IMF was founded on the day the Bretton Woods Agreements were signed. Its first mission was to support the new system of standard exchange rates. When the Bretton Wood fixed rates system came to an end in 1971, the main function of the IMF became that of being both policeman and fireman for global capital: it acts as policeman when it enforces its Structural Adjustment Policies and as fireman when it steps in to help out governments in risk of defaulting on debt repayments. As for the World Bank, a weighted voting system operates: depending on the amount paid as contribution by each member state. 85% of the votes is required to modify the IMF Charter (which means that the USA with 17,68% % of the votes has a de facto veto on any change). The institution is dominated by five countries: the United States (16,74%), Japan (6,23%), Germany (5,81%), France (4,29%) and the UK (4,29%). The other 183 member countries are divided into groups led by one country. The most important one (6,57% of the votes) is led by Belgium. The least important group of countries (1,55% of the votes) is led by Gabon and brings together African countries. http://imf.org , Paris Club Paris Club This group of lender States was founded in 1956 and specializes in dealing with non-payment by developing countries. , etc.) so that their members totally and unconditionally cancel repayment of all odious debt Odious Debt According to the doctrine, for a debt to be odious it must meet two conditions: 1) It must have been contracted against the interests of the Nation, or against the interests of the People, or against the interests of the State. 2) Creditors cannot prove they they were unaware of how the borrowed money would be used. We must underline that according to the doctrine of odious debt, the nature of the borrowing regime or government does not signify, since what matters is what the debt is used for. If a democratic government gets into debt against the interests of its population, the contracted debt can be called odious if it also meets the second condition. Consequently, contrary to a misleading version of the doctrine, odious debt is not only about dictatorial regimes. (See Éric Toussaint, The Doctrine of Odious Debt : from Alexander Sack to the CADTM). The father of the odious debt doctrine, Alexander Nahum Sack, clearly says that odious debts can be contracted by any regular government. Sack considers that a debt that is regularly incurred by a regular government can be branded as odious if the two above-mentioned conditions are met. He adds, “once these two points are established, the burden of proof that the funds were used for the general or special needs of the State and were not of an odious character, would be upon the creditors.” Sack defines a regular government as follows: “By a regular government is to be understood the supreme power that effectively exists within the limits of a given territory. Whether that government be monarchical (absolute or limited) or republican; whether it functions by “the grace of God” or “the will of the people”; whether it express “the will of the people” or not, of all the people or only of some; whether it be legally established or not, etc., none of that is relevant to the problem we are concerned with.” So clearly for Sack, all regular governments, whether despotic or democratic, in one guise or another, can incur odious debts. on the Democratic Republic of Congo; Publicly support all moratoria on repayment of debt enacted by the government of Congo in order to improve the public health system and face the epidemic of CoViD-19 and other diseases which cause deaths that would be entirely preventable if expenditures on public health are increased. The CADTM supports the various collectives calling for actions in Belgium in the wake of the Black Lives Matter protests and all those who are taking action in the area of awareness of colonialism. The CADTM supports the Congolese people in facing the health, economic and social consequences of the CoViD-19 crisis. In spite of the diktats of creditors and the serious failures of successive Congo governments, which have resulted in severe repression and flagrant denial of fundamental human rights, social movements in Congo have resisted. The CADTM supports these and other struggles for social justice. To learn more about relations between Belgium and Congo: See Appendices 1 and 2 and read Éric Toussaint, “Reply to the letter by Philippe, King of the Belgians, about Belgium’s responsibility in the exploitation of the Congolese people.” To learn more about Congo’s illegitimate debt: “Généalogie de la dette en République démocratique du Congo” (in French) Appendix 1 : Belgium’s crimes before Congo’s independence Belgium’s crimes before Congo’s independence (1885-1960) One may consider it a certainty that the King of the Belgians, and the Congo Free State, which he governed with the agreement of the Belgian government and parliament of the time, are responsible for deliberate ‘crimes against humanity’. One may consider it a certainty that the King of the Belgians, and the Congo Free State, which he governed with the agreement of the Belgian government and parliament of the time, are responsible for deliberate ‘crimes against humanity’. These crimes are not blunders; they are the direct result of the type of exploitation to which the Congolese population was subjected. Some prominent authors have spoken of ‘genocide’. I propose not to create a debate focused on this issue because it is difficult to agree on figures. Some serious authors estimate the Congolese population in 1885 to have been around 20 million, and write that in 1908 when Leopold II transferred the Congo to Belgium, thus creating the Belgian Congo, there remained 10 million Congolese. These estimates by reputable authors are, however, difficult to verify in the absence of a population census. The colonial period when Belgium owned the Congo (1908-1960) Leopold II tried to get rid of the Congo since by making it over to Belgium he would also shake off the debts he had accumulated with various banks. Acceding to his request, Belgium inherited the debts contracted to exploit the Congolese people. The King had hoarded the extracted wealth as private loot while he had ordered enormous expenses from Belgium to strengthen its power and image. But big Belgian and foreign capitalist corporations had also had their share Share A unit of ownership interest in a corporation or financial asset, representing one part of the total capital stock. Its owner (a shareholder) is entitled to receive an equal distribution of any profits distributed (a dividend) and to attend shareholder meetings. : Belgian arms manufacturers and traders, companies that supplied equipment, those that collected and processed natural rubber, and many others. The Belgian State thus inherited the Congo and Leopold II’s debts, which led to further exploitation of the Congolese people. While the Congo was a Belgian colony, big Belgian capitalist companies made maximum profit Profit The positive gain yielded from a company’s activity. Net profit is profit after tax. Distributable profit is the part of the net profit which can be distributed to the shareholders. thanks to the exploitation of the huge natural resources of the country, notably in terms of minerals of all kinds. The Belgian State was paying off Leopold II’s debts and contracting new ones to better help big capital to accumulate maximum profit. The Congolese people had no rights to speak of. The education system was pitifully inadequate because Belgium wanted to prevent the Congolese from entering higher or university education. Not only were the Congolese people exploited in their native land, but they were also called upon to fight for Belgium during the various wars it was involved in, notably with an eye on the German colonies of Rwanda and Burundi to the East of the Congo. Thousands of Congolese died away from home fighting wars waged by European capitalist powers. During the Second World War, the US made the atom bombs that annihilated Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945 with uranium extracted for the Congolese province of Katanga. And indeed as Belgium was on the winning side in the First World War, it was able to extend its colonial territory with Rwanda and Burundi, wrenched from the German Empire through the Treaty of Versailles in 1919. During the Second World War, the US made the atom bombs that annihilated Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945 with uranium extracted for the Congolese province of Katanga. By way of thanks the US canceled the debt Belgium owed them. On the other hand, when Belgium agreed to the Congo’s independence on 30 June 1960, it expected the Congolese government led by Patrice Lumumba to take over the debt Belgium had accumulated with the World Bank over the 1950s to exploit the ‘Belgian’ Congo. Lumumba refused. This was one of the reasons that induced Belgium to plan and directly participate in Lumumba’s murder of in January 1961. Appendix 2: Belgium’s crimes after Congo’s independence With the World Bank aiding and abetting, Belgium forced the Congolese people to pay a debt that had been used for their colonial exploitation In the book The World Bank: a never-ending coup d’Etat originally published in 2006, [10] I pointed out the fact that the debt Belgium had contracted with the World Bank during the 1950s had been unjustly relegated to the Congolese people thanks to Mobutu’s complicity when he organized the arrest, then actively participated in the murder, of Lumumba. How did it work? Violating the right to self-determination, the World Bank granted loans to Belgium, France and the UK to finance projects in their colonies. [11] As acknowledged by the Bank’s historians, “The loans, which served to alleviate the dollar shortages of the European colonial powers, were largely directed to colonial interests, especially mining, either through direct investments or indirect assistance, as in the development of the transport infrastructure related to mining”. [12] Those loans made it possible for colonial powers to reinforce the yoke under which they kept colonized people. They contributed to supplying colonial metropolises with minerals, farm products, fuel. In the case of the Belgian Congo, the millions of dollars that were granted for projects decided by the colonial power were almost entirely spent by the Congo’s colonial administration to buy products exported from Belgium. All in all the Belgian Congo ‘received’ loans for US $120 million (in three tranches), 105.4 million of which were spent in Belgium. [13] For Patrice Lumumba’s government it was just unthinkable to pay the World Bank a debt that had been contracted by Belgium in order to exploit the Belgian Congo. The World Bank and Belgium violated international law when in the 1960s they forced onto the newly independent Congo the burden of debt contracted for its colonization. Things changed in 1965: after Mobutu’s military coup, the Congo, now renamed Zaire, acknowledged that it had a debt towards the World Bank; of course the debt had actually been contracted by Belgium to exploit the Belgian Congo. International law is very clear on this point. A similar case occurred in the past and was decided on by the Treaty of Versailles. When Poland retrieved its status as an independent state after the First World War, it was decided that debts contracted by Germany to colonize the part of Poland it had occupied would not be charged to the newly independent state. The Treaty of Versailles signed on 28 June 1919 stipulated: “There shall be excluded from the share of such financial liabilities assumed by Poland that portion of the debt which, according to the finding of the Reparation Commission... arises from measures adopted by the German and Prussian Governments with a view to German colonisation in Poland.” [14] The Treaty provides that creditors who have lent to Germany for projects on Polish territory can claim their due only from that colonial metropolitan power and not from Poland. Alexander Nahum Sack, the theoretician of odious debt, specifies in his 1927 law treaty: “When the government contracts debts in order to subject the population in part of its territory or to colonize it with nationals of the dominant nationality, etc., those debts are odious for the native population in that part of the territory of the debtor State.” [15] Things changed in 1965: after Mobutu’s military coup, the Congo, now renamed Zaire, acknowledged that it had a debt towards the World Bank The Treaty of Versailles decreed that the German Empire would lose its African colonies and that their debts would be cancelled. In this respect, Sack quotes part of the Allied Powers’ reply to Germany, that was not ready to accept such debt cancellation because it meant it would have to foot the bill. They said, “The colonies should not bear any portion of the German debt, nor remain under any obligation to refund to Germany the expenses incurred by the Imperial administration of the Protectorate. In fact, it would be unjust to burden the natives with expenditure which appears to have been incurred in Germany’ s own interest, and it would be no less unjust to make this responsibility rest upon the Mandatory Powers which, in so far as they may be appointed trustees by the League of Nations, will derive no benefit from such trusteeship.” [16] This fully applies to the loans the Bank granted Belgium, France and the UK for the development of their colonies. Consequently, the World Bank and Belgium violated international law when in the 1960s they forced onto the newly independent Congo the burden of debt contracted for its colonization. Belgium’s support of Mobutu’s dictatorship Furthermore, Belgium sent high-ranking advisors to the Congo under Mobutu’s dictatorship, among them Jacques de Groote, who had taken part in the Belgian-Congolese round table to prepare the independence of the Belgian Congo in the first months of 1960. Mobutu also participated in the opening of the round-table conference in Brussels. Between April 1960 and May 1963, de Groote was an advisor to Belgium’s Executive Director at the IMF and World Bank in Washington. On November 24, 1965 Mobutu seized power for good by staging a coup against President Kasavubu. From March 1966 to May 1969, de Groote was an economic advisor to the de facto government of Mobutu, while also working as an advisor at the National Bank of the Congo. He played an active role in the design and implementation of the economic policy of the country as well as in the negotiations between Mobutu, the IMF, the World Bank, and the US government. In the period 1973–1994, Jacques De Groote was one of the Executive Directors of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and one of the governors of the World Bank (IBRD). He was an active member of a hard core in the Belgian political class while representing its interests and those of big private corporations within international institutions. [17] At the end of the 1970s, Erwin Blumenthal, a senior IMF official, German banker, and former Director of Foreign Affairs at the Bundesbank, made a damning report about Mobutu’s management of Zaire. [18] He warned foreign creditors that they should not expect repayment as long as Mobutu remained in power. Between 1965 and 1981, the government of Zaire borrowed about $5 billion from foreign creditors, and between 1976 and 1981 there were four restructuring programmes authorised by the Paris club concerning part of its external debt amounting to $2.25 billion (see the figure below on the amount of debt in Congo-Kinshasa during Mobutu’s dictatorship). All of this debt falls into the category of odious debt, and can therefore be considered null and void. The very poor economic management and systematic embezzlement by Mobutu of part of the loans did not lead the IMF and World Bank to stop their assistance to Mobutu’s dictatorial regime. Strikingly enough, after the Blumenthal report was submitted, the Bank’s disbursements increased (so did the IMF’s disbursements, but they do not show in the chart below). [19] Clearly, the choices made by the World Bank and the IMF are not mainly determined on the basis of sound economic management. Mobutu’s regime remained a strategic ally of the US and other influential powers in the Bretton Woods institutions (e.g., France and Belgium) as long as the Cold War lasted. Between 1965 and 1981, the government of Zaire borrowed about $5 billion from foreign creditors, and between 1976 and 1981 there were four restructuring programmes authorised by the Paris club concerning part of its external debt amounting to $2.25 billion (see the figure below on the amount of debt in Congo-Kinshasa during Mobutu’s dictatorship). All of this debt falls into the category of odious debt, and can therefore be considered null and void. Congo-Kinshasa (Zaire under Mobutu): World Bank disbursements Source : World Bank, CD-Rom, GDF, 2001 From 1989-1991 with the fall of the Berlin Wall, later followed by the crumbling of the Soviet Union, Western powers began to lose interest Interest An amount paid in remuneration of an investment or received by a lender. Interest is calculated on the amount of the capital invested or borrowed, the duration of the operation and the rate that has been set. in Mobutu’s regime. All the more so since in many African countries (including Zaire) national conferences were taking place and making democratic claims. The World Bank reduced its lending before stopping its loans altogether in the mid-1990s. Under Mobutu’s rule (1965-1997), the IMF and the World Bank were instruments serving US policy and geostrategy, which rewarded Mobutu for his support in the Cold War. "In many cases, the loans were used to corrupt governments during the Cold War. The issue was not whether the money was improving a country’s welfare, but whether it was leading to a stable situation, given the geopolitical realities in the world.” Joseph E. Stiglitz, Chief Economist of the World Bank from 1997 to 1999, Nobel Laureate in Economics in 2001, on a French television show L’Autre mondialisation (The Other Globalization), on Arte, March 7, 2000 Therefore, the IMF and the WB, where de Groote was a senior official, became complicit in the abuses committed by the Mobutu regime against human, economic, social and cultural rights inasmuch as they maintained their support for the dictatorial system, which did not at all honour its financial obligations. “The issue of the moral responsibility of the creditors was particularly apparent in the case of Cold War loans. When the IMF and the World Bank lent money to the Democratic Republic of the Congo’s notorious ruler Mobutu, they knew (or should have known) that most of the money would not go to help that country’s poor people, but rather would be used to enrich Mobutu. It was money paid to ensure that this corrupt leader would keep his country aligned with the West. To many, it doesn’t seem fair for ordinary taxpayers in countries with corrupt governments to have to repay loans that were made to leaders who did not represent them.” Joseph Stiglitz, Globalization and Its Discontents, 2002 Mobutu and his clan used the State coffers as a steady and plentiful source of personal enrichment with three different kinds of misappropriation: legal, illegal, and mysterious expenditures. The legal ones, such as the presidential endowment, was allocated without any control. The illegal expenditures are described in the Blumenthal report (this secret report was made public in 1982), [20] which indicates that it was impossible to control the State’s financial transactions since the presidential office hardly made a distinction between personal expenses and public spending. Erwin Blumenthal identified at least seven bank accounts held abroad that were used to channel money directly to Mobutu’s personal bank accounts or to corrupt political figures. Erwin Blumenthal’s message was clear: “The corruptive system in Zaire with all its wicked and ugly manifestations, its mismanagement and fraud will destroy all endeavours of international institutions, of friendly governments and of commercial banks towards the recovery and rehabilitation of Zaire’s economy. Sure, there will be new promises by Mobutu, […] but no (repeat: no) prospect for Zaire’s creditors to get their money back in any foreseeable future.” [21] Since 1979, the main lenders to Mobutu’s regime, closely connected to the IMF, had known and been aware of these fraudulent practices, and of the risk they were taking by continuing to lend to Mobutu. As indicated in this report, the third category of embezzlement consisted of “mysterious expenditures.” One of the State’s largest budget items (accounting for 18% according to a 1989 World Bank study) was “other goods and services,” a hotchpotch with little information on how the expenditures were allocated. According to World Bank experts, most of the money was used for extravagant expenditures as well as to purchase military equipment. This shows that the World Bank was also well aware of the illegal use made of the loans it was granting. By the mid-1970s, it was clear that the money injected into Zaire in the form of loans or grants was systematically misappropriated. They were either directly transferred to personal bank accounts held abroad [22] or invested in prestigious, inadequate, and/or useless projects that helped many people to get richer, but certainly did not help the sustainable industrialisation of the economy. For instance, according to the Office of ill-gotten gains (Office des biens mal acquis, OBMA), which was created at the National Conference, Mobutu supposedly pocketed a 7% commission on the value of the Inga hydroelectric plant. The investigation could not be pursued to its conclusion because of resistance from official circles. [23] J. de Groote actively supported Mobutu’s regime and intervened several times to improve the relationships between the IMF, the World Bank and Mobutu, although he was very well placed to know in detail what Blumenthal denounced in his report. He also knew about the serious violations of human rights committed by the Mobutu regime. Yet in 1994, at the end of his term, de Groote said he was satisfied with his action vis-à-vis Congo-Kinshasa. While all along, the vast majority of the Congolese people lived in great misery, the persecutions and assassinations of opponents were rife, and the economy was devastated. Progression of debt in Congo-Kinshasa during Mobutu’s dictatorship From 1965 to 1969, Congo-Kinshasa’s foreign debt stock Debt stock The total amount of debt [24] rose from $32 million [25] to $159 million (US dollars). The first major jump occurred in 1970, when in a single year, the debt stock doubled, increasing by $180 million. It jumped again in 1973, when the price of copper and other raw materials skyrocketed on international markets. With significant budget resources and reserve currency, the regime could borrow massively. This was the heyday of costly major projects or white elephants, which would only become profitable in the distant future. Up until 1979, on average its debt stock increased by nearly $700 million per year and was mostly in the private sector. The recurrent problem during this period is the fact that these sums were used for investments that would only generate returns in a distant and very uncertain future. Neither the debtor nor the creditor demonstrated adequate financial discipline, according to which loan conditions should coincide with the characteristics of a project. Sectors like energy, transportation and communications, as well as public works, are indispensable for the development of a country, because they are required in order to develop productive activities. However, these projects were not based on sound economic principles, either in terms of expertise or in terms of how they were financed and executed. For example, Zairian stakeholders, and in particular the Zairian State, requested and obtained from financial institutions (especially private ones) expensive short- and medium-term commercial loans to fund projects that would only be profitable at best in the very long term. Such infrastructure investments should instead be funded by low-interest, fixed rate, very long-term loans. This type of borrowing only really exists between States, which offer each other privileged conditions. Neither the debtor nor the creditor demonstrated adequate financial discipline, according to which loan conditions should coincide with the characteristics of a project. For example, in the case of the Inga dam, which was supposed to produce electricity for all of Zaire and its neighbouring countries, the funding came from a medium-term commercial loan. However, it took nearly ten years to build the dam, and it could have been calculated that it would only become profitable twenty or thirty years later. As a result, the original loan could only be paid back by taking on more debt. The situation gradually became unbearable and Zaire could no longer make the payments due on this loan. In addition to the poor choice made in terms of the kind of loan, there was an increase in the price of oil and a decrease in the price of copper. Pressure mounted when Zaire decided to stop making payments on its loan. The IMF intervened and signed the first stabilisation programme with Zaire, which included the usual IMF conditionalities such as a currency devaluation, public spending cuts, and guarantees that Zaire would continue repaying its debt. [26] Zaire’s creditors allowed it to defer its loan payments, and also to reschedule its overall debt. Between 1976 and 1981, Zaire’s debt was renegotiated four times by the Paris Club corresponding to a total amount of $2.25 billion (US), [Paris Club website: www.clubdeparis.org] and between 1976 and 1983 Zaire signed three structural adjustment agreements with the IMF. In 1983, its debt was renegotiated for the fifth time, and $1,490 billion of it were rescheduled. It is interesting to observe how generous the IMF was at this time with regard to this country, which was such a bad payer and was not respecting IMF conditionalities. Between 1979 and 1984, Zaire’s debt stock increased only slightly, as Zaire attempted to meet its debt obligations. During this period of time, the net financial transfer was barely positive. On the whole, the disbursements paid to Zaire by its creditors were mainly used to service its debt. Between 1984 and 1990, Zaire’s debt stock increased by 70% (based on constant prices). Meanwhile from 1982 to 1988, it received loans from the IMF ($600 million), the World Bank ($650 million), and Western governments ($3 billion), but commercial banks refused to continue lending it money. During this same period, despite the warnings of an IMF representative, Erwin Blumenthal, Zaire was held up as a model student of the IMF. [27] This foreign complacency can only be justified on the basis of political and geo-strategical considerations. For example, despite warnings from the United States’ ambassador on how difficult it would be to control the allocation of the foreign aid disbursed, Mobutu’s regime was given full support by the US government, and President Ronald Reagan requested that military aid be doubled to thank Mobutu for having supported US troops in Chad. [28] In 1987, under pressure from the United States, the IMF approved a structural adjustment Structural Adjustment Economic policies imposed by the IMF in exchange of new loans or the rescheduling of old loans. Structural Adjustments policies were enforced in the early 1980 to qualify countries for new loans or for debt rescheduling by the IMF and the World Bank. The requested kind of adjustment aims at ensuring that the country can again service its external debt. Structural adjustment usually combines the following elements : devaluation of the national currency (in order to bring down the prices of exported goods and attract strong currencies), rise in interest rates (in order to attract international capital), reduction of public expenditure (’streamlining’ of public services staff, reduction of budgets devoted to education and the health sector, etc.), massive privatisations, reduction of public subsidies to some companies or products, freezing of salaries (to avoid inflation as a consequence of deflation). These SAPs have not only substantially contributed to higher and higher levels of indebtedness in the affected countries ; they have simultaneously led to higher prices (because of a high VAT rate and of the free market prices) and to a dramatic fall in the income of local populations (as a consequence of rising unemployment and of the dismantling of public services, among other factors). IMF : http://www.worldbank.org/ loan despite the strong objections made by senior IMF officials. At that very time, Mobutu was allowing American troops to use its territory and military bases to engage in military operations in Angola. [29] Before 1986, the money borrowed was mainly used to repay the debt so there was little chance of using it for investments. The total investment budget was estimated to be around $65 million in 1985, and it was subsequently cut to $40 million. Later, when investment projects regained popularity, Zaire’s debt stock increased considerably. As of 1990, Mobutu’s regime became isolated on the international scene. The fall of the Berlin Wall marked the end of the Cold War, and there was not as much interest in having Mobutu as an ally. As of this moment, the flow of disbursements to his regime dried up, and the net transfer to Zaire became negative starting in 1990, as stated in a World Bank report (1996). [30] According to the same report, in 1994, Zaire paid $201 million more than it received from international financial institutions. In 1991, the IMF broke off its relations with Zaire, and the World Bank would follow suit in 1993. With no new foreign disbursements, Zaire no longer had enough cash to service its debt, and had to suspend its repayments in 1994. The interest and penalties accrued, which increased the debt stock significantly. All of this debt can be considered to be odious debt, because it was contracted by the dictator Mobutu, and as such it should have been entirely cancelled when Mobutu’s regime collapsed. Belgian private corporations systematically derived profits from the relationships between Belgium and the Congo The excerpt below speaks for itself. It was pronounced by Jacques de Groote in a speech given in 1986 to a group of Belgian company directors, and then published in the Bulletin de la Fédération des Entreprises de Belgique (Newsletter of the Federation of Belgian Companies). “The advantages Belgium derives from its participation in the activities of the Group’s institutions– as do all World Bank member countries – can be measured in terms of flow-back, that is to say the relationship between, on the one hand, the total amount of disbursements made by the IDA (International Development Association, which is part of the World Bank Group) or the World Bank in favour of a country’s companies, when these companies sign contracts, and, on the other hand, the contributions of this country to the Bank’s capital, as well as to the IDA’s resources. Flow-back is thus the relationship between what the companies obtain via the sales of equipment or consulting services and what Belgium provides as a contribution to the IDA’s resources and to the Bank’s capital. The flow-back from the World Bank toward industrialised countries is significant, and has continually increased: for all industrialised countries, it has increased from 7 to 10 from the end of 1980 to the end of 1984. In other words, for one dollar put into the system, the industrialised countries got back $7 in 1980 and receive $10.5 today.” [31] Jacques de Groote after the end of his term at the IMF and World Bank In his interview with Béatrice Delvaux from Le Soir in March 1994, at the end of his term at the IMF, de Groote congratulated himself on the role he had played in the decision made by Belgium to adopt the neoliberal agenda in the 1980s. Béatrice Delvaux : "You did, however, from Washington play a major role in the orientation of Belgian economic policy. You provided a guarantee from the IMF for the economic shift at the beginning of the 1980s, in close relationship with the Poupehan group?” [32] J. de Groote’s response: “Absolutely, and I’m extremely proud of this. I am even extremely satisfied. At that time, we completed studies that enabled the major economic policy options to be defined for Belgium, which were then discussed with Alfons Verplaetse, [33] and other figures including Wilfried Martens.” [34] These statements provide a good illustration of the close relationships between figures like De Groote and the key political leaders in a particular country. De Groote acknowledged, moreover, that the independence of the Belgian National Bank was only for the form, because Belgian (monetary) policy was defined in a very small, secretive circle bringing together key stakeholders, ranging from the Prime Minister to the Governor of the National Bank, and including the head of the Christian Unions and representatives of corporate management, all in cahoots with the IMF. Belgium’s attitude after Mobutu’s fall Belgium was complicit in whitewashing the odious debt accumulated by Mobutu. Instead of acknowledging that it had to be cancelled because it was illegitimate, Belgium got involved in the setting up of a complex mechanism whereby the Congolese people were bound to lose and the creditors that had helped the former regime were to win After Mobutu’s fall, in spite of pleas from the CADTM and other organizations, the Belgian government did not do anything to help the Congolese people retrieve the money that Mobutu and his clan had embezzled and invested in cash or real estate in Belgium. Yet a country like Switzerland had moved a long way in that direction, for once. But the ties between the Belgian ruling class and Mobutu’s clan were so tight that nothing conclusive was done even though some magistrates tried to take positive measures. Later, Belgium was complicit in whitewashing the odious debt accumulated by Mobutu. Instead of acknowledging that it had to be cancelled because it was illegitimate, Belgium got involved in the setting up of a complex mechanism whereby the Congolese people were bound to lose and the creditors that had helped the former regime were to win. Source of the two appendices: Éric Toussaint, “Reply to the letter by Philippe, King of the Belgians, about Belgium’s responsibility in the exploitation of the Congolese people”
wrong_mix_range_leader_00122	FactBench	3	54	https://www.hrw.org/legacy/backgrounder/asia/timor/timor-bck0908.htm	en	Questions and Answers on East Timor ( Violence in East Timor			[ "http://www.hrw.org/images/logo-102.gif", "http://www.hrw.org/images/language/french-0999.gif", "http://www.hrw.org/images/language/german-0999.gif", "http://www.hrw.org/images/language/portuguese-0999.gif" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null					null	Unfinished Business: Justice for East Timor Backgrounder, August 2000 Questions 1. Why has the violence become so bad, so quickly? 2. Who are the militias in East Timor? 3. What is the evidence for army-militia cooperation and coordination? 4. Why would the army organize these militias? 5. How can the violence in East Timor be stopped? 6. After mounting international pressure, Habibie and General Wiranto declared a state of emergency in East Timor on Tuesday. Will this help? 7. Is everyone who supported autonomy a militia member? 8. Why are refugees being forced out of East Timor? 9. How is this all playing out in Jakarta? 10. What is the likelihood of an international peacekeeping force at this stage? 11. If non-humanitarian aid is suspended, what should be the conditions for lifting these sanctions? 12. What is the role of the international business community in the crisis? 1. Why has the violence become so bad, so quickly? The announcement on September 4, 1999 that nearly 80 percent of the East Timorese voting population had rejected autonomy on August 30 and wished to separate from Indonesia set off an explosion of violence. That explosion was possible because pro-autonomy militias had firearms, and no one else did (except the guerrillas who haven't been willing to use them); because the police and the army made no move to stop militia attacks, and in some cases actively joined in; and because this may have been part of a military strategy to thwart independence. 2. Who are the militias in East Timor? In late January 1999, after Indonesian President Habibie announced that he would give East Timor the option of choosing autonomy under Indonesian sovereignty or separating from Indonesia, a network of thirteen district-level militias suddenly appeared. They were ostensibly formed to defend the population against depradations by pro-independence guerrillas and youth groups but in fact to try and intimidate East Timorese into supporting continued integration with Indonesia. These militias were openly supported by the Indonesian army; most were based at the local district military command. All thirteen militias are led by East Timorese who have a record of cooperating with the Indonesian army. Not all are new; some were created in the 1970s, after the Indonesian invasion, but the three worst-Aitarak (Dili), Besi Merah Putih (Liquica) and Mahidi (Suai)-were created this year. Eurico Gutteres, the leader of Aitarak is a former pro-independence activist who switched sides after being detained as a result of the Santa Cruz massacre in Dili in 1991. He became leader of the youth civil guard called Gardapaksi, a paramilitary auxiliary created by Prabowo in 1995. The head of the militia in Baucau is an active duty Kopassus officer. The Halilintar militia in Bobonaro, one of older groups, is led by Joao Tavares, a former traditional chief who was a member of the pro-Indonesia Apodeti party just before the invasion in 1975. There have been allegations that some of the militias are not East Timorese. In July, the Laksaur militia in the Suai area was said to be at least half West Timorese. The militia campaign of intimidation and terror seemed to reach a peak in April when one militia based in Liquica district, just west of Dili, carried out a massacre of some forty-five refugees in a church compound in April, then sacked homes and offices of suspected supporters of independence in Dili. No one was arrested for these assaults, although the perpetrators were well-known. Militia violence continued through July, culminating in an attack on an NGO convoy carrying relief supplies to displaced people. (By this time, some 40,000 people had been displaced by militia violence.) International outrage led to the arrests of seven young suspects, none of them responsible for organizing the attack, and a visible lessening of militia terrorizing in the weeks that followed. A new wave of violence began after registration centers opened in late July, to register voters for the referendum on autonomy/independence. On August 30, the day of the referendum itself, however, 98.2 percent of the eligible voters defied intimidation and turned out to vote. The results were announced on Saturday morning, Dili time, September 4. Militias immediately went on what appeared to be a planned and coordinated offensive across the territory, but particularly in Dili and the western districts (Bobonaro, Liquica, Suai, and Ermera). Any East Timorese associated in any way with the UN Mission in East Timor, known as UNAMET, was targeted. So were foreign and Indonesian journalists considered sympathetic to the independence movement, and offices and homes of pro-independence supporters. Thousands of displaced people were attacked in their places of refuge, and some of them appear to have been trucked to West Timor. 3. What is the evidence for army-militia cooperation and coordination? Human Rights Watch has extensive eyewitness accounts of army officers taking part in militia operations,of militias being backed by lines of soldiers in their attacks, of militias holding meetings in district military commands. on August 30, after the voting, an Indonesian army major from West Timor reportedly carried out a campaign of terror and house-burnings of people associated with the independence organization, CNRT, in Gleno, Ermera, as active-duty soldiers took part in an attack on UNAMET local staff. Indonesian soldiers were reportedly involved directly in the attack on UN personnel in Liquica on September 3. There is no question of the linkage. Diplomatic sources have even better evidence. Every indication is that the escalation of violence after the announcement of the referendum results was a planned, army-organized offensive. A "senior State Department official" has been quoted without attribution as saying it was an operation of the army's Special Forces (Kopassus) -- the force once led by Suharto's son-in-law, Prabowo. Police in Dili told a member of Indonesia's National Human Rights Commission that they couldn't do anything because this was a Kopassus zone. But the fact that Kopassus has likely been involved does not make this a "rogue" operation; the rogues are serving a Jakarta master, and all evidence points to General Wiranto, commander of the Indonesian armed forces. 4. Why would the army organize these militias? There are several possible reasons: a. The army has been concerned since Habibie's January 1999 announcement that East Timor's independence would lead to the break-up of Indonesia. There is no question that separatist movements in Aceh and Irian Jaya have taken heart from developments in Timor and from the UN's role. The violence could be a warning to them that any move to independence will lead to bloodshed, and the Indonesian army is more powerful than any outside force, including the UN. b. Wiranto is concerned about the unity of the armed forces. Many Indonesian soldiers died in attacks or ambushes by Falintil guerrillas in East Timor, many more were wounded. Most senior officers got their promotions after combat duty in East Timor. The idea of letting East Timor go is seen by some officers as a betrayal of everything the army did over the last 24 years. To keep his forces together, the argument goes, Wiranto had to do everything in his power to thwart independence. c. The army genuinely believed that it had stacked the deck and intimidated enough people to get a much higher percentage of the vote. It can't believe the 78.2 percent vote and is now doing everything in its power and through a media offensive to convince the Indonesian public that UNAMET perpetrated a giant fraud. The offensive, unfortunately, is working (see below). d. The vote and the violence are playing into Indonesian politics. Habibie is totally discredited now by the debacle, in the eyes of the few remaining groups who were still willing to grant him some legitimacy. Wiranto may be using the violence he controls, and the martial law pretext for ending it, as a launching pad to become the candidate for president of the ruling party, Golkar, in Habibie's place. 5. How can the violence in East Timor be stopped? The Indonesian armed forces could easily stop the violence if it had the political will to do so. All of the attacks over the last week, indeed most of the attacks over the last six months, with a very few exceptions, have been initiated by militias that were created, armed, and supported by the Indonesian army. There are over 8,000 Indonesian police now in East Timor and at least as many soldiers, none of whom have made any effort to stop militia violence or arrest those responsible. The attacks on Monday, September 6, on the home of Bishop Belo and the office of the International Committee of the Red Cross would not have been possible without army logistical support. Local human rights organizations, UN personnel, and other international agencies have identified Indonesian officers working directly with the militias in acts of violence. These names have been turned over to the appropriate Indonesian authorities, but no action of any kind whatsoever has been taken against them. Since the Indonesian army has the ability but not the will to stop the violence, the only alternative is for donor countries to use their considerable economic leverage to make the army and its backers among Indonesia's politican and economic elite feel the consequences of continuing its current role or persuade Habibie to invite an international peacekeeping force in. 6. After mounting international pressure, Habibie and General Wiranto declared a state of emergency in East Timor on Tuesday. Will this help? A state of emergency in East Timor will probably be a human rights disaster. The army has all the personnel it needs now to stop the violence and has done nothing. Martial law may only be a pretext to arrest and detain suspects without charge or trial and to hamper any international monitoring of the army's role. The last thing East Timor needs is for the army to take on additional powers. Martial law may also be used to disarm and detain the pro-independence leaders. 7. Is everyone who supported autonomy a militia member? No; there are many civil servants who derived their authority from their links to the Indonesian power structure who probably voted for autonomy, as well as non-Timorese who were eligible to vote by virtue of having been born in East Timor or having a spouse born in East Timor. There are also some intellectuals who genuinely believed that there is no way East Timor could survive as an independent state. But by the time of the referendum, almost everybody had been recruited into either the militias, their political front (The Forum for Democracy and Justice) or the pro-autonomy organization called the BRTT (Popular Front for East Timor), apparently modelled after the ruling party, Golkar. 8. Why are refugees being forced out of East Timor? It's not clear. One theory is that the army plans to partition East Timor and effectively wreck the outcome of the referendum. To do this, the army wants to ensure that key areas, including Dili and the western districts, are under total control of the militias. That means getting the pro-independence people, who constitute the overwhelming majority of the displaced, out of the way. The militias may also be hoping that their demands will be granted for a re-vote to correct the alleged unfairness and bias in the referendum that international observers deemed generally free and fair; if it happens, the pro-independence ranks will have been seriously thinned. (The UN has no intention of allowing a re-vote but the pro-autonomy side has refused to accept the outcome and seems to be raising the stakes.) The Indonesian press continues to portray the vast majority of the East Timorese streaming out of Dili as being pro-autonomy, fearful of the results of independence. That may be true for most of the non-Timorese fleeing, but a large number are also fleeing militia violence or have been forced on trucks and transported to West Timor. Some 25,000 people are believed to have fled East Timor already, with over 10,000 in West Timor alone. 9. How is this all playing out in Jakarta? To read the Jakarta press, one would think that the case made against UNAMET for rigging the vote in favor of independence was overwhelming. Not only every Cabinet minister but every politician is jumping on the anti-UN, anti-West bandwagon, with particular venom being reserved for Australia. Farfetched as it seems to most outside observers, the argument is that Australia wanted East Timor independent for security reasons, the US wanted to monitor China from an independent East Timor, and the UN bent to their wishes. This is very dangerous for three reasons. It may be laying the groundwork for an attempt by delegates to the People's Consultative Assembly or MPR-Indonesia's highest legislative body-to refuse to endorse the results of the referendum in November. Without such endorsement, East Timor's independence is not guaranteed. The new nationalism is serving to weaken any political divisions within the political elite, meaning the army and the pro-autonomy groups are getting increasing public support. And it may make it politically much more difficult for donor countries to get tough on Indonesia as their officials will be wary of exacerbating the backlash in a country where they have extensive interests. 10. What is the likelihood of an international peacekeeping force at this stage? The declaration of martial law suggests that the army is determined to go it alone, and that Indonesia will not invite peacekeepers in. Without Indonesian approval, the U.N. Security Council will not authorize the deployment of peacekeepers, so it is essential that pressure be exerted on Jakarta to issue such an invitation. On the other hand, if Indonesia did consent, a force could be quickly assembled around an Australian core of readily deployable troops. The Australians want some commitment of involvement from the US, which appears unlikely to be more than logistical support for someone else's operation, if that. 11. If non-humanitarian aid is suspended, what should be the conditions for lifting these sanctions? We believe that resumption of aid should be made conditional on the ability of UNAMET to fully resume operations in all thirteen districts of East Timor, with full freedom for local and international staff to work and travel without harassment; on the ability of refugees to return home safely; and on the arrest of key militia leaders responsible for acts of violence. 12. What is the role of the international business community in the crisis? The drop in the value of the rupiah as a result of the East Timor debacle is evidence of the stakes that the business community has in a speedy and effective resolution of the crisis. Businesses, in their own economic interests, should be using their influence to persuade the Indonesian government to accept an international peacekeeping force.
wrong_mix_range_leader_00122	FactBench	2	63	https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/USCOURTS-waeb-2_04-bk-00757	en	GovInfo	https://www.govinfo.gov/…gle_homepage.png	https://www.govinfo.gov/…gle_homepage.png	[]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	Official Publications from the U.S. Government Publishing Office.	en	../lib/bootstrap/ico/apple-touch-icon-76.png		null
wrong_mix_range_leader_00122	FactBench	3	97	https://www.kas.de/en/web/indonesien/about-us	en	Foundation Office Indonesia and East Timor	https://www.kas.de/o/kas…mediaquadrat.png	https://www.kas.de/o/kas…mediaquadrat.png	[ "https://www.kas.de/o/kas-de-theme/images/KAS_Logo_Original.png", "https://www.kas.de/o/kas-de-theme/images/KAS_Logo_Bildmarke.png", "https://www.kas.de/o/kas-de-theme/images/header/worldmap.png", "https://www.kas.de/o/kas-de-theme/images/header/worldmap.png", "https://www.kas.de/o/adaptive-media/image/29623810/hd-resolution/KAS+Indonesia+and+East+Timor+Team.jpg?t=1707308019752", "https://www.kas.de/o/kas-de-theme/images/icons/facebook_icon.png", "https://www.kas.de/o/kas-de-theme/images/icons/twitter_icon_new.png", "https://www.kas.de/o/kas-de-theme/images/icons/xing_icon.png", "https://www.kas.de/o/kas-de-theme/images/icons/linkedin_icon.jpg", "https://www.kas.de/o/adaptive-media/image/29888923/hd-resolution/Kemendagri.jpg?t=1709257143976", "https://www.kas.de/o/adaptive-media/image/512701/hd-resolution/7_partner_bild_941.jpg?t=1539635332997", "https://www.kas.de/o/adaptive-media/image/512639/hd-resolution/7_partner_bild_949.jpg?t=1539635331879", "https://www.kas.de/o/adaptive-media/image/518777/hd-resolution/7_partner_bild_38.jpg?t=1539635443197", "https://www.kas.de/o/adaptive-media/image/29890744/hd-resolution/Jimly.jpg?t=1709273479262", "https://www.kas.de/o/adaptive-media/image/29889326/hd-resolution/YPB.jpg?t=1709259078890", "https://www.kas.de/o/adaptive-media/image/3135695/hd-resolution/logo+CSIS.jpg?t=1540865848554", "https://www.kas.de/o/adaptive-media/image/29488598/hd-resolution/FPCI.jpg?t=1705384737190", "https://www.kas.de/o/adaptive-media/image/29480656/hd-resolution/B-Trust.jpg?t=1705299050395", "https://www.kas.de/o/adaptive-media/image/29753843/hd-resolution/PIER+%281%29.jpeg?t=1708324679962", "https://www.kas.de/o/adaptive-media/image/30190052/hd-resolution/The+Habibie+Center.jpg?t=1711327814313", "https://www.kas.de/o/kas-de-theme/images/icons/facebook_icon.png", "https://www.kas.de/o/kas-de-theme/images/icons/twitter_icon_new.png", "https://www.kas.de/o/kas-de-theme/images/icons/xing_icon.png", "https://www.kas.de/o/kas-de-theme/images/icons/linkedin_icon.jpg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	About us	en	https://www.kas.de/o/kas…avicon-96x96.png	Foundation Office Indonesia and East Timor	https://www.kas.de/en/web/indonesien/about-us	Welcome Freedom, justice and solidarity are the basic principles underlying the work of the Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung (KAS). The KAS is a political foundation associated with the Christian Democratic Union of Germany (CDU). As co-founder of the CDU and the first Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany, Konrad Adenauer (1876-1967) united Christian-social, conservative and liberal traditions. His name is synonymous with the democratic reconstruction of Germany, the firm alignment of foreign policy with the trans-Atlantic community of values, the vision of a unified Europe and an orientation towards the social market economy. His intellectual heritage continues to serve both as our aim as well as our obligation today. In our European and international cooperation efforts we work for people to be able to live self-determined lives in freedom and dignity. We make a contribution underpinned by values to helping Germany meet its growing responsibilities throughout the world. We encourage people to lend a hand in shaping the future along these lines. With more than 80 offices abroad and projects in over 120 countries, we make a unique contribution to the promotion of democracy, the rule of law and a social market economy. To foster peace and freedom we encourage a continuous dialog at the national and international levels as well as the exchange between cultures and religions. Human beings in their distinctive dignity and with their rights and responsibilities are at the heart of our work. We are guided by the conviction that human beings are the starting point in the effort to bring about social justice and democratic freedom while promoting sustainable economic activity. By bringing people together who embrace their responsibilities in society, we develop active networks in the political and economic spheres as well as in society itself. The guidance we provide on the basis of our political know-how and knowledge helps to shape the globalization process along more socially equitable, ecologically sustainable and economically efficient lines. We cooperate with governmental institutions, political parties, civil society organizations and handpicked elites, building strong partnerships along the way. In particular we seek to intensify political cooperation in the area of development cooperation at the national and international levels on the foundations of our objectives and values. Together with our partners we make a contribution to the creation of an international order that enables every country to develop in freedom and under its own responsibility. The KAS Indonesia Office has been established in 1968 and looks back on a long history of bilateral cooperation and understanding. In 2002 we have expanded our activities and are since then covering East-Timor/Timor-Leste from our office in Jakarta. The KAS Indonesia and East-Timor currently focuses on three areas of operation: Political Parties and Parliament Democracy, the Rule of Law and Civil Society Social Market Economy In our work we feel committed to three guiding principles: Firstly, we strive to conduct activities in all 33 provinces of the county. This decentralised approach helps us to take the country’s geographic, religious, ethnic and cultural heterogeneity and diversity into account. Secondly, every activity (seminar, workshop etc.) is being held in close cooperation with a local partner organization such as Think Tanks, NGOs, universities and state/official authorities. Tremendously adding to our knowledge this ensures that specific needs and necessities of the respective place and people/participants are met in our activities. At last this leads to increased efficiency of the work of KAS in Indonesia. Thirdly, while democracy promotion being the overall aim of KAS Indonesia and Timor-Leste, we do not try to copy and paste any forms of government or social and political systems that might be working in Europe or the western world. Trough its activities, seminars and workshops KAS rather submits an offer to cooperatively work on the further democratic and constitutional development of Indonesia taking into account the country’s very own preconditions. KAS Indonesia and Timor-Leste would like to extend a warm welcome to all of you. Should you have any questions, please do not hesitate to contact us anytime.
wrong_mix_range_leader_00122	FactBench	1	77	https://www.who.int/timorleste/our-work	en	Our work in Timor-Leste			[ "https://www.who.int/images/default-source/fallback/header-logos/h-logo-blue.svg?sfvrsn=aaed4f35_20", "https://www.who.int/images/default-source/fallback/header-logos/h-logo-blue.svg?sfvrsn=aaed4f35_20", "https://www.who.int/images/default-source/fallback/maps/africa.png?sfvrsn=3204f957_18", "https://www.who.int/images/default-source/fallback/maps/americas.png?sfvrsn=9efd6df3_18", "https://www.who.int/images/default-source/fallback/maps/south-east-asia.png?sfvrsn=68e76dc2_16", "https://www.who.int/images/default-source/fallback/maps/europe.png?sfvrsn=c7d5c5a5_18", "https://www.who.int/images/default-source/fallback/maps/eastern-mediterranean.png?sfvrsn=71211e18_16", "https://www.who.int/images/default-source/fallback/maps/western-pacific.png?sfvrsn=88cbdcd5_16", "https://www.who.int/images/default-source/fallback/header-logos/h-logo-blue.svg?sfvrsn=aaed4f35_20", "https://www.who.int/images/default-source/searo---images/site-images/flags/bangladesh-flag.gif?sfvrsn=f25032b6_2", "https://www.who.int/images/default-source/searo---images/site-images/flags/bhutan-flag.gif?sfvrsn=7061b6d4_2", "https://www.who.int/images/default-source/searo---images/site-images/flags/dprkorea-flag.gif?sfvrsn=85aa630c_2", "https://www.who.int/images/default-source/searo---images/site-images/flags/india-flag.gif?sfvrsn=82b17c40_2", "https://www.who.int/images/default-source/searo---images/site-images/flags/indonesia-flag.gif?sfvrsn=f0e05a0e_4", "https://www.who.int/images/default-source/searo---images/site-images/flags/maldives-flag.gif?sfvrsn=ba573ad9_4", "https://www.who.int/images/default-source/searo---images/site-images/flags/myanmar-flag-for-un.png?sfvrsn=6a6868ab_2", "https://www.who.int/images/default-source/searo---images/site-images/flags/nepal-flag3d5561d1f0714bac8ca6034f602180ff.png?sfvrsn=5bfa7cdc_2", "https://www.who.int/images/default-source/searo---images/site-images/flags/srilanka-flag813f643c71874db1a728a775d70e1e71.gif?sfvrsn=57b829fc_2", "https://www.who.int/images/default-source/searo---images/site-images/flags/thailand-flag.gif?sfvrsn=6d25666d_2", "https://www.who.int/images/default-source/searo---images/site-images/flags/timorleste-flag.gif?sfvrsn=25b71f2e_2", "https://www.who.int/images/default-source/fallback/header-logos/h-logo-blue.svg?sfvrsn=aaed4f35_20", "https://www.who.int/ResourcePackages/WHO/assets/dist/images/logos/en/h-logo-blue.svg", "https://www.who.int/images/default-source/searo---images/countries/timor-leste/vaccination.tmb-768v.jpg?Culture=en&sfvrsn=3d555fe_1 768w, /images/default-source/searo---images/countries/timor-leste/vaccination.tmb-1024v.jpg?Culture=en&sfvrsn=3d555fe_1 1024w, /images/default-source/searo---images/countries/timor-leste/vaccination.tmb-1366v.jpg?Culture=en&sfvrsn=3d555fe_1 1366w, /images/default-source/searo---images/countries/timor-leste/vaccination.tmb-1920v.jpg?Culture=en&sfvrsn=3d555fe_1 1920w", "https://www.who.int/images/default-source/searo---images/countries/timor-leste/mothers-and-children.tmb-1920v.jpg?Culture=en&sfvrsn=4b10c3f4_1", "https://iris.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665/366400/9789290210047-eng.pdf.jpg?sequence=6", "https://www.who.int/images/default-source/wpro/countries/viet-nam/our-work/small-photo-2---our-work.tmb-crop300.jpg?Culture=en&sfvrsn=2ddb8a15_4", "https://www.who.int/images/default-source/searo---images/site-images/logos/who-co-timorleste-white.png?sfvrsn=be1738f2_3", "https://www.who.int/ResourcePackages/WHO/assets/dist/images/logos/en/h-logo-white.svg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null		en	/favicon.ico		https://www.who.int/timorleste/our-work	The Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste (DRTL) is situated on the eastern part of the island of Timor, one of the Lesser Sunda Islands in the Indonesian Archipelago. The enclave of Oecussi in the western part of Timor Island and the islands of Atauro and Jaco are also part of DRTL. It is bordered by the Wetar Strait to the north and Timor Sea to the south. The western half of Timor Island belongs to the Republic of Indonesia and is part of East Nusa Tenggara province. Timor-Leste was under the rule of Portugal until 1975 when it was occupied by Indonesia. After 24 years of Indonesian occupation, the people of Timor-Leste voted overwhelmingly for independence on 30 August 1999. The territory was subsequently placed under the administration of the International Force of the United Nations, in consultation with East Timorese, established a transitional government in July 2000, and a Constituent Assembly was elected in August 2001. The Assembly wrote the country’s first Constitution. After the Presidential Election was held in April 2002, Timor-Leste formally became an independent nation on 20 May 2002. In the same year it also became a member of United Nations (UN) and many UN Agencies including the World Health Organization. The country was also formally assigned to the WHO South-East Asia Region at the 56th World Health Assembly in May 2003. WHO was involved in Timor-Leste soon after separation from Indonesia and has had an office in Dili since October 1999. The violence that followed separation led to the destruction of much of the health infrastructure and the withdrawal of many health providers. Since that time, WHO, along with other international community, has assisted Timor-Leste in re-establishing its health system and developing new health policies for the country. During the emergency period, WHO played a key role in the coordination of health services provided by a large number of donors and NGOs. WHO played an important role in implementing key programmes in the country, most notably infectious disease control (malaria, TB and leprosy), improved health services for children, maternal health and clinical nursing care. The work of WHO, in many of these programme areas, was supported by donor funding.
correct_award_00024	FactBench	2	7	https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2014/09/einstein-didnt-win-a-nobel-for-relativity-he-won-it-for-this/380451/	en	It Wasn't Relativity That Won Einstein His Nobel Prize	https://cdn.theatlantic.…f_b/original.jpg	https://cdn.theatlantic.…f_b/original.jpg	[ "https://cdn.theatlantic.com/_next/static/images/nav-archive-promo-5541b02ae92f1a9276249e1c6c2534ee.png", "https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/images/current-issue.large.jpg", "https://cdn.theatlantic.com/media/img/specialreports/lead/2020/10/14/Thumbnail.jpg", "https://cdn.theatlantic.com/assets/media/files/nav-crossword.png", "https://cdn.theatlantic.com/media/files/archive-thumbnail.png", "https://cdn.theatlantic.com/media/files/YourSubscription_300x300.jpg", "https://cdn.theatlantic.com/thumbor/9N7L_4nCzRmadZ-Vgjpze21uIwE=/0x19:650x669/80x80/media/img/mt/2014/12/diabetes/original.jpg, https://cdn.theatlantic.com/thumbor/uei7XRmgqSFO5FtfCma1_yYmXGg=/0x19:650x669/160x160/media/img/mt/2014/12/diabetes/original.jpg 2x", "https://cdn.theatlantic.com/thumbor/YyP7LiB7tUJSNtQ46quMnBQFDBM=/53x0:587x534/80x80/media/img/mt/2014/11/bar_code/original.jpg, https://cdn.theatlantic.com/thumbor/rQn2eWhGNfZYk0fr1wotwliVeCY=/53x0:587x534/160x160/media/img/mt/2014/11/bar_code/original.jpg 2x", "https://cdn.theatlantic.com/thumbor/wnp-cLAhDNaz4cEEvfO_H2MkPVY=/175x0:757x582/80x80/media/img/mt/2014/11/crash_test/original.jpg, https://cdn.theatlantic.com/thumbor/sNzBtiTwrORFeMpU81_NeleZrzk=/175x0:757x582/160x160/media/img/mt/2014/11/crash_test/original.jpg 2x", "https://cdn.theatlantic.com/thumbor/Bx1G_kr96MbpMPAOuhCTqipuAio=/81x0:561x480/80x80/media/img/mt/2014/11/3626999216_33af1ebb09_z/original.jpg, https://cdn.theatlantic.com/thumbor/Glj4pxRl5XSxNXms1PfMmVqfPQA=/81x0:561x480/160x160/media/img/mt/2014/11/3626999216_33af1ebb09_z/original.jpg 2x", "https://cdn.theatlantic.com/thumbor/ETjBonNm-tQ9crgRrTc9e7z5HEs=/0x52:1024x628/750x422/media/img/mt/2014/09/3915452256_6d0f01e1ff_b/original.jpg 750w, https://cdn.theatlantic.com/thumbor/yhufTSoX4T3rSVgWxACsRfZkzlc=/0x52:1024x628/828x466/media/img/mt/2014/09/3915452256_6d0f01e1ff_b/original.jpg 828w, https://cdn.theatlantic.com/thumbor/v2CW3NIXgWEA6Qwy2kntzn37HGk=/0x52:1024x628/960x540/media/img/mt/2014/09/3915452256_6d0f01e1ff_b/original.jpg 960w, https://cdn.theatlantic.com/thumbor/4NS6vI5EU4z5f7D8mAWkSkiBibg=/0x52:1024x628/976x549/media/img/mt/2014/09/3915452256_6d0f01e1ff_b/original.jpg 976w", "https://cdn.theatlantic.com/thumbor/E2JEFmL_OQHW2X8y7isA-R5cP7M=/media/img/posts/2014/09/einstein_clerk/original.jpg", "https://cdn.theatlantic.com/thumbor/R9WJMxizqXQqyvgkJSvkBYGkefY=/835x1:3904x3070/120x120/media/None/IMG_6166_2/original.jpg" ]	[]	[]	[ "photoelectric effect", "nobel prize", "electric current", "internal Nobel hand-wringing", "light", "solar cell", "American named Charles", "decade Robert Millikan", "Einstein", "Albert Einstein" ]	null	[ "Sarah Laskow" ]	2014-09-19T10:30:00+00:00	At 26, the famous physicist explained the science behind today's solar energy revolution.	en	https://cdn.theatlantic.com/_next/static/images/favicon-3888b0e329526a975703e3059a02b92d.ico	The Atlantic	https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2014/09/einstein-didnt-win-a-nobel-for-relativity-he-won-it-for-this/380451/	Albert Einstein never won a Nobel prize for the theory of relativity—in fact, it was only through long, political jockeying within the Nobel committee that he won the prize at all. Instead, when he was given the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics (in 1922, after a long bout of internal Nobel hand-wringing), he received it primarily for his explanation of the photoelectric effect. Extraordinarily enough, he came up with both his relativity theory, and the photoelectric effect in the same year: 1905. At the turn of the century, physicists already knew that, in some circumstances, exposing certain materials to light could create an electric current. An American named Charles Fritts had even created a working solar cell from selenium more than two decades before, in the early 1880s. But observing that light can create electricity is not the same as understanding why light can create electricity. That was baffling. It was understood, at that point, that light worked as a wave. But if that was true, it didn't make any sense that light could create an electric current: A wave of light just wouldn't have enough energy to cause materials like selenium to shoot off electrons as fast as they did when exposed to light. In 1905, Einstein was 26 and producing physics papers that would change the way we think about the world for decades to come. He wasn't quite the wild-haired celebrity yet: But in a paper published in March 1905, Einstein suggested that, perhaps, light wasn't a wave. Phenomena like the photoelectric effect, he wrote, are more readily understood if one assumes that the energy of light is discontinuously distributed in space. In accordance with the assumption to be considered here, the energy of a light ray spreading out from a point source is not continuously distributed over an increasing space but consists of a finite number of energy quanta which are localized at points in space, which move without dividing, and which can only be produced and absorbed as complete units. In other words, light could create electricity if it behaved, sometimes, like a particle rather than a wave. (This should sound familiar to anyone who remembers physics class.) Only one section of the paper covered the photoelectric effect, but it outlined how a light particle might deliver enough energy, all at once, to knock an electron off an atom and create an electric current. This, it turned out, was easier to show experimentally than some of the other ideas Einstein had outlined. Within a decade Robert Millikan had verified, experimentally, the equation that Einstein had used to describe the photoelectric effect.
correct_award_00024	FactBench	3	41	https://www.britannica.com/biography/Albert-Einstein	en	Albert Einstein \| Biography, Education, Discoveries, & Facts	https://cdn.britannica.c…ert-Einstein.jpg	https://cdn.britannica.c…ert-Einstein.jpg	[ "https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel/eb-logo/MendelNewThistleLogo.png", "https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel/eb-logo/MendelNewThistleLogo.png", "https://cdn.britannica.com/09/75509-004-CFE09F17/Albert-Einstein.jpg", "https://cdn.britannica.com/87/21087-004-DCB2DAA6/Albert-Einstein.jpg", "https://cdn.britannica.com/80/222280-138-41E211F6/Your-Daily-Equation-01-E-mc2.jpg?w=400&h=225&c=crop", "https://cdn.britannica.com/78/142178-004-DD1DBD92/Albert-Einstein-portrait-Doris-Ulmann-1931.jpg", "https://cdn.britannica.com/62/79862-004-49EADD56/Albert-Einstein.jpg", "https://cdn.britannica.com/58/245058-138-A0C6ED7D/J-Robert-Oppenheimer-atomic-bomb.jpg?w=400&h=225&c=crop", "https://cdn.britannica.com/89/142189-004-E859D3FB/Albert-Einstein-Phillip-Forman-certificate-citizenship-American-Oct-1-1940.jpg", "https://cdn.britannica.com/61/79861-004-64BBE3D1/Albert-Einstein-birthday-children-home-United-Service.jpg", "https://cdn.britannica.com/25/186825-138-4F923114/indeterminacy-element-interpretation-quantum-mechanics-objections-Niels.jpg?w=400&h=225&c=crop", "https://cdn.britannica.com/77/142177-004-4F78FF68/Albert-Einstein-1947.jpg", "https://cdn.britannica.com/32/232632-131-A2DB4925/King-Speech-at-Sproul-Plaza-in-Berkeley.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop", "https://cdn.britannica.com/35/142335-131-4742621E/molecule-Model-Atom-Biology-entertainment-Molecular-Structure-2010.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop", "https://cdn.britannica.com/88/144788-131-ADACA20E/Michael-Faraday-John-Frederic-Daniell.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop", "https://cdn.britannica.com/01/115001-131-7278E518/Enrico-Fermi-Italian-problem-physics-1950.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop", "https://cdn.britannica.com/77/142177-131-D37928A6/Albert-Einstein-1947.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop", "https://cdn.britannica.com/09/75509-131-93B65AAF/Albert-Einstein.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop", "https://cdn.britannica.com/62/79862-131-71A1D30E/Albert-Einstein.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop", "https://cdn.britannica.com/09/75509-131-93B65AAF/Albert-Einstein.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop", "https://cdn.britannica.com/59/23359-131-42CFFC3D/Albert-Einstein.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop", "https://cdn.britannica.com/32/178832-131-78DC370C/Albert-Einstein.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop", "https://cdn.britannica.com/43/193443-131-17ABE1C9/Union-Jack-flag-Great-Britain-united-kingdom.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop", "https://cdn.britannica.com/45/189145-131-45FF672E/Secret-Service-Agent-Earpiece.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop", "https://cdn.britannica.com/44/195044-131-92574FF7/Lemmings-Really-Commit-Mass-Suicide-illustration.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop", "https://cdn.britannica.com/68/220368-131-C835E48E/United-States-electoral-college-votes-by-state.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop", "https://cdn.britannica.com/48/221848-131-DF541F62/US-presidential-elections-in-maps.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop", "https://cdn.britannica.com/85/203585-131-D4FEE60A/Solar-Eclipse-Flare-Astronomy-Outer-Space.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop", "https://cdn.britannica.com/46/217846-131-DA1A9907/skyline-Detroit-Michigan-circa-2015-2019.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop", "https://cdn.britannica.com/09/75509-050-86D8CBBF/Albert-Einstein.jpg?w=400&h=300&c=crop", "https://cdn.britannica.com/32/232632-131-A2DB4925/King-Speech-at-Sproul-Plaza-in-Berkeley.jpg" ]	[]	[]	[ "Albert Einstein", "encyclopedia", "encyclopeadia", "britannica", "article" ]	null	[ "Michio Kaku" ]	1998-07-20T00:00:00+00:00	Albert Einstein, the brilliant physicist and Nobel laureate, revolutionized our understanding of the universe with his theory of relativity and became a symbol of genius that continues to inspire minds worldwide.	en	/favicon.png	Encyclopedia Britannica	https://www.britannica.com/biography/Albert-Einstein	Childhood and education Einstein’s parents were secular, middle-class Jews. His father, Hermann Einstein, was originally a featherbed salesman and later ran an electrochemical factory with moderate success. His mother, the former Pauline Koch, ran the family household. He had one sister, Maria (who went by the name Maja), born two years after Albert. Einstein would write that two “wonders” deeply affected his early years. The first was his encounter with a compass at age five. He was mystified that invisible forces could deflect the needle. This would lead to a lifelong fascination with invisible forces. The second wonder came at age 12 when he discovered a book of geometry, which he devoured, calling it his “sacred little geometry book.” Britannica Quiz Who Said It? Famous Quotes Quiz Einstein became deeply religious at age 12, even composing several songs in praise of God and chanting religious songs on the way to school. This began to change, however, after he read science books that contradicted his religious beliefs. This challenge to established authority left a deep and lasting impression. At the Luitpold Gymnasium, Einstein often felt out of place and victimized by a Prussian-style educational system that seemed to stifle originality and creativity. One teacher even told him that he would never amount to anything. Yet another important influence on Einstein was a young medical student, Max Talmud (later Max Talmey), who often had dinner at the Einstein home. Talmud became an informal tutor, introducing Einstein to higher mathematics and philosophy. A pivotal turning point occurred when Einstein was 16 years old. Talmud had earlier introduced him to a children’s science series by Aaron Bernstein, Naturwissenschaftliche Volksbucher (1867–68; Popular Books on Physical Science), in which the author imagined riding alongside electricity that was traveling inside a telegraph wire. Einstein then asked himself the question that would dominate his thinking for the next 10 years: What would a light beam look like if you could run alongside it? If light were a wave, then the light beam should appear stationary, like a frozen wave. Even as a child, though, he knew that stationary light waves had never been seen, so there was a paradox. Einstein also wrote his first “scientific paper” at that time (“The Investigation of the State of Aether in Magnetic Fields”). Einstein’s education was disrupted by his father’s repeated failures at business. In 1894, after his company failed to get an important contract to electrify the city of Munich, Hermann Einstein moved to Milan to work with a relative. Einstein was left at a boardinghouse in Munich and expected to finish his education. Alone, miserable, and repelled by the looming prospect of military duty when he turned 16, Einstein ran away six months later and landed on the doorstep of his surprised parents. His parents realized the enormous problems that he faced as a school dropout and draft dodger with no employable skills. His prospects did not look promising. Fortunately, Einstein could apply directly to the Eidgenössische Polytechnische Schule (“Swiss Federal Polytechnic School”; in 1911, following expansion in 1909 to full university status, it was renamed the Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule, or “Swiss Federal Institute of Technology”) in Zürich without the equivalent of a high school diploma if he passed its stiff entrance examinations. His marks showed that he excelled in mathematics and physics, but he failed at French, chemistry, and biology. Because of his exceptional math scores, he was allowed into the polytechnic on the condition that he first finish his formal schooling. He went to a special high school run by Jost Winteler in Aarau, Switzerland, and graduated in 1896. He also renounced his German citizenship at that time. (He was stateless until 1901, when he was granted Swiss citizenship.) He became lifelong friends with the Winteler family, with whom he had been boarding. (Winteler’s daughter, Marie, was Einstein’s first love; Einstein’s sister, Maja, would eventually marry Winteler’s son Paul; and his close friend Michele Besso would marry their eldest daughter, Anna.)
correct_award_00024	FactBench	3	16	https://www.theguardian.com/science/across-the-universe/2012/oct/08/einstein-nobel-prize-relativity	en	Why Einstein never received a Nobel prize for relativity	https://i.guim.co.uk/img…4739abebe480dd2d	https://i.guim.co.uk/img…4739abebe480dd2d	[ "https://sb.scorecardresearch.com/p?c1=2&c2=6035250&cv=2.0&cj=1&cs_ucfr=0&comscorekw=Physics%2CAstronomy%2CScience%2CNobel+prizes%2CScience+prizes", "https://i.guim.co.uk/img/static/sys-images/Guardian/About/General/2012/3/13/1331656224558/Albert-Einstein-he-was-an-007.jpg?width=465&dpr=1&s=none", "https://i.guim.co.uk/img/static/sys-images/Guardian/Pix/audio/video/2012/10/10/1349890185526/Robert-Lefkowitz-and-Bria-010.jpg?width=220&dpr=1&s=none", "https://i.guim.co.uk/img/static/sys-images/Guardian/Pix/audio/video/2012/10/10/1349890185526/Robert-Lefkowitz-and-Bria-010.jpg?width=220&dpr=1&s=none", "https://i.guim.co.uk/img/static/sys-images/Environment/Pix/columnists/2012/10/10/1349863064242/2012-Nobel-Prize-in-Chemi-011.jpg?width=220&dpr=1&s=none", "https://i.guim.co.uk/img/static/sys-images/Guardian/Pix/pictures/2012/10/9/1349787534200/2012-Nobel-Prize-in-physi-010.jpg?width=220&dpr=1&s=none", "https://i.guim.co.uk/img/static/sys-images/Guardian/Pix/pictures/2012/10/9/1349777892958/Physics-Nobel-announcemen-011.jpg?width=220&dpr=1&s=none", "https://i.guim.co.uk/img/static/sys-images/Environment/Pix/columnists/2010/10/5/1286292681291/Nobel-Prize-medal-Bearing-002.jpg?width=220&dpr=1&s=none", "https://i.guim.co.uk/img/static/sys-images/Guardian/Science/contributors/2012/10/7/1349624057379/IMG931.jpg?width=220&dpr=1&s=none", "https://i.guim.co.uk/img/static/sys-images/Guardian/Pix/pictures/2012/10/8/1349721691220/James-Watson-And-Francis--008.jpg?width=220&dpr=1&s=none" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Stuart Clark", "www.theguardian.com", "dr-stuart-clark" ]	2012-10-08T00:00:00	<p><strong>Stuart Clark: </strong>Nobel prizes often attract controversy, but usually after they have been awarded. Albert Einstein's physics prize was the subject of argument for years before it was even a reality</p>	en	https://assets.guim.co.u…e-touch-icon.svg	the Guardian	https://www.theguardian.com/science/across-the-universe/2012/oct/08/einstein-nobel-prize-relativity	There was a lot riding on Einstein winning a Nobel prize. Beyond his academic reputation, and that of the Nobel Institute for recognising greatness, the wellbeing of his former wife and their two sons depended upon it. In the aftermath of the first world war, defeated Germany was being consumed by hyper-inflation. The government was printing more money to pay the war reparations and, as a result, the mark went into freefall against foreign currencies. Living in Berlin, Einstein was naturally affected by the crisis. He had divorced Mileva in 1919, several years after she had returned to Switzerland with the boys, Hans-Albert and Eduard. As part of the settlement, Einstein pledged any eventual Nobel prize money to her for their upkeep. As the hyper-inflation bit ever deeper, so he needed that cash. By this time, Einstein had a decade's worth of Nobel nominations behind him. Yet each year, to mounting criticism, the committee decided against his work on the grounds that relativity was unproven. In 1919, that changed. Cambridge astrophysicist Arthur Eddington famously used a total eclipse to measure the deflection of stars' positions near the Sun. The size of the deflection was exactly as Einstein had predicted from relativity in 1915. The prize should have been his, but the committee snubbed him again. Why? Because now dark forces were at work. Antisemitism was on the rise in Germany; Jews were being scapegoated for the country's defeat in the war. As both Jew and pacifist, Einstein was an obvious target. The complexity of relativity did not help either. Opponents such as Ernst Gehrcke and Philipp Lenard found it easy to cast doubt upon its labyrinthine mathematics. The situation reached crisis point in 1921 when, paralysed by indecision, the Nobel Committee decided it was better not to award a prize at all than to give it to relativity. The arguments raged for another year until a compromise was reached. At the suggestion of Carl Wilhelm Oseen, Einstein would receive the deferred 1921 prize, but not for relativity. He would be given it for his explanation of the photoelectric effect, a phenomenon in which electrons are emitted from a metal sheet only under certain illuminations. The work had been published back in 1905. It has been argued that this work, which introduced the concept of photons, has had more impact than relativity. I'm not sure. With relativity, Einstein gave us a way to understand the Universe as a whole. It was a staggering leap forward in our intellectual capability. The Nobel citation reads that Einstein is honoured for "services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect". At first glance, the reference to theoretical physics could have been a back door through which the committee acknowledged relativity. However, there was a caveat stating that the award was presented "without taking into account the value that will be accorded your relativity and gravitation theories after these are confirmed in the future". To many, and to Einstein himself, this felt like a slap in the face. Hadn't Eddington proved the theory? Yes, but the trouble was Eddington's observations had not been perfect and he had discarded data he considered poor from his final analysis. To some, as related in Jeffrey Crelinsten's Einstein's Jury, this smacked of cooking the books in Einstein's favour. In reality it was just good scientific practice. There is also another way to read the Nobel caveat. Could it have been that the committee was leaving the door open for a second Nobel prize in the future, once relativity had been more rigorously tested? We will never know. As Einstein's fame spread, so he alienated himself from the physics community by refusing to accept quantum theory. A Nobel prize for relativity was never awarded. The final twist in this story is that Einstein did not attend his prize giving. Despite being informed that he was about to receive the prize, he chose to continue with a lecture tour of Japan. Partly, this was because he no longer valued the prize and partly it was because he needed to disappear. German foreign minister Walther Rathenau had been murdered by anti-Semites. In the subsequent investigation, the police had found Einstein's name on a list of targets. In the face of such a death treat, leaving Germany to spend months in the Far East, rather than a few days in Stockholm, must have seemed prudent. In the end, perhaps the best thing that came out of Einstein's Nobel prize was the money. It went towards keeping Mileva and the boys secure, and became essential when Eduard developed schizophrenia as a young adult and needed to be hospitalised. The 2012 Nobel Prize in Physics is awarded on Tuesday. This week's prize schedule is here. You can watch each announcement live in the viewer below.
correct_award_00024	FactBench	0	43	https://www.livescience.com/16362-nobel-prize-physics-list.html	en	Nobel Prize in Physics: 1901-Present	https://cdn.mos.cms.futu…dL34-1200-80.jpg	https://cdn.mos.cms.futu…dL34-1200-80.jpg	[ "https://mos.fie.futurecdn.net/nsn8tjxqmqhfgoo4-16455329884552.png", "https://cdn.mos.cms.futurecdn.net/j8cKnbQFcGupxZQsTfdL34-320-80.jpg", "https://vanilla.futurecdn.net/cyclingnews/media/img/missing-image.svg", "https://vanilla.futurecdn.net/cyclingnews/media/img/missing-image.svg", "https://vanilla.futurecdn.net/cyclingnews/media/img/missing-image.svg", "https://vanilla.futurecdn.net/cyclingnews/media/img/missing-image.svg", "https://vanilla.futurecdn.net/cyclingnews/media/img/missing-image.svg", "https://vanilla.futurecdn.net/cyclingnews/media/img/missing-image.svg", "https://vanilla.futurecdn.net/cyclingnews/media/img/missing-image.svg", "https://vanilla.futurecdn.net/cyclingnews/media/img/missing-image.svg", "https://vanilla.futurecdn.net/cyclingnews/media/img/missing-image.svg", "https://vanilla.futurecdn.net/cyclingnews/media/img/missing-image.svg", "https://vanilla.futurecdn.net/cyclingnews/media/img/missing-image.svg", "https://vanilla.futurecdn.net/cyclingnews/media/img/missing-image.svg", "https://vanilla.futurecdn.net/cyclingnews/media/img/missing-image.svg", "https://vanilla.futurecdn.net/cyclingnews/media/img/missing-image.svg", "https://vanilla.futurecdn.net/cyclingnews/media/img/missing-image.svg", "https://vanilla.futurecdn.net/cyclingnews/media/img/missing-image.svg", "https://vanilla.futurecdn.net/cyclingnews/media/img/missing-image.svg", "https://sb.scorecardresearch.com/p/?c1=2&c2=10055482&cv=4.4.0&cj=1" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Live Science Staff" ]	2022-10-04T14:39:22+00:00	The history of the winners of the Nobel Prize in physics, including Steven Chu, Aage Niels Bohr and Enrico Fermi.	en	https://vanilla.futurecd…e-touch-icon.png	livescience.com	https://www.livescience.com/16362-nobel-prize-physics-list.html	According to Alfred Nobel's will, the Nobel Prize in Physics was to go to "the person who shall have made the most important discovery or invention within the field of physics." The prize has been awarded every year except for 1916, 1931, 1934, 1940, 1941 and 1942. Here is the full list of winners: 2023: Pierre Agostini, Ferenc Krausz, and Anne L’Huillier won the 2023 prize for devising a way to generate pulses of light measured in attoseconds — one quintillionth of a second. An attosecond is to a second what a second is to the age of the universe, a miniscule slice of time so short that it can be used to peer at the movements of electrons and molecules. 2022: American physicist John Clauser, French physicist Alain Aspect and Austrian physicist Anton Zeilinger each shared the 2022 prize "for experiments with entangled photons, establishing the violation of Bell inequalities and pioneering quantum information science,” according to the Nobel Prize organization. Their work demonstrated that what Einstein so famously dubbed "spooky action at a distance" is real and laid the groundwork for early quantum computers. 2021: The 2021 Nobel prize went to three scientists whose work alerted the world to the dangers of climate change. The prize was awarded for "for groundbreaking contributions to our understanding of complex physical systems." Syukuro Manabe and Klaus Hasselmann shared one-half of the prize "for the physical modeling of Earth’s climate, quantifying variability and reliably predicting global warming" while Giorgio Parisi won the other half "for the discovery of the interplay of disorder and fluctuations in physical systems from atomic to planetary scales." 2020: The Nobel Prize in Physics 2020 was divided amongst a trio of black hole researchers. One half of the award went to Roger Penrose, "for the discovery that black hole formation is a robust prediction of the general theory of relativity", while Reinhard Genzel and Andrea Ghez jointly shared the other half "for the discovery of a supermassive compact object at the centre of our galaxy" 2019: Canadian-American James Peebles of Princeton University received one-half of the Nobel "for theoretical discoveries in physical cosmology," the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences said. The other half of the prize was awarded jointly to Michel Mayor and Didier Queloz, "for the discovery of an exoplanet orbiting a solar-type star," the Academy said. Mayor is a professor at the University of Geneva in Switzerland, and Queloz is at both the University of Geneva and the University of Cambridge in the U.K. Together, the trio won the Nobel "for contributions to our understanding of the evolution of the universe and Earth’s place in the cosmos," the Academy said. 2018: Arthur Ashkin was awarded one half of the prize, and the other half was awarded jointly to Donna Strickland and Gérard Mourou, "for groundbreaking inventions in the field of laser physics." This was the first time in 55 years that a woman was part of the Nobel Prize in physics. [Read more about the 2018 prize and Nobel Laureates] 2017: Half of the 9 million Swedish krona ($1.1 million) award went to Rainer Weiss of MIT. The other half was shared jointly to Barry Barish and Kip Thorne of Caltech. The prize honored the trio's "decisive contributions to the LIGO detector and the observation of gravitational waves," according to Nobelprize.org. The three scientists were integral in the first detection of the ripples in space-time called gravitational waves. The waves in this case came from the collision of two black holes 1.3 billion years ago. 2016: One half was awarded to David J. Thouless, of the University of Washington, Seattle, and the other half to F. Duncan M. Haldane, Princeton University, and J. Michael Kosterlitz, Brown University, Providence. Their theoretical discoveries opened the door to a weird world where matter can take on strange states. According to the Nobel Foundation: "Thanks to their pioneering work, the hunt is now on for new and exotic phases of matter. Many people are hopeful of future applications in both materials science and electronics." 2015: Takaaki Kajita and Arthur B. McDonald for showing the metamorphosis of neutrinos, which revealed that the subatomic particles have mass and opened up a new realm in particle physics. 2014: Isamu Akasaki, Hiroshi Amano and Shuji Nakamura for their invention of an energy-efficient light source: blue light-emitting diodes (LEDs). 2013: Peter Higgs of the United Kingdom and François Englert of Belgium, two of the scientists who predicted the existence of the Higgs boson nearly 50 years ago. [Related: Higgs Boson Physicists Snag Nobel Prize] 2012: French physicist Serge Haroche and American physicist David Wineland, for their pioneering research in quantum optics. 2011: One half awarded to Saul Perlmutter, the other half jointly to Brian P. Schmidt and Adam G. Riess, "for the discovery of the accelerating expansion of the Universe through observations of distant supernovae." 2010: Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov, "for groundbreaking experiments regarding the two-dimensional material graphene." 2009: Charles K. Kao, "for groundbreaking achievements concerning the transmission of light in fibers for optical communication," and Willard S. Boyle and George E. Smith, "for the invention of an imaging semiconductor circuit – the CCD sensor." 2008: Yoichiro Nambu, "for the discovery of the mechanism of spontaneous broken symmetry in subatomic physics," and Makoto Kobayashi, Toshihide Maskawa, "for the discovery of the origin of the broken symmetry which predicts the existence of at least three families of quarks in nature." 2007: Albert Fert and Peter Grünberg, "for the discovery of Giant Magnetoresistance" 2006: John C. Mather and George F. Smoot, "for their discovery of the blackbody form and anisotropy of the cosmic microwave background radiation." 2005: Roy J. Glauber, "for his contribution to the quantum theory of optical coherence," and John L. Hall and Theodor W. Hänsch, "for their contributions to the development of laser-based precision spectroscopy, including the optical frequency comb technique." 2004: David J. Gross, H. David Politzer and Frank Wilczek, "for the discovery of asymptotic freedom in the theory of the strong interaction." 2003: Alexei A. Abrikosov, Vitaly L. Ginzburg and Anthony J. Leggett, "for pioneering contributions to the theory of superconductors and superfluids." 2002: Raymond Davis Jr. and Masatoshi Koshiba, "for pioneering contributions to astrophysics, in particular for the detection of cosmic neutrinos," and Riccardo Giacconi, "for pioneering contributions to astrophysics, which have led to the discovery of cosmic X-ray sources." 2001: Eric A. Cornell, Wolfgang Ketterle and Carl E. Wieman, "for the achievement of Bose-Einstein condensation in dilute gases of alkali atoms, and for early fundamental studies of the properties of the condensates." 2000: Zhores I. Alferov and Herbert Kroemer, "for developing semiconductor heterostructures used in high-speed- and opto-electronics," and Jack S. Kilby "for his part in the invention of the integrated circuit." 1999: Gerardus 't Hooft and Martinus J.G. Veltman, "for elucidating the quantum structure of electroweak interactions in physics." 1998: Robert B. Laughlin, Horst L. Störmer and Daniel C. Tsui, "for their discovery of a new form of quantum fluid with fractionally charged excitations." 1997: Steven Chu, Claude Cohen-Tannoudji and William D. Phillips, "for development of methods to cool and trap atoms with laser light." 1996: David M. Lee, Douglas D. Osheroff and Robert C. Richardson, "for their discovery of superfluidity in helium-3." 1995: Martin L. Perl, "for the discovery of the tau lepton," and Frederick Reines, "for the detection of the neutrino." 1994: Bertram N. Brockhouse, "for the development of neutron spectroscopy," and Clifford G. Shull, "for the development of the neutron diffraction technique." 1993: Russell A. Hulse and Joseph H. Taylor Jr., "for the discovery of a new type of pulsar, a discovery that has opened up new possibilities for the study of gravitation." 1992: Georges Charpak, "for his invention and development of particle detectors, in particular the multiwire proportional chamber." 1991: Pierre-Gilles de Gennes, "for discovering that methods developed for studying order phenomena in simple systems can be generalized to more complex forms of matter, in particular to liquid crystals and polymers." 1990: Jerome I. Friedman, Henry W. Kendall and Richard E. Taylor, "for their pioneering investigations concerning deep inelastic scattering of electrons on protons and bound neutrons, which have been of essential importance for the development of the quark model in particle physics." 1989: Norman F. Ramsey, "for the invention of the separated oscillatory fields method and its use in the hydrogen maser and other atomic clocks," and Hans G. Dehmelt and Wolfgang Paul, "for the development of the ion trap technique." 1988: Leon M. Lederman, Melvin Schwartz and Jack Steinberger, "for the neutrino beam method and the demonstration of the doublet structure of the leptons through the discovery of the muon neutrino." 1987: J. Georg Bednorz and K. Alexander Müller, "for their important break-through in the discovery of superconductivity in ceramic materials." 1986: Ernst Ruska, "for his fundamental work in electron optics, and for the design of the first electron microscope," and Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer, "for their design of the scanning tunneling microscope." 1985: Klaus von Klitzing, "for the discovery of the quantized Hall effect". 1984: Carlo Rubbia and Simon van der Meer, "for their decisive contributions to the large project, which led to the discovery of the field particles W and Z, communicators of weak interaction." 1983: Subramanyan Chandrasekhar, "for his theoretical studies of the physical processes of importance to the structure and evolution of the stars," and William Alfred Fowler, "for his theoretical and experimental studies of the nuclear reactions of importance in the formation of the chemical elements in the universe." 1982: Kenneth G. Wilson, "for his theory for critical phenomena in connection with phase transitions." 1981: Nicolaas Bloembergen and Arthur Leonard Schawlow, "for their contribution to the development of laser spectroscopy," and Kai M. Siegbahn, "for his contribution to the development of high-resolution electron spectroscopy." 1980: James Watson Cronin and Val Logsdon Fitch, "for the discovery of violations of fundamental symmetry principles in the decay of neutral K-mesons." 1979: Sheldon Lee Glashow, Abdus Salam and Steven Weinberg, "for their contributions to the theory of the unified weak and electromagnetic interaction between elementary particles, including, inter alia, the prediction of the weak neutral current." 1978: Pyotr Leonidovich Kapitsa, "for his basic inventions and discoveries in the area of low-temperature physics," and Arno Allan Penzias, Robert Woodrow Wilson "for their discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation." 1977: Philip Warren Anderson, Sir Nevill Francis Mott and John Hasbrouck van Vleck, "for their fundamental theoretical investigations of the electronic structure of magnetic and disordered systems." 1976: Burton Richter and Samuel Chao Chung Ting, "for their pioneering work in the discovery of a heavy elementary particle of a new kind." 1975: Aage Niels Bohr, Ben Roy Mottelson and Leo James Rainwater, "for the discovery of the connection between collective motion and particle motion in atomic nuclei and the development of the theory of the structure of the atomic nucleus based on this connection." 1974: Sir Martin Ryle and Antony Hewish, "for their pioneering research in radio astrophysics: Ryle for his observations and inventions, in particular of the aperture synthesis technique, and Hewish for his decisive role in the discovery of pulsars." 1973: Leo Esaki and Ivar Giaever, for "for their experimental discoveries regarding tunneling phenomena in semiconductors and superconductors, respectively," and Brian David Josephson, "for his theoretical predictions of the properties of a supercurrent through a tunnel barrier, in particular those phenomena which are generally known as the Josephson effects." 1972: John Bardeen, Leon Neil Cooper, John Robert Schrieffer, "for their jointly developed theory of superconductivity, usually called the BCS-theory." 1971: Dennis Gabor, "for his invention and development of the holographic method." 1970: Hannes Olof Gösta Alfvén, "for fundamental work and discoveries in magnetohydro- dynamics with fruitful applications in different parts of plasma physics," and Louis Eugène Félix Néel, "for fundamental work and discoveries concerning antiferromagnetism and ferrimagnetism which have led to important applications in solid state physics." 1969: Murray Gell-Mann, "for his contributions and discoveries concerning the classification of elementary particles and their interactions." 1968: Luis Walter Alvarez, "for his decisive contributions to elementary particle physics, in particular the discovery of a large number of resonance states, made possible through his development of the technique of using hydrogen bubble chamber and data analysis." 1967: Hans Albrecht Bethe, "for his contributions to the theory of nuclear reactions, especially his discoveries concerning the energy production in stars." 1966: Alfred Kastler, "for the discovery and development of optical methods for studying Hertzian resonances in atoms." 1965: Sin-Itiro Tomonaga, Julian Schwinger and Richard P. Feynman, "for their fundamental work in quantum electrodynamics, with deep-ploughing consequences for the physics of elementary particles." 1964: Charles Hard Townes, "for fundamental work in the field of quantum electronics, which has led to the construction of oscillators and amplifiers based on the maser-laser principle," and Nicolay Gennadiyevich Basov and Aleksandr Mikhailovich Prokhorov, "for fundamental work in the field of quantum electronics, which has led to the construction of oscillators and amplifiers based on the maser-laser principle." 1963: Eugene Paul Wigner, "for his contributions to the theory of the atomic nucleus and the elementary particles, particularly through the discovery and application of fundamental symmetry principles," and Maria Goeppert-Mayer and J. Hans D. Jensen, "for their discoveries concerning nuclear shell structure." 1962: Lev Davidovich Landau, "for his pioneering theories for condensed matter, especially liquid helium." 1961: Robert Hofstadter, "for his pioneering studies of electron scattering in atomic nuclei and for his thereby achieved discoveries concerning the structure of the nucleons," and Rudolf Ludwig Mössbauer, "for his researches concerning the resonance absorption of gamma radiation and his discovery in this connection of the effect which bears his name." 1960: Donald Arthur Glaser, "for the invention of the bubble chamber." 1959: Emilio Gino Segrè and Owen Chamberlain, "for their discovery of the antiproton." 1958: Pavel Alekseyevich Cherenkov, Il´ja Mikhailovich Frank and Igor Yevgenyevich Tamm, "for the discovery and the interpretation of the Cherenkov effect." 1957: Chen Ning Yang and Tsung-Dao (T.D.) Lee, "for their penetrating investigation of the so-called parity laws which has led to important discoveries regarding the elementary particles." 1956: William Bradford Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter Houser Brattain, "for their researches on semiconductors and their discovery of the transistor effect." 1955: Willis Eugene Lamb, "for his discoveries concerning the fine structure of the hydrogen spectrum," and Polykarp Kusch, "for his precision determination of the magnetic moment of the electron." 1954: Max Born, "for his fundamental research in quantum mechanics, especially for his statistical interpretation of the wavefunction," and Walther Bothe, "for the coincidence method and his discoveries made therewith." 1953: Frits (Frederik) Zernike, "for his demonstration of the phase contrast method, especially for his invention of the phase contrast microscope." 1952: Felix Bloch and Edward Mills Purcell, "for their development of new methods for nuclear magnetic precision measurements and discoveries in connection therewith." 1951: Sir John Douglas Cockcroft and Ernest Thomas Sinton Walton, "for their pioneer work on the transmutation of atomic nuclei by artificially accelerated atomic particles." 1950: Cecil Frank Powell, "for his development of the photographic method of studying nuclear processes and his discoveries regarding mesons made with this method." 1949: Hideki Yukawa, "for his prediction of the existence of mesons on the basis of theoretical work on nuclear forces." 1948: Patrick Maynard Stuart Blackett, "for his development of the Wilson cloud chamber method, and his discoveries therewith in the fields of nuclear physics and cosmic radiation." 1947: Sir Edward Victor Appleton, "for his investigations of the physics of the upper atmosphere especially for the discovery of the so-called Appleton layer." 1946: Percy Williams Bridgman, "for the invention of an apparatus to produce extremely high pressures, and for the discoveries he made therewith in the field of high pressure physics." 1945: Wolfgang Pauli, "for the discovery of the Exclusion Principle, also called the Pauli Principle." 1944: Isidor Isaac Rabi, "for his resonance method for recording the magnetic properties of atomic nuclei." 1943: Otto Stern, "for his contribution to the development of the molecular ray method and his discovery of the magnetic moment of the proton." 1940-1942: No Prizes awarded. 1939: Ernest Orlando Lawrence, "for the invention and development of the cyclotron and for results obtained with it, especially with regard to artificial radioactive elements." 1938: Enrico Fermi, "for his demonstrations of the existence of new radioactive elements produced by neutron irradiation, and for his related discovery of nuclear reactions brought about by slow neutrons." 1937: Clinton Joseph Davisson and George Paget Thomson, "for their experimental discovery of the diffraction of electrons by crystals." 1936: Victor Franz Hess, "for his discovery of cosmic radiation," and Carl David Anderson, "for his discovery of the positron." 1935: James Chadwick, "for the discovery of the neutron." 1934: No Prize awarded 1933: Erwin Schrödinger and Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac, "for the discovery of new productive forms of atomic theory." 1932: Werner Karl Heisenberg, "for the creation of quantum mechanics, the application of which has, inter alia, led to the discovery of the allotropic forms of hydrogen." 1931: No Prize awarded 1930: Sir Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman, "for his work on the scattering of light and for the discovery of the effect named after him" 1929: Prince Louis-Victor Pierre Raymond de Broglie, "for his discovery of the wave nature of electrons." 1928: Owen Willans Richardson, "for his work on the thermionic phenomenon and especially for the discovery of the law named after him." 1927: Arthur Holly Compton, "for his discovery of the effect named after him," and Charles Thomson Rees Wilson, "for his method of making the paths of electrically charged particles visible by condensation of vapor." 1926: Jean Baptiste Perrin, "for his work on the discontinuous structure of matter, and especially for his discovery of sedimentation equilibrium." 1925: James Franck and Gustav Ludwig Hertz, "for their discovery of the laws governing the impact of an electron upon an atom." 1924: Karl Manne Georg Siegbahn, "for his discoveries and research in the field of X-ray spectroscopy." 1923: Robert Andrews Millikan, "for his work on the elementary charge of electricity and on the photoelectric effect." 1922: Niels Henrik David Bohr, "for his services in the investigation of the structure of atoms and of the radiation emanating from them." 1921: Albert Einstein, "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect." 1920: Charles Edouard Guillaume, "in recognition of the service he has rendered to precision measurements in Physics by his discovery of anomalies in nickel steel alloys." 1919: Johannes Stark, "for his discovery of the Doppler effect in canal rays and the splitting of spectral lines in electric fields." 1918: Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck, "in recognition of the services he rendered to the advancement of Physics by his discovery of energy quanta." 1917: Charles Glover Barkla, "for his discovery of the characteristic Röntgen radiation of the elements." 1916: No Prize awarded. 1915: Sir William Henry Bragg and William Lawrence Bragg, "for their services in the analysis of crystal structure by means of X-rays." 1914: Max von Laue, "for his discovery of the diffraction of X-rays by crystals." 1913: Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, "for his investigations on the properties of matter at low temperatures which led, inter alia, to the production of liquid helium." 1912: Nils Gustaf Dalén, "for his invention of automatic regulators for use in conjunction with gas accumulators for illuminating lighthouses and buoys." 1911: Wilhelm Wien, "for his discoveries regarding the laws governing the radiation of heat." 1910: Johannes Diderik van der Waals, "for his work on the equation of state for gases and liquids." 1909: Guglielmo Marconi and Karl Ferdinand Braun, "in recognition of their contributions to the development of wireless telegraphy." 1908: Gabriel Lippmann, "for his method of reproducing colors photographically based on the phenomenon of interference." 1907: Albert Abraham Michelson, "for his optical precision instruments and the spectroscopic and metrological investigations carried out with their aid." 1906: Joseph John Thomson, "in recognition of the great merits of his theoretical and experimental investigations on the conduction of electricity by gases." 1905: Philipp Eduard Anton von Lenard, "for his work on cathode rays." 1904: Lord Rayleigh (John William Strutt), "for his investigations of the densities of the most important gases and for his discovery of argon in connection with these studies." 1903: Antoine Henri Becquerel, " "in recognition of the extraordinary services he has rendered by his discovery of spontaneous radioactivity," and Pierre Curie and Marie Curie, née Sklodowska, "in recognition of the extraordinary services they have rendered by their joint researches on the radiation phenomena discovered by Professor Henri Becquerel." 1902: Hendrik Antoon Lorentz and Pieter Zeeman, "in recognition of the extraordinary service they rendered by their researches into the influence of magnetism upon radiation phenomena."
correct_award_00024	FactBench	1	19	https://twitter.com/NobelPrize/status/1780974843359289665	en	x.com			[]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null			https://abs.twimg.com/re…ios.77d25eba.png	X (formerly Twitter)	null
correct_award_00024	FactBench	3	57	https://totallyhistory.com/albert-einsteins-nobel-prize/	en	Albert Einstein's Nobel Prize in Physics on November 9, 1922	https://totallyhistory.c…e-in-Physics.png	https://totallyhistory.c…e-in-Physics.png	[ "https://totallyhistory.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/Albert_Einstein_Potrait-in-1922-after-receiving-the-Nobel-Prize-in-Physics.png", "https://totallyhistory.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/Albert_Einstein_Potrait-in-1922-after-receiving-the-Nobel-Prize-in-Physics.png", "https://c.statcounter.com/6875378/0/73a09ae3/1/" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "primeo" ]	2022-08-30T11:21:09+00:00	Albert Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics on November 9, 1922, “for his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect.” He was never given the Nobel for his work on the theory of special relativity, even though he had simultaneously published it with his	en	https://totallyhistory.com/wp-content/themes/history/images/favicon.ico	Totally History	https://totallyhistory.com/albert-einsteins-nobel-prize/	Albert Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics on November 9, 1922, “for his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect.” He was never given the Nobel for his work on the theory of special relativity, even though he had simultaneously published it with his work on the photoelectric effect in 1905. The Photoelectric Effect Around 1900, physicists were already well-aware that some materials could generate electricity when exposed to light. In 1883, an American inventor named Charles Fritts came up with the first functioning solar cell. However, nobody understood back then, even Fritts, how light could generate electric currents. Scientists only knew that light traveled as a wave. If this was true, then it merely caused scientists more questions about why a wave of light could create electricity. Questions about the nature of light were answered in March 1905, when Einstein published his Nobel-winning paper on the photoelectric effect. In it, he hinted that light, perhaps, is not a wave but a particle. And as a particle, light could, therefore, possibly create electricity. He said that the photoelectric effect “…are more readily understood if one assumes that the energy of light is discontinuously distributed in space. In accordance with the assumption to be considered here, the energy of a light ray spreading out from a point source is not continuously distributed over an increasing space. Still, it consists of a finite number of energy quanta which are localized at points in space, which move without dividing, and which can only be produced and absorbed as complete units.” Delayed Recognition Due to Prejudices However, the late recognition of Einstein’s achievements has a dark story behind it. Einstein received the Nobel Prize 17 years after his ground-breaking theory of special relativity. That alone could have earned him recognition many years earlier. Robert Marc Friedman, a science historian, conducted exhaustive research on the matter and learned that Einstein was the victim of deliberate denial of the recognition. He said the physicist was intentionally ignored because of the prevailing bigotries of the time that worked against Jews, pacifists, and theoretical physics. Friedman says that when nominations for Einstein were submitted in 1920, the Nobel Committee members did not like the idea of a “political and intellectual radical, who—it was said—did not conduct experiments, crowned as the pinnacle of physics.” The prize for that year eventually went to a Swiss named Charles-Edouard Guillaume for discovering a type of nickel-steel alloy. Despite Einstein’s growing popularity in 1921, a member of the committee named Allvar Gullstrand said, “Einstein must never receive a Nobel Prize, even if the whole world demands it.” This piece of information was discovered by Friedman in a Swedish mathematician’s diary. Unfortunately, Gullstrand’s opinion influenced the other committee members, and no prize was awarded for physics that year. When 1922 came around, Einstein’s popularity soared even further. The committee members now worried that their credibility would be tarnished if they did not grant the physicist recognition. Einstein had been enjoying numerous nominations in the past two years for his work on the relativity theory, but in 1922, he had been nominated by Carl Wilhelm Oseen for his work on the photoelectric effect. Friedman discovered that Oseen recommended the committee to recognize the photoelectric effect as a basic law of nature. According to Friedman, Oseen did this not because he admired Einstein but because he admired another physicist named Neils Bohr, and there were two available prizes for physics in 1922. Oseen then overemphasized the close link between Einstein’s law of nature and Bohr’s work on the atom and eventually was able to convince the committee. Thus, Bohr was awarded the 1922 prize and Einstein the overdue 1921 prize. However, Einstein could not attend the ceremonies because he was on his way to Japan for a series of lectures. He also needed to disappear to a faraway country because the German Foreign Minister, Walther Rathenau, had been assassinated by anti-Semites. A police investigation eventually found a list of targets with Einstein’s name on it. Friedman states that Einstein did not care about the medal but only about the prize money. The physicist used that money to keep his ex-wife and sons financially stable, and later, when one of his sons, Edouard, developed schizophrenia and had to be entered into an asylum.
correct_award_00024	FactBench	2	60	https://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/einstein/life-and-times/career-scientist	en	Career Scientist	https://www.amnh.org/ext…social_image.jpg	https://www.amnh.org/ext…social_image.jpg	[ "https://www.amnh.org/var/ezflow_site/storage/images/amnh2/site-settings/redesign-main-menu/plan-your-visit/plan-your-visit/3917385-5-eng-US/plan-your-visit_square_650.jpg", "https://www.amnh.org/var/ezflow_site/storage/images/amnh2/site-settings/redesign-main-menu/plan-your-visit/join-now/5645881-1-eng-US/join-now_square_650.jpg", "https://www.amnh.org/var/ezflow_site/storage/images/amnh2/site-settings/redesign-main-menu/exhibitions/richard-gilder-center-for-science-education-and-innovation/3482942-16-eng-US/richard-gilder-center-for-science-education-and-innovation_square_650.jpg", "https://www.amnh.org/var/ezflow_site/storage/images/amnh2/site-settings/redesign-main-menu/exhibitions/allison-and-roberto-mignone-halls-of-gems-and-minerals/5999543-1-eng-US/allison-and-roberto-mignone-halls-of-gems-and-minerals_square_650.jpg", "https://www.amnh.org/var/ezflow_site/storage/images/amnh2/site-settings/redesign-main-menu/learn--teach/resources-for-learning/3553907-9-eng-US/resources-for-learning_square_650.jpg", "https://www.amnh.org/var/ezflow_site/storage/images/amnh2/site-settings/redesign-main-menu/learn--teach/children--family-programs/3553954-8-eng-US/children--family-programs_square_650.jpg", "https://www.amnh.org/var/ezflow_site/storage/images/amnh2/site-settings/redesign-main-menu/explore/climate-change/3555256-2-eng-US/climate-change_square_650.jpg", "https://www.amnh.org/var/ezflow_site/storage/images/amnh2/site-settings/redesign-main-menu/explore/viruses-vaccines-and-covid-19/5595943-1-eng-US/viruses-vaccines-and-covid-19_square_650.jpg", "https://www.amnh.org/var/ezflow_site/storage/images/amnh2/site-settings/redesign-main-menu/join-support/become-a-member/3906066-6-eng-US/become-a-member_square_650.jpg", "https://www.amnh.org/var/ezflow_site/storage/images/amnh2/site-settings/redesign-main-menu/join--support/donate/3906071-3-eng-US/donate_square_650.jpg", "https://www.amnh.org/var/ezflow_site/storage/images/amnh2/site-settings/redesign-main-menu/shop/great-for-gifts/5166526-3-eng-US/great-for-gifts_square_650.jpg", "https://www.amnh.org/var/ezflow_site/storage/images/import_exhibits/import_exhibit_images/bern_residence.jpg/232376-1-eng-US/bern_residence.jpg_full_610.jpg", "https://www.amnh.org/var/ezflow_site/storage/images/media/amnh/images/fuld_hall/542856-1-eng-US/fuld_hall_full_610.jpg", "https://www.amnh.org/extension/amnh/design/amnh_redesign/images/placeholders/badge_app-store.svg", "https://www.amnh.org/extension/amnh/design/amnh_redesign/images/logos/amnh-logo-white.svg?2023", "https://www.amnh.org/extension/amnh/design/amnh_redesign/images/logos/amnh-logo-white.svg?2023" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	Einstein recognized early in life that he had a talent for mathematics and abstract thought, and the intellectual freedom of theoretical physics appealed to him. While still establishing himself as...	en	/favicon.ico	American Museum of Natural History	https://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/einstein/life-and-times/career-scientist	The Path to Princeton Self-reliant from a young age, Einstein carved out a distinguished career through his unfaltering dedication to science. As a boy, he struggled against a structured education system that wouldn't allow his imagination to flourish. Einstein recognized early in life that he had a talent for mathematics and abstract thought, and the intellectual freedom of theoretical physics appealed to him. While still establishing himself as a physicist, Einstein had to move to wherever jobs were available. Academic institutions in Berlin, Zurich, Bern, Prague, and other European cities were well known to him. Einstein soon developed a reputation as a brilliant professor and was a visiting scholar at research institutes around the world. During a repeat visit to the California Institute of Technology, a colleague offered Einstein a position at the newly founded Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey. In 1933 Einstein made one final move: to Princeton, where he lived out his last decades as a theoretical physicist at the Institute. Patent Clerk to Professor Einstein's first job out of college was that of a patent clerk at the Swiss Federal Office for Intellectual Property in Bern. Einstein later fondly remembered the patent office as the place where he "hatched his most beautiful ideas." After seven years at the patent office and one year as a guest lecturer at the University of Bern, Einstein moved his family from their Bern residence when he became a professor of theoretical physics at the University of Zurich. The Institute for Advanced Study Tucked away on a quiet campus off the bustling streets of downtown Princeton, the Institute for Advanced Study was for Einstein a "free thinker's" paradise where he could focus solely on theoretical physics. His office in Fuld Hall was sparsely furnished, except for a chalkboard, chairs, a desk, and shelves stacked with papers. There, Einstein and his assistants tried unsuccessfully to formulate the "Grand Unified Theory," which is still pursued by physicists today. Einstein's Miracles of 1905 One great accomplishment may be enough for some lifetimes but not for Albert Einstein's. Now known as his "annus mirabilis," or miraculous year, 1905 was a great turning point in the young physicist's career. Einstein received his Ph.D. from the University of Zurich, and he wrote four groundbreaking articles that were published in the prestigious journal Annalen der Physik: On a Heuristic Point of View Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light, Annalen der Physik, 1905 On the Movement of Small Particles Suspended in Stationary Liquids Required by the Molecular-Kinetic Theory of Heat, Annalen der Physik, 1905 On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies, Annalen der Physik, 1905 Does the Inertia of a Body Depend upon its Energy Content?, Annalen der Physik, 1905 The 26-year-old scientist knew his work was important, but even he could not predict how the physics world would react. In 1901 he had written to Mileva Mari, "I am now working very eagerly on electrodynamics of moving bodies, which promises to become a capital paper." Better known as the Special Theory of Relativity, that "capital paper" and three others spurred intense discussion in the scientific community; the newly graduated Ph.D. was now seen as a noteworthy physicist. Some historians have noted that if Einstein had never published anything after 1905, he still would have been known as one of the greatest thinkers of our time. Einstein's Nobel Prize The path to Sweden to accept the Nobel Prize is often long and difficult. In fact, Einstein never actually made it to Stockholm to accept his medal. Famous thanks to a 1919 eclipse that confirmed his General Theory of Relativity, Einstein was in the midst of a world lecture tour when the Nobel committee awarded him the 1921 prize. He won for his distinguished career in physics, most notably for his 1905 theory of light and electrons called the Photoelectric Effect, not his more controversial theory of relativity. Einstein and his wife Elsa were headed to Japan when the Nobel telegram arrived at their Berlin residence in 1922. The German ambassador to Sweden attended the December award ceremony on Einstein's behalf, overlooking that the scientist had renounced his German citizenship in 1896. After much confusion over whether Einstein was a German or Swiss citizen, the Swedish ambassador hand-delivered the medal to Einstein in Berlin in 1923. Later that year Einstein visited Sweden to give his "Nobel lecture"—on relativity. Einstein's Nobel Prize Medal 1922 Alfred Nobel (1833–1896), a Swedish inventor of dynamite and other explosive technology, requested that upon his death his estate be used to establish a foundation of good will. Decreed in 1900, the Nobel Foundation provides prize money to Nobel recipients, named by separate committees. The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences chooses the winners of the Nobel Prize in Physics. The central image on Einstein's Nobel medal depicts the Genius of Science unveiling Nature, in the form of the goddess Isis. She is emerging from the clouds holding a vessel of abundance. Surrounding the image are the words, "Inventions enhance life which is beautified through art." The reverse side bears an image of Alfred Nobel. Nobel Prize in Physics Certificate In 1922, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences retroactively awarded Albert Einstein the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics for his groundbreaking theory of the Photoelectric Effect. Members of the prize committee had nominated Einstein nearly every year between 1910 and 1922, but there was much debate as to which groundbreaking theory they should cite. Some said General Relativity, but a mere eclipse was not enough proof for all committee members to stake their reputations on Einstein's new theory. With the medal came a sum of 121,592 kronor (roughly $32,000), which Einstein gave to his ex-wife Mileva as part of their divorce agreement.
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Internationally, the Nobel Prize is considered to be the highest distinction in the various disciplines.	en	/assets/touch-icon-180x180-a3e396f9294afe6618861344bef35fc0075f9631fe80702eb259befcd682a42c.png		https://www.mpg.de/nobel-prize	Nobel Prizes A digital story about the Nobel Laureates of the Max Planck Society in eight chapters. more Since 1901, the Nobel Prize has been awarded in physics, chemistry, physiology or medicine, literature and peace efforts. Internationally, the Nobel Prize is considered to be the highest distinction in the various disciplines. The prize, which was instituted by Swedish inventor and industrialist Alfred Nobel, is to be distributed to “those who, during the preceding year, shall have conferred the greatest benefit on mankind”, according to his will. Since 2001, the prize amount, which is derived from the income in interests on the Foundation’s investments, is set to 10 million Swedish kronor per category. To date, the following scientists from the Max Planck Society and its predecessor the Kaiser Wilhelm Society have been awarded the Nobel Prize. In retrospect, the research awarded in this way reflects an important piece of scientific history since the beginning of the 20th century. The relevance of many of the works is particularly evident in the long term. The Max Planck Society counts 31 award winners in the natural science disciplines. In the year the prize was awarded, they were scientific members of the Max Planck Society or of the Kaiser Wilhelm Society as its predecessor. Other scientists were no longer or not yet Scientific Members at the time the prize was awarded, but had carried out the most important part of their research in the Max Planck Society or had left a lasting mark on it through their commitment to research and administration. 2023 - Nobel Prize in Physics Prof. Dr. Ferenc Krausz Max Planck Institute of Quantum Optics, Garching (1962) Ferenc Krausz, Director at the Max Planck Institute of Quantum Optics and Professor at the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, together with Pierre Agostini and Anne L'Huillier, has been honoured with the 2023 Nobel Prize in Physics. The Nobel Committee is honouring the two reserachers for the foundation of attosecond physics. An attosecond is the billionth part of a billionth of a second. Laser pulses lasting only a few attoseconds can be used to track the movements of individual electrons. This not only provides fundamental insights into the behaviour of electrons in atoms, molecules and solids, but could also help to develop electronic components more quickly. More information in the Digital Story 2022 - Nobel Prize in Medicine Prof. Dr. Svante Pääbo Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig (1955) The Nobel Prize in Medicine 2022 was awarded to Svante Pääbo "for his discoveries concerning the genomes of extinct hominins and human evolution". Pääbo succeeded in making the genetic material of extinct early humans available with more efficient extraction and sequencing methods. In 2010, he and his team were able to reconstruct a first version of the Neanderthal genome from bones that are tens of thousands of years old. He thus laid the foundation for the new discipline of palaeogenetics, which has revolutionised our understanding of the evolutionary history of modern humans within just a few years. More information in the Digital Story 2021 - Nobel Prize in Chemistry Prof. Dr. Benjamin List Max-Planck-Institut für Kohlenforschung, Mülheim an der Ruhr (1968) The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2021 was awarded jointly to Benjamin List and David W.C. MacMillan "for the development of asymmetric organocatalysis." The two researchers had discovered that small organic molecules also mediate chemical reactions. Previously, it was assumed that only enzymes and metals, including often toxic heavy metals or expensive and rare precious metals, could accelerate chemical reactions and steer them in a desired direction. It is particularly interesting that the small organic molecules are suitable for so-called asymmetric synthesis: In this process, only one of two enantiomers is formed - these are molecules that are like the left and right hand, i.e. cannot be spatially aligned. Such molecules are involved in all biological processes and also play an important role as medical agents. More information in the Digital Story 2021 - Nobel Prize in Physics Prof. Klaus Hasselmann Max Planck Institute for Meteorology, Hamburg (1931) The Nobel Prize in Physics 2021 was awarded "for pioneering contributions to the understanding of complex systems". One half goes jointly to Klaus Hasselmann and Syukuro Manabe "for the physical modelling of the Earth's climate, the quantification of fluctuations and the reliable prediction of global warming" and the other half to Giorgio Parisi "for the discovery of the interplay of disorder and fluctuations in physical systems from atomic to planetary scales". More information in the Digital Story 2020 - Nobel Prize in Chemistry Prof. Emmanuelle Charpentier , Ph.D. Max Planck Unit for the Science of Pathogens, Berlin (1968) The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2020 was awarded jointly to Emmanuelle Charpentier from the Max Planck Research Unit for the Science of Pathogens (at the time of the awarded research at the University of Vienna and Umeå University) and Jennifer A. Doudna "for the development of a method for genome editing." The two award winners have described how the CRISPR-Cas9 system targets DNA and how it can be used as a versatile genetic tool to alter the genome. They have contributed significantly to the development of the CRISPR-Cas9 technology into a powerful and versatile tool that can be used to efficiently alter any gene sequence in the cells of living organisms. More information in the Digital Story 2020 - Nobel Prize in Physics Prof. Dr. Reinhard Genzel Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, Garching (1952) Reinhard Genzel, Director at the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics in Garching, received the Nobel Prize for Physics 2020 together with Roger Penrose and Andrea Ghez. The Royal Swedish Academy honours the scientists for their black hole research. Using high-precision methods, the group around Genzel also observed bursts of brightness from gas in the immediate vicinity of the black hole and a gravitational redshift caused by this mass monster in the light of a passing star. More information in the Digital Story 2014 - Nobel Prize in Chemistry Prof. Dr. Stefan W. Hell Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry, Göttingen (1962) In 2014, the Nobel Prize in Chemistry went to three researchers: Stefan W. Hell (Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry, Göttingen), Eric Betzig (Howard Hughes Medical Institute) and William E. Moerner (Standford University) in honour for their contributions to nano-optics, with which they have overcome the physical resolution limit of optical microscopy and imaging with a chemical trick. More information in the Digital Story 2007 - Nobel Prize in Chemistry Prof. Dr. Gerhard Ertl Fritz Haber Institute of the Max Planck Society, Berlin (1936) In 2007, Gerhard Ertl was honoured for his work on chemical processes on solid surfaces. His studies formed the basis for our understanding of industrial catalysts and catalytic processes. This means that today we are able to understand very different processes, such as the function of fuel cells or of catalysts in cars. Chemical reactions on catalytic surfaces play a vital role in many industrial operations, such as the production of artificial fertilizers. More information in the Digital Story 2005 - Nobel Prize in Physics Prof. Dr. Theodor Hänsch Max Planck Institute of Quantum Optics, Garching (1941) In 2005, Theodor W. Hänsch and the Americans Roy J. Glauber and John L. Hall were honoured for their research on spectroscopy. Hänsch and Hall received the coveted prize “for their contributions to the development of laser-based precision spectroscopy, including the optical frequency comb technique”. The scientists developed an optical frequency comb generator, which made it possible, for the first time, to count the number of light oscillations per second accurately. Such optical frequency measurements may be million-fold more accurate than determining the light wavelengths using conventional spectroscopy. More information in the Digital Story 1995 - Nobel Prize in Medicine Prof. Dr. Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard Max Planck Institute for Biology Tübingen, Tübingen (1942) Biologist Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard received the distinction together with Edward B. Lewis and Eric F. Wieschaus for their research on the genetic control of early embryonic development. Using the egg of the fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster), Nüsslein-Volhard and Eric Wieschaus identified and classified genes that determine the body plan and the formation of body segments. They developed the gradient theory, which describes how gradients in the egg and in the embryo control the gene expression, drawing parallels in embryonic development between insects and vertebrates. More information in the Digital Story 1995 - Nobel Prize in Chemistry Paul Crutzen Max Planck Institute for Chemistry, Mainz (1933 - 2021) The work of Paul Crutzen, Mario Molina and Sherwood Rowland in atmospheric chemistry has largely contributed to explaining the chemical processes that cause ozone to form and decompose. They demonstrated, among other things, how sensitive the ozone layer is to the anthropogenic emission of air pollutants. More information in the Digital Story 1991 - Nobel Prize in Medicine Prof. Dr. Erwin Neher Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry, Göttingen (1944) Prof. Dr. Bert Sakmann Max Planck Institute for Medical Research, Heidelberg (1942) Erwin Neher and Bert Sakmann were awarded the Nobel Prize “for their discoveries concerning the function of single ion channels in cells”. They were the first to prove that the cell envelope contains tiny ion channels which regulate many functions in the body. Sakmann and Neher developed the Patch Clamp Technique, which they used to study electric signals and the opening and closing of excitable cells, as well as to explore the transmission of signals within the cell and between cells. More information (Erwin Neher) in the Digital Story More information (Bert Sakmann) in the Digital Story 1988 - Nobel Prize in Chemistry Prof. Dr. Robert Huber Max Planck Institute of Biochemistry, Martinsried (1937) Prof. Dr. Hartmut Michel Max Planck Institute of Biophysics, Frankfurt am Main (1948) Johann Deisenhofer (1943) In 1988, Robert Huber, Hartmut Michel and Johann Deisenhofer were awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their joint studies and determination of the three-dimensional structure of a photosynthetic reaction centre. This allowed them to gain fundamental insights about photosynthesis – a process that is a condition for life on earth. The scientists were the first to succeed in unravelling the makeup of a membrane-bound protein, revealing the structure of the molecule, atom by atom. The protein is taken from a bacterium which, like green plants and algae, uses light energy from the sun to build organic substances. More information (Robert Huber) in the Digital Story More information (Hartmut Michel) in the Digital Story More information (Johann Deisenhofer) in the Digital Story 1986 - Nobel Prize in Physics Ernst Ruska Fritz Haber Institute of the Max Planck Society, Berlin (1906-1988) One half of the 1986 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to Ernst Ruska for his “fundamental work in electron optics and for the design of the first electron microscope” (the other half was awarded jointly to Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer, IBM Research Laboratory, Zurich, Switzerland, for their design of the scanning tunnelling microscope). Ernst Ruska’s invention is one of the most important of this century. Its development began with work carried out by Ruska as a young student at the Berlin Technical University at the end of the 1920s. He found that a magnetic coil could act as a lens that could be used to obtain an image of an object irradiated with electrons. By coupling two such electron lenses, he produced a primitive microscope. Ruska very quickly improved various details and in 1933 was able to construct the first electron microscope with a performance clearly superior to that of conventional light microscopes. The scientist subsequently contributed actively to the development of commercial mass-produced electron microscopes which rapidly found application within many areas of science. More information in the Digital Story 1985 - Nobel Prize in Physics Klaus von Klitzing Max Planck Institute for Solid State Research, Stuttgart (1943) Klaus von Klitzing was awarded the Nobel Prize for the discovery of the “quantised Hall effect”. He discovered that the unit for electric resistance (ohm) is accurately determined by Planck’s energy quantum h and the charge of the electrons e, and therefore constitutes a universal natural constant. The von Klitzing constant is a universal standard and highly accurate means of measuring resistance. More information in the Digital Story 1973 - Nobel Prize in Medicine Konrad Lorenz (1903-1989) Konrad Lorenz, Karl von Frisch and Nikolaas Tinbergen were awarded the Nobel Prize jointly “for their discoveries concerning the organisation and elicitation of individual and social behaviour patterns”. Lorenz combined his observations of animals in a concise physiological theory of instinctive activities, thereby paving the way for comparing the behaviour of different species. More consistently than scientists before him, Lorenz focused on two genetic particularities in his work: innate triggers of behaviour patterns (“key stimuli” and “innate releasing mechanisms”) and an early critical period of development in various animal species, in which an “imprinting process” elicits an irreversible behaviour pattern. More information in the Digital Story 1967 - Nobel Prize in Chemistry Manfred Eigen (1927 - 2019) Manfred Eigen shared the Nobel Prize with Ronald George Wreyford Norrish and George Porter “for their studies of extremely fast chemical reactions, effected by disturbing the equilibrium by means of very short pulses of energy”. Eigen developed the relaxation methods for the study of faster reactions in the range of nanoseconds. The common characteristic of this method is that a chemical system in equilibrium is disturbed by singular (pressure, temperature, electromagnetic field) or periodic (sound waves) fast influences. This will cause small changes in concentration which vanish (comparatively slowly, given their smallness) as the equilibrium is re-established. Eigen developed these relaxation measurements to unsurpassed mastery and thus solved important questions in biochemistry, such as that of the control of enzymatic activities, which in turn regulate many metabolic processes in the cell. More information in the Digital Story 1964 - Nobel Prize in Medicine Feodor Lynen (1911-1979) Konrad Bloch and Feodor Lynen received the Nobel Prize jointly “for their discoveries concerning the mechanism and regulation of the cholesterol and fatty acid metabolism”. By succeeding in isolating activated acetic acid (acetyl coenzyme A) in yeast, Lynen established the basis for clinical research on lipid metabolism disorders, for example in Diabetes mellitus, or in the onset of atherosclerosis. More information in the Digital Story 1963 - Nobel Prize in Chemistry Karl Ziegler (1898-1973) The Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded jointly to Karl Ziegler and Giulio Natta “for their discoveries in the field of the chemistry and technology of high polymers”. The discovery of organometallic compound catalysts made of aluminium and titanium, the Ziegler-Natta catalysts, transformed both chemistry as a science and the chemical industry and its technology. Using the catalysts, ethylene could, for the first time, be polymerised into polyethylene at atmospheric pressure. Until then, this had only been possible under extreme conditions (a pressure of 1000 at and temperatures of 200 degrees Celsius). Today, a global annual production of several billion tonnes makes polyethylene one of the most commonly used plastics. Due to its sought-after properties, it is very versatile. More information in the Digital Story 1954 - Nobel Prize in Physics Walther Bothe (1891-1957) Walther Bothe received the Nobel Prize for the coincidence method and his discoveries made therewith. He shared the prize with Max Born. The coincidence measurements proved the penetration of extraterrestrial radiation – cosmic radiation. When studying cosmic radiation, Bothe used Geiger-Müller tubes that were set up so that they only displayed a discharge if a particle passed through them linearly; this meant that it could be established from which direction the charged particles were coming. Indeed, the particles generally fell vertically towards the earth’s surface, however their incidence intensity would shrink to zero if the device was instead pointed towards the horizon. This seems logical, since particles which do not fall vertically would have to penetrate a much thicker air layer. The thicker the air layer, the fewer the particles that penetrate it – only those particles particularly rich in energy “make it through”. More information in the Digital Story 1944 - Nobel Prize in Chemistry Otto Hahn Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry, Berlin (Today: Max Planck Institute for Chemistry, Mainz) (1879–1968) Otto Hahn received the prize “for his discovery of the fission of heavy atomic nuclei”. It was the unplanned result of a joint research project with physicist Lise Meitner to investigate radioactive decay phenomena and the possible generation of transuranics by bombarding uranium atomic nuclei with neutrons. Meitner had fled Nazi Germany a few months before the discovery in 1938. But from exile, she provided the physical explanation of the chemical measurement results of Otto Hahn and Fritz Straßmann. Otto Hahn was one of the pioneers of radiochemistry research, which began around 1900. After the Second World War and in the wake of the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, he and other Nobel Prize winners appealed to politicians to use nuclear power only for peaceful purposes. He was President of the Max Planck Society from 1948 to 1960. More information in the Digital Story 1939 -Nobel Prize in Chemistry Adolf Butenandt Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Biochemistry, Berlin (Today: Max Planck Institute for Biochemistry, Martinsried) (1903-1995) Adolf Butenandt shares the 1939 prize “for his work on sex hormones” with Leopold Ružička. Because Adolf Hitler had forbidden Germans to accept the Nobel Prize, Butenandt did not accept the award (without prize money) until 1949. Butenandt had been working on steroid hormones since the 1920s. He isolated the sex hormones oestrone, progesterone, and androsterone and elucidated their chemical structures. His research paved the way to hormone treatments and the development of the birth control pill. After the Second World War, Adolf Butenandt left a lasting mark on the West German scientific system. He was also President of the Max Planck Society from 1960 to 1972. More information in the Digital Story 1938 - Nobel Prize in Chemistry Richard Kuhn Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Medical Research, Heidelberg (Today: Max Planck Institute for Medical Research, Heidelberg) (1900–1967) For 1938, the prize went to biochemist Richard Kuhn for his work on carotenoids and vitamins. Like Adolf Butenandt, Kuhn did not accept the prize until 1949 because Adolf Hitler had forbidden Germans from doing so. Since the early 1930s, Kuhn had devoted himself to natural product chemistry and was able to elucidate and synthesize the structures of vitamins A and B12. Kuhn’s behaviour during National Socialism is viewed very critically today because from 1941, he participated in poison gas research and denounced his Jewish colleagues. More information in the Digital Story 1936 - Nobel Prize in Chemistry Peter J. W. Debye Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics, Berlin (Today: Max Planck Institute for Physics, Munich) (1884–1966) Physicist Peter Debye received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for “his investigations on dipole moments as well as on the diffraction of X-rays and electrons in gases”. He was one of the pioneers of quantum mechanics and the application of this to problems in solid-state physics. Among other things, he developed the theory of substance-specific heat on crystals and investigated the thermal conductivity of crystals. To this end, he also conducted experiments near absolute zero and operated one of the first refrigeration laboratories at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics in Berlin of which he was also the Director. In 1940, Debye vacated his post because he did not want to take German citizenship (this was a condition of the Nazi regime to be allowed to continue in office as a Dutch native). He emigrated to the US, where he continued his career at Cornell University. More information in the Digital Story 1931 - Nobel Prize in Medicine Otto Heinrich Warburg Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Cell Physiology, Berlin (1883–1970) The Nobel Commission awarded Otto Heinrich Warburg the prize “for the discovery of the nature and function of the respiratory enzyme”. They thus honoured his fundamental research on metabolic processes in plant and animal cells. In his banquet speech at the award ceremony, Warburg himself summed up the essence of his work: “Traces of a heavy metal compound transfer oxygen in living cells and thus free up the forces for what happens in the organic world”. Warburg was also interested in metabolic processes in cancer cells and developed novel standard measuring instruments for the biochemical laboratory. Although a member of a Jewish family, he was able to continue working at his Institute for cell physiology during the Nazi regime. It became the Max Planck Institute in 1953 and was closed after his death. More information in the Digital Story 1921 - Nobel Prize in Physics Albert Einstein Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics, Berlin (Today: Max Planck Institute for Physics, Munich) (1879–1955) Albert Einstein received the prize “for his services to theoretical physics, especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect”, which he described in 1905. Contrary to the prevailing theory of James Maxwell – but in agreement with the radiation formula of Max Planck – Einstein assumed that light consisted of particles (photons) that could change the energy of electrons upon impact. This was an important step on the way to quantum mechanics. However, Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity, which he published in 1915 as Director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics in Berlin and which made him the most famous physicist of the 20th century, was not considered for the Nobel Prize. After the National Socialists came to power, Einstein, who had already been subjected to anti-Semitic attacks for years, did not return from a trip to the US. He applied for expatriation – without notable professional colleagues showing solidarity with him. In 1949, Einstein declined an invitation to become an External Scientific Member of the Max Planck Society citing the atrocities of National Socialism and the lack of sense of guilt in Germany. More information in the Digital Story 1918 - Nobel Prize in Chemistry Fritz Haber Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry, Berlin (Today: Fritz Haber Institute of the Max Planck Society) (1868–1934) “For the synthesis of ammonia from its elements” as they occur in the ambient air, Fritz Haber received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry at the end of the First World War. The committee paid tribute to him as a researcher who had solved the problem of the world food supply. Thanks to Haber’s process, which was brought to industrial maturity together with Carl Bosch, ammonia was now available in inexhaustible quantities. It provided the basis for the production of artificial fertilisers, the use of which revolutionized agriculture and made it many times more productive. However, Haber was also placed on the war crimes list of the victorious Allied powers in 1918 because he had developed poison gas weapons for the German troops in violation of the Hague Convention and had promoted the gas war side by side with the military. In 1933 Haber, who came from a Jewish family, resigned as Director of the Institute in protest against the new Nazi laws on the dismissal of Jews and fled to Switzerland in order to escape the National Socialists. More information in the Digital Story 1915 - Nobel Prize in Chemistry Richard Willstätter Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry, Berlin (Today: Max Planck Institute for Chemistry, Mainz) (1872–1942) Richard Willstätter was awarded the Nobel Prize “for his studies of pigments, especially chlorophyll, in the plant kingdom”. His work provided fundamental insights into the composition of leaf and flower pigments. He identified magnesium as the central component of chlorophyll and the most important for photosynthesis. He did further work in anaesthesia, analgesics, and enzyme research. During the First World War, he developed a gas mask filter. Willstätter received a call to the University of Munich in September 1915, which he accepted in 1916. In 1924, he resigned from his professorship in protest against anti-Semitic movements at the university and emigrated to Switzerland during the Nazi regime. More information in the Digital Story
correct_award_00024	FactBench	0	79	https://www.ligo.caltech.edu/page/press-release-2017-nobel-prize	en	2017 Nobel Prize in Physics Awarded to LIGO Founders	https://www.ligo.caltech…2.png?1582060698	https://www.ligo.caltech…2.png?1582060698	[ "https://www.ligo.caltech.edu/assets/ligo_signals-1638717264243aca66a201c1f0d50559.png", "https://www.ligo.caltech.edu/system/pages/images/91/page_wide/generic.2.png?1582060698", "https://www.ligo.caltech.edu/assets/logos/footer_caltech-dffffad68d75521d67f82d4d77917573.png", "https://www.ligo.caltech.edu/assets/logos/footer_mit-1089305c79c9fb3f86d3c36e6246efe5.png", "https://www.ligo.caltech.edu/assets/logos/footer_nsf-b095d1e913dd555437f6682a15d70afb.png", "https://www.ligo.caltech.edu/assets/logos/footer_lsc-f75e18cb88af4537a57f048612242fd5.png", "https://www.ligo.caltech.edu/assets/logos/footer_virgo-2668a383d8713db7632150294c630ea7.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	The 2017 Nobel Prize in Physics -- press release		/assets/favicon/apple-icon-57x57-78f4f4b87ac8ed844b6956a7674c7917.png	LIGO Lab \| Caltech	https://www.ligo.caltech.edu/page/press-release-2017-nobel-prize	Caltech Press Release \| MIT Press Release Caltech Press Release Caltech Scientists Awarded 2017 Nobel Prize in Physics The 2017 Nobel Prize in Physics has been awarded to three key players in the development and ultimate success of the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-wave Observatory (LIGO). One half of the prize was awarded jointly to Caltech's Barry C. Barish, the Ronald and Maxine Linde Professor of Physics, Emeritus and Kip S. Thorne (BS '62), the Richard P. Feynman Professor of Theoretical Physics, Emeritus; and the other half was awarded to MIT's Rainer Weiss, professor of physics, emeritus. On September 14, 2015, the National Science Foundation (NSF)-funded LIGO made the first-ever direct observation of gravitational waves—ripples in the fabric of space and time predicted by Albert Einstein 100 years earlier. The public announcement took place on February 11, 2016, in Washington, D.C. Each of the twin LIGO observatories—one in Hanford, Washington, and the other in Livingston, Louisiana—picked up the feeble signal of gravitational waves generated 1.3 billion years ago when two black holes spiraled together and collided. Two additional detections of gravitational waves, once again from merging black-hole pairs, were made on December 26, 2015, and January 4, 2017, and, on August 14, 2017, a fourth event was detected by LIGO and the European Virgo gravitational-wave detector. The detections ushered in a new era of gravitational-wave astronomy. LIGO and Virgo provided astronomers with an entirely new set of tools with which to probe the cosmos. Previously, all astronomy observations have relied on light—which includes X-rays, radio waves, and other types of electromagnetic radiation emanating from objects in space—or on very-high-energy particles called neutrinos and cosmic rays. Now, astronomers can learn about cosmic objects through the quivers they make in space and time. The Nobel Prize recognizes Weiss, Barish, and Thorne for their "decisive contributions to the LIGO detector and the observation of gravitational waves." "I am delighted and honored to congratulate Kip and Barry, as well as Rai Weiss of MIT, on the award this morning of the 2017 Nobel Prize in Physics," says Caltech president Thomas F. Rosenbaum, the Sonja and William Davidow Presidential Chair and professor of physics. "The first direct observation of gravitational waves by LIGO is an extraordinary demonstration of scientific vision and persistence. Through four decades of development of exquisitely sensitive instrumentation—pushing the capacity of our imaginations—we are now able to glimpse cosmic processes that were previously undetectable. It is truly the start of a new era in astrophysics." Thorne received the call from the Nobel committee this morning at 2:15 a.m. Pacific Daylight Time. "The prize rightfully belongs to the hundreds of LIGO scientists and engineers who built and perfected our complex gravitational-wave interferometers, and the hundreds of LIGO and Virgo scientists who found the gravitational-wave signals in LIGO's noisy data and extracted the waves' information," Thorne says. "It is unfortunate that, due to the statutes of the Nobel Foundation, the prize has to go to no more than three people, when our marvelous discovery is the work of more than a thousand." Barish received the call from the Nobel committee this morning at 2:45 a.m. Pacific Daylight Time. "I am humbled and honored to receive this award," says Barish. "The detection of gravitational waves is truly a triumph of modern large-scale experimental physics. Over several decades, our teams at Caltech and MIT developed LIGO into the incredibly sensitive device that made the discovery. When the signal reached LIGO from a collision of two stellar black holes that occurred 1.3 billion years ago, the 1,000-scientist-strong LIGO Scientific Collaboration was able to both identify the candidate event within minutes and perform the detailed analysis that convincingly demonstrated that gravitational waves exist." An Idea That Began Decades Ago Einstein predicted in 1916 that gravitational waves would exist, but thought them too weak to ever be detected. By the 1960s, technological advances such as the laser and new insights into possible astrophysics sources made it conceivable that Einstein was wrong and that gravitational waves might actually be detectable. The first person to build a gravitational-wave detector was Joseph Weber of the University of Maryland. Weber's detectors, built in the 1960s, used large aluminum cylinders, or bars, that would be driven to vibrate by passing gravitational waves. Other researchers elsewhere, including the late Ronald W. P. Drever at the University of Glasgow in Scotland—later a professor of physics at Caltech—soon followed Weber's lead. When those experiments proved unsuccessful, the focus of the field began shifting to a different type of detector called a gravitational-wave interferometer, invented independently by Weiss at MIT and, in rudimentary form, by several others. In this instrument, gravitational waves stretch and squeeze space by an infinitesimal amount while widely separated mirrors hanging by wires "ride" the oscillations, moving apart and together ever so slightly. This mirror motion is measured with laser light using a technique called interferometry. In the late 1960s, Weiss began laying conceptual foundations for these interferometers. In parallel, Thorne, along with his students and postdocs at Caltech, worked to improve the theory of gravitational waves, and estimated the details, strengths, and frequencies of the waves that would be produced by objects in our universe such as black holes, neutron stars, and supernovas. In 1972, Thorne, with his student Bill Press (MS '71, PhD '73), published the first of many articles that would appear over the next three decades, summarizing what was known about the gravitational-wave sources and formulating a vision for gravitational-wave astronomy. "LIGO would not exist without Kip's vision for the scientific potential of gravitational waves and his amazing gift for sharing that vision with other scientists," says Stan Whitcomb (BS '73), the chief scientist for the LIGO Laboratory at Caltech, who began working on the project in 1980. Also in 1972, Weiss published a detailed analysis of his interferometers. He identified all of the major obstacles that could prevent the instruments from detecting gravitational waves, such as vibrations of the earth and of the mirrors, and he invented techniques to deal with each obstacle. At this stage, it became evident that large interferometers, several kilometers or more in size, might possibly prove successful—as, indeed, they ultimately did with LIGO and its 4-kilometer-long arms. Also evident was the fact that perfecting the interferometers would be exceedingly difficult: a passing gravitational wave would induce mirror motions 1,000 times smaller than a proton, and these infinitesimal changes would have to be measured. That's 100 million times smaller than an atom, and a trillion times smaller than the wavelength of the light being used in the measurement. Triggered by Weiss's work, Drever's research group in Glasgow switched from bars to interferometers, as did a research group in Garching, Germany, led by Heinz Billing. By 1975, there were three prototype interferometers under development at MIT, Glasgow, and Garching. A Fateful Hotel Room Discussion At first Thorne was skeptical of Weiss's interferometer idea. "I even wrote, in a textbook, that it was not very promising," he says. But that changed when Thorne studied, in depth, Weiss's 1972 analysis. Thorne came to call it a "tour de force" and a "blueprint for the future." In 1975, Weiss invited Thorne to speak at a NASA committee meeting in Washington, D.C., about cosmology and gravitation experiments in space. Hotel rooms that summer were fully booked, so the two shared a room, where they stayed up all night talking. Thorne came away so excited by the experimental prospects that he went home and proposed creating an experimental gravity group at Caltech to work on interferometers in parallel with MIT, Glasgow, and Garching. Caltech then brought Drever on board in 1979 to lead the new experimental effort, because, as Thorne says, they knew his inventiveness would prove crucial to LIGO's success. Soon thereafter, in 1980, Caltech hired a young Chicago astrophysicist, Whitcomb, to assist in the leadership. "What a pleasure it was to have this brilliant, budding experimental group working alongside my theory group at Caltech," says Thorne. "Those were heady days." Together, Drever and Whitcomb led the design and construction of a 40-meter interferometer at Caltech—a prototype to test and perfect the ideas of Weiss, Drever, and others, including the teams at Glasgow and Garching. Meanwhile, Thorne and his theory students—in collaboration with the late Vladimir Braginsky of Moscow State University, a regular Caltech visitor over three decades—were analyzing various sources of noise that the big interferometers would face, especially "quantum noise," or random fluctuations of the mirrors' positions predicted by quantum theory. They were coming up with ways to deal with those fluctuations. In 1984, all of this parallel work came together. Caltech and MIT, with encouragement from the NSF, formed a collaboration to design and build LIGO. Rochus E. (Robbie) Vogt, Caltech's R. Stanton Avery Distinguished Service Professor and Professor of Physics, Emeritus, was recruited in 1987 as LIGO's first director. Vogt led the merging of the Caltech and MIT experimental groups; the early planning for LIGO; the writing of a proposal to NSF to fund the project; and the education of Congress about this high-risk project with a potentially exceedingly high payoff. In 1992, Congress allocated the first major funding. "NSF and Congress have backed LIGO unwaveringly ever since," says Thorne. Scaling up LIGO Building LIGO was a tremendous challenge—logistically and technically. To meet this challenge, Caltech and MIT later recruited, as LIGO's second director, Barry Barish, who at that time had been the leader of several very large high-energy physics projects. Barish developed the first high-energy neutrino beam experiment at Fermilab near Chicago and was one of the leaders of a large international collaboration that performed a search for magnetic monopoles—magnetic analogs of single electric charges that, if found, would help confirm the Grand Unified Theory that seeks to unify the electromagnetic, weak, and strong forces. The experiment, called MACRO (Monopole, Astrophysics and Cosmic Ray Observatory), did not find magnetic monopoles but set the most stringent limits on their existence. Barish then led the design of one of the two detectors planned for another big science project, the Superconducting Super Collider—a particle accelerator to be built in Waxahachie, Texas. The accelerator was canceled during construction in 1993, after which Barish took on the challenge of LIGO, becoming its principal investigator in 1994, and then its director in 1997. "I always wanted to be an experimental physicist and was attracted to the idea of using continuing advances in technology to carry out fundamental science experiments that could not be done otherwise," says Barish. "LIGO is a prime example of what couldn't be done before. Although it was a very large-scale project, the challenges were very different from the way we build a bridge or carry out other large engineering projects. For LIGO, the challenge was and is how to develop and design advanced instrumentation on a large scale, even as the project evolves." "Barish, in my opinion, is the most brilliant leader of large science projects that physics has ever seen," says Thorne. Barish ushered LIGO through its final design stages and secured funding through NSF's National Science Board. He oversaw construction of the two LIGO facilities from 1994 to 1999, and then the installation and commissioning of the initial LIGO interferometers from 1999 to 2005. The scaling up from Caltech's 40-meter prototype to LIGO's 4-kilometer interferometers was such a huge undertaking that it was carried out in two steps. First, the team built initial interferometers, which operated from 2002 to 2010, at a sensitivity that Barish characterized as being at a level where detections were "possible." This first step demonstrated the observatory's basic concepts and solved many technical obstacles. The development and approval of the next phase of LIGO, called Advanced LIGO, was also led by Barish and then-LIGO Laboratory deputy director Gary Sanders, and was designed to be sensitive to a level at which detections were "probable." Advanced LIGO was commissioned and built between 2010 and 2015. Though Barish left LIGO in 2006 to become director of the Global Design Effort for the International Linear Collider, he would rejoin the LIGO team in 2012, in time for the project's historic discovery in 2015. After Barish left, LIGO was led by Jay Marx of Caltech, followed by current executive director, Caltech's David H. Reitze. "LIGO had to make the change from tabletop science to a real science facility," says Whitcomb. "Barry understood what was needed, and he guided that transformation without ever losing sight of the scientific goals." Under Barish's leadership, several key technologies were developed that ultimately led to the detection of gravitational waves. For the first phase of LIGO, now referred to as Initial LIGO, he chose to use solid-state lasers rather than the gas lasers that were more commonly in use at that time. These solid-state lasers were the basis of more powerful versions developed for Advanced LIGO. He also oversaw the development of technologies for reducing unwanted movements in LIGO's mirrors, caused by earthquakes, passing trucks, and other ground vibrations. "In the initial phase of LIGO, in order to isolate the detectors from the earth's motion, we used a suspension system that consisted of test-mass mirrors hung by piano wire and used a multiple-stage set of passive shock absorbers, similar to those in your car. We knew this probably would not be good enough to detect gravitational waves, so we, in the LIGO Laboratory, developed an ambitious program for Advanced LIGO that incorporated a new suspension system to stabilize the mirrors and an active seismic isolation system to sense and correct for ground motions," says Barish. The active seismic isolation system developed for Advanced LIGO works in a similar fashion to noise-canceling headphones, except it can measure and cancel out ground vibrations coming from many directions. In conjunction with this system, a new "quieter" way to suspend LIGO's mirrors was developed with the help of the Glasgow group, which involved hanging the mirrors with a four-stage pendulum. The combination of these two advances gave LIGO a huge improvement in sensitivity to lower frequencies of gravitational waves, which was ultimately what was needed to detect the crashing of two black holes. Barish also created the LIGO of today: a collaboration of approximately 1,200 scientists and engineers at about 100 institutions in 19 nations called the LIGO Scientific Collaboration (LSC). "In addition to picking the right technologies and developing them, and securing funding, we needed to build a collaboration of the absolute best people possible for this almost impossible project," says Barish. "Forming an international collaboration, the LSC, enabled this. We attracted the best people from other universities and countries, creating an 'equal opportunity' collaboration, where there was no advantage to being at Caltech or MIT." The LSC conducted the scientific searches and analysis that led to the LIGO discovery. While this experimental work was taking place, theorists outside Caltech, MIT, and the LIGO project were developing computer codes to simulate the massive collisions of black holes and other sources of gravitational waves that LIGO might detect. These simulations are essential to LIGO; by comparing the shapes of the waves that LIGO observes with the simulations' predicted wave shapes, LIGO scientists can figure out what produces the observed waves. In the early 2000s, Thorne became alarmed at the slow progress on simulations and so with then-Caltech physicist Lee Lindblom, he created a research group at Caltech in collaboration with a group at Cornell University led by his former student Saul Teukolsky (PhD '74), who is now jointly the Robinson Professor of Theoretical Astrophysics at Caltech and Hans A. Bethe Professor of Physics and Astrophysics at Cornell University. By 2015, this SXS (Simulating eXtreme Spacetimes) project was simulating the collisions of black holes with ease, as were several other research groups. On September 14, 2015, just after the Advanced LIGO interferometers began their first search for gravitational waves, they captured a strong signal. Comparison with the SXS simulations revealed that the signal was from the collision of two hefty black holes 29 and 36 times more massive than the sun and located 1.3 billion light-years from Earth. The waves carried away as much energy as would be produced by annihilating three suns. After intense scrutiny of the results, the LIGO scientists announced this discovery to the world on February 11, 2016. "I'm positively delighted that the Nobel Committee has recognized the LIGO discovery and its profound impact on the way we view the cosmos," says Reitze. "This prize rewards not just Kip, Barry, and Rai but also the large number of very smart and dedicated scientists and engineers who worked tirelessly over the past decades to make LIGO a reality." "LIGO was a huge technical and scientific gamble," says Fiona Harrison, the Benjamin M. Rosen Professor of Physics and the Kent and Joyce Kresa Leadership Chair in Caltech's Division of Physics, Mathematics and Astronomy. "But it paid off in spades with one of the most dramatic discoveries in decades. The entire LIGO team should be celebrating today." The 2017 Nobel Prize in Physics represents the 37th and 38th Nobel Prizes awarded to Caltech faculty and alumni. Current Caltech faculty with Nobel Prizes include: Robert Grubbs, winner of the 2005 Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Yves Chauvin and Richard R. Schrock; David Politzer, recipient of the 2004 Nobel Prize in Physics with David J. Gross and Frank Wilczek; Rudy Marcus, sole winner of the 1992 Nobel Prize in Chemistry; and David Baltimore, winner of the 1975 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, with Renato Dulbecco and Howard M. Temin. In 2016, Drever, Thorne, and Weiss won the Kavli Prize in Astrophysics, the Shaw Prize in Astronomy, the Gruber Foundation Cosmology Prize, and the Special Breakthrough Prize in Fundamental Physics. In 2017, Barish, Thorne, and Weiss won the Princess of Asturias Award for Technical and Scientific Research and the European Physical Society's Giuseppe and Vanna Cocconi Prize. Barish was born on January 27, 1936, in Omaha, Nebraska, and spent his childhood in Los Angeles. He received his BA in physics in 1957 and his PhD in experimental particle physics in 1962, both from UC Berkeley. In 1963, he joined Caltech as a research fellow. He became an assistant professor in 1966, an associate professor in 1969, and a professor of physics in 1972. He was named the Ronald and Maxine Linde Professor of Physics in 1991 and Linde Professor, Emeritus, in 2005. He is a member of the National Academy of Sciences, and a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the American Association for the Advancement of Science, and the American Physical Society, the latter of which he served as president. In 2002, he received the Klopsteg Memorial Lecture Award from the American Association of Physics Teachers and, in 2016, he received the Enrico Fermi Prize from the Italian Physical Society. He won the Henry Draper Medal in 2017 with Whitcomb. For a full biography, click here. Thorne was born on June 1, 1940, in Logan, Utah. He received a bachelor's degree in physics from Caltech in 1962 and a PhD in physics from Princeton University in 1965. He joined Caltech as a research fellow in 1966, and joined the faculty in 1967 as an associate professor of theoretical physics. In 1970, he became a professor of theoretical physics. In 1991, he was named the Richard P. Feynman Professor of Theoretical Physics. He retired in 2009. Thorne has coauthored or authored several books, including Black Holes and Time Warps: Einstein's Outrageous Legacy, published in 1994. He served as an executive producer and science adviser for the 2014 film Interstellar. He is a member of the National Academy of Sciences, the American Physical Society, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and the American Philosophical Society. On October 11, 2017, Thorne will publish the textbook Modern Classical Physics, coauthored with Roger Blandford. For a full biography, click here. More information about LIGO's many partners is online here. MEDIA CONTACTS Local: Deborah Williams-Hedges Senior Media Relations Manager 626-395-3227 office 626-840-1565 cell debwms@caltech.edu Other: Whitney Clavin Senior Content and Media Strategist 626-395-1856 office wclavin@caltech.edu Emily Velasco Science Writer 626-395-6487 office 626-536-6915 cell evelasco@caltech.edu MIT Press Release CONTACT: Kimberly Allen, MIT News Office allenkc@mit.edu; 617.253.2702 or 617.852.6094 (mobile) MIT Media Relations expertrequests@mit.edu; 617-253-1682 MIT Physicist Rainer Weiss Shares Nobel Prize in Physics Rainer Weiss ’55, PhD ’62, professor emeritus of physics at MIT, has won the Nobel Prize in physics for 2017. Weiss wins half the prize, sharing the other half of the award with Kip S. Thorne, professor emeritus of theoretical physics at Caltech, and Barry C. Barish, professor emeritus of physics at Caltech. The Nobel Foundation, in its announcement this morning, cited the physicists "for decisive contributions to the LIGO detector and the observation of gravitational waves.” “We are immensely proud of Rai Weiss, and we also offer admiring best wishes to his chief collaborators and the entire LIGO team,” says MIT President L. Rafael Reif. “The creativity and rigor of the LIGO experiment constitute a scientific triumph; we are profoundly inspired by the decades of ingenuity, optimism, and perseverance that made it possible. It is especially sweet that Rai Weiss not only served on the MIT faculty for 37 years, but is also an MIT graduate. Today’s announcement reminds us, on a grand scale, of the value and power of fundamental scientific research and why it deserves society’s collective support.” Listening for a wobble On Sept. 14, 2015, at approximately 5:51 a.m. EDT, a gravitational wave — a ripple from a distant part of the universe — passed through the Earth, generating an almost imperceptible, fleeting wobble in the world that would have gone completely unnoticed save for two massive, identical instruments, designed to listen for such cosmic distortions. The Laser Interferometer Gravitational-wave Observatory, or LIGO, consists of two L-shaped interferometers, each 4 kilometers in length, separated by 1,865 miles. On Sept. 14, 2015, scientists picked up a very faint wobble in the instruments and soon confirmed that the interferometers had been infinitesimally stretched — by just one-ten-thousandth the diameter of a proton — and that this miniscule distortion arose from a passing gravitational wave. The LIGO Scientific Collaboration, with the Caltech-MIT LIGO Laboratory and more than 1,000 scientists at universities and observatories around the world, confirmed the signal as the first direct detection of a gravitational wave by an instrument on Earth. The scientists further decoded the signal to determine that the gravitational wave was the product of a violent collision between two massive black holes 1.3 billion years ago. The momentous result confirmed the theory of general relativity proposed by Albert Einstein, who almost exactly 100 years earlier had predicted the existence of gravitational waves but assumed that they would be virtually impossible to detect from Earth. Since this first discovery, LIGO has detected three other gravitational wave signals, also generated by pairs of spiraling, colliding black holes; the most announced of a detection came just last week. “We are incredibly proud of Rai and his colleagues for their vision and courage that led to this great achievement,” says Michael Sipser, the Donner Professor of Mathematics and dean of the School of Science at MIT. “It is a wonderful day for them, for MIT, for risk-taking and boldness, and for all of science.” A gravitational blueprint The detection was an especially long-awaited payoff for Weiss, who came up with the initial design for LIGO some 50 years ago. He has since been instrumental in shaping and championing the idea as it developed from a desktop prototype to LIGO’s final, observatory-scale form. In 1967, Weiss, then an assistant professor of physics at MIT, was asked by his department to teach an introductory course in general relativity — a subject he knew little about. A few years earlier, the American physicist Joseph Weber had claimed to have made the first detection of gravitational waves, using resonant bars — long, aluminum cylinders that should ring at a certain frequency in response to a gravitational wave. When his students asked him to explain how these Weber bars worked, Weiss found that he couldn't. No one in the scientific community had been able to replicate Weber’s results. Weiss had a very different idea for how to do it, and assigned the problem to his students, instructing them to design the simplest experiment they could to detect a gravitational wave. Weiss himself came up with a design: Build an L-shaped interferometer and shine a light down the length of each arm, at the end of which hangs a free-floating mirror. The lasers should bounce off the mirrors and head back along each arm, arriving where they started at the exact same time. If a gravitational wave passes through, it should “stretch” or displace the mirrors ever so slightly, and thus change the lasers’ arrival times. Weiss refined the idea over a summer in MIT’s historic Building 20, a wooden structure built during World War II to develop radar technology. The building, meant to be temporary and known to many as the “Plywood Palace,” lived on to germinate and support innovative, high-risk projects. During that time, Weiss came to the conclusion that his design could indeed detect gravitational waves, if built to large enough dimensions. His design would serve as the essential blueprint for LIGO. An observatory takes shape To test his idea, Weiss initially built a 1.5-meter prototype. But to truly detect a gravitational wave, the instrument would have to be several thousand times longer: The longer the interferometer’s arms, the more sensitive its optics are to minute displacements. To realize this audacious design, Weiss teamed up in 1976 with noted physicist Kip Thorne, who, based in part on conversations with Weiss, soon started a gravitational wave experiment group at Caltech. The two formed a collaboration between MIT and Caltech, and in 1979, Scottish physicist Ronald Drever, then of Glasgow University, joined the effort at Caltech. The three scientists — who became the co-founders of LIGO — worked to refine the dimensions and scientific requirements for an instrument sensitive enough to detect a gravitational wave. Barry Barish soon joined the team as first a principal investigator, then director of the project, and was instrumental in securing funding for the audacious project, and bringing the detectors to completion. After years of fits and starts in research and funding, the project finally received significant and enthusiastic backing from the National Science Foundation, and in the mid-1990s, LIGO broke ground, erecting its first interferometer in Hanford, Washington, and its second in Livingston, Louisiana. Prior to making their seminal detection two years ago, LIGO’s detectors required years of fine-tuning to improve their sensitivity. During this time, Weiss not only advised on scientific quandaries but also stepped in to root out problems in the detectors themselves. Weiss is among the few to have walked the length of the interferometers’ tunnels in the space between LIGO’s laser beam tube and its encasement. Inspecting the detectors in this way, Weiss would often discover minute cracks, tiny shards of glass, and even infestations of wasps, mice, and black widow spiders, which he would promptly deal with. A cosmic path Weiss was born in 1932 in tumultuous Berlin. When his mother, Gertrude Loesner, was pregnant with Weiss, his father, neurologist Frederick Weiss, was abducted by the Nazis for testifying against a Nazi doctor. He was eventually released with the help of Loesner’s family. The young family fled to Prague and then emigrated to New York City, where Weiss grew up on Manhattan’s Upper West Side, cultivating a love for classical music and electronics, and making a hobby of repairing radios. After graduating high school, he went to MIT to study electrical engineering, in hopes of finding a way to quiet the hiss heard in shellac records. He later switched to physics, but then dropped out of school in his junior year, only to return shortly after, taking a job as a technician in Building 20. There, Weiss met physicist Jerrold Zacharias, who is credited with developing the first atomic clock. Zacharias encouraged and supported Weiss in finishing his undergraduate degree in 1955 and his PhD in 1962. Weiss spent some time at Princeton University as a postdoc, where he developed experiments to test gravity, before returning to MIT as an assistant professor in 1964. In the midst of his work in gravitational wave detection, Weiss also investigated and became a leading researcher in cosmic microwave background radiation — thermal radiation, found in the microwave band of the radio spectrum, that is thought to be a diffuse afterglow from the Big Bang. In 1976, Weiss was appointed to oversee a scientific working group for NASA’s Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) satellite, which launched in 1989 and went on to precisely measure microwave radiation and its tiny, quantum fluctuations. Weiss was co-founder and chair of the science working group for the mission, whose measurements helped support the Big Bang theory of the universe. COBE’s findings earned two of its principal investigators the Nobel Prize in physics in 2006. Weiss has received numerous awards and honors, including the Medaille de l’ADION, the 2006 Gruber Prize in Cosmology, and the 2007 Einstein Prize of the American Physical Society. He is a fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and the American Physical Society, as well as a member of the National Academy of Sciences. In 2016, Weiss received a Special Breakthrough Prize in Fundamental Physics, the Gruber Prize in Cosmology, the Shaw Prize in Astronomy, and the Kavli Prize in Astrophysics, all shared with Drever and Thorne. Most recently, Weiss shared the Princess of Asturias Award for Technical and Scientific Research with Thorne, Barry Barish of Caltech, and the LIGO Scientific Collaboration. Written by Jennifer Chu, MIT News Office RELATED LINKS 2017 Nobel Prize in Physics Rainer Weiss Video: LIGO Detects Gravitational Waves LIGO Advanced LIGO Instrument MIT LIGO ARCHIVED MIT NEWS Scientists make first detection of gravitational waves Gravitational waves from a binary black hole merger observed by LIGO and Virgo
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For other uses, see Einstein (disambiguation) and Albert Einstein (disambiguation). Albert Einstein ( EYEN-styne;[4] German: [ˈalbɛɐt ˈʔaɪnʃtaɪn] ⓘ; 14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist who is widely held as one of the most influential scientists. Best known for developing the theory of relativity, Einstein also made important contributions to quantum mechanics.[1][5] His mass–energy equivalence formula E = mc2, which arises from relativity theory, has been called "the world's most famous equation".[6] He received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect",[7] a pivotal step in the development of quantum theory. His intellectual achievements and originality have made the word Einstein broadly synonymous with genius.[8] Born in the German Empire, Einstein moved to Switzerland in 1895, forsaking his German citizenship (as a subject of the Kingdom of Württemberg)[note 1] the following year. In 1897, at the age of seventeen, he enrolled in the mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at the Swiss federal polytechnic school in Zürich, graduating in 1900. In 1901, he acquired Swiss citizenship, which he kept for the rest of his life. In 1903, he secured a permanent position at the Swiss Patent Office in Bern. In 1905, he submitted a successful PhD dissertation to the University of Zurich. In 1914, he moved to Berlin in order to join the Prussian Academy of Sciences and the Humboldt University of Berlin. In 1917, he became director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics; he also became a German citizen again, this time as a subject of the Kingdom of Prussia.[note 1] In 1933, while he was visiting the United States, Adolf Hitler came to power in Germany. Horrified by the Nazi war of extermination against his fellow Jews,[9] Einstein decided to remain in the US, and was granted American citizenship in 1940.[10] On the eve of World War II, he endorsed a letter to President Franklin D. Roosevelt alerting him to the potential German nuclear weapons program and recommended that the US begin similar research. Einstein supported the Allies but generally viewed the idea of nuclear weapons with great dismay.[11] Einstein's work is also known for its influence on the philosophy of science.[12][13] In 1905, he published four groundbreaking papers, sometimes described as his annus mirabilis (miracle year). These papers outlined a theory of the photoelectric effect, explained brownian motion, introduced his special theory of relativity—a theory which addressed the inability of classical mechanics to account satisfactorily for the behavior of the electromagnetic field—and demonstrated that if the special theory is correct, mass and energy are equivalent to each other. In 1915, he proposed a general theory of relativity that extended his system of mechanics to incorporate gravitation. A cosmological paper that he published the following year laid out the implications of general relativity for the modeling of the structure and evolution of the universe as a whole.[15][16] In the middle part of his career, Einstein made important contributions to statistical mechanics and quantum theory. Especially notable was his work on the quantum physics of radiation, in which light consists of particles, subsequently called photons. With the Indian physicist Satyendra Nath Bose, he laid the groundwork for Bose-Einstein statistics. For much of the last phase of his academic life, Einstein worked on two endeavors that proved ultimately unsuccessful. First, he advocated against quantum theory's introduction of fundamental randomness into science's picture of the world, objecting that "God does not play dice".[17] Second, he attempted to devise a unified field theory by generalizing his geometric theory of gravitation to include electromagnetism too. As a result, he became increasingly isolated from the mainstream modern physics. In a 1999 poll of 130 leading physicists worldwide by the British journal Physics World, Einstein was ranked top among physicists for making the most important contributions to physics.[18] Life and career Childhood, youth and education See also: Einstein family Albert Einstein was born in Ulm,[19] in the Kingdom of Württemberg in the German Empire, on 14 March 1879.[20][21] His parents, secular Ashkenazi Jews, were Hermann Einstein, a salesman and engineer, and Pauline Koch. In 1880, the family moved to Munich's borough of Ludwigsvorstadt-Isarvorstadt, where Einstein's father and his uncle Jakob founded Elektrotechnische Fabrik J. Einstein & Cie, a company that manufactured electrical equipment based on direct current.[19] Albert attended St. Peter‘s Catholic elementary school in Munich from the age of five. When he was eight, he was transferred to the Luitpold Gymnasium, where he received advanced primary and then secondary school education. In 1894, Hermann and Jakob's company tendered for a contract to install electric lighting in Munich, but without success—they lacked the capital that would have been required to update their technology from direct current to the more efficient, alternating current alternative.[23] The failure of their bid forced them to sell their Munich factory and search for new opportunities elsewhere. The Einstein family moved to Italy, first to Milan and a few months later to Pavia, where they settled in Palazzo Cornazzani.[24] Einstein, then fifteen, stayed behind in Munich in order to finish his schooling. His father wanted him to study electrical engineering, but he was a fractious pupil who found the Gymnasium's regimen and teaching methods far from congenial. He later wrote that the school's policy of strict rote learning was harmful to creativity. At the end of December 1894, a letter from a doctor persuaded the Luitpold's authorities to release him from its care, and he joined his family in Pavia. While in Italy as a teenager, he wrote an essay entitled "On the Investigation of the State of the Ether in a Magnetic Field".[27] Einstein excelled at physics and mathematics from an early age, and soon acquired the mathematical expertise normally only found in a child several years his senior. He began teaching himself algebra, calculus and Euclidean geometry when he was twelve; he made such rapid progress that he discovered an original proof of the Pythagorean theorem before his thirteenth birthday.[28][30] A family tutor, Max Talmud, said that only a short time after he had given the twelve year old Einstein a geometry textbook, the boy "had worked through the whole book. He thereupon devoted himself to higher mathematics ... Soon the flight of his mathematical genius was so high I could not follow." Einstein recorded that he had "mastered integral and differential calculus" while still just fourteen. His love of algebra and geometry was so great that at twelve, he was already confident that nature could be understood as a "mathematical structure". At thirteen, when his range of enthusiasms had broadened to include music and philosophy, Talmud introduced Einstein to Kant's Critique of Pure Reason. Kant became his favorite philosopher; according to Talmud, "At the time he was still a child, only thirteen years old, yet Kant's works, incomprehensible to ordinary mortals, seemed to be clear to him." In 1895, at the age of sixteen, Einstein sat the entrance examination for the federal polytechnic school (later the Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule, ETH) in Zürich, Switzerland. He failed to reach the required standard in the general part of the test, but performed with distinction in physics and mathematics. On the advice of the polytechnic's principal, he completed his secondary education at the Argovian cantonal school (a gymnasium) in Aarau, Switzerland, graduating in 1896.[35] While lodging in Aarau with the family of Jost Winteler, he fell in love with Winteler's daughter, Marie. (His sister, Maja, later married Winteler's son Paul. ) In January 1896, with his father's approval, Einstein renounced his citizenship of the German Kingdom of Württemberg in order to avoid conscription into military service. The Matura (graduation for the successful completion of higher secondary schooling), awarded to him in September 1896, acknowledged him to have performed well across most of the curriculum, allotting him a top grade of 6 for history, physics, algebra, geometry, and descriptive geometry. At seventeen, he enrolled in the four-year mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at the federal polytechnic school. Marie Winteler, a year older than him, took up a teaching post in Olsberg, Switzerland. The five other polytechnic school freshmen following the same course as Einstein included just one woman, a twenty year old Serbian, Mileva Marić. Over the next few years, the pair spent many hours discussing their shared interests and learning about topics in physics that the polytechnic school's lectures did not cover. In his letters to Marić, Einstein confessed that exploring science with her by his side was much more enjoyable than reading a textbook in solitude. Eventually the two students became not only friends but also lovers.[39] Historians of physics are divided on the question of the extent to which Marić contributed to the insights of Einstein's annus mirabilis publications. There is at least some evidence that he was influenced by her scientific ideas,[39][40][41] but there are scholars who doubt whether her impact on his thought was of any great significance at all.[43][45] Marriages, relationships and children Correspondence between Einstein and Marić, discovered and published in 1987, revealed that in early 1902, while Marić was visiting her parents in Novi Sad, she gave birth to a daughter, Lieserl. When Marić returned to Switzerland it was without the child, whose fate is uncertain. A letter of Einstein's that he wrote in September 1903 suggests that the girl was either given up for adoption or died of scarlet fever in infancy.[46] Einstein and Marić married in January 1903. In May 1904, their son Hans Albert was born in Bern, Switzerland. Their son Eduard was born in Zürich in July 1910. In letters that Einstein wrote to Marie Winteler in the months before Eduard's arrival, he described his love for his wife as "misguided" and mourned the "missed life" that he imagined he would have enjoyed if he had married Winteler instead: "I think of you in heartfelt love every spare minute and am so unhappy as only a man can be."[48] In 1912, Einstein entered into a relationship with Elsa Löwenthal, who was both his first cousin on his mother's side and his second cousin on his father's.[50] When Marić learned of his infidelity soon after moving to Berlin with him in April 1914, she returned to Zürich, taking Hans Albert and Eduard with her.[39] Einstein and Marić were granted a divorce on 14 February 1919 on the grounds of having lived apart for five years.[52] As part of the divorce settlement, Einstein agreed that if he were to win a Nobel Prize, he would give the money that he received to Marić; he won the prize two years later.[54] Einstein married Löwenthal in 1919. In 1923, he began a relationship with a secretary named Betty Neumann, the niece of his close friend Hans Mühsam.[57][58][59][60] Löwenthal nevertheless remained loyal to him, accompanying him when he emigrated to the United States in 1933. In 1935, she was diagnosed with heart and kidney problems. She died in December 1936. A volume of Einstein's letters released by Hebrew University of Jerusalem in 2006[62] added further names to the catalog of women with whom he was romantically involved. They included Margarete Lebach (a married Austrian),[63] Estella Katzenellenbogen (the rich owner of a florist business), Toni Mendel (a wealthy Jewish widow) and Ethel Michanowski (a Berlin socialite), with whom he spent time and from whom he accepted gifts while married to Löwenthal.[64][65] After being widowed, Einstein was briefly in a relationship with Margarita Konenkova, thought by some to be a Russian spy; her husband, the Russian sculptor Sergei Konenkov, created the bronze bust of Einstein at the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton.[66][67] Following an episode of acute mental illness at about the age of twenty, Einstein's son Eduard was diagnosed with schizophrenia.[68] He spent the remainder of his life either in the care of his mother or in temporary confinement in an asylum. After her death, he was committed permanently to Burghölzli, the Psychiatric University Hospital in Zürich. 1902–1909: Assistant at the Swiss Patent Office Einstein graduated from the federal polytechnic school in 1900, duly certified as competent to teach mathematics and physics. His successful acquisition of Swiss citizenship in February 1901 was not followed by the usual sequel of conscription; the Swiss authorities deemed him medically unfit for military service. He found that Swiss schools too appeared to have no use for him, failing to offer him a teaching position despite the almost two years that he spent applying for one. Eventually it was with the help of Marcel Grossmann's father that he secured a post in Bern at the Swiss Patent Office,[72] as an assistant examiner – level III.[74][75] Patent applications that landed on Einstein's desk for his evaluation included ideas for a gravel sorter and an electric typewriter.[75] His employers were pleased enough with his work to make his position permanent in 1903, although they did not think that he should be promoted until he had "fully mastered machine technology". It is conceivable that his labors at the patent office had a bearing on his development of his special theory of relativity. He arrived at his revolutionary ideas about space, time and light through thought experiments about the transmission of signals and the synchronization of clocks, matters which also figured in some of the inventions submitted to him for assessment. In 1902, Einstein and some friends whom he had met in Bern formed a group that held regular meetings to discuss science and philosophy. Their choice of a name for their club, the Olympia Academy, was an ironic comment upon its far from Olympian status. Sometimes they were joined by Marić, who limited her participation in their proceedings to careful listening. The thinkers whose works they reflected upon included Henri Poincaré, Ernst Mach and David Hume, all of whom significantly influenced Einstein's own subsequent ideas and beliefs. 1900–1905: First scientific papers Einstein's first paper, "Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen" ("Conclusions drawn from the phenomena of capillarity"), in which he proposed a model of intermolecular attraction that he afterwards disavowed as worthless, was published in the journal Annalen der Physik in 1901.[80] His 24-page doctoral dissertation also addressed a topic in molecular physics. Titled "Eine neue Bestimmung der Moleküldimensionen" ("A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions") and dedicated to his friend Marcel Grossman, it was completed on 30 April 1905 and approved by Professor Alfred Kleiner of the University of Zurich three months later. (Einstein was formally awarded his PhD on 15 January 1906.)[83] Four other pieces of work that Einstein completed in 1905—his famous papers on the photoelectric effect, Brownian motion, his special theory of relativity and the equivalence of mass and energy—have led to the year being celebrated as an annus mirabilis for physics akin to 1666 (the year in which Isaac Newton experienced his greatest epiphanies). The publications deeply impressed Einstein's contemporaries.[84] 1908–1933: Early academic career Einstein's sabbatical as a civil servant approached its end in 1908, when he secured a junior teaching position at the University of Bern. In 1909, a lecture on relativistic electrodynamics that he gave at the University of Zurich, much admired by Alfred Kleiner, led to Zürich's luring him away from Bern with a newly created associate professorship.[85] Promotion to a full professorship followed in April 1911, when he accepted a chair at the German Charles-Ferdinand University in Prague, a move which required him to become an Austrian citizen of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.[87] His time in Prague saw him producing eleven research papers.[88] In July 1912, he returned to his alma mater, the ETH Zurich, to take up a chair in theoretical physics. His teaching activities there centred on thermodynamics and analytical mechanics, and his research interests included the molecular theory of heat, continuum mechanics and the development of a relativistic theory of gravitation. In his work on the latter topic, he was assisted by his friend, Marcel Grossmann, whose knowledge of the kind of mathematics required was greater than his own.[89] In the spring of 1913, two German visitors, Max Planck and Walther Nernst, called upon Einstein in Zürich in the hope of persuading him to relocate to Berlin. They offered him membership of the Prussian Academy of Sciences, the directorship of the planned Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics and a chair at the Humboldt University of Berlin that would allow him to pursue his research supported by a professorial salary but with no teaching duties to burden him.[50] Their invitation was all the more appealing to him because Berlin happened to be the home of his latest girlfriend, Elsa Löwenthal. He duly joined the Academy on 24 July 1913,[91] and moved into an apartment in the Berlin district of Dahlem on 1 April 1914.[50] He was installed in his Humboldt University position shortly thereafter.[91] The outbreak of the First World War in July 1914 marked the beginning of Einstein's gradual estrangement from the nation of his birth. When the "Manifesto of the Ninety-Three" was published in October 1914—a document signed by a host of prominent German thinkers that justified Germany's belligerence—Einstein was one of the few German intellectuals to distance himself from it and sign the alternative, eirenic "Manifesto to the Europeans" instead. However, this expression of his doubts about German policy did not prevent him from being elected to a two-year term as president of the German Physical Society in 1916. When the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics opened its doors the following year—its foundation delayed because of the war—Einstein was appointed its first director, just as Planck and Nernst had promised.[95] Einstein was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1920,[96] and a Foreign Member of the Royal Society in 1921. In 1922, he was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect".[7] At this point some physicists still regarded the general theory of relativity sceptically, and the Nobel citation displayed a degree of doubt even about the work on photoelectricity that it acknowledged: it did not assent to Einstein's notion of the particulate nature of light, which only won over the entire scientific community when S. N. Bose derived the Planck spectrum in 1924. That same year, Einstein was elected an International Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.[97] Britain's closest equivalent of the Nobel award, the Royal Society's Copley Medal, was not hung around Einstein's neck until 1925.[1] He was elected an International Member of the American Philosophical Society in 1930.[98] Einstein resigned from the Prussian Academy in March 1933. His accomplishments in Berlin had included the completion of the general theory of relativity, proving the Einstein–de Haas effect, contributing to the quantum theory of radiation, and the development of Bose–Einstein statistics.[50] 1919: Putting general relativity to the test In 1907, Einstein reached a milestone on his long journey from his special theory of relativity to a new idea of gravitation with the formulation of his equivalence principle, which asserts that an observer in an infinitesimally small box falling freely in a gravitational field would be unable to find any evidence that the field exists. In 1911, he used the principle to estimate the amount by which a ray of light from a distant star would be bent by the gravitational pull of the Sun as it passed close to the Sun's photosphere (that is, the Sun's apparent surface). He reworked his calculation in 1913, having now found a way to model gravitation with the Riemann curvature tensor of a non-Euclidean four-dimensional spacetime. By the fall of 1915, his reimagining of the mathematics of gravitation in terms of Riemannian geometry was complete, and he applied his new theory not just to the behavior of the Sun as a gravitational lens but also to another astronomical phenomenon, the precession of the perihelion of Mercury (a slow drift in the point in Mercury's elliptical orbit at which it approaches the Sun most closely).[50][100] A total eclipse of the Sun that took place on 29 May 1919 provided an opportunity to put his theory of gravitational lensing to the test, and observations performed by Sir Arthur Eddington yielded results that were consistent with his calculations. Eddington's work was reported at length in newspapers around the world. On 7 November 1919, for example, the leading British newspaper, The Times, printed a banner headline that read: "Revolution in Science – New Theory of the Universe – Newtonian Ideas Overthrown".[101] 1921–1923: Coming to terms with fame With Eddington's eclipse observations widely reported not just in academic journals but by the popular press as well, Einstein became "perhaps the world's first celebrity scientist", a genius who had shattered a paradigm that had been basic to physicists' understanding of the universe since the seventeenth century.[102] Einstein began his new life as an intellectual icon in America, where he arrived on 2 April 1921. He was welcomed to New York City by Mayor John Francis Hylan, and then spent three weeks giving lectures and attending receptions.[103] He spoke several times at Columbia University and Princeton, and in Washington, he visited the White House with representatives of the National Academy of Sciences. He returned to Europe via London, where he was the guest of the philosopher and statesman Viscount Haldane. He used his time in the British capital to meet several people prominent in British scientific, political or intellectual life, and to deliver a lecture at King's College. In July 1921, he published an essay, "My First Impression of the U.S.A.", in which he sought to sketch the American character, much as had Alexis de Tocqueville in Democracy in America (1835).[106] He wrote of his transatlantic hosts in highly approving terms: "What strikes a visitor is the joyous, positive attitude to life ... The American is friendly, self-confident, optimistic, and without envy." In 1922, Einstein's travels were to the old world rather than the new. He devoted six months to a tour of Asia that saw him speaking in Japan, Singapore and Sri Lanka (then known as Ceylon). After his first public lecture in Tokyo, he met Emperor Yoshihito and his wife at the Imperial Palace, with thousands of spectators thronging the streets in the hope of catching a glimpse of him. (In a letter to his sons, he wrote that Japanese people seemed to him to be generally modest, intelligent and considerate, and to have a true appreciation of art. But his picture of them in his diary was less flattering: "[the] intellectual needs of this nation seem to be weaker than their artistic ones – natural disposition?" His journal also contains views of China and India which were uncomplimentary. Of Chinese people, he wrote that "even the children are spiritless and look obtuse... It would be a pity if these Chinese supplant all other races. For the likes of us the mere thought is unspeakably dreary".[109][110]) He was greeted with even greater enthusiasm on the last leg of his tour, in which he spent twelve days in Mandatory Palestine, newly entrusted to British rule by the League of Nations in the aftermath of the First World War. Sir Herbert Samuel, the British High Commissioner, welcomed him with a degree of ceremony normally only accorded to a visiting head of state, including a cannon salute. One reception held in his honor was stormed by people determined to hear him speak: he told them that he was happy that Jews were beginning to be recognized as a force in the world. Einstein's decision to tour the eastern hemisphere in 1922 meant that he was unable to go to Stockholm in the December of that year to participate in the Nobel prize ceremony. His place at the traditional Nobel banquet was taken by a German diplomat, who gave a speech praising him not only as a physicist but also as a campaigner for peace.[112] A two-week visit to Spain that he undertook in 1923 saw him collecting another award, a membership of the Spanish Academy of Sciences signified by a diploma handed to him by King Alfonso XIII. (His Spanish trip also gave him a chance to meet a fellow Nobel laureate, the neuroanatomist Santiago Ramón y Cajal.)[113] 1922–1932: Serving the League of Nations From 1922 until 1932, with the exception of a few months in 1923 and 1924, Einstein was a member of the Geneva-based International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation of the League of Nations, a group set up by the League to encourage scientists, artists, scholars, teachers and other people engaged in the life of the mind to work more closely with their counterparts in other countries.[114][115] He was appointed as a German delegate rather than as a representative of Switzerland because of the machinations of two Catholic activists, Oskar Halecki and Giuseppe Motta. By persuading Secretary General Eric Drummond to deny Einstein the place on the committee reserved for a Swiss thinker, they created an opening for Gonzague de Reynold, who used his League of Nations position as a platform from which to promote traditional Catholic doctrine.[116] Einstein's former physics professor Hendrik Lorentz and the Polish chemist Marie Curie were also members of the committee.[117] 1925: Touring South America In March and April 1925, Einstein and his wife visited South America, where they spent about a week in Brazil, a week in Uruguay and a month in Argentina.[118] Their tour was suggested by Jorge Duclout (1856–1927) and Mauricio Nirenstein (1877–1935)[119] with the support of several Argentine scholars, including Julio Rey Pastor, Jakob Laub, and Leopoldo Lugones. and was financed primarily by the Council of the University of Buenos Aires and the Asociación Hebraica Argentina (Argentine Hebraic Association) with a smaller contribution from the Argentine-Germanic Cultural Institution.[120] 1930–1931: Touring the US In December 1930, Einstein began another significant sojourn in the United States, drawn back to the US by the offer of a two month research fellowship at the California Institute of Technology. Caltech supported him in his wish that he should not be exposed to quite as much attention from the media as he had experienced when visiting the US in 1921, and he therefore declined all the invitations to receive prizes or make speeches that his admirers poured down upon him. But he remained willing to allow his fans at least some of the time with him that they requested. After arriving in New York City, Einstein was taken to various places and events, including Chinatown, a lunch with the editors of The New York Times, and a performance of Carmen at the Metropolitan Opera, where he was cheered by the audience on his arrival. During the days following, he was given the keys to the city by Mayor Jimmy Walker and met Nicholas Murray Butler, the president of Columbia University, who described Einstein as "the ruling monarch of the mind". Harry Emerson Fosdick, pastor at New York's Riverside Church, gave Einstein a tour of the church and showed him a full-size statue that the church made of Einstein, standing at the entrance. Also during his stay in New York, he joined a crowd of 15,000 people at Madison Square Garden during a Hanukkah celebration. Einstein next traveled to California, where he met Caltech president and Nobel laureate Robert A. Millikan. His friendship with Millikan was "awkward", as Millikan "had a penchant for patriotic militarism", where Einstein was a pronounced pacifist. During an address to Caltech's students, Einstein noted that science was often inclined to do more harm than good. This aversion to war also led Einstein to befriend author Upton Sinclair and film star Charlie Chaplin, both noted for their pacifism. Carl Laemmle, head of Universal Studios, gave Einstein a tour of his studio and introduced him to Chaplin. They had an instant rapport, with Chaplin inviting Einstein and his wife, Elsa, to his home for dinner. Chaplin said Einstein's outward persona, calm and gentle, seemed to conceal a "highly emotional temperament", from which came his "extraordinary intellectual energy". Chaplin's film City Lights was to premiere a few days later in Hollywood, and Chaplin invited Einstein and Elsa to join him as his special guests. Walter Isaacson, Einstein's biographer, described this as "one of the most memorable scenes in the new era of celebrity". Chaplin visited Einstein at his home on a later trip to Berlin and recalled his "modest little flat" and the piano at which he had begun writing his theory. Chaplin speculated that it was "possibly used as kindling wood by the Nazis". 1933: Emigration to the US In February 1933, while on a visit to the United States, Einstein knew he could not return to Germany with the rise to power of the Nazis under Germany's new chancellor, Adolf Hitler. While at American universities in early 1933, he undertook his third two-month visiting professorship at the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena. In February and March 1933, the Gestapo repeatedly raided his family's apartment in Berlin.[129] He and his wife Elsa returned to Europe in March, and during the trip, they learned that the German Reichstag had passed the Enabling Act on 23 March, transforming Hitler's government into a de facto legal dictatorship, and that they would not be able to proceed to Berlin. Later on, they heard that their cottage had been raided by the Nazis and Einstein's personal sailboat confiscated. Upon landing in Antwerp, Belgium on 28 March, Einstein immediately went to the German consulate and surrendered his passport, formally renouncing his German citizenship. The Nazis later sold his boat and converted his cottage into a Hitler Youth camp.[131] Refugee status In April 1933, Einstein discovered that the new German government had passed laws barring Jews from holding any official positions, including teaching at universities. Historian Gerald Holton describes how, with "virtually no audible protest being raised by their colleagues", thousands of Jewish scientists were suddenly forced to give up their university positions and their names were removed from the rolls of institutions where they were employed. A month later, Einstein's works were among those targeted by the German Student Union in the Nazi book burnings, with Nazi propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels proclaiming, "Jewish intellectualism is dead." One German magazine included him in a list of enemies of the German regime with the phrase, "not yet hanged", offering a $5,000 bounty on his head.[133] In a subsequent letter to physicist and friend Max Born, who had already emigrated from Germany to England, Einstein wrote, "... I must confess that the degree of their brutality and cowardice came as something of a surprise." After moving to the US, he described the book burnings as a "spontaneous emotional outburst" by those who "shun popular enlightenment", and "more than anything else in the world, fear the influence of men of intellectual independence". Einstein was now without a permanent home, unsure where he would live and work, and equally worried about the fate of countless other scientists still in Germany. Aided by the Academic Assistance Council, founded in April 1933 by British Liberal politician William Beveridge to help academics escape Nazi persecution, Einstein was able to leave Germany.[135] He rented a house in De Haan, Belgium, where he lived for a few months. In late July 1933, he visited England for about six weeks at the invitation of the British Member of Parliament Commander Oliver Locker-Lampson, who had become friends with him in the preceding years.[136] Locker-Lampson invited him to stay near his Cromer home in a secluded wooden cabin on Roughton Heath in the Parish of Roughton, Norfolk. To protect Einstein, Locker-Lampson had two bodyguards watch over him; a photo of them carrying shotguns and guarding Einstein was published in the Daily Herald on 24 July 1933.[138] Locker-Lampson took Einstein to meet Winston Churchill at his home, and later, Austen Chamberlain and former Prime Minister Lloyd George. Einstein asked them to help bring Jewish scientists out of Germany. British historian Martin Gilbert notes that Churchill responded immediately, and sent his friend, physicist Frederick Lindemann, to Germany to seek out Jewish scientists and place them in British universities.[140] Churchill later observed that as a result of Germany having driven the Jews out, they had lowered their "technical standards" and put the Allies' technology ahead of theirs.[140] Einstein later contacted leaders of other nations, including Turkey's Prime Minister, İsmet İnönü, to whom he wrote in September 1933 requesting placement of unemployed German-Jewish scientists. As a result of Einstein's letter, Jewish invitees to Turkey eventually totaled over "1,000 saved individuals".[141] Locker-Lampson also submitted a bill to parliament to extend British citizenship to Einstein, during which period Einstein made a number of public appearances describing the crisis brewing in Europe. In one of his speeches he denounced Germany's treatment of Jews, while at the same time he introduced a bill promoting Jewish citizenship in Palestine, as they were being denied citizenship elsewhere.[143] In his speech he described Einstein as a "citizen of the world" who should be offered a temporary shelter in the UK.[note 3][144] Both bills failed, however, and Einstein then accepted an earlier offer from the Institute for Advanced Study, in Princeton, New Jersey, US, to become a resident scholar. Resident scholar at the Institute for Advanced Study On 3 October 1933, Einstein delivered a speech on the importance of academic freedom before a packed audience at the Royal Albert Hall in London, with The Times reporting he was wildly cheered throughout.[135] Four days later he returned to the US and took up a position at the Institute for Advanced Study, noted for having become a refuge for scientists fleeing Nazi Germany.[146] At the time, most American universities, including Harvard, Princeton and Yale, had minimal or no Jewish faculty or students, as a result of their Jewish quotas, which lasted until the late 1940s.[146] Einstein was still undecided on his future. He had offers from several European universities, including Christ Church, Oxford, where he stayed for three short periods between May 1931 and June 1933 and was offered a five-year research fellowship (called a "studentship" at Christ Church),[147][148] but in 1935, he arrived at the decision to remain permanently in the United States and apply for citizenship. Einstein's affiliation with the Institute for Advanced Study would last until his death in 1955.[150] He was one of the four first selected (along with John von Neumann, Kurt Gödel, and Hermann Weyl[151]) at the new Institute. He soon developed a close friendship with Gödel; the two would take long walks together discussing their work. Bruria Kaufman, his assistant, later became a physicist. During this period, Einstein tried to develop a unified field theory and to refute the accepted interpretation of quantum physics, both unsuccessfully. He lived in Princeton at his home from 1935 onwards. The Albert Einstein House was made a National Historic Landmark in 1976. World War II and the Manhattan Project See also: Einstein–Szilárd letter In 1939, a group of Hungarian scientists that included émigré physicist Leó Szilárd attempted to alert Washington to ongoing Nazi atomic bomb research. The group's warnings were discounted. Einstein and Szilárd, along with other refugees such as Edward Teller and Eugene Wigner, "regarded it as their responsibility to alert Americans to the possibility that German scientists might win the race to build an atomic bomb, and to warn that Hitler would be more than willing to resort to such a weapon."[153] To make certain the US was aware of the danger, in July 1939, a few months before the beginning of World War II in Europe, Szilárd and Wigner visited Einstein to explain the possibility of atomic bombs, which Einstein, a pacifist, said he had never considered.[154] He was asked to lend his support by writing a letter, with Szilárd, to President Roosevelt, recommending the US pay attention and engage in its own nuclear weapons research. The letter is believed to be "arguably the key stimulus for the U.S. adoption of serious investigations into nuclear weapons on the eve of the U.S. entry into World War II".[155] In addition to the letter, Einstein used his connections with the Belgian royal family[156] and the Belgian queen mother to get access with a personal envoy to the White House's Oval Office. Some say that as a result of Einstein's letter and his meetings with Roosevelt, the US entered the "race" to develop the bomb, drawing on its "immense material, financial, and scientific resources" to initiate the Manhattan Project. For Einstein, "war was a disease ... [and] he called for resistance to war." By signing the letter to Roosevelt, some argue he went against his pacifist principles.[157] In 1954, a year before his death, Einstein said to his old friend, Linus Pauling, "I made one great mistake in my life—when I signed the letter to President Roosevelt recommending that atom bombs be made; but there was some justification—the danger that the Germans would make them ..." In 1955, Einstein and ten other intellectuals and scientists, including British philosopher Bertrand Russell, signed a manifesto highlighting the danger of nuclear weapons.[159] In 1960 Einstein was included posthumously as a charter member of the World Academy of Art and Science (WAAS),[160] an organization founded by distinguished scientists and intellectuals who committed themselves to the responsible and ethical advances of science, particularly in light of the development of nuclear weapons. US citizenship Einstein became an American citizen in 1940. Not long after settling into his career at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, he expressed his appreciation of the meritocracy in American culture compared to Europe. He recognized the "right of individuals to say and think what they pleased" without social barriers. As a result, individuals were encouraged, he said, to be more creative, a trait he valued from his early education. Einstein joined the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in Princeton, where he campaigned for the civil rights of African Americans. He considered racism America's "worst disease",[133][162] seeing it as "handed down from one generation to the next". As part of his involvement, he corresponded with civil rights activist W. E. B. Du Bois and was prepared to testify on his behalf during his trial as an alleged foreign agent in 1951. When Einstein offered to be a character witness for Du Bois, the judge decided to drop the case.[165] In 1946, Einstein visited Lincoln University in Pennsylvania, a historically black college, where he was awarded an honorary degree. Lincoln was the first university in the United States to grant college degrees to African Americans; alumni include Langston Hughes and Thurgood Marshall. Einstein gave a speech about racism in America, adding, "I do not intend to be quiet about it."[166] A resident of Princeton recalls that Einstein had once paid the college tuition for a black student.[165] Einstein has said, "Being a Jew myself, perhaps I can understand and empathize with how black people feel as victims of discrimination".[162] Personal views Political views In 1918, Einstein was one of the signatories of the founding proclamation of the German Democratic Party, a liberal party.[167][168] Later in his life, Einstein's political view was in favor of socialism and critical of capitalism, which he detailed in his essays such as "Why Socialism?".[170] His opinions on the Bolsheviks also changed with time. In 1925, he criticized them for not having a "well-regulated system of government" and called their rule a "regime of terror and a tragedy in human history". He later adopted a more moderated view, criticizing their methods but praising them, which is shown by his 1929 remark on Vladimir Lenin: In Lenin I honor a man, who in total sacrifice of his own person has committed his entire energy to realizing social justice. I do not find his methods advisable. One thing is certain, however: men like him are the guardians and renewers of mankind's conscience. Einstein offered and was called on to give judgments and opinions on matters often unrelated to theoretical physics or mathematics. He strongly advocated the idea of a democratic global government that would check the power of nation-states in the framework of a world federation. He wrote "I advocate world government because I am convinced that there is no other possible way of eliminating the most terrible danger in which man has ever found himself."[173] The FBI created a secret dossier on Einstein in 1932; by the time of his death, it was 1,427 pages long.[174] Einstein was deeply impressed by Mahatma Gandhi, with whom he corresponded. He described Gandhi as "a role model for the generations to come".[175] The initial connection was established on 27 September 1931, when Wilfrid Israel took his Indian guest V. A. Sundaram to meet his friend Einstein at his summer home in the town of Caputh. Sundaram was Gandhi's disciple and special envoy, whom Wilfrid Israel met while visiting India and visiting the Indian leader's home in 1925. During the visit, Einstein wrote a short letter to Gandhi that was delivered to him through his envoy, and Gandhi responded quickly with his own letter. Although in the end Einstein and Gandhi were unable to meet as they had hoped, the direct connection between them was established through Wilfrid Israel.[176] Relationship with Zionism Einstein was a figurehead leader in the establishment of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem,[177] which opened in 1925.[178] Earlier, in 1921, he was asked by the biochemist and president of the World Zionist Organization, Chaim Weizmann, to help raise funds for the planned university. He made suggestions for the creation of an Institute of Agriculture, a Chemical Institute and an Institute of Microbiology in order to fight the various ongoing epidemics such as malaria, which he called an "evil" that was undermining a third of the country's development. He also promoted the establishment of an Oriental Studies Institute, to include language courses given in both Hebrew and Arabic. Einstein was not a nationalist and opposed the creation of an independent Jewish state. He felt that the waves of arriving Jews of the Aliyah could live alongside existing Arabs in Palestine. The state of Israel was established without his help in 1948; Einstein was limited to a marginal role in the Zionist movement.[183] Upon the death of Israeli president Weizmann in November 1952, Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion offered Einstein the largely ceremonial position of President of Israel at the urging of Ezriel Carlebach.[184][185] The offer was presented by Israel's ambassador in Washington, Abba Eban, who explained that the offer "embodies the deepest respect which the Jewish people can repose in any of its sons". Einstein wrote that he was "deeply moved", but "at once saddened and ashamed" that he could not accept it. Religious and philosophical views Einstein expounded his spiritual outlook in a wide array of writings and interviews.[187] He said he had sympathy for the impersonal pantheistic God of Baruch Spinoza's philosophy. He did not believe in a personal god who concerns himself with fates and actions of human beings, a view which he described as naïve. He clarified, however, that "I am not an atheist", preferring to call himself an agnostic,[192] or a "deeply religious nonbeliever". When asked if he believed in an afterlife, Einstein replied, "No. And one life is enough for me." Einstein was primarily affiliated with non-religious humanist and Ethical Culture groups in both the UK and US. He served on the advisory board of the First Humanist Society of New York,[194] and was an honorary associate of the Rationalist Association, which publishes New Humanist in Britain. For the 75th anniversary of the New York Society for Ethical Culture, he stated that the idea of Ethical Culture embodied his personal conception of what is most valuable and enduring in religious idealism. He observed, "Without 'ethical culture' there is no salvation for humanity." In a German-language letter to philosopher Eric Gutkind, dated 3 January 1954, Einstein wrote: The word God is for me nothing more than the expression and product of human weaknesses, the Bible a collection of honorable, but still primitive legends which are nevertheless pretty childish. No interpretation no matter how subtle can (for me) change this. ... For me the Jewish religion like all other religions is an incarnation of the most childish superstitions. And the Jewish people to whom I gladly belong and with whose mentality I have a deep affinity have no different quality for me than all other people. ... I cannot see anything 'chosen' about them.[196] Einstein had been sympathetic toward vegetarianism for a long time. In a letter in 1930 to Hermann Huth, vice-president of the German Vegetarian Federation (Deutsche Vegetarier-Bund), he wrote: Although I have been prevented by outward circumstances from observing a strictly vegetarian diet, I have long been an adherent to the cause in principle. Besides agreeing with the aims of vegetarianism for aesthetic and moral reasons, it is my view that a vegetarian manner of living by its purely physical effect on the human temperament would most beneficially influence the lot of mankind.[197] He became a vegetarian himself only during the last part of his life. In March 1954 he wrote in a letter: "So I am living without fats, without meat, without fish, but am feeling quite well this way. It almost seems to me that man was not born to be a carnivore."[198] Love of music Einstein developed an appreciation for music at an early age. In his late journals he wrote: If I were not a physicist, I would probably be a musician. I often think in music. I live my daydreams in music. I see my life in terms of music ... I get most joy in life out of music.[199][200] His mother played the piano reasonably well and wanted her son to learn the violin, not only to instill in him a love of music but also to help him assimilate into German culture. According to conductor Leon Botstein, Einstein began playing when he was 5. However, he did not enjoy it at that age.[201] When he turned 13, he discovered the violin sonatas of Mozart, whereupon he became enamored of Mozart's compositions and studied music more willingly. Einstein taught himself to play without "ever practicing systematically". He said that "love is a better teacher than a sense of duty".[201] At the age of 17, he was heard by a school examiner in Aarau while playing Beethoven's violin sonatas. The examiner stated afterward that his playing was "remarkable and revealing of 'great insight'". What struck the examiner, writes Botstein, was that Einstein "displayed a deep love of the music, a quality that was and remains in short supply. Music possessed an unusual meaning for this student."[201] Music took on a pivotal and permanent role in Einstein's life from that period on. Although the idea of becoming a professional musician himself was not on his mind at any time, among those with whom Einstein played chamber music were a few professionals, including Kurt Appelbaum, and he performed for private audiences and friends. Chamber music had also become a regular part of his social life while living in Bern, Zürich, and Berlin, where he played with Max Planck and his son, among others. He is sometimes erroneously credited as the editor of the 1937 edition of the Köchel catalog of Mozart's work; that edition was prepared by Alfred Einstein, who may have been a distant relation.[202][203] In 1931, while engaged in research at the California Institute of Technology, he visited the Zoellner family conservatory in Los Angeles, where he played some of Beethoven and Mozart's works with members of the Zoellner Quartet.[204][205] Near the end of his life, when the young Juilliard Quartet visited him in Princeton, he played his violin with them, and the quartet was "impressed by Einstein's level of coordination and intonation".[201] Death On 17 April 1955, Einstein experienced internal bleeding caused by the rupture of an abdominal aortic aneurysm, which had previously been reinforced surgically by Rudolph Nissen in 1948.[206] He took the draft of a speech he was preparing for a television appearance commemorating the state of Israel's seventh anniversary with him to the hospital, but he did not live to complete it.[207] Einstein refused surgery, saying, "I want to go when I want. It is tasteless to prolong life artificially. I have done my share; it is time to go. I will do it elegantly."[208] He died in the Princeton Hospital early the next morning at the age of 76, having continued to work until near the end.[209] During the autopsy, the pathologist Thomas Stoltz Harvey removed Einstein's brain for preservation without the permission of his family, in the hope that the neuroscience of the future would be able to discover what made Einstein so intelligent.[210] Einstein's remains were cremated in Trenton, New Jersey,[211] and his ashes were scattered at an undisclosed location.[212][213] In a memorial lecture delivered on 13 December 1965 at UNESCO headquarters, nuclear physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer summarized his impression of Einstein as a person: "He was almost wholly without sophistication and wholly without worldliness ... There was always with him a wonderful purity at once childlike and profoundly stubborn."[214] Einstein bequeathed his personal archives, library, and intellectual assets to the Hebrew University of Jerusalem in Israel.[215] Scientific career Throughout his life, Einstein published hundreds of books and articles.[19][216] He published more than 300 scientific papers and 150 non-scientific ones.[15][216] On 5 December 2014, universities and archives announced the release of Einstein's papers, comprising more than 30,000 unique documents.[218] Einstein's intellectual achievements and originality have made the word "Einstein" synonymous with "genius".[8] In addition to the work he did by himself he also collaborated with other scientists on additional projects including the Bose–Einstein statistics, the Einstein refrigerator and others.[219][220] 1905 – Annus Mirabilis papers The Annus Mirabilis papers are four articles pertaining to the photoelectric effect (which gave rise to quantum theory), Brownian motion, the special theory of relativity, and E = mc2 that Einstein published in the Annalen der Physik scientific journal in 1905. These four works contributed substantially to the foundation of modern physics and changed views on space, time, and matter. The four papers are: Title (translated) Area of focus Received Published Significance "On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light" Photoelectric effect 18 March 9 June Resolved an unsolved puzzle by suggesting that energy is exchanged only in discrete amounts (quanta).[222] This idea was pivotal to the early development of quantum theory.[223] "On the Motion of Small Particles Suspended in a Stationary Liquid, as Required by the Molecular Kinetic Theory of Heat" Brownian motion 11 May 18 July Explained empirical evidence for the atomic theory, supporting the application of statistical physics. "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies" Special relativity 30 June 26 September Reconciled Maxwell's equations for electricity and magnetism with the laws of mechanics by introducing changes to mechanics, resulting from analysis based on empirical evidence that the speed of light is independent of the motion of the observer.[226] Discredited the concept of a "luminiferous ether".[227] "Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content?" Matter–energy equivalence 27 September 21 November Equivalence of matter and energy, E = mc2, the existence of "rest energy", and the basis of nuclear energy. Statistical mechanics Thermodynamic fluctuations and statistical physics Einstein's first paper[229] submitted in 1900 to Annalen der Physik was on capillary attraction. It was published in 1901 with the title "Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen", which translates as "Conclusions from the capillarity phenomena". Two papers he published in 1902–1903 (thermodynamics) attempted to interpret atomic phenomena from a statistical point of view. These papers were the foundation for the 1905 paper on Brownian motion, which showed that Brownian movement can be construed as firm evidence that molecules exist. His research in 1903 and 1904 was mainly concerned with the effect of finite atomic size on diffusion phenomena.[229] Theory of critical opalescence Main article: Critical opalescence Einstein returned to the problem of thermodynamic fluctuations, giving a treatment of the density variations in a fluid at its critical point. Ordinarily the density fluctuations are controlled by the second derivative of the free energy with respect to the density. At the critical point, this derivative is zero, leading to large fluctuations. The effect of density fluctuations is that light of all wavelengths is scattered, making the fluid look milky white. Einstein relates this to Rayleigh scattering, which is what happens when the fluctuation size is much smaller than the wavelength, and which explains why the sky is blue.[230] Einstein quantitatively derived critical opalescence from a treatment of density fluctuations, and demonstrated how both the effect and Rayleigh scattering originate from the atomistic constitution of matter. Special relativity Main article: History of special relativity Einstein's "Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper" ("On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies") was received on 30 June 1905 and published 26 September of that same year. It reconciled conflicts between Maxwell's equations (the laws of electricity and magnetism) and the laws of Newtonian mechanics by introducing changes to the laws of mechanics. Observationally, the effects of these changes are most apparent at high speeds (where objects are moving at speeds close to the speed of light). The theory developed in this paper later became known as Einstein's special theory of relativity. This paper predicted that, when measured in the frame of a relatively moving observer, a clock carried by a moving body would appear to slow down, and the body itself would contract in its direction of motion. This paper also argued that the idea of a luminiferous aether—one of the leading theoretical entities in physics at the time—was superfluous.[note 4] In his paper on mass–energy equivalence, Einstein produced E = mc2 as a consequence of his special relativity equations. Einstein's 1905 work on relativity remained controversial for many years, but was accepted by leading physicists, starting with Max Planck.[note 5] Einstein originally framed special relativity in terms of kinematics (the study of moving bodies). In 1908, Hermann Minkowski reinterpreted special relativity in geometric terms as a theory of spacetime. Einstein adopted Minkowski's formalism in his 1915 general theory of relativity. General relativity General relativity and the equivalence principle Main article: History of general relativity See also: Theory of relativity and Einstein field equations General relativity (GR) is a theory of gravitation that was developed by Einstein between 1907 and 1915. According to it, the observed gravitational attraction between masses results from the warping of spacetime by those masses. General relativity has developed into an essential tool in modern astrophysics; it provides the foundation for the current understanding of black holes, regions of space where gravitational attraction is so strong that not even light can escape.[235] As Einstein later said, the reason for the development of general relativity was that the preference of inertial motions within special relativity was unsatisfactory, while a theory which from the outset prefers no state of motion (even accelerated ones) should appear more satisfactory. Consequently, in 1907 he published an article on acceleration under special relativity. In that article titled "On the Relativity Principle and the Conclusions Drawn from It", he argued that free fall is really inertial motion, and that for a free-falling observer the rules of special relativity must apply. This argument is called the equivalence principle. In the same article, Einstein also predicted the phenomena of gravitational time dilation, gravitational redshift and gravitational lensing. In 1911, Einstein published another article "On the Influence of Gravitation on the Propagation of Light" expanding on the 1907 article, in which he estimated the amount of deflection of light by massive bodies. Thus, the theoretical prediction of general relativity could for the first time be tested experimentally. Gravitational waves In 1916, Einstein predicted gravitational waves, ripples in the curvature of spacetime which propagate as waves, traveling outward from the source, transporting energy as gravitational radiation. The existence of gravitational waves is possible under general relativity due to its Lorentz invariance which brings the concept of a finite speed of propagation of the physical interactions of gravity with it. By contrast, gravitational waves cannot exist in the Newtonian theory of gravitation, which postulates that the physical interactions of gravity propagate at infinite speed. The first, indirect, detection of gravitational waves came in the 1970s through observation of a pair of closely orbiting neutron stars, PSR B1913+16.[242] The explanation for the decay in their orbital period was that they were emitting gravitational waves.[242][243] Einstein's prediction was confirmed on 11 February 2016, when researchers at LIGO published the first observation of gravitational waves,[244] detected on Earth on 14 September 2015, nearly one hundred years after the prediction.[242][245][246][247][248] Hole argument and Entwurf theory While developing general relativity, Einstein became confused about the gauge invariance in the theory. He formulated an argument that led him to conclude that a general relativistic field theory is impossible. He gave up looking for fully generally covariant tensor equations and searched for equations that would be invariant under general linear transformations only.[249] In June 1913, the Entwurf ('draft') theory was the result of these investigations. As its name suggests, it was a sketch of a theory, less elegant and more difficult than general relativity, with the equations of motion supplemented by additional gauge fixing conditions. After more than two years of intensive work, Einstein realized that the hole argument was mistaken[250] and abandoned the theory in November 1915. Physical cosmology Main article: Physical cosmology In 1917, Einstein applied the general theory of relativity to the structure of the universe as a whole. He discovered that the general field equations predicted a universe that was dynamic, either contracting or expanding. As observational evidence for a dynamic universe was lacking at the time, Einstein introduced a new term, the cosmological constant, into the field equations, in order to allow the theory to predict a static universe. The modified field equations predicted a static universe of closed curvature, in accordance with Einstein's understanding of Mach's principle in these years. This model became known as the Einstein World or Einstein's static universe.[253] Following the discovery of the recession of the galaxies by Edwin Hubble in 1929, Einstein abandoned his static model of the universe, and proposed two dynamic models of the cosmos, the Friedmann–Einstein universe of 1931[255] and the Einstein–de Sitter universe of 1932.[257] In each of these models, Einstein discarded the cosmological constant, claiming that it was "in any case theoretically unsatisfactory".[255][258] In many Einstein biographies, it is claimed that Einstein referred to the cosmological constant in later years as his "biggest blunder", based on a letter George Gamow claimed to have received from him. The astrophysicist Mario Livio has cast doubt on this claim.[259] In late 2013, a team led by the Irish physicist Cormac O'Raifeartaigh discovered evidence that, shortly after learning of Hubble's observations of the recession of the galaxies, Einstein considered a steady-state model of the universe.[260][261] In a hitherto overlooked manuscript, apparently written in early 1931, Einstein explored a model of the expanding universe in which the density of matter remains constant due to a continuous creation of matter, a process that he associated with the cosmological constant.[262][263] As he stated in the paper, "In what follows, I would like to draw attention to a solution to equation (1) that can account for Hubbel's [sic] facts, and in which the density is constant over time" ... "If one considers a physically bounded volume, particles of matter will be continually leaving it. For the density to remain constant, new particles of matter must be continually formed in the volume from space." It thus appears that Einstein considered a steady-state model of the expanding universe many years before Hoyle, Bondi and Gold.[264][265] However, Einstein's steady-state model contained a fundamental flaw and he quickly abandoned the idea.[262][263][266] Energy momentum pseudotensor Main article: Stress–energy–momentum pseudotensor General relativity includes a dynamical spacetime, so it is difficult to see how to identify the conserved energy and momentum. Noether's theorem allows these quantities to be determined from a Lagrangian with translation invariance, but general covariance makes translation invariance into something of a gauge symmetry. The energy and momentum derived within general relativity by Noether's prescriptions do not make a real tensor for this reason.[267] Einstein argued that this is true for a fundamental reason: the gravitational field could be made to vanish by a choice of coordinates. He maintained that the non-covariant energy momentum pseudotensor was, in fact, the best description of the energy momentum distribution in a gravitational field. While the use of non-covariant objects like pseudotensors was criticized by Erwin Schrödinger and others, Einstein's approach has been echoed by physicists including Lev Landau and Evgeny Lifshitz.[268] Wormholes In 1935, Einstein collaborated with Nathan Rosen to produce a model of a wormhole, often called Einstein–Rosen bridges.[270] His motivation was to model elementary particles with charge as a solution of gravitational field equations, in line with the program outlined in the paper "Do Gravitational Fields play an Important Role in the Constitution of the Elementary Particles?". These solutions cut and pasted Schwarzschild black holes to make a bridge between two patches. Because these solutions included spacetime curvature without the presence of a physical body, Einstein and Rosen suggested that they could provide the beginnings of a theory that avoided the notion of point particles. However, it was later found that Einstein–Rosen bridges are not stable.[271] Einstein–Cartan theory Main article: Einstein–Cartan theory In order to incorporate spinning point particles into general relativity, the affine connection needed to be generalized to include an antisymmetric part, called the torsion. This modification was made by Einstein and Cartan in the 1920s. Equations of motion Main article: Einstein–Infeld–Hoffmann equations In general relativity, gravitational force is reimagined as curvature of spacetime. A curved path like an orbit is not the result of a force deflecting a body from an ideal straight-line path, but rather the body's attempt to fall freely through a background that is itself curved by the presence of other masses. A remark by John Archibald Wheeler that has become proverbial among physicists summarizes the theory: "Spacetime tells matter how to move; matter tells spacetime how to curve."[272][273] The Einstein field equations cover the latter aspect of the theory, relating the curvature of spacetime to the distribution of matter and energy. The geodesic equation covers the former aspect, stating that freely falling bodies follow lines that are as straight as possible in a curved spacetime. Einstein regarded this as an "independent fundamental assumption" that had to be postulated in addition to the field equations in order to complete the theory. Believing this to be a shortcoming in how general relativity was originally presented, he wished to derive it from the field equations themselves. Since the equations of general relativity are non-linear, a lump of energy made out of pure gravitational fields, like a black hole, would move on a trajectory which is determined by the Einstein field equations themselves, not by a new law. Accordingly, Einstein proposed that the field equations would determine the path of a singular solution, like a black hole, to be a geodesic. Both physicists and philosophers have often repeated the assertion that the geodesic equation can be obtained from applying the field equations to the motion of a gravitational singularity, but this claim remains disputed.[274][275] Old quantum theory Main article: Old quantum theory Photons and energy quanta In a 1905 paper, Einstein postulated that light itself consists of localized particles (quanta). Einstein's light quanta were nearly universally rejected by all physicists, including Max Planck and Niels Bohr. This idea only became universally accepted in 1919, with Robert Millikan's detailed experiments on the photoelectric effect, and with the measurement of Compton scattering. Einstein concluded that each wave of frequency f is associated with a collection of photons with energy hf each, where h is the Planck constant. He did not say much more, because he was not sure how the particles were related to the wave. But he did suggest that this idea would explain certain experimental results, notably the photoelectric effect. Quantized atomic vibrations Main article: Einstein solid In 1907, Einstein proposed a model of matter where each atom in a lattice structure is an independent harmonic oscillator. In the Einstein model, each atom oscillates independently—a series of equally spaced quantized states for each oscillator. Einstein was aware that getting the frequency of the actual oscillations would be difficult, but he nevertheless proposed this theory because it was a particularly clear demonstration that quantum mechanics could solve the specific heat problem in classical mechanics. Peter Debye refined this model.[276] Bose–Einstein statistics Main article: Bose–Einstein statistics In 1924, Einstein received a description of a statistical model from Indian physicist Satyendra Nath Bose, based on a counting method that assumed that light could be understood as a gas of indistinguishable particles. Einstein noted that Bose's statistics applied to some atoms as well as to the proposed light particles, and submitted his translation of Bose's paper to the Zeitschrift für Physik. Einstein also published his own articles describing the model and its implications, among them the Bose–Einstein condensate phenomenon that some particulates should appear at very low temperatures. It was not until 1995 that the first such condensate was produced experimentally by Eric Allin Cornell and Carl Wieman using ultra-cooling equipment built at the NIST–JILA laboratory at the University of Colorado at Boulder.[278] Bose–Einstein statistics are now used to describe the behaviors of any assembly of bosons. Einstein's sketches for this project may be seen in the Einstein Archive in the library of the Leiden University.[219] Wave–particle duality Although the patent office promoted Einstein to Technical Examiner Second Class in 1906, he had not given up on academia. In 1908, he became a Privatdozent at the University of Bern. In "Über die Entwicklung unserer Anschauungen über das Wesen und die Konstitution der Strahlung" ("The Development of our Views on the Composition and Essence of Radiation"), on the quantization of light, and in an earlier 1909 paper, Einstein showed that Max Planck's energy quanta must have well-defined momenta and act in some respects as independent, point-like particles. This paper introduced the photon concept (although the name photon was introduced later by Gilbert N. Lewis in 1926) and inspired the notion of wave–particle duality in quantum mechanics. Einstein saw this wave–particle duality in radiation as concrete evidence for his conviction that physics needed a new, unified foundation. Zero-point energy In a series of works completed from 1911 to 1913, Planck reformulated his 1900 quantum theory and introduced the idea of zero-point energy in his "second quantum theory". Soon, this idea attracted the attention of Einstein and his assistant Otto Stern. Assuming the energy of rotating diatomic molecules contains zero-point energy, they then compared the theoretical specific heat of hydrogen gas with the experimental data. The numbers matched nicely. However, after publishing the findings, they promptly withdrew their support, because they no longer had confidence in the correctness of the idea of zero-point energy. Stimulated emission In 1917, at the height of his work on relativity, Einstein published an article in Physikalische Zeitschrift that proposed the possibility of stimulated emission, the physical process that makes possible the maser and the laser. This article showed that the statistics of absorption and emission of light would only be consistent with Planck's distribution law if the emission of light into a mode with n photons would be enhanced statistically compared to the emission of light into an empty mode. This paper was enormously influential in the later development of quantum mechanics, because it was the first paper to show that the statistics of atomic transitions had simple laws.[282] Matter waves Einstein discovered Louis de Broglie's work and supported his ideas, which were received skeptically at first. In another major paper from this era, Einstein observed that de Broglie waves could explain the quantization rules of Bohr and Sommerfeld. This paper would inspire Schrödinger's work of 1926.[283][284] Quantum mechanics Einstein's objections to quantum mechanics Einstein played a major role in developing quantum theory, beginning with his 1905 paper on the photoelectric effect. However, he became displeased with modern quantum mechanics as it had evolved after 1925, despite its acceptance by other physicists. He was skeptical that the randomness of quantum mechanics was fundamental rather than the result of determinism, stating that God "is not playing at dice".[285] Until the end of his life, he continued to maintain that quantum mechanics was incomplete.[286] Bohr versus Einstein Main article: Bohr–Einstein debates The Bohr–Einstein debates were a series of public disputes about quantum mechanics between Einstein and Niels Bohr, who were two of its founders. Their debates are remembered because of their importance to the philosophy of science.[287][289] Their debates would influence later interpretations of quantum mechanics. Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox Main article: EPR paradox Einstein never fully accepted quantum mechanics. While he recognized that it made correct predictions, he believed a more fundamental description of nature must be possible. Over the years he presented multiple arguments to this effect, but the one he preferred most dated to a debate with Bohr in 1930. Einstein suggested a thought experiment in which two objects are allowed to interact and then moved apart a great distance from each other. The quantum-mechanical description of the two objects is a mathematical entity known as a wavefunction. If the wavefunction that describes the two objects before their interaction is given, then the Schrödinger equation provides the wavefunction that describes them after their interaction. But because of what would later be called quantum entanglement, measuring one object would lead to an instantaneous change of the wavefunction describing the other object, no matter how far away it is. Moreover, the choice of which measurement to perform upon the first object would affect what wavefunction could result for the second object. Einstein reasoned that no influence could propagate from the first object to the second instantaneously fast. Indeed, he argued, physics depends on being able to tell one thing apart from another, and such instantaneous influences would call that into question. Because the true "physical condition" of the second object could not be immediately altered by an action done to the first, Einstein concluded, the wavefunction could not be that true physical condition, only an incomplete description of it. A more famous version of this argument came in 1935, when Einstein published a paper with Boris Podolsky and Nathan Rosen that laid out what would become known as the EPR paradox. In this thought experiment, two particles interact in such a way that the wavefunction describing them is entangled. Then, no matter how far the two particles were separated, a precise position measurement on one particle would imply the ability to predict, perfectly, the result of measuring the position of the other particle. Likewise, a precise momentum measurement of one particle would result in an equally precise prediction for of the momentum of the other particle, without needing to disturb the other particle in any way. They argued that no action taken on the first particle could instantaneously affect the other, since this would involve information being transmitted faster than light, which is forbidden by the theory of relativity. They invoked a principle, later known as the "EPR criterion of reality", positing that: "If, without in any way disturbing a system, we can predict with certainty (i.e., with probability equal to unity) the value of a physical quantity, then there exists an element of reality corresponding to that quantity." From this, they inferred that the second particle must have a definite value of both position and of momentum prior to either quantity being measured. But quantum mechanics considers these two observables incompatible and thus does not associate simultaneous values for both to any system. Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen therefore concluded that quantum theory does not provide a complete description of reality. In 1964, John Stewart Bell carried the analysis of quantum entanglement much further. He deduced that if measurements are performed independently on the two separated particles of an entangled pair, then the assumption that the outcomes depend upon hidden variables within each half implies a mathematical constraint on how the outcomes on the two measurements are correlated. This constraint would later be called a Bell inequality. Bell then showed that quantum physics predicts correlations that violate this inequality. Consequently, the only way that hidden variables could explain the predictions of quantum physics is if they are "nonlocal", which is to say that somehow the two particles are able to interact instantaneously no matter how widely they ever become separated. Bell argued that because an explanation of quantum phenomena in terms of hidden variables would require nonlocality, the EPR paradox "is resolved in the way which Einstein would have liked least". Despite this, and although Einstein personally found the argument in the EPR paper overly complicated, that paper became among the most influential papers published in Physical Review. It is considered a centerpiece of the development of quantum information theory. Unified field theory Main article: Classical unified field theories Encouraged by his success with general relativity, Einstein sought an even more ambitious geometrical theory that would treat gravitation and electromagnetism as aspects of a single entity. In 1950, he described his unified field theory in a Scientific American article titled "On the Generalized Theory of Gravitation". His attempt to find the most fundamental laws of nature won him praise but not success: a particularly conspicuous blemish of his model was that it did not accommodate the strong and weak nuclear forces, neither of which was well understood until many years after his death. Although most researchers now believe that Einstein's approach to unifying physics was mistaken, his goal of a theory of everything is one to which his successors still aspire.[299] Other investigations Main article: Einstein's unsuccessful investigations Einstein conducted other investigations that were unsuccessful and abandoned. These pertain to force, superconductivity, and other research. Collaboration with other scientists In addition to longtime collaborators Leopold Infeld, Nathan Rosen, Peter Bergmann and others, Einstein also had some one-shot collaborations with various scientists. Einstein–de Haas experiment Main article: Einstein–de Haas effect In 1908, Owen Willans Richardson predicted that a change in the magnetic moment of a free body will cause this body to rotate. This effect is a consequence of the conservation of angular momentum and is strong enough to be observable in ferromagnetic materials.[300] Einstein and Wander Johannes de Haas published two papers in 1915 claiming the first experimental observation of the effect.[301][302] Measurements of this kind demonstrate that the phenomenon of magnetization is caused by the alignment (polarization) of the angular momenta of the electrons in the material along the axis of magnetization. These measurements also allow the separation of the two contributions to the magnetization: that which is associated with the spin and with the orbital motion of the electrons. The Einstein-de Haas experiment is the only experiment concived, realized and published by Albert Einstein himself. A complete original version of the Einstein-de Haas experimental equipment was donated by Geertruida de Haas-Lorentz, wife of de Haas and daughter of Lorentz, to the Ampère Museum in Lyon France in 1961 where it is currently on display. It was lost among the museum's holdings and was rediscovered in 2023.[303][304] Einstein as an inventor In 1926, Einstein and his former student Leó Szilárd co-invented (and in 1930, patented) the Einstein refrigerator. This absorption refrigerator was then revolutionary for having no moving parts and using only heat as an input.[305] On 11 November 1930, U.S. patent 1,781,541 was awarded to Einstein and Leó Szilárd for the refrigerator. Their invention was not immediately put into commercial production, but the most promising of their patents were acquired by the Swedish company Electrolux.[note 6] Einstein also invented an electromagnetic pump,[307] sound reproduction device,[308] and several other household devices.[309] Non-scientific legacy While traveling, Einstein wrote daily to his wife Elsa and adopted stepdaughters Margot and Ilse. The letters were included in the papers bequeathed to the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Margot Einstein permitted the personal letters to be made available to the public, but requested that it not be done until twenty years after her death (she died in 1986[310]). Barbara Wolff, of the Hebrew University's Albert Einstein Archives, told the BBC that there are about 3,500 pages of private correspondence written between 1912 and 1955.[311] Einstein's right of publicity was litigated in 2015 in a federal district court in California. Although the court initially held that the right had expired,[312] that ruling was immediately appealed, and the decision was later vacated in its entirety. The underlying claims between the parties in that lawsuit were ultimately settled. The right is enforceable, and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem is the exclusive representative of that right.[313] Corbis, successor to The Roger Richman Agency, licenses the use of his name and associated imagery, as agent for the university.[314] Mount Einstein in the Chugach Mountains of Alaska was named in 1955. Mount Einstein in New Zealand's Paparoa Range was named after him in 1970 by the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research.[315] In popular culture Einstein became one of the most famous scientific celebrities after the confirmation of his general theory of relativity in 1919.[316][317][318] Although most of the public had little understanding of his work, he was widely recognized and admired. In the period before World War II, The New Yorker published a vignette in their "The Talk of the Town" feature saying that Einstein was so well known in America that he would be stopped on the street by people wanting him to explain "that theory". Eventually he came to cope with unwanted enquirers by pretending to be someone else: "Pardon me, sorry! Always I am mistaken for Professor Einstein."[319] Einstein has been the subject of or inspiration for many novels, films, plays, and works of music.[320] He is a favorite model for depictions of absent-minded professors; his expressive face and distinctive hairstyle have been widely copied and exaggerated. Time magazine's Frederic Golden wrote that Einstein was "a cartoonist's dream come true".[321] Many popular quotations are often misattributed to him.[322][323] Awards and honors Einstein received numerous awards and honors, and in 1922, he was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect". None of the nominations in 1921 met the criteria set by Alfred Nobel, so the 1921 prize was carried forward and awarded to Einstein in 1922.[7] Einsteinium, a synthetic chemical element, was named in his honor in 1955, a few months after his death.[324] Publications Scientific Others See also Notes References Works cited Further reading
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Click here to learn about Albert Einstein’s contributions in the field of science	en	/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/favicon-32x32.png	BYJUS	https://byjus.com/physics/albert-einstein/	Albert Einstein was one of the key thinkers who did exploration and examination of theories of relativity. In this article, let us know more about Albert Einstein’s inventions. He was the person who gave new dimensions to see energy, time, space and matter. Table of Contents: Who is Albert Einstein What is Avogadro’s Number What is Brownian Movement What is Quantum Theory of Light Special Relativity What is Photoelectric Effect Wave-Particle Duality General Theory of Relativity Bose-Einstein Condensate Frequently Asked Questions – FAQs Know About Einstein Albert Einstein was born on 14 March in the year 1879 in Württemberg, Germany. He was educated at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich. Einstein was a theoretical physicist who discovered and invented major theories of Physics. Albert Einstein received honorary doctorate degrees in science and philosophy. He got the Fellowships of all the leading scientific academies in the world. His works were recognized across the world and in 1921, Einstein won the prestigious Nobel Prize for Physics for his significant work on the photoelectric effect. Let us dig into Albert Einstein’s inventions. Some inventions and contributions of Einstein are Avogadro’s Number, Quantum Theory of Light, General Theory of Relativity, Special Theory of Relativity, The Photoelectric Effect, Wave-Particle Duality, Brownian movement, the relationship between mass and energy, Bose-Einstein Condensate, and many more. Avogadro’s Number Avogadro’s number is a concept in chemistry that defines that the number of units in one mole of a substance is equal to 6.022140857×1023 The Avogadro constant is named after the Italian scientist Amedeo Avogadro. It is the proportionality factor defined by Albert Einstein to relate the number of constituent particles like molecules, ions, and atoms in a sample with the amount of substance in that sample. The numeric value of the Avogadro constant is expressed as the reciprocal of mole. When Einstein was working on Brownian motion to explain the erratic movement of particles in a fluid, he came up with an expression for the quantity of Avogadro’s number in terms of measurable quantities. This leads to a path to determine the mass of an atom, or the molar mass for each element on the periodic table. Albert Einstein presented a new way of calculating Avogadro’s number and the size of molecules. Brownian Movement The Brownian movement is one of the significant contributions of Albert Einstein. While studying the molecular theory of liquids, he tried to explain the motion of particles through Brownian motion. This theory explains the random movement of particles in a fluid or gas. Einstein explained the zigzag movement of particles in suspension, and this study aimed to prove the existence of molecules and atoms in particles. Quantum Theory of Light Einstein was the key person behind the quantum theory of light. He proposed and explained that light consists of packets of energy known as photons in 1905. He gave the physical interpretation to Planck’s mathematics when he proposed that electromagnetic radiation itself is granular, consisting of quanta with an energy hf. He also explained the emission of electrons from metals when hit with large electric pulses, like lightning. Special Theory of Relativity The Special Theory of Relativity is also known as special relativity. It is a theory regarding the relationship between time and space. This theory is based on two postulates. The laws of physics are the same for all, irrespective of the velocity of the observer. The speed of light is always constant, regardless of the motion of the light source or the motion of the observer. This theory is one of the reasons to explain the origin of the most famous equation E=mc2 When we hear the mass and energy relationship equation E=mc2, we remember the great scientist Einstein instantaneously. Photoelectric Effect In 1905, Albert Einstein proposed this theory, which is the base of modern Physics. It is the phenomenon that occurs when the material absorbs electromagnetic radiations and electrically charged particles are released from or within it. In this process, electrons are emitted from the metal plate when light falls on it. The emitted electrons are known as photoelectrons. The below video is an explanation of the basics of the photoelectric effect: Wave-Particle Duality Einstein explained that light consists of photons, which are considered packets of energy. This concept was explained and demonstrated in the quantum theory of light. Einstein stressed that light should be treated as both a wave and a particle. He explained that photons in light can behave both as particles and waves at the same time. This concept is known as wave-particle duality. Through a two-slit apparatus experiment, he proved the dual nature of light. General Theory of Relativity The general theory of relativity generalizes the concepts of Special Relativity, Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation, describing gravity as a property of space and time. It is the geometric theory of gravitation, published in the year 1915. The General Theory of Relativity is also known as General relativity. The general theory of relativity gives the current description of gravitation in modern physics. Bose-Einstein Condensate The great Indian physicist and mathematician Satyendra Nath Bose with Albert Einstein developed the concept, which helped to understand light as a gas. The Bose-Einstein concept proposed and demonstrated that when atoms are cooled very close to absolute zero, they hardly move in relation to one another. These atoms form clusters or clumps and enter into the same energy states. Hence, they concluded that the group of atoms behaves and display the characteristics of a single atom. Einstein is not only celebrated for his inventions, but for his outstanding contributions of theories, on which modern science stands today. Hope you learnt about some of Albert Einstein inventions. Stay tuned with BYJU’S for more such interesting articles. Also, register to “BYJU’S – The Learning App” for loads of interactive, engaging Physics-related videos and unlimited academic assist. Related links
correct_award_00024	FactBench	3	82	https://www.123helpme.com/essay/How-Did-Albert-Einstein-Win-The-Nobel-PJR49BV4GG	en	How Did Albert Einstein Win The Nobel Prize Essay			[ "https://assets.123helpme.com/1.17/images/others/search.png", "https://assets.123helpme.com/1.17/images/exitIntentModal/polygon.png", "https://assets.123helpme.com/1.17/images/exitIntentModal/bulb.png", "https://assets.123helpme.com/1.17/images/exitIntentModal/close.png", "https://assets.123helpme.com/1.17/images/exitIntentModal/shield.png", "https://assets.123helpme.com/1.17/images/others/search.png", "https://assets.123helpme.com/1.17/images/exitIntentModal/search.png", "https://assets.123helpme.com/1.17/images/exitIntentModal/bulb.png", "https://assets.123helpme.com/1.17/images/icons/social/facebook.svg", "https://assets.123helpme.com/1.17/images/icons/social/twitter.svg", "https://assets.123helpme.com/1.17/images/icons/social/instagram.svg", "https://assets.123helpme.com/1.17/images/logos/123-helpme/logo-123-helpme-mobile.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	Albert Einstein and the Nobel Prize Introduction A genius is not somebody who learns quickly or has a high IQ. Geniuses invent new ways of thinking and often...				https://www.123helpme.com/essay/How-Did-Albert-Einstein-Win-The-Nobel-PJR49BV4GG	Albert Einstein and the Nobel Prize Introduction A genius is not somebody who learns quickly or has a high IQ. Geniuses invent new ways of thinking and often improve discoveries. Albert Einstein was a famous scientist and has made a large impact on modern science (Mohun, 2004). Einstein started off as an unknown scientist in a patent office in Bern, but soon became one of the world’s leading scientists after writing several revolutionary scientific papers in 1905, the year which was later known as Annus Mirabilis (Na, 1996). The Nobel Prize has made the award-winning scientists known to the public. In 1921, Einstein received the Physics Nobel Prize for his discovery of the Law of the Photoelectric Effect. This report will be looking …show more content… The Photoelectric Effect, which won the Nobel Prize in 1921, helped scientists develop many new inventions, such as solar cells and telecommunication networks. According to the Nobel Prize website Einstein is the most popular Physics Nobel Laureate in the world. He became famous due to his discovery of the two revolutionary Theories of Relativity. When Einstein won the Nobel Prize, it made him even more known to the general population. Einstein’s work still today inspires scientists and his work is often the foundation for many inventions and discoveries. Einstein’s work helped improve ways of displaying light and also research in Nuclear Physics. There is much more to explore about the emission of neutrons and electrons. For example, atoms are made up of quarks, but it is debatable if these quarks are made up of something even smaller. Otherwise, the structure of quarks and how they behave requires further research. This connects with Einstein, because he was one of the founders of the Quantum Physics. M. Ley, the author of this report, will aim to do more research on Quantum Physics and the field’s connection with Albert Einstein’s work. Albert Einstein has also created more than two Theories, so the author wants to investigate and understand some of Einstein’s other less famous, but still important theories. Albert Einstein is a good example for the impact for the 113 year old tradition of the Nobel Prize, which still has a huge influence on our lives
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"https://www.biography.com/_assets/design-tokens/fre/static/icons/social/instagram.f282b14.svg?primary=%2523ffffff&id=social-button-icon", "https://www.biography.com/_assets/design-tokens/biography/static/images/logos/network-logo.04aa008.svg?primary=%2523ffffff" ]	[]	[]	[ "Profile" ]	null	[ "Biography.com Editors", "Tyler Piccotti" ]	2014-04-03T01:07:56	Physicist Albert Einstein developed the theory of relativity and won the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics. Read about his inventions, IQ, wives, death, and more.	en	/_assets/design-tokens/biography/static/images/favicon.3635572.ico	Biography	https://www.biography.com/scientists/albert-einstein	1879-1955 Who Was Albert Einstein? Albert Einstein was a German mathematician and physicist who developed the special and general theories of relativity. In 1921, he won the Nobel Prize in Physics for his explanation of the photoelectric effect. In the following decade, he immigrated to the United States after being targeted by the German Nazi Party. His work also had a major impact on the development of atomic energy. In his later years, Einstein focused on unified field theory. He died in April 1955 at age 76. With his passion for inquiry, Einstein is generally considered the most influential physicist of the 20th century. Quick Facts FULL NAME: Albert Einstein BORN: March 14, 1879 DIED: April 18, 1955 BIRTHPLACE: Ulm, Württemberg, Germany SPOUSES: Mileva Einstein-Maric (1903-1919) and Elsa Einstein (1919-1936) CHILDREN: Lieserl, Hans, and Eduard ASTROLOGICAL SIGN: Pisces Early Life, Family, and Education Albert Einstein was born on March 14, 1879, in Ulm, Württemberg, Germany. He grew up in a secular Jewish family. His father, Hermann Einstein, was a salesman and engineer who, with his brother, founded Elektrotechnische Fabrik J. Einstein & Cie, a Munich-based company that mass-produced electrical equipment. Einstein’s mother, the former Pauline Koch, ran the family household. Einstein had one sister, Maja, born two years after him. Einstein attended elementary school at the Luitpold Gymnasium in Munich. However, he felt alienated there and struggled with the institution’s rigid pedagogical style. He also had what were considered speech challenges. However, he developed a passion for classical music and playing the violin, which would stay with him into his later years. Most significantly, Einstein’s youth was marked by deep inquisitiveness and inquiry. Toward the end of the 1880s, Max Talmud, a Polish medical student who sometimes dined with the Einstein family, became an informal tutor to young Einstein. Talmud had introduced his pupil to a children’s science text that inspired Einstein to dream about the nature of light. Thus, during his teens, Einstein penned what would be seen as his first major paper, “The Investigation of the State of Aether in Magnetic Fields.” Hermann relocated the family to Milan, Italy, in the mid-1890s after his business lost out on a major contract. Einstein was left at a relative’s boarding house in Munich to complete his schooling at the Luitpold. Faced with military duty when he turned of age, Einstein allegedly withdrew from classes, using a doctor’s note to excuse himself and claim nervous exhaustion. With their son rejoining them in Italy, his parents understood Einstein’s perspective but were concerned about his future prospects as a school dropout and draft dodger. Einstein was eventually able to gain admission into the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich, specifically due to his superb mathematics and physics scores on the entrance exam. He was still required to complete his pre-university education first and thus attended a high school in Aarau, Switzerland, helmed by Jost Winteler. Einstein lived with the schoolmaster’s family and fell in love with Winteler’s daughter Marie. Einstein later renounced his German citizenship and became a Swiss citizen at the dawn of the new century. Einstein’s IQ Einstein’s intelligence quotient was estimated to be around 160, but there are no indications he was ever actually tested. Psychologist David Wechsler didn’t release the first edition of the WAIS cognitive test, which evolved into the WAIS-IV test commonly used today, until 1955—shortly before Einstein’s death. The maximum score of the current version is 160, with an IQ of 135 or higher ranking in the 99th percentile. Magazine columnist Marilyn vos Savant has the highest-ever recorded IQ at 228 and was featured in the Guinness Book of World Records in the late 1980s. However, Guinness discontinued the category because of debates about testing accuracy. According to Parade, individuals believed to have higher IQs than Einstein include Leonardo Da Vinci, Marie Curie, Nikola Tesla, and Nicolaus Copernicus. Patent Clerk After graduating from university, Einstein faced major challenges in terms of finding academic positions, having alienated some professors over not attending class more regularly in lieu of studying independently. Einstein eventually found steady work in 1902 after receiving a referral for a clerk position in a Swiss patent office. While working at the patent office, Einstein had the time to further explore ideas that had taken hold during his university studies and thus cemented his theorems on what would be known as the principle of relativity. In 1905—seen by many as a “miracle year” for the theorist—Einstein had four papers published in the Annalen der Physik, one of the best-known physics journals of the era. Two focused on the photoelectric effect and Brownian motion. The two others, which outlined E=MC2 and the special theory of relativity, were defining for Einstein’s career and the course of the study of physics. Inventions and Discoveries As a physicist, Einstein had many discoveries, but he is perhaps best known for his theory of relativity and the equation E=MC2, which foreshadowed the development of atomic power and the atomic bomb. Theory of Relativity Einstein first proposed a special theory of relativity in 1905 in his paper “On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies,” which took physics in an electrifying new direction. The theory explains that space and time are actually connected, and Einstein called this joint structure space-time. By November 1915, Einstein completed the general theory of relativity, which accounted for gravity’s relationship to space-time. Einstein considered this theory the culmination of his life research. He was convinced of the merits of general relativity because it allowed for a more accurate prediction of planetary orbits around the sun, which fell short in Isaac Newton’s theory. It also offered a more expansive, nuanced explanation of how gravitational forces worked. Einstein’s assertions were affirmed via observations and measurements by British astronomers Sir Frank Dyson and Sir Arthur Eddington during the 1919 solar eclipse, and thus a global science icon was born. Today, the theories of relativity underpin the accuracy of GPS technology, among other phenomena. Even so, Einstein did make one mistake when developing his general theory, which naturally predicted the universe is either expanding or contracting. Einstein didn’t believe this prediction initially, instead holding onto the belief that the universe was a fixed, static entity. To account for, this he factored in a “cosmological constant” to his equation. His later theories directly contracted this idea and asserted that the universe could be in a state of flux. Then, astronomer Edwin Hubble deduced that we indeed inhabit an expanding universe. Hubble and Einstein met at the Mount Wilson Observatory near Los Angeles in 1931. Decades after Einstein’s death, in 2018, a team of scientists confirmed one aspect of Einstein’s general theory of relativity: that the light from a star passing close to a black hole would be stretched to longer wavelengths by the overwhelming gravitational field. Tracking star S2, their measurements indicated that the star’s orbital velocity increased to over 25 million kph as it neared the supermassive black hole at the center of the galaxy, its appearance shifting from blue to red as its wavelengths stretched to escape the pull of gravity. Einstein’s E=MC² Einstein’s 1905 paper on the matter-energy relationship proposed the equation E=MC²: the energy of a body (E) is equal to the mass (M) of that body times the speed of light squared (C²). This equation suggested that tiny particles of matter could be converted into huge amounts of energy, a discovery that heralded atomic power. Famed quantum theorist Max Planck backed up the assertions of Einstein, who thus became a star of the lecture circuit and academia, taking on various positions before becoming director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics (today is known as the Max Planck Institute for Physics) from 1917 to 1933. Nobel Prize in Physics In 1921, Einstein won the Nobel Prize in Physics for his explanation of the photoelectric effect, since his ideas on relativity were still considered questionable. He wasn’t actually given the award until the following year due to a bureaucratic ruling, and during his acceptance speech, he still opted to speak about relativity. Wives and Children Albert Einstein with his second wife, Elsa Einstein married Mileva Maric on January 6, 1903. While attending school in Zurich, Einstein met Maric, a Serbian physics student. Einstein continued to grow closer to Maric, but his parents were strongly against the relationship due to her ethnic background. Nonetheless, Einstein continued to see her, with the two developing a correspondence via letters in which he expressed many of his scientific ideas. Einstein’s father passed away in 1902, and the couple married shortly thereafter. Einstein and Mavic had three children. Their daughter, Lieserl, was born in 1902 before their wedding and might have been later raised by Maric’s relatives or given up for adoption. Her ultimate fate and whereabouts remain a mystery. The couple also had two sons: Hans Albert Einstein, who became a well-known hydraulic engineer, and Eduard “Tete” Einstein, who was diagnosed with schizophrenia as a young man. The Einsteins’ marriage would not be a happy one, with the two divorcing in 1919 and Maric having an emotional breakdown in connection to the split. Einstein, as part of a settlement, agreed to give Maric any funds he might receive from possibly winning the Nobel Prize in the future. During his marriage to Maric, Einstein had also begun an affair some time earlier with a cousin, Elsa Löwenthal. The couple wed in 1919, the same year of Einstein’s divorce. He would continue to see other women throughout his second marriage, which ended with Löwenthal’s death in 1936. Travel Diaries In his 40s, Einstein traveled extensively and journaled about his experiences. Some of his unfiltered private thoughts are shared two volumes of The Travel Diaries of Albert Einstein. , published in 2018, focuses on his five-and-a-half month trip to the Far East, Palestine, and Spain. The scientist started a sea journey to Japan in Marseille, France, in autumn of 1922, accompanied by his second wife, Elsa. They journeyed through the Suez Canal, then to Sri Lanka, Singapore, Hong Kong, Shanghai, and Japan. The couple returned to Germany via Palestine and Spain in March 1923. , released in 2023, covers three months that he spent lecturing and traveling in Argentina, Uruguay, and Brazil in 1925. The Travel Diaries contain unflattering analyses of the people he came across, including the Chinese, Sri Lankans, and Argentinians, a surprise coming from a man known for vehemently denouncing racism in his later years. In an entry for November 1922, Einstein refers to residents of Hong Kong as “industrious, filthy, lethargic people.” Becoming a U.S. Citizen In 1933, Einstein took on a position at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, where he would spend the rest of his life. At the time the Nazis, led by Adolf Hitler, were gaining prominence with violent propaganda and vitriol in an impoverished post-World War I Germany. The Nazi Party influenced other scientists to label Einstein’s work “Jewish physics.” Jewish citizens were barred from university work and other official jobs, and Einstein himself was targeted to be killed. Meanwhile, other European scientists also left regions threatened by Germany and immigrated to the United States, with concern over Nazi strategies to create an atomic weapon. Not long after moving and beginning his career at IAS, Einstein expressed an appreciation for American meritocracy and the opportunities people had for free thought, a stark contrast to his own experiences coming of age. In 1935, Einstein was granted permanent residency in his adopted country and became an American citizen five years later. In America, Einstein mostly devoted himself to working on a unified field theory, an all-embracing paradigm meant to unify the varied laws of physics. However, during World War II, he worked on Navy-based weapons systems and made big monetary donations to the military by auctioning off manuscripts worth millions. Einstein and the Atomic Bomb Albert Einstein gives a speech denouncing the use of hydrogen bombs in 1950. In 1939, Einstein and fellow physicist Leo Szilard wrote to President Franklin D. Roosevelt to alert him of the possibility of a Nazi bomb and to galvanize the United States to create its own nuclear weapons. The United States would eventually initiate the Manhattan Project, though Einstein wouldn’t take a direct part in its implementation due to his pacifist and socialist affiliations. Einstein was also the recipient of much scrutiny and major distrust from FBI director J. Edgar Hoover. In July 1940, the U.S. Army Intelligence office denied Einstein a security clearance to participate in the project, meaning J. Robert Oppenheimer and the scientists working in Los Alamos were forbidden from consulting with him. Einstein had no knowledge of the U.S. plan to use atomic bombs in Japan in 1945. When he heard of the first bombing at Hiroshima, he reportedly said, “Ach! The world is not ready for it.” Einstein became a major player in efforts to curtail usage of the A-bomb. The following year, he and Szilard founded the Emergency Committee of Atomic Scientists, and in 1947, via an essay for The Atlantic Monthly, Einstein espoused working with the United Nations to maintain nuclear weapons as a deterrent to conflict. Time Travel and Quantum Theory After World War II, Einstein continued to work on his unified field theory and key aspects of his general theory of relativity, including time travel, wormholes, black holes, and the origins of the universe. However, he felt isolated in his endeavors since the majority of his colleagues had begun focusing their attention on quantum theory. In the last decade of his life, Einstein, who had always seen himself as a loner, withdrew even further from any sort of spotlight, preferring to stay close to Princeton and immerse himself in processing ideas with colleagues. Personal Life In the late 1940s, Einstein became a member of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), seeing the parallels between the treatment of Jews in Germany and Black people in the United States. He corresponded with scholar and activist W.E.B. Du Bois as well as performer Paul Robeson and campaigned for civil rights, calling racism a “disease” in a 1946 Lincoln University speech. Einstein was very particular about his sleep schedule, claiming he needed 10 hours of sleep per day to function well. His theory of relativity allegedly came to him in a dream about cows being electrocuted. He was also known to take regular naps. He is said to have held objects like a spoon or pencil in his hand while falling asleep. That way, he could wake up before hitting the second stage of sleep—a hypnagogic process believed to boost creativity and capture sleep-inspired ideas. Although sleep was important to Einstein, socks were not. He was famous for refusing to wear them. According to a letter he wrote to future wife Elsa, he stopped wearing them because he was annoyed by his big toe pushing through the material and creating a hole. Albert Einstein sticks his tongue out in a famous 1951 photo from his birthday party. One of the most recognizable photos of the 20th century shows Einstein sticking out his tongue while leaving his 72nd birthday party on March 14, 1951. According to Discovery.com, Einstein was leaving his party at Princeton when a swarm of reporters and photographers approached and asked him to smile. Tired from doing so all night, he refused and rebelliously stuck his tongue out at the crowd for a moment before turning away. UPI photographer Arthur Sasse captured the shot. Einstein was amused by the picture and ordered several prints to give to his friends. He also signed a copy of the photo that sold for $125,000 at a 2017 auction. Death and Final Words Einstein died on April 18, 1955, at age 76 at the University Medical Center at Princeton. The previous day, while working on a speech to honor Israel’s seventh anniversary, Einstein suffered an abdominal aortic aneurysm. He was taken to the hospital for treatment but refused surgery, believing that he had lived his life and was content to accept his fate. “I want to go when I want,” he stated at the time. “It is tasteless to prolong life artificially. I have done my share, it is time to go. I will do it elegantly.” According to the BBC, Einstein muttered a few words in German at the moment of his death. However, the nurse on duty didn’t speak German so their translation was lost forever. In a 2014 interview, Life magazine photographer Ralph Morse said the hospital was swarmed by journalists, photographers, and onlookers once word of Einstein’s death spread. Morse decided to travel to Einstein’s office at the Institute for Advanced Studies, offering the superintendent alcohol to gain access. He was able to photograph the office just as Einstein left it. After an autopsy, Einstein’s corpse was moved to a Princeton funeral home later that afternoon and then taken to Trenton, New Jersey, for a cremation ceremony. Morse said he was the only photographer present for the cremation, but Life managing editor Ed Thompson decided not to publish an exclusive story at the request of Einstein’s son Hans. Einstein’s Brain During Einstein’s autopsy, pathologist Thomas Stoltz Harvey had removed his brain, reportedly without his family’s consent, for preservation and future study by doctors of neuroscience. However, during his life, Einstein participated in brain studies, and at least one biography claimed he hoped researchers would study his brain after he died. Einstein’s brain is now located at the Princeton University Medical Center. In keeping with his wishes, the rest of his body was cremated and the ashes scattered in a secret location. In 1999, Canadian scientists who were studying Einstein’s brain found that his inferior parietal lobe, the area that processes spatial relationships, 3D-visualization, and mathematical thought, was 15 percent wider than in people who possess normal intelligence. According to The New York Times, the researchers believe it might help explain why Einstein was so intelligent. In 2011, the Mütter Museum in Philadelphia received thin slices of Einstein’s brain from Dr. Lucy Rorke-Adams, a neuropathologist at the Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia, and put them on display. Rorke-Adams said she received the brain slides from Harvey. Einstein in Books and Movies: "Oppenheimer" and More Since Einstein’s death, a veritable mountain of books have been written on the iconic thinker’s life, including by Walter Isaacson and by Jürgen Neffe, both from 2007. Einstein’s own words are presented in the collection . Einstein has also been portrayed on screen. Michael Emil played a character called “The Professor,” clearly based on Einstein, in the 1985 film Insignificance—in which alternate versions of Einstein, Marilyn Monroe, Joe DiMaggio, and Joseph McCarthy cross paths in a New York City hotel. Walter Matthau portrayed Einstein in the fictional 1994 comedy I.Q., in which he plays matchmaker for his niece played by Meg Ryan. Einstein was also a character in the obscure comedy films I Killed Einstein, Gentlemen (1970) and Young Einstein (1988). A much more historically accurate depiction of Einstein came in 2017, when he was the subject of the first season of Genius, a 10-part scripted miniseries by National Geographic. Johnny Flynn played a younger version of the scientist, while Geoffrey Rush portrayed Einstein in his later years after he had fled Germany. Ron Howard was the director. Tom Conti plays Einstein in the 2023 biopic Oppenheimer, directed by Christopher Nolan and starring Cillian Murphy as scientist J. Robert Oppenheimer during his involvement with the Manhattan Project. Quotes The world is a dangerous place to live; not because of the people who are evil, but because of the people who don’t do anything about it. A question that sometimes drives me hazy: Am I or are the others crazy? A person who never made a mistake never tried anything new. Logic will get you from A to B. Imagination will take you everywhere. I want to go when I want. It is tasteless to prolong life artificially. I have done my share, it is time to go. I will do it elegantly. If you can’t explain it simply, you don’t understand it well enough. Nature shows us only the tail of the lion. But there is no doubt in my mind that the lion belongs with it even if he cannot reveal himself to the eye all at once because of his huge dimension. We see him only the way a louse sitting upon him would. [T]he distinction between past, present, and future is only an illusion, however persistent. Living in this “great age,” it is hard to understand that we belong to this mad, degenerate species, which imputes free will to itself. If only there were somewhere an island for the benevolent and the prudent! Then also I would want to be an ardent patriot. I, at any rate, am convinced that He [God] is not playing at dice. How strange is the lot of us mortals! Each of us is here for a brief sojourn; for what purpose he knows not, though he sometimes thinks he senses it. I regard class differences as contrary to justice and, in the last resort, based on force. I have never looked upon ease and happiness as ends in themselves—this critical basis I call the ideal of a pigsty. The ideals that have lighted my way, and time after time have given me new courage to face life cheerfully, have been Kindness, Beauty, and Truth. My political ideal is democracy. Let every man be respected as an individual and no man idolized. It is an irony of fate that I myself have been the recipient of excessive admiration and reverence from my fellow-beings, through no fault and no merit of my own. The most beautiful experience we can have is the mysterious. It is the fundamental emotion that stands at the cradle of true art and true science. Whoever does not know it and can no longer wonder, no longer marvel, is as good as dead, and his eyes are dimmed. An autocratic system of coercion, in my opinion, soon degenerates. For force always attracts men of low morality, and I believe it to be an invariable rule that tyrants of genius are succeeded by scoundrels. My passionate interest in social justice and social responsibility has always stood in curious contrast to a marked lack of desire for direct association with men and women. I am a horse for single harness, not cut out for tandem or team work. I have never belonged wholeheartedly to country or state, to my circle of friends, or even to my own family. Everybody is a genius. Fact Check: We strive for accuracy and fairness. If you see something that doesn’t look right, contact us! ..
correct_award_00024	FactBench	0	38	https://everything-everywhere.com/how-many-nobel-prizes-should-albert-einstein-have-won/	en	How Many Nobel Prizes Should Albert Einstein Have Won?	https://photos.smugmug.c…l%20prizes-L.png	https://photos.smugmug.c…l%20prizes-L.png	[ "https://everything-everywhere.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/NewLogo200Trans.png", "https://everything-everywhere.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/NewLogo200Trans.png", "https://photos.smugmug.com/Other/n-hRFP2/Podcast-Images/i-SNSFG3K/0/2d885a7e/L/einstein%20nobel%20prizes-L.png", "https://photos.smugmug.com/Other/n-hRFP2/Misc/i-zGqp5HM/0/d41c466a/400x400/EverythingEverywherePodcastLarge-400x400.jpg" ]	[ "about:blank", "https://embed.podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/how-many-nobel-prizes-should-einstein-have-won/id1521870190?i=1000501377801" ]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Gary Arndt", "www.facebook.com" ]	2020-12-04T22:44:36+00:00	How Many Nobel Prizes Should Albert Einstein Have Won?	en	https://everything-every…square-32x32.png	Everything Everywhere	https://everything-everywhere.com/how-many-nobel-prizes-should-albert-einstein-have-won/	Subscribe Apple \| Spotify \| Amazon \| iHeart Radio \| Player.FM \| TuneIn Castbox \| Podurama \| Podcast Republic \| RSS \| Patreon Transcript In the 120 year history of the Nobel Prize, there have been four people who have been given an award twice. One of them is not Albert Einstein. Yet, when you look at his list of accomplishments and the different fields of physics which he has touched, he arguably deserved more than one Nobel prize. Join me as I play fantasy physics and try to figure out how many Nobel Prizes Albert Einstien should have won on this episode of Everything Everywhere Daily. The history of Albert Einstein and the Nobel Prize is a rather complex one. By the year 1920, Einstein was unquestionably the most famous scientist in the world. Yet, he had not won a Nobel Prize. He had developed the Special and General theories of Relativity, he had set the equivalence of mass and energy in his famous E=mc2 equation, and had contributed to many other areas of physics. His work on relativity had been nominated by many physicists over several years, but the Nobel committee never gave him a prize. There were a bunch of reasons why Einstein was never given a Nobel Prize. Being Jewish and pacifist were big ones. The Nobel committee didn’t want to honor someone who was so outside the mainstream. The biggest reason, however, was that he was a theoretical physicist. The prize had, up until this point, primarily been given to people who proved things through experimentation. In 1919, evidence for the General Theory of Relativity was finally found during a solar eclipse when British astronomer Arthur Stanley Eddington detected light from stars which was bent by the gravity of the sun. Everyone figured that 1920 would be the year when Einstein finally won his Nobel Prize. Instead, the award was given to Charles Edouard Guillaume “in recognition of the service he has rendered to precision measurements in Physics by his discovery of anomalies in nickel steel alloys”. Yeah, Guillaume was just as surprised as everyone else that he won. Well, OK. Maybe there wasn’t enough time for the result to sink in. Surely, 1921 would be the year that Einstien would win, right? In 1921, they gave the Nobel Prize in Physics to no one. Yeah, they decided to give it to no one, rather than give it to Einstein. The attitude of the Nobel committee was summed up by one Allvar Gullstrand, a Swedish ophthalmologist who sat on the physics committee. In his diaries, found long after his death, he wrote of the 1921 physics prize, “Einstein must never receive a Nobel Prize, even if the whole world demands it.” By 1922, the Nobel Committee was looking ridiculous in the eyes of the world and in the eyes of the physics community for not giving Einstein a prize. The rules of the prize stipulate that if no one were given an award in the sciences, it would roll over to the next year. So in 1922, they could retroactively give the 1921 prize. The committee determined that they had to give the award to Einstein to maintain their respectability in the scientific world. It was just a matter of what they were going to give it to him for. This was probably the only time in the history of the Nobel when the winner was determined before the reason for the award. In 1922 the nominations poured in again, and again there were dozens of nominations for Einstein and the General Theory of Relativity. However, there was one nomination for Einstein which wasn’t for relativity. Carl Wilhelm Oseen, a Swedish physicist, nominated Einstein for his work in discovering the photoelectric effect. The photoelectric effect basically holds that photons of light will have more energy at shorter wavelengths. The committee decided to give Einstein the 1921 award, which wasn’t given out the previous year and give the 1922 award to Niels Bohr who developed the theory of the atom. By giving an award to Einstein and Bohr at the same time, it eliminated having to give one to Einstein by himself. So Einstein won his Nobel Prize, but it explicitly was not for relativity. In fact, when he was notified by the Nobel Committee they stated: … the Royal Academy of Sciences has decided to award you last year’s Nobel Prize for physics, in consideration of your work in theoretical physics and in particular your discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect, but without taking into account the value which will be accorded your relativity and gravitation theories after these are confirmed in the future. They left the door open for a future prize, but none was ever given. Einstein didn’t really care much about the prize. He didn’t attend the prize ceremony because he was lecturing in Japan. All the money he won went to his ex-wife in a previous divorce settlement. Later in his life when he was asked which honors he was more proud of, he put the German Physical Society’s Max Planck Medal first and didn’t mention the Nobel Prize at all. Given that we now have 120 years of Nobel Prizes under our belt, it is an interesting question to ask, how many Nobel Prizes should or could Einstein have won? For the purposes of this theoretical discussion on theoretical physics, I’ll set a few rules: Any prize he might share with someone else will count as a prize for Einstein. After all, if you share a prize with someone, you are still considered a Nobel laureate, and you still get the medal. You only split the prize money. The Nobel committee does not award posthumous prizes. So for the purposes of this discussion, we’ll either assume that they do, or that Einstein is now 141 years old, and that he didn’t do any more physics after 1955, which was the year he died. Before we dive in, how many people have ever won more than one Nobel prize? The answer is four. They are Marie Curie, who won in Physics in 1903 and Chemistry in 1911. Linus Pauling, who won in Chemistry in 1954 and Peace in 1962. John Bardeen, who won in Physics in 1956 and 1972. And Frederick Sanger, who won in Chemistry in 1958 and 1980. So with that, let’s start the Einstein count. For this I’ll basically count any scientific contributions which were at a Nobel Prize level, based on previous awards. Number one is of course the prize he did win for the photoelectric effect. There is an argument that the 1921 and 1922 prizes that Einstein and Bohr received were really a single shared prize for the same thing, but it makes no difference for our purposes. Number two would be for special relativity. He developed this in 1905 and he would probably end up sharing this prize with Hendrik Lorentz who developed some of the equations for it. Number three would be for General Relativity which he published in 1915. This was all his and he would have gotten this alone. Number four would be sharing in the 1929 prize with Louis de Broglie, for wave-particle duality. De Broglie freely admitted Einstein’s contribution to this, but Einstein was never given credit by the Nobel Committee. Number five would be from his 1916 paper on spontaneous emission of light from atoms. This was the first time the idea of randomness was put in quantum mechanics, and it is now a pillar of science. This paper also developed the idea of stimulated emission, which was the theoretical basis for lasers. The 1964 Nobel Prize in Physics was given for the invention of the laser. Number six would be the work he did with Indian physicist, Satyendra Bose in developing what became known as the Bose-Einstein Condensate. This is a state of matter at extremely low temperatures. The 2001 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded for proving and creating a Bose-Einstein Condensate, and Bose also never received a Nobel Prize. Number seven would be for figuring out Browning Motion. The 1926 prize in physics was given to Jean Baptiste Perrin for experimentally proving the theory which Einstein established in 1905. A possible eight prize could have been given for his work with quantum entanglement. The theoretical basis was set by Einstein, Boris Podolsky, and Nathan Rosen. They published a paper in 1935 titled “Can Quantum-Mechanical Description of Physical Reality be Considered Complete?”. This was the theoretical basis that led to the 2012 Nobel Prize. A possible ninth prize could be a share of the 1933 prize which went to Erwin Schrödinger. Einstein was involved in the creation of Schrödinger’s equations and contributed enough to jointly share in the prize. A possible tenth prize could be his theory of gravity waves, which was finally proven true and awarded a Nobel prize in 2017. So far we are at ten, and these are just things which actually did win Nobel Prizes, for which Einstein played a major part in the development of the theories which made winning the prize possible for someone else, or for his theories of relativity, which were obviously overlooked and ignored by the committee. There is an 11th thing for which he could have won a prize for which is often overlooked. Peace. In his later years, Einstein was a big advocate for nuclear disarmament. Given his role in the development of the atomic bomb, he felt it was his duty. Given that Chemist Linus Pauling won a peace prize in 1962 for basically the same thing, and Einstein was far more famous and influential, it is not at all out of the question that he could have shared the 1962 Nobel Peace Prize if he had lived that long. So, 11 theoretical Nobel Prizes isn’t too shabby. It is hard to overstate the impact Einstein had on almost every area of physics in the 20th century. Yet, believe it or not, Einstein might not be the greatest of all time in physics. I’ll investigate that in a future episode when I dish out the theoretical Nobel prizes for one Isaac Newton.
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It is conferred by the Royal Swedish Academy of	en	/favicon.png	Encyclopedia Britannica	https://www.britannica.com/topic/Winners-of-the-Nobel-Prize-for-Physics-1856942	1901 Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen Germany discovery of X-rays 1902 Hendrik Antoon Lorentz Netherlands investigation of the influence of magnetism on radiation Pieter Zeeman Netherlands investigation of the influence of magnetism on radiation 1903 Henri Becquerel France discovery of spontaneous radioactivity Marie Curie France investigations of radiation phenomena discovered by Becquerel Pierre Curie France investigations of radiation phenomena discovered by Becquerel 1904 Lord Rayleigh U.K. discovery of argon 1905 Philipp Lenard Germany research on cathode rays 1906 Sir J.J. Thomson U.K. researches into electrical conductivity of gases 1907 A.A. Michelson U.S. spectroscopic and metrological investigations 1908 Gabriel Lippmann France photographic reproduction of colours 1909 Ferdinand Braun Germany development of wireless telegraphy Guglielmo Marconi Italy development of wireless telegraphy 1910 Johannes Diederik van der Waals Netherlands research concerning the equation of state of gases and liquids 1911 Wilhelm Wien Germany discoveries regarding laws governing heat radiation 1912 Nils Dalén Sweden invention of automatic regulators for lighting coastal beacons and light buoys 1913 Heike Kamerlingh Onnes Netherlands investigation into the properties of matter at low temperatures; production of liquid helium 1914 Max von Laue Germany discovery of diffraction of X-rays by crystals 1915 Sir Lawrence Bragg U.K. analysis of crystal structure by means of X-rays Sir William Bragg U.K. analysis of crystal structure by means of X-rays 1917 Charles Glover Barkla U.K. discovery of characteristic X-radiation of elements 1918 Max Planck Germany discovery of the elemental quanta 1919 Johannes Stark Germany discovery of the Doppler effect in positive ion rays and division of spectral lines in an electric field 1920 Charles Édouard Guillaume Switzerland discovery of anomalies in alloys 1921 Albert Einstein Switzerland work in theoretical physics 1922 Niels Bohr Denmark investigation of atomic structure and radiation 1923 Robert Andrews Millikan U.S. work on elementary electric charge and the photoelectric effect 1924 Karl Manne Georg Siegbahn Sweden work in X-ray spectroscopy 1925 James Franck Germany discovery of the laws governing the impact of an electron upon an atom Gustav Hertz Germany discovery of the laws governing the impact of an electron upon an atom 1926 Jean Perrin France work on the discontinuous structure of matter 1927 Arthur Holly Compton U.S. discovery of wavelength change in diffused X-rays C.T.R. Wilson U.K. method of making visible the paths of electrically charged particles 1928 Sir Owen Willans Richardson U.K. work on electron emission by hot metals 1929 Louis de Broglie France discovery of the wave nature of electrons 1930 Sir Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman India work on light diffusion; discovery of the Raman effect 1932 Werner Heisenberg Germany creation of quantum mechanics 1933 P.A.M. Dirac U.K. introduction of wave equations in quantum mechanics Erwin Schrödinger Austria introduction of wave equations in quantum mechanics 1935 Sir James Chadwick U.K. discovery of the neutron 1936 Carl David Anderson U.S. discovery of the positron Victor Francis Hess Austria discovery of cosmic radiation 1937 Clinton Joseph Davisson U.S. experimental demonstration of the interference phenomenon in crystals irradiated by electrons Sir George Paget Thomson U.K. experimental demonstration of the interference phenomenon in crystals irradiated by electrons 1938 Enrico Fermi Italy disclosure of artificial radioactive elements produced by neutron irradiation 1939 Ernest Orlando Lawrence U.S. invention of the cyclotron 1943 Otto Stern U.S. discovery of the magnetic moment of the proton 1944 Isidor Isaac Rabi U.S. resonance method for registration of various properties of atomic nuclei 1945 Wolfgang Pauli Austria discovery of the exclusion principle of electrons 1946 Percy Williams Bridgman U.S. discoveries in the domain of high-pressure physics 1947 Sir Edward Victor Appleton U.K. discovery of the Appleton layer in the upper atmosphere 1948 Patrick M.S. Blackett U.K. discoveries in the domain of nuclear physics and cosmic radiation 1949 Yukawa Hideki Japan prediction of the existence of mesons 1950 Cecil Frank Powell U.K. photographic method of studying nuclear processes; discoveries concerning mesons 1951 Sir John Douglas Cockcroft U.K. work on transmutation of atomic nuclei by accelerated particles Ernest Thomas Sinton Walton Ireland work on transmutation of atomic nuclei by accelerated particles 1952 Felix Bloch U.S. discovery of nuclear magnetic resonance in solids E.M. Purcell U.S. discovery of nuclear magnetic resonance in solids 1953 Frits Zernike Netherlands method of phase-contrast microscopy 1954 Max Born U.K. statistical studies of atomic wave functions Walther Bothe West Germany invention of the coincidence method 1955 Polykarp Kusch U.S. measurement of the magnetic moment of the electron Willis Eugene Lamb, Jr. U.S. discoveries in the hydrogen spectrum 1956 John Bardeen U.S. investigations on semiconductors and invention of the transistor Walter H. Brattain U.S. investigations on semiconductors and invention of the transistor William B. Shockley U.S. investigations on semiconductors and invention of the transistor 1957 Tsung-Dao Lee China discovery of violations of the principle of parity Chen Ning Yang China discovery of violations of the principle of parity 1958 Pavel Alekseyevich Cherenkov U.S.S.R. discovery and interpretation of the Cherenkov effect Ilya Mikhaylovich Frank U.S.S.R. discovery and interpretation of the Cherenkov effect Igor Yevgenyevich Tamm U.S.S.R. discovery and interpretation of the Cherenkov effect 1959 Owen Chamberlain U.S. confirmation of the existence of the antiproton Emilio Segrè U.S. confirmation of the existence of the antiproton 1960 Donald A. Glaser U.S. development of the bubble chamber 1961 Robert Hofstadter U.S. determination of the shape and size of atomic nucleons Rudolf Ludwig Mössbauer West Germany discovery of the Mössbauer effect 1962 Lev Davidovich Landau U.S.S.R. contributions to the understanding of condensed states of matter 1963 J. Hans D. Jensen West Germany development of the shell model theory of the structure of atomic nuclei Maria Goeppert Mayer U.S. development of the shell model theory of the structure of atomic nuclei Eugene Paul Wigner U.S. principles governing interaction of protons and neutrons in the nucleus 1964 Nikolay Gennadiyevich Basov U.S.S.R. work in quantum electronics leading to construction of instruments based on maser-laser principles Aleksandr Mikhaylovich Prokhorov U.S.S.R. work in quantum electronics leading to construction of instruments based on maser-laser principles Charles Hard Townes U.S. work in quantum electronics leading to construction of instruments based on maser-laser principles 1965 Richard P. Feynman U.S. basic principles of quantum electrodynamics Julian Seymour Schwinger U.S. basic principles of quantum electrodynamics Tomonaga Shin'ichiro Japan basic principles of quantum electrodynamics 1966 Alfred Kastler France discovery of optical methods for studying Hertzian resonances in atoms 1967 Hans Albrecht Bethe U.S. discoveries concerning the energy production of stars 1968 Luis W. Alvarez U.S. work with elementary particles, discovery of resonance states 1969 Murray Gell-Mann U.S. classification of elementary particles and their interactions 1970 Hannes Alfvén Sweden work in magnetohydrodynamics and in antiferromagnetism and ferrimagnetism Louis-Eugène-Félix Néel France work in magnetohydrodynamics and in antiferromagnetism and ferrimagnetism 1971 Dennis Gabor U.K. invention of holography 1972 John Bardeen U.S. development of the theory of superconductivity Leon N. Cooper U.S. development of the theory of superconductivity John Robert Schrieffer U.S. development of the theory of superconductivity 1973 Leo Esaki Japan tunneling in semiconductors and superconductors Ivar Giaever U.S. tunneling in semiconductors and superconductors Brian D. Josephson U.K. tunneling in semiconductors and superconductors 1974 Antony Hewish U.K. work in radio astronomy Sir Martin Ryle U.K. work in radio astronomy 1975 Aage N. Bohr Denmark work on the atomic nucleus that paved the way for nuclear fusion Ben R. Mottelson Denmark work on the atomic nucleus that paved the way for nuclear fusion James Rainwater U.S. work on the atomic nucleus that paved the way for nuclear fusion 1976 Burton Richter U.S. discovery of a new class of elementary particles (psi, or J) Samuel C.C. Ting U.S. discovery of a new class of elementary particles (psi, or J) 1977 Philip W. Anderson U.S. contributions to understanding the behaviour of electrons in magnetic, noncrystalline solids Sir Nevill F. Mott U.K. contributions to understanding the behaviour of electrons in magnetic, noncrystalline solids John H. Van Vleck U.S. contributions to understanding the behaviour of electrons in magnetic, noncrystalline solids 1978 Pyotr Leonidovich Kapitsa U.S.S.R. invention and application of a helium liquefier Arno Penzias U.S. discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation, providing support for the big-bang theory Robert Woodrow Wilson U.S. discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation, providing support for the big-bang theory 1979 Sheldon Lee Glashow U.S. unification of electromagnetism and the weak interactions of subatomic particles Abdus Salam Pakistan unification of electromagnetism and the weak interactions of subatomic particles Steven Weinberg U.S. unification of electromagnetism and the weak interactions of subatomic particles 1980 James Watson Cronin U.S. demonstration of simultaneous violation of both charge-conjugation and parity-inversion symmetries Val Logsdon Fitch U.S. demonstration of simultaneous violation of both charge-conjugation and parity-inversion symmetries 1981 Nicolaas Bloembergen U.S. applications of lasers in spectroscopy Arthur Leonard Schawlow U.S. applications of lasers in spectroscopy Kai Manne Börje Siegbahn Sweden electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis 1982 Kenneth Geddes Wilson U.S. analysis of continuous phase transitions 1983 Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar U.S. contributions to understanding the evolution and devolution of stars William A. Fowler U.S. contributions to understanding the evolution and devolution of stars 1984 Simon van der Meer Netherlands discovery of subatomic particles W and Z, which supports the electroweak theory Carlo Rubbia Italy discovery of subatomic particles W and Z, which supports the electroweak theory 1985 Klaus von Klitzing West Germany discovery of the quantized Hall effect, permitting exact measurements of electrical resistance 1986 Gerd Binnig West Germany development of electron microscopes Heinrich Rohrer Switzerland development of electron microscopes Ernst Ruska West Germany development of electron microscopes 1987 J. Georg Bednorz West Germany discovery of new superconducting materials Karl Alex Müller Switzerland discovery of new superconducting materials 1988 Leon Max Lederman U.S. research in subatomic particles Melvin Schwartz U.S. research in subatomic particles Jack Steinberger U.S. research in subatomic particles 1989 Hans Georg Dehmelt U.S. development of methods to isolate atoms and subatomic particles for study Wolfgang Paul West Germany development of methods to isolate atoms and subatomic particles for study Norman Foster Ramsey U.S. development of the atomic clock 1990 Jerome Isaac Friedman U.S. discovery of quarks Henry Way Kendall U.S. discovery of quarks Richard E. Taylor Canada discovery of quarks 1991 Pierre-Gilles de Gennes France discovery of general rules for behaviour of molecules 1992 Georges Charpak France invention of a detector that traces subatomic particles 1993 Russell Alan Hulse U.S. identifying binary pulsars Joseph H. Taylor, Jr. U.S. identifying binary pulsars 1994 Bertram N. Brockhouse Canada development of neutron-scattering techniques Clifford G. Shull U.S. development of neutron-scattering techniques 1995 Martin Lewis Perl U.S. discovery of the tau subatomic particle Frederick Reines U.S. discovery of the neutrino 1996 David M. Lee U.S. discovery of superfluidity in the isotope helium-3 Douglas D. Osheroff U.S. discovery of superfluidity in the isotope helium-3 Robert C. Richardson U.S. discovery of superfluidity in the isotope helium-3 1997 Steven Chu U.S. process of trapping atoms with laser cooling Claude Cohen-Tannoudji France process of trapping atoms with laser cooling William D. Phillips U.S. process of trapping atoms with laser cooling 1998 Robert B. Laughlin U.S. discovery of the fractional quantum Hall effect Horst L. Störmer U.S. discovery of the fractional quantum Hall effect Daniel C. Tsui U.S. discovery of the fractional quantum Hall effect 1999 Gerardus 't Hooft Netherlands study of the quantum structure of electroweak interactions Martinus J.G. Veltman Netherlands study of the quantum structure of electroweak interactions 2000 Zhores I. Alferov Russia development of fast semiconductors for use in microelectronics Jack S. Kilby U.S. development of the integrated circuit (microchip) Herbert Kroemer Germany development of fast semiconductors for use in microelectronics 2001 Eric A. Cornell U.S. achievement of Bose-Einstein condensation in dilute gases of alkali atoms; early fundamental studies of the properties of the condensates Wolfgang Ketterle Germany achievement of Bose-Einstein condensation in dilute gases of alkali atoms; early fundamental studies of the properties of the condensates Carl E. Wieman U.S. achievement of Bose-Einstein condensation in dilute gases of alkali atoms; early fundamental studies of the properties of the condensates 2002 Raymond Davis, Jr. U.S. detection of neutrinos Riccardo Giacconi U.S. seminal discoveries of cosmic sources of X-rays Koshiba Masatoshi Japan detection of neutrinos 2003 Alexei A. Abrikosov U.S. discoveries regarding superconductivity and superfluidity at very low temperatures Vitaly L. Ginzburg Russia discoveries regarding superconductivity and superfluidity at very low temperatures Anthony J. Leggett U.S. discoveries regarding superconductivity and superfluidity at very low temperatures 2004 David J. Gross U.S. discovery of asymptotic freedom in the theory of the strong interaction H. David Politzer U.S. discovery of asymptotic freedom in the theory of the strong interaction Frank Wilczek U.S. discovery of asymptotic freedom in the theory of the strong interaction 2005 Roy J. Glauber U.S. contributions to the field of optics John L. Hall U.S. contributions to the development of laser spectroscopy Theodor W. Hänsch Germany contributions to the development of laser spectroscopy 2006 John C. Mather U.S. discovery of the blackbody form and anisotropy of the cosmic microwave background radiation George F. Smoot U.S. discovery of the blackbody form and anisotropy of the cosmic microwave background radiation 2007 Albert Fert France discovery of giant magnetoresistance Peter Grünberg Germany discovery of giant magnetoresistance 2008 Kobayashi Makoto Japan discovery of the origin of the broken symmetry which predicts the existence of at least three families of quarks in nature Maskawa Toshihide Japan discovery of the origin of the broken symmetry which predicts the existence of at least three families of quarks in nature Yoichiro Nambu U.S. discovery of the mechanism of spontaneous broken symmetry in subatomic physics 2009 Willard Boyle Canada/U.S. invention of the CCD sensor, an imaging semiconductor circuit Charles Kao U.K./U.S. achievements concerning the transmission of light in fibres for optical communication George E. Smith U.S. invention of the CCD sensor, an imaging semiconductor circuit 2010 Andre Geim Netherlands experiments regarding the two-dimensional material graphene Konstantin Novoselov Russia/U.K. experiments regarding the two-dimensional material graphene 2011 Saul Perlmutter U.S. discovery of the accelerating expansion of the universe through observations of distant supernovae Brian P. Schmidt U.S./Australia discovery of the accelerating expansion of the universe through observations of distant supernovae Adam G. Riess U.S. discovery of the accelerating expansion of the universe through observations of distant supernovae 2012 Serge Haroche France development of methods that enable measuring and manipulation of individual quantum systems David J. Wineland U.S. development of methods that enable measuring and manipulation of individual quantum systems 2013 François Englert Belgium theoretical discovery of a mechanism that contributes to the understanding of the origin of mass of subatomic particles 2015 Kajita Takaaki Japan discovery of neutrino oscillations, which show that neutrinos have mass Arthur B. McDonald Canada discovery of neutrino oscillations, which show that neutrinos have mass 2016 David Thouless U.K. theoretical discoveries of topological phase transitions and topological phases of matter Duncan Haldane U.K. theoretical discoveries of topological phase transitions and topological phases of matter Michael Kosterlitz U.K. theoretical discoveries of topological phase transitions and topological phases of matter 2017 Barry C. Barish U.S. decisive contributions to the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory detector and the observation of gravitational waves Kip S. Thorne U.S. decisive contributions to the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory detector and the observation of gravitational waves Rainer Weiss U.S. decisive contributions to the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory detector and the observation of gravitational waves 2018 Arthur Ashkin U.S. invention of optical tweezers and their application to biological systems Gérard Mourou France invention of a method of generating high-intensity ultra-short optical pulses Donna Strickland Canada invention of a method of generating high-intensity ultra-short optical pulses 2019 James Peebles Canada/U.S. theoretical discoveries in physical cosmology Michel Mayor Switzerland discovery of an exoplanet orbiting a solar-type star Didier Queloz Switzerland discovery of an exoplanet orbiting a solar-type star 2020 Reinhard Genzel Germany discovery of a supermassive compact object at the centre of the Milky Way Galaxy Andrea Ghez U.S. discovery of a supermassive compact object at the centre of the Milky Way Galaxy Roger Penrose U.K. discovery that black hole formation is a robust prediction of the general theory of relativity 2021 Klaus Hasselmann Germany development of the foundation for human knowledge of the Earth's climate and how humanity influences it Manabe Syukuro Japan/U.S. development of the foundation for human knowledge of the Earth's climate and how humanity influences it Giorgio Parisi Italy discovery of the interplay of disorder and fluctuations in physical systems from atomic to planetary scales 2022 Alain Aspect France experiments with quantum entanglement that laid the foundation for a new era of quantum technology John F. Clauser U.S. experiments with quantum entanglement that laid the foundation for a new era of quantum technology Anton Zeilinger Austria experiments with quantum entanglement that laid the foundation for a new era of quantum technology 2023 Pierre Agostini France development of experimental methods that generate attosecond pulses of light for the study of electron dynamics in matter Ferenc Krausz Hungary development of experimental methods that generate attosecond pulses of light for the study of electron dynamics in matter
correct_award_00024	FactBench	0	18	https://www.swedenabroad.se/en/embassies/switzerland-bern/current/calendar/100-years-anniversary-of-albert-einsteins-nobel-prize/	en	100 years anniversary of Albert Einstein’s Nobel Prize	https://www.swedenabroad.se/wwwroot/favicons/favicon.ico	https://www.swedenabroad.se/wwwroot/favicons/favicon.ico	[ "https://www.swedenabroad.se/globalassets/hero/sa-country-pattern-sweden-embassy.svg", "https://www.swedenabroad.se/globalassets/ambassader/schweiz-bern/documents/news/einstein.jpg?w=727&h=415&mode=crop", "https://www.swedenabroad.se/globalassets/ambassader/schweiz-bern/documents/news/einstein-in-g%C3%B6teborg.jpg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null		en	/wwwroot/favicons/favicon.ico	Sweden Abroad	https://www.swedenabroad.se/en/embassies/switzerland-bern/current/calendar/100-years-anniversary-of-albert-einsteins-nobel-prize/	01 Oct 2021, 2.00 PM Together, the Einstein Society Bern and the Swedish Embassy in Bern, give attention the 100 anniversary of the award of the Nobel Prize to Albert Einstein. Each in his own way, Albert Einstein and Alfred Nobel were two great minds whose legacies are as important today as ever. The Swedish inventor and businessman Alfred Nobel stated in his will that the Nobel Prize should be awarded to “those who, during the preceding year, have conferred the greatest benefit to humankind during the last year”, something that proved difficult to evaluate in the area of physics in the first decades of the 20th century, as Einstein was way ahead of his time. In contrary to many people’s belief, the prize was not awarded to Albert Einstein for the relativity theory, but to honour his contributions to theoretical physics in general and, in particular, his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect. The Nobel Prize in Physics was, during this period, postponed or even skipped several years between 1915 and 1920 because of the difficulty to judge the “greatest benefit for human kind.” Nobody could at the time imagine the importance of Einstein’s relativity theory and the significance it has for research still today. Albert Einstein in Switzerland Albert Einstein was born in Germany but his family left the country when Einstein was a teenager. He completed his high school education in the Swiss town Aarau and then studied at the Federal Polytechnic School in Zürich. In 1901 Einstein gained Swiss citizenship and later was employed as a technical expert at the Swiss Patent Office in Bern. Between 1903 and 1905 Einstein lived in an apartment at Kramgasse 49 in Bern which today is the Einstein Haus museum. It was during Albert Einstein’s time in Bern that he produced much of his remarkable work. It is said that the medieval clock tower in Bern, the Zytglogge, which Einstein could see from his apartment, made him think of the particular role of time in the understanding of nature. Alfred Nobel’s will Alfred Nobel was a Swedish businessman, inventor and entrepreneur who also wrote poetry and plays. He spoke several languages and had an interest for social and peace issues. Alfred Nobel invented, among other things, the dynamite, which he patented in 1867. When he died almost twenty years later he had 355 patents. He left a will that in one single page created a document that would link his name to the world’s greatest achievements in various fields. The will stated that the interest of his fortune should be divided in five equal parts and be awarded in the fields of Physics, Chemistry, Physiology or Medicine, Literature and Peace. Alfred Nobel’s family opposed to his fortune being converted into a prize. Even the Swedish King Oscar II opposed to it as he considered the fact that non-Scandinavian citizens could be awarded the prize unpatriotic. It was not until five years after Nobel’s death that all practical issues were solved and the first Nobel Prizes could be awarded. The first Nobel Peace Prize in 1901 was awarded to a Swiss, the founder of the International Committee of the Red Cross Jean Henry Dunant from Geneva, together with the French scientist, politician and peace activist Frédéric Passy. The Nobel Prize in Physics In 1922 Albert Einstein was awarded with the Nobel Prize in Physics for the year 1921. He had by then been nominated on 62 occasions for the prize. Einstein was invited to take part in the yearly festivities in Stockholm in December of 1922, but was travelling to Japan at the time. It was arranged that he instead would deliver his Nobel lecture during the celebrations of the 300 anniversary of the city of Göteborg in July 1923. The city’s anniversary was extensively celebrated and some of Göteborg’s most important landmarks such as the art museum, the museum of natural history and the amusement park Liseberg were inaugurated for this anniversary. Albert Einsten’s visit was the cherry on top of the 300 anniversary celebration. Einstein held his speech on 11 July on the occasion of the Scandinavian Nature Researchers’ meeting, in a packed congress hall with king Gustav V in the front row. The speech had the title “Grundlagen und Probleme der Relativitätstheorie” and was a one hour overview of the relativity theory and in the laws of physics and our perception of time. The Nobel Prize awarded 603 times Between 1901 and 2020 the Nobel Prizes, and the Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel which was added in 1968, have been awarded 603 times to 962 people and organizations. With some receiving the Nobel Prize more than once, this makes a total of 930 individuals and 25 organizations. In 2020 the prize amounted to 10 million Swedish kronor, approximately 1 million CHF. Visit the Einstein House in Bern to learn more about Albert Einstein. Read more about the Nobel Prize here: www.nobelprize.com Albert Einstein´s speech in Göteborg. Sweden’s King Gustav V in the front row.
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relativity", "e = mc2", "general theory of relativity", "special theory of relativity" ]	null	[ "#author.fullName}" ]	null	Albert Einstein is arguably the most influential scientist of the 20th century. His general theory of relativity changed our understanding of space and time, becoming one of the two pillars of modern physics – the other being quantum mechanics.	en	/build/images/layup/new-sci-favicon.d65b52af.ico	New Scientist	https://www.newscientist.com/people/albert-einstein/	Albert Einstein is arguably the most influential scientist of the 20th century. His general theory of relativity changed our understanding of space and time, becoming one of the two pillars of modern physics – the other being quantum mechanics. The German-born physicist’s most famous equation, E = mc2, states that anything with mass has an equivalent amount of energy, and vice versa. It arose from his special theory of relativity, which proposed that in the vacuum of space, the speed of light is always the same, regardless of the movement of the person observing it. It led to a new way of looking at the universe: suggesting that space and time can’t be separated from one another, but rather are interwoven in a continuum. It also suggested that measurements of distance and time both change as you get closer to the speed of light: clocks run slower and lengths appear to get shorter. In the same year, aged just 26, he developed three other ground-breaking theories – on Brownian motion, mass-energy equivalence, and the law of the photoelectric effect, for which he went on to win the Nobel Prize in 1921. Expanding his special theory, Einstein’s general theory of relativity states that what we perceive as the force of gravity between two masses actually arises from their warping of space and time. For example, although the sun’s gravity appears to pull the earth towards it, no such force really exists; instead, the geometry of space-time around the sun dictates how the earth moves. According to the theory, time moves more slowly when gravity is stronger: clocks tick slower at sea level than at the top of a mountain, where the tug of Earth’s gravity is weaker. Going against the predominant view at the time, the theory also predicted that the universe is expanding, which the astronomer Edwin Hubble confirmed in 1929.
correct_award_00024	FactBench	0	59	https://medium.com/%40deep.space/why-didnt-einstein-get-the-nobel-prize-for-the-theory-of-relativity-909db2a1b557	en	Why didn’t Einstein get the Nobel Prize for the theory of relativity?	https://miro.medium.com/…ZdDnoeyYTQQ.jpeg	https://miro.medium.com/…ZdDnoeyYTQQ.jpeg	[ "https://miro.medium.com/v2/resize:fill:64:64/1dmbNkD5D-u45r44go_cf0g.png", "https://miro.medium.com/v2/resize:fill:88:88/1AXyJrehBUOfDmbkYhkhTJg.png", "https://miro.medium.com/v2/resize:fill:144:144/1*AXyJrehBUOfDmbkYhkhTJg.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Space", "medium.com", "@deep.space" ]	2023-03-08T16:01:21.176000+00:00	The fact that Einstein did not receive the Nobel Prize for the theory of relativity, which revolutionized theoretical and experimental physics, is perceived by many as the greatest disgrace of the…	en	https://miro.medium.com/…jr1YbyOIJY2w.png	Medium	https://medium.com/@deep.space/why-didnt-einstein-get-the-nobel-prize-for-the-theory-of-relativity-909db2a1b557	The fact that Einstein did not receive the Nobel Prize for the theory of relativity, which revolutionized theoretical and experimental physics, is perceived by many as the greatest disgrace of the Nobel Prize per se. It is often compared to the way Gandhi did not receive the Nobel Peace Prize. Note that Einstein still received the Nobel Prize in 1922, though for an entirely different work. The wording of the Nobel Committee read: “For the discovery of the photoelectric effect and other works in theoretical physics. The photoelectric effect discovered by Einstein is considered by many to be the least important of his discoveries. Einstein published his series of revolutionary articles for physics in 1905. Einstein’s articles laid the foundation for three branches of modern physics: general and special relativity, quantum mechanics, and statistical physics. It took 17 years for them to be universally recognized. Einstein was nominated for the Nobel Prize for ten consecutive years and only in 1922 did the Nobel Committee consider it possible to give the prize to Einstein.
correct_award_00024	FactBench	2	40	https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/databank/entries/bpeins.html	en	A Science Odyssey: People and Discoveries: Albert Einstein			[ "https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/databank/entries/images/sciodtitle2.jpeg", "https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/databank/entries/images/databankheader.gif", "https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/databank/entries/images/b2eins011310.jpeg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null					null	Albert Einstein 1879 - 1955 Albert Einstein is one of the most recognized and well-known scientists of the century. His theories solved centuries-old problems in physics and rocked even non-physicists' view of the world. Einstein's early years did not mark him as a genius. His parents worried because he was so slow to learn to speak. Although his family was Jewish, he attended a Catholic elementary school, where he did not excel. Because of failed business ventures, the family moved several times during Einstein's childhood, finally to Italy when he was 15. He was supposed to remain in Germany and finish school. He left, however (historians debate whether he was expelled or arranged to be excused for illness), and joined his family in Italy. He also renounced his Germany citizenship then, which freed him from military service. He belonged to no country until he became a Swiss citizen in 1921. From Italy he went to Switzerland to finish high school and attend the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology. He didn't care for such organized education; he hated having to attend classes regularly and take exams. He graduated with a teaching degree, but couldn't find a job. Finally he got a post at the Swiss patent office in Bern, in 1902. He worked there for seven years, which turned out to be the most productive period of his life. In 1903 he married a former classmate, Maria Maric, though his parents disapproved. They'd had a daughter Liserl in 1902, but she was given up for adoption. They later had two sons. 1905 was a huge year for Einstein. He published five papers in the German Yearbook of Physics, three or them groundbreaking. The first was on the motion of particles suspended in liquid. He developed a mathematical formula to explain that the visible motion of the particles was due to the invisible motion of the molecules of the liquid. His second paper was on the photoelectric effect, or the release of electrons from metal when light shines on it. Einstein used the very recent ideas of Max Planck to explain the phenomenon. That is, he explained it in terms of quanta, or packets of energy. This was the first use of the theory outside of Planck's own work. Einstein received the Nobel Prize in physics for this paper. Last and perhaps most famous, Einstein published his special theory of relativity. This resulted in the shocking conclusion that time is not constant. Neither is weight or mass. When moving at high speeds, all of these things get compressed; only the speed of light remains the same. That happens because, said Einstein, energy is equal to mass times the speed of light squared, or E = mc2. In the following years, Einstein held positions at universities in Zurich, Prague, and Berlin. In 1914, Einstein was in Berlin. War broke out, and his wife and two sons returned to Switzerland. The couple's relationship had grown increasingly distant, and after the war the two were never reunited. They officially divorced in 1919. Some historians now believe that Maria Maric was instrumental in Einstein's early work, especially the mathematical calculations. In his letters to her he mentioned "our papers," and in one even wrote, "How happy and proud I will be when both of us together will have brought our work on relative motion to a successful end." As he gained greater prestige and scientific positions, she gained greater household responsibilities and their collaboration ended. When he received the Nobel Prize, however, Einstein gave the cash award to Maria Maric. Soon after their divorce, Einstein married his cousin Elsa. Meanwhile, he kept grappling with the ideas of physics. There were problems with his special theory, and he knew it. The problems of gravity bothered him most. Whenever physicists worked out a natural law, gravity seemed to confuse it. In 1915, he wrote the general theory of relativity. It was extremely radical. To account for gravity, time and space must be curved around massive objects. The math was very complex and the whole idea so strange that most people didn't accept it. But Einstein suggested three ways it could be proven. One was to make observations of starlight during a solar eclipse. Conveniently, a solar eclipse occurred in 1919 and astronomers made the observations that proved the general theory of relativity. Einstein became a celebrity. Much of the world had just caught its breath after a long and horrifying war, and perhaps in relief, latched on to this amazing human achievement. Einstein himself had always opposed war. He spoke against it during the First World War, and throughout the 1920s and 1930s. Hitler was rising to power in Germany, and though Einstein had renewed his German citizenship, he was considered suspect as both a Jew and a pacifist. It may be, too, that the absolutist Nazi party found that his relativity theories conflicted with what they considered pure physics. He was in California when Hitler took power in 1933, and he never returned to Germany. He took a position at the Institute for Advanced Studies in Princeton, where he remained for the rest of his life. By the 1920s, Einstein's major contributions to physics were behind him. He debated quantum mechanics and the uncertainty principle with Niels Bohr, which helped Bohr clarify the concept, but it was a theory that Einstein never quite accepted. He spent his latter years in search of a unified field theory, or one basic equation to explain all of the forces of nature. He wrote on many topics, especially peace, but rising fascism in the years before World War II made him sign a 1939 letter to President Roosevelt, warning him that the Germans could create an atomic weapon. This led FDR to set up the Manhattan Project, an effort to secretly develop an atomic bomb. Though Einstein's formula E = mc2 was key to the project, Einstein was considered a security risk and was not involved. In 1940 Einstein renounced his German citizenship for a second time and became a U.S. citizen. He became a supporter of disarmament and of a Jewish state. In 1952 the young nation of Israel offered Einstein the presidency, but he declined. The ninety-ninth element in the periodic table was discovered shortly after Einstein's death in 1955, and it was named "einsteinium." "The most incomprehensible thing about the world is that it is comprehensible." Related Features
correct_award_00024	FactBench	1	15	https://testbook.com/question-answer/einstein-got-the-nobel-prize-for--5f8078b1abfbc1cb2bfd5483	en	[Solved] Einstein got the Nobel Prize for	https://cdn.testbook.com…es/tb-social.png	https://cdn.testbook.com…es/tb-social.png	[ "https://testbook.com/question-answer/components/assets/images/logo-blue.svg", "https://cdn.testbook.com/qb_resources/qna-banner-illustration.svg", "https://cdn.testbook.com/resources/lms_creative_elements/important-point-image.png", "https://cdn.testbook.com/qb_resources/daily-live-master-classes.svg", "https://cdn.testbook.com/qb_resources/practice-question-bank.svg", "https://cdn.testbook.com/qb_resources/mock-tests-quizzes.svg", "https://cdn.testbook.com/qb_resources/super_logo.png", "https://cdn.testbook.com/qb_resources/pass-icon.svg", "https://cdn.testbook.com/qb_resources/pass-icon.svg", "https://cdn.testbook.com/resources/productionimages/UPSC_All_1604667940.png", "https://cdn.testbook.com/qb_resources/free-access.svg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	The correct answer is the photoelectric effect. Albert Einstein received his Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921 for his services to Theoretical Physics, and		https://testbook.com/ass…d/logo-32x32.png	Testbook	https://testbook.com/question-answer/einstein-got-the-nobel-prize-for--5f8078b1abfbc1cb2bfd5483	-> BPSC Answer Sheet Notice has been released. Candidates will be able to check their answer sheets online from 21st to 27th June 2024. -> This is for the Mains Exam which was conducted on 20th and 21st January 2024. The BPSC 69th Mains Exam for General Hindi, General Studies, and Essay papers was conducted from 3rd to 6th January. -> The 69th BPSC CCE Prelims Result was declared earlier for the exam which was held on 30th September 2023. -> The total BPSC 69th Vacancy counts to 475 posts. The Bihar Public Service Commission (BPSC) issued a notification for the 69th Combined Examination. -> This examination aims to vacancies in various departments of the Bihar Government.
correct_award_00024	FactBench	2	17	https://testbook.com/question-answer/einstein-got-the-nobel-prize-for--5f8078b1abfbc1cb2bfd5483	en	[Solved] Einstein got the Nobel Prize for	https://cdn.testbook.com…es/tb-social.png	https://cdn.testbook.com…es/tb-social.png	[ "https://testbook.com/question-answer/components/assets/images/logo-blue.svg", "https://cdn.testbook.com/qb_resources/qna-banner-illustration.svg", "https://cdn.testbook.com/resources/lms_creative_elements/important-point-image.png", "https://cdn.testbook.com/qb_resources/daily-live-master-classes.svg", "https://cdn.testbook.com/qb_resources/practice-question-bank.svg", "https://cdn.testbook.com/qb_resources/mock-tests-quizzes.svg", "https://cdn.testbook.com/qb_resources/super_logo.png", "https://cdn.testbook.com/qb_resources/pass-icon.svg", "https://cdn.testbook.com/qb_resources/pass-icon.svg", "https://cdn.testbook.com/resources/productionimages/UPSC_All_1604667940.png", "https://cdn.testbook.com/qb_resources/free-access.svg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	The correct answer is the photoelectric effect. Albert Einstein received his Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921 for his services to Theoretical Physics, and		https://testbook.com/ass…d/logo-32x32.png	Testbook	https://testbook.com/question-answer/einstein-got-the-nobel-prize-for--5f8078b1abfbc1cb2bfd5483	-> BPSC Answer Sheet Notice has been released. Candidates will be able to check their answer sheets online from 21st to 27th June 2024. -> This is for the Mains Exam which was conducted on 20th and 21st January 2024. The BPSC 69th Mains Exam for General Hindi, General Studies, and Essay papers was conducted from 3rd to 6th January. -> The 69th BPSC CCE Prelims Result was declared earlier for the exam which was held on 30th September 2023. -> The total BPSC 69th Vacancy counts to 475 posts. The Bihar Public Service Commission (BPSC) issued a notification for the 69th Combined Examination. -> This examination aims to vacancies in various departments of the Bihar Government.
correct_award_00024	FactBench	0	75	https://www.toppr.com/ask/question/for-his-work-on-which-of-the-following-did-albert-einstein-receive-a-nobel-prize/	en	For his work on which of the following did Albert Einstein receive a Nobel prize?Black body radiationEther detectionPhotoelectric effectSpecial relativityGeneral relativity	https://smedia2.intoday.…082719100253.jpg	https://smedia2.intoday.…082719100253.jpg	[]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Toppr" ]	2020-01-09T00:00:00	Click here:point_up_2:to get an answer to your question :writing_hand:for his work on which of the following did albert einstein receive a nobel prize	en	/ask/images/favicon.ico	Toppr Ask	null	Question For his work on which of the following did Albert Einstein receive a Nobel prize? Black body radiation Ether detection Photoelectric effect Special relativity General relativity A Special relativity B General relativity C Photoelectric effect D Black body radiation E Ether detection
correct_award_00024	FactBench	2	83	https://www.elephantlearning.com/post/albert-einstein-overcame-school-challenges-won-nobel-prize	en	Albert Einstein: Overcame Early School Challenges, Won Nobel Prize	https://cdn.prod.website…0x322_122022.jpg	https://cdn.prod.website…0x322_122022.jpg	[ "https://cdn.prod.website-files.com/629a8dc7fbf9b44de965718b/629a901deb19ac92d12135ec_logo%20white%20text.png", "https://cdn.prod.website-files.com/629a8dc7fbf9b44de965718b/629a8dc7fbf9b462166571b2_White%20Menu.svg", "https://cdn.prod.website-files.com/629a8dc7fbf9b438676571bc/63bc4a04288036eeb3614f7d_1527415_ElephantLearningEp1501200x644_122022.jpg", "https://cdn.prod.website-files.com/629a8dc7fbf9b438676571bc/63bc4a2f0627ce7ad253dfb0_Og_PEN4AWToELzY77unolSiJC5ubBp70tpu_J7m7sX_vwNzNs78EfEtwS4QdFoy-bv0v_IBYc3IDMyATKUSaHNUuLV1p0eOl9f4JjOVqw4KcYH-TXEhTSMLtG8Gw-cUkQ-3u8rc3K76QgcsEOgfgQkpPAqaf44E6gMh_2xthl6jLAXA8UvG-rAk4trl3_A.png", "https://cdn.prod.website-files.com/629a8dc7fbf9b438676571bc/63ced76ba0404dd5df69328c_1531340_ElephantLearningEP154-600x322_122722.jpg", "https://cdn.prod.website-files.com/629a8dc7fbf9b438676571bc/63c6d371be975dc7862ee04b_1531329_ElephantLearningEP153-600x322_122722.jpg", "https://cdn.prod.website-files.com/629a8dc7fbf9b438676571bc/63bc4a098c2a1544b7057208_1527415_ElephantLearningEp150600x322_122022.jpg", "https://cdn.prod.website-files.com/629a8dc7fbf9b44de965718b/62a80a45f2bb984655ea901a_629a8dc7fbf9b474326571ad_Rectangle%20242.svg", "https://cdn.prod.website-files.com/629a8dc7fbf9b44de965718b/62a80a45b1059534e7d59c56_629a8dc7fbf9b4f7f76571ae_Rectangle%20241.svg", "https://cdn.prod.website-files.com/629a8dc7fbf9b44de965718b/633209cdfd0783758d5aae99_icons8-region-100%20(2).png", "https://cdn.prod.website-files.com/629a8dc7fbf9b44de965718b/633209cdfd0783f2cf5aae97_icons8-region-100.png", "https://cdn.prod.website-files.com/629a8dc7fbf9b44de965718b/633209cdfd07833c7f5aae95_icons8-incoming-call-100.png", "https://cdn.prod.website-files.com/629a8dc7fbf9b44de965718b/633209cdfd0783f2cf5aae97_icons8-region-100.png", "https://cdn.prod.website-files.com/629a8dc7fbf9b44de965718b/633209cdfd07834fbf5aae9b_icons8-sent-100.png", "https://cdn.prod.website-files.com/629a8dc7fbf9b44de965718b/633209cdfd0783f2cf5aae97_icons8-region-100.png", "https://cdn.prod.website-files.com/629a8dc7fbf9b44de965718b/629a901deb19ac92d12135ec_logo%20white%20text.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	Discover how Einstein overcame his childhood challenges with a traditional school curriculum to change the world of physics!	en	https://cdn.prod.website-files.com/629a8dc7fbf9b44de965718b/62a93ceeaa8e95729968d7c9_favicon.ico		null	By Jen Breitegan â Albert Einstein is one of the most famous physicists of all time. He introduced the world to the general theory of relativity and the equation E=mc2, which changed science forever.Â â What many people donât know is that Einstein was not the âperfect studentâ when he was young. His speech was delayed, and he was said to be forgetful and a daydreamer. He didnât socialize well with other children and exhibited temper tantrums. He also didnât excel in subjects that required rote memorization.Â â In fact, one teacher told Einstein that he âwould never amount to anything.â â The truth was that Einstein had a very curious mind and a need to question everything. He also had a tendency to rebel against authority. This aligned differently with the strict curriculum of schools in his time. He thrived in creative learning environments where questions were welcomed. He was especially intrigued by how invisible forces affected the world.Â â Ultimately, his insatiable curiosity to understand how the world (and universe) worked propelled Einstein to greatness. He won a Nobel Prize for physics, and his theories were discussed around the globe.Â â Discover how Einstein overcame his challenges in school to change the world of physics! â Einsteinâs Early Childhood â Einstein was born on March 14, 1879, in the city of Ulm in southwestern Germany. His father, Hermann, worked as a featherbed salesman and ran an electrochemical factory. His mother tended the house and cared for him and his sister Maja. â Einstein reportedly didnât speak until the age of two. As a child, he was prone to extreme temper tantrums and would throw things. He even threw a chair at a teacher once.Â â When Einstein showed a speech delay, his concerned parents consulted a doctor. Itâs now thought that he may have been on the autism spectrum, which contributed to his difficulty communicating and connecting with other children. Later in life, Einstein said his thoughts and ideas came to him as images rather than words. This way of thinking may have contributed to his delayed speech, too. â The first spark of Einsteinâs insatiable curiosity about the world around him occurred at age five. His father gave him a compass, and he was fascinated by the unseen magnetic forces that made the needle move. This fascination would persist for the rest of his life. â Einsteinâs School Years â Einstein started school when he was six years old. His teachers noted that he got good grades but didnât feel he was a particularly talented student. His dislike for the traditional school model and authority did not make him popular with his instructors.Â â About school, Einstein once wrote, âIt is, in fact, nothing short of a miracle that the modern methods of instruction have not yet entirely strangled the holy curiosity of inquiry." â Math and science were two subjects in which Einstein excelled. At the age of 11, he was reading college-level physics textbooks. He discovered a passion for geometry at age 12. At 14, Einstein mastered differential and integral calculus. â Einsteinâs frustration with rigid school curriculums led him to drop out of school at 15. He decided to educate himself for the following year. When he was 16, he took a college entrance exam. He passed the math and science portions but failed language and history. He then enrolled in a secondary school that encouraged his creativity and free thinking.Â â Upon graduating in 1896, Einstein enrolled in the Swiss Federal Polytechnic School in Zurich. â Once again, he showed brilliance in math and science but hated attending lectures. However, he made lasting friendships and enjoyed deep conversations about space and time with fellow students.Â â Early Career & Family Life â Einsteinâs tendency to cut class caused him problems after he graduated in 1900. His behavior had angered some of his instructors. One instructor, in particular, made things difficult for his career. When Einstein applied for academic positions, he was turned down over and over.Â â Einstein had met and fallen in love with a woman named Mileva Maric. Mileva was a fellow student at Swiss Federal. Unfortunately, he could not marry her and support a family without a job.Â â He tried taking on low-paying tutoring jobs but kept getting fired.Â â In 1902, the father of a friend helped Einstein get a job in a Swiss patent office. Einstein and Mileva were married the following year. They would have two sons, Hans Albert and Eduard. â Einsteinâs Miracle Year & Academic Career â Einstein never gave up on his scientific pursuits. He published four groundbreaking physics papers in 1905 (later called his âMiracle Yearâ). â These papers discussed the following concepts: An explanation of the photoelectric effect, where charged particles are released from an object when it absorbs electromagnetic radiation. Experimental proof that atoms exist. The theory of special relativity explains how speed affects mass, time, and space. The equation E=mc2 states that the energy (E) of an object is equal to its mass (m) multiplied by the speed of light squared (c2). â Interestingly, Einsteinâs papers didnât get a lot of attention at first. That changed when Max Planck, the founder of quantum theory, confirmed Einsteinâs ideas. â After that, Einstein was offered academic positions at prestigious universities, including the University of Berlin. There, he served as the director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics from 1913 to 1933. â The General Theory of Relativity â Einstein presented what is considered his most famous work, the general theory of relativity, in 1915.Â â Einsteinâs theory of relativity describes gravity as a curving of space (instead of an invisible force) around an object. As the mass of an object increases, so does the curve of space around it. â After World War I ended, two expeditions to test the theory proved it was correct. Einstein became famous around the world. â Nobel Prize & Launch of Cosmology â By 1921, Einstein was traveling around the world, speaking about his theories. While returning from Japan that year, he discovered he had won the Nobel Prize for Physics.Â â Surprisingly, he won for his theory on the photoelectric effect, not relativity. Einstein never bowed to convention. So, he spoke about relativity instead of the photoelectric effect during his prize acceptance speech.Â â Around the same time, Einstein launched a new form of science: cosmology. Cosmology studies the origin and development of the universe.Â â Einsteinâs theories and calculations predicted that the universe was not static. Instead, it was dynamic and either contracting or expanding.Â â Einsteinâs Legacy â Albert Einstein in 1947, via Wikimedia.org â For the rest of his life, Einstein continued trying to unlock the mysteries of the universe. He explored the possibilities of wormholes, time travel, black holes, and how the universe began. â Many of his ideas were way ahead of his time. In fact, scientists are still winning Nobel Prizes for experiments based on his work decades after his death in 1955.Â â Imagine where weâd be if Einstein had listened to his childhood critics and given up on his inquisitive nature.
correct_award_00024	FactBench	3	20	https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1921/einstein/nominations/	en	Albert Einstein – Nominations	https://www.nobelprize.o…scape-medium.jpg	https://www.nobelprize.o…scape-medium.jpg	[ "https://www.nobelprize.org/uploads/2018/06/einstein-nomination.jpg", "https://www.nobelprize.org/uploads/2023/10/nobelprizes_2023-1024x676.jpg", "https://www.nobelprize.org/wp-content/themes/nobelprize/assets/images/spinner.gif" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921 was awarded to Albert Einstein "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect"	en	https://www.nobelprize.o…avicon-50x50.png	NobelPrize.org	https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1921/einstein/nominations/	Nobel Prizes and laureates Eleven laureates were awarded a Nobel Prize in 2023, for achievements that have conferred the greatest benefit to humankind. Their work and discoveries range from effective mRNA vaccines and attosecond physics to fighting against the oppression of women. See them all presented here.
correct_award_00024	FactBench	1	39	https://byjus.com/question-answer/einstein-got-nobel-prize-on-which-of-the-following-worksmass-energy-relation-special-theory-of-1/	en	Einstein got Nobel prize on which of the following works	https://cdn1.byjus.com/i…tton-k10-k12.png	https://cdn1.byjus.com/i…tton-k10-k12.png	[ "https://search-static.byjusweb.com/assets/byjus_logo.svg", "https://search-static.byjusweb.com/assets/call.svg", "https://search-static.byjusweb.com/assets/SearchIcon.svg", "https://search-static.byjusweb.com/assets/byjus_logo.svg", "https://search-static.byjusweb.com/assets/dropdown-yellow-icon.svg", "https://search-static.byjusweb.com/assets/dropdown-yellow-icon.svg", "https://search-static.byjusweb.com/assets/dropdown-yellow-icon.svg", "https://search-static.byjusweb.com/assets/dropdown-yellow-icon.svg", "https://search-static.byjusweb.com/assets/call.svg", "https://search-static.byjusweb.com/assets/SearchIcon.svg", "https://search-static.byjusweb.com/assets/photoIcon.webp?imwidth=48 1x, https://search-static.byjusweb.com/assets/photoIcon.webp?imwidth=96 2x", "https://search-static.byjusweb.com/assets/photoIcon.webp?imwidth=48 1x, https://search-static.byjusweb.com/assets/photoIcon.webp?imwidth=96 2x", "https://search-static.byjusweb.com/assets/UploadIcon2.webp?imwidth=48 1x, https://search-static.byjusweb.com/assets/UploadIcon2.webp?imwidth=96 2x", "https://search-static.byjusweb.com/assets/Search.webp?imwidth=48 1x, https://search-static.byjusweb.com/assets/Search.webp?imwidth=96 2x", "https://search-static.byjusweb.com/assets/myquestions.webp?imwidth=48 1x, https://search-static.byjusweb.com/assets/myquestions.webp?imwidth=96 2x", "https://search-static.byjusweb.com/assets/myquestions.webp?imwidth=48 1x, https://search-static.byjusweb.com/assets/myquestions.webp?imwidth=96 2x", "https://search-static.byjusweb.com/assets/myquestions.webp?imwidth=48 1x, https://search-static.byjusweb.com/assets/myquestions.webp?imwidth=96 2x", "https://search-static.byjusweb.com/assets/Frame.webp?imwidth=32 1x, https://search-static.byjusweb.com/assets/Frame.webp?imwidth=48 2x", "https://search-static.byjusweb.com/assets/thumb.webp?imwidth=32 1x, https://search-static.byjusweb.com/assets/thumb.webp?imwidth=48 2x", "https://search-static.byjusweb.com/assets/simQue.webp?imwidth=48 1x, https://search-static.byjusweb.com/assets/simQue.webp?imwidth=96 2x", "https://search-static.byjusweb.com/assets/relVideos.svg?imwidth=64 1x, https://search-static.byjusweb.com/assets/relVideos.svg?imwidth=128 2x", "https://static.tllms.com/video_thumbnails/production/480/38792.jpg?imwidth=640 640w, https://static.tllms.com/video_thumbnails/production/480/38792.jpg?imwidth=750 750w, https://static.tllms.com/video_thumbnails/production/480/38792.jpg?imwidth=828 828w, https://static.tllms.com/video_thumbnails/production/480/38792.jpg?imwidth=1080 1080w, https://static.tllms.com/video_thumbnails/production/480/38792.jpg?imwidth=1200 1200w, https://static.tllms.com/video_thumbnails/production/480/38792.jpg?imwidth=1920 1920w, https://static.tllms.com/video_thumbnails/production/480/38792.jpg?imwidth=2048 2048w, https://static.tllms.com/video_thumbnails/production/480/38792.jpg?imwidth=3840 3840w", "https://search-static.byjusweb.com/assets/lock.svg?imwidth=32 1x, https://search-static.byjusweb.com/assets/lock.svg?imwidth=64 2x", "https://search-static.byjusweb.com/assets/ExploreMore.webp?imwidth=48 1x, https://search-static.byjusweb.com/assets/ExploreMore.webp?imwidth=96 2x", "https://search-static.byjusweb.com/assets/navigation_icons/bottomSearch_selected.svg?imwidth=32 1x, https://search-static.byjusweb.com/assets/navigation_icons/bottomSearch_selected.svg?imwidth=48 2x", "https://search-static.byjusweb.com/assets/navigation_icons/textbooks.svg?imwidth=32 1x, https://search-static.byjusweb.com/assets/navigation_icons/textbooks.svg?imwidth=48 2x", "https://search-static.byjusweb.com/assets/navigation_icons/question-papers.svg?imwidth=32 1x, https://search-static.byjusweb.com/assets/navigation_icons/question-papers.svg?imwidth=48 2x", "https://search-static.byjusweb.com/assets/navigation_icons/app_install.svg?imwidth=32 1x, https://search-static.byjusweb.com/assets/navigation_icons/app_install.svg?imwidth=48 2x", "https://search-static.byjusweb.com/assets/cross.webp?imwidth=16 1x, https://search-static.byjusweb.com/assets/cross.webp?imwidth=32 2x" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "BYJU'S" ]	2022-07-04T10:36:42+05:30	Einstein got Nobel prize on which of the following works	en	https://search-static.by…e-touch-icon.png		https://byjus.com/question-answer/einstein-got-nobel-prize-on-which-of-the-following-worksmass-energy-relation-special-theory-of-1/	Q. Here are some facts from Einstein’s life. Arrange them in chronological order. [ ] Einstein publishes his special theory of relativity. [ ] He is awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics. [ ] Einstein writes a letter to U.S. President, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and warns against Germany’s building of an atomic bomb. [ ] Einstein attends a high school in Munich. [ ] Einstein’s family moves to Milan. [ ] Einstein is born in the German city of Ulm. [ ] Einstein joins a university in Zurich, where he meets Mileva. [ ] Einstein dies. [ ] He provides a new interpretation of gravity. [ ] Tired of the school’s regimentation, Einstein withdraws from school. [ ] He works in a patent office as a technical expert. [ ] When Hitler comes to power, Einstein leaves Germany for the United States.
correct_award_00024	FactBench	0	22	https://twitter.com/NobelPrize/status/1780974843359289665	en	x.com			[]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null			https://abs.twimg.com/re…ios.77d25eba.png	X (formerly Twitter)	null
correct_award_00024	FactBench	3	2	https://www.advancedsciencenews.com/the-dramatic-story-behind-general-relativitys-nobel-prize-snub/	en	The dramatic story behind general relativity's Nobel Prize snub	https://www.advancedscie…ein-portrait.jpg	https://www.advancedscie…ein-portrait.jpg	[ "https://www.advancedsciencenews.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/ASNlogo_Stacked-color_transp1-1.png", "https://www.advancedsciencenews.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/Albert-Einstein-portrait.jpg", "https://www.advancedsciencenews.com/wp-content/uploads/wordpress-popular-posts/114999-featured-90x90.jpg", "https://www.advancedsciencenews.com/wp-content/uploads/wordpress-popular-posts/112315-featured-90x90.jpg", "https://www.advancedsciencenews.com/wp-content/uploads/wordpress-popular-posts/112814-featured-90x90.jpg", "https://www.advancedsciencenews.com/wp-content/uploads/wordpress-popular-posts/115315-featured-90x90.jpg", "https://www.advancedsciencenews.com/wp-content/uploads/wordpress-popular-posts/115144-featured-90x90.jpg", "https://www.advancedsciencenews.com/wp-content/uploads/wordpress-popular-posts/114467-featured-90x90.jpg", "https://www.advancedsciencenews.com/wp-content/uploads/wordpress-popular-posts/117388-featured-90x90.jpg", "https://www.advancedsciencenews.com/wp-content/uploads/wordpress-popular-posts/117668-featured-90x90.bmp", "https://www.advancedsciencenews.com/wp-content/uploads/wordpress-popular-posts/115042-featured-90x90.jpg", "https://www.advancedsciencenews.com/wp-content/uploads/wordpress-popular-posts/109291-featured-90x90.jpg", "https://www.advancedsciencenews.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/woodpile_Zeichenflache-1-1-400x250.jpg", "https://www.advancedsciencenews.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/Bi-4K-400x250.jpg", "https://www.advancedsciencenews.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/casey-horner-RmoWqDCqN2E-unsplash-400x250.jpg", "https://www.advancedsciencenews.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/black-hole-7734792_1280-400x250.jpg", "https://www.advancedsciencenews.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/melt-2081770_1280-400x250.jpg", "https://www.advancedsciencenews.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/aaron-lee-0lv_DR_yfyI-unsplash-400x250.jpg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Robert Friedman" ]	2022-08-10T07:00:00+00:00	More than 100 years on after Einstein's 1921 Nobel Prize, some confusion remains around the committee's reasons for omitting relativity.	en	https://www.advancedscie…uild-3-32x32.png	Advanced Science News	https://www.advancedsciencenews.com/the-dramatic-story-behind-general-relativitys-nobel-prize-snub/	On 9 November 1922, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences voted to award Albert Einstein the previously reserved 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics for “his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect.” This decision prompted several decades of speculation, especially with respect to the reason for omitting Einstein’s theories of relativity. When changes in the statutes (1974) eventually gave researchers access to official archival materials 50 years and older, historical scholarship could begin challenging conjecture and myth. Yet, as the 100th-anniversary of this prize approaches, some confusion remains as to what actually transpired and what it means. The Academy of Sciences and related official Nobel sources have long represented this episode along a line that turns out to be incompatible with the historical record. Their version in part draws on physicist Abraham Pais’s account of how Einstein got a Nobel Prize. Claiming Einstein received a prize for his theory of the photoelectric effect and attributing relativity’s absence simply to an unfortunate error in committee member Allvar Gullstrand’s evaluation, the Academy of Sciences’ narrative represents a misunderstanding and oversimplification of a much more complex and troubling history. A Swedish prerogative The Nobel Prize in physics may well be international in scope, but since its beginnings in 1901, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences has determined the outcome. During the first 50 years of proceedings that have been studied in detail, committee members relied largely on their own judgement. No juggling of statistics related to nominations — number, frequency, or origin — explains the awards. Those entitled to nominate rarely provided a clear mandate for any single candidate. Regardless, the committee seldom selected those candidates who enjoyed a consensual or even majority status from the nominators. The Swedish committee members’ own comprehension of scientific accomplishment, their own priorities as to what was important, and their own group dynamics all proved critical for the outcome. But in order to make sense of the committee reports, and the decisions recorded therein, a deeper understanding is needed of the committee members. The committee’s well-polished texts represent an after-the-fact justification for its recommendations sent to the Academy of Sciences; the final reports are not repositories of the processes of trying to arrive at a consensus. The act of writing was also an act of erasing the, at times, contentious processes marked by, let’s name it, bias, arrogance, and even pettiness. 1920: Fame, reactionary foes, and a surprise At a joint meeting of the Royal Society of London and Royal Astronomical Society held on 6 November 1919, the retired Cambridge physicist, J. J. Thomson, announced the results of the now-famous British eclipse expeditions. Notwithstanding a number of inconclusive photographic plates, a sufficient amount of reliable data confirmed the minute bending of starlight by the sun’s mass that Einstein had predicted based on his general theory of relativity. In Europe, still recovering from the horror of world war and anxious over political and social upheavals in its wake, news of a theory that overthrew the foundations of physics, and glimpses of its highly unconventional creator, attracted media attention. During the first half of 1920, not only did much of the scientific community recognize Einstein for his achievement, but the ever-growing mass media’s attention also helped generate a world-wide fascination with relativity. Scarcely understood by the general public, relativity nevertheless assumed an unprecedented role as symbol for the new uncertain era emerging from the ruins and upheavals of war and revolution. Political movements on both ends of the political spectrum began to embrace or attack relativity for their causes. Not necessarily to his liking, Einstein was transforming into an international celebrity the likes of which was unprecedented. Not all physicists accepted the British results as valid proof of Einstein’s theory; and not all physicists were intellectually equipped or willing to understand the theory. Einstein was no stranger to the Nobel committee. He had been nominated as early as 1910; a trickle of nominations turned by 1917 into modest but substantial annual support. Although for 1920 few nominators sent in proposals, Einstein dominated the sparse list. These included nominations from Niels Bohr and several Dutch physicists including laureates, H. A. Lorentz, Heike Kamerlingh-Onnes, and Pieter Zeeman. No doubt, some eligible nominators did not participate as a protest over a German sweep of science prizes in 1919 — Max Planck, Johannes Stark, and Fritz Haber — seemingly in defiance of the Allied nations’ boycott of German science. The five-member Nobel Committee for Physics was dominated, as it had been from the start, by Swedish physicists with a strong commitment to an experimentalist creed that largely relegated sophisticated theory and mathematics to an insignificant role in the advance of physics. In its 1920 general report to the Academy, the committee dismissed Einstein based on [a special report by committee member Svante Arrhenius] on the degree to which Einstein’s predictions based on relativity theory had been confirmed — the bending of starlight passing near the sun, the irregularities in Mercury’s orbit, and a shift toward the red end in the solar spectrum. Much of his brief seven-page report emphasized the negative claims against relativity, including those from some of Einstein’s most ardent German detractors. Arrhenius completed his report during the first half of August 1920, just when German anti-Einstein agitation was becoming more public and more virulent. Arrhenius refers to some of the extremist anti-relativity literature in his seven-page special report for the Nobel committee. After briefly noting general relativity’s ability to account for the minute irregularities in Mercury’s perihelion motion that Newtonian mechanics fails to explain, he then devotes over a half page to Ernst Gehrcke’s [previously published] criticism of Einstein on this largely undisputed success for relativity. According to Gehrcke, this anomaly had already been resolved decades earlier by a little-known German researcher, Paul Gerber. Based on classical aether-physics, Gerber’s achievement meant there was no need to accept Einstein’s revolutionary reformulation of space and time to account for this puzzling phenomenon. When Einstein had earlier refused to respond to these claims, Gehrcke began to accuse Einstein of plagiarism, which in turn, became a common charge by the far-right against him and relativity. Arrhenius failed however to mention that Max von Laue and other [supporters] had earlier decidedly refuted and repeatedly dismissed Gehrcke’s argument, by having demonstrated serious errors in Gerber’s calculations. Turning to the British eclipse results, Arrhenius accepted the skeptics’ argument that the margin of experimental error was larger than the effect to be measured. He declared that these results cannot be admitted as evidence as questions remain about their degree of exactness. He then notes that all efforts to identify a redshift in the solar spectrum had failed. Arrhenius closed his report, dated 17 August 1920, with several references to literature by various anti-Einstein writers. In a highly unusual practice, he cites articles published in newspapers, largely the ultranationalist Deutsche Zeitung. These included contributions from scientifically and politically dubious authors, such as Hermann Fricke and Johannes Riem, the latter an openly antisemitic Christian opponent of what he considered “Jewish materialism.” Also mentioned are the “fanciful and fanatic publications” of Rudolf Mewes, a reactionary anti-Semite who supported restoring the Kaiser and opposed the alleged conspiracy to replace true German science with Jewish abstract, derivative knowledge. Arrhenius includes a comment that for the upcoming national meeting of German natural scientists at Bad Nauheim in September, preparations were underway for a “neutralizing [oskadliggörande]” of Einstein from “all layers of all the natural-science disciplines.” Toward that goal, both Gehrcke and Lenard, among others, were expected to be the main presenters. Arrhenius concludes his evaluation with a quotation from Lenard’s recently reprinted polemic against relativity followed by an abrupt ending consisting of Lenard’s assertion that much of Einstein’s theory must be recognized as “untrustworthy [ovederhäftig].” The report takes little notice of what the nominators and others found valuable in Einstein’s work. While he wrote his report, the full extent of the extremist political and racist background to much of the German anti-Einstein movement may not have been clear. Still, Weyland and Lenard’s letters coupled with the fact that Lenard and Gehrcke had long been highly critical of relativity were clear indicators of the evolving situation in Germany. Moreover, he met officially and privately in June 1920 with Einstein-supporters, Planck and von Laue, as well as with the ultranationalist relativity-opponent Stark, when they all attended the Nobel ceremony. With his deep concern for German science, it is inconceivable that Arrhenius did not discuss current events with them. He enjoyed especially good relations with both Planck and Stark, the latter had recently arranged an honorary doctorate from Greifswald University in which he emphasized nordic Arrhenius’s role in helping German science and the common racial, religious, cultural, and political heritage of their nations. It remains puzzling why Arrhenius included this literature in his report and why, when he shortly thereafter must have understood the unsavory political and racial views expressed by many of the major German opponents of relativity, he remained silent. What Arrhenius actually thought of Einstein and relativity is difficult to pin down. His extensive correspondence reveals no particular interest in relativity; he was not a passionate opponent as were several others on the Nobel committee. Still, Arrhenius might well have been surprised and dismayed by Einstein’s response to his letter of sympathy and solidarity sent to many German scientists in the aftermath of defeat in November 1918. Einstein expressed glee over the end of the Kaiser’s Empire and declared himself to be a democrat and republican, who was deeply concerned with issues of human rights. Neither Arrhenius nor his many close relationships in German science were democrats or republicans. 1921: Bias and arrogance By 1921, Einstein’s status in the physics community was consolidated. As part of this process, he had received comparatively broad international public support from Nobel Prize nominators. Some, such as [the Dutch physicist, H. A.] Lorentz and Planck, portrayed Einstein’s status as being that of a scientific giant, the likes of which has not been seen since Newton. Both theoretical and experimental physicists proposed Einstein for the Nobel, especially for his work on relativity. Some claimed that it would be difficult to consider other candidates without first seeing Einstein recognized. Einstein’s mandate overshadowed all other candidates. Gullstrand took it upon himself to write a detailed report on Einstein’s relativity and gravitational theories. Gullstrand, a brilliant contributor to physiological and geometric optics, defined himself as both ophthalmologist and physicist. He is largely remembered for his path-breaking instrumental innovations for studying the eye and his complex analyses of the eye as an optical system. He received the 1911 Nobel Prize in medicine. Gullstrand’s extraordinary talents were accompanied by stubbornness and arrogance. For over 25 years, he refused to admit error after concluding that the retinal macula, responsible for color vision, was devoid of yellow coloring. Similarly, he rejected advice to abandon his personal cumbersome and confusing form of mathematical analysis when more expedient, and more readily comprehensible forms, became available. Like Arrhenius, his command of recent theoretical physics was limited. Gullstrand’s unusually long, 50-page evaluative report appears at first glance to be comprehensive and to engage with details of Einstein’s work. Closer inspection shows an internal logic based on the premise that Einstein cannot be right. By 1921, the political and racial aspects of the German anti-Einstein campaign was well known, yet Gullstrand explicitly stated that he accepts the content and conclusion of Arrhenius’ 1920 evaluation. Gullstrand aimed at defusing those aspects of Einstein’s theory that called for “an overhaul of the commonsense foundations of mechanics.” According to Gullstrand that which remained once Einstein’s errors and unproven assertions were eliminated could best be treated successfully by classical mechanics. He refers to literature written by Einstein’s supporters as being subjective, delivering unsound and insufficiently proven claims from a “cult of believers.” “Belief” rather than evidence-based scientific reasoning recurs several times in Gullstrand’s discussions of those who accept Einstein’s theories. No similar criticisms are directed toward Einstein’s opponents. Gullstrand does not explicitly refer to Gehrcke’s arguments related to Einstein’s treatment of the Mercury perihelion anomaly; no doubt because he presented his own critique and explanation. The British eclipse data, according to Gullstrand, are useless. Even if the minute bending of starlight actually received confirmation, that would not constitute proof of Einstein’s 4D space-time. He based that conclusion on a little-known Norwegian-language, semipopular scientific article by meteorologist and aether-physicist Vilhelm Bjerknes. Gullstrand refers extensively to Bjerknes’ effort to account for the deflection using classical physics. In the end, Gullstrand asserts that Einstein’s theories are devoid of any real content and have no relationship with physical reality; they lacked “the significance for physics for which an awarding with a Nobel Prize can come into question.” The committee accepted Gullstrand’s evaluation and recommended to the Academy that because no candidate was deemed worthy, the prize for 1921 should be reserved until 1922. No member of the Nobel committee accepted the British data as valid evidence As usual, the minutes of the full Academy’s Nobel meeting record only the result of the vote, and little more. Still, a number of archival sources provide some insight into the event. The Academy’s discussion revealed gaps in Gullstrand’s command of physics and, in an emotional outburst, also his prejudice. Indeed, in spite of devoting almost a year aiming to prove Einstein wrong, his efforts to master the mathematical and theoretical details proved insufficient. While working on his report, Gullstrand occasionally had discussed his objections to Einstein’s theories with [theoretical physicist Carl Wilhelm] Oseen, who tended to respond very quickly by pointing out Gullstrand’s misunderstandings. Oseen told the younger theoretical physicist, Oskar Klein, about these tribulations while noting that Gullstrand was hindering a prize for Einstein. Oseen confessed to Arnold Sommerfeld that it was a misfortune Gullstrand had to evaluate theoretical work that he did not understand. A rebellion that year in the Academy against the committee was unlikely. Many if not most members of the Academy were staunchly conservative politically and scientifically. Equally important, the Academy’s culture of deference to authority meant that voting against Gullstrand’s conclusions would constitute a grave insult, especially when he, one of Sweden’s most accomplished scientists, was so adamantly opposed to Einstein. It mattered little that leading international physicists had praised Einstein as the greatest living representative of their discipline and had declared his accomplishments in relativity theory to be among the most significant in the history of science. Local “expertise” had spoken; the Academy guarded its own authority and its own right to assess and judge. For 1922, Einstein again dominated the nominations. Bohr also received strong support. Gullstrand supplemented his report. He rejected suggestions of bringing in a foreign expert to assist with the evaluation. Privately he declared that Einstein must never receive a Nobel Prize. He continued to adhere to Gehrcke’s argument that mass suggestion created the popular mania over relativity. Gullstrand agreed that new discoveries will soon reveal Einstein’s hoax; the enormous interest in relativity will then rapidly “evaporate [fördunsta].” Again, Gullstrand ignored the nominators’ enthusiastic declarations and extraordinary praise. From his perspective, even scientists can succumb to mass suggestion. As in 1921, Gullstrand declared that Einstein’s theories lack the significance for physics needed to be considered for a Nobel Prize. The committee accepted this judgement without any formal dissent. 1922: Enter a master of strategy In addition to Einstein’s contributions to relativity and gravitation theory, some nominators had also been praising his many other seminal contributions as warranting a prize. These included his work with quantum theory, especially through his theories of the photoelectric effect and of specific heat of solids; others mentioned his work related to Brownian motion and kinetic theory. In both 1921 and 1922, one lone nominator, Oseen, specified Einstein’s discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect. He chose his words with care. The law of the photoelectric effect emerged in connection with Einstein’s 1905 paper “On a Heuristic Point of View Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light,” where he suggested that light behaves at times as discrete, individual particles. Few physicists at first accepted Einstein’s claim for a corpuscular nature of light. A number of scientists gradually provided experimental data that tended to confirm the law. When the committee met early in 1922 to assign reports, it accepted the need for greater expertise in theoretical physics. It petitioned the Academy in May to coopt Oseen for the committee as an ad hoc member. Once on the committee in June, he insisted on maintaining a clear demarcation between his own nomination of the discovery of the law and those that specified the theory of the photoelectric effect. Oseen wanted Einstein to receive a prize, but not for relativity; equally significant, he strongly supported awarding a prize to Bohr. Oseen had long supported Bohr’s professional development and admired his quantum theory of the atom and its unexpected successes as something of great beauty. The Nobel committee had been dismissing Bohr’s candidacy on the basis that his quantum theory of the atom was in conflict with physical reality. Oseen understood the need for caution. He long despaired over the Academy and committee physicists’ lack of understanding of, and antagonism toward quantum theory. Now, with a brilliant strategic plan, Oseen recognized how he could overcome committee resistance to both Einstein and Bohr. Oseen understood that he not only needed to be wary of the general lack of sympathy for quantum theory among Academy physicists, but he also had to overcome past committee evaluations. In particular, in 1921 Arrhenius wrote a short report for the committee on the theory of the photoelectric effect. He argued that regardless of Einstein’s genius-like insights, quantum theory was largely developed by others. Moreover, he concluded that it would seem odd to recognize Einstein for this considerably “less significant” accomplishment than for relativity and other work, such as related to Brownian motion. He recommended rejecting Oseen’s initial 1921 nomination for the discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect. With Arrhenius’s prior assessment in mind and wanting to defuse potential opposition, Oseen closed his evaluation with a discussion on the relative significance of Einstein’s many accomplishments. Rejecting any universal hierarchy of importance, he suggests that each type of researcher considers its own preferred Einstein achievement as the most significant. He then provides a list, so that, for example, theoretical physicists might be drawn to Einstein’s contributions to quantum theory; mathematical physicists and epistemologists would be most attracted to the general theory of relativity. And for “the measuring physicist” —the type of physical scientist most represented and admired in the Academy—no work of Einstein’s can compete in significance with the discovery of a new fundamental law of nature, the law of the photoelectric effect. Oseen then wrote an evaluation of Bohr’s quantum model of the atom. By emphasizing the very close bond between Einstein’s empirically proven fundamental law of nature and Bohr’s theory, Oseen overcame the committee’s earlier charges of speculative theory in conflict with the established laws of physics. Oseen convinced his colleagues in the committee to accept his proposals for the two physics prizes to be awarded in 1922. When the Academy took up the committee recommendations, dissent emerged over the official motivation for Einstein’s prize. According to Mittag-Leffler’s diary entry, a long discussion ensued over competing suggestions for the wording. Finally, a proposal from conservative Former Prime-Minister, Hjalmar Hammarsköld “won”: relativity was not to be mentioned. This would indicate that further criticism of Gullstrand’s evaluation must have emerged. Mittag-Leffler, for one, wished to include both relativity and the discovery of the law in the official motivation for the prize. He disapproved as “a dangerous precedent” the vague general phrase relating to Einstein’s contributions to theoretical physics. After the vote, the Academy made it clear that relativity should not be mentioned on the Nobel diploma or in any other official documentation. Historigraphical Remarks At the Nobel ceremony in December 1922, a tendency began of clouding the record of how the committee and Academy processed Einstein’s strongly supported candidacy (Einstein, who was away in Japan, did not attend). Of course, the statutes required secrecy, yet when Arrhenius delivered introductory comments about Einstein’s prize, he felt compelled to explain why the ever-so-prominent theory of relativity was not being recognized. Although such ceremonial presentations are normally dubious sources for the history of discovery and of committee’s actions, Arrhenius’s presentation is especially problematic. He presented a misleading narrative. He explained the omission of relativity as it “… pertains essentially to epistemology and has therefore been the subject of lively debate in philosophical circles. It will be no secret that the famous philosopher [Henri] Bergson in Paris has challenged this theory, while other philosophers have acclaimed it wholeheartedly.” The message here being that relativity belongs to philosophy and not physics. Regardless, if special and general relativity were at best philosophical exercises, why then did so many prominent physicists nominate Einstein for a Nobel physics prize for his work on relativity? Why, for example, did the Italians award their Medaglia Matteucci physics prize in 1921 to Einstein for relativity? Arrhenius’s comments subsequently stimulated research and speculation on the role of Swedish philosophers’ attitudes to relativity and their relevance for the outcome in the Academy. Einstein’s differences with Bergson have even been declared to be the reason why relativity was denied a prize. Although Swedish philosophers debated relativity, no evidence exists that they had any influence on committee evaluations or Academy decisions. In August 1981, the first detailed analysis of the Einstein prize, including the preliminary recognition of the critical roles of Gullstrand and Oseen, was presented at a Nobel Symposium and in Nature. An alternative and less controversial narrative was written the following year by Einstein biographer, Abraham Pais with the help of the secretary of the Nobel Committee for Physics, Bengt Nagel. This work is the origin of the mistaken claim that Einstein received a prize for the theory of the photoelectric effect as well as the simplified notion that Gullstrand merely made an unfortunate mistake in his evaluation as the reason for the lack of recognition of relativity. While this certified — indeed let’s call it what it is — sanitized version of history is certainly the more pleasant, there is very little that we, as a scientific community, can learn from a simple “mistake”. The development of general relativity is one of the most impressive scientific feats of the 20th century. The fact that the community’s most prestigious scientific award never recognized this achievement is at best an anomaly and at worst a scandal. When the time is taken to properly interrogate the deeply flawed process that led to relativity being snubbed, we can see the toxic effect of contemporary politics and bigotry on the science of the day. Whether or not a scientific advancement is worthy of recognition by the scientific establishment should have nothing to do with the race, gender, religion, social background, or the politics of the scientists involved. These events occurred in the not-too-distant past. While much progress has been made in recent decades within academia to try eradicating bigotry and prejudice from science, we must accept that such pernicious influences can again creep into the community. It is incumbent on scientists to regard history as more than an opportunity for celebration. Only by embracing the full texture of science past and by remembering and understanding what took place not so long ago, can we protect against new incursions of ideas that are antithetical to the ideals we hold for science. This article was originally published in Annalen der Physik’s ongoing “Then and now” series, which is dedicated to the history of physics. The article has been modified for this website version. Access the full article here: Robert Marc Friedman, The 100th Anniversary of Einstein’s Nobel Prize: Facts and Fiction, Annalen der Physik (2022). DOI: 10.1002/andp.202200305
correct_award_00024	FactBench	1	81	https://starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/StarChild/whos_who_level2/einstein.html	en	Albert Einstein			[ "https://starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov/Images/heasarc/icons/shut_l.gif", "https://starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov/Images/StarChild/scientists/einstein_l2.gif", "https://starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov/Images/StarChild/icons/data_girl.gif", "https://starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov/Images/StarChild/icons/whol2_button_know.gif", "https://starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov/Images/StarChild/icons/whol2_button_answer.gif", "https://starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov/Images/StarChild/icons/staricon.gif", "https://starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov/Images/StarChild/imagine_small.gif" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null					null	Can You Believe It? There is a crater on the Moon named after Albert Einstein. Albert Einstein was born in 1879 in Ulm, Germany. He was the first child born to Hermann and Pauline Einstein. Though he attended school as a young boy, he also received instruction at home on Judaism and violin. By the age of twelve he had taught himself geometry. At the age of sixteen he failed an exam in order to qualify to train as an electrical engineer. He remained in school and developed a new plan for his future. Einstein decided to study math and physics so he could become a teacher. Einstein thought he would be good at this because he could think mathematically and abstractly while lacking imagination and practicality. In 1896 he renounced his German citizenship. He was not a citizen of any country until 1901 when he became a citizen of Switzerland. In 1900 he graduated as a teacher of math and physics. His teachers did not think very highly of him though so he had difficulty being recommended for a job at a university. In 1901 he took a job as a temporary high school teacher and married Mileva Maritsch. The couple had two sons prior to divorcing. Einstein later married his cousin Elsa Einstein. From 1902 through 1909, Einstein worked in a patent office in Bern, Switzerland. While working in the patent office he published many papers on theoretical physics. He earned a Ph.D. in 1905. In 1905 Einstein wrote a paper on what is now known as the special theory of relativity. This paper contained two hypotheses. The first stated that the laws of physics had to have the same form in any frame of reference. The second hypothesis stated that the speed of light was a constant. Later that year Einstein also showed how mass and energy were equivalent. Following an impressive few years of work, Einstein became a lecturer at the University of Bern. In 1909 he finally got a post at a university when he became a faculty member at the University of Zurich. In 1911 Einstein taught at Carl-Ferdinand University in Prague. The following year he returned to Germany to continue his work. In 1916 Einstein published his general theory of relativity. This theory linked gravitation, acceleration and the four dimensional space-time. With this theory he was able to account for the variations in the orbital motions of the planets. He also predicted that starlight in the vicinity of a massive object such as the Sun could be bent. This was confirmed in 1919 during a solar eclipse. This further increased the adulation with which the press viewed Einstein. He won the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1921 for his work on the photoelectric effect. This work proposed that light be considered as consisting of particles called photons. Einstein further proposed that the energy the photon contains is proportional to the frequency of the radiation. Einstein was not only a scientist, but also a social activist and a humanitarian. He spoke out against the German involvement in World War I. In 1920 a demonstration interrupted a lecture given by Einstein in Berlin. There was also growing criticism of his work by certain Germans. Einstein felt the disruptions and criticisms were occurring because he was Jewish. Einstein traveled the world lecturing and raising funds for a planned Hebrew University in Jerusalem. His hectic lifestyle led to a physical collapse in 1928. By 1930 he was once again travelling the world, especially the United States. On one of these visits, he was offered a post with the Institute for Advanced Study near Princeton University. Einstein accepted, believing that he would spend seven months of the year in Munich and five months of the year in the United States. In December of 1932 he left for the United States. A month after his departure the Nazis assumed control of Germany. Einstein never returned to Germany. In 1935 Einstein was granted permanent residency in the United States and became a citizen in 1940. In 1944 he hand wrote his 1905 theory on relativity and allowed it to be auctioned. It sold for six million dollars, which he donated to the effort to win World War II. The work resides in the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C. By 1949 Einstein was in failing health. His health was so bad that when offered the presidency of Israel in 1952 he had to decline it. In 1955, one week prior to his death, he agreed to have his name appear on a manifesto calling for the end to nuclear weapons. He died in April of 1955 in Princeton, New Jersey. Einstein was cremated and his ashes were spread at an undisclosed location. Did you know? The Answer The StarChild site is a service of the High Energy Astrophysics Science Archive Research Center (HEASARC), within the Astrophysics Science Division (ASD) at NASA/ GSFC.
correct_award_00024	FactBench	1	97	https://historytimelines.co/timeline/albert-einstein	en	History Timeline	https://d1muf25xaso8hp.c…ss&dpr=1&fit=max	https://d1muf25xaso8hp.c…ss&dpr=1&fit=max	[]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	A History Timeline About Albert Einstein. Albert Einstein was a German-born physicist who revolutionized the field of physics with his theory ...	en	https://d1muf25xaso8hp.c…ss&dpr=1&fit=max	History Timelines	https://historytimelines.co/timeline/albert-einstein
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Read about his inventions, IQ, wives, death, and more.	en	/_assets/design-tokens/biography/static/images/favicon.3635572.ico	Biography	https://www.biography.com/scientists/albert-einstein	1879-1955 Who Was Albert Einstein? Albert Einstein was a German mathematician and physicist who developed the special and general theories of relativity. In 1921, he won the Nobel Prize in Physics for his explanation of the photoelectric effect. In the following decade, he immigrated to the United States after being targeted by the German Nazi Party. His work also had a major impact on the development of atomic energy. In his later years, Einstein focused on unified field theory. He died in April 1955 at age 76. With his passion for inquiry, Einstein is generally considered the most influential physicist of the 20th century. Quick Facts FULL NAME: Albert Einstein BORN: March 14, 1879 DIED: April 18, 1955 BIRTHPLACE: Ulm, Württemberg, Germany SPOUSES: Mileva Einstein-Maric (1903-1919) and Elsa Einstein (1919-1936) CHILDREN: Lieserl, Hans, and Eduard ASTROLOGICAL SIGN: Pisces Early Life, Family, and Education Albert Einstein was born on March 14, 1879, in Ulm, Württemberg, Germany. He grew up in a secular Jewish family. His father, Hermann Einstein, was a salesman and engineer who, with his brother, founded Elektrotechnische Fabrik J. Einstein & Cie, a Munich-based company that mass-produced electrical equipment. Einstein’s mother, the former Pauline Koch, ran the family household. Einstein had one sister, Maja, born two years after him. Einstein attended elementary school at the Luitpold Gymnasium in Munich. However, he felt alienated there and struggled with the institution’s rigid pedagogical style. He also had what were considered speech challenges. However, he developed a passion for classical music and playing the violin, which would stay with him into his later years. Most significantly, Einstein’s youth was marked by deep inquisitiveness and inquiry. Toward the end of the 1880s, Max Talmud, a Polish medical student who sometimes dined with the Einstein family, became an informal tutor to young Einstein. Talmud had introduced his pupil to a children’s science text that inspired Einstein to dream about the nature of light. Thus, during his teens, Einstein penned what would be seen as his first major paper, “The Investigation of the State of Aether in Magnetic Fields.” Hermann relocated the family to Milan, Italy, in the mid-1890s after his business lost out on a major contract. Einstein was left at a relative’s boarding house in Munich to complete his schooling at the Luitpold. Faced with military duty when he turned of age, Einstein allegedly withdrew from classes, using a doctor’s note to excuse himself and claim nervous exhaustion. With their son rejoining them in Italy, his parents understood Einstein’s perspective but were concerned about his future prospects as a school dropout and draft dodger. Einstein was eventually able to gain admission into the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich, specifically due to his superb mathematics and physics scores on the entrance exam. He was still required to complete his pre-university education first and thus attended a high school in Aarau, Switzerland, helmed by Jost Winteler. Einstein lived with the schoolmaster’s family and fell in love with Winteler’s daughter Marie. Einstein later renounced his German citizenship and became a Swiss citizen at the dawn of the new century. Einstein’s IQ Einstein’s intelligence quotient was estimated to be around 160, but there are no indications he was ever actually tested. Psychologist David Wechsler didn’t release the first edition of the WAIS cognitive test, which evolved into the WAIS-IV test commonly used today, until 1955—shortly before Einstein’s death. The maximum score of the current version is 160, with an IQ of 135 or higher ranking in the 99th percentile. Magazine columnist Marilyn vos Savant has the highest-ever recorded IQ at 228 and was featured in the Guinness Book of World Records in the late 1980s. However, Guinness discontinued the category because of debates about testing accuracy. According to Parade, individuals believed to have higher IQs than Einstein include Leonardo Da Vinci, Marie Curie, Nikola Tesla, and Nicolaus Copernicus. Patent Clerk After graduating from university, Einstein faced major challenges in terms of finding academic positions, having alienated some professors over not attending class more regularly in lieu of studying independently. Einstein eventually found steady work in 1902 after receiving a referral for a clerk position in a Swiss patent office. While working at the patent office, Einstein had the time to further explore ideas that had taken hold during his university studies and thus cemented his theorems on what would be known as the principle of relativity. In 1905—seen by many as a “miracle year” for the theorist—Einstein had four papers published in the Annalen der Physik, one of the best-known physics journals of the era. Two focused on the photoelectric effect and Brownian motion. The two others, which outlined E=MC2 and the special theory of relativity, were defining for Einstein’s career and the course of the study of physics. Inventions and Discoveries As a physicist, Einstein had many discoveries, but he is perhaps best known for his theory of relativity and the equation E=MC2, which foreshadowed the development of atomic power and the atomic bomb. Theory of Relativity Einstein first proposed a special theory of relativity in 1905 in his paper “On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies,” which took physics in an electrifying new direction. The theory explains that space and time are actually connected, and Einstein called this joint structure space-time. By November 1915, Einstein completed the general theory of relativity, which accounted for gravity’s relationship to space-time. Einstein considered this theory the culmination of his life research. He was convinced of the merits of general relativity because it allowed for a more accurate prediction of planetary orbits around the sun, which fell short in Isaac Newton’s theory. It also offered a more expansive, nuanced explanation of how gravitational forces worked. Einstein’s assertions were affirmed via observations and measurements by British astronomers Sir Frank Dyson and Sir Arthur Eddington during the 1919 solar eclipse, and thus a global science icon was born. Today, the theories of relativity underpin the accuracy of GPS technology, among other phenomena. Even so, Einstein did make one mistake when developing his general theory, which naturally predicted the universe is either expanding or contracting. Einstein didn’t believe this prediction initially, instead holding onto the belief that the universe was a fixed, static entity. To account for, this he factored in a “cosmological constant” to his equation. His later theories directly contracted this idea and asserted that the universe could be in a state of flux. Then, astronomer Edwin Hubble deduced that we indeed inhabit an expanding universe. Hubble and Einstein met at the Mount Wilson Observatory near Los Angeles in 1931. Decades after Einstein’s death, in 2018, a team of scientists confirmed one aspect of Einstein’s general theory of relativity: that the light from a star passing close to a black hole would be stretched to longer wavelengths by the overwhelming gravitational field. Tracking star S2, their measurements indicated that the star’s orbital velocity increased to over 25 million kph as it neared the supermassive black hole at the center of the galaxy, its appearance shifting from blue to red as its wavelengths stretched to escape the pull of gravity. Einstein’s E=MC² Einstein’s 1905 paper on the matter-energy relationship proposed the equation E=MC²: the energy of a body (E) is equal to the mass (M) of that body times the speed of light squared (C²). This equation suggested that tiny particles of matter could be converted into huge amounts of energy, a discovery that heralded atomic power. Famed quantum theorist Max Planck backed up the assertions of Einstein, who thus became a star of the lecture circuit and academia, taking on various positions before becoming director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics (today is known as the Max Planck Institute for Physics) from 1917 to 1933. Nobel Prize in Physics In 1921, Einstein won the Nobel Prize in Physics for his explanation of the photoelectric effect, since his ideas on relativity were still considered questionable. He wasn’t actually given the award until the following year due to a bureaucratic ruling, and during his acceptance speech, he still opted to speak about relativity. Wives and Children Albert Einstein with his second wife, Elsa Einstein married Mileva Maric on January 6, 1903. While attending school in Zurich, Einstein met Maric, a Serbian physics student. Einstein continued to grow closer to Maric, but his parents were strongly against the relationship due to her ethnic background. Nonetheless, Einstein continued to see her, with the two developing a correspondence via letters in which he expressed many of his scientific ideas. Einstein’s father passed away in 1902, and the couple married shortly thereafter. Einstein and Mavic had three children. Their daughter, Lieserl, was born in 1902 before their wedding and might have been later raised by Maric’s relatives or given up for adoption. Her ultimate fate and whereabouts remain a mystery. The couple also had two sons: Hans Albert Einstein, who became a well-known hydraulic engineer, and Eduard “Tete” Einstein, who was diagnosed with schizophrenia as a young man. The Einsteins’ marriage would not be a happy one, with the two divorcing in 1919 and Maric having an emotional breakdown in connection to the split. Einstein, as part of a settlement, agreed to give Maric any funds he might receive from possibly winning the Nobel Prize in the future. During his marriage to Maric, Einstein had also begun an affair some time earlier with a cousin, Elsa Löwenthal. The couple wed in 1919, the same year of Einstein’s divorce. He would continue to see other women throughout his second marriage, which ended with Löwenthal’s death in 1936. Travel Diaries In his 40s, Einstein traveled extensively and journaled about his experiences. Some of his unfiltered private thoughts are shared two volumes of The Travel Diaries of Albert Einstein. , published in 2018, focuses on his five-and-a-half month trip to the Far East, Palestine, and Spain. The scientist started a sea journey to Japan in Marseille, France, in autumn of 1922, accompanied by his second wife, Elsa. They journeyed through the Suez Canal, then to Sri Lanka, Singapore, Hong Kong, Shanghai, and Japan. The couple returned to Germany via Palestine and Spain in March 1923. , released in 2023, covers three months that he spent lecturing and traveling in Argentina, Uruguay, and Brazil in 1925. The Travel Diaries contain unflattering analyses of the people he came across, including the Chinese, Sri Lankans, and Argentinians, a surprise coming from a man known for vehemently denouncing racism in his later years. In an entry for November 1922, Einstein refers to residents of Hong Kong as “industrious, filthy, lethargic people.” Becoming a U.S. Citizen In 1933, Einstein took on a position at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, where he would spend the rest of his life. At the time the Nazis, led by Adolf Hitler, were gaining prominence with violent propaganda and vitriol in an impoverished post-World War I Germany. The Nazi Party influenced other scientists to label Einstein’s work “Jewish physics.” Jewish citizens were barred from university work and other official jobs, and Einstein himself was targeted to be killed. Meanwhile, other European scientists also left regions threatened by Germany and immigrated to the United States, with concern over Nazi strategies to create an atomic weapon. Not long after moving and beginning his career at IAS, Einstein expressed an appreciation for American meritocracy and the opportunities people had for free thought, a stark contrast to his own experiences coming of age. In 1935, Einstein was granted permanent residency in his adopted country and became an American citizen five years later. In America, Einstein mostly devoted himself to working on a unified field theory, an all-embracing paradigm meant to unify the varied laws of physics. However, during World War II, he worked on Navy-based weapons systems and made big monetary donations to the military by auctioning off manuscripts worth millions. Einstein and the Atomic Bomb Albert Einstein gives a speech denouncing the use of hydrogen bombs in 1950. In 1939, Einstein and fellow physicist Leo Szilard wrote to President Franklin D. Roosevelt to alert him of the possibility of a Nazi bomb and to galvanize the United States to create its own nuclear weapons. The United States would eventually initiate the Manhattan Project, though Einstein wouldn’t take a direct part in its implementation due to his pacifist and socialist affiliations. Einstein was also the recipient of much scrutiny and major distrust from FBI director J. Edgar Hoover. In July 1940, the U.S. Army Intelligence office denied Einstein a security clearance to participate in the project, meaning J. Robert Oppenheimer and the scientists working in Los Alamos were forbidden from consulting with him. Einstein had no knowledge of the U.S. plan to use atomic bombs in Japan in 1945. When he heard of the first bombing at Hiroshima, he reportedly said, “Ach! The world is not ready for it.” Einstein became a major player in efforts to curtail usage of the A-bomb. The following year, he and Szilard founded the Emergency Committee of Atomic Scientists, and in 1947, via an essay for The Atlantic Monthly, Einstein espoused working with the United Nations to maintain nuclear weapons as a deterrent to conflict. Time Travel and Quantum Theory After World War II, Einstein continued to work on his unified field theory and key aspects of his general theory of relativity, including time travel, wormholes, black holes, and the origins of the universe. However, he felt isolated in his endeavors since the majority of his colleagues had begun focusing their attention on quantum theory. In the last decade of his life, Einstein, who had always seen himself as a loner, withdrew even further from any sort of spotlight, preferring to stay close to Princeton and immerse himself in processing ideas with colleagues. Personal Life In the late 1940s, Einstein became a member of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), seeing the parallels between the treatment of Jews in Germany and Black people in the United States. He corresponded with scholar and activist W.E.B. Du Bois as well as performer Paul Robeson and campaigned for civil rights, calling racism a “disease” in a 1946 Lincoln University speech. Einstein was very particular about his sleep schedule, claiming he needed 10 hours of sleep per day to function well. His theory of relativity allegedly came to him in a dream about cows being electrocuted. He was also known to take regular naps. He is said to have held objects like a spoon or pencil in his hand while falling asleep. That way, he could wake up before hitting the second stage of sleep—a hypnagogic process believed to boost creativity and capture sleep-inspired ideas. Although sleep was important to Einstein, socks were not. He was famous for refusing to wear them. According to a letter he wrote to future wife Elsa, he stopped wearing them because he was annoyed by his big toe pushing through the material and creating a hole. Albert Einstein sticks his tongue out in a famous 1951 photo from his birthday party. One of the most recognizable photos of the 20th century shows Einstein sticking out his tongue while leaving his 72nd birthday party on March 14, 1951. According to Discovery.com, Einstein was leaving his party at Princeton when a swarm of reporters and photographers approached and asked him to smile. Tired from doing so all night, he refused and rebelliously stuck his tongue out at the crowd for a moment before turning away. UPI photographer Arthur Sasse captured the shot. Einstein was amused by the picture and ordered several prints to give to his friends. He also signed a copy of the photo that sold for $125,000 at a 2017 auction. Death and Final Words Einstein died on April 18, 1955, at age 76 at the University Medical Center at Princeton. The previous day, while working on a speech to honor Israel’s seventh anniversary, Einstein suffered an abdominal aortic aneurysm. He was taken to the hospital for treatment but refused surgery, believing that he had lived his life and was content to accept his fate. “I want to go when I want,” he stated at the time. “It is tasteless to prolong life artificially. I have done my share, it is time to go. I will do it elegantly.” According to the BBC, Einstein muttered a few words in German at the moment of his death. However, the nurse on duty didn’t speak German so their translation was lost forever. In a 2014 interview, Life magazine photographer Ralph Morse said the hospital was swarmed by journalists, photographers, and onlookers once word of Einstein’s death spread. Morse decided to travel to Einstein’s office at the Institute for Advanced Studies, offering the superintendent alcohol to gain access. He was able to photograph the office just as Einstein left it. After an autopsy, Einstein’s corpse was moved to a Princeton funeral home later that afternoon and then taken to Trenton, New Jersey, for a cremation ceremony. Morse said he was the only photographer present for the cremation, but Life managing editor Ed Thompson decided not to publish an exclusive story at the request of Einstein’s son Hans. Einstein’s Brain During Einstein’s autopsy, pathologist Thomas Stoltz Harvey had removed his brain, reportedly without his family’s consent, for preservation and future study by doctors of neuroscience. However, during his life, Einstein participated in brain studies, and at least one biography claimed he hoped researchers would study his brain after he died. Einstein’s brain is now located at the Princeton University Medical Center. In keeping with his wishes, the rest of his body was cremated and the ashes scattered in a secret location. In 1999, Canadian scientists who were studying Einstein’s brain found that his inferior parietal lobe, the area that processes spatial relationships, 3D-visualization, and mathematical thought, was 15 percent wider than in people who possess normal intelligence. According to The New York Times, the researchers believe it might help explain why Einstein was so intelligent. In 2011, the Mütter Museum in Philadelphia received thin slices of Einstein’s brain from Dr. Lucy Rorke-Adams, a neuropathologist at the Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia, and put them on display. Rorke-Adams said she received the brain slides from Harvey. Einstein in Books and Movies: "Oppenheimer" and More Since Einstein’s death, a veritable mountain of books have been written on the iconic thinker’s life, including by Walter Isaacson and by Jürgen Neffe, both from 2007. Einstein’s own words are presented in the collection . Einstein has also been portrayed on screen. Michael Emil played a character called “The Professor,” clearly based on Einstein, in the 1985 film Insignificance—in which alternate versions of Einstein, Marilyn Monroe, Joe DiMaggio, and Joseph McCarthy cross paths in a New York City hotel. Walter Matthau portrayed Einstein in the fictional 1994 comedy I.Q., in which he plays matchmaker for his niece played by Meg Ryan. Einstein was also a character in the obscure comedy films I Killed Einstein, Gentlemen (1970) and Young Einstein (1988). A much more historically accurate depiction of Einstein came in 2017, when he was the subject of the first season of Genius, a 10-part scripted miniseries by National Geographic. Johnny Flynn played a younger version of the scientist, while Geoffrey Rush portrayed Einstein in his later years after he had fled Germany. Ron Howard was the director. Tom Conti plays Einstein in the 2023 biopic Oppenheimer, directed by Christopher Nolan and starring Cillian Murphy as scientist J. Robert Oppenheimer during his involvement with the Manhattan Project. Quotes The world is a dangerous place to live; not because of the people who are evil, but because of the people who don’t do anything about it. A question that sometimes drives me hazy: Am I or are the others crazy? A person who never made a mistake never tried anything new. Logic will get you from A to B. Imagination will take you everywhere. I want to go when I want. It is tasteless to prolong life artificially. I have done my share, it is time to go. I will do it elegantly. If you can’t explain it simply, you don’t understand it well enough. Nature shows us only the tail of the lion. But there is no doubt in my mind that the lion belongs with it even if he cannot reveal himself to the eye all at once because of his huge dimension. We see him only the way a louse sitting upon him would. [T]he distinction between past, present, and future is only an illusion, however persistent. Living in this “great age,” it is hard to understand that we belong to this mad, degenerate species, which imputes free will to itself. If only there were somewhere an island for the benevolent and the prudent! Then also I would want to be an ardent patriot. I, at any rate, am convinced that He [God] is not playing at dice. How strange is the lot of us mortals! Each of us is here for a brief sojourn; for what purpose he knows not, though he sometimes thinks he senses it. I regard class differences as contrary to justice and, in the last resort, based on force. I have never looked upon ease and happiness as ends in themselves—this critical basis I call the ideal of a pigsty. The ideals that have lighted my way, and time after time have given me new courage to face life cheerfully, have been Kindness, Beauty, and Truth. My political ideal is democracy. Let every man be respected as an individual and no man idolized. It is an irony of fate that I myself have been the recipient of excessive admiration and reverence from my fellow-beings, through no fault and no merit of my own. The most beautiful experience we can have is the mysterious. It is the fundamental emotion that stands at the cradle of true art and true science. Whoever does not know it and can no longer wonder, no longer marvel, is as good as dead, and his eyes are dimmed. An autocratic system of coercion, in my opinion, soon degenerates. For force always attracts men of low morality, and I believe it to be an invariable rule that tyrants of genius are succeeded by scoundrels. My passionate interest in social justice and social responsibility has always stood in curious contrast to a marked lack of desire for direct association with men and women. I am a horse for single harness, not cut out for tandem or team work. I have never belonged wholeheartedly to country or state, to my circle of friends, or even to my own family. Everybody is a genius. Fact Check: We strive for accuracy and fairness. If you see something that doesn’t look right, contact us! ..
correct_award_00024	FactBench	1	78	https://www.swedenabroad.se/en/embassies/switzerland-bern/current/calendar/einstein-was-convinced-he-would-get-it-at-some-point/	en	"Einstein was convinced he would get it at some point"	https://www.swedenabroad.se/wwwroot/favicons/favicon.ico	https://www.swedenabroad.se/wwwroot/favicons/favicon.ico	[ "https://www.swedenabroad.se/globalassets/hero/sa-country-pattern-sweden-embassy.svg", "https://www.swedenabroad.se/globalassets/ambassader/schweiz-bern/images/personer/professor-hans-rudolf-ott---president-of-einstein-society-bern.jpg?w=727&h=415&mode=crop" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null		en	/wwwroot/favicons/favicon.ico	Sweden Abroad	https://www.swedenabroad.se/en/embassies/switzerland-bern/current/calendar/einstein-was-convinced-he-would-get-it-at-some-point/	"Einstein was convinced he would get it at some point" Interview with Hans-Rudolf Ott on what the Nobel Prize meant to Albert Einstein 05 Oct 2021, 9.00 AM In 1922 Albert Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize of Physics for the year 1921. In a letter to the Nobel Committee after being informed about the prize Albert Einstein wrote: “I am very glad to have received the Nobel Prize – also because there is no longer any reason for people to ask me the accusing question: Why don’t you get the Nobel Prize?”. Was the prize important to Albert Einstein and if so, why? Hans-Rudolf Ott is an expert on Albert Einstein. He is also the president of the Einstein Society Bern and Professor of Physics, working at ETH Zürich where Albert Einstein taught between 1912 and 1914. “Albert Einstein counted on the Nobel Prize. In 1914 when he separated from his wife Mileva Maric, she would not agree to a formal divorce. Later, in 1918, he asked her again to agree to a divorce and offered her to receive the Nobel Prize money if he ever would get the prestigious award”, says Hans-Rudolf Ott. He continues: “In 1915 Albert Einstein succeeded in formulating the General Theory of Relativity and Gravitation. The theory used mathematical tools that were not widely known at the time and therefore, only a few specialists were able to appreciate its content. A year later, another of Einstein’s theories, the Law of the Photoelectric Effect which is based on the light-quantum hypothesis, was experimentally verified by Robert Millikan. In 1919 one of the predictions of the General Theory of Relativity was verified by a British team. The data collected by the British team was claimed to quantitatively confirm Einstein’s theoretical prediction. This made a headline in the British newspaper The Times. Albert Einstein gained world prominence, but was still not awarded the Nobel Prize.” Difficult task for the Nobel Committee Hans-Rudolf Ott thinks the Nobel Committee for the Physics award faced, and still does, a difficult task. Alfred Nobel’s will states that the Nobel Prize be awarded to “those who, during the preceding year, have conferred the greatest benefit to humankind. “It was not easy to interpret the will, the Nobel Prize was still quite young, and it was not clear at the time what Einstein’s work meant for humankind. A lot of his discoveries were proven and valued only much later. With respect of his General Theory of Relativity, just a few of his contemporary peers actually understood what he had done.” When the Nobel Committee finally awarded Albert Einstein with the 1921 prize in 1922, he had been nominated more than 60 times. He was honoured with the Nobel Prize for his discovery of the Law of the Photoelectric Effect and his contributions to theoretical physics in general. “Einstein’s Law of Photoelectric Effect had been experimentally verified in 1916. Therefore it was, to some extent, more in line with the Nobel committee’s directives to award Einstein for this work.” In his otherwise so detailed diary Albert Einstein doesn’t mention the day he finds out he is laureated: “Because he was so sure he deserved it and eventually would get it”, says Hans- Rudolf Ott. Financial problems Shortly after having moved to Berlin in 1914, Albert Einstein separated from his wife Mileva Maric, a former study colleague at the Zürich Polytechnic. Maric returned to Zürich with the couple’s two sons, while Einstein stayed in Berlin. “At the time of the separation Einstein had a high income. However, after the first world war the German currency lost its value and suddenly Einstein found it impossible to pay the agreed allowance to his former wife who lived in Switzerland”, says Hans-Rudolf Ott. The Nobel Prize being paid in Swedish kronor gave Einstein the economic freedom to offer his former wife what he had promised. The prize sum was 121 572 kronor, almost 50 times Einstein’s yearly salary at the time. Part of the money was used to buy a house in Zürich and the rental income of the rest of the money secured the living costs of Mileva Maric and the two sons. “Viewed in this light, the award of the Nobel Prize was not only a well deserved recognition of Einstein’s scientific achievements, it also prevented his financial ruin and secured the financial support for his former wife and the children”, says Hans-Rudolf Ott. _ _ _ _ _ _
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Einstein is one of the founders of modern physics; he is the author of the Theory of Relativity. According to the world media (Reuters, December 2000) Einstein is “the personality of the second millennium.” Nationality: German; later Swiss and American citizen Education: Ph.D. in physics, University of Zurich, Switzerland, 1905 Occupation: Patent Examiner in the Swiss Patent Office, Bern, 1902-1908; Professor of Physics at the Universities of Zurich, Prague, Bern, and Princeton, NJ. 1. “I want to know how God created this world. I am not interested in this or that phenomenon, in the spectrum of this or that element. I want to know His thoughts, the rest are details.” (Einstein, as cited in Ronald Clark, Einstein: The Life and Times, London, Hodder and Stoughton Ltd., 1973, 33). 2. “We are in the position of a little child entering a huge library filled with books in many different languages. The child knows someone must have written those books. It does not know how. It does not understand the languages in which they are written. The child dimly suspects a mysterious order in the arrangement of the books, but doesn’t know what it is. That, it seems to me, is the attitude of even the most intelligent human being toward God. We see a Universe marvellously arranged and obeying certain laws, but only dimly understand these laws. Our limited minds cannot grasp the mysterious force that moves the constellations.” (Einstein, as cited in Denis Brian, Einstein: A Life, New York, John Wiley and Sons, 1996, 186). 3. “If one purges the Judaism of the Prophets and Christianity as Jesus Christ taught it of all subsequent additions, especially those of the priests, one is left with a teaching which is capable of curing all the social ills of humanity. It is the duty of every man of good will to strive steadfastly in his own little world to make this teaching of pure humanity a living force, so far as he can.” (Albert Einstein, Ideas and Opinions, New York, Bonanza Books, 1954, 184-185). 4. “After all, haven’t the differences between Jew and Christian been overexaggerated by fanatics on both sides? We both are living under God’s approval, and nurture almost identical spiritual capacities. Jew or Gentile, bond or free, all are God’s own.” (Einstein, as cited in H.G. Garbedian, Albert Einstein: Maker of Universes, New York, Funk and Wagnalls Co., 1939, 267). 5. “Every one who is seriously involved in the pursuit of science becomes convinced that a Spirit is manifest in the laws of the universe a Spirit vastly superior to that of man, and one in the face of which we with our modest powers must feel humble. In this way the pursuit of science leads to a religious feeling of a special sort, which is indeed quite different from the religiosity of someone more naive.” (Einstein 1936, as cited in Dukas and Hoffmann, Albert Einstein: The Human Side, Princeton University Press, 1979, 33). 6. “The deeper one penetrates into nature’s secrets, the greater becomes one’s respect for God.” (Einstein, as cited in Brian 1996, 119). 7. “The most beautiful and most profound emotion we can experience is the sensation of the mystical. It is the sower of all true science. He to whom this emotion is a stranger, who can no longer stand rapt in awe, is as good as dead. That deeply emotional conviction of the presence of a superior Reasoning Power, which is revealed in the incomprehensible Universe, forms my idea of God.” (Einstein, as cited in Libby Anfinsen 1995). 8. “My religiosity consists in a humble admiration of the infinitely superior Spirit that reveals itself in the little that we, with our weak and transitory understanding, can comprehend of reality.” (Einstein 1936, as cited in Dukas and Hoffmann 1979, 66), 9. “The more I study science the more I believe in God.” (Einstein, as cited in Holt 1997). 10. Max Jammer (Professor Emeritus of Physics and author of the biographical book Einstein and Religion, 2002) claims that Einstein’s well-known dictum, “Science without religion is lame, religion without science is blind” can serve as an epitome and quintessence of Einstein’s religious philosophy. (Jammer 2002; Einstein 1967, 30). 11. “The highest principles for our aspirations and judgments are given to us in the Jewish-Christian religious tradition. It is a very high goal which, with our weak powers, we can reach only very inadequately, but which gives a sure foundation to our aspirations and valuations.” (Albert Einstein, Out of My Later Years, New Jersey, Littlefield, Adams and Co., 1967, 27). 12. “In view of such harmony in the cosmos which I, with my limited human mind, am able to recognize, there are yet people who say there is no God. But what really makes me angry is that they quote me for the support of such views.” (Einstein, as cited in Clark 1973, 400; and Jammer 2002, 97). 13. Concerning the fanatical atheists Einstein pointed out: “Then there are the fanatical atheists whose intolerance is of the same kind as the intolerance of the religious fanatics and comes from the same source. They are like slaves who are still feeling the weight of their chains which they have thrown off after hard struggle. They are creatures who in their grudge against the traditional ‘opium for the people cannot bear the music of the spheres. The Wonder of nature does not become smaller because one cannot measure it by the standards of human moral and human aims.” (Einstein, as cited in Max Jammer, Einstein and Religion: Physics and Theology, Princeton University Press, 2002, 97). 14. “True religion is real living living with all one’s soul, with all one’s goodness and righteousness” (Einstein, as cited in Garbedian 1939, 267). 15. “Certain it is that a conviction, akin to religious feeling, of the rationality or intelligibility of the world lies behind all scientific work of a higher order. This firm belief, a belief bound up with deep feeling, in a superior Mind that reveals itself in the world of experience, represents my conception of God.” (Einstein 1973, 255). 16. “Strenuous intellectual work and the study of God’s Nature are the angels that will lead me through all the troubles of this life with consolation, strength, and uncompromising rigor.” (Einstein, as cited in Calaprice 2000, ch. 1). 17. Einstein’s attitude towards Jesus Christ was expressed in an interview, which the great scientist gave to the American magazine The Saturday Evening Post (26 October 1929): *- To what extent are you influenced by Christianity? – As a child I received instruction both in the Bible and in the Talmud. I am a Jew, but I am enthralled by the luminous figure of the Nazarene. -Have you read Emil Ludwig’s book on Jesus? Emil Ludwig’s Jesus is shallow. Jesus is too colossal for the pen of phrasemongers, however artful. No man can dispose of Christianity with a bon mot. – You accept the historical Jesus? Unquestionably! No one can read the Gospels without feeling the actual presence of Jesus. His personality pulsates in every word. No myth is filled with such life.” (Einstein, as cited in Viereck 1929; see also Einstein, as cited in the German magazine Geisteskampf der Gegenwart, Guetersloh, 1930, S. 235). Collected and translated by: Surah SAYID Doctor of philosophy in philology, associate professor
correct_award_00024	FactBench	3	36	https://www.yahoo.com/entertainment/einstein-bomb-netflix-did-albert-143751992.html	en	Einstein and the Bomb on Netflix: Did Albert Einstein Win the Nobel Prize?	https://media.zenfs.com/en/comingsoon_net_477/d6e589a25317a226ba9fab72fa897ba5	https://media.zenfs.com/en/comingsoon_net_477/d6e589a25317a226ba9fab72fa897ba5	[ "https://s.yimg.com/ny/api/res/1.2/r9_nen9CjXcSet4YAqQvMA--/YXBwaWQ9aGlnaGxhbmRlcjt3PTIwMDtoPTYw/https://s.yimg.com/os/creatr-uploaded-images/2022-10/31915bb0-5957-11ed-acdd-c2a5caca7698", "https://s.yimg.com/ny/api/res/1.2/4c4i_OxCaUQGzvDF16pUgQ--/YXBwaWQ9aGlnaGxhbmRlcjt3PTEyNDI7aD02OTk-/https://media.zenfs.com/en/comingsoon_net_477/d6e589a25317a226ba9fab72fa897ba5", "https://s.yimg.com/g/images/spaceball.gif", "https://s.yimg.com/cv/apiv2/default/20190501/placeholder.gif", "https://s.yimg.com/cv/apiv2/default/20190501/placeholder.gif", "https://s.yimg.com/cv/apiv2/default/20190501/placeholder.gif", "https://s.yimg.com/cv/apiv2/default/20190501/placeholder.gif", "https://s.yimg.com/cv/apiv2/default/20190501/placeholder.gif", "https://s.yimg.com/cv/apiv2/default/20190501/placeholder.gif", "https://s.yimg.com/cv/apiv2/default/20190501/placeholder.gif", "https://s.yimg.com/cv/apiv2/default/20190501/placeholder.gif", "https://s.yimg.com/cv/apiv2/default/20190501/placeholder.gif", "https://s.yimg.com/cv/apiv2/default/20190501/placeholder.gif", "https://s.yimg.com/cv/apiv2/entertainment/images/desktop_ent_footer_logo.png", "https://sb.scorecardresearch.com/p?c1=2&c2=7241469&c5=1197800334&c7=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.yahoo.com%2Fentertainment%2Feinstein-bomb-netflix-did-albert-143751992.html&c14=-1" ]	[ "https://www.youtube.com/embed/2t9RwElQGhg?feature=oembed" ]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Debangshu Nath" ]	2024-02-19T14:37:51+00:00	The new Netflix docudrama titled Einstein and the Bomb showcases the life and career of German-born theoretical physicist, Albert Einstein. In addition, it also shows the time in his life when he back and forth between his status as a refugee in England. Albert Einstein was a renowned recipient of the prestigious Nobel Prize in […] The post Einstein and the Bomb on Netflix: Did Albert Einstein Win the Nobel Prize? appeared first on ComingSoon.net - Movie Trailers, TV & Streaming News, and More.	en	https://s.yimg.com/rz/l/favicon.ico	Yahoo Entertainment	https://www.yahoo.com/entertainment/einstein-bomb-netflix-did-albert-143751992.html	The new Netflix docudrama titled Einstein and the Bomb showcases the life and career of German-born theoretical physicist, Albert Einstein. In addition, it also shows the time in his life when he back and forth between his status as a refugee in England. Albert Einstein was a renowned recipient of the prestigious Nobel Prize in Physics. According to the Nobel Prize’s official website, he received the honor “for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect”. The theoretical physicist explained that light consists of quanta—packets. They have fixed energies corresponding to certain frequencies. Furthermore, one such light quantum, a photon, must have a certain minimum frequency before it can free an electron. According to Rotten Tomatoes, the synopsis of Einstein and the Bomb reads, “Using archival footage and his own words. This docudrama chronicles what happened after the scientist fled Nazi Germany and dives into the mind of this tortured genius.” When did Albert Einstein win the Nobel Prize? Albert Einstein won the Nobel Prize in Physics in the year,1921. However, according to the Nobel Prize’s official website, he received it a year later in 1922. Apparently, during the selection process in 1921, the Nobel Committee for Physics decided that zero nominations met the criteria as outlined in Alfred Nobel’s will. In such cases, the award can be reserved until the following year, and this statute was then applied. Einstein had been fascinated with the world’s greatest scientific mysteries since he was a child. In Einstein and the Bomb, his character states, “As a child, 4 or 5, my father showed me a compass. This experience made a deep and lasting impression on me. Since this needle behaved in such a determined way, something deeply hidden had to be behind things… The most beautiful thing we can experience is the mysterious.” Einstein and the Bomb was directed and produced by Anthony Philipson and Anne Mensah respectively.
correct_award_00024	FactBench	3	37	https://www.vedantu.com/question-answer/albert-einstein-got-a-nobel-prize-in-physics-for-class-12-physics-cbse-5fa8aa51b0ec2513fe7d2373	en	Albert Einstein got a Nobel Prize in physics for his work on:(A) Special theory of relativity(B) General theory of relativity(C) Photoelectric effect(D) Theory of specific heats	https://seo-fe.vedantu.c…icon-192x192.png	https://seo-fe.vedantu.c…icon-192x192.png	[ "https://vmkt.vedantu.com/vmkt/PROD/svg%2Bxml/d4520270-6e40-4273-a48f-e1c595f1ce26-1709193411767-4001376723323670.svg%2Bxml", "https://www.vedantu.com/cdn/images/seo-templates/seo-qna.svg", "https://seo-fe.vedantu.com/cdn/images/seo-templates/arrow-left.svg", "https://seo-fe.vedantu.com/cdn/images/seo-templates/arrow-right.svg", "https://seo-fe.vedantu.com/cdn/images/seo-templates/arrow-down-qna.svg", "https://seo-fe.vedantu.com/cdn/images/seo-templates/navbar-down-arrow.svg", "https://seo-fe.vedantu.com/cdn/images/seo-templates/navbar-down-arrow.svg", "https://seo-fe.vedantu.com/cdn/images/seo-templates/navbar-down-arrow.svg", "https://seo-fe.vedantu.com/cdn/images/seo-templates/navbar-down-arrow.svg", "https://seo-fe.vedantu.com/cdn/images/seo-templates/navbar-down-arrow.svg", "https://seo-fe.vedantu.com/cdn/images/seo-templates/navbar-down-arrow.svg", "https://www.vedantu.com/cdn/images/seo-templates/green-check.svg", "https://www.vedantu.com/cdn/images/seo-templates/arrow-right.png", "https://www.vedantu.com/cdn/images/seo-templates/arrow-right.png", "https://www.vedantu.com/cdn/images/seo-templates/arrow-right.png", "https://www.vedantu.com/cdn/images/seo-templates/arrow-right.png", "https://www.vedantu.com/cdn/images/seo-templates/arrow-right.png", "https://www.vedantu.com/cdn/images/seo-templates/arrow-right.png", "https://www.vedantu.com/cdn/images/seo-templates/arrow-right.png", "https://www.vedantu.com/cdn/images/seo-templates/arrow-right.png", "https://www.vedantu.com/cdn/images/seo-templates/arrow-right.png", "https://www.vedantu.com/cdn/images/seo-templates/arrow-right.png", "https://www.vedantu.com/cdn/images/seo-templates/arrow-right.png", "https://www.vedantu.com/cdn/images/seo-templates/arrow-right.png", "https://www.vedantu.com/cdn/images/seo-templates/arrow-right.png", "https://www.vedantu.com/cdn/images/seo-templates/arrow-right.png", "https://www.vedantu.com/cdn/images/seo-templates/arrow-right.png", "https://www.vedantu.com/cdn/images/seo-templates/arrow-right.png", "https://www.vedantu.com/cdn/images/seo-templates/arrow-right.png", "https://www.vedantu.com/cdn/images/seo-templates/arrow-right.png", "https://www.vedantu.com/cdn/images/seo-templates/arrow-right.png", "https://www.vedantu.com/cdn/images/seo-templates/arrow-right.png", "https://www.vedantu.com/cdn/images/seo-templates/arrow-right.png", "https://www.vedantu.com/cdn/images/seo-templates/arrow-right.png", "https://www.vedantu.com/cdn/images/seo-templates/arrow-right.png", "https://www.vedantu.com/cdn/images/seo-templates/arrow-right.png", "https://www.vedantu.com/cdn/images/seo-templates/arrow-right.png", "https://www.vedantu.com/cdn/images/seo-templates/arrow-right.png", "https://www.vedantu.com/cdn/images/seo-templates/arrow-right.png", "https://www.vedantu.com/cdn/images/seo-templates/arrow-right.png", "https://www.vedantu.com/cdn/images/seo-templates/arrow-right.png", "https://www.vedantu.com/cdn/images/seo-templates/arrow-right.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	2020-11-09T02:32:49+05:30	Albert Einstein got a Nobel Prize in physics for his work on:(A) Special theory of relativity(B) General theory of relativity(C) Photoelectric effect(D) Theory of specific heats. Ans: Hint: All the theories in the given options are proposed by Albert...	en	https://seo-fe.vedantu.c…icon-192x192.png		https://www.vedantu.com/question-answer/albert-einstein-got-a-nobel-prize-in-physics-for-class-12-physics-cbse-5fa8aa51b0ec2513fe7d2373	Hint: All the theories in the given options are proposed by Albert Einstein. Recall these theories year wise and identify in which theory Albert Einstein proved the particle nature of light. For the same theory he was awarded with the Nobel Prize, the most honorable award in the world. Complete step by step answer: -We know that special theory of relativity and general theory of relativity were proposed by Albert Einstein in 1905 and 1915 respectively. Also, the theory of specific heats is proposed by Albert Einstein in 1906. But none of these theories got a Nobel Prize for his extraordinary work. -Albert Einstein got the Nobel Prize for photoelectric effect that he proposed in 1905 in the same year he proposed the special theory of relativity. The phenomenon of photoelectric effect is also observed by other scientists before Einstein, but none of them can explain the phenomenon with proper proof. Additional information: According to photoelectric effect, the metal emits electrons when the photon of certain energy incident on it. The energy of the incident photon should be greater than the binding energy of the electron in the atom. Therefore, we call the energy of the photon as threshold energy to emit the electron from the metal surface. The energy of the photon is express as, \[\Delta E = h\nu \] Here, h is the Planck’s constant and \[\nu \] is the frequency of the photon. According to Einstein as he proposed in the special theory of relativity, no object can attain the speed of light. Only massless objects like photons whose rest mass is zero can have the speed of light. Note:The special theory of relativity links the space and time of the objects having the consistent speeds. This theory grabbed so much attention but could not get awarded with the Nobel Prize. The photoelectric effect was like the beginning of the new era, it has tremendous applications. In the same theory he proved that light can also behave as a particle.
correct_award_00024	FactBench	2	94	https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/10/3/pierre-agostini-ferenc-krausz-anne-lhuillier-win-nobel-prize-for-physics	en	Pierre Agostini, Ferenc Krausz, Anne L’Huillier win Nobel Prize for physics	https://www.aljazeera.co…size=1920%2C1440	https://www.aljazeera.co…size=1920%2C1440	[ "https://www.aljazeera.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/10/2023-10-03T100105Z_870897185_RC2WK3A7D8K4_RTRMADP_3_NOBEL-PRIZE-PHYSICS-1696327463.jpg?resize=770%2C513&quality=80", "https://www.aljazeera.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/10/2023-10-03T101253Z_1830218316_RC2ZSE8974XX_RTRMADP_3_NOBEL-PRIZE-PHYSICS-1696329006.jpg?w=770&resize=770%2C513", "https://www.aljazeera.com/static/media/aj-footer-logo.bac952ad.svg" ]	[]	[]	[ "News", "Science and Technology", "Europe" ]	null	[ "Al Jazeera" ]	2023-10-03T00:00:00	The top award in physics goes to three scientists for ‘experimental methods that generate attosecond pulses of light’.	en	/favicon_aje.ico	Al Jazeera	https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/10/3/pierre-agostini-ferenc-krausz-anne-lhuillier-win-nobel-prize-for-physics	Pierre Agostini, Ferenc Krausz and Anne L’Huillier have won the 2023 Nobel Prize in physics for “experimental methods that generate attosecond pulses of light for the study of electron dynamics in matter”, the award-giving body says. “The laureates’ experiments have produced pulses of light so short that they are measured in attoseconds, thus demonstrating that these pulses can be used to provide images of processes inside atoms and molecules,” the award-giving body said in a statement on Tuesday. Agostini of The Ohio State University in the United States, Krausz of the Max Planck Institute of Quantum Optics and Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich in Germany, and L’Huillier of Lund University in Sweden are awarded 11 million Swedish crowns (about $1m). In addition to the financial prize, winners will receive a Nobel Prize diploma and a gold medal. L’Huillier is only the fifth woman to win a Nobel in physics. “This is the most prestigious and I am so happy to get this prize. It’s incredible,” she told the news conference as the prize was announced. “As you know, there are not so many women who got this prize so it’s very special.” Al Jazeera’s Paul Rhys, reporting from Stockholm, said that the scientists’ methods open the path for examining changes in molecules at a new level. “One particular application of it, which has been mooted, is that blood samples can be examined with these flashes of light to notice any changes,” he said. “That means that diseases such as lung cancer could be detected at an incredibly early stage and obviously stop them developing,” Rhys added. The award, announced in the Swedish capital Stockholm on Tuesday morning, is the second Nobel of the season after the 2023 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was announced on Monday. The prize in medicine went to mRNA researchers Hungarian-born US citizens Katalin Kariko and Drew Weissman for their groundbreaking technology that paved the way for messenger RNA (mRNA) COVID-19 vaccines. Four more prizes to be announced The awards for chemistry, literature and peace are scheduled to be awarded on Wednesday, Thursday and Friday in Stockholm. The award for economics will be announced on October 9. Nobel prizes were founded through the 1895 will of Swedish inventor and philanthropist Alfred Nobel. The Economics Prize, created in 1968, is the only Nobel that was not included in the will. While the award for peace can hog the limelight, the physics prize has likewise often taken centre stage with winners such as Albert Einstein and awards for science that have fundamentally changed how we see the world. Last year, Alain Aspect, John Clauser and Anton Zeilinger won the prize for physics for work on quantum entanglement, where two particles are linked regardless of the space between them, something that unsettled Einstein himself who once referred to it as “spooky action at a distance”. Each diploma is a unique work of art, created by Swedish and Norwegian artists and calligraphers. The laureates collect these prizes in an official ceremony on December 10, the anniversary of Nobel’s death.
correct_award_00024	FactBench	0	62	https://byjus.com/physics/albert-einstein/	en	Facts, Theories and Inventions	https://cdn1.byjus.com/w…Wise-Physics.png	https://cdn1.byjus.com/w…Wise-Physics.png	[ "https://www.facebook.com/tr?id=506170199519639&ev=PageView&noscript=1", "https://cdn1.byjus.com/byjusweb/img/home/svg/byjus_logo.svg", "https://cdn1.byjus.com/home/call.svg", "https://cdn1.byjus.com/byjusweb/SearchIcon.svg", "https://cdn1.byjus.com/byjusweb/img/home/svg/byjus_logo.svg", "https://cdn1.byjus.com/home/dropdown-yellow-icon.svg", "https://cdn1.byjus.com/home/dropdown-yellow-icon.svg", "https://cdn1.byjus.com/home/dropdown-yellow-icon.svg", "https://cdn1.byjus.com/home/dropdown-yellow-icon.svg", "https://cdn1.byjus.com/home/dropdown-yellow-icon.svg", "https://cdn1.byjus.com/home/dropdown-yellow-icon.svg", "https://cdn1.byjus.com/home/call.svg", "https://cdn1.byjus.com/byjusweb/SearchIcon.svg", "https://cdn1.byjus.com/byjusweb/img/home/svg/sec-nav-search.svg", "https://cdn1.byjus.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/Right-arrow.svg", "https://cdn1.byjus.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/Right-arrow.svg", "https://cdn1.byjus.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/albert-einstein.png", "https://cdn1.byjus.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/Photoelectric-effect-basics.jpg", "https://cdn1.byjus.com/byjusweb/img/interactive-quiz/Quiz_cartoon.png", "https://cdn1.byjus.com/byjusweb/img/right-tick-icon.svg", "https://cdn1.byjus.com/byjusweb/img/right-tick-icon.svg", "https://cdn1.byjus.com/byjusweb/img/facebook-white-icon.svg", "https://cdn1.byjus.com/byjusweb/img/linkedin-white-icon.svg", "https://cdn1.byjus.com/byjusweb/img/facebook-white-icon.svg", "https://cdn1.byjus.com/byjusweb/img/linkedin-white-icon.svg", "https://cdn1.byjus.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/Vector-2219-2.png", "https://cdn1.byjus.com/byjusweb/img/right-tick-icon.svg", "https://cdn1.byjus.com/byjusweb/img/landing-pages/utils-icon/download_white_icon.svg", "https://cdn1.byjus.com/byjusweb/img/right-tick-icon.svg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Admin" ]	2021-04-23T15:04:28+05:30	Albert Einstein is one of the greatest and famous scientists who gave new dimensions to energy, time, space, and matter. Click here to learn about Albert Einstein’s contributions in the field of science	en	/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/favicon-32x32.png	BYJUS	https://byjus.com/physics/albert-einstein/	Albert Einstein was one of the key thinkers who did exploration and examination of theories of relativity. In this article, let us know more about Albert Einstein’s inventions. He was the person who gave new dimensions to see energy, time, space and matter. Table of Contents: Who is Albert Einstein What is Avogadro’s Number What is Brownian Movement What is Quantum Theory of Light Special Relativity What is Photoelectric Effect Wave-Particle Duality General Theory of Relativity Bose-Einstein Condensate Frequently Asked Questions – FAQs Know About Einstein Albert Einstein was born on 14 March in the year 1879 in Württemberg, Germany. He was educated at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich. Einstein was a theoretical physicist who discovered and invented major theories of Physics. Albert Einstein received honorary doctorate degrees in science and philosophy. He got the Fellowships of all the leading scientific academies in the world. His works were recognized across the world and in 1921, Einstein won the prestigious Nobel Prize for Physics for his significant work on the photoelectric effect. Let us dig into Albert Einstein’s inventions. Some inventions and contributions of Einstein are Avogadro’s Number, Quantum Theory of Light, General Theory of Relativity, Special Theory of Relativity, The Photoelectric Effect, Wave-Particle Duality, Brownian movement, the relationship between mass and energy, Bose-Einstein Condensate, and many more. Avogadro’s Number Avogadro’s number is a concept in chemistry that defines that the number of units in one mole of a substance is equal to 6.022140857×1023 The Avogadro constant is named after the Italian scientist Amedeo Avogadro. It is the proportionality factor defined by Albert Einstein to relate the number of constituent particles like molecules, ions, and atoms in a sample with the amount of substance in that sample. The numeric value of the Avogadro constant is expressed as the reciprocal of mole. When Einstein was working on Brownian motion to explain the erratic movement of particles in a fluid, he came up with an expression for the quantity of Avogadro’s number in terms of measurable quantities. This leads to a path to determine the mass of an atom, or the molar mass for each element on the periodic table. Albert Einstein presented a new way of calculating Avogadro’s number and the size of molecules. Brownian Movement The Brownian movement is one of the significant contributions of Albert Einstein. While studying the molecular theory of liquids, he tried to explain the motion of particles through Brownian motion. This theory explains the random movement of particles in a fluid or gas. Einstein explained the zigzag movement of particles in suspension, and this study aimed to prove the existence of molecules and atoms in particles. Quantum Theory of Light Einstein was the key person behind the quantum theory of light. He proposed and explained that light consists of packets of energy known as photons in 1905. He gave the physical interpretation to Planck’s mathematics when he proposed that electromagnetic radiation itself is granular, consisting of quanta with an energy hf. He also explained the emission of electrons from metals when hit with large electric pulses, like lightning. Special Theory of Relativity The Special Theory of Relativity is also known as special relativity. It is a theory regarding the relationship between time and space. This theory is based on two postulates. The laws of physics are the same for all, irrespective of the velocity of the observer. The speed of light is always constant, regardless of the motion of the light source or the motion of the observer. This theory is one of the reasons to explain the origin of the most famous equation E=mc2 When we hear the mass and energy relationship equation E=mc2, we remember the great scientist Einstein instantaneously. Photoelectric Effect In 1905, Albert Einstein proposed this theory, which is the base of modern Physics. It is the phenomenon that occurs when the material absorbs electromagnetic radiations and electrically charged particles are released from or within it. In this process, electrons are emitted from the metal plate when light falls on it. The emitted electrons are known as photoelectrons. The below video is an explanation of the basics of the photoelectric effect: Wave-Particle Duality Einstein explained that light consists of photons, which are considered packets of energy. This concept was explained and demonstrated in the quantum theory of light. Einstein stressed that light should be treated as both a wave and a particle. He explained that photons in light can behave both as particles and waves at the same time. This concept is known as wave-particle duality. Through a two-slit apparatus experiment, he proved the dual nature of light. General Theory of Relativity The general theory of relativity generalizes the concepts of Special Relativity, Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation, describing gravity as a property of space and time. It is the geometric theory of gravitation, published in the year 1915. The General Theory of Relativity is also known as General relativity. The general theory of relativity gives the current description of gravitation in modern physics. Bose-Einstein Condensate The great Indian physicist and mathematician Satyendra Nath Bose with Albert Einstein developed the concept, which helped to understand light as a gas. The Bose-Einstein concept proposed and demonstrated that when atoms are cooled very close to absolute zero, they hardly move in relation to one another. These atoms form clusters or clumps and enter into the same energy states. Hence, they concluded that the group of atoms behaves and display the characteristics of a single atom. Einstein is not only celebrated for his inventions, but for his outstanding contributions of theories, on which modern science stands today. Hope you learnt about some of Albert Einstein inventions. Stay tuned with BYJU’S for more such interesting articles. Also, register to “BYJU’S – The Learning App” for loads of interactive, engaging Physics-related videos and unlimited academic assist. Related links
correct_award_00024	FactBench	1	79	https://www.voanews.com/a/things-to-know-about-the-nobel-prizes/7292854.html	en	Things to Know About the Nobel Prizes	https://gdb.voanews.com/…598839631FDC.jpg	https://gdb.voanews.com/…598839631FDC.jpg	[ "https://ssc.voanews.com/b/ss/bbgprod,bbgentityvoa/1/G.4--NS/1820658934?pageName=voa%3aeng%3aw%3aarticle%3athings%20to%20know%20about%20the%20nobel%20prizes&c6=things%20to%20know%20about%20the%20nobel%20prizes&v36=8.32.0.0.278&v6=D=c6&g=https%3a%2f%2fwww.voanews.com%2fa%2fthings-to-know-about-the-nobel-prizes%2f7292854.html&c1=D=g&v1=D=g&events=event1,event52&c16=voa%20english&v16=D=c16&c5=europe&v5=D=c5&ch=europe&c15=english&v15=D=c15&c4=article&v4=D=c4&c14=7292854&v14=D=c14&v20=no&c17=web&v17=D=c17&mcorgid=518abc7455e462b97f000101%40adobeorg&server=www.voanews.com&pageType=D=c4&ns=bbg&v29=D=server&v25=voa&v30=461&v105=D=User-Agent ", "https://www.voanews.com/Content/responsive/img/player-spinner.png", "https://www.voanews.com/Content/responsive/VOA/en-US/img/logo-compact.svg", "https://www.voanews.com/Content/responsive/VOA/en-US/img/logo.svg", "https://www.voanews.com/Content/responsive/VOA/en-US/img/logo-print.gif", "https://www.voanews.com/Content/responsive/VOA/en-US/img/logo-print_color.png", "https://gdb.voanews.com/01000000-0aff-0242-4474-08dbc2f8efc4_w250_r1_s.jpg", "https://gdb.voanews.com/01000000-0aff-0242-5320-08dbb499cb63_tv_w100_r1.jpg", "https://gdb.voanews.com/01000000-0aff-0242-5320-08dbb499cb63_tv_w33_r1.jpg", "https://gdb.voanews.com/01000000-0a00-0242-f567-08dbbddaa8aa_w100_r1.jpg", "https://gdb.voanews.com/01000000-0a00-0242-f567-08dbbddaa8aa_w33_r1.jpg", "https://gdb.voanews.com/01000000-0aff-0242-c3c9-08db9fe42480_w100_r1.jpg", "https://gdb.voanews.com/01000000-0aff-0242-c3c9-08db9fe42480_w33_r1.jpg", "https://gdb.voanews.com/92f71561-a46d-4017-8fd8-44f2f28553fe_cx0_cy5_cw0_w100_r1.jpg", "https://gdb.voanews.com/92f71561-a46d-4017-8fd8-44f2f28553fe_cx0_cy5_cw0_w66_r1.jpg", "https://gdb.voanews.com/34b3f2ef-d2c0-4963-ade0-8232960c69d0_cx0_cy4_cw0_w100_r1.jpg", "https://gdb.voanews.com/34b3f2ef-d2c0-4963-ade0-8232960c69d0_cx0_cy4_cw0_w66_r1.jpg", "https://gdb.voanews.com/01000000-0aff-0242-cd7e-08dca80cec32_w160_r1.jpg", "https://gdb.voanews.com/01000000-0aff-0242-cd7e-08dca80cec32_w100_r1.jpg" ]	[]	[]	[ "Europe", "Nobel Prize" ]	null	[ "Associated Press" ]	2023-10-02T03:41:02+00:00	First up, as usual, is the Nobel Prize in medicine or physiology, which will be announced Monday by a panel of judges at the Karolinska Institute in the Swedish capital.	en	/Content/responsive/VOA/img/webApp/favicon.svg	Voice of America	https://www.voanews.com/a/things-to-know-about-the-nobel-prizes/7292854.html	Fall has arrived in Scandinavia, which means Nobel Prize season is here. The start of October is when the Nobel committees get together in Stockholm and Oslo to announce the winners of the yearly awards. First up, as usual, is the Nobel Prize in medicine or physiology, which will be announced Monday by a panel of judges at the Karolinska Institute in the Swedish capital. The prizes in physics, chemistry, literature, peace and economics will follow, with one announcement every weekday until Oct. 9. Here are some things to know about the Nobel Prizes: An Idea More Powerful Than Dynamite The Nobel Prizes were created by Alfred Nobel, a 19th-century businessman and chemist from Sweden. He held more than 300 patents, but his claim to fame before the Nobel Prizes was having invented dynamite by mixing nitroglycerine with a compound that made the explosive more stable. Dynamite soon became popular in construction and mining as well as in the weapons industry. It made Nobel a very rich man. Perhaps it also made him think about his legacy, because toward the end of his life he decided to use his vast fortune to fund annual prizes "to those who, during the preceding year, have conferred the greatest benefit to humankind." The first Nobel Prizes were presented in 1901, five years after his death. In 1968, a sixth prize was created, for economics, by Sweden's central bank. Though Nobel purists stress that the economics prize is technically not a Nobel Prize, it's always presented together with the others. Peace in Norway For reasons that are not entirely clear, Nobel decided that the peace prize should be awarded in Norway and the other prizes in Sweden. Nobel historians suspect Sweden's history of militarism may have been a factor. During Nobel's lifetime, Sweden and Norway were in a union, which the Norwegians reluctantly joined after the Swedes invaded their country in 1814. It's possible that Nobel thought Norway would be a more suitable location for a prize meant to encourage "fellowship among nations." To this day, the Nobel Peace Prize is a completely Norwegian affair, with the winners selected and announced by a Norwegian committee. The peace prize even has its own ceremony in the Norwegian capital of Oslo on Dec. 10 — the anniversary of Nobel's death — while the other prizes are presented in Stockholm. What's politics got to do with it? The Nobel Prizes project an aura of being above the political fray, focused solely on the benefit of humanity. But the peace and literature awards, in particular, are sometimes accused of being politicized. Critics question whether winners are selected because their work is truly outstanding or because it aligns with the political preferences of the judges. The scrutiny can get intense for high-profile awards, such as in 2009, when President Barack Obama won the peace prize less than a year after taking office. The Norwegian Nobel Committee is an independent body that insists its only mission is to carry out the will of Alfred Nobel. However, it does have links to Norway's political system. The five members are appointed by the Norwegian Parliament, so the panel's composition reflects the power balance in the legislature. To avoid the perception that the prizes are influenced by Norway's political leaders, sitting members of the Norwegian government or Parliament are barred from serving on the committee. Even so, the panel isn't always viewed as independent by foreign countries. When imprisoned Chinese dissident Liu Xiaobo won the peace prize in 2010, Beijing responded by freezing trade talks with Norway. It took years for Norway-China relations to be restored. Gold and glory One reason the prizes are so famous is they come with a generous amount of cash. The Nobel Foundation, which administers the awards, raised the prize money by 10% this year to 11 million kronor (about $1 million). In addition to the money, the winners receive an 18-carat gold medal and diploma when they collect their Nobel Prizes at the award ceremonies in December. Most winners are proud and humbled by joining the pantheon of Nobel laureates, from Albert Einstein to Mother Teresa. But two winners refused their Nobel Prizes: French writer Jean-Paul Sartre, who turned down the literature prize in 1964, and Vietnamese politician Le Duc Tho, who declined the peace prize that he was meant to share with U.S. diplomat Henry Kissinger in 1973. Several others were not able to receive their awards because they were imprisoned, such as Belarusian pro-democracy activist Ales Bialiatski, who shared last year's peace prize with human rights groups in Ukraine and Russia. Lack of diversity Historically, the vast majority of Nobel Prize winners have been white men. Though that's started to change, there is still little diversity among Nobel winners, particularly in the science categories. To date, 60 women have won Nobel Prizes, including 25 in the scientific categories. Only four women have won the Nobel Prize in physics and just two have won the economics prize. In the early days of the Nobel Prizes, the lack of diversity among winners could be explained by the lack of diversity among scientists in general. But today critics say the judges need to do a better job at highlighting discoveries made by women and scientists outside Europe and North America. The prize committees say their decisions are based on scientific merit, not gender, nationality or race. However, they are not deaf to the criticism. Five years ago, the head of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences said it had started to ask nominating bodies to make sure they don't overlook "women or people of other ethnicities or nationalities in their nominations."
correct_award_00024	FactBench	0	35	https://www.tiktok.com/%40fascience7/video/7329173804675009793	en	Make Your Day			[]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null		en			null
correct_award_00024	FactBench	3	76	https://www.sciencealert.com/scientists-win-physics-nobel-prize-for-proving-einstein-wrong	en	Scientists Win Physics Nobel Prize For Proving Einstein Wrong	https://www.sciencealert…ledLightBulb.jpg	https://www.sciencealert…ledLightBulb.jpg	[ "https://www.sciencealert.com/images/2022/10/EntangledLightBulb-642x260.jpg", "https://counter.theconversation.com/content/191884/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic", "https://b.scorecardresearch.com/p?c1=2&c2=10055482&cv=2.0&cj=1" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "The Conversation" ]	2022-10-05T00:37:55+00:00	The 2022 Nobel prize for physics has been awarded to a trio of scientists for pioneering experiments in quantum mechanics, the theory covering the micro-world of atoms and particles.	en	https://www.sciencealert…avicon-32x32.png	ScienceAlert	https://www.sciencealert.com/scientists-win-physics-nobel-prize-for-proving-einstein-wrong	The 2022 Nobel prize for physics has been awarded to a trio of scientists for pioneering experiments in quantum mechanics, the theory covering the micro-world of atoms and particles. Alain Aspect from Université Paris-Saclay in France, John Clauser from J.F. Clauser & Associates in the US, and Anton Zeilinger from University of Vienna in Austria, will share the prize sum of 10 million Swedish kronor (US$915,000) "for experiments with entangled photons, establishing the violation of Bell inequalities and pioneering quantum information science". The world of quantum mechanics appears very odd indeed. In school, we are taught that we can use equations in physics to predict exactly how things will behave in the future – where a ball will go if we roll it down a hill, for example. Quantum mechanics is different from this. Rather than predicting individual outcomes, it tells us the probability of finding subatomic particles in particular places. A particle can actually be in several places at the same time, before "picking" one location at random when we measure it. Even the great Albert Einstein himself was unsettled by this – to the point where he was convinced that it was wrong. Rather than outcomes being random, he thought there must be some "hidden variables" – forces or laws that we can't see – which predictably influence the results of our measurements. Some physicists, however, embraced the consequences of quantum mechanics. John Bell, a physicist from Northern Ireland, made an important breakthrough in 1964, devising a theoretical test to show that the hidden variables Einstein had in mind don't exist. According to quantum mechanics, particles can be "entangled", spookily connected so that if you manipulate one then you automatically and immediately also manipulate the other. If this spookiness – particles far apart mysteriously influencing each other instantaneously – were to be explained by the particles communicating with each other through hidden variables, it would require faster-than-light communication between the two, which Einstein's theories forbid. Quantum entanglement is a challenging concept to understand, essentially linking the properties of particles no matter how far apart they are. Imagine a light bulb that emits two photons (light particles) that travel in opposite directions away from it. If these photons are entangled, then they can share a property, such as their polarization, no matter their distance. Bell imagined doing experiments on these two photons separately and comparing the results of them to prove that they were entangled (truly and mysteriously linked). Clauser put Bell's theory into practice at a time when doing experiments on single photons was almost unthinkable. In 1972, just eight years after Bell's famous thought experiment, Clauser showed that light could indeed be entangled. While Clauser's results were groundbreaking, there were a few alternative, more exotic explanations for the results he obtained. If light didn't behave quite as the physicists thought, perhaps his results could be explained without entanglement. These explanations are known as loopholes in Bell's test, and Aspect was the first to challenge this. Aspect came up with an ingenious experiment to rule out one of the most important potential loopholes in Bell's test. He showed that the entangled photons in the experiment aren't actually communicating with each other through hidden variables to decide the outcome of Bell's test. This means they really are spookily linked. In science it is incredibly important to test the concepts that we believe to be correct. And few have played a more important role in doing this than Aspect. Quantum mechanics has been tested time and again over the past century and survived unscathed. Quantum technology At this point, you may be forgiven for wondering why it matters how the microscopic world behaves, or that photons can be entangled. This is where the vision of Zeilinger really shines. We once harnessed our knowledge of classical mechanics to build machines, to make factories, leading to the industrial revolution. Knowledge of the behavior of electronics and semiconductors has driven the digital revolution. But understanding quantum mechanics allows us to exploit it, to build devices that are capable of doing new things. Indeed, many believe that it will drive the next revolution, of quantum technology. Quantum entanglement can be harnessed in computing to process information in ways that were not possible before. Detecting small changes in entanglement can allow sensors to detect things with greater precision than ever before. Communicating with entangled light can also guarantee security, as measurements of quantum systems can reveal the presence of the eavesdropper. Zeilinger's work paved the way for the quantum technological revolution by showing how it is possible to link a series of entangled systems together, to build the quantum equivalent of a network. In 2022, these applications of quantum mechanics are not science fiction. We have the first quantum computers. The Micius satellite uses entanglement to enable secure communications across the world. And quantum sensors are being used in applications from medical imaging to detecting submarines. Ultimately, the 2022 Nobel panel have recognized the importance of the practical foundations producing, manipulating, and testing quantum entanglement and the revolution it is helping to drive. I am pleased to see this trio receiving the award. In 2002, I started a PhD at the University of Cambridge that was inspired by their work. The aim of my project was to make a simple semiconductor device to generate entangled light. This was to greatly simplify the equipment needed to do quantum experiments and to allow practical devices for real-world applications to be built. Our work was successful and it amazes and excites me to see the leaps and bounds that have been made in the field since. Robert Young, Professor of Physics and Director of the Lancaster Quantum Technology Centre, Lancaster University
correct_award_00024	FactBench	1	80	https://www.lbi.org/griffinger/record/245606	en	Portrait of Albert Einstein (1879-1955)	https://www.lbi.org/grif…245606_800px.jpg	https://www.lbi.org/grif…245606_800px.jpg	[ "https://www.lbi.org/griffinger-static/lbi_art_django2_app/images/lbi_logo.png?v=202104121238", "https://www.lbi.org/griffinger-static/lbi_art_django2_app/images/art/245606_800px.jpg?v=202406111621" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	The Edythe Griffinger Portal is a curated selection of items from the Art and Objects Collection, Archives, and Library of the Leo Baeck Institute (LBI).	en	/griffinger-static/lbi_art_django2_app/images/favicon.ico?v=202104121551		https://www.lbi.org/griffinger/record/245606	Biographical/Historical Information Albert Einstein was a Nobel Prize winning physicist born in Ulm, Germany in 1879. He completed his secondary education in Switzerland. Early in his career, Einstein developed his special theory of relativity. In 1905, he published four groundbreaking papers which attracted the attention of the academic world, and at the age of 26, he was awarded a PhD by the University of Zurich. Einstein met his first wife, Mileva Marić, while attending Zürich Polytechnic: the couple married in 1903 and had two sons, Hans Albert and Eduard, before divorcing in 1919. That same year, Einstein married his cousin, Elsa Löwenthal, and adopted her two daughters, Margot and Ilse. Albert Einstein was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect". The Einsteins were visiting the U.S. in 1933 when the Nazis rose to power. He and Elsa waited until the end of his visiting professorship at the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena before traveling to Belgium to renounce their citizenship at the German consulate. Upon his return to the United States, Einstein began teaching at Princeton University. During World War II, Einstein worked on the Manhattan Project. He became a U.S. citizen in 1940. Aside from his scientific contributions, Einstein traveled the world, played violin, and was an avid— though unskilled—sailor. He also supported Zionism, socialism, and civil rights. Einstein died in Princeton, New Jersey in 1955. Emil Orlik was born Prague on 21st July 1870 to a German-Jewish family. He studied art in Munich under Heinrich Knirr, Wilhelm Lindenschmidt, and Johann Leonard Raab. He was a painter, an etcher and lithographer, in addition to working as an illustrator for the art magazine PAN, as a theater set designer, book designer and poster designer. He traveled extensively, including a visit to Japan in 1900, where he studied woodblock carving and other techniques. He helped to revive color woodblock printing in Europe. In 1905 Emil Orlik moved to Berlin and took a post at the School for Graphic and Book Art of the Museum of Decorative Arts where he worked until his retirement in 1930. Other notable travels include his trip to Egypt, Nubia, China, Korea, Japan and Siberia in 1911, and his trip to New York City in 1924. Portrait commissions and graphic work kept him busy till the time of his death in Berlin on 28th September 1932.
correct_award_00024	FactBench	3	21	https://twitter.com/NobelPrize/status/1780974843359289665	en	x.com			[]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null			https://abs.twimg.com/re…ios.77d25eba.png	X (formerly Twitter)	null
correct_award_00024	FactBench	1	38	https://www.consejoculturalmundial.org/world-award-of-science/	en	Albert Einstein World Award of Science	http://www.consejoculturalmundial.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/Albert-Einstein-Medal-0983R-crop.jpg	http://www.consejoculturalmundial.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/Albert-Einstein-Medal-0983R-crop.jpg	[ "https://www.consejoculturalmundial.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/WCC-logo-gold.svg", "http://www.consejoculturalmundial.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/medalla-alberteinstein.png", "https://www.consejoculturalmundial.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/Einstein_1921_portrait-crop.jpg", "https://www.consejoculturalmundial.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/Albert-Einstein-Medal-0983R-crop-1024x683.jpg", "https://www.consejoculturalmundial.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/medalla-alberteinstein.png", "https://www.consejoculturalmundial.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/WCC-award-book.png", "https://www.consejoculturalmundial.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/world-map-1-scaled-1-1024x570.jpg", "https://www.consejoculturalmundial.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/WCC-logo-gold.svg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	2022-01-02T12:00:18+00:00	Winners of the Albert Einstein World Award of Science are elected by renowned scientists. Diploma, medal and cheque are awarded.	en	https://www.consejocultu…C-logo-image.svg	World Cultural Council	https://www.consejoculturalmundial.org/world-award-of-science/	In this century, the work of Albert Einstein is the most representative example of the search for the fundamental scientific laws of nature. He was born in Ulm, Germany on March 14th, 1879. In 1916, he published “The General Theory of Relativity” which advanced twenty years time in contemporary scientific work in the area of theoretical physics. Among his most important contributions to humanity are, besides the above mentioned theory: “The Theory of Brownian Movement”, “The Inertia Principle of Energy”, “The Quantum Law in the Emission and Absorption of Light” and “The Theory of the Specific Heat of Solid Bodies”. In 1921 he was granted the Nobel Prize in Physics for his Photoelectric Law.
correct_award_00024	FactBench	0	74	https://www.quantamagazine.org/pioneering-quantum-physicists-win-nobel-prize-in-physics-20221004/	en	Quanta Magazine	https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.c…ysics-nobel.webp	https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.c…ysics-nobel.webp	[ "https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/10/Physics_Nobel_2880x1620_Lede-scaled.webp", "https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2021/11/CW_1.jpg", "https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2024/01/JoY-Ads-2024_Article.jpg", "https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2024/01/JoY-Ads-2024_Mobile.webp", "https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2021/11/CW_1.jpg", "https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2024/01/JoY-Ads-2024_Article.jpg", "https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2024/01/JoY-Ads-2024_Mobile.webp", "https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/10/Nobel_Medicine_Paabo_2880x1220_HP-scaled.webp" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "civil conversation. Abusive", "self-promotional" ]	2022-10-04T09:58:00+00:00	Alain Aspect, John Clauser and Anton Zeilinger have won the 2022 Nobel Prize in Physics for groundbreaking experiments with entangled particles.	en	/favicon.png	Quanta Magazine	https://www.quantamagazine.org/pioneering-quantum-physicists-win-nobel-prize-in-physics-20221004/	The physicists Alain Aspect, John Clauser and Anton Zeilinger have won the 2022 Nobel Prize in Physics for experiments that proved the profoundly strange quantum nature of reality. Their experiments collectively established the existence of a bizarre quantum phenomenon known as entanglement, where two widely separated particles appear to share information despite having no conceivable way of communicating. Entanglement lay at the heart of a fiery clash in the 1930s between physics titans Albert Einstein on the one hand and Niels Bohr and Erwin Schrödinger on the other about how the universe operates at a fundamental level. Einstein believed all aspects of reality should have a concrete and fully knowable existence. All objects — from the moon to a photon of light — should have precisely defined properties that can be discovered through measurement. Bohr, Schrödinger and other proponents of the nascent quantum mechanics, however, were finding that reality appeared to be fundamentally uncertain; a particle does not possess certain properties until the moment of measurement. Entanglement emerged as a decisive way to distinguish between these two possible versions of reality. The physicist John Bell proposed a decisive thought experiment that was later realized in various experimental forms by Aspect and Clauser. The work proved Schrödinger right. Quantum mechanics was the operating system of the universe. “I would not call entanglement ‘one,’ but rather ‘the’ trait of quantum mechanics,” Thors Hans Hansson, a member of the Nobel committee, quoted Schrödinger as writing in 1935. He observed, “The experiments performed by Clauser and Aspect opened the eyes of the physics community to the depth of Schrödinger’s statement, and provided tools for creating and manipulating and measuring states of particles that are entangled although they are far way.” In addition to its paradigm-shattering philosophical implications, entanglement is now poised to power an emerging wave of quantum technologies. Zeilinger has been at the forefront of the field, developing techniques that use entanglement to achieve astounding feats of quantum networking, teleportation and cryptography. “Quantum information science is a vibrant and rapidly developing field. It has broad potential implications in areas such as secure information transfer, quantum computing, and sensing technology,” said Eva Olsson, another member of the committee. “Its predictions have opened doors to another world, and it has also shaken the very foundations of how we interpret measurements.” What is quantum entanglement? Two particles are entangled when together they form one quantum system, regardless of the distance between them. To understand this kind of quantum connection, consider two electrons. Electrons have a quantum property called spin, which, when measured, can take one of two values, referred to as “up” or “down.” Measuring the spin of each electron is like tossing a coin: It will randomly come out up or down. Now imagine that two physicists, Alain and John, each receive a series of coins in the mail. As each pair of coins arrives, the physicists flip them at the same time. Alain might get the sequence heads, tails, tails, heads, tails. And John might get heads, heads, tails, tails, tails. The outcome of Alain’s and John’s coin tosses will have nothing to do with each other. But if they repeat this experiment with a series of entangled electrons instead of coins, they’ll get a strange result: Each time Alain measures an electron that’s spin-up, John will find that his corresponding half of the electron pair comes out spin-down, and vice versa. The two acts of measurement are connected, almost as if flipping one coin could send out a signal that instantaneously ensured the proper outcome of its distant partner at the precise moment of measurement. It was Einstein, along with Boris Podolsky and Nathan Rosen, who first described quantum entanglement in a now-infamous 1935 paper. The phenomenon, the effects of which Einstein disparagingly dubbed “spooky action at a distance,” was an unavoidable consequence of the nascent theory of quantum mechanics. Einstein suspected that entanglement would prove the death knell of quantum mechanics because it seemed to fly in the face of a central tenet of relativity — that no information could travel faster than the speed of light. No measurement of one electron should be able to instantly influence a measurement in some distant place. Instead, their paper would lay the foundation for a complete rethinking of reality and a radical new field of research. How do you measure entanglement? By the 1930s, it was clear that Bohr, Schrödinger and the other quantum pioneers were onto something; the theory described experiments with atoms and subatomic particles more accurately than any other theory. The debate was how far one could trust it. Einstein, for instance, held out hope that the bizarre theory was just a steppingstone on the way to a more complete picture that would philosophically align with classical physics. He suspected that two entangled electrons took on opposing spins because some “hidden variable” caused their spins to point in opposite directions in the first place. In other words, what looked like a random measurement outcome in quantum mechanics was actually the result of some as yet unappreciated deterministic description that created an illusory connection between the particles. In 1964, John Stewart Bell proposed an experiment that could settle the debate. The details are rather involved, but the general idea was for two physicists to measure the spins of entangled particles along different axes: not just up and down but sometimes, randomly, left and right or in other directions. If Einstein was right, and the particles secretly had predetermined spins all along, then the act of switching the axis of measurement should have no effect on the outcome. Bell calculated that if the universe was truly quantum mechanical, and entanglement was as spooky as it seemed, the axis-switching would lead to correlated spin measurements more often than would be possible in classical theories like relativity. “John Bell translated the philosophical debate into science and provided testable predictions that launched experimental work,” said Olsson. Who performed Bell’s experiment? John Clauser, of Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory and the University of California, Berkeley, and Stuart Freedman, a graduate student, were the first to take Bell’s experiment from the page into the lab. Clauser realized that the experiment would be more feasible if it involved not spinning electrons but polarized photons — particles of light. Like the spin direction of an electron, the polarization of a photon can take on one of two values relative to the orientation of a filter. Polarized sunglasses, for example, block photons that are polarized one way and let in photons polarized in the other manner. Initially, physicists including Richard Feynman discouraged Clauser from pursuing the experiment, arguing that quantum mechanics needed no further experimental proof. But Bell personally encouraged Clauser to see the research through, and in 1972 Clauser and Freedman succeeded in realizing Bell’s experiment. They generated pairs of entangled photons and used lenses to measure their polarization directions. Unsure what he would find, Clauser had placed a $2 bet that his experiment would prove Einstein right. To his surprise, his results vindicated Bell’s prediction over Einstein’s. The photons’ states appeared correlated in a way that precluded any hidden-variable theory. Clauser’s lost bet was a huge victory for quantum mechanics. “I was very sad to see that my own experiment had proven Einstein wrong,” he said years later in an interview. But Clauser’s evidence still wasn’t ironclad. His experiment used fixed orientations of the lenses, allowing for a loophole: If a hidden variable that coordinates the photons’ polarizations somehow depends on the experimental positioning of the lenses, Einstein could yet be right. Enter Alain Aspect. He carried out a series of increasingly stringent Bell tests in Paris, culminating in a devilishly sophisticated experiment in 1982. In that test, the orientation of the lenses would randomly change during the billionths of a second that the photons spent flying from the emitter to the lens. In this way, the initial lens configuration was erased and could have no influence on any secret process setting the polarization at the moment of their emission. Once more, the experiment found in favor of Bell and quantum mechanics. Only the slimmest of loopholes remained. Could a secret and nonrandom process that was somehow set in motion at the beginning of the experiment determine how the lenses would update? Anton Zeilinger’s research at the University of Vienna further narrowed this remaining sliver of doubt. In a 2017 experiment, he led a team that used the colors of photons emitted from distant stars hundreds of years ago to determine the settings of the experiment. If some cosmic conspiracy was creating the illusion of entanglement, it would have had to begin centuries before the births of the experimenters. Some physicists still float theories that maintain Einstein’s dream. Superdeterminism, for instance, holds that every detail of the universe’s fate, down to the spin and polarization of every last particle, was completely fixed at the Big Bang — before the stars (or Zeilinger’s cosmic Bell test) formed. But most researchers take the work of Bell, Clauser, Aspect, Zeilinger and their teams at face value. Entanglement is what it seems: The pair of particles is one unified system. For each individual particle, properties like spin and polarization really are undefined until the moment of measurement. In other words, reality has no fixed and predetermined state until you measure it. It’s a dramatic conclusion that most researchers accept but still struggle to fully grasp. “The very fundamental question — what does this really mean in a basic way? — is unanswered, and is an avenue for new research,” said Zeilinger. What is entanglement good for? In the nearly 90 years since Einstein tried to kill quantum mechanics by highlighting the absurdity of entanglement, the phenomenon has become much more than fodder for philosophical debates. It’s one of the main engines driving the booming field of quantum information science. “Physicists are now starting to understand that entanglement and Bell pairs [are] a quantum resource that you can use to achieve amazing new things,” said Hansson. Zeilinger is one of the central figures leading the effort to work technological miracles with entanglement. In 1997, he and his colleagues were the first to pull off a feat known as quantum teleportation, which uses a precise protocol of measurements on entangled particles to transfer the polarization direction of one particle over to another without the researchers ever learning the polarization direction that was transported. The technique may come to play a crucial role in quantum computing. “It is not like in the Star Trek films or whatever, transporting something — certainly not a person — over some distance,” Zeilinger said by phone during the Nobel announcement. “The point is, using entanglement, you can transfer all the information that is carried by an object over to another place, where the object is, so to speak, reconstituted.” Zeilinger also developed a procedure called entanglement swapping, involving the emission of two entangled Bell pairs, for a total of four particles. When you perform a particular measurement on two of the particles that are not entangled, the remaining two become entangled with each other. Swapping entanglement from particle to particle in this way could help link nodes in a quantum communication network. In a landmark 1998 publication, Zeilinger and his collaborators demonstrated the ability to swap entanglement between photons that had never been in contact with each other. In recent years, such technologies have left the lab and entered the real world. Jian-Wei Pan, a former student of Zeilinger’s, heads up a Chinese group that launched a satellite named Micius in 2016. Micius beamed pairs of photons to labs in China that were separated by more than 1,000 kilometers. The group’s measurements proved that entanglement had survived the journey. Pan’s group later worked with Zeilinger’s group in Austria to distribute pairs of entangled particles across the Eurasian continent. This long-distance entanglement distributed a secret message, a so-called quantum key, which gets destroyed by any attempt to intercept the information. The demonstration paves the way for essentially unbreakable cryptography, which will be guaranteed by the thoroughly tested fundamentals of quantum mechanics. Who won the Nobel Prize in Physics in recent years?
correct_award_00024	FactBench	0	8	https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/	en	NobelPrize.org	https://www.nobelprize.o…size-496x328.jpg	https://www.nobelprize.o…size-496x328.jpg	[ "https://www.nobelprize.org/uploads/2023/10/fig_fy_23_webb3x2_2100x1400-1024x676.png", "https://www.nobelprize.org/uploads/2023/12/agostini_krausz_lHuillier-3_2_v2-1024x676.jpg", "https://www.nobelprize.org/wp-content/themes/nobelprize/assets/images/spinner.gif", "https://www.nobelprize.org/uploads/2021/09/physics-matching.jpg", "https://www.nobelprize.org/images/123776-landscape-x-large.jpg", "https://www.nobelprize.org/images/einstein-12923-portrait-medium.jpg", "https://www.nobelprize.org/images/marie-curie-12879-portrait-medium.jpg", "https://www.nobelprize.org/images/bohr-12929-portrait-medium.jpg", "https://www.nobelprize.org/images/chadwick-12999-portrait-medium.jpg", "https://www.nobelprize.org/images/thomson-12853-portrait-medium.jpg", "https://www.nobelprize.org/images/rontgen-13540-portrait-medium.jpg", "https://www.nobelprize.org/images/kosterlitz-15202-landscape-x-large.jpg", "https://www.nobelprize.org/images/53513-landscape-x-large.jpg", "https://www.nobelprize.org/images/higgs-631-landscape-x-large.jpg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	Physics Prize	en	https://www.nobelprize.o…avicon-50x50.png	NobelPrize.org	https://www.nobelprize.org/physics-prize-2/	“The said interest shall be divided into five equal parts, which shall be apportioned as follows: /- – -/ one part to the person who shall have made the most important discovery or invention within the field of physics …” (Excerpt from the will of Alfred Nobel) Physics was the prize area which Alfred Nobel mentioned first in his will from 1895. At the end of the nineteenth century, many people considered physics as the foremost of the sciences, and perhaps Nobel saw it this way as well. His own research was also closely tied to physics. The Nobel Prize in Physics is awarded by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, Stockholm, Sweden.
correct_award_00024	FactBench	2	82	https://www.census.gov/history/www/homepage_archive/2019/march_2019.html	en	U.S. Census Bureau			[ "https://www.census.gov/main/uswds/uswds-2.12.0/img/us_flag_small.png", "https://www.census.gov/main/img/USCENSUS_IDENTITY_SOLO_BLACK_1.5in_R_no_padding.svg", "https://www.census.gov/history/img/einstein-laurencelivermorenl.jpg", "https://www.census.gov/main/www/img/offsite.gif", "https://www.census.gov/main/www/img/offsite.gif", "https://www.census.gov/main/www/img/offsite.gif", "https://www.census.gov/main/www/img/offsite.gif", "https://www.census.gov/main/www/img/offsite.gif", "https://www.census.gov/main/www/img/offsite.gif", "https://www.census.gov/main/www/img/offsite.gif", "https://www.census.gov/main/www/img/offsite.gif", "https://www.census.gov/main/www/img/offsite.gif", "https://www.census.gov/main/www/img/offsite.gif", "https://www.census.gov/main/www/img/offsite.gif", "https://www.census.gov/main/www/img/offsite.gif", "https://www.census.gov/history/img/enum-einstein.jpg", "https://www.census.gov/history/img/3mileisland-epa.jpg", "https://www.census.gov/history/img/mariagoeppertmayer32019.jpg", "https://www.census.gov/main/www/img/offsite.gif", "https://www.census.gov/main/www/img/offsite.gif", "https://www.census.gov/ratingtool/images/like-hand-3122.svg", "https://www.census.gov/ratingtool/images/unlike-hand-3123.svg", "https://www.census.gov/ratingtool/images/exclamation-icon.png", "https://www.census.gov/ratingtool/images/angle-circle-arrow-right.png", "https://www.census.gov/ratingtool/images/angle-circle-arrow-right-hover.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "Albert", "Einstein", "physics", "physicist", "nuclear", "relativity", "theory", "manhattan project", "jewish", "world war", "princeton" ]	null	[ "Jason Gauthier", "History Staff", "US Census Bureau", "Census History Staff" ]	null	March 2019 featuring Albert Einstein	en			null	March 2019 Visit https://www.census.gov/history every month for the latest Census History Home Page! U.S. Census Bureau History: Albert Einstein Albert Einstein—one of history's most influential physicists—was born on March 14, 1879. Over the course of his lifetime, the hundreds of scientific papers, articles, and books Einstein published have become the cornerstone of modern physics and scientific thought and theory. Einstein's genius was so ahead of his time that scientists are still affirming his theories relativity, space-time, and heat transfer more than 6 decades after his death in 1955. Einstein was born in Ulm, Baden-Wurttemberg , Germany, and moved to Munich, Germany, soon after his birth. After completing high school, he attended the Swiss Federal Polytechnic School in Zurich, Switzerland , earning teaching credentials in mathematics and physics. Unable to secure a teaching position, Einstein worked for the Swiss patent office before completing his Ph.D. studies at the University of Zurich in 1905. In that same year, the young physicist published his research on the photoelectric effect for which the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences awarded him the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics. Einstein's research and lectures quickly earned him a reputation as a leading mind in the fields of physics and math while teaching in Berne and Zurich, Switzerland. He returned to Germany in 1914 serving as director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Physical Institute and professor at the University of Berlin until 1933. By the 1930s, Albert Einstein was an internationally known author, lecturer, and science ambassador. He traveled the world lecturing and attending black-tie events with university and research elite, celebrities, and heads of state. However, his fame could not shield him from Adolf Hitler and Germany's Nazi Party. In early 1933, the Nazis confiscated Einstein's assets because of his vocal pacifism, outspoken opposition to Hitler, and Jewish heritage. Learning of the siezure, Einstein—who had been teaching at the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena, CA—returned to Europe in March 1933, and renounced his German citizenship at the German Consulate in Antwerp, Belgium. In the months that followed, the Nazis' prohibition against Jews holding civil service positions led to not only Einstein's exile, but also that of many of the nation's leading physicists, mathematicians, scientists, and academics. The Einsteins immigrated to the United States in October 1933. They settled in Princeton, NJ, where Albert Einstein accepted a position at the Institute for Advanced Study . He became a permanent resident in 1935 and a U.S. citizen in 1940. During World War II, the United States specifically excluded Einstein from the list of leading scientists engaged in the effort to harness and weaponize atomic energy known as the "Manhattan Project." His history of pacifism and socialist sympathies prevented the necessary security clearance to work on the project, though he did assist the U.S. Navy with evaluating weapons systems and helped raise money for the war effort. Einstein retired from teaching after the war. During the "Atomic Age," physicists were increasingly focused on quantum theory while Einstein continued to research and publish on topics related to the "less glamorous" theory of general relativity, including wormholes, time travel, black holes, and the origins of the universe. More than 60 years after his death, scientists continue to research and make new discoveries related to Einstein's work. The black holes he theorized in 1915 have since been identified by the thousands. His Nobel Prize-winning research on the photoelectric effect led to the development of clean, renewable solar energy. Computer chips, digital cameras, nuclear medicine, global positioning systems, supermarket checkout scanners, and Blu-ray players are all legacies of Albert Einstein's genius . You can learn more about physics, Albert Einstein, and his legacy using census data and records. For example: Albert Einstein immigrated to the United States in October 1933, after accepting a position at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, NJ. At the time, Princeton Township, NJ, had a population of approximately 2,738. When Einstein died in the 1955, Princeton (a combination of Princeton borough and township) was home to approximately 12,230. In 2017, the U.S. Census Bureau estimated Princeton's population was 31,822. The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences awarded Albert Einstein the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics for his research on the law of the photoelectric effect. Without this research, solar energy and the $428 million solar electric power generation industry (NAICS 221114) would not be possible. Other devices, like automatic streetlights, motion detectors, automatic washroom faucets, smoke and carbon monoxide alarms, and the digital camera contained in smartphones depend on the photoelectric and photoconductive cells made possible by Albert Einstein's research. The Nazis confiscated Albert Einstein's property in 1933 because he was Jewish. Einstein and his wife fled Germany and sought asylum in Europe before immigrating to the United States in October 1933. Seven years later, Einstein and many other Jews fleeing Europe helped America's Jewish population grow from approximately 4.2 million in 1927 to nearly 5 million in 1940. In 2010, the Jewish population in the United States numbered more than 6.5 million. States with the largest Jewish populations were New York (1,625,000), California (1,220,000), and Florida (613,000). In August 1939, physicists Leo Szilard, Edward Teller, and Eugene Wigner drafted a letter to Franklin D. Roosevelt—which Einstein agreed to sign—warning the president of Nazi Germany's atomic research and urged him to fund an American research program. Roosevelt authorized the creation of the Advisory Committee on Uranium, which funded the purchase of uranium and graphite for experimentation in late 1939. On December 2, 1942, a team of scientists led by Nobel Prize-winning physicist, and Einstein's friend and collaborator, Enrico Fermi, succeeded in producing the first controlled, self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction in a reactor at the University of Chicago. Although Albert Einstein was one of the world's leading physicists and his theories about atoms and energy were the foundation of atomic weapons research, the scientists at the Los Alamos Laboratory in Los Alamos, NM, led by Major General Leslie Groves and J. Robert Oppenheimer, produced the world's first atomic bombs in 1945 without his help. Einstein was not invited to assist with the atomic weapons research and was not aware of the "Manhattan Project's" existence because the U.S. Army Intelligence Office denied the pacifist-leaning physicist's security clearance in 1940. In a 1947, Einstein expressed regret that his research and 1939 letter to President Roosevelt encouraged the development of atomic weapons. In 2017, the American Community Survey estimated that there were 5,930 nuclear engineers and 3,361 nuclear technicians in the United States. Many of these professionals worked at nuclear electric power generation establishments (NAICS 221113); naval ship building and repairing (NAICS 336611); pharmaceutical manufacturers (NAICS 325412) specializing in radiology and nuclear medicine; and universities offering nuclear engineering and physics programs. According to the U.S. Department of Labor, there were 16,710 physicists employed in the United States earning a mean annual wage of $123,080 in 2017. California (2,920), New Mexico (1,720), and Maryland (1,260) led the nation for the number of physicists employed. The federal government is one of the nation's largest employers of physicists. The National Aeronautic and Space Administration employs astrophysicists. Nuclear physicists help regulate the civilian use of nuclear power and materials at the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. The U.S. Department of Energy employs and provides grants to physicists to perform groundbreaking research at facilities, including Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Oak Ridge, TN; Argonne National Laboratory in Lemont, IL; ; Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in Livermore, CA; Los Alamos National Laboratory in Los Alamos, NM; and Sandia National Laboratories in Albuquerque, NM, and Livermore, CA. 1790 Census Act On March 1, 1790, U.S. President George Washington signed the 1790 Census Act authorizing the nation's first census. Five months later, U.S. marshals began visiting each of the nation's households to collect data about the number of free white males 16 years and older, free white males under 16 years, free white females, all other free persons, and slaves. Following tabulation of the census' data, Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson reported that the nation's population was 3,929,214. Three Mile Island On March 28, 1979, a reactor at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Generating Station in Dauphin County, PA (south of the state capital Harrisburg), suffered a partial meltdown due to human error and equipment malfunctions. Studies have found no adverse impact to the county's population—about 232,317 in 1980—as a result of the small amount of radioactive material released during the accident. Slated to be retired in 2019, Three Mile Island was among 153 nuclear power plants nationwide that supplied 805 billion kWh of electricity to American homes and businesses in 2017. Photo courtesy of the Environmental Protection Agency. Nobel Prize The Royal Swedish Academy of Arts and Sciences awards the Nobel Prize in physics to scientists making outstanding contributions in the field. Recipients living in the United States include Albert Einstein "for his services to Theoretical Physics" and "discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect" (1921); particle accelerating cyclotron inventor Ernest Lawrence (1939); John Bardeen, the only person awarded the Nobel Prize in physics twice, in 1956 and 1972; and Maria Goeppert Mayer (pictured above)—the second woman awarded a Nobel Prize in physics—in 1963. Visit https://www.census.gov/history every month for the latest Census History Home Page!
correct_award_00024	FactBench	1	43	https://www.rarenewspapers.com/view/589219	en	Albert Einstein wins the Nobel Prize...	https://secure-images.ra…012/image032.jpg		[ "https://www.rarenewspapers.com/images/redesign/logo.png", "https://www.rarenewspapers.com/images/redesign/ebay.png", "https://secure-images.rarenewspapers.com/ebayimgs/2.7.2012/image032.jpg", "https://secure-images.rarenewspapers.com/ebayimgs/2.7.2012/image032_tn.jpg", "https://secure-images.rarenewspapers.com/ebayimgs/2.7.2012/image033_tn.jpg", "https://secure-images.rarenewspapers.com/ebayimgs/2.7.2012/image034_tn.jpg", "https://secure-images.rarenewspapers.com/ebayimgs/2.7.2012/image035_tn.jpg", "https://www.rarenewspapers.com/images/icons/cart_put.png?1342717916", "https://secure-images.rarenewspapers.com/ebayimgs/7.17.2024/image043_tn.jpg", "https://secure-images.rarenewspapers.com/ebayimgs/7.17.2024/image076_tn.jpg", "https://secure-images.rarenewspapers.com/ebayimgs/7.17.2024/image061_tn.jpg", "https://www.rarenewspapers.com/images/redesign/american-antiquarian-society-logo.png", "https://www.rarenewspapers.com/images/redesign/ephemera-society-logo.png", "https://privacy-policy.truste.com/privacy-seal/rarenewspapers.com/TRUSTe-Certified-Privacy-Seal.png", "https://www.rarenewspapers.com/images/follow-me-pinterest.png", "https://googleads.g.doubleclick.net/pagead/viewthroughconversion/1072220669/?guid=ON&script=0" ]	[]	[]	[ "historic newspapers", "old newspapers", "timothy hughes rare and early newspapers" ]	null	[]	null	Timothy Hughes Rare & Early Newspapers offers the largest inventory of original historic newspapers for sale, all guaranteed authentic and all at great prices.				null
correct_award_00024	FactBench	2	16	https://www.britannica.com/topic/Winners-of-the-Nobel-Prize-for-Physics-1856942	en	Winners of the Nobel Prize for Physics \| Nobel Laureates, Physics Fields, Discoveries	https://cdn.britannica.c…e.jpg?v=3.121.12	https://cdn.britannica.c…e.jpg?v=3.121.12	[ "https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel/eb-logo/MendelNewThistleLogo.png", "https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel/eb-logo/MendelNewThistleLogo.png", "https://cdn.britannica.com/55/142355-131-EFF621AF/books-Stack-literature-pile-reading-entertainment-society-2010.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop", "https://cdn.britannica.com/30/186230-131-03A4CF81/medal-winner-Nobel-Prize-Johannes-Diderik-Van.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop", "https://cdn.britannica.com/06/192806-131-75DD8878/drive-Highway-Night-Traffic-Portland-automobile-car.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop", "https://cdn.britannica.com/55/154055-131-4A9CCC79/Alfred-Nobel-Peace-Prize-Nobel-Peace-Center-2005.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop", "https://cdn.britannica.com/78/227578-131-EF4DCD06/women-meditating.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop", "https://cdn.britannica.com/28/60728-131-36BD65EF/infantrymen-German-Maxim-World-War-I-machine.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop", "https://cdn.britannica.com/22/232222-050-C7D008B3/Hand-ballot-box-vote-election.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop", "https://cdn.britannica.com/15/95015-131-5E505098/statues-Moai-Easter-Island.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop", "https://cdn.britannica.com/44/195044-131-92574FF7/Lemmings-Really-Commit-Mass-Suicide-illustration.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop", "https://cdn.britannica.com/94/182194-131-A1441287/Andrew-Jackson-town-supporters-inauguration-way-1829.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop", "https://cdn.britannica.com/57/203257-131-48B2BCA1/Martin-Luther-King-Jr-marchers-speech-I-August-28th-1963.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop", "https://cdn.britannica.com/48/221848-131-DF541F62/US-presidential-elections-in-maps.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" ]	[]	[]	[ "Winners of the Nobel Prize for Physics", "encyclopedia", "encyclopeadia", "britannica", "article" ]	null	[ "The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica" ]	2012-06-25T00:00:00+00:00	The Nobel Prize for Physics is awarded, according to the will of Swedish inventor and industrialist Alfred Bernhard Nobel, “to those who, during the preceding year, shall have conferred the greatest benefit on mankind” in the field of physics. It is conferred by the Royal Swedish Academy of	en	/favicon.png	Encyclopedia Britannica	https://www.britannica.com/topic/Winners-of-the-Nobel-Prize-for-Physics-1856942	1901 Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen Germany discovery of X-rays 1902 Hendrik Antoon Lorentz Netherlands investigation of the influence of magnetism on radiation Pieter Zeeman Netherlands investigation of the influence of magnetism on radiation 1903 Henri Becquerel France discovery of spontaneous radioactivity Marie Curie France investigations of radiation phenomena discovered by Becquerel Pierre Curie France investigations of radiation phenomena discovered by Becquerel 1904 Lord Rayleigh U.K. discovery of argon 1905 Philipp Lenard Germany research on cathode rays 1906 Sir J.J. Thomson U.K. researches into electrical conductivity of gases 1907 A.A. Michelson U.S. spectroscopic and metrological investigations 1908 Gabriel Lippmann France photographic reproduction of colours 1909 Ferdinand Braun Germany development of wireless telegraphy Guglielmo Marconi Italy development of wireless telegraphy 1910 Johannes Diederik van der Waals Netherlands research concerning the equation of state of gases and liquids 1911 Wilhelm Wien Germany discoveries regarding laws governing heat radiation 1912 Nils Dalén Sweden invention of automatic regulators for lighting coastal beacons and light buoys 1913 Heike Kamerlingh Onnes Netherlands investigation into the properties of matter at low temperatures; production of liquid helium 1914 Max von Laue Germany discovery of diffraction of X-rays by crystals 1915 Sir Lawrence Bragg U.K. analysis of crystal structure by means of X-rays Sir William Bragg U.K. analysis of crystal structure by means of X-rays 1917 Charles Glover Barkla U.K. discovery of characteristic X-radiation of elements 1918 Max Planck Germany discovery of the elemental quanta 1919 Johannes Stark Germany discovery of the Doppler effect in positive ion rays and division of spectral lines in an electric field 1920 Charles Édouard Guillaume Switzerland discovery of anomalies in alloys 1921 Albert Einstein Switzerland work in theoretical physics 1922 Niels Bohr Denmark investigation of atomic structure and radiation 1923 Robert Andrews Millikan U.S. work on elementary electric charge and the photoelectric effect 1924 Karl Manne Georg Siegbahn Sweden work in X-ray spectroscopy 1925 James Franck Germany discovery of the laws governing the impact of an electron upon an atom Gustav Hertz Germany discovery of the laws governing the impact of an electron upon an atom 1926 Jean Perrin France work on the discontinuous structure of matter 1927 Arthur Holly Compton U.S. discovery of wavelength change in diffused X-rays C.T.R. Wilson U.K. method of making visible the paths of electrically charged particles 1928 Sir Owen Willans Richardson U.K. work on electron emission by hot metals 1929 Louis de Broglie France discovery of the wave nature of electrons 1930 Sir Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman India work on light diffusion; discovery of the Raman effect 1932 Werner Heisenberg Germany creation of quantum mechanics 1933 P.A.M. Dirac U.K. introduction of wave equations in quantum mechanics Erwin Schrödinger Austria introduction of wave equations in quantum mechanics 1935 Sir James Chadwick U.K. discovery of the neutron 1936 Carl David Anderson U.S. discovery of the positron Victor Francis Hess Austria discovery of cosmic radiation 1937 Clinton Joseph Davisson U.S. experimental demonstration of the interference phenomenon in crystals irradiated by electrons Sir George Paget Thomson U.K. experimental demonstration of the interference phenomenon in crystals irradiated by electrons 1938 Enrico Fermi Italy disclosure of artificial radioactive elements produced by neutron irradiation 1939 Ernest Orlando Lawrence U.S. invention of the cyclotron 1943 Otto Stern U.S. discovery of the magnetic moment of the proton 1944 Isidor Isaac Rabi U.S. resonance method for registration of various properties of atomic nuclei 1945 Wolfgang Pauli Austria discovery of the exclusion principle of electrons 1946 Percy Williams Bridgman U.S. discoveries in the domain of high-pressure physics 1947 Sir Edward Victor Appleton U.K. discovery of the Appleton layer in the upper atmosphere 1948 Patrick M.S. Blackett U.K. discoveries in the domain of nuclear physics and cosmic radiation 1949 Yukawa Hideki Japan prediction of the existence of mesons 1950 Cecil Frank Powell U.K. photographic method of studying nuclear processes; discoveries concerning mesons 1951 Sir John Douglas Cockcroft U.K. work on transmutation of atomic nuclei by accelerated particles Ernest Thomas Sinton Walton Ireland work on transmutation of atomic nuclei by accelerated particles 1952 Felix Bloch U.S. discovery of nuclear magnetic resonance in solids E.M. Purcell U.S. discovery of nuclear magnetic resonance in solids 1953 Frits Zernike Netherlands method of phase-contrast microscopy 1954 Max Born U.K. statistical studies of atomic wave functions Walther Bothe West Germany invention of the coincidence method 1955 Polykarp Kusch U.S. measurement of the magnetic moment of the electron Willis Eugene Lamb, Jr. U.S. discoveries in the hydrogen spectrum 1956 John Bardeen U.S. investigations on semiconductors and invention of the transistor Walter H. Brattain U.S. investigations on semiconductors and invention of the transistor William B. Shockley U.S. investigations on semiconductors and invention of the transistor 1957 Tsung-Dao Lee China discovery of violations of the principle of parity Chen Ning Yang China discovery of violations of the principle of parity 1958 Pavel Alekseyevich Cherenkov U.S.S.R. discovery and interpretation of the Cherenkov effect Ilya Mikhaylovich Frank U.S.S.R. discovery and interpretation of the Cherenkov effect Igor Yevgenyevich Tamm U.S.S.R. discovery and interpretation of the Cherenkov effect 1959 Owen Chamberlain U.S. confirmation of the existence of the antiproton Emilio Segrè U.S. confirmation of the existence of the antiproton 1960 Donald A. Glaser U.S. development of the bubble chamber 1961 Robert Hofstadter U.S. determination of the shape and size of atomic nucleons Rudolf Ludwig Mössbauer West Germany discovery of the Mössbauer effect 1962 Lev Davidovich Landau U.S.S.R. contributions to the understanding of condensed states of matter 1963 J. Hans D. Jensen West Germany development of the shell model theory of the structure of atomic nuclei Maria Goeppert Mayer U.S. development of the shell model theory of the structure of atomic nuclei Eugene Paul Wigner U.S. principles governing interaction of protons and neutrons in the nucleus 1964 Nikolay Gennadiyevich Basov U.S.S.R. work in quantum electronics leading to construction of instruments based on maser-laser principles Aleksandr Mikhaylovich Prokhorov U.S.S.R. work in quantum electronics leading to construction of instruments based on maser-laser principles Charles Hard Townes U.S. work in quantum electronics leading to construction of instruments based on maser-laser principles 1965 Richard P. Feynman U.S. basic principles of quantum electrodynamics Julian Seymour Schwinger U.S. basic principles of quantum electrodynamics Tomonaga Shin'ichiro Japan basic principles of quantum electrodynamics 1966 Alfred Kastler France discovery of optical methods for studying Hertzian resonances in atoms 1967 Hans Albrecht Bethe U.S. discoveries concerning the energy production of stars 1968 Luis W. Alvarez U.S. work with elementary particles, discovery of resonance states 1969 Murray Gell-Mann U.S. classification of elementary particles and their interactions 1970 Hannes Alfvén Sweden work in magnetohydrodynamics and in antiferromagnetism and ferrimagnetism Louis-Eugène-Félix Néel France work in magnetohydrodynamics and in antiferromagnetism and ferrimagnetism 1971 Dennis Gabor U.K. invention of holography 1972 John Bardeen U.S. development of the theory of superconductivity Leon N. Cooper U.S. development of the theory of superconductivity John Robert Schrieffer U.S. development of the theory of superconductivity 1973 Leo Esaki Japan tunneling in semiconductors and superconductors Ivar Giaever U.S. tunneling in semiconductors and superconductors Brian D. Josephson U.K. tunneling in semiconductors and superconductors 1974 Antony Hewish U.K. work in radio astronomy Sir Martin Ryle U.K. work in radio astronomy 1975 Aage N. Bohr Denmark work on the atomic nucleus that paved the way for nuclear fusion Ben R. Mottelson Denmark work on the atomic nucleus that paved the way for nuclear fusion James Rainwater U.S. work on the atomic nucleus that paved the way for nuclear fusion 1976 Burton Richter U.S. discovery of a new class of elementary particles (psi, or J) Samuel C.C. Ting U.S. discovery of a new class of elementary particles (psi, or J) 1977 Philip W. Anderson U.S. contributions to understanding the behaviour of electrons in magnetic, noncrystalline solids Sir Nevill F. Mott U.K. contributions to understanding the behaviour of electrons in magnetic, noncrystalline solids John H. Van Vleck U.S. contributions to understanding the behaviour of electrons in magnetic, noncrystalline solids 1978 Pyotr Leonidovich Kapitsa U.S.S.R. invention and application of a helium liquefier Arno Penzias U.S. discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation, providing support for the big-bang theory Robert Woodrow Wilson U.S. discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation, providing support for the big-bang theory 1979 Sheldon Lee Glashow U.S. unification of electromagnetism and the weak interactions of subatomic particles Abdus Salam Pakistan unification of electromagnetism and the weak interactions of subatomic particles Steven Weinberg U.S. unification of electromagnetism and the weak interactions of subatomic particles 1980 James Watson Cronin U.S. demonstration of simultaneous violation of both charge-conjugation and parity-inversion symmetries Val Logsdon Fitch U.S. demonstration of simultaneous violation of both charge-conjugation and parity-inversion symmetries 1981 Nicolaas Bloembergen U.S. applications of lasers in spectroscopy Arthur Leonard Schawlow U.S. applications of lasers in spectroscopy Kai Manne Börje Siegbahn Sweden electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis 1982 Kenneth Geddes Wilson U.S. analysis of continuous phase transitions 1983 Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar U.S. contributions to understanding the evolution and devolution of stars William A. Fowler U.S. contributions to understanding the evolution and devolution of stars 1984 Simon van der Meer Netherlands discovery of subatomic particles W and Z, which supports the electroweak theory Carlo Rubbia Italy discovery of subatomic particles W and Z, which supports the electroweak theory 1985 Klaus von Klitzing West Germany discovery of the quantized Hall effect, permitting exact measurements of electrical resistance 1986 Gerd Binnig West Germany development of electron microscopes Heinrich Rohrer Switzerland development of electron microscopes Ernst Ruska West Germany development of electron microscopes 1987 J. Georg Bednorz West Germany discovery of new superconducting materials Karl Alex Müller Switzerland discovery of new superconducting materials 1988 Leon Max Lederman U.S. research in subatomic particles Melvin Schwartz U.S. research in subatomic particles Jack Steinberger U.S. research in subatomic particles 1989 Hans Georg Dehmelt U.S. development of methods to isolate atoms and subatomic particles for study Wolfgang Paul West Germany development of methods to isolate atoms and subatomic particles for study Norman Foster Ramsey U.S. development of the atomic clock 1990 Jerome Isaac Friedman U.S. discovery of quarks Henry Way Kendall U.S. discovery of quarks Richard E. Taylor Canada discovery of quarks 1991 Pierre-Gilles de Gennes France discovery of general rules for behaviour of molecules 1992 Georges Charpak France invention of a detector that traces subatomic particles 1993 Russell Alan Hulse U.S. identifying binary pulsars Joseph H. Taylor, Jr. U.S. identifying binary pulsars 1994 Bertram N. Brockhouse Canada development of neutron-scattering techniques Clifford G. Shull U.S. development of neutron-scattering techniques 1995 Martin Lewis Perl U.S. discovery of the tau subatomic particle Frederick Reines U.S. discovery of the neutrino 1996 David M. Lee U.S. discovery of superfluidity in the isotope helium-3 Douglas D. Osheroff U.S. discovery of superfluidity in the isotope helium-3 Robert C. Richardson U.S. discovery of superfluidity in the isotope helium-3 1997 Steven Chu U.S. process of trapping atoms with laser cooling Claude Cohen-Tannoudji France process of trapping atoms with laser cooling William D. Phillips U.S. process of trapping atoms with laser cooling 1998 Robert B. Laughlin U.S. discovery of the fractional quantum Hall effect Horst L. Störmer U.S. discovery of the fractional quantum Hall effect Daniel C. Tsui U.S. discovery of the fractional quantum Hall effect 1999 Gerardus 't Hooft Netherlands study of the quantum structure of electroweak interactions Martinus J.G. Veltman Netherlands study of the quantum structure of electroweak interactions 2000 Zhores I. Alferov Russia development of fast semiconductors for use in microelectronics Jack S. Kilby U.S. development of the integrated circuit (microchip) Herbert Kroemer Germany development of fast semiconductors for use in microelectronics 2001 Eric A. Cornell U.S. achievement of Bose-Einstein condensation in dilute gases of alkali atoms; early fundamental studies of the properties of the condensates Wolfgang Ketterle Germany achievement of Bose-Einstein condensation in dilute gases of alkali atoms; early fundamental studies of the properties of the condensates Carl E. Wieman U.S. achievement of Bose-Einstein condensation in dilute gases of alkali atoms; early fundamental studies of the properties of the condensates 2002 Raymond Davis, Jr. U.S. detection of neutrinos Riccardo Giacconi U.S. seminal discoveries of cosmic sources of X-rays Koshiba Masatoshi Japan detection of neutrinos 2003 Alexei A. Abrikosov U.S. discoveries regarding superconductivity and superfluidity at very low temperatures Vitaly L. Ginzburg Russia discoveries regarding superconductivity and superfluidity at very low temperatures Anthony J. Leggett U.S. discoveries regarding superconductivity and superfluidity at very low temperatures 2004 David J. Gross U.S. discovery of asymptotic freedom in the theory of the strong interaction H. David Politzer U.S. discovery of asymptotic freedom in the theory of the strong interaction Frank Wilczek U.S. discovery of asymptotic freedom in the theory of the strong interaction 2005 Roy J. Glauber U.S. contributions to the field of optics John L. Hall U.S. contributions to the development of laser spectroscopy Theodor W. Hänsch Germany contributions to the development of laser spectroscopy 2006 John C. Mather U.S. discovery of the blackbody form and anisotropy of the cosmic microwave background radiation George F. Smoot U.S. discovery of the blackbody form and anisotropy of the cosmic microwave background radiation 2007 Albert Fert France discovery of giant magnetoresistance Peter Grünberg Germany discovery of giant magnetoresistance 2008 Kobayashi Makoto Japan discovery of the origin of the broken symmetry which predicts the existence of at least three families of quarks in nature Maskawa Toshihide Japan discovery of the origin of the broken symmetry which predicts the existence of at least three families of quarks in nature Yoichiro Nambu U.S. discovery of the mechanism of spontaneous broken symmetry in subatomic physics 2009 Willard Boyle Canada/U.S. invention of the CCD sensor, an imaging semiconductor circuit Charles Kao U.K./U.S. achievements concerning the transmission of light in fibres for optical communication George E. Smith U.S. invention of the CCD sensor, an imaging semiconductor circuit 2010 Andre Geim Netherlands experiments regarding the two-dimensional material graphene Konstantin Novoselov Russia/U.K. experiments regarding the two-dimensional material graphene 2011 Saul Perlmutter U.S. discovery of the accelerating expansion of the universe through observations of distant supernovae Brian P. Schmidt U.S./Australia discovery of the accelerating expansion of the universe through observations of distant supernovae Adam G. Riess U.S. discovery of the accelerating expansion of the universe through observations of distant supernovae 2012 Serge Haroche France development of methods that enable measuring and manipulation of individual quantum systems David J. Wineland U.S. development of methods that enable measuring and manipulation of individual quantum systems 2013 François Englert Belgium theoretical discovery of a mechanism that contributes to the understanding of the origin of mass of subatomic particles 2015 Kajita Takaaki Japan discovery of neutrino oscillations, which show that neutrinos have mass Arthur B. McDonald Canada discovery of neutrino oscillations, which show that neutrinos have mass 2016 David Thouless U.K. theoretical discoveries of topological phase transitions and topological phases of matter Duncan Haldane U.K. theoretical discoveries of topological phase transitions and topological phases of matter Michael Kosterlitz U.K. theoretical discoveries of topological phase transitions and topological phases of matter 2017 Barry C. Barish U.S. decisive contributions to the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory detector and the observation of gravitational waves Kip S. Thorne U.S. decisive contributions to the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory detector and the observation of gravitational waves Rainer Weiss U.S. decisive contributions to the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory detector and the observation of gravitational waves 2018 Arthur Ashkin U.S. invention of optical tweezers and their application to biological systems Gérard Mourou France invention of a method of generating high-intensity ultra-short optical pulses Donna Strickland Canada invention of a method of generating high-intensity ultra-short optical pulses 2019 James Peebles Canada/U.S. theoretical discoveries in physical cosmology Michel Mayor Switzerland discovery of an exoplanet orbiting a solar-type star Didier Queloz Switzerland discovery of an exoplanet orbiting a solar-type star 2020 Reinhard Genzel Germany discovery of a supermassive compact object at the centre of the Milky Way Galaxy Andrea Ghez U.S. discovery of a supermassive compact object at the centre of the Milky Way Galaxy Roger Penrose U.K. discovery that black hole formation is a robust prediction of the general theory of relativity 2021 Klaus Hasselmann Germany development of the foundation for human knowledge of the Earth's climate and how humanity influences it Manabe Syukuro Japan/U.S. development of the foundation for human knowledge of the Earth's climate and how humanity influences it Giorgio Parisi Italy discovery of the interplay of disorder and fluctuations in physical systems from atomic to planetary scales 2022 Alain Aspect France experiments with quantum entanglement that laid the foundation for a new era of quantum technology John F. Clauser U.S. experiments with quantum entanglement that laid the foundation for a new era of quantum technology Anton Zeilinger Austria experiments with quantum entanglement that laid the foundation for a new era of quantum technology 2023 Pierre Agostini France development of experimental methods that generate attosecond pulses of light for the study of electron dynamics in matter Ferenc Krausz Hungary development of experimental methods that generate attosecond pulses of light for the study of electron dynamics in matter
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correct_award_00024	FactBench	2	41	https://totallyhistory.com/albert-einsteins-nobel-prize/	en	Albert Einstein's Nobel Prize in Physics on November 9, 1922	https://totallyhistory.c…e-in-Physics.png	https://totallyhistory.c…e-in-Physics.png	[ "https://totallyhistory.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/Albert_Einstein_Potrait-in-1922-after-receiving-the-Nobel-Prize-in-Physics.png", "https://totallyhistory.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/Albert_Einstein_Potrait-in-1922-after-receiving-the-Nobel-Prize-in-Physics.png", "https://c.statcounter.com/6875378/0/73a09ae3/1/" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "primeo" ]	2022-08-30T11:21:09+00:00	Albert Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics on November 9, 1922, “for his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect.” He was never given the Nobel for his work on the theory of special relativity, even though he had simultaneously published it with his	en	https://totallyhistory.com/wp-content/themes/history/images/favicon.ico	Totally History	https://totallyhistory.com/albert-einsteins-nobel-prize/	Albert Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics on November 9, 1922, “for his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect.” He was never given the Nobel for his work on the theory of special relativity, even though he had simultaneously published it with his work on the photoelectric effect in 1905. The Photoelectric Effect Around 1900, physicists were already well-aware that some materials could generate electricity when exposed to light. In 1883, an American inventor named Charles Fritts came up with the first functioning solar cell. However, nobody understood back then, even Fritts, how light could generate electric currents. Scientists only knew that light traveled as a wave. If this was true, then it merely caused scientists more questions about why a wave of light could create electricity. Questions about the nature of light were answered in March 1905, when Einstein published his Nobel-winning paper on the photoelectric effect. In it, he hinted that light, perhaps, is not a wave but a particle. And as a particle, light could, therefore, possibly create electricity. He said that the photoelectric effect “…are more readily understood if one assumes that the energy of light is discontinuously distributed in space. In accordance with the assumption to be considered here, the energy of a light ray spreading out from a point source is not continuously distributed over an increasing space. Still, it consists of a finite number of energy quanta which are localized at points in space, which move without dividing, and which can only be produced and absorbed as complete units.” Delayed Recognition Due to Prejudices However, the late recognition of Einstein’s achievements has a dark story behind it. Einstein received the Nobel Prize 17 years after his ground-breaking theory of special relativity. That alone could have earned him recognition many years earlier. Robert Marc Friedman, a science historian, conducted exhaustive research on the matter and learned that Einstein was the victim of deliberate denial of the recognition. He said the physicist was intentionally ignored because of the prevailing bigotries of the time that worked against Jews, pacifists, and theoretical physics. Friedman says that when nominations for Einstein were submitted in 1920, the Nobel Committee members did not like the idea of a “political and intellectual radical, who—it was said—did not conduct experiments, crowned as the pinnacle of physics.” The prize for that year eventually went to a Swiss named Charles-Edouard Guillaume for discovering a type of nickel-steel alloy. Despite Einstein’s growing popularity in 1921, a member of the committee named Allvar Gullstrand said, “Einstein must never receive a Nobel Prize, even if the whole world demands it.” This piece of information was discovered by Friedman in a Swedish mathematician’s diary. Unfortunately, Gullstrand’s opinion influenced the other committee members, and no prize was awarded for physics that year. When 1922 came around, Einstein’s popularity soared even further. The committee members now worried that their credibility would be tarnished if they did not grant the physicist recognition. Einstein had been enjoying numerous nominations in the past two years for his work on the relativity theory, but in 1922, he had been nominated by Carl Wilhelm Oseen for his work on the photoelectric effect. Friedman discovered that Oseen recommended the committee to recognize the photoelectric effect as a basic law of nature. According to Friedman, Oseen did this not because he admired Einstein but because he admired another physicist named Neils Bohr, and there were two available prizes for physics in 1922. Oseen then overemphasized the close link between Einstein’s law of nature and Bohr’s work on the atom and eventually was able to convince the committee. Thus, Bohr was awarded the 1922 prize and Einstein the overdue 1921 prize. However, Einstein could not attend the ceremonies because he was on his way to Japan for a series of lectures. He also needed to disappear to a faraway country because the German Foreign Minister, Walther Rathenau, had been assassinated by anti-Semites. A police investigation eventually found a list of targets with Einstein’s name on it. Friedman states that Einstein did not care about the medal but only about the prize money. The physicist used that money to keep his ex-wife and sons financially stable, and later, when one of his sons, Edouard, developed schizophrenia and had to be entered into an asylum.