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correct_award_00024
|
FactBench
|
2
| 57
|
https://www.republicworld.com/world-news/albert-einstein-won-nobel-prize-for-physics-on-this-day-in-1921-read-details
|
en
|
Albert Einstein won Nobel Prize for Physics on this day in 1921; read details
|
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| ||||||
correct_award_00024
|
FactBench
|
1
| 1
|
https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1921/einstein/facts/
|
en
|
Albert Einstein – Facts
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The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921 was awarded to Albert Einstein "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect"
|
en
|
NobelPrize.org
|
https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1921/einstein/facts/
|
Albert Einstein
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921
Affiliation at the time of the award: Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut (now Max-Planck-Institut) für Physik, Berlin, Germany
Prize motivation: “for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect”
Albert Einstein received his Nobel Prize one year later, in 1922.
Prize share: 1/1
Life
Albert Einstein grew up in Munich, where his father founded an electrical engineering company. After studying at the ETH university in Zurich, Einstein worked at the patent office in Bern, during which time he produced several pioneering works in the field of physics. He was later employed at universities in Bern, Zurich, and Prague, and from 1914, in Berlin. After the Nazis seized power in Germany, Einstein immigrated to the US, where he worked at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey. Einstein married twice and had three children by his first marriage.
Work
If metal electrodes are exposed to light, electrical sparks between them occur more readily. For this photoelectric effect to occur, the light waves must be above a certain frequency, however. According to physics theory, the light's intensity should be critical. In one of several epoch-making studies beginning in 1905, Albert Einstein explained that light consists of quanta—packets with fixed energies corresponding to certain frequencies. One such light quantum, a photon, must have a certain minimum frequency before it can liberate an electron.
|
|||||
correct_award_00024
|
FactBench
|
0
| 19
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https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1921/einstein/biographical/
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en
|
Albert Einstein – Biographical
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The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921 was awarded to Albert Einstein "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect"
|
en
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NobelPrize.org
|
https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1921/einstein/biographical/
|
Albert Einstein
Biographical
Questions and Answers on Albert Einstein
Albert Einstein was born at Ulm, in Württemberg, Germany, on March 14, 1879. Six weeks later the family moved to Munich, where he later on began his schooling at the Luitpold Gymnasium. Later, they moved to Italy and Albert continued his education at Aarau, Switzerland and in 1896 he entered the Swiss Federal Polytechnic School in Zurich to be trained as a teacher in physics and mathematics. In 1901, the year he gained his diploma, he acquired Swiss citizenship and, as he was unable to find a teaching post, he accepted a position as technical assistant in the Swiss Patent Office. In 1905 he obtained his doctor’s degree.
During his stay at the Patent Office, and in his spare time, he produced much of his remarkable work and in 1908 he was appointed Privatdozent in Berne. In 1909 he became Professor Extraordinary at Zurich, in 1911 Professor of Theoretical Physics at Prague, returning to Zurich in the following year to fill a similar post. In 1914 he was appointed Director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Physical Institute and Professor in the University of Berlin. He became a German citizen in 1914 and remained in Berlin until 1933 when he renounced his citizenship for political reasons and emigrated to America to take the position of Professor of Theoretical Physics at Princeton*. He became a United States citizen in 1940 and retired from his post in 1945.
After World War II, Einstein was a leading figure in the World Government Movement, he was offered the Presidency of the State of Israel, which he declined, and he collaborated with Dr. Chaim Weizmann in establishing the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
Einstein always appeared to have a clear view of the problems of physics and the determination to solve them. He had a strategy of his own and was able to visualize the main stages on the way to his goal. He regarded his major achievements as mere stepping-stones for the next advance.
At the start of his scientific work, Einstein realized the inadequacies of Newtonian mechanics and his special theory of relativity stemmed from an attempt to reconcile the laws of mechanics with the laws of the electromagnetic field. He dealt with classical problems of statistical mechanics and problems in which they were merged with quantum theory: this led to an explanation of the Brownian movement of molecules. He investigated the thermal properties of light with a low radiation density and his observations laid the foundation of the photon theory of light.
In his early days in Berlin, Einstein postulated that the correct interpretation of the special theory of relativity must also furnish a theory of gravitation and in 1916 he published his paper on the general theory of relativity. During this time he also contributed to the problems of the theory of radiation and statistical mechanics.
In the 1920s, Einstein embarked on the construction of unified field theories, although he continued to work on the probabilistic interpretation of quantum theory, and he persevered with this work in America. He contributed to statistical mechanics by his development of the quantum theory of a monatomic gas and he has also accomplished valuable work in connection with atomic transition probabilities and relativistic cosmology.
After his retirement he continued to work towards the unification of the basic concepts of physics, taking the opposite approach, geometrisation, to the majority of physicists.
Einstein’s researches are, of course, well chronicled and his more important works include Special Theory of Relativity (1905), Relativity (English translations, 1920 and 1950), General Theory of Relativity (1916), Investigations on Theory of Brownian Movement (1926), and The Evolution of Physics (1938). Among his non-scientific works, About Zionism (1930), Why War? (1933), My Philosophy (1934), and Out of My Later Years (1950) are perhaps the most important.
Albert Einstein received honorary doctorate degrees in science, medicine and philosophy from many European and American universities. During the 1920’s he lectured in Europe, America and the Far East, and he was awarded Fellowships or Memberships of all the leading scientific academies throughout the world. He gained numerous awards in recognition of his work, including the Copley Medal of the Royal Society of London in 1925, and the Franklin Medal of the Franklin Institute in 1935.
Einstein’s gifts inevitably resulted in his dwelling much in intellectual solitude and, for relaxation, music played an important part in his life. He married Mileva Maric in 1903 and they had a daughter and two sons; their marriage was dissolved in 1919 and in the same year he married his cousin, Elsa Löwenthal, who died in 1936. He died on April 18, 1955 at Princeton, New Jersey.
From Nobel Lectures, Physics 1901-1921, Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1967
This autobiography/biography was written at the time of the award and first published in the book series Les Prix Nobel. It was later edited and republished in Nobel Lectures. To cite this document, always state the source as shown above.
* Albert Einstein was formally associated with the Institute for Advanced Study located in Princeton, New Jersey.
Copyright © The Nobel Foundation 1922
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correct_award_00024
|
FactBench
|
2
| 77
|
https://www.bbvaopenmind.com/en/science/leading-figures/beyond-the-scientific-things-you-did-not-know-about-einstein/
|
en
|
10 Things You Probably Did Not Know About Einstein
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What do you know about Einstein ? Beyond the scientist, Einstein was all a historical figure. Discover some of the curiosities of his life in OpenMind
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https://www.bbvaopenmind.com/wp-content/themes/openmind/img/favicon.ico
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https://www.bbvaopenmind.com/en/science/leading-figures/beyond-the-scientific-things-you-did-not-know-about-einstein/
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Between March and September 1905, the mailbox of the German scientific journal Annalen der Physik received four studies that would forever change the laws of physics and without a doubt, our concept of reality: of light, matter, time and space. The author was a young man born in Germany on March 14, 1879, who worked in the patent office in Bern (Switzerland) at the time. His career as a physicist was stuck after his doctoral thesis and scientific passion had been relegated to his free time.Â
The four studies were published that year in Annalen der Physik. The first of them was âTheory of photoelectric effectâ, published on June 9th, which would win the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921. Shortly after, on July 18th, the study “On the movement of small particles suspended in stationary liquids required by the molecular-kinetic theory of heatâ was published, mathematically demonstrating that matter is composed of atoms and establishing a new field in physics: statistical physics.Â
On September 26th, the study “On the electrodynamics of moving bodies” was published. It was a summary of Einsteinâs new physics, and of the well-known theory of special relativity –Â the predecessor of general relativity. In the study, Einstein hypothesized that the speed of light is unchangeable, constant and independent of the observerâs movement. Therefore, with the exception of the constant speed of light, everything is relative, including time, distance and mass.Â

Finally, on November 21st, âDoes the inertia of a body depend upon its energy content?â was published – an overview of all of the previous studies. The mathematical demonstration of specific relativity and therefore, the verification of the equivalence between matter and energy, were condensed into the most famous formula in history: E= mc2.Â
But Albert Einstein is much more than âthe first high-profile scientist in historyâ as Jürgen Neffe called him in his biography. Thatâs why we want to explore his life and get to know the most famous scientist in history.Â
1. It all started with a compass
When his father showed him a compass for the first time, little Einstein was fascinated by how the contraption worked. That moment marked his life forever. Why did the needle point to the same place even when the compass was moved in a different direction? The magic of physics had captivated that little boy. “That experience made a deep and long-lasting impression on me. There must be something deeper behind thingsâ, the physician said years later as he reminisced about that moment. The compass is a symbol of the scientist’s career and history. In fact, there is even a movie in production with this title (âEinteinâs Compassâ).
2. Albert Einstein: world citizen
Einstein was a worldly man. He travelled to and lived in different countries (Italy, Switzerland, Belgium, UKâ¦), and he was also granted citizenship in 4 different states over the course of his life. The turbulent political situation in Europe (he left Germany due to Nazism) and his scientific career (he was linked to academic institutions in Prague, Berlin and the US) were the main reasons for moving. He was born a German in the Kingdom of Wurttemberg (present Germany). He renounced his nationality to avoid military service, which is why he lived as a stateless person for five years.
3. Playing the violin was his passion
Einstein inherited his love for music from his mother, Pauline, a talented pianist who insisted on there always being music at home. Music was not only a hobby for the scientist, he used it as therapy in his scientific work. Elsa Einstein, his second wife, explained that âmusic helps him when he is thinking about his theoriesâ. Besides, in his love of music he also coincided with other greatest physicists of the twentieth century, such as Max Planck and Werner Heisenberg, who were excellent pianists.
As well as playing the violin since he was 6 and discovering Mozart at the age of 13, Einsteinâs links to music went much further. In 1936 he met Bronislaw Huberman, an internationally-acclaimed violinist of Jewish origin who went on to become founder of the Philharmonic Orchestra of Israel. On a fundraising trip to the US, Einstein became his main âpartnerâ.
4. A desperate attempt: Einstein’s darkest deal
It was 1914 and after 11 years together, the marriage between Albert Einstein and Mileva Maric was on the rocks. Knowing that the romantic aspect of his relationship was hopeless, Einstein proposed a strange deal to the lady who was still his wife, with the intention of maintaining a cohabitation subject to certain terms and conditions that would allow them to stay together for the sake of their children. Mileva accepted the conditions, but it was to no avail as a few months later she left Einstein in Berlin and moved to Zurich with her children.
5.The father of the atomic bomb: how much truth is there in it?
âI do not consider myself to be the father of the discovery of the atomic bombâ
Albert Einstein, Atomic War or Peace, 1945 / Source: Historical Society of Princeton.
The figure of Einstein is falsely associated with the development of the atomic bomb and nuclear energy. Although his equation E=mc² explains the energy released in an atomic bomb, it does not explain how to make one. The scientist (Swiss at the time) never participated in the project that developed the atomic bomb, Project Manhattan. In fact, in 1940 the US Army Intelligence denied Einstein the necessary security authorization to work on the project. His only involvement was âan isolated actionâ: sending a letter to the President of the United States, Franklin D. Roosevelt. Einstein knew that German scientists were studying the potential of uranium and nuclear energy and he urged the President to do everything he could to win the battle from the United States before the Germans cracked it.
In light of the accusations and reproach over his involvement in the history of the atomic bomb, Einstein always described himself as a pacifist and defended his only isolated action, the letter to Roosevelt, as a desperate measure.
âHad I known that the Germans would not succeed in developing an atomic bomb, I would have done nothing.â
Albert Einstein, Newsweek magazine, Museum of American History.
6. What did Einstein do with his Nobel Prize money?
On November 10, 1922 Einstein found out that he had won a Nobel Prize through a telegram but, to what extent was he surprised? Despite the fact that we was already famous for his Theory of General Relativity, he received the award “for his services to theoretical physics and, in particular, for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect“, as the Swedish Academy announced at the time.
The prize awarded to Albert Einstein in 1922 was actually the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics, which had not been given to anyone that year and thus, it had been reserved until the following year, according to the statutes of the Nobel Foundation. Einstein could not attend to the ceremony in December 1922 because he was on a trip, so he gave his acceptance speech in July 1923.
Along with the prize he also received an economic reward of around 120,000 SEK, a sum that represented about 10 times a professor’s annual salary at the time. But Einstein never spent his award money. He gave it all to his former wife, Mileva Maric, as they had decided when they negotiated their divorce agreement, which was signed in 1919. Mileva used it to buy several houses and to look after her children. Why was Einstein so sure that he would receive a Nobel Prize at some point? Why was he so “generous” with Mileva?
7. He didn’t want to become a president
Chaim Weizmann was the first president of the State of Israel until his death in 1952. By then, Einstein was a consolidated scientist famous around the world, a pacifist and a human rights activist, in addition to a professed defender of the Jewish cause. Weizmann and Einstein knew each other and had collaborated at the foundation of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
After Weizmann’s death, Einstein received the proposal to become the second president in the history of Israel. Abba Eban, then his country’s ambassador to the United States, conveyed the proposal on behalf of the prime minister (David Ben Gurion) in a letter. Through the same means, the most famous physicist in history rejected the proposal: “All my life I’ve dealt with objective matters; therefore, I lack both natural aptitude and experience to properly deal with people and to perform official functions”. The same document includes one of Einstein’s most personal phrases:
 “My relationship with the Jewish people has become my strongest human bond”.
8. Einstein, a Soviet spy?
Einstein never took part in the Manhattan Project, the group of scientists tasked with developing the atomic bomb that would be dropped over Hiroshima (August 6, 1945) and Nagasaki (August 9, 1945). Despite the fact that he himself alerted President Roosevelt of the urgent need to develop the bomb before the Germans did, he was never invited to participate -and we will never know what he would have replied- because Einstein was a risk to national security.
FBI agents followed him for years, and even continued with the investigation after his death. What were they looking for? The scientist was regarded as a security risk by the U.S. intelligence service: this is evidenced by more than 1,400 pages of investigation (they are available on the FBI website). Einstein was a man of the world, he had many contacts and traveled abroad frequently. Moreover, his left-leaning political views, his human rights activism, or his fight against racism made him a target of the “Communist obsession” in the United States at the time.
9. Einstein’s legacy: between New Jersey and Jerusalem
Have you ever considered visiting Einstein’s grave? You wouldn’t be able to do it even if you wanted. Before he died, the physicist made it clear that he didn’t want to be buried, since he was terrified of the idea that his resting place might become a pilgrimage site for admirers and the curious. This is why he was cremated and his ashes were scattered in the United States, near the Delaware river, not far away from Princeton University, where he had developed most of his scientific career. But Einstein’s most important legacy, all his scientific and non-scientific papers, his photographs and the rights to his works, are kept in the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, in the Edmond J. Safra campus. Some of the documents have been digitized and are available to the public.
10. Einstein’s brain traveled around the United States in a bottle
It’s not science fiction. It is not a surprise that the brain of the most famous physicist of the 20th century was a sought-after “good”. Was that the secret behind his intelligence? This is probably what Thomas Stoltz Harvey, the forensic pathologist who oversaw Albert Einstein’s autopsy at Princeton Hospital (New Jersey, 1955), asked himself. He was not a specialist in analyzing brains and he had no authorization to remove it. But he did and for over 40 years he was determined to unveil his secret. He never arrived at a conclusion, although he did send several scientists a sample of the more than 170 slices in which he had divided the genius’s brain. Depressed, probably from remorse, he finally decided to get rid of his prized treasure and thought that Einstein’s brain should be given to his family. He tried to return it to Einstein’s granddaughter, Evelyn, on a trip from New Jersey to California, where she studied. In this unusual journey we was accompanied by writer Michael Paterniti, who described the trip in his book, “Driving Mr. Albert: A Trip Across America with Einstein’s Brain”.
By Dory Gascueña for OpenMind
@dorygascu
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FactBench
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2
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http://www.jonsprout.com/cms/my-hero-links/101-einstein-albert
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Einstein, Albert
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Albert Einstein biography and song lyrics by Jonathan Sprout
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Albert Einstein (1879-1955) is considered the most creative scientific genius of modern times. He questioned the obvious and marveled at nature's mysteries while changing our understanding of the world. “Imagination is more important than knowledge,” he said. He was a master of both. He forever changed the laws of physics with his formula E=mc2, proving that energy and mass are different forms of the same thing. A kind, gentle, and absent-minded professor who rarely wore socks and seldom combed his hair, he became one of the world’s most visible supporters of peace and human rights. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921 and named Person of the Century by Time Magazine in 1999. His name is now another word for “genius.”
Learn from yesterday, live for today, hope for tomorrow.
The important thing is to not stop questioning.—Albert Einstein
E=mc²
(By Jonathan Sprout and Dave Kinnoin)
He was a simple man of curiosity
Who took a second look at what no one else could see.
He followed logic along imagination’s path.
With ever-twinkling eyes beneath that crazy hair,
He saw a universe of questions waiting there
And found the answers to nature’s mysteries using math.
A simple desk and chair, an out-the-window stare,
Crumpled papers in the trash,
A brain that could not quit, and scientific grit,
Then in a flash…
Refrain: E=mc².
Even Einstein was not prepared
For the formula that loudly declared he was a genius!
It was this dreamer who found the key
To a secret so we all could see
The true definition of energy.
E=mc².
His violin was handy. Sometimes you can’t resist
A bit of fun distraction when you’re a physicist.
The man knew everything, but kept his brilliance in disguise.
He said he had no talents, yet he was born to think.
Knew how to fix equations, but not the kitchen sink.
Became a pacifist and won a Nobel Prize.
A formal dinner tux, applause, and lots of bucks—
Everybody screamed his name.
It was his work with light that made his day that night.
Hear the acclaim!
Refrain
Bridge: Six hundred seventy-one million miles per hour squared,
Multiplied by mass. What would that be?
Refrain
©2014 Kanukatunes (ASCAP) and Song Wizard Music (ASCAP)
Lead vocal: Jonathan Sprout
Drum programming, string programming, schmaltz violin: Joe Mennonna
Bass: Al Renino
Guitar: Jimmy Hammer, Leslie Chew, and Jonathan Sprout
Keyboards: Joe Mennonna and Jimmy Hammer
Background vocals: Jimmy Hammer and Susie Stevens
Key Words:
Physics ~ a branch of science that deals with matter (a physical substance that occupies space) and energy (what is required to perform work). Einstein was a physicist. He was an expert in physics.
E=mc2~ an equation where E represents units of energy and m represents units of mass; c2 is the speed of light multiplied by itself. This is the formula that Albert Einstein developed. It shows that a small amount of matter can release a huge amount of energy, and it is called the “Theory of Relativity.”
Absent-minded professor ~ someone who is often forgetful or inattentive. Einstein was often so engaged in what he was thinking that he did not pay attention to the things going on around him -- and he was constantly thinking! He was filled with curiosity, and he was always asking questions.
Nobel Prize ~ an international prize awarded each year in the fields of physics, chemistry, physiology or medicine, literature, economics, and the promotion of peace. The first Nobel Prize was given in 1901. Einstein’s Nobel Prize was awarded for “his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect,” not for his Theory of Relativity.
Genius ~ a person who is exceptionally intelligent. Einstein was considered a genius. If you say someone is “an Einstein,” you mean he/she is really, really smart!
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FactBench
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https://testbook.com/question-answer/albert-einstein-was-awarded-the-nobel-prize-for-__--61d490ec75d83190f48f1f47
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en
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[Solved] Albert Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize for
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The correct answer is Photoelectric Effect.
Key Points
Albert Einstein was given the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921 "for his services to theoretic
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Testbook
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https://testbook.com/question-answer/albert-einstein-was-awarded-the-nobel-prize-for-__--61d490ec75d83190f48f1f47
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The RRB NTPC Notification 2024 is expected to be released soon. The RRB NTPC exam is conducted to fill up Non-Technical Popular Category posts. The candidates with successful selection under RRB NTPC get a salary ranging between Rs. 19,900 to Rs. 35,400. here.
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correct_award_00024
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FactBench
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0
| 39
|
https://www.mintageworld.com/videos/detail/31-albert-einstein-is-awarded-the-nobel-prize-in-physics-9th-november-1921/
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en
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Albert Einstein is awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics (9th November, 1921)
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Mintage World
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https://www.mintageworld.com/videos/detail/31-albert-einstein-is-awarded-the-nobel-prize-in-physics-9th-november-1921/
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Einstein was not only a visionary physicist but also a pre-eminent scientist whose theories and discoveries profoundly affected the way people viewed the universe. In this episode, Rusted Post Box traces the life journey of Albert Einstein through various philatelic, notaphily and numismatic issues. A global science icon, he brought to the world a fuller understanding of the interaction of space, time and gravity through his visionary papers.<br><br> Rusted Post Box is a series of docudramas that relates various stamps, coins and notes to significant historic events. With the help of the newly established online museum, www.mintageworld.com, this series aims at imparting knowledge and creating interest in the areas of Philately, Numismatics and Notaphily within the general public, collectors, students and scholars alike.<br><br> Promoted by the “Ultra” group, mintageworld.com is the first website of its kind in the world, where all the three fields have been brought under one roof.
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correct_award_00024
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FactBench
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2
| 36
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https://m.facebook.com/nobelprize/photos/albert-einstein-was-awarded-the-nobel-prize-in-physics-1921-for-his-services-to-/813271380834693/
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en
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Du wurdest vorübergehend blockiert
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FactBench
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1
| 63
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https://unacademy.com/content/general-awareness/albert-einstein-biography/
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en
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Albert Einstein Biography: Birth, Early Life, Education, Scientific Career, Inventions, Awards, Honours, and More
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2022-09-13T09:25:14+00:00
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Albert Einstein was one of the most recognized and inspirational scientists of the world. He not only postulated several theories that were reliable in physics but also won the Nobel Prize in physics.
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en
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Unacademy
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https://unacademy.com/content/general-awareness/albert-einstein-biography/
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Albert Einstein, born in the year 1879, was one of the well-known scientists of that era. He was a German physicist who is widely known for his theory of relativity and several other theories that were postulated by him. He was one of the most influential scientists of this generation. He won a Nobel prize for physics as well in the year 1921. However, Albert Einstein was one of the genius boys from a young age. He published his first paper when he was 16 years old. Moreover, he was also a lecturer who used to teach his students physics and mathematics. He was an inspiration to learn, grow and believe in yourself.
Albert Einstein was born in the small state of Ulm in Germany on the 14th of March 1879. He belongs to a middle-class Jewish family, and his father, Herman Einstein, was a featherbed dealer in his initial days. However, he moved on to set up an Electrochemical manufacturing base. Apart from his father, his family had Pauline Koch, who was his mother, and Maria Einstein, who was her sister and only sibling. However, his whole family shifted to Italy, where he had to complete his schooling. Later by the year 1896, he got a job at Swiss Federal Polytechnic school, where he taught physics and maths.
After moving to Italy, he had to complete his schooling in the Swiss town of Arau, After which he continued his study and received his diploma as well as Ph.D. by the year 1905. Moreover, he also got a job as a technical assistant in the company named Swiss Patent Office. However, the education flow of Albert Einstein was not very smooth due to the downfall of his father’s business. Even though in such a condition, Albert continued his study and maintained the strong grounds to achieve his Ph.D. One of the fine facts is that Albert Einstein met Mileva Maric, who was a physics student who relocated from Serbia along with him, and she became his wife in the future.
Albert Einstein was one of those boys who used to be involved in their education and steadiest life. However, as a matter of fact, he found his future wife among one of his physics classmates. Mileva Merrick, who was a physics student who relocated from Serbia, came in contact with Albert Einstein, and later on, by the year 1903, they got married to each other. They were a happy couple with two sons and a daughter until the year 1919. In the year 1919, they both got divorced. However, in the same year, Albert married Elson Leventhal, who was his cousin. Whereas by the year 1936, Elsa died due to natural causes, and Albert didn’t marry any other woman after that.
Considering the fact of the scientific career of Albert Einstein, he had one of the leading and repeated figurines after World War Two under the world government moment. Before joining hands with doctor Jane Weissman at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Albert Einstein was also offered the opportunity of being the president of the state of Israel. Moreover, the paper that Einstein published in 1905 got the attention of one of the influential faces Max Planck. Lastly, Albert Einstein figured out a third of relativity by the end of November 1915. Moreover, he also had the upper hand in the photoelectric effect.
In the last days of his life, Albert Einstein was diagnosed with an abdominal aortic aneurysm, Due to which type on the 18th of April, 1955. Even after his death, His work is still under-recognized, and there are a number of scientists he’s working with under his thoughts and theories. Moreover, there are a number of Nobel prizes associated with a number of theories that have been postulated by Einstein in his early days. This new generation of scientists using this space ignites to verify as well as identify the cosmology of Albert Einstein.
Advert Einstein was one of the influential and well-known scientists of this generation. He was born and brought up by a middle-class family in the year 1879 in Germany; however, his family had to relocate to Italy, and he completed his education there. Has been a genius boy since his younger age. He had quite a great interest in studying and researching several aspects of physics. Therefore he came forward with the research paper that caught the eyes of the most influential scientists of that time, so stop, which led to the rise of Albert Einstein and his knowledge.
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FactBench
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0
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https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1921/ceremony-speech/
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Nobel Prize in Physics 1921
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The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921 was awarded to Albert Einstein "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect"
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NobelPrize.org
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https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1921/ceremony-speech/
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Award ceremony speech
Presentation Speech by Professor S. Arrhenius, Chairman of the Nobel Committee for Physics of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, on December 10, 1922*
Your Majesty, Your Royal Highnesses, Ladies and Gentlemen.
There is probably no physicist living today whose name has become so widely known as that of Albert Einstein. Most discussion centres on his theory of relativity. This pertains essentially to epistemology and has therefore been the subject of lively debate in philosophical circles. It will be no secret that the famous philosopher Bergson in Paris has challenged this theory, while other philosophers have acclaimed it wholeheartedly. The theory in question also has astrophysical implications which are being rigorously examined at the present time.
Throughout the first decade of this century the so-called Brownian movement stimulated the keenest interest. In 1905 Einstein founded a kinetic theory to account for this movement by means of which he derived the chief properties of suspensions, i.e. liquids with solid particles suspended in them. This theory, based on classical mechanics, helps to explain the behaviour of what are known as colloidal solutions, a behaviour which has been studied by Svedberg, Perrin, Zsigmondy and countless other scientists within the context of what has grown into a large branch of science, colloid chemistry.
A third group of studies, for which in particular Einstein has received the Nobel Prize, falls within the domain of the quantum theory founded by Planck in 1900. This theory asserts that radiant energy consists of individual particles, termed “quanta”, approximately in the same way as matter is made up of particles, i.e. atoms. This remarkable theory, for which Planck received the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1918, suffered from a variety of drawbacks and about the middle of the first decade of this century it reached a kind of impasse. Then Einstein came forward with his work on specific heat and the photoelectric effect. This latter had been discovered by the famous physicist Hertz in 1887. He found that an electrical spark passing between two spheres does so more readily if its path is illuminated with the light from another electrical discharge. A more exhaustive study of this interesting phenomenon was carried out by Hallwachs who showed that under certain conditions a negatively charged body, e.g. a metal plate, illuminated with light of a particular colour – ultraviolet has the strongest effect – loses its negative charge and ultimately assumes a positive charge. In 1899 Lenard demonstrated the cause to be the emission of electrons at a certain velocity from the negatively charged body. The most extraordinary aspect of this effect was that the electron emission velocity is independent of the intensity of the illuminating light, which is proportional only to the number of electrons, whereas the velocity increases with the frequency of the light. Lenard stressed that this phenomenon was not in good agreement with the then prevailing concepts.
An associated phenomenon is photo-luminescence, i.e.phosphorescence and fluorescence. When light impinges on a substance the latter will occasionally become luminous as a result of phosphorescence or fluorescence. Since the energy of the light quantum increases with the frequency, it will be obvious that a light quantum with a certain frequency can only give rise to the formation of a light quantum of lower or, at most, equal frequency. Otherwise energy would be created. The phosphorescent or fluorescent light hence has a lower frequency than the light inducing the photo-luminescence. This is Stokes’ rule which was explained in this way by Einstein by means of the quantum theory.
Similarly, when a quantum of light falls on a metal plate it can at most yield the whole of its energy to an electron there. A part of this energy is consumed in carrying the electron out into the air, the remainder stays with the electron as kinetic energy. This applies to an electron in the surface layer of the metal. From this can be calculated the positive potential to which the metal can be charged by irradiation. Only if the quantum contains sufficient energy for the electron to perform the work of detaching itself from the metal does the electron move out into the air. Consequently, only light having a frequency greater than a certain limit is capable of inducing a photo-electric effect, however high the intensity of the irradiating light. If this limit is exceeded the effect is proportional to the light intensity at constant frequency. Similar behaviour occurs in the ionisation of gas molecules and the so-called ionisation potential may be calculated, provided that the frequency of the light capable of ionising the gas is known.
Einstein’s law of the photo-electrical effect has been extremely rigorously tested by the American Millikan and his pupils and passed the test brilliantly. Owing to these studies by Einstein the quantum theory has been perfected to a high degree and an extensive literature grew up in this field whereby the extraordinary value of this theory was proved. Einstein’s law has become the basis of quantitative photo-chemistry in the same way as Faraday’s law is the basis of electro-chemistry.**
* The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921 was announced on November 9, 1922.
** Being too remote from Sweden, Professor Einstein could not attend the ceremony.
From Nobel Lectures, Physics 1901-1921, Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1967
Copyright © The Nobel Foundation 1922
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FactBench
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| 56
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https://byjus.com/physics/albert-einstein/
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en
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Facts, Theories and Inventions
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2021-04-23T15:04:28+05:30
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Albert Einstein is one of the greatest and famous scientists who gave new dimensions to energy, time, space, and matter. Click here to learn about Albert Einstein’s contributions in the field of science
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/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/favicon-32x32.png
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BYJUS
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https://byjus.com/physics/albert-einstein/
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Albert Einstein was one of the key thinkers who did exploration and examination of theories of relativity. In this article, let us know more about Albert Einstein’s inventions. He was the person who gave new dimensions to see energy, time, space and matter.
Table of Contents:
Who is Albert Einstein
What is Avogadro’s Number
What is Brownian Movement
What is Quantum Theory of Light
Special Relativity
What is Photoelectric Effect
Wave-Particle Duality
General Theory of Relativity
Bose-Einstein Condensate
Frequently Asked Questions – FAQs
Know About Einstein
Albert Einstein was born on 14 March in the year 1879 in Württemberg, Germany. He was educated at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich. Einstein was a theoretical physicist who discovered and invented major theories of Physics. Albert Einstein received honorary doctorate degrees in science and philosophy. He got the Fellowships of all the leading scientific academies in the world. His works were recognized across the world and in 1921, Einstein won the prestigious Nobel Prize for Physics for his significant work on the photoelectric effect. Let us dig into Albert Einstein’s inventions.
Some inventions and contributions of Einstein are Avogadro’s Number, Quantum Theory of Light, General Theory of Relativity, Special Theory of Relativity, The Photoelectric Effect, Wave-Particle Duality, Brownian movement, the relationship between mass and energy, Bose-Einstein Condensate, and many more.
Avogadro’s Number
Avogadro’s number is a concept in chemistry that defines that the number of units in one mole of a substance is equal to 6.022140857×1023
The Avogadro constant is named after the Italian scientist Amedeo Avogadro. It is the proportionality factor defined by Albert Einstein to relate the number of constituent particles like molecules, ions, and atoms in a sample with the amount of substance in that sample. The numeric value of the Avogadro constant is expressed as the reciprocal of mole.
When Einstein was working on Brownian motion to explain the erratic movement of particles in a fluid, he came up with an expression for the quantity of Avogadro’s number in terms of measurable quantities. This leads to a path to determine the mass of an atom, or the molar mass for each element on the periodic table. Albert Einstein presented a new way of calculating Avogadro’s number and the size of molecules.
Brownian Movement
The Brownian movement is one of the significant contributions of Albert Einstein. While studying the molecular theory of liquids, he tried to explain the motion of particles through Brownian motion. This theory explains the random movement of particles in a fluid or gas. Einstein explained the zigzag movement of particles in suspension, and this study aimed to prove the existence of molecules and atoms in particles.
Quantum Theory of Light
Einstein was the key person behind the quantum theory of light. He proposed and explained that light consists of packets of energy known as photons in 1905. He gave the physical interpretation to Planck’s mathematics when he proposed that electromagnetic radiation itself is granular, consisting of quanta with an energy hf. He also explained the emission of electrons from metals when hit with large electric pulses, like lightning.
Special Theory of Relativity
The Special Theory of Relativity is also known as special relativity. It is a theory regarding the relationship between time and space. This theory is based on two postulates.
The laws of physics are the same for all, irrespective of the velocity of the observer.
The speed of light is always constant, regardless of the motion of the light source or the motion of the observer.
This theory is one of the reasons to explain the origin of the most famous equation E=mc2
When we hear the mass and energy relationship equation E=mc2, we remember the great scientist Einstein instantaneously.
Photoelectric Effect
In 1905, Albert Einstein proposed this theory, which is the base of modern Physics. It is the phenomenon that occurs when the material absorbs electromagnetic radiations and electrically charged particles are released from or within it. In this process, electrons are emitted from the metal plate when light falls on it. The emitted electrons are known as photoelectrons.
The below video is an explanation of the basics of the photoelectric effect:
Wave-Particle Duality
Einstein explained that light consists of photons, which are considered packets of energy. This concept was explained and demonstrated in the quantum theory of light. Einstein stressed that light should be treated as both a wave and a particle. He explained that photons in light can behave both as particles and waves at the same time. This concept is known as wave-particle duality. Through a two-slit apparatus experiment, he proved the dual nature of light.
General Theory of Relativity
The general theory of relativity generalizes the concepts of Special Relativity, Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation, describing gravity as a property of space and time. It is the geometric theory of gravitation, published in the year 1915. The General Theory of Relativity is also known as General relativity. The general theory of relativity gives the current description of gravitation in modern physics.
Bose-Einstein Condensate
The great Indian physicist and mathematician Satyendra Nath Bose with Albert Einstein developed the concept, which helped to understand light as a gas. The Bose-Einstein concept proposed and demonstrated that when atoms are cooled very close to absolute zero, they hardly move in relation to one another. These atoms form clusters or clumps and enter into the same energy states. Hence, they concluded that the group of atoms behaves and display the characteristics of a single atom.
Einstein is not only celebrated for his inventions, but for his outstanding contributions of theories, on which modern science stands today. Hope you learnt about some of Albert Einstein inventions.
Stay tuned with BYJU’S for more such interesting articles. Also, register to “BYJU’S – The Learning App” for loads of interactive, engaging Physics-related videos and unlimited academic assist.
Related links
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correct_award_00024
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FactBench
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0
| 54
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https://www.einstein-online.info/en/spotlight/nobel/
|
en
|
Einstein’s Nobel heritage « Einstein
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https://www.einstein-online.info/en/spotlight/nobel/
|
An overview of Nobel prizes connected with relativistic physics
An article by Markus Pössel
Einstein’s theories of relativity are the foundation for much of modern physics – small wonder that there is a sizeable number of Nobel prizes related to relativity. Here’s a list with brief descriptions of the most important ones:
1921 – Albert Einstein
Ironically, while relativity has led to so many Nobel prizes, it only played a minor role in Einstein’s own. To be sure, it is prominently featured in the laudatio by Svante Arrhenius, however, the Nobel committee’s brief prize announcement is more vague, referring to Einstein’s “services to Theoretical Physics” with explicit mention given only to his finding the law of the photoelectric effect.
Nobelprize.org: Physics 1921
1933 – Paul Dirac (jointly with Erwin Schrödinger)
Dirac’s prize was the first of many given for work on the connection between special relativity and quantum theory. He was the pioneer of relativistic quantum mechanics, formulating what is nowadays called the Dirac equation, the first equation for the quantum behaviour of relativistic matter particles. Using his equation, he discovered a fundamental relativistic quantum phenomenon: the fact that, for every species of relativistic particle, there must be a kind of mirror image, a species of corresponding anti-particles. In a world in which electrons exist, which carry negative electric charge, Dirac’s equation demands the existence of anti-electrons, particles with the same mass as electrons, but a positive electric charge.
Nobelprize.org: Physics 1933
1936 – Carl D. Anderson (jointly with Victor F. Hess)
What, at first sight, appeared to be a stumbling stone for Dirac’s theory – where were those anti-electrons he postulated? – later turned into a triumph. Among the particles of cosmic rays, a highly energetic particle radiation reaching the earth’s surface from space, Carl Anderson discovered traces of anti-electrons. Diracs anti-particles, with the same mass as electrons but the opposite electric charge, really do exist! Today, antiparticles are a basic feature of all models of particle physics, and anti-electrons are now commonly called positrons.
Nobelprize.org: Physics 1936
1949 – Hideki Yukawa
The force that bonds protons and neutrons together to form atomic nuclei has a strictly limited range: while it keeps the nucleus stable, even a neutron flying by outside, a trillionth of a metre distant, is out of range and will not feel any influence. At the time Yukawa thought about this strange situation, physicists already knew of carrier particles and their role concerning elementary forces: forces are transmitted by particles. For instance, on a quantum level, the electric repulsion between two two electrons is explained by the exchange of photons flitting back and forth. The emission and absorption of these photons by the electrons is the way that the influence is transmitted from one electron to the other. Yukawa found an explanation for the short-range nuclear force that is directly linked to the fact that the carrier particle in question has a non-zero (rest) mass. He was able to derive this directly from a relativistic quantum equation for massive particles called the Klein-Gordon equation.
Nobelprize.org: Physics 1949
1951 – John Cockcroft and Ernest T. S. Walton
Cockcroft and Walton bombarded atomic nuclei of the element Lithium with fast protons, thus creating helium nuclei in the first controlled transmutation of one species of nucleus to another. Summing up the energies before and after the transmutation, they managed to test directly the equivalence of mass and energy postulated by Einstein: the helium nuclei that result have a slightly lower mass than that of proton and lithium nucleus combined, and this difference in mass leads to a kinetic energy of the resulting nuclei that is higher than expected by non-relativistic physics, exactly following Einstein’s prediction.
Nobelprize.org: Physics 1951
1955 – Willis Eugene Lamb and Polykarp Kusch
Lamb and Kusch performed precision measurements, establishing the reality of two effects that ordinary relativistic quantum theory à la Dirac cannot explained: what’s now called the Lamb shift and a deviation of the electron’s magnetic properties from Dirac’s prediction. These measurements contributed to the eventual development of relativistic quantum field theories, concretely: of quantum electrodynamics, the relativistic quantum theory of the electromagnetic field.
Nobelprize.org: Physics 1955
1959 – Emilio Segrè and Owen Chamberlain
In relativistic quantum theories, for every species of particle, there is a species of antiparticles. Segrè and Chamberlain received their prize for the discovery of anti-protons, the antiparticles of protons, one of the two species of particle atomic nuclei are made of.
Nobelprize.org: Physics 1959
1963 – Eugene Wigner (jointly with Maria Goeppert-Mayer and J. Hans D. Jensen)
At the heart of special relativity is the relativity principle, in brief: observers that are in motion relative to each other are nevertheless on an equal footing; the physical laws are exactly the same for each of them. In physics, such equality is called a symmetry. Whether or not a physical theory, be it a model of electromagnetic phenomena, fluid dynamics or a theory of heat, is consistent with the relativity principle can be examined in a general framework that analyzes the theory’s symmetries. Wigner was the first to apply this framework to quantum theory, laying the foundation of modern relativistic quantum field theories.
Nobelprize.org: Physics 1963
1965 – Shin-Itiro Tomonaga, Julian Schwinger, Richard P. Feynman
The development from earlier relativistic quantum mechanics to relativistic quantum field theories has already been mentioned. In these quantum field theories, not only the matter particles, but also the forces acting between them follow quantum laws. The distinction between matter and forces becomes blurred: The action of a force is represented by the exchange of particles, the corresponding carrier particles. Tomonaga, Schwinger and Feynman were the first to formulate such a theory of relativistic quantum forces for the simplest case, that of the electromagnetic force, creating what is known as quantum electrodynamics. This was the starting point leading to the formulation of the more general quantum field theories of the standard model of particle physics and to more relativistic Nobel prizes which are not included in this list as they do not add any fundamentally new cross-links with relativity.
Nobelprize.org: Physics 1965
1974 – Antony Hewish (jointly with Martin Ryle)
The discovery that won Hewish his prize, although not a consequence of relativity, is nonetheless an important step for relativistic astrophysics. Together with his graduate student Jocelyn Bell-Burnell, Hewish discovered the first pulsar, opening up the field of observational astronomy of neutron stars.
Nobelprize.org: Physics 1974
1978 – Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson (jointly with Pjotr Leonidovich Kapitsa)
Penzias and Wilson won their Nobel prize for the first detection of the cosmic background radiation, an afterglow from the early, hot days of the universe. With their discovery, they confirmed a prediction made by Ralph Alpher and Robert Herman in 1948 on the basis of the relativistic big bang models.
Nobelprize.org: Physics 1978
1983 – Subramanyan Chandrasekhar and William A. Fowler
Chandrasekhars work on the stability of White Dwarfs, the final states of low-mass stars, was the beginning of a journey that would lead scientists to stellar black holes. The Chandrasekhar mass named after him is the maximal mass for which the inner pressure of the White Dwarf can resist further collaps. For remnants with higher mass, the collapse continues, forming a neutron star or even a black hole.
Fowler won the prize for his research on the origin of the chemical elements in the universe. Part of that work concerned another prediction of the big bang models of relativistic cosmology, namely that of the formation of light elements in the early universe.
Nobelprize.org: Physics 1983
1993 – Russell A. Hulse and Joseph H. Taylor
Hulse and Taylor discovered the first binary pulsar: a binary in which a pulsar and a companion star orbit each other. Their observations of this pulsar, called PSR1913+16, led to the first indirect detection of gravitational waves.
Nobelprize.org: Physics 1993
2002 – Riccardo Giacconi (jointly with Raymond Davis Jr. and Masatoshi Koshiba)
Giacconi won the prize for his pioneering work in X-ray astronomy, in part for the first detection of objects that, to the best of our knowledge, are black holes.
Nobelprize.org: Physics 2002
2006 – John C. Mather and George F. Smoot
Mather and Smoot received their prize for their contributions to the COBE satellite mission, in particular for precise measurements of the blackbody nature of the cosmic background radiation (confirming an important prediction of the big bang models) and for detecting the tiny fluctuations in the background radiation which are the first seeds for the large scale structure we can observe in the universe today.
Nobelprize.org: Physics 2006
2011 – Saul Perlmutter, Brian P. Schmidt, and Adam G. Riess
Perlmutter received half of the prize, Schmidt and Riess a fourth each. They were awarded for their discovery of the accelerated expansion of the universe. They used the observation of supernovae in distant galaxies. This discovery, published in 1998, shook cosmology to its foundations. Until then, cosmology assumed that expansion would slow down over time. Without knowing exactly what its nature is, the acceleration is attributed to the “dark energy”.
Nobelprize.org: Physics 2011
2017 – Rainer Weiss, Barry C. Barish, and Kip S. Thorne
Half of the prize went to Weiss, the other half to Barish and Thorne. They all received the award for their contribution to the LIGO Observatory and the successful first measurement of gravitational waves in 2015.
Nobelprize.org: Physics 2017
2020 – Roger Penrose, Reinhard Genzel, and Andrea Ghez
Roger Penrose received half the prize, Reinhard Genzel and Andrea Ghez together received the other half. Roger Penrose’s work on the formation of black holes as a robust prediction of general relativity was honoured, as was the discovery of the supermassive black hole at the center of our Galaxy by Reinhard Genzel and Andrea Ghez.
Nobelprize.org: Physics 2020
Further Information
|
|||||||
correct_award_00024
|
FactBench
|
1
| 18
|
https://www.theguardian.com/science/across-the-universe/2012/oct/08/einstein-nobel-prize-relativity
|
en
|
Why Einstein never received a Nobel prize for relativity
|
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[
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[
"Stuart Clark",
"www.theguardian.com",
"dr-stuart-clark"
] |
2012-10-08T00:00:00
|
<p><strong>Stuart Clark: </strong>Nobel prizes often attract controversy, but usually after they have been awarded. Albert Einstein's physics prize was the subject of argument for years before it was even a reality</p>
|
en
|
the Guardian
|
https://www.theguardian.com/science/across-the-universe/2012/oct/08/einstein-nobel-prize-relativity
|
There was a lot riding on Einstein winning a Nobel prize. Beyond his academic reputation, and that of the Nobel Institute for recognising greatness, the wellbeing of his former wife and their two sons depended upon it.
In the aftermath of the first world war, defeated Germany was being consumed by hyper-inflation. The government was printing more money to pay the war reparations and, as a result, the mark went into freefall against foreign currencies. Living in Berlin, Einstein was naturally affected by the crisis.
He had divorced Mileva in 1919, several years after she had returned to Switzerland with the boys, Hans-Albert and Eduard. As part of the settlement, Einstein pledged any eventual Nobel prize money to her for their upkeep. As the hyper-inflation bit ever deeper, so he needed that cash.
By this time, Einstein had a decade's worth of Nobel nominations behind him. Yet each year, to mounting criticism, the committee decided against his work on the grounds that relativity was unproven. In 1919, that changed. Cambridge astrophysicist Arthur Eddington famously used a total eclipse to measure the deflection of stars' positions near the Sun. The size of the deflection was exactly as Einstein had predicted from relativity in 1915. The prize should have been his, but the committee snubbed him again.
Why? Because now dark forces were at work.
Antisemitism was on the rise in Germany; Jews were being scapegoated for the country's defeat in the war. As both Jew and pacifist, Einstein was an obvious target. The complexity of relativity did not help either. Opponents such as Ernst Gehrcke and Philipp Lenard found it easy to cast doubt upon its labyrinthine mathematics.
The situation reached crisis point in 1921 when, paralysed by indecision, the Nobel Committee decided it was better not to award a prize at all than to give it to relativity. The arguments raged for another year until a compromise was reached.
At the suggestion of Carl Wilhelm Oseen, Einstein would receive the deferred 1921 prize, but not for relativity. He would be given it for his explanation of the photoelectric effect, a phenomenon in which electrons are emitted from a metal sheet only under certain illuminations. The work had been published back in 1905.
It has been argued that this work, which introduced the concept of photons, has had more impact than relativity. I'm not sure. With relativity, Einstein gave us a way to understand the Universe as a whole. It was a staggering leap forward in our intellectual capability.
The Nobel citation reads that Einstein is honoured for "services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect". At first glance, the reference to theoretical physics could have been a back door through which the committee acknowledged relativity. However, there was a caveat stating that the award was presented "without taking into account the value that will be accorded your relativity and gravitation theories after these are confirmed in the future".
To many, and to Einstein himself, this felt like a slap in the face. Hadn't Eddington proved the theory? Yes, but the trouble was Eddington's observations had not been perfect and he had discarded data he considered poor from his final analysis. To some, as related in Jeffrey Crelinsten's Einstein's Jury, this smacked of cooking the books in Einstein's favour. In reality it was just good scientific practice.
There is also another way to read the Nobel caveat. Could it have been that the committee was leaving the door open for a second Nobel prize in the future, once relativity had been more rigorously tested? We will never know. As Einstein's fame spread, so he alienated himself from the physics community by refusing to accept quantum theory. A Nobel prize for relativity was never awarded.
The final twist in this story is that Einstein did not attend his prize giving. Despite being informed that he was about to receive the prize, he chose to continue with a lecture tour of Japan. Partly, this was because he no longer valued the prize and partly it was because he needed to disappear.
German foreign minister Walther Rathenau had been murdered by anti-Semites. In the subsequent investigation, the police had found Einstein's name on a list of targets. In the face of such a death treat, leaving Germany to spend months in the Far East, rather than a few days in Stockholm, must have seemed prudent.
In the end, perhaps the best thing that came out of Einstein's Nobel prize was the money. It went towards keeping Mileva and the boys secure, and became essential when Eduard developed schizophrenia as a young adult and needed to be hospitalised.
The 2012 Nobel Prize in Physics is awarded on Tuesday. This week's prize schedule is here. You can watch each announcement live in the viewer below.
|
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correct_award_00024
|
FactBench
|
0
| 42
|
https://www.republicworld.com/world-news/albert-einstein-won-nobel-prize-for-physics-on-this-day-in-1921-read-details
|
en
|
Albert Einstein won Nobel Prize for Physics on this day in 1921; read details
|
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"Republic World",
"www.facebook.com"
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2020-11-09T15:55:10+05:30
|
en
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../favicon.ico
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Republic World
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https://www.republicworld.com/world-news/albert-einstein-won-nobel-prize-for-physics-on-this-day-in-1921-read-details
| ||||||
correct_award_00024
|
FactBench
|
3
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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein
|
en
|
Albert Einstein
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2001-11-05T18:26:16+00:00
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en
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein
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German-born physicist (1879–1955)
"Einstein" redirects here. For other uses, see Einstein (disambiguation) and Albert Einstein (disambiguation).
Albert Einstein ( EYEN-styne;[4] German: [ˈalbɛɐt ˈʔaɪnʃtaɪn] ⓘ; 14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist who is widely held as one of the most influential scientists. Best known for developing the theory of relativity, Einstein also made important contributions to quantum mechanics.[1][5] His mass–energy equivalence formula E = mc2, which arises from relativity theory, has been called "the world's most famous equation".[6] He received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect",[7] a pivotal step in the development of quantum theory. His intellectual achievements and originality have made the word Einstein broadly synonymous with genius.[8]
Born in the German Empire, Einstein moved to Switzerland in 1895, forsaking his German citizenship (as a subject of the Kingdom of Württemberg)[note 1] the following year. In 1897, at the age of seventeen, he enrolled in the mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at the Swiss federal polytechnic school in Zürich, graduating in 1900. In 1901, he acquired Swiss citizenship, which he kept for the rest of his life. In 1903, he secured a permanent position at the Swiss Patent Office in Bern. In 1905, he submitted a successful PhD dissertation to the University of Zurich. In 1914, he moved to Berlin in order to join the Prussian Academy of Sciences and the Humboldt University of Berlin. In 1917, he became director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics; he also became a German citizen again, this time as a subject of the Kingdom of Prussia.[note 1] In 1933, while he was visiting the United States, Adolf Hitler came to power in Germany. Horrified by the Nazi war of extermination against his fellow Jews,[9] Einstein decided to remain in the US, and was granted American citizenship in 1940.[10] On the eve of World War II, he endorsed a letter to President Franklin D. Roosevelt alerting him to the potential German nuclear weapons program and recommended that the US begin similar research. Einstein supported the Allies but generally viewed the idea of nuclear weapons with great dismay.[11]
Einstein's work is also known for its influence on the philosophy of science.[12][13] In 1905, he published four groundbreaking papers, sometimes described as his annus mirabilis (miracle year). These papers outlined a theory of the photoelectric effect, explained brownian motion, introduced his special theory of relativity—a theory which addressed the inability of classical mechanics to account satisfactorily for the behavior of the electromagnetic field—and demonstrated that if the special theory is correct, mass and energy are equivalent to each other. In 1915, he proposed a general theory of relativity that extended his system of mechanics to incorporate gravitation. A cosmological paper that he published the following year laid out the implications of general relativity for the modeling of the structure and evolution of the universe as a whole.[15][16]
In the middle part of his career, Einstein made important contributions to statistical mechanics and quantum theory. Especially notable was his work on the quantum physics of radiation, in which light consists of particles, subsequently called photons. With the Indian physicist Satyendra Nath Bose, he laid the groundwork for Bose-Einstein statistics. For much of the last phase of his academic life, Einstein worked on two endeavors that proved ultimately unsuccessful. First, he advocated against quantum theory's introduction of fundamental randomness into science's picture of the world, objecting that "God does not play dice".[17] Second, he attempted to devise a unified field theory by generalizing his geometric theory of gravitation to include electromagnetism too. As a result, he became increasingly isolated from the mainstream modern physics. In a 1999 poll of 130 leading physicists worldwide by the British journal Physics World, Einstein was ranked top among physicists for making the most important contributions to physics.[18]
Life and career
Childhood, youth and education
See also: Einstein family
Albert Einstein was born in Ulm,[19] in the Kingdom of Württemberg in the German Empire, on 14 March 1879.[20][21] His parents, secular Ashkenazi Jews, were Hermann Einstein, a salesman and engineer, and Pauline Koch. In 1880, the family moved to Munich's borough of Ludwigsvorstadt-Isarvorstadt, where Einstein's father and his uncle Jakob founded Elektrotechnische Fabrik J. Einstein & Cie, a company that manufactured electrical equipment based on direct current.[19]
Albert attended St. Peter‘s Catholic elementary school in Munich from the age of five. When he was eight, he was transferred to the Luitpold Gymnasium, where he received advanced primary and then secondary school education.
In 1894, Hermann and Jakob's company tendered for a contract to install electric lighting in Munich, but without success—they lacked the capital that would have been required to update their technology from direct current to the more efficient, alternating current alternative.[23] The failure of their bid forced them to sell their Munich factory and search for new opportunities elsewhere. The Einstein family moved to Italy, first to Milan and a few months later to Pavia, where they settled in Palazzo Cornazzani.[24] Einstein, then fifteen, stayed behind in Munich in order to finish his schooling. His father wanted him to study electrical engineering, but he was a fractious pupil who found the Gymnasium's regimen and teaching methods far from congenial. He later wrote that the school's policy of strict rote learning was harmful to creativity. At the end of December 1894, a letter from a doctor persuaded the Luitpold's authorities to release him from its care, and he joined his family in Pavia. While in Italy as a teenager, he wrote an essay entitled "On the Investigation of the State of the Ether in a Magnetic Field".[27]
Einstein excelled at physics and mathematics from an early age, and soon acquired the mathematical expertise normally only found in a child several years his senior. He began teaching himself algebra, calculus and Euclidean geometry when he was twelve; he made such rapid progress that he discovered an original proof of the Pythagorean theorem before his thirteenth birthday.[28][30] A family tutor, Max Talmud, said that only a short time after he had given the twelve year old Einstein a geometry textbook, the boy "had worked through the whole book. He thereupon devoted himself to higher mathematics ... Soon the flight of his mathematical genius was so high I could not follow." Einstein recorded that he had "mastered integral and differential calculus" while still just fourteen. His love of algebra and geometry was so great that at twelve, he was already confident that nature could be understood as a "mathematical structure".
At thirteen, when his range of enthusiasms had broadened to include music and philosophy, Talmud introduced Einstein to Kant's Critique of Pure Reason. Kant became his favorite philosopher; according to Talmud, "At the time he was still a child, only thirteen years old, yet Kant's works, incomprehensible to ordinary mortals, seemed to be clear to him."
In 1895, at the age of sixteen, Einstein sat the entrance examination for the federal polytechnic school (later the Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule, ETH) in Zürich, Switzerland. He failed to reach the required standard in the general part of the test, but performed with distinction in physics and mathematics. On the advice of the polytechnic's principal, he completed his secondary education at the Argovian cantonal school (a gymnasium) in Aarau, Switzerland, graduating in 1896.[35] While lodging in Aarau with the family of Jost Winteler, he fell in love with Winteler's daughter, Marie. (His sister, Maja, later married Winteler's son Paul. )
In January 1896, with his father's approval, Einstein renounced his citizenship of the German Kingdom of Württemberg in order to avoid conscription into military service. The Matura (graduation for the successful completion of higher secondary schooling), awarded to him in September 1896, acknowledged him to have performed well across most of the curriculum, allotting him a top grade of 6 for history, physics, algebra, geometry, and descriptive geometry. At seventeen, he enrolled in the four-year mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at the federal polytechnic school. Marie Winteler, a year older than him, took up a teaching post in Olsberg, Switzerland.
The five other polytechnic school freshmen following the same course as Einstein included just one woman, a twenty year old Serbian, Mileva Marić. Over the next few years, the pair spent many hours discussing their shared interests and learning about topics in physics that the polytechnic school's lectures did not cover. In his letters to Marić, Einstein confessed that exploring science with her by his side was much more enjoyable than reading a textbook in solitude. Eventually the two students became not only friends but also lovers.[39]
Historians of physics are divided on the question of the extent to which Marić contributed to the insights of Einstein's annus mirabilis publications. There is at least some evidence that he was influenced by her scientific ideas,[39][40][41] but there are scholars who doubt whether her impact on his thought was of any great significance at all.[43][45]
Marriages, relationships and children
Correspondence between Einstein and Marić, discovered and published in 1987, revealed that in early 1902, while Marić was visiting her parents in Novi Sad, she gave birth to a daughter, Lieserl. When Marić returned to Switzerland it was without the child, whose fate is uncertain. A letter of Einstein's that he wrote in September 1903 suggests that the girl was either given up for adoption or died of scarlet fever in infancy.[46]
Einstein and Marić married in January 1903. In May 1904, their son Hans Albert was born in Bern, Switzerland. Their son Eduard was born in Zürich in July 1910. In letters that Einstein wrote to Marie Winteler in the months before Eduard's arrival, he described his love for his wife as "misguided" and mourned the "missed life" that he imagined he would have enjoyed if he had married Winteler instead: "I think of you in heartfelt love every spare minute and am so unhappy as only a man can be."[48]
In 1912, Einstein entered into a relationship with Elsa Löwenthal, who was both his first cousin on his mother's side and his second cousin on his father's.[50] When Marić learned of his infidelity soon after moving to Berlin with him in April 1914, she returned to Zürich, taking Hans Albert and Eduard with her.[39] Einstein and Marić were granted a divorce on 14 February 1919 on the grounds of having lived apart for five years.[52] As part of the divorce settlement, Einstein agreed that if he were to win a Nobel Prize, he would give the money that he received to Marić; he won the prize two years later.[54]
Einstein married Löwenthal in 1919. In 1923, he began a relationship with a secretary named Betty Neumann, the niece of his close friend Hans Mühsam.[57][58][59][60] Löwenthal nevertheless remained loyal to him, accompanying him when he emigrated to the United States in 1933. In 1935, she was diagnosed with heart and kidney problems. She died in December 1936.
A volume of Einstein's letters released by Hebrew University of Jerusalem in 2006[62] added further names to the catalog of women with whom he was romantically involved. They included Margarete Lebach (a married Austrian),[63] Estella Katzenellenbogen (the rich owner of a florist business), Toni Mendel (a wealthy Jewish widow) and Ethel Michanowski (a Berlin socialite), with whom he spent time and from whom he accepted gifts while married to Löwenthal.[64][65] After being widowed, Einstein was briefly in a relationship with Margarita Konenkova, thought by some to be a Russian spy; her husband, the Russian sculptor Sergei Konenkov, created the bronze bust of Einstein at the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton.[66][67]
Following an episode of acute mental illness at about the age of twenty, Einstein's son Eduard was diagnosed with schizophrenia.[68] He spent the remainder of his life either in the care of his mother or in temporary confinement in an asylum. After her death, he was committed permanently to Burghölzli, the Psychiatric University Hospital in Zürich.
1902–1909: Assistant at the Swiss Patent Office
Einstein graduated from the federal polytechnic school in 1900, duly certified as competent to teach mathematics and physics. His successful acquisition of Swiss citizenship in February 1901 was not followed by the usual sequel of conscription; the Swiss authorities deemed him medically unfit for military service. He found that Swiss schools too appeared to have no use for him, failing to offer him a teaching position despite the almost two years that he spent applying for one. Eventually it was with the help of Marcel Grossmann's father that he secured a post in Bern at the Swiss Patent Office,[72] as an assistant examiner – level III.[74][75]
Patent applications that landed on Einstein's desk for his evaluation included ideas for a gravel sorter and an electric typewriter.[75] His employers were pleased enough with his work to make his position permanent in 1903, although they did not think that he should be promoted until he had "fully mastered machine technology". It is conceivable that his labors at the patent office had a bearing on his development of his special theory of relativity. He arrived at his revolutionary ideas about space, time and light through thought experiments about the transmission of signals and the synchronization of clocks, matters which also figured in some of the inventions submitted to him for assessment.
In 1902, Einstein and some friends whom he had met in Bern formed a group that held regular meetings to discuss science and philosophy. Their choice of a name for their club, the Olympia Academy, was an ironic comment upon its far from Olympian status. Sometimes they were joined by Marić, who limited her participation in their proceedings to careful listening. The thinkers whose works they reflected upon included Henri Poincaré, Ernst Mach and David Hume, all of whom significantly influenced Einstein's own subsequent ideas and beliefs.
1900–1905: First scientific papers
Einstein's first paper, "Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen" ("Conclusions drawn from the phenomena of capillarity"), in which he proposed a model of intermolecular attraction that he afterwards disavowed as worthless, was published in the journal Annalen der Physik in 1901.[80] His 24-page doctoral dissertation also addressed a topic in molecular physics. Titled "Eine neue Bestimmung der Moleküldimensionen" ("A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions") and dedicated to his friend Marcel Grossman, it was completed on 30 April 1905 and approved by Professor Alfred Kleiner of the University of Zurich three months later. (Einstein was formally awarded his PhD on 15 January 1906.)[83] Four other pieces of work that Einstein completed in 1905—his famous papers on the photoelectric effect, Brownian motion, his special theory of relativity and the equivalence of mass and energy—have led to the year being celebrated as an annus mirabilis for physics akin to 1666 (the year in which Isaac Newton experienced his greatest epiphanies). The publications deeply impressed Einstein's contemporaries.[84]
1908–1933: Early academic career
Einstein's sabbatical as a civil servant approached its end in 1908, when he secured a junior teaching position at the University of Bern. In 1909, a lecture on relativistic electrodynamics that he gave at the University of Zurich, much admired by Alfred Kleiner, led to Zürich's luring him away from Bern with a newly created associate professorship.[85] Promotion to a full professorship followed in April 1911, when he accepted a chair at the German Charles-Ferdinand University in Prague, a move which required him to become an Austrian citizen of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.[87] His time in Prague saw him producing eleven research papers.[88]
In July 1912, he returned to his alma mater, the ETH Zurich, to take up a chair in theoretical physics. His teaching activities there centred on thermodynamics and analytical mechanics, and his research interests included the molecular theory of heat, continuum mechanics and the development of a relativistic theory of gravitation. In his work on the latter topic, he was assisted by his friend, Marcel Grossmann, whose knowledge of the kind of mathematics required was greater than his own.[89]
In the spring of 1913, two German visitors, Max Planck and Walther Nernst, called upon Einstein in Zürich in the hope of persuading him to relocate to Berlin. They offered him membership of the Prussian Academy of Sciences, the directorship of the planned Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics and a chair at the Humboldt University of Berlin that would allow him to pursue his research supported by a professorial salary but with no teaching duties to burden him.[50] Their invitation was all the more appealing to him because Berlin happened to be the home of his latest girlfriend, Elsa Löwenthal. He duly joined the Academy on 24 July 1913,[91] and moved into an apartment in the Berlin district of Dahlem on 1 April 1914.[50] He was installed in his Humboldt University position shortly thereafter.[91]
The outbreak of the First World War in July 1914 marked the beginning of Einstein's gradual estrangement from the nation of his birth. When the "Manifesto of the Ninety-Three" was published in October 1914—a document signed by a host of prominent German thinkers that justified Germany's belligerence—Einstein was one of the few German intellectuals to distance himself from it and sign the alternative, eirenic "Manifesto to the Europeans" instead. However, this expression of his doubts about German policy did not prevent him from being elected to a two-year term as president of the German Physical Society in 1916. When the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics opened its doors the following year—its foundation delayed because of the war—Einstein was appointed its first director, just as Planck and Nernst had promised.[95]
Einstein was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1920,[96] and a Foreign Member of the Royal Society in 1921. In 1922, he was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect".[7] At this point some physicists still regarded the general theory of relativity sceptically, and the Nobel citation displayed a degree of doubt even about the work on photoelectricity that it acknowledged: it did not assent to Einstein's notion of the particulate nature of light, which only won over the entire scientific community when S. N. Bose derived the Planck spectrum in 1924. That same year, Einstein was elected an International Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.[97] Britain's closest equivalent of the Nobel award, the Royal Society's Copley Medal, was not hung around Einstein's neck until 1925.[1] He was elected an International Member of the American Philosophical Society in 1930.[98]
Einstein resigned from the Prussian Academy in March 1933. His accomplishments in Berlin had included the completion of the general theory of relativity, proving the Einstein–de Haas effect, contributing to the quantum theory of radiation, and the development of Bose–Einstein statistics.[50]
1919: Putting general relativity to the test
In 1907, Einstein reached a milestone on his long journey from his special theory of relativity to a new idea of gravitation with the formulation of his equivalence principle, which asserts that an observer in an infinitesimally small box falling freely in a gravitational field would be unable to find any evidence that the field exists. In 1911, he used the principle to estimate the amount by which a ray of light from a distant star would be bent by the gravitational pull of the Sun as it passed close to the Sun's photosphere (that is, the Sun's apparent surface). He reworked his calculation in 1913, having now found a way to model gravitation with the Riemann curvature tensor of a non-Euclidean four-dimensional spacetime. By the fall of 1915, his reimagining of the mathematics of gravitation in terms of Riemannian geometry was complete, and he applied his new theory not just to the behavior of the Sun as a gravitational lens but also to another astronomical phenomenon, the precession of the perihelion of Mercury (a slow drift in the point in Mercury's elliptical orbit at which it approaches the Sun most closely).[50][100] A total eclipse of the Sun that took place on 29 May 1919 provided an opportunity to put his theory of gravitational lensing to the test, and observations performed by Sir Arthur Eddington yielded results that were consistent with his calculations. Eddington's work was reported at length in newspapers around the world. On 7 November 1919, for example, the leading British newspaper, The Times, printed a banner headline that read: "Revolution in Science – New Theory of the Universe – Newtonian Ideas Overthrown".[101]
1921–1923: Coming to terms with fame
With Eddington's eclipse observations widely reported not just in academic journals but by the popular press as well, Einstein became "perhaps the world's first celebrity scientist", a genius who had shattered a paradigm that had been basic to physicists' understanding of the universe since the seventeenth century.[102]
Einstein began his new life as an intellectual icon in America, where he arrived on 2 April 1921. He was welcomed to New York City by Mayor John Francis Hylan, and then spent three weeks giving lectures and attending receptions.[103] He spoke several times at Columbia University and Princeton, and in Washington, he visited the White House with representatives of the National Academy of Sciences. He returned to Europe via London, where he was the guest of the philosopher and statesman Viscount Haldane. He used his time in the British capital to meet several people prominent in British scientific, political or intellectual life, and to deliver a lecture at King's College. In July 1921, he published an essay, "My First Impression of the U.S.A.", in which he sought to sketch the American character, much as had Alexis de Tocqueville in Democracy in America (1835).[106] He wrote of his transatlantic hosts in highly approving terms: "What strikes a visitor is the joyous, positive attitude to life ... The American is friendly, self-confident, optimistic, and without envy."
In 1922, Einstein's travels were to the old world rather than the new. He devoted six months to a tour of Asia that saw him speaking in Japan, Singapore and Sri Lanka (then known as Ceylon). After his first public lecture in Tokyo, he met Emperor Yoshihito and his wife at the Imperial Palace, with thousands of spectators thronging the streets in the hope of catching a glimpse of him. (In a letter to his sons, he wrote that Japanese people seemed to him to be generally modest, intelligent and considerate, and to have a true appreciation of art. But his picture of them in his diary was less flattering: "[the] intellectual needs of this nation seem to be weaker than their artistic ones – natural disposition?" His journal also contains views of China and India which were uncomplimentary. Of Chinese people, he wrote that "even the children are spiritless and look obtuse... It would be a pity if these Chinese supplant all other races. For the likes of us the mere thought is unspeakably dreary".[109][110]) He was greeted with even greater enthusiasm on the last leg of his tour, in which he spent twelve days in Mandatory Palestine, newly entrusted to British rule by the League of Nations in the aftermath of the First World War. Sir Herbert Samuel, the British High Commissioner, welcomed him with a degree of ceremony normally only accorded to a visiting head of state, including a cannon salute. One reception held in his honor was stormed by people determined to hear him speak: he told them that he was happy that Jews were beginning to be recognized as a force in the world.
Einstein's decision to tour the eastern hemisphere in 1922 meant that he was unable to go to Stockholm in the December of that year to participate in the Nobel prize ceremony. His place at the traditional Nobel banquet was taken by a German diplomat, who gave a speech praising him not only as a physicist but also as a campaigner for peace.[112] A two-week visit to Spain that he undertook in 1923 saw him collecting another award, a membership of the Spanish Academy of Sciences signified by a diploma handed to him by King Alfonso XIII. (His Spanish trip also gave him a chance to meet a fellow Nobel laureate, the neuroanatomist Santiago Ramón y Cajal.)[113]
1922–1932: Serving the League of Nations
From 1922 until 1932, with the exception of a few months in 1923 and 1924, Einstein was a member of the Geneva-based International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation of the League of Nations, a group set up by the League to encourage scientists, artists, scholars, teachers and other people engaged in the life of the mind to work more closely with their counterparts in other countries.[114][115] He was appointed as a German delegate rather than as a representative of Switzerland because of the machinations of two Catholic activists, Oskar Halecki and Giuseppe Motta. By persuading Secretary General Eric Drummond to deny Einstein the place on the committee reserved for a Swiss thinker, they created an opening for Gonzague de Reynold, who used his League of Nations position as a platform from which to promote traditional Catholic doctrine.[116] Einstein's former physics professor Hendrik Lorentz and the Polish chemist Marie Curie were also members of the committee.[117]
1925: Touring South America
In March and April 1925, Einstein and his wife visited South America, where they spent about a week in Brazil, a week in Uruguay and a month in Argentina.[118] Their tour was suggested by Jorge Duclout (1856–1927) and Mauricio Nirenstein (1877–1935)[119] with the support of several Argentine scholars, including Julio Rey Pastor, Jakob Laub, and Leopoldo Lugones. and was financed primarily by the Council of the University of Buenos Aires and the Asociación Hebraica Argentina (Argentine Hebraic Association) with a smaller contribution from the Argentine-Germanic Cultural Institution.[120]
1930–1931: Touring the US
In December 1930, Einstein began another significant sojourn in the United States, drawn back to the US by the offer of a two month research fellowship at the California Institute of Technology. Caltech supported him in his wish that he should not be exposed to quite as much attention from the media as he had experienced when visiting the US in 1921, and he therefore declined all the invitations to receive prizes or make speeches that his admirers poured down upon him. But he remained willing to allow his fans at least some of the time with him that they requested.
After arriving in New York City, Einstein was taken to various places and events, including Chinatown, a lunch with the editors of The New York Times, and a performance of Carmen at the Metropolitan Opera, where he was cheered by the audience on his arrival. During the days following, he was given the keys to the city by Mayor Jimmy Walker and met Nicholas Murray Butler, the president of Columbia University, who described Einstein as "the ruling monarch of the mind". Harry Emerson Fosdick, pastor at New York's Riverside Church, gave Einstein a tour of the church and showed him a full-size statue that the church made of Einstein, standing at the entrance. Also during his stay in New York, he joined a crowd of 15,000 people at Madison Square Garden during a Hanukkah celebration.
Einstein next traveled to California, where he met Caltech president and Nobel laureate Robert A. Millikan. His friendship with Millikan was "awkward", as Millikan "had a penchant for patriotic militarism", where Einstein was a pronounced pacifist. During an address to Caltech's students, Einstein noted that science was often inclined to do more harm than good.
This aversion to war also led Einstein to befriend author Upton Sinclair and film star Charlie Chaplin, both noted for their pacifism. Carl Laemmle, head of Universal Studios, gave Einstein a tour of his studio and introduced him to Chaplin. They had an instant rapport, with Chaplin inviting Einstein and his wife, Elsa, to his home for dinner. Chaplin said Einstein's outward persona, calm and gentle, seemed to conceal a "highly emotional temperament", from which came his "extraordinary intellectual energy".
Chaplin's film City Lights was to premiere a few days later in Hollywood, and Chaplin invited Einstein and Elsa to join him as his special guests. Walter Isaacson, Einstein's biographer, described this as "one of the most memorable scenes in the new era of celebrity". Chaplin visited Einstein at his home on a later trip to Berlin and recalled his "modest little flat" and the piano at which he had begun writing his theory. Chaplin speculated that it was "possibly used as kindling wood by the Nazis".
1933: Emigration to the US
In February 1933, while on a visit to the United States, Einstein knew he could not return to Germany with the rise to power of the Nazis under Germany's new chancellor, Adolf Hitler.
While at American universities in early 1933, he undertook his third two-month visiting professorship at the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena. In February and March 1933, the Gestapo repeatedly raided his family's apartment in Berlin.[129] He and his wife Elsa returned to Europe in March, and during the trip, they learned that the German Reichstag had passed the Enabling Act on 23 March, transforming Hitler's government into a de facto legal dictatorship, and that they would not be able to proceed to Berlin. Later on, they heard that their cottage had been raided by the Nazis and Einstein's personal sailboat confiscated. Upon landing in Antwerp, Belgium on 28 March, Einstein immediately went to the German consulate and surrendered his passport, formally renouncing his German citizenship. The Nazis later sold his boat and converted his cottage into a Hitler Youth camp.[131]
Refugee status
In April 1933, Einstein discovered that the new German government had passed laws barring Jews from holding any official positions, including teaching at universities. Historian Gerald Holton describes how, with "virtually no audible protest being raised by their colleagues", thousands of Jewish scientists were suddenly forced to give up their university positions and their names were removed from the rolls of institutions where they were employed.
A month later, Einstein's works were among those targeted by the German Student Union in the Nazi book burnings, with Nazi propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels proclaiming, "Jewish intellectualism is dead." One German magazine included him in a list of enemies of the German regime with the phrase, "not yet hanged", offering a $5,000 bounty on his head.[133] In a subsequent letter to physicist and friend Max Born, who had already emigrated from Germany to England, Einstein wrote, "... I must confess that the degree of their brutality and cowardice came as something of a surprise." After moving to the US, he described the book burnings as a "spontaneous emotional outburst" by those who "shun popular enlightenment", and "more than anything else in the world, fear the influence of men of intellectual independence".
Einstein was now without a permanent home, unsure where he would live and work, and equally worried about the fate of countless other scientists still in Germany. Aided by the Academic Assistance Council, founded in April 1933 by British Liberal politician William Beveridge to help academics escape Nazi persecution, Einstein was able to leave Germany.[135] He rented a house in De Haan, Belgium, where he lived for a few months. In late July 1933, he visited England for about six weeks at the invitation of the British Member of Parliament Commander Oliver Locker-Lampson, who had become friends with him in the preceding years.[136] Locker-Lampson invited him to stay near his Cromer home in a secluded wooden cabin on Roughton Heath in the Parish of Roughton, Norfolk. To protect Einstein, Locker-Lampson had two bodyguards watch over him; a photo of them carrying shotguns and guarding Einstein was published in the Daily Herald on 24 July 1933.[138]
Locker-Lampson took Einstein to meet Winston Churchill at his home, and later, Austen Chamberlain and former Prime Minister Lloyd George. Einstein asked them to help bring Jewish scientists out of Germany. British historian Martin Gilbert notes that Churchill responded immediately, and sent his friend, physicist Frederick Lindemann, to Germany to seek out Jewish scientists and place them in British universities.[140] Churchill later observed that as a result of Germany having driven the Jews out, they had lowered their "technical standards" and put the Allies' technology ahead of theirs.[140]
Einstein later contacted leaders of other nations, including Turkey's Prime Minister, İsmet İnönü, to whom he wrote in September 1933 requesting placement of unemployed German-Jewish scientists. As a result of Einstein's letter, Jewish invitees to Turkey eventually totaled over "1,000 saved individuals".[141]
Locker-Lampson also submitted a bill to parliament to extend British citizenship to Einstein, during which period Einstein made a number of public appearances describing the crisis brewing in Europe. In one of his speeches he denounced Germany's treatment of Jews, while at the same time he introduced a bill promoting Jewish citizenship in Palestine, as they were being denied citizenship elsewhere.[143] In his speech he described Einstein as a "citizen of the world" who should be offered a temporary shelter in the UK.[note 3][144] Both bills failed, however, and Einstein then accepted an earlier offer from the Institute for Advanced Study, in Princeton, New Jersey, US, to become a resident scholar.
Resident scholar at the Institute for Advanced Study
On 3 October 1933, Einstein delivered a speech on the importance of academic freedom before a packed audience at the Royal Albert Hall in London, with The Times reporting he was wildly cheered throughout.[135] Four days later he returned to the US and took up a position at the Institute for Advanced Study, noted for having become a refuge for scientists fleeing Nazi Germany.[146] At the time, most American universities, including Harvard, Princeton and Yale, had minimal or no Jewish faculty or students, as a result of their Jewish quotas, which lasted until the late 1940s.[146]
Einstein was still undecided on his future. He had offers from several European universities, including Christ Church, Oxford, where he stayed for three short periods between May 1931 and June 1933 and was offered a five-year research fellowship (called a "studentship" at Christ Church),[147][148] but in 1935, he arrived at the decision to remain permanently in the United States and apply for citizenship.
Einstein's affiliation with the Institute for Advanced Study would last until his death in 1955.[150] He was one of the four first selected (along with John von Neumann, Kurt Gödel, and Hermann Weyl[151]) at the new Institute. He soon developed a close friendship with Gödel; the two would take long walks together discussing their work. Bruria Kaufman, his assistant, later became a physicist. During this period, Einstein tried to develop a unified field theory and to refute the accepted interpretation of quantum physics, both unsuccessfully. He lived in Princeton at his home from 1935 onwards. The Albert Einstein House was made a National Historic Landmark in 1976.
World War II and the Manhattan Project
See also: Einstein–Szilárd letter
In 1939, a group of Hungarian scientists that included émigré physicist Leó Szilárd attempted to alert Washington to ongoing Nazi atomic bomb research. The group's warnings were discounted. Einstein and Szilárd, along with other refugees such as Edward Teller and Eugene Wigner, "regarded it as their responsibility to alert Americans to the possibility that German scientists might win the race to build an atomic bomb, and to warn that Hitler would be more than willing to resort to such a weapon."[153] To make certain the US was aware of the danger, in July 1939, a few months before the beginning of World War II in Europe, Szilárd and Wigner visited Einstein to explain the possibility of atomic bombs, which Einstein, a pacifist, said he had never considered.[154] He was asked to lend his support by writing a letter, with Szilárd, to President Roosevelt, recommending the US pay attention and engage in its own nuclear weapons research.
The letter is believed to be "arguably the key stimulus for the U.S. adoption of serious investigations into nuclear weapons on the eve of the U.S. entry into World War II".[155] In addition to the letter, Einstein used his connections with the Belgian royal family[156] and the Belgian queen mother to get access with a personal envoy to the White House's Oval Office. Some say that as a result of Einstein's letter and his meetings with Roosevelt, the US entered the "race" to develop the bomb, drawing on its "immense material, financial, and scientific resources" to initiate the Manhattan Project.
For Einstein, "war was a disease ... [and] he called for resistance to war." By signing the letter to Roosevelt, some argue he went against his pacifist principles.[157] In 1954, a year before his death, Einstein said to his old friend, Linus Pauling, "I made one great mistake in my life—when I signed the letter to President Roosevelt recommending that atom bombs be made; but there was some justification—the danger that the Germans would make them ..." In 1955, Einstein and ten other intellectuals and scientists, including British philosopher Bertrand Russell, signed a manifesto highlighting the danger of nuclear weapons.[159] In 1960 Einstein was included posthumously as a charter member of the World Academy of Art and Science (WAAS),[160] an organization founded by distinguished scientists and intellectuals who committed themselves to the responsible and ethical advances of science, particularly in light of the development of nuclear weapons.
US citizenship
Einstein became an American citizen in 1940. Not long after settling into his career at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, he expressed his appreciation of the meritocracy in American culture compared to Europe. He recognized the "right of individuals to say and think what they pleased" without social barriers. As a result, individuals were encouraged, he said, to be more creative, a trait he valued from his early education.
Einstein joined the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in Princeton, where he campaigned for the civil rights of African Americans. He considered racism America's "worst disease",[133][162] seeing it as "handed down from one generation to the next". As part of his involvement, he corresponded with civil rights activist W. E. B. Du Bois and was prepared to testify on his behalf during his trial as an alleged foreign agent in 1951. When Einstein offered to be a character witness for Du Bois, the judge decided to drop the case.[165]
In 1946, Einstein visited Lincoln University in Pennsylvania, a historically black college, where he was awarded an honorary degree. Lincoln was the first university in the United States to grant college degrees to African Americans; alumni include Langston Hughes and Thurgood Marshall. Einstein gave a speech about racism in America, adding, "I do not intend to be quiet about it."[166] A resident of Princeton recalls that Einstein had once paid the college tuition for a black student.[165] Einstein has said, "Being a Jew myself, perhaps I can understand and empathize with how black people feel as victims of discrimination".[162]
Personal views
Political views
In 1918, Einstein was one of the signatories of the founding proclamation of the German Democratic Party, a liberal party.[167][168] Later in his life, Einstein's political view was in favor of socialism and critical of capitalism, which he detailed in his essays such as "Why Socialism?".[170] His opinions on the Bolsheviks also changed with time. In 1925, he criticized them for not having a "well-regulated system of government" and called their rule a "regime of terror and a tragedy in human history". He later adopted a more moderated view, criticizing their methods but praising them, which is shown by his 1929 remark on Vladimir Lenin:
In Lenin I honor a man, who in total sacrifice of his own person has committed his entire energy to realizing social justice. I do not find his methods advisable. One thing is certain, however: men like him are the guardians and renewers of mankind's conscience.
Einstein offered and was called on to give judgments and opinions on matters often unrelated to theoretical physics or mathematics. He strongly advocated the idea of a democratic global government that would check the power of nation-states in the framework of a world federation. He wrote "I advocate world government because I am convinced that there is no other possible way of eliminating the most terrible danger in which man has ever found himself."[173] The FBI created a secret dossier on Einstein in 1932; by the time of his death, it was 1,427 pages long.[174]
Einstein was deeply impressed by Mahatma Gandhi, with whom he corresponded. He described Gandhi as "a role model for the generations to come".[175] The initial connection was established on 27 September 1931, when Wilfrid Israel took his Indian guest V. A. Sundaram to meet his friend Einstein at his summer home in the town of Caputh. Sundaram was Gandhi's disciple and special envoy, whom Wilfrid Israel met while visiting India and visiting the Indian leader's home in 1925. During the visit, Einstein wrote a short letter to Gandhi that was delivered to him through his envoy, and Gandhi responded quickly with his own letter. Although in the end Einstein and Gandhi were unable to meet as they had hoped, the direct connection between them was established through Wilfrid Israel.[176]
Relationship with Zionism
Einstein was a figurehead leader in the establishment of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem,[177] which opened in 1925.[178] Earlier, in 1921, he was asked by the biochemist and president of the World Zionist Organization, Chaim Weizmann, to help raise funds for the planned university. He made suggestions for the creation of an Institute of Agriculture, a Chemical Institute and an Institute of Microbiology in order to fight the various ongoing epidemics such as malaria, which he called an "evil" that was undermining a third of the country's development. He also promoted the establishment of an Oriental Studies Institute, to include language courses given in both Hebrew and Arabic.
Einstein was not a nationalist and opposed the creation of an independent Jewish state. He felt that the waves of arriving Jews of the Aliyah could live alongside existing Arabs in Palestine. The state of Israel was established without his help in 1948; Einstein was limited to a marginal role in the Zionist movement.[183] Upon the death of Israeli president Weizmann in November 1952, Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion offered Einstein the largely ceremonial position of President of Israel at the urging of Ezriel Carlebach.[184][185] The offer was presented by Israel's ambassador in Washington, Abba Eban, who explained that the offer "embodies the deepest respect which the Jewish people can repose in any of its sons". Einstein wrote that he was "deeply moved", but "at once saddened and ashamed" that he could not accept it.
Religious and philosophical views
Einstein expounded his spiritual outlook in a wide array of writings and interviews.[187] He said he had sympathy for the impersonal pantheistic God of Baruch Spinoza's philosophy. He did not believe in a personal god who concerns himself with fates and actions of human beings, a view which he described as naïve. He clarified, however, that "I am not an atheist", preferring to call himself an agnostic,[192] or a "deeply religious nonbeliever". When asked if he believed in an afterlife, Einstein replied, "No. And one life is enough for me."
Einstein was primarily affiliated with non-religious humanist and Ethical Culture groups in both the UK and US. He served on the advisory board of the First Humanist Society of New York,[194] and was an honorary associate of the Rationalist Association, which publishes New Humanist in Britain. For the 75th anniversary of the New York Society for Ethical Culture, he stated that the idea of Ethical Culture embodied his personal conception of what is most valuable and enduring in religious idealism. He observed, "Without 'ethical culture' there is no salvation for humanity."
In a German-language letter to philosopher Eric Gutkind, dated 3 January 1954, Einstein wrote:
The word God is for me nothing more than the expression and product of human weaknesses, the Bible a collection of honorable, but still primitive legends which are nevertheless pretty childish. No interpretation no matter how subtle can (for me) change this. ... For me the Jewish religion like all other religions is an incarnation of the most childish superstitions. And the Jewish people to whom I gladly belong and with whose mentality I have a deep affinity have no different quality for me than all other people. ... I cannot see anything 'chosen' about them.[196]
Einstein had been sympathetic toward vegetarianism for a long time. In a letter in 1930 to Hermann Huth, vice-president of the German Vegetarian Federation (Deutsche Vegetarier-Bund), he wrote:
Although I have been prevented by outward circumstances from observing a strictly vegetarian diet, I have long been an adherent to the cause in principle. Besides agreeing with the aims of vegetarianism for aesthetic and moral reasons, it is my view that a vegetarian manner of living by its purely physical effect on the human temperament would most beneficially influence the lot of mankind.[197]
He became a vegetarian himself only during the last part of his life. In March 1954 he wrote in a letter: "So I am living without fats, without meat, without fish, but am feeling quite well this way. It almost seems to me that man was not born to be a carnivore."[198]
Love of music
Einstein developed an appreciation for music at an early age. In his late journals he wrote:
If I were not a physicist, I would probably be a musician. I often think in music. I live my daydreams in music. I see my life in terms of music ... I get most joy in life out of music.[199][200]
His mother played the piano reasonably well and wanted her son to learn the violin, not only to instill in him a love of music but also to help him assimilate into German culture. According to conductor Leon Botstein, Einstein began playing when he was 5. However, he did not enjoy it at that age.[201]
When he turned 13, he discovered the violin sonatas of Mozart, whereupon he became enamored of Mozart's compositions and studied music more willingly. Einstein taught himself to play without "ever practicing systematically". He said that "love is a better teacher than a sense of duty".[201] At the age of 17, he was heard by a school examiner in Aarau while playing Beethoven's violin sonatas. The examiner stated afterward that his playing was "remarkable and revealing of 'great insight'". What struck the examiner, writes Botstein, was that Einstein "displayed a deep love of the music, a quality that was and remains in short supply. Music possessed an unusual meaning for this student."[201]
Music took on a pivotal and permanent role in Einstein's life from that period on. Although the idea of becoming a professional musician himself was not on his mind at any time, among those with whom Einstein played chamber music were a few professionals, including Kurt Appelbaum, and he performed for private audiences and friends. Chamber music had also become a regular part of his social life while living in Bern, Zürich, and Berlin, where he played with Max Planck and his son, among others. He is sometimes erroneously credited as the editor of the 1937 edition of the Köchel catalog of Mozart's work; that edition was prepared by Alfred Einstein, who may have been a distant relation.[202][203]
In 1931, while engaged in research at the California Institute of Technology, he visited the Zoellner family conservatory in Los Angeles, where he played some of Beethoven and Mozart's works with members of the Zoellner Quartet.[204][205] Near the end of his life, when the young Juilliard Quartet visited him in Princeton, he played his violin with them, and the quartet was "impressed by Einstein's level of coordination and intonation".[201]
Death
On 17 April 1955, Einstein experienced internal bleeding caused by the rupture of an abdominal aortic aneurysm, which had previously been reinforced surgically by Rudolph Nissen in 1948.[206] He took the draft of a speech he was preparing for a television appearance commemorating the state of Israel's seventh anniversary with him to the hospital, but he did not live to complete it.[207]
Einstein refused surgery, saying, "I want to go when I want. It is tasteless to prolong life artificially. I have done my share; it is time to go. I will do it elegantly."[208] He died in the Princeton Hospital early the next morning at the age of 76, having continued to work until near the end.[209]
During the autopsy, the pathologist Thomas Stoltz Harvey removed Einstein's brain for preservation without the permission of his family, in the hope that the neuroscience of the future would be able to discover what made Einstein so intelligent.[210] Einstein's remains were cremated in Trenton, New Jersey,[211] and his ashes were scattered at an undisclosed location.[212][213]
In a memorial lecture delivered on 13 December 1965 at UNESCO headquarters, nuclear physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer summarized his impression of Einstein as a person: "He was almost wholly without sophistication and wholly without worldliness ... There was always with him a wonderful purity at once childlike and profoundly stubborn."[214]
Einstein bequeathed his personal archives, library, and intellectual assets to the Hebrew University of Jerusalem in Israel.[215]
Scientific career
Throughout his life, Einstein published hundreds of books and articles.[19][216] He published more than 300 scientific papers and 150 non-scientific ones.[15][216] On 5 December 2014, universities and archives announced the release of Einstein's papers, comprising more than 30,000 unique documents.[218] Einstein's intellectual achievements and originality have made the word "Einstein" synonymous with "genius".[8] In addition to the work he did by himself he also collaborated with other scientists on additional projects including the Bose–Einstein statistics, the Einstein refrigerator and others.[219][220]
1905 – Annus Mirabilis papers
The Annus Mirabilis papers are four articles pertaining to the photoelectric effect (which gave rise to quantum theory), Brownian motion, the special theory of relativity, and E = mc2 that Einstein published in the Annalen der Physik scientific journal in 1905. These four works contributed substantially to the foundation of modern physics and changed views on space, time, and matter. The four papers are:
Title (translated) Area of focus Received Published Significance "On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light" Photoelectric effect 18 March 9 June Resolved an unsolved puzzle by suggesting that energy is exchanged only in discrete amounts (quanta).[222] This idea was pivotal to the early development of quantum theory.[223] "On the Motion of Small Particles Suspended in a Stationary Liquid, as Required by the Molecular Kinetic Theory of Heat" Brownian motion 11 May 18 July Explained empirical evidence for the atomic theory, supporting the application of statistical physics. "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies" Special relativity 30 June 26 September Reconciled Maxwell's equations for electricity and magnetism with the laws of mechanics by introducing changes to mechanics, resulting from analysis based on empirical evidence that the speed of light is independent of the motion of the observer.[226] Discredited the concept of a "luminiferous ether".[227] "Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content?" Matter–energy equivalence 27 September 21 November Equivalence of matter and energy, E = mc2, the existence of "rest energy", and the basis of nuclear energy.
Statistical mechanics
Thermodynamic fluctuations and statistical physics
Einstein's first paper[229] submitted in 1900 to Annalen der Physik was on capillary attraction. It was published in 1901 with the title "Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen", which translates as "Conclusions from the capillarity phenomena". Two papers he published in 1902–1903 (thermodynamics) attempted to interpret atomic phenomena from a statistical point of view. These papers were the foundation for the 1905 paper on Brownian motion, which showed that Brownian movement can be construed as firm evidence that molecules exist. His research in 1903 and 1904 was mainly concerned with the effect of finite atomic size on diffusion phenomena.[229]
Theory of critical opalescence
Main article: Critical opalescence
Einstein returned to the problem of thermodynamic fluctuations, giving a treatment of the density variations in a fluid at its critical point. Ordinarily the density fluctuations are controlled by the second derivative of the free energy with respect to the density. At the critical point, this derivative is zero, leading to large fluctuations. The effect of density fluctuations is that light of all wavelengths is scattered, making the fluid look milky white. Einstein relates this to Rayleigh scattering, which is what happens when the fluctuation size is much smaller than the wavelength, and which explains why the sky is blue.[230] Einstein quantitatively derived critical opalescence from a treatment of density fluctuations, and demonstrated how both the effect and Rayleigh scattering originate from the atomistic constitution of matter.
Special relativity
Main article: History of special relativity
Einstein's "Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper" ("On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies") was received on 30 June 1905 and published 26 September of that same year. It reconciled conflicts between Maxwell's equations (the laws of electricity and magnetism) and the laws of Newtonian mechanics by introducing changes to the laws of mechanics. Observationally, the effects of these changes are most apparent at high speeds (where objects are moving at speeds close to the speed of light). The theory developed in this paper later became known as Einstein's special theory of relativity.
This paper predicted that, when measured in the frame of a relatively moving observer, a clock carried by a moving body would appear to slow down, and the body itself would contract in its direction of motion. This paper also argued that the idea of a luminiferous aether—one of the leading theoretical entities in physics at the time—was superfluous.[note 4]
In his paper on mass–energy equivalence, Einstein produced E = mc2 as a consequence of his special relativity equations. Einstein's 1905 work on relativity remained controversial for many years, but was accepted by leading physicists, starting with Max Planck.[note 5]
Einstein originally framed special relativity in terms of kinematics (the study of moving bodies). In 1908, Hermann Minkowski reinterpreted special relativity in geometric terms as a theory of spacetime. Einstein adopted Minkowski's formalism in his 1915 general theory of relativity.
General relativity
General relativity and the equivalence principle
Main article: History of general relativity
See also: Theory of relativity and Einstein field equations
General relativity (GR) is a theory of gravitation that was developed by Einstein between 1907 and 1915. According to it, the observed gravitational attraction between masses results from the warping of spacetime by those masses. General relativity has developed into an essential tool in modern astrophysics; it provides the foundation for the current understanding of black holes, regions of space where gravitational attraction is so strong that not even light can escape.[235]
As Einstein later said, the reason for the development of general relativity was that the preference of inertial motions within special relativity was unsatisfactory, while a theory which from the outset prefers no state of motion (even accelerated ones) should appear more satisfactory. Consequently, in 1907 he published an article on acceleration under special relativity. In that article titled "On the Relativity Principle and the Conclusions Drawn from It", he argued that free fall is really inertial motion, and that for a free-falling observer the rules of special relativity must apply. This argument is called the equivalence principle. In the same article, Einstein also predicted the phenomena of gravitational time dilation, gravitational redshift and gravitational lensing.
In 1911, Einstein published another article "On the Influence of Gravitation on the Propagation of Light" expanding on the 1907 article, in which he estimated the amount of deflection of light by massive bodies. Thus, the theoretical prediction of general relativity could for the first time be tested experimentally.
Gravitational waves
In 1916, Einstein predicted gravitational waves, ripples in the curvature of spacetime which propagate as waves, traveling outward from the source, transporting energy as gravitational radiation. The existence of gravitational waves is possible under general relativity due to its Lorentz invariance which brings the concept of a finite speed of propagation of the physical interactions of gravity with it. By contrast, gravitational waves cannot exist in the Newtonian theory of gravitation, which postulates that the physical interactions of gravity propagate at infinite speed.
The first, indirect, detection of gravitational waves came in the 1970s through observation of a pair of closely orbiting neutron stars, PSR B1913+16.[242] The explanation for the decay in their orbital period was that they were emitting gravitational waves.[242][243] Einstein's prediction was confirmed on 11 February 2016, when researchers at LIGO published the first observation of gravitational waves,[244] detected on Earth on 14 September 2015, nearly one hundred years after the prediction.[242][245][246][247][248]
Hole argument and Entwurf theory
While developing general relativity, Einstein became confused about the gauge invariance in the theory. He formulated an argument that led him to conclude that a general relativistic field theory is impossible. He gave up looking for fully generally covariant tensor equations and searched for equations that would be invariant under general linear transformations only.[249]
In June 1913, the Entwurf ('draft') theory was the result of these investigations. As its name suggests, it was a sketch of a theory, less elegant and more difficult than general relativity, with the equations of motion supplemented by additional gauge fixing conditions. After more than two years of intensive work, Einstein realized that the hole argument was mistaken[250] and abandoned the theory in November 1915.
Physical cosmology
Main article: Physical cosmology
In 1917, Einstein applied the general theory of relativity to the structure of the universe as a whole. He discovered that the general field equations predicted a universe that was dynamic, either contracting or expanding. As observational evidence for a dynamic universe was lacking at the time, Einstein introduced a new term, the cosmological constant, into the field equations, in order to allow the theory to predict a static universe. The modified field equations predicted a static universe of closed curvature, in accordance with Einstein's understanding of Mach's principle in these years. This model became known as the Einstein World or Einstein's static universe.[253]
Following the discovery of the recession of the galaxies by Edwin Hubble in 1929, Einstein abandoned his static model of the universe, and proposed two dynamic models of the cosmos, the Friedmann–Einstein universe of 1931[255] and the Einstein–de Sitter universe of 1932.[257] In each of these models, Einstein discarded the cosmological constant, claiming that it was "in any case theoretically unsatisfactory".[255][258]
In many Einstein biographies, it is claimed that Einstein referred to the cosmological constant in later years as his "biggest blunder", based on a letter George Gamow claimed to have received from him. The astrophysicist Mario Livio has cast doubt on this claim.[259]
In late 2013, a team led by the Irish physicist Cormac O'Raifeartaigh discovered evidence that, shortly after learning of Hubble's observations of the recession of the galaxies, Einstein considered a steady-state model of the universe.[260][261] In a hitherto overlooked manuscript, apparently written in early 1931, Einstein explored a model of the expanding universe in which the density of matter remains constant due to a continuous creation of matter, a process that he associated with the cosmological constant.[262][263] As he stated in the paper, "In what follows, I would like to draw attention to a solution to equation (1) that can account for Hubbel's [sic] facts, and in which the density is constant over time" ... "If one considers a physically bounded volume, particles of matter will be continually leaving it. For the density to remain constant, new particles of matter must be continually formed in the volume from space."
It thus appears that Einstein considered a steady-state model of the expanding universe many years before Hoyle, Bondi and Gold.[264][265] However, Einstein's steady-state model contained a fundamental flaw and he quickly abandoned the idea.[262][263][266]
Energy momentum pseudotensor
Main article: Stress–energy–momentum pseudotensor
General relativity includes a dynamical spacetime, so it is difficult to see how to identify the conserved energy and momentum. Noether's theorem allows these quantities to be determined from a Lagrangian with translation invariance, but general covariance makes translation invariance into something of a gauge symmetry. The energy and momentum derived within general relativity by Noether's prescriptions do not make a real tensor for this reason.[267]
Einstein argued that this is true for a fundamental reason: the gravitational field could be made to vanish by a choice of coordinates. He maintained that the non-covariant energy momentum pseudotensor was, in fact, the best description of the energy momentum distribution in a gravitational field. While the use of non-covariant objects like pseudotensors was criticized by Erwin Schrödinger and others, Einstein's approach has been echoed by physicists including Lev Landau and Evgeny Lifshitz.[268]
Wormholes
In 1935, Einstein collaborated with Nathan Rosen to produce a model of a wormhole, often called Einstein–Rosen bridges.[270] His motivation was to model elementary particles with charge as a solution of gravitational field equations, in line with the program outlined in the paper "Do Gravitational Fields play an Important Role in the Constitution of the Elementary Particles?". These solutions cut and pasted Schwarzschild black holes to make a bridge between two patches. Because these solutions included spacetime curvature without the presence of a physical body, Einstein and Rosen suggested that they could provide the beginnings of a theory that avoided the notion of point particles. However, it was later found that Einstein–Rosen bridges are not stable.[271]
Einstein–Cartan theory
Main article: Einstein–Cartan theory
In order to incorporate spinning point particles into general relativity, the affine connection needed to be generalized to include an antisymmetric part, called the torsion. This modification was made by Einstein and Cartan in the 1920s.
Equations of motion
Main article: Einstein–Infeld–Hoffmann equations
In general relativity, gravitational force is reimagined as curvature of spacetime. A curved path like an orbit is not the result of a force deflecting a body from an ideal straight-line path, but rather the body's attempt to fall freely through a background that is itself curved by the presence of other masses. A remark by John Archibald Wheeler that has become proverbial among physicists summarizes the theory: "Spacetime tells matter how to move; matter tells spacetime how to curve."[272][273] The Einstein field equations cover the latter aspect of the theory, relating the curvature of spacetime to the distribution of matter and energy. The geodesic equation covers the former aspect, stating that freely falling bodies follow lines that are as straight as possible in a curved spacetime. Einstein regarded this as an "independent fundamental assumption" that had to be postulated in addition to the field equations in order to complete the theory. Believing this to be a shortcoming in how general relativity was originally presented, he wished to derive it from the field equations themselves. Since the equations of general relativity are non-linear, a lump of energy made out of pure gravitational fields, like a black hole, would move on a trajectory which is determined by the Einstein field equations themselves, not by a new law. Accordingly, Einstein proposed that the field equations would determine the path of a singular solution, like a black hole, to be a geodesic. Both physicists and philosophers have often repeated the assertion that the geodesic equation can be obtained from applying the field equations to the motion of a gravitational singularity, but this claim remains disputed.[274][275]
Old quantum theory
Main article: Old quantum theory
Photons and energy quanta
In a 1905 paper, Einstein postulated that light itself consists of localized particles (quanta). Einstein's light quanta were nearly universally rejected by all physicists, including Max Planck and Niels Bohr. This idea only became universally accepted in 1919, with Robert Millikan's detailed experiments on the photoelectric effect, and with the measurement of Compton scattering.
Einstein concluded that each wave of frequency f is associated with a collection of photons with energy hf each, where h is the Planck constant. He did not say much more, because he was not sure how the particles were related to the wave. But he did suggest that this idea would explain certain experimental results, notably the photoelectric effect.
Quantized atomic vibrations
Main article: Einstein solid
In 1907, Einstein proposed a model of matter where each atom in a lattice structure is an independent harmonic oscillator. In the Einstein model, each atom oscillates independently—a series of equally spaced quantized states for each oscillator. Einstein was aware that getting the frequency of the actual oscillations would be difficult, but he nevertheless proposed this theory because it was a particularly clear demonstration that quantum mechanics could solve the specific heat problem in classical mechanics. Peter Debye refined this model.[276]
Bose–Einstein statistics
Main article: Bose–Einstein statistics
In 1924, Einstein received a description of a statistical model from Indian physicist Satyendra Nath Bose, based on a counting method that assumed that light could be understood as a gas of indistinguishable particles. Einstein noted that Bose's statistics applied to some atoms as well as to the proposed light particles, and submitted his translation of Bose's paper to the Zeitschrift für Physik. Einstein also published his own articles describing the model and its implications, among them the Bose–Einstein condensate phenomenon that some particulates should appear at very low temperatures. It was not until 1995 that the first such condensate was produced experimentally by Eric Allin Cornell and Carl Wieman using ultra-cooling equipment built at the NIST–JILA laboratory at the University of Colorado at Boulder.[278] Bose–Einstein statistics are now used to describe the behaviors of any assembly of bosons. Einstein's sketches for this project may be seen in the Einstein Archive in the library of the Leiden University.[219]
Wave–particle duality
Although the patent office promoted Einstein to Technical Examiner Second Class in 1906, he had not given up on academia. In 1908, he became a Privatdozent at the University of Bern. In "Über die Entwicklung unserer Anschauungen über das Wesen und die Konstitution der Strahlung" ("The Development of our Views on the Composition and Essence of Radiation"), on the quantization of light, and in an earlier 1909 paper, Einstein showed that Max Planck's energy quanta must have well-defined momenta and act in some respects as independent, point-like particles. This paper introduced the photon concept (although the name photon was introduced later by Gilbert N. Lewis in 1926) and inspired the notion of wave–particle duality in quantum mechanics. Einstein saw this wave–particle duality in radiation as concrete evidence for his conviction that physics needed a new, unified foundation.
Zero-point energy
In a series of works completed from 1911 to 1913, Planck reformulated his 1900 quantum theory and introduced the idea of zero-point energy in his "second quantum theory". Soon, this idea attracted the attention of Einstein and his assistant Otto Stern. Assuming the energy of rotating diatomic molecules contains zero-point energy, they then compared the theoretical specific heat of hydrogen gas with the experimental data. The numbers matched nicely. However, after publishing the findings, they promptly withdrew their support, because they no longer had confidence in the correctness of the idea of zero-point energy.
Stimulated emission
In 1917, at the height of his work on relativity, Einstein published an article in Physikalische Zeitschrift that proposed the possibility of stimulated emission, the physical process that makes possible the maser and the laser. This article showed that the statistics of absorption and emission of light would only be consistent with Planck's distribution law if the emission of light into a mode with n photons would be enhanced statistically compared to the emission of light into an empty mode. This paper was enormously influential in the later development of quantum mechanics, because it was the first paper to show that the statistics of atomic transitions had simple laws.[282]
Matter waves
Einstein discovered Louis de Broglie's work and supported his ideas, which were received skeptically at first. In another major paper from this era, Einstein observed that de Broglie waves could explain the quantization rules of Bohr and Sommerfeld. This paper would inspire Schrödinger's work of 1926.[283][284]
Quantum mechanics
Einstein's objections to quantum mechanics
Einstein played a major role in developing quantum theory, beginning with his 1905 paper on the photoelectric effect. However, he became displeased with modern quantum mechanics as it had evolved after 1925, despite its acceptance by other physicists. He was skeptical that the randomness of quantum mechanics was fundamental rather than the result of determinism, stating that God "is not playing at dice".[285] Until the end of his life, he continued to maintain that quantum mechanics was incomplete.[286]
Bohr versus Einstein
Main article: Bohr–Einstein debates
The Bohr–Einstein debates were a series of public disputes about quantum mechanics between Einstein and Niels Bohr, who were two of its founders. Their debates are remembered because of their importance to the philosophy of science.[287][289] Their debates would influence later interpretations of quantum mechanics.
Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox
Main article: EPR paradox
Einstein never fully accepted quantum mechanics. While he recognized that it made correct predictions, he believed a more fundamental description of nature must be possible. Over the years he presented multiple arguments to this effect, but the one he preferred most dated to a debate with Bohr in 1930. Einstein suggested a thought experiment in which two objects are allowed to interact and then moved apart a great distance from each other. The quantum-mechanical description of the two objects is a mathematical entity known as a wavefunction. If the wavefunction that describes the two objects before their interaction is given, then the Schrödinger equation provides the wavefunction that describes them after their interaction. But because of what would later be called quantum entanglement, measuring one object would lead to an instantaneous change of the wavefunction describing the other object, no matter how far away it is. Moreover, the choice of which measurement to perform upon the first object would affect what wavefunction could result for the second object. Einstein reasoned that no influence could propagate from the first object to the second instantaneously fast. Indeed, he argued, physics depends on being able to tell one thing apart from another, and such instantaneous influences would call that into question. Because the true "physical condition" of the second object could not be immediately altered by an action done to the first, Einstein concluded, the wavefunction could not be that true physical condition, only an incomplete description of it.
A more famous version of this argument came in 1935, when Einstein published a paper with Boris Podolsky and Nathan Rosen that laid out what would become known as the EPR paradox. In this thought experiment, two particles interact in such a way that the wavefunction describing them is entangled. Then, no matter how far the two particles were separated, a precise position measurement on one particle would imply the ability to predict, perfectly, the result of measuring the position of the other particle. Likewise, a precise momentum measurement of one particle would result in an equally precise prediction for of the momentum of the other particle, without needing to disturb the other particle in any way. They argued that no action taken on the first particle could instantaneously affect the other, since this would involve information being transmitted faster than light, which is forbidden by the theory of relativity. They invoked a principle, later known as the "EPR criterion of reality", positing that: "If, without in any way disturbing a system, we can predict with certainty (i.e., with probability equal to unity) the value of a physical quantity, then there exists an element of reality corresponding to that quantity." From this, they inferred that the second particle must have a definite value of both position and of momentum prior to either quantity being measured. But quantum mechanics considers these two observables incompatible and thus does not associate simultaneous values for both to any system. Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen therefore concluded that quantum theory does not provide a complete description of reality.
In 1964, John Stewart Bell carried the analysis of quantum entanglement much further. He deduced that if measurements are performed independently on the two separated particles of an entangled pair, then the assumption that the outcomes depend upon hidden variables within each half implies a mathematical constraint on how the outcomes on the two measurements are correlated. This constraint would later be called a Bell inequality. Bell then showed that quantum physics predicts correlations that violate this inequality. Consequently, the only way that hidden variables could explain the predictions of quantum physics is if they are "nonlocal", which is to say that somehow the two particles are able to interact instantaneously no matter how widely they ever become separated. Bell argued that because an explanation of quantum phenomena in terms of hidden variables would require nonlocality, the EPR paradox "is resolved in the way which Einstein would have liked least".
Despite this, and although Einstein personally found the argument in the EPR paper overly complicated, that paper became among the most influential papers published in Physical Review. It is considered a centerpiece of the development of quantum information theory.
Unified field theory
Main article: Classical unified field theories
Encouraged by his success with general relativity, Einstein sought an even more ambitious geometrical theory that would treat gravitation and electromagnetism as aspects of a single entity. In 1950, he described his unified field theory in a Scientific American article titled "On the Generalized Theory of Gravitation". His attempt to find the most fundamental laws of nature won him praise but not success: a particularly conspicuous blemish of his model was that it did not accommodate the strong and weak nuclear forces, neither of which was well understood until many years after his death. Although most researchers now believe that Einstein's approach to unifying physics was mistaken, his goal of a theory of everything is one to which his successors still aspire.[299]
Other investigations
Main article: Einstein's unsuccessful investigations
Einstein conducted other investigations that were unsuccessful and abandoned. These pertain to force, superconductivity, and other research.
Collaboration with other scientists
In addition to longtime collaborators Leopold Infeld, Nathan Rosen, Peter Bergmann and others, Einstein also had some one-shot collaborations with various scientists.
Einstein–de Haas experiment
Main article: Einstein–de Haas effect
In 1908, Owen Willans Richardson predicted that a change in the magnetic moment of a free body will cause this body to rotate. This effect is a consequence of the conservation of angular momentum and is strong enough to be observable in ferromagnetic materials.[300] Einstein and Wander Johannes de Haas published two papers in 1915 claiming the first experimental observation of the effect.[301][302] Measurements of this kind demonstrate that the phenomenon of magnetization is caused by the alignment (polarization) of the angular momenta of the electrons in the material along the axis of magnetization. These measurements also allow the separation of the two contributions to the magnetization: that which is associated with the spin and with the orbital motion of the electrons. The Einstein-de Haas experiment is the only experiment concived, realized and published by Albert Einstein himself.
A complete original version of the Einstein-de Haas experimental equipment was donated by Geertruida de Haas-Lorentz, wife of de Haas and daughter of Lorentz, to the Ampère Museum in Lyon France in 1961 where it is currently on display. It was lost among the museum's holdings and was rediscovered in 2023.[303][304]
Einstein as an inventor
In 1926, Einstein and his former student Leó Szilárd co-invented (and in 1930, patented) the Einstein refrigerator. This absorption refrigerator was then revolutionary for having no moving parts and using only heat as an input.[305] On 11 November 1930, U.S. patent 1,781,541 was awarded to Einstein and Leó Szilárd for the refrigerator. Their invention was not immediately put into commercial production, but the most promising of their patents were acquired by the Swedish company Electrolux.[note 6]
Einstein also invented an electromagnetic pump,[307] sound reproduction device,[308] and several other household devices.[309]
Non-scientific legacy
While traveling, Einstein wrote daily to his wife Elsa and adopted stepdaughters Margot and Ilse. The letters were included in the papers bequeathed to the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Margot Einstein permitted the personal letters to be made available to the public, but requested that it not be done until twenty years after her death (she died in 1986[310]). Barbara Wolff, of the Hebrew University's Albert Einstein Archives, told the BBC that there are about 3,500 pages of private correspondence written between 1912 and 1955.[311]
Einstein's right of publicity was litigated in 2015 in a federal district court in California. Although the court initially held that the right had expired,[312] that ruling was immediately appealed, and the decision was later vacated in its entirety. The underlying claims between the parties in that lawsuit were ultimately settled. The right is enforceable, and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem is the exclusive representative of that right.[313] Corbis, successor to The Roger Richman Agency, licenses the use of his name and associated imagery, as agent for the university.[314]
Mount Einstein in the Chugach Mountains of Alaska was named in 1955.
Mount Einstein in New Zealand's Paparoa Range was named after him in 1970 by the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research.[315]
In popular culture
Einstein became one of the most famous scientific celebrities after the confirmation of his general theory of relativity in 1919.[316][317][318] Although most of the public had little understanding of his work, he was widely recognized and admired. In the period before World War II, The New Yorker published a vignette in their "The Talk of the Town" feature saying that Einstein was so well known in America that he would be stopped on the street by people wanting him to explain "that theory". Eventually he came to cope with unwanted enquirers by pretending to be someone else: "Pardon me, sorry! Always I am mistaken for Professor Einstein."[319]
Einstein has been the subject of or inspiration for many novels, films, plays, and works of music.[320] He is a favorite model for depictions of absent-minded professors; his expressive face and distinctive hairstyle have been widely copied and exaggerated. Time magazine's Frederic Golden wrote that Einstein was "a cartoonist's dream come true".[321]
Many popular quotations are often misattributed to him.[322][323]
Awards and honors
Einstein received numerous awards and honors, and in 1922, he was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect". None of the nominations in 1921 met the criteria set by Alfred Nobel, so the 1921 prize was carried forward and awarded to Einstein in 1922.[7]
Einsteinium, a synthetic chemical element, was named in his honor in 1955, a few months after his death.[324]
Publications
Scientific
Others
See also
Notes
References
Works cited
Further reading
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https://www.facebook.com/nobelprize/videos/albert-einstein/334932547789246/
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Albert Einstein was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect. Stay tuned for the announcement of...
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Albert Einstein was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect. Stay tuned for the announcement of...
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https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1921/ceremony-speech/
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Nobel Prize in Physics 1921
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The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921 was awarded to Albert Einstein "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect"
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Award ceremony speech
Presentation Speech by Professor S. Arrhenius, Chairman of the Nobel Committee for Physics of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, on December 10, 1922*
Your Majesty, Your Royal Highnesses, Ladies and Gentlemen.
There is probably no physicist living today whose name has become so widely known as that of Albert Einstein. Most discussion centres on his theory of relativity. This pertains essentially to epistemology and has therefore been the subject of lively debate in philosophical circles. It will be no secret that the famous philosopher Bergson in Paris has challenged this theory, while other philosophers have acclaimed it wholeheartedly. The theory in question also has astrophysical implications which are being rigorously examined at the present time.
Throughout the first decade of this century the so-called Brownian movement stimulated the keenest interest. In 1905 Einstein founded a kinetic theory to account for this movement by means of which he derived the chief properties of suspensions, i.e. liquids with solid particles suspended in them. This theory, based on classical mechanics, helps to explain the behaviour of what are known as colloidal solutions, a behaviour which has been studied by Svedberg, Perrin, Zsigmondy and countless other scientists within the context of what has grown into a large branch of science, colloid chemistry.
A third group of studies, for which in particular Einstein has received the Nobel Prize, falls within the domain of the quantum theory founded by Planck in 1900. This theory asserts that radiant energy consists of individual particles, termed “quanta”, approximately in the same way as matter is made up of particles, i.e. atoms. This remarkable theory, for which Planck received the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1918, suffered from a variety of drawbacks and about the middle of the first decade of this century it reached a kind of impasse. Then Einstein came forward with his work on specific heat and the photoelectric effect. This latter had been discovered by the famous physicist Hertz in 1887. He found that an electrical spark passing between two spheres does so more readily if its path is illuminated with the light from another electrical discharge. A more exhaustive study of this interesting phenomenon was carried out by Hallwachs who showed that under certain conditions a negatively charged body, e.g. a metal plate, illuminated with light of a particular colour – ultraviolet has the strongest effect – loses its negative charge and ultimately assumes a positive charge. In 1899 Lenard demonstrated the cause to be the emission of electrons at a certain velocity from the negatively charged body. The most extraordinary aspect of this effect was that the electron emission velocity is independent of the intensity of the illuminating light, which is proportional only to the number of electrons, whereas the velocity increases with the frequency of the light. Lenard stressed that this phenomenon was not in good agreement with the then prevailing concepts.
An associated phenomenon is photo-luminescence, i.e.phosphorescence and fluorescence. When light impinges on a substance the latter will occasionally become luminous as a result of phosphorescence or fluorescence. Since the energy of the light quantum increases with the frequency, it will be obvious that a light quantum with a certain frequency can only give rise to the formation of a light quantum of lower or, at most, equal frequency. Otherwise energy would be created. The phosphorescent or fluorescent light hence has a lower frequency than the light inducing the photo-luminescence. This is Stokes’ rule which was explained in this way by Einstein by means of the quantum theory.
Similarly, when a quantum of light falls on a metal plate it can at most yield the whole of its energy to an electron there. A part of this energy is consumed in carrying the electron out into the air, the remainder stays with the electron as kinetic energy. This applies to an electron in the surface layer of the metal. From this can be calculated the positive potential to which the metal can be charged by irradiation. Only if the quantum contains sufficient energy for the electron to perform the work of detaching itself from the metal does the electron move out into the air. Consequently, only light having a frequency greater than a certain limit is capable of inducing a photo-electric effect, however high the intensity of the irradiating light. If this limit is exceeded the effect is proportional to the light intensity at constant frequency. Similar behaviour occurs in the ionisation of gas molecules and the so-called ionisation potential may be calculated, provided that the frequency of the light capable of ionising the gas is known.
Einstein’s law of the photo-electrical effect has been extremely rigorously tested by the American Millikan and his pupils and passed the test brilliantly. Owing to these studies by Einstein the quantum theory has been perfected to a high degree and an extensive literature grew up in this field whereby the extraordinary value of this theory was proved. Einstein’s law has become the basis of quantitative photo-chemistry in the same way as Faraday’s law is the basis of electro-chemistry.**
* The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921 was announced on November 9, 1922.
** Being too remote from Sweden, Professor Einstein could not attend the ceremony.
From Nobel Lectures, Physics 1901-1921, Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1967
Copyright © The Nobel Foundation 1922
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https://www.census.gov/history/www/homepage_archive/2019/march_2019.html
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March 2019
Visit https://www.census.gov/history every month for the latest Census History Home Page!
U.S. Census Bureau History: Albert Einstein
Albert Einstein—one of history's most influential physicists—was born on March 14, 1879. Over the course of his lifetime, the hundreds of scientific papers, articles, and books Einstein published have become the cornerstone of modern physics and scientific thought and theory. Einstein's genius was so ahead of his time that scientists are still affirming his theories relativity, space-time, and heat transfer more than 6 decades after his death in 1955.
Einstein was born in Ulm, Baden-Wurttemberg , Germany, and moved to Munich, Germany, soon after his birth. After completing high school, he attended the Swiss Federal Polytechnic School in Zurich, Switzerland , earning teaching credentials in mathematics and physics. Unable to secure a teaching position, Einstein worked for the Swiss patent office before completing his Ph.D. studies at the University of Zurich in 1905. In that same year, the young physicist published his research on the photoelectric effect for which the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences awarded him the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics. Einstein's research and lectures quickly earned him a reputation as a leading mind in the fields of physics and math while teaching in Berne and Zurich, Switzerland. He returned to Germany in 1914 serving as director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Physical Institute and professor at the University of Berlin until 1933.
By the 1930s, Albert Einstein was an internationally known author, lecturer, and science ambassador. He traveled the world lecturing and attending black-tie events with university and research elite, celebrities, and heads of state. However, his fame could not shield him from Adolf Hitler and Germany's Nazi Party. In early 1933, the Nazis confiscated Einstein's assets because of his vocal pacifism, outspoken opposition to Hitler, and Jewish heritage. Learning of the siezure, Einstein—who had been teaching at the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena, CA—returned to Europe in March 1933, and renounced his German citizenship at the German Consulate in Antwerp, Belgium. In the months that followed, the Nazis' prohibition against Jews holding civil service positions led to not only Einstein's exile, but also that of many of the nation's leading physicists, mathematicians, scientists, and academics.
The Einsteins immigrated to the United States in October 1933. They settled in Princeton, NJ, where Albert Einstein accepted a position at the Institute for Advanced Study . He became a permanent resident in 1935 and a U.S. citizen in 1940. During World War II, the United States specifically excluded Einstein from the list of leading scientists engaged in the effort to harness and weaponize atomic energy known as the "Manhattan Project." His history of pacifism and socialist sympathies prevented the necessary security clearance to work on the project, though he did assist the U.S. Navy with evaluating weapons systems and helped raise money for the war effort.
Einstein retired from teaching after the war. During the "Atomic Age," physicists were increasingly focused on quantum theory while Einstein continued to research and publish on topics related to the "less glamorous" theory of general relativity, including wormholes, time travel, black holes, and the origins of the universe. More than 60 years after his death, scientists continue to research and make new discoveries related to Einstein's work. The black holes he theorized in 1915 have since been identified by the thousands. His Nobel Prize-winning research on the photoelectric effect led to the development of clean, renewable solar energy. Computer chips, digital cameras, nuclear medicine, global positioning systems, supermarket checkout scanners, and Blu-ray players are all legacies of Albert Einstein's genius .
You can learn more about physics, Albert Einstein, and his legacy using census data and records. For example:
Albert Einstein immigrated to the United States in October 1933, after accepting a position at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, NJ. At the time, Princeton Township, NJ, had a population of approximately 2,738. When Einstein died in the 1955, Princeton (a combination of Princeton borough and township) was home to approximately 12,230. In 2017, the U.S. Census Bureau estimated Princeton's population was 31,822.
The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences awarded Albert Einstein the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics for his research on the law of the photoelectric effect. Without this research, solar energy and the $428 million solar electric power generation industry (NAICS 221114) would not be possible. Other devices, like automatic streetlights, motion detectors, automatic washroom faucets, smoke and carbon monoxide alarms, and the digital camera contained in smartphones depend on the photoelectric and photoconductive cells made possible by Albert Einstein's research.
The Nazis confiscated Albert Einstein's property in 1933 because he was Jewish. Einstein and his wife fled Germany and sought asylum in Europe before immigrating to the United States in October 1933. Seven years later, Einstein and many other Jews fleeing Europe helped America's Jewish population grow from approximately 4.2 million in 1927 to nearly 5 million in 1940. In 2010, the Jewish population in the United States numbered more than 6.5 million. States with the largest Jewish populations were New York (1,625,000), California (1,220,000), and Florida (613,000).
In August 1939, physicists Leo Szilard, Edward Teller, and Eugene Wigner drafted a letter to Franklin D. Roosevelt—which Einstein agreed to sign—warning the president of Nazi Germany's atomic research and urged him to fund an American research program. Roosevelt authorized the creation of the Advisory Committee on Uranium, which funded the purchase of uranium and graphite for experimentation in late 1939. On December 2, 1942, a team of scientists led by Nobel Prize-winning physicist, and Einstein's friend and collaborator, Enrico Fermi, succeeded in producing the first controlled, self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction in a reactor at the University of Chicago.
Although Albert Einstein was one of the world's leading physicists and his theories about atoms and energy were the foundation of atomic weapons research, the scientists at the Los Alamos Laboratory in Los Alamos, NM, led by Major General Leslie Groves and J. Robert Oppenheimer, produced the world's first atomic bombs in 1945 without his help. Einstein was not invited to assist with the atomic weapons research and was not aware of the "Manhattan Project's" existence because the U.S. Army Intelligence Office denied the pacifist-leaning physicist's security clearance in 1940. In a 1947, Einstein expressed regret that his research and 1939 letter to President Roosevelt encouraged the development of atomic weapons.
In 2017, the American Community Survey estimated that there were 5,930 nuclear engineers and 3,361 nuclear technicians in the United States. Many of these professionals worked at nuclear electric power generation establishments (NAICS 221113); naval ship building and repairing (NAICS 336611); pharmaceutical manufacturers (NAICS 325412) specializing in radiology and nuclear medicine; and universities offering nuclear engineering and physics programs.
According to the U.S. Department of Labor, there were 16,710 physicists employed in the United States earning a mean annual wage of $123,080 in 2017. California (2,920), New Mexico (1,720), and Maryland (1,260) led the nation for the number of physicists employed.
The federal government is one of the nation's largest employers of physicists. The National Aeronautic and Space Administration employs astrophysicists. Nuclear physicists help regulate the civilian use of nuclear power and materials at the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. The U.S. Department of Energy employs and provides grants to physicists to perform groundbreaking research at facilities, including Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Oak Ridge, TN; Argonne National Laboratory in Lemont, IL; ; Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in Livermore, CA; Los Alamos National Laboratory in Los Alamos, NM; and Sandia National Laboratories in Albuquerque, NM, and Livermore, CA.
1790 Census Act
On March 1, 1790, U.S. President George Washington signed the 1790 Census Act authorizing the nation's first census.
Five months later, U.S. marshals began visiting each of the nation's households to collect data about the number of free white males 16 years and older, free white males under 16 years, free white females, all other free persons, and slaves.
Following tabulation of the census' data, Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson reported that the nation's population was 3,929,214.
Three Mile Island
On March 28, 1979, a reactor at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Generating Station in Dauphin County, PA (south of the state capital Harrisburg), suffered a partial meltdown due to human error and equipment malfunctions.
Studies have found no adverse impact to the county's population—about 232,317 in 1980—as a result of the small amount of radioactive material released during the accident.
Slated to be retired in 2019, Three Mile Island was among 153 nuclear power plants nationwide that supplied 805 billion kWh of electricity to American homes and businesses in 2017.
Photo courtesy of the Environmental Protection Agency.
Nobel Prize
The Royal Swedish Academy of Arts and Sciences awards the Nobel Prize in physics to scientists making outstanding contributions in the field.
Recipients living in the United States include Albert Einstein "for his services to Theoretical Physics" and "discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect" (1921); particle accelerating cyclotron inventor Ernest Lawrence (1939); John Bardeen, the only person awarded the Nobel Prize in physics twice, in 1956 and 1972; and Maria Goeppert Mayer (pictured above)—the second woman awarded a Nobel Prize in physics—in 1963.
Visit https://www.census.gov/history every month for the latest Census History Home Page!
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_awards_and_honors_received_by_Albert_Einstein
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List of awards and honors received by Albert Einstein
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In 1922 Albert Einstein was awarded the 1921 Noble Prize in Physics,[1] "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect". This refers to his 1905 paper on the photoelectric effect, "On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light", which was well supported by the experimental evidence by that time. The presentation speech began by mentioning "his theory of relativity [which had] been the subject of lively debate in philosophical circles [and] also has astrophysical implications which are being rigorously examined at the present time".
Awards[edit]
It was long reported that in accord with the divorce settlement,[2] the Nobel Prize money had been deposited in a Swiss bank account for his wife Mileva Marić to invest for herself and their two sons, while she could only use the capital by agreement with Einstein. However, personal correspondence made public in 2006[3] shows that he invested much of it in the United States, and saw much of it wiped out in the Great Depression. Ultimately, however, he paid Marić more money than he received with the prize.[4]
On November 12, 1913, Einstein was granted full membership in the Prussian Academy of Sciences. On March 28, 1933, he resigned membership, explaining in a letter to the academy that he did not want to be associated with the Prussian government of the time.[5]
On November 12, 1919, the University of Rostock awarded an honorary doctorate of medicine (Dr. med. h.c.) to Einstein, on the occasion of its 500th anniversary and following a suggestion by Moritz Schlick. This is the only honorary doctorate he received from a German university.[6]
In 1921, Einstein accepted a Doctor of Science degree from the University of Manchester. In addition to receiving the degree, Einstein gave a lecture in Manchester on June 9. [7]
In 1925 the Royal Society awarded Einstein the Copley Medal.[8]
In 1926, he was awarded the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society.[9]
In 1929, Max Planck presented Einstein with the Max Planck medal of the German Physical Society in Berlin, for extraordinary achievements in theoretical physics.[10]
In 1931, he received the Prix Jules Janssen, In 1934 Einstein gave the Josiah Willard Gibbs lecture.[11][12]
In 1936, Einstein was awarded the Franklin Institute's Franklin Medal for his extensive work on relativity and the photo-electric effect.[10]
The International Union of Pure and Applied Physics named 2005 the "World Year of Physics" in commemoration of the 100th anniversary of the publication of the annus mirabilis papers.[13]
The chemical element 99, einsteinium, was named for him in August 1955, four months after Einstein's death.[14][15] 2001 Einstein is an inner main belt asteroid discovered on 5 March 1973.[16]
In 1999 Time magazine named him the Person of the Century,[17][18] ahead of Mahatma Gandhi and Franklin Roosevelt, among others. In the words of a biographer, "to the scientifically literate and the public at large, Einstein is synonymous with genius".[19] Also in 1999, an opinion poll of 100 leading physicists ranked Einstein the "greatest physicist ever".[20] A Gallup poll recorded him as the fourth most admired person of the 20th century in the U.S.[21]
In 1990, his name was added to the Walhalla temple for "laudable and distinguished Germans",[22] which is located in Donaustauf in Bavaria.[23]
The United States Postal Service honored Einstein with a Prominent Americans series (1965–1978) 8¢ postage stamp.
In 2008, Einstein was inducted into the New Jersey Hall of Fame.[24]
In 2018, Einstein was an inaugural inductee into the Royal Albert Hall's Walk of Fame. In October 1933 he made a speech before a packed out British audience in the Hall on his fear of the looming crisis in Europe, and in recognition of this his name was among those viewed as "key players" in the building's history.[25][26]
The bust of Albert Einstein, installed in Mexico City's Parque México, commemorates the 100th anniversary of the Armenian genocide.[27]
Mount Einstein, a massive mountain in Alaska, was named in his honor in 1955.[28]
Things named after Einstein[edit]
The Albert Einstein Award (sometimes called the Albert Einstein Medal because it is accompanied with a gold medal) is an award in theoretical physics, established to recognize high achievement in the natural sciences. It was endowed by the Lewis and Rosa Strauss Memorial Fund in honor of Albert Einstein's 70th birthday. It was first awarded in 1951 and included a prize money of $15,000,[29][30] which was later reduced to $5,000.[31][32] The winner is selected by a committee (the first of which consisted of Einstein, Oppenheimer, von Neumann and Weyl[33]) of the Institute for Advanced Study, which administers the award.[30] The Albert Einstein Medal is an award presented by the Albert Einstein Society in Bern, Switzerland. First given in 1979, the award is presented to people who have "rendered outstanding services" in connection with Einstein.[34] The Albert Einstein Peace Prize is given yearly by the Chicago, Illinois-based Albert Einstein Peace Prize Foundation. Winners of the prize receive $50,000.[35]
The Albert Einstein College of Medicine is a research-intensive medical school located in the Morris Park neighborhood of the Bronx in New York City. The Albert Einstein Science Park is located on the hill Telegrafenberg in Potsdam, Germany. The best known building in the park is the Einstein Tower which has a bronze bust of Einstein at the entrance. The Tower is an astrophysical observatory that was built to perform checks of Einstein's theory of General Relativity.[36] The Albert Einstein Memorial in central Washington, D.C. is a monumental bronze statue depicting Einstein seated with manuscript papers in hand. The statue, commissioned in 1979, is located in a grove of trees at the southwest corner of the grounds of the National Academy of Sciences on Constitution Avenue.
References[edit]
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The Physics of the Universe
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ALBERT EINSTEIN
(1879 - 1955)
<< Back to List of Important Scientists
Albert Einstein
Albert Einstein was a German-born theoretical physicist, best known for his Special and General Theory of Relativity and the concept of mass-energy equivalence expressed by the famous equation, EÂ =Â mc2. He received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921 âfor his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effectâ and he made some essential contributions to the early development of quantum theory. He was named "Person of the Century" by Time magazine in 1999, the fourth most admired person of the 20th Century according to a 1999 Gallup poll, and âthe greatest scientist of the twentieth century and one of the supreme intellects of all timeâ according to âThe 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential Persons in Historyâ in 1978.
Albert Einstein was born into a non-practising Jewish family in Ulm in the Kingdom of Württemberg, Germany on 14 March 1879. He was always a little different from other children: his head was slightly larger than normal, and he hardly spoke as a young boy, leading one housekeeper to consider him "retarded". At an early age, his family moved to Munich where Einstein attended a Catholic school and showed an early aptitude for mathematics, particularly geometry and calculus (although he disliked the school's policy of strict memorization, which he thought unhelpful). Outside of school, he explored his own path of learning in mathematics and philosophy with a medical student and friend of the family, Max Talmud.
At 15, after his fatherâs electrical equipment business failed, he followed his family to Pavia, Italy (not wishing to stay and finish his schooling in Germany), and then on to Aarau, Switzerland, where he finally finished high school. At the age of just 16, he had already made his first conceptual breakthrough while looking at a mirror and wondering what he would see if he were traveling at the speed of light (a thought experiment sometimes referred to as "Einstein's Mirror"). In 1896, he renounced his German citizenship in order to avoid military service, and went to study mathematics and physics at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zürich, graduating in 1900. He gained Swiss citizenship in 1901 and never revoked it.
Unable to find a teaching post after graduation, Einstein eventually obtained a job evaluating patent applications for electromagnetic devices at the Swiss patent office in Bern. He married a Serb woman named Mileva Maric in 1903, and the couple were to bear two sons, Hans Albert (1904) and Eduard (1910), (and possibly another child, Lieserl, before their marriage, who either died in childhood or was put up for adoption), before divorcing in 1919.
In 1905, sometimes referred to as his âannus mirabilisâ (wonderful year), and while he was still working in the patent office, the young 26 year old Einstein completed his PhD (with a thesis on "A new determination of molecular dimensions") and had no less than four important papers published in the âAnnalen der Physikâ, the leading German physics journal:
a paper on the particulate nature of light, in which he explained the âphotoelectric effectâ and certain other experimental results by proposing that light interacts with matter as discrete âpacketsâ or quanta of energy, rather than as a wave (an idea first suggested by Max Planck as a purely mathematical manipulation).
a paper explaining Brownian motion (the seemingly random movement of particles suspended in a fluid) as direct evidence of molecular action, thus supporting the atomic theory (that all matter is made up of tiny atoms and molecules).
a paper, which has become known as the Special Theory of Relativity, on the electrodynamics of moving bodies, which showed that the speed of light is independent of the observer's state of motion, and introduced the idea that the space-time frame of a moving body could slow down and contract in the direction of motion relative to the frame of the observer.
a paper on mass-energy equivalence, in which he deduced the famous equation EÂ =Â mc2 from his special relativity equations, suggesting that tiny amounts of mass could be converted into huge amounts of energy (which presaged the later development of nuclear power).
Much of this work was highly controversial (or just ignored) within the scientific community of the time, and he continued his work at the patent office until 1908. But he had earned his PhD from the University of Zürich in 1905, and he was eventually able to obtain a privatdozent position at the University of Bern in 1908, followed by brief teaching posts at the University of Zürich and the University of Prague in 1911.
During this time he continued to publish papers, but it was only on moving back to the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zürich in 1912 that he began working in earnest on a generalization of his theory of relativity. He benefitted from the mathematical assistance of his old friend Marcel Grossman, who was one of the only people in Zurich with whom Einstein could discuss his new ideas. He moved on to Berlin in 1914 (at the personal request of Max Planck), where he became a member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences, a director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics and a professor at the Humboldt University of Berlin, as well as maintaining an ongoing relationship with Leiden University in the Netherlands (through his contacts there with the physicists Hendrik Lorentz and Willem de Sitter). He became actively involved in anti-war demonstrations during World War I, publicly advocating civil disobedience and the refusal of conscription.
Einstein gave a series of lectures in 1915 about his new theory, which was to become known as the General Theory of Relativity, including a new equation to replace Newton's law of gravity, now known as Einstein's field equation. The complete theory was finally published in 1916, although physicists and mathematicians like Karl Schwarzschild and Ludwig Flamm were starting to publish solutions to his field equations even before its publication. General relativity is based on the notion that gravity and acceleration are indistinguishable (the principle of equivalence) and describes gravity as a property of the geometry (or, more specifically, the warpage) of space-time, leading to the prediction of phenomena like the bending of light, black holes and wormholes.
A year later, Einstein published a paper introducing a new notion into his General Theory of Relativity, a sort of anti-gravity force which he called the âcosmological constantâ that kept the universe from collapsing in on itself, in an attempt to model the behavior of the entire universe, while retaining his firm belief in a Newtonian infinite, static model of the universe. He later called this idea his âgreatest blunderâ although, in the light of recent discoveries about the accelerating universe and dark energy, it is beginning to look remarkably prescient.
He divorced Mileva Maric in 1919, having lived apart for the last five years, and within months of the divorce, married his cousin Elsa Löwenthal (who had nursed him through an illness) and together they raised Margot and Ilse, Elsa's daughters from her first marriage.
Despite the attempts by many scientists to disprove the General Theory of Relativity, the British astronomer Arthur Eddington claimed in 1919 to have confirmed Einstein's prediction of the gravitational deflection of starlight by the Sun, leading, almost overnight, to global renown and international media attention for Einstein. His fellow scientists began to speak of general relativity in terms such as "probably the greatest scientific discovery ever made" and "the greatest feat of human thinking about nature". He was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics, âfor his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effectâ (i.e. not for his theory of relativity).
Einstein spent the next few years traveling extensively, giving lectures around the world. Throughout the 1920s, he engaged in an extended public debate with Niels Bohr and Werner Heisenberg over the inherently probabilistic âCopenhagen interpretationâ of quantum mechanics, with which he was never quite happy from a philosophical stand-point, claiming in 1926 that âI, at any rate, am convinced that He [God] does not throw dice". He tried to develop thought experiments whereby Heisenberg's uncertainty principle might be violated but, each time, Bohr found loopholes in Einstein's reasoning.
During the First World War, Einstein had campaigned vigorously against the war, supporting various anti-War and pacifist organizations. He remained a staunch pacifist even after the end of the War, and was highly critical of nationalism and committed to the idea of a single world government free of a military. Throughout the 1920s, he continued to participate in numerous peace campaigns and wrote articles on international peace and disarmament. He was also was drawn to the Zionist cause during the 1920s, despite its nationalistic character.
His physics research after general relativity consisted primarily of a long series of (largely unsuccessful) attempts to generalize his theory of gravitation still further in order to unify and simplify the fundamental laws of physics, particularly gravitation and electromagnetism. He was desparate to come up with a unified field theory, a "theory of everything" that would refute the claims of quantum theory, which he never came to terms with. He went so far as to publish a paper in 1929, which purported to be just such a theory, and which attracted huge media attention, but he was forced to admit to errors and back-tracked rapidly, losing credibility and accepting public humiliation in the process.
He became increasingly isolated in his research, pursuing his own lonely track while largely ignoring other developments in physics and particularly in quantum theory. He did pursue a few collaborations, most notably with the Indian physicist Satyendra Nath Bose, the Austrian Erwin Schrödinger and his Hungarian former student Leó Szilárd, and later in the 1930s with the Russian physicist Boris Podolsky and the Israeli physicist Nathan Rosen. But his his distrust of quantum theory and his inconclusive search for the elusive "theory of everything" was to consume him until the day he died.
In the early 1930s, Einstein took to spending his winters at the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena, California, and was also a guest lecturer at the newly founded Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey. When, in 1933, Adolf Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany and promptly passed the "Law of the Restoration of the Civil Service" removing Jews and politically suspect government employees (including university professors) from their jobs, the Einsteins prudently moved to the U.S.A., buying a house in Princeton. The Nazis froze his German bank account and seized his home, and Einstein remained in the United States for the rest of his life, becoming a citizen in 1940 (although he also retained his Swiss citizenship). Over time, he became so well known in his adopted America that he would be stopped on the street by people wanting him to explain "that theory".
His wife Elsa died in 1936, and his personal secretary, Helen Dukas, cared for him thereafter, as his health became increasingly precarious. During the 1930s and into World War II, Einstein wrote a huge number of affidavits recommending U.S. visas for European Jews who were trying to flee persecution. The âDeutsche Physikâ movement in Nazi Germany published pamphlets and even textbooks denigrating Einstein, and blacklisting any instructors who taught his theories (including Nobel laureates Max Planck and Werner Heisenberg).
With the Nazi rise to power in Germany, Einstein decided to rethink his rigid pacifist stance. Many scientists in the U.S.A., especially refugees from European anti-Semitism, recognized the danger of German scientists developing an atomic bomb during World War II, based on the newly discovered phenomenon of nuclear fission, to which Einsteinâs own theoretical work had contributed to some extent. In 1939, Einstein signed a letter to U.S. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, penned by the Hungarian émigré and physicist Leó Szilárd, urging American development of such a weapon, and this letter is considered instrumental in Rooseveltâs subsequent authorization of secret research into the harnessing of nuclear fission for military purposes (which developed into the Manhattan Project and ultimately resulted in the nuclear weapons used on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki).
Although Einstein himself did not play a direct role in the development of the atomic bomb, he later expressed regret about signing the letter to Roosevelt, and urged that all nuclear weapons be transferred into the control of the United Nations. In the later Cold War years, Einstein lobbied, along with Albert Schweitzer and Bertrand Russell, to stop all nuclear testing and future bombs.
In politics, he was a socialist Zionist who supported the creation of a Jewish national homeland in the British mandate of Palestine, and he raised money for Zionist organizations and was in part responsible for the 1933 formation of the International Rescue Committee. In 1952, he was even invited to be Israel's second president, but he declined, claiming that he had âneither the natural ability nor the experience to deal with human beingsâ. In a 1949 article entitled "Why Socialism?", Einstein described a chaotic capitalist society as the "predatory phase of human developmentâ and as a source of evil to be overcome. He was a member of several civil rights groups, and was sympathetic to the notion of vegetarianism, adopting a strict vegetarian diet later in life.
Although many religious groups have claimed that Einstein worshipped a Judeo-Christian God, he himself was quite clear on the matter, repeatedly professing himself to be a humanist and an agnostic (although not an atheist), with no belief in a personal God, which he called a âchildlikeâ faith. The family practised no formal religion in their home and Einstein did not want his children to receive any form of religious instruction. He did, however, admit to professing a belief in âSpinoza's God, who reveals Himself in the lawful harmony of the world, not in a God who concerns Himself with the fate and the doings of mankindâ, and he often expressed a continuing awe at the harmony and order of nature and the universe.
Einstein began to suffer from ill health in 1950, and eventually died of an aortic aneurysm on 18 April 1955 in Princeton Hospital in New Jersey at the age of 76, having continued to work, both on physics and on his civil rights and political concerns, until the day he died, his search for a "theory of everything" still unrealized.
Albert Einstein Books
See the additional sources and recommended reading list below, or check the physics books page for a full list. Whenever possible, I linked to books with my amazon affiliate code, and as an Amazon Associate I earn from qualifying purchases. Purchasing from these links helps to keep the website running, and I am grateful for your support!
Einstein: His Life and Universe
by Walter Isaacson (Author)
The World As I See It
by Albert Einstein (Author)
Relativity : the Special and General Theory: Original Version
by Albert Einstein (Author)
Ideas And Opinions
by Albert Einstein (Author)
The Principle of Relativity
by Albert Einstein (Author)
Essays in Humanism
by Albert Einstein (Author)
The Meaning of Relativity
by Albert Einstein (Author)
Einstein on Cosmic Religion and Other Opinions and Aphorisms
by Albert Einstein (Author), George Bernard Shaw (Author)
The Theory of Relativity: And Other Essays
by Albert Einstein (Author)
A Stubbornly Persistent Illusion: The Essential Scientific Works of Albert Einstein
by Stephen Hawking (Editor)
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Albert Einstein is one of the greatest and famous scientists who gave new dimensions to energy, time, space, and matter. Click here to learn about Albert Einstein’s contributions in the field of science
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Albert Einstein was one of the key thinkers who did exploration and examination of theories of relativity. In this article, let us know more about Albert Einstein’s inventions. He was the person who gave new dimensions to see energy, time, space and matter.
Table of Contents:
Who is Albert Einstein
What is Avogadro’s Number
What is Brownian Movement
What is Quantum Theory of Light
Special Relativity
What is Photoelectric Effect
Wave-Particle Duality
General Theory of Relativity
Bose-Einstein Condensate
Frequently Asked Questions – FAQs
Know About Einstein
Albert Einstein was born on 14 March in the year 1879 in Württemberg, Germany. He was educated at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich. Einstein was a theoretical physicist who discovered and invented major theories of Physics. Albert Einstein received honorary doctorate degrees in science and philosophy. He got the Fellowships of all the leading scientific academies in the world. His works were recognized across the world and in 1921, Einstein won the prestigious Nobel Prize for Physics for his significant work on the photoelectric effect. Let us dig into Albert Einstein’s inventions.
Some inventions and contributions of Einstein are Avogadro’s Number, Quantum Theory of Light, General Theory of Relativity, Special Theory of Relativity, The Photoelectric Effect, Wave-Particle Duality, Brownian movement, the relationship between mass and energy, Bose-Einstein Condensate, and many more.
Avogadro’s Number
Avogadro’s number is a concept in chemistry that defines that the number of units in one mole of a substance is equal to 6.022140857×1023
The Avogadro constant is named after the Italian scientist Amedeo Avogadro. It is the proportionality factor defined by Albert Einstein to relate the number of constituent particles like molecules, ions, and atoms in a sample with the amount of substance in that sample. The numeric value of the Avogadro constant is expressed as the reciprocal of mole.
When Einstein was working on Brownian motion to explain the erratic movement of particles in a fluid, he came up with an expression for the quantity of Avogadro’s number in terms of measurable quantities. This leads to a path to determine the mass of an atom, or the molar mass for each element on the periodic table. Albert Einstein presented a new way of calculating Avogadro’s number and the size of molecules.
Brownian Movement
The Brownian movement is one of the significant contributions of Albert Einstein. While studying the molecular theory of liquids, he tried to explain the motion of particles through Brownian motion. This theory explains the random movement of particles in a fluid or gas. Einstein explained the zigzag movement of particles in suspension, and this study aimed to prove the existence of molecules and atoms in particles.
Quantum Theory of Light
Einstein was the key person behind the quantum theory of light. He proposed and explained that light consists of packets of energy known as photons in 1905. He gave the physical interpretation to Planck’s mathematics when he proposed that electromagnetic radiation itself is granular, consisting of quanta with an energy hf. He also explained the emission of electrons from metals when hit with large electric pulses, like lightning.
Special Theory of Relativity
The Special Theory of Relativity is also known as special relativity. It is a theory regarding the relationship between time and space. This theory is based on two postulates.
The laws of physics are the same for all, irrespective of the velocity of the observer.
The speed of light is always constant, regardless of the motion of the light source or the motion of the observer.
This theory is one of the reasons to explain the origin of the most famous equation E=mc2
When we hear the mass and energy relationship equation E=mc2, we remember the great scientist Einstein instantaneously.
Photoelectric Effect
In 1905, Albert Einstein proposed this theory, which is the base of modern Physics. It is the phenomenon that occurs when the material absorbs electromagnetic radiations and electrically charged particles are released from or within it. In this process, electrons are emitted from the metal plate when light falls on it. The emitted electrons are known as photoelectrons.
The below video is an explanation of the basics of the photoelectric effect:
Wave-Particle Duality
Einstein explained that light consists of photons, which are considered packets of energy. This concept was explained and demonstrated in the quantum theory of light. Einstein stressed that light should be treated as both a wave and a particle. He explained that photons in light can behave both as particles and waves at the same time. This concept is known as wave-particle duality. Through a two-slit apparatus experiment, he proved the dual nature of light.
General Theory of Relativity
The general theory of relativity generalizes the concepts of Special Relativity, Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation, describing gravity as a property of space and time. It is the geometric theory of gravitation, published in the year 1915. The General Theory of Relativity is also known as General relativity. The general theory of relativity gives the current description of gravitation in modern physics.
Bose-Einstein Condensate
The great Indian physicist and mathematician Satyendra Nath Bose with Albert Einstein developed the concept, which helped to understand light as a gas. The Bose-Einstein concept proposed and demonstrated that when atoms are cooled very close to absolute zero, they hardly move in relation to one another. These atoms form clusters or clumps and enter into the same energy states. Hence, they concluded that the group of atoms behaves and display the characteristics of a single atom.
Einstein is not only celebrated for his inventions, but for his outstanding contributions of theories, on which modern science stands today. Hope you learnt about some of Albert Einstein inventions.
Stay tuned with BYJU’S for more such interesting articles. Also, register to “BYJU’S – The Learning App” for loads of interactive, engaging Physics-related videos and unlimited academic assist.
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Albert Einstein was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect. Stay tuned for the announcement of...
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Albert Einstein was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect. Stay tuned for the announcement of...
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The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921 was awarded to Albert Einstein "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect"
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Nobel Prizes and laureates
Eleven laureates were awarded a Nobel Prize in 2023, for achievements that have conferred the greatest benefit to humankind. Their work and discoveries range from effective mRNA vaccines and attosecond physics to fighting against the oppression of women.
See them all presented here.
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Albert Einstein, was awarded the 1921 physics prize, "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect". However, the prize was not awarded until 1922, when he was in Japan. Instead he gave is Nobel prize lecture at LISEBERG, on 11 July 1923, as part of a Nordic science conference - and his presentation was about the theories of relativity.
Einstein is said to have been inspired by a worker falling from ladder who had described that it felt as he had no weight. Einstein described the insight that free fall is experienced as an absence of gravity as "The happiest thought of my life", connected to the equivalence between the gravitational mass (in mg) and the inertial mass (in ma). Just imagine if he had had the opportunity to experience free fall at Liseberg today, not only in the drop towers but also over roller coaster "air time hills".
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A Science Odyssey: People and Discoveries: Albert Einstein
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Albert Einstein
1879 - 1955
Albert Einstein is one of the most recognized and well-known scientists of the century. His theories solved centuries-old problems in physics and rocked even non-physicists' view of the world.
Einstein's early years did not mark him as a genius. His parents worried because he was so slow to learn to speak. Although his family was Jewish, he attended a Catholic elementary school, where he did not excel. Because of failed business ventures, the family moved several times during Einstein's childhood, finally to Italy when he was 15. He was supposed to remain in Germany and finish school. He left, however (historians debate whether he was expelled or arranged to be excused for illness), and joined his family in Italy. He also renounced his Germany citizenship then, which freed him from military service. He belonged to no country until he became a Swiss citizen in 1921.
From Italy he went to Switzerland to finish high school and attend the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology. He didn't care for such organized education; he hated having to attend classes regularly and take exams. He graduated with a teaching degree, but couldn't find a job. Finally he got a post at the Swiss patent office in Bern, in 1902. He worked there for seven years, which turned out to be the most productive period of his life. In 1903 he married a former classmate, Maria Maric, though his parents disapproved. They'd had a daughter Liserl in 1902, but she was given up for adoption. They later had two sons.
1905 was a huge year for Einstein. He published five papers in the German Yearbook of Physics, three or them groundbreaking. The first was on the motion of particles suspended in liquid. He developed a mathematical formula to explain that the visible motion of the particles was due to the invisible motion of the molecules of the liquid.
His second paper was on the photoelectric effect, or the release of electrons from metal when light shines on it. Einstein used the very recent ideas of Max Planck to explain the phenomenon. That is, he explained it in terms of quanta, or packets of energy. This was the first use of the theory outside of Planck's own work. Einstein received the Nobel Prize in physics for this paper.
Last and perhaps most famous, Einstein published his special theory of relativity. This resulted in the shocking conclusion that time is not constant. Neither is weight or mass. When moving at high speeds, all of these things get compressed; only the speed of light remains the same. That happens because, said Einstein, energy is equal to mass times the speed of light squared, or E = mc2.
In the following years, Einstein held positions at universities in Zurich, Prague, and Berlin. In 1914, Einstein was in Berlin. War broke out, and his wife and two sons returned to Switzerland. The couple's relationship had grown increasingly distant, and after the war the two were never reunited. They officially divorced in 1919. Some historians now believe that Maria Maric was instrumental in Einstein's early work, especially the mathematical calculations. In his letters to her he mentioned "our papers," and in one even wrote, "How happy and proud I will be when both of us together will have brought our work on relative motion to a successful end." As he gained greater prestige and scientific positions, she gained greater household responsibilities and their collaboration ended. When he received the Nobel Prize, however, Einstein gave the cash award to Maria Maric. Soon after their divorce, Einstein married his cousin Elsa.
Meanwhile, he kept grappling with the ideas of physics. There were problems with his special theory, and he knew it. The problems of gravity bothered him most. Whenever physicists worked out a natural law, gravity seemed to confuse it. In 1915, he wrote the general theory of relativity. It was extremely radical. To account for gravity, time and space must be curved around massive objects. The math was very complex and the whole idea so strange that most people didn't accept it. But Einstein suggested three ways it could be proven. One was to make observations of starlight during a solar eclipse. Conveniently, a solar eclipse occurred in 1919 and astronomers made the observations that proved the general theory of relativity. Einstein became a celebrity. Much of the world had just caught its breath after a long and horrifying war, and perhaps in relief, latched on to this amazing human achievement.
Einstein himself had always opposed war. He spoke against it during the First World War, and throughout the 1920s and 1930s. Hitler was rising to power in Germany, and though Einstein had renewed his German citizenship, he was considered suspect as both a Jew and a pacifist. It may be, too, that the absolutist Nazi party found that his relativity theories conflicted with what they considered pure physics. He was in California when Hitler took power in 1933, and he never returned to Germany. He took a position at the Institute for Advanced Studies in Princeton, where he remained for the rest of his life.
By the 1920s, Einstein's major contributions to physics were behind him. He debated quantum mechanics and the uncertainty principle with Niels Bohr, which helped Bohr clarify the concept, but it was a theory that Einstein never quite accepted. He spent his latter years in search of a unified field theory, or one basic equation to explain all of the forces of nature. He wrote on many topics, especially peace, but rising fascism in the years before World War II made him sign a 1939 letter to President Roosevelt, warning him that the Germans could create an atomic weapon. This led FDR to set up the Manhattan Project, an effort to secretly develop an atomic bomb. Though Einstein's formula E = mc2 was key to the project, Einstein was considered a security risk and was not involved.
In 1940 Einstein renounced his German citizenship for a second time and became a U.S. citizen. He became a supporter of disarmament and of a Jewish state. In 1952 the young nation of Israel offered Einstein the presidency, but he declined. The ninety-ninth element in the periodic table was discovered shortly after Einstein's death in 1955, and it was named "einsteinium."
"The most incomprehensible thing about the world is that it is comprehensible."
Related Features
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correct_award_00024
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FactBench
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3
| 26
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https://testbook.com/question-answer/albert-einstein-was-awarded-the-nobel-prize-for-__--61d490ec75d83190f48f1f47
|
en
|
[Solved] Albert Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize for
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The correct answer is Photoelectric Effect.
Key Points
Albert Einstein was given the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921 "for his services to theoretic
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Testbook
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https://testbook.com/question-answer/albert-einstein-was-awarded-the-nobel-prize-for-__--61d490ec75d83190f48f1f47
|
The RRB NTPC Notification 2024 is expected to be released soon. The RRB NTPC exam is conducted to fill up Non-Technical Popular Category posts. The candidates with successful selection under RRB NTPC get a salary ranging between Rs. 19,900 to Rs. 35,400. here.
|
||||||
correct_award_00024
|
FactBench
|
0
| 24
|
https://testbook.com/question-answer/albert-einstein-was-awarded-the-nobel-prize-for-__--61d490ec75d83190f48f1f47
|
en
|
[Solved] Albert Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize for
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The correct answer is Photoelectric Effect.
Key Points
Albert Einstein was given the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921 "for his services to theoretic
|
Testbook
|
https://testbook.com/question-answer/albert-einstein-was-awarded-the-nobel-prize-for-__--61d490ec75d83190f48f1f47
|
The RRB NTPC Notification 2024 is expected to be released soon. The RRB NTPC exam is conducted to fill up Non-Technical Popular Category posts. The candidates with successful selection under RRB NTPC get a salary ranging between Rs. 19,900 to Rs. 35,400. here.
|
||||||
correct_award_00024
|
FactBench
|
1
| 87
|
https://www.chalmers.se/en/current/news/f-nobel-laureates-in-the-footsteps-of-einstein/
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en
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Nobel laureates in the footsteps of Einstein
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[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[
"Lisa Gahnertz"
] |
2023-06-08T19:20:00
|
A hundred years ago, Albert Einstein delivered his Nobel lecture in the amusement park Liseberg in Gothenburg. To celebrate the anniversary, four distinguished…
|
en
|
/apple-touch-icon.png
| null |
Stefan Bengtsson, the President and CEO of Chalmers, welcomed an eager audience to the grand physics event of the century at Liseberg’s theatre on June 1st. Nearly a hundred years ago, close by in the now demolished Kongresshallen, Albert Einstein delivered his Nobel lecture, coinciding with the Gothenburg Jubilee Exhibition and the first opening of Liseberg in 1923. The lecture was supposed to be about the photoelectric effect for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize, but instead, it revolved around the theory of relativity, which he had not yet gained full recognition for in the scientific community of that time.
Four Nobel laureates on stage
Now, in connection with the city's grand 400th anniversary, it was once again time for Nobel laureates in physics to visit the amusement park for a public event open to all physics enthusiasts. This time, not one, but four Nobel laureates took the stage: Serge Haroche, Didier Queloz, Donna Strickland, and David Wineland.
The day was filled with exciting lectures where the Nobel laureates illuminated the groundbreaking advancements they had contributed to science, drawing parallels to how Einstein's research influenced them. David Wineland spoke about atomic clocks in a lecture that related to Einstein's theory of relativity. Serge Haroche followed with a deep dive into the world of quantum physics - a field he likened to "Einstein's rebellious child" because this type of physics simply did not behave as Einstein would have predicted.
In the afternoon, Donna Strickland engagingly shared her research progress on lasers during a presentation connected to the photoelectric effect. Didier Queloz concluded the day with a visually captivating lecture on the first discovery of an exoplanet and how the search for these planets provides clues not only about possible life in the universe but also about how life originated and evolved on our own planet.
Göteborgs-Posten columnist Kristian Wedel made the audience laugh with a speech in which he questioned whether anyone in the merchant and engineering city of that time could truly have understood Einstein's lecture (and the answer to that question was probably no, but he was still loved simply because he delivered the lecture in Gothenburg, Sweden's second-largest city, instead of Stockholm!).
The following day continued in the spirit of Einstein as three of the Nobel laureates visited Chalmers campus for a conference primarily aimed at researchers and students.
"The combination of the Nobel Prize and Einstein has sparked so much interest and enthusiasm in wide circles that this event has continuously grown on its own. It is incredibly exciting to be able to combine the memory of a milestone in Gothenburg's scientific history with a tribute to physics research today!" says Thomas Nilsson, Head of the Department of Physics and one of the members of the program committee for the event.
|
|||
correct_award_00024
|
FactBench
|
3
| 71
|
https://www.vedantu.com/question-answer/einstein-won-his-nobel-prize-for-a-theory-of-class-12-physics-cbse-5f4514aace20ca61ed671f3c
|
en
|
Einstein won his Nobel Prize forA. Theory of RelativityB. Explanation of photoelectric effectC. His theory of atomic heats of solidD. None of the above
|
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""
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[] |
2020-08-25T13:39:54+05:30
|
Einstein won his Nobel Prize forA. Theory of RelativityB. Explanation of photoelectric effectC. His theory of atomic heats of solidD. None of the above. Ans: Hint: Einstein’s theory of theory of relativity, explanation of photoelectric and th...
|
en
|
https://www.vedantu.com/question-answer/einstein-won-his-nobel-prize-for-a-theory-of-class-12-physics-cbse-5f4514aace20ca61ed671f3c
|
Hint: Einstein’s theory of theory of relativity, explanation of photoelectric and theory of atomic heats of solids, all three are one of most famous theories. So research on all three of these theories, which may help to get to the answer.
Complete answer:
Einstein won his Nobel Prize for the explanation of photoelectric effect.
Hence, the correct answer is B. Explanation of photoelectric effect
Additional Information: Einstein won the Nobel Prize in physics for the year 1921 for his explanation of photoelectric effect. The photoelectric effect is a phenomenon due to which electrons are emitted from the surface metals when certain frequencies of light are incident upon it. Before Einstein, many had tried to explain the phenomenon but failed. Even Maxwell’s widely accepted Electromagnetic theory of light was unable to successfully explain the phenomenon. Einstein on the other hand used Planck’s idea of quantisation of light, i.e. the idea that light is a particle. He theorized that light is made up of particles (called quanta or photon). The energy carried by each particle is dependent on the light's frequency and is given by the equation, $E=h\nu $, (where h is Planck’s constant and $\nu $ is the frequency of light). When light is incident on the metal's surface, a part of the energy is used to release the electron from the atom and the rest of the energy is transferred to the electron as Kinetic energy.
Mathematically, this is written as
$E=W+KE$
$hv=W+KE$
$KE=hvw$
With this, Einstein was successfully able to explain the photoelectric effect using the particle nature of light.
Note: Here is a short on Einstein’s theory of relativity.
Theory of relativity is considered as one of the greatest revolutions. It changed everyone’s understanding on time. A basic consequence of this theory is that faster moving bodies travel into the future. The theory was composed on the assumption that speed of light is the fastest that a body can ever attain.
|
||||||
correct_award_00024
|
FactBench
|
3
| 4
|
https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2014/09/einstein-didnt-win-a-nobel-for-relativity-he-won-it-for-this/380451/
|
en
|
It Wasn't Relativity That Won Einstein His Nobel Prize
|
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[] |
[] |
[
"photoelectric effect",
"nobel prize",
"electric current",
"internal Nobel hand-wringing",
"light",
"solar cell",
"American named Charles",
"decade Robert Millikan",
"Einstein",
"Albert Einstein"
] | null |
[
"Sarah Laskow"
] |
2014-09-19T10:30:00+00:00
|
At 26, the famous physicist explained the science behind today's solar energy revolution.
|
en
|
https://cdn.theatlantic.com/_next/static/images/favicon-3888b0e329526a975703e3059a02b92d.ico
|
The Atlantic
|
https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2014/09/einstein-didnt-win-a-nobel-for-relativity-he-won-it-for-this/380451/
|
Albert Einstein never won a Nobel prize for the theory of relativity—in fact, it was only through long, political jockeying within the Nobel committee that he won the prize at all. Instead, when he was given the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics (in 1922, after a long bout of internal Nobel hand-wringing), he received it primarily for his explanation of the photoelectric effect. Extraordinarily enough, he came up with both his relativity theory, and the photoelectric effect in the same year: 1905.
At the turn of the century, physicists already knew that, in some circumstances, exposing certain materials to light could create an electric current. An American named Charles Fritts had even created a working solar cell from selenium more than two decades before, in the early 1880s.
But observing that light can create electricity is not the same as understanding why light can create electricity. That was baffling.
It was understood, at that point, that light worked as a wave. But if that was true, it didn't make any sense that light could create an electric current: A wave of light just wouldn't have enough energy to cause materials like selenium to shoot off electrons as fast as they did when exposed to light.
In 1905, Einstein was 26 and producing physics papers that would change the way we think about the world for decades to come. He wasn't quite the wild-haired celebrity yet:
But in a paper published in March 1905, Einstein suggested that, perhaps, light wasn't a wave. Phenomena like the photoelectric effect, he wrote,
are more readily understood if one assumes that the energy of light is discontinuously distributed in space. In accordance with the assumption to be considered here, the energy of a light ray spreading out from a point source is not continuously distributed over an increasing space but consists of a finite number of energy quanta which are localized at points in space, which move without dividing, and which can only be produced and absorbed as complete units.
In other words, light could create electricity if it behaved, sometimes, like a particle rather than a wave. (This should sound familiar to anyone who remembers physics class.)
Only one section of the paper covered the photoelectric effect, but it outlined how a light particle might deliver enough energy, all at once, to knock an electron off an atom and create an electric current. This, it turned out, was easier to show experimentally than some of the other ideas Einstein had outlined. Within a decade Robert Millikan had verified, experimentally, the equation that Einstein had used to describe the photoelectric effect.
|
||||
correct_award_00024
|
FactBench
|
0
| 32
|
https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1921/einstein/nominations/
|
en
|
Albert Einstein – Nominations
|
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The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921 was awarded to Albert Einstein "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect"
|
en
|
NobelPrize.org
|
https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1921/einstein/nominations/
|
Nobel Prizes and laureates
Eleven laureates were awarded a Nobel Prize in 2023, for achievements that have conferred the greatest benefit to humankind. Their work and discoveries range from effective mRNA vaccines and attosecond physics to fighting against the oppression of women.
See them all presented here.
|
|||||
correct_award_00024
|
FactBench
|
3
| 88
|
https://www.census.gov/history/www/homepage_archive/2019/march_2019.html
|
en
|
U.S. Census Bureau
|
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"theory",
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[
"Jason Gauthier",
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"US Census Bureau",
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] | null |
March 2019 featuring Albert Einstein
|
en
| null |
March 2019
Visit https://www.census.gov/history every month for the latest Census History Home Page!
U.S. Census Bureau History: Albert Einstein
Albert Einstein—one of history's most influential physicists—was born on March 14, 1879. Over the course of his lifetime, the hundreds of scientific papers, articles, and books Einstein published have become the cornerstone of modern physics and scientific thought and theory. Einstein's genius was so ahead of his time that scientists are still affirming his theories relativity, space-time, and heat transfer more than 6 decades after his death in 1955.
Einstein was born in Ulm, Baden-Wurttemberg , Germany, and moved to Munich, Germany, soon after his birth. After completing high school, he attended the Swiss Federal Polytechnic School in Zurich, Switzerland , earning teaching credentials in mathematics and physics. Unable to secure a teaching position, Einstein worked for the Swiss patent office before completing his Ph.D. studies at the University of Zurich in 1905. In that same year, the young physicist published his research on the photoelectric effect for which the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences awarded him the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics. Einstein's research and lectures quickly earned him a reputation as a leading mind in the fields of physics and math while teaching in Berne and Zurich, Switzerland. He returned to Germany in 1914 serving as director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Physical Institute and professor at the University of Berlin until 1933.
By the 1930s, Albert Einstein was an internationally known author, lecturer, and science ambassador. He traveled the world lecturing and attending black-tie events with university and research elite, celebrities, and heads of state. However, his fame could not shield him from Adolf Hitler and Germany's Nazi Party. In early 1933, the Nazis confiscated Einstein's assets because of his vocal pacifism, outspoken opposition to Hitler, and Jewish heritage. Learning of the siezure, Einstein—who had been teaching at the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena, CA—returned to Europe in March 1933, and renounced his German citizenship at the German Consulate in Antwerp, Belgium. In the months that followed, the Nazis' prohibition against Jews holding civil service positions led to not only Einstein's exile, but also that of many of the nation's leading physicists, mathematicians, scientists, and academics.
The Einsteins immigrated to the United States in October 1933. They settled in Princeton, NJ, where Albert Einstein accepted a position at the Institute for Advanced Study . He became a permanent resident in 1935 and a U.S. citizen in 1940. During World War II, the United States specifically excluded Einstein from the list of leading scientists engaged in the effort to harness and weaponize atomic energy known as the "Manhattan Project." His history of pacifism and socialist sympathies prevented the necessary security clearance to work on the project, though he did assist the U.S. Navy with evaluating weapons systems and helped raise money for the war effort.
Einstein retired from teaching after the war. During the "Atomic Age," physicists were increasingly focused on quantum theory while Einstein continued to research and publish on topics related to the "less glamorous" theory of general relativity, including wormholes, time travel, black holes, and the origins of the universe. More than 60 years after his death, scientists continue to research and make new discoveries related to Einstein's work. The black holes he theorized in 1915 have since been identified by the thousands. His Nobel Prize-winning research on the photoelectric effect led to the development of clean, renewable solar energy. Computer chips, digital cameras, nuclear medicine, global positioning systems, supermarket checkout scanners, and Blu-ray players are all legacies of Albert Einstein's genius .
You can learn more about physics, Albert Einstein, and his legacy using census data and records. For example:
Albert Einstein immigrated to the United States in October 1933, after accepting a position at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, NJ. At the time, Princeton Township, NJ, had a population of approximately 2,738. When Einstein died in the 1955, Princeton (a combination of Princeton borough and township) was home to approximately 12,230. In 2017, the U.S. Census Bureau estimated Princeton's population was 31,822.
The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences awarded Albert Einstein the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics for his research on the law of the photoelectric effect. Without this research, solar energy and the $428 million solar electric power generation industry (NAICS 221114) would not be possible. Other devices, like automatic streetlights, motion detectors, automatic washroom faucets, smoke and carbon monoxide alarms, and the digital camera contained in smartphones depend on the photoelectric and photoconductive cells made possible by Albert Einstein's research.
The Nazis confiscated Albert Einstein's property in 1933 because he was Jewish. Einstein and his wife fled Germany and sought asylum in Europe before immigrating to the United States in October 1933. Seven years later, Einstein and many other Jews fleeing Europe helped America's Jewish population grow from approximately 4.2 million in 1927 to nearly 5 million in 1940. In 2010, the Jewish population in the United States numbered more than 6.5 million. States with the largest Jewish populations were New York (1,625,000), California (1,220,000), and Florida (613,000).
In August 1939, physicists Leo Szilard, Edward Teller, and Eugene Wigner drafted a letter to Franklin D. Roosevelt—which Einstein agreed to sign—warning the president of Nazi Germany's atomic research and urged him to fund an American research program. Roosevelt authorized the creation of the Advisory Committee on Uranium, which funded the purchase of uranium and graphite for experimentation in late 1939. On December 2, 1942, a team of scientists led by Nobel Prize-winning physicist, and Einstein's friend and collaborator, Enrico Fermi, succeeded in producing the first controlled, self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction in a reactor at the University of Chicago.
Although Albert Einstein was one of the world's leading physicists and his theories about atoms and energy were the foundation of atomic weapons research, the scientists at the Los Alamos Laboratory in Los Alamos, NM, led by Major General Leslie Groves and J. Robert Oppenheimer, produced the world's first atomic bombs in 1945 without his help. Einstein was not invited to assist with the atomic weapons research and was not aware of the "Manhattan Project's" existence because the U.S. Army Intelligence Office denied the pacifist-leaning physicist's security clearance in 1940. In a 1947, Einstein expressed regret that his research and 1939 letter to President Roosevelt encouraged the development of atomic weapons.
In 2017, the American Community Survey estimated that there were 5,930 nuclear engineers and 3,361 nuclear technicians in the United States. Many of these professionals worked at nuclear electric power generation establishments (NAICS 221113); naval ship building and repairing (NAICS 336611); pharmaceutical manufacturers (NAICS 325412) specializing in radiology and nuclear medicine; and universities offering nuclear engineering and physics programs.
According to the U.S. Department of Labor, there were 16,710 physicists employed in the United States earning a mean annual wage of $123,080 in 2017. California (2,920), New Mexico (1,720), and Maryland (1,260) led the nation for the number of physicists employed.
The federal government is one of the nation's largest employers of physicists. The National Aeronautic and Space Administration employs astrophysicists. Nuclear physicists help regulate the civilian use of nuclear power and materials at the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. The U.S. Department of Energy employs and provides grants to physicists to perform groundbreaking research at facilities, including Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Oak Ridge, TN; Argonne National Laboratory in Lemont, IL; ; Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in Livermore, CA; Los Alamos National Laboratory in Los Alamos, NM; and Sandia National Laboratories in Albuquerque, NM, and Livermore, CA.
1790 Census Act
On March 1, 1790, U.S. President George Washington signed the 1790 Census Act authorizing the nation's first census.
Five months later, U.S. marshals began visiting each of the nation's households to collect data about the number of free white males 16 years and older, free white males under 16 years, free white females, all other free persons, and slaves.
Following tabulation of the census' data, Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson reported that the nation's population was 3,929,214.
Three Mile Island
On March 28, 1979, a reactor at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Generating Station in Dauphin County, PA (south of the state capital Harrisburg), suffered a partial meltdown due to human error and equipment malfunctions.
Studies have found no adverse impact to the county's population—about 232,317 in 1980—as a result of the small amount of radioactive material released during the accident.
Slated to be retired in 2019, Three Mile Island was among 153 nuclear power plants nationwide that supplied 805 billion kWh of electricity to American homes and businesses in 2017.
Photo courtesy of the Environmental Protection Agency.
Nobel Prize
The Royal Swedish Academy of Arts and Sciences awards the Nobel Prize in physics to scientists making outstanding contributions in the field.
Recipients living in the United States include Albert Einstein "for his services to Theoretical Physics" and "discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect" (1921); particle accelerating cyclotron inventor Ernest Lawrence (1939); John Bardeen, the only person awarded the Nobel Prize in physics twice, in 1956 and 1972; and Maria Goeppert Mayer (pictured above)—the second woman awarded a Nobel Prize in physics—in 1963.
Visit https://www.census.gov/history every month for the latest Census History Home Page!
|
||||||
correct_award_00024
|
FactBench
|
3
| 30
|
https://www.consejoculturalmundial.org/world-award-of-science/
|
en
|
Albert Einstein World Award of Science
|
http://www.consejoculturalmundial.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/Albert-Einstein-Medal-0983R-crop.jpg
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http://www.consejoculturalmundial.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/Albert-Einstein-Medal-0983R-crop.jpg
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[
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[] |
2022-01-02T12:00:18+00:00
|
Winners of the Albert Einstein World Award of Science are elected by renowned scientists. Diploma, medal and cheque are awarded.
|
en
|
World Cultural Council
|
https://www.consejoculturalmundial.org/world-award-of-science/
|
In this century, the work of Albert Einstein is the most representative example of the search for the fundamental scientific laws of nature.
He was born in Ulm, Germany on March 14th, 1879. In 1916, he published “The General Theory of Relativity” which advanced twenty years time in contemporary scientific work in the area of theoretical physics. Among his most important contributions to humanity are, besides the above mentioned theory: “The Theory of Brownian Movement”, “The Inertia Principle of Energy”, “The Quantum Law in the Emission and Absorption of Light” and “The Theory of the Specific Heat of Solid Bodies”.
In 1921 he was granted the Nobel Prize in Physics for his Photoelectric Law.
|
|||
correct_award_00024
|
FactBench
|
1
| 29
|
https://totallyhistory.com/albert-einsteins-nobel-prize/
|
en
|
Albert Einstein's Nobel Prize in Physics on November 9, 1922
|
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[
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] | null |
[
"primeo"
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2022-08-30T11:21:09+00:00
|
Albert Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics on November 9, 1922, “for his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect.” He was never given the Nobel for his work on the theory of special relativity, even though he had simultaneously published it with his
|
en
|
https://totallyhistory.com/wp-content/themes/history/images/favicon.ico
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Totally History
|
https://totallyhistory.com/albert-einsteins-nobel-prize/
|
Albert Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics on November 9, 1922, “for his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect.” He was never given the Nobel for his work on the theory of special relativity, even though he had simultaneously published it with his work on the photoelectric effect in 1905.
The Photoelectric Effect
Around 1900, physicists were already well-aware that some materials could generate electricity when exposed to light. In 1883, an American inventor named Charles Fritts came up with the first functioning solar cell. However, nobody understood back then, even Fritts, how light could generate electric currents. Scientists only knew that light traveled as a wave. If this was true, then it merely caused scientists more questions about why a wave of light could create electricity.
Questions about the nature of light were answered in March 1905, when Einstein published his Nobel-winning paper on the photoelectric effect. In it, he hinted that light, perhaps, is not a wave but a particle. And as a particle, light could, therefore, possibly create electricity. He said that the photoelectric effect “…are more readily understood if one assumes that the energy of light is discontinuously distributed in space. In accordance with the assumption to be considered here, the energy of a light ray spreading out from a point source is not continuously distributed over an increasing space. Still, it consists of a finite number of energy quanta which are localized at points in space, which move without dividing, and which can only be produced and absorbed as complete units.”
Delayed Recognition Due to Prejudices
However, the late recognition of Einstein’s achievements has a dark story behind it. Einstein received the Nobel Prize 17 years after his ground-breaking theory of special relativity. That alone could have earned him recognition many years earlier. Robert Marc Friedman, a science historian, conducted exhaustive research on the matter and learned that Einstein was the victim of deliberate denial of the recognition. He said the physicist was intentionally ignored because of the prevailing bigotries of the time that worked against Jews, pacifists, and theoretical physics. Friedman says that when nominations for Einstein were submitted in 1920, the Nobel Committee members did not like the idea of a “political and intellectual radical, who—it was said—did not conduct experiments, crowned as the pinnacle of physics.” The prize for that year eventually went to a Swiss named Charles-Edouard Guillaume for discovering a type of nickel-steel alloy.
Despite Einstein’s growing popularity in 1921, a member of the committee named Allvar Gullstrand said, “Einstein must never receive a Nobel Prize, even if the whole world demands it.” This piece of information was discovered by Friedman in a Swedish mathematician’s diary. Unfortunately, Gullstrand’s opinion influenced the other committee members, and no prize was awarded for physics that year.
When 1922 came around, Einstein’s popularity soared even further. The committee members now worried that their credibility would be tarnished if they did not grant the physicist recognition. Einstein had been enjoying numerous nominations in the past two years for his work on the relativity theory, but in 1922, he had been nominated by Carl Wilhelm Oseen for his work on the photoelectric effect.
Friedman discovered that Oseen recommended the committee to recognize the photoelectric effect as a basic law of nature. According to Friedman, Oseen did this not because he admired Einstein but because he admired another physicist named Neils Bohr, and there were two available prizes for physics in 1922. Oseen then overemphasized the close link between Einstein’s law of nature and Bohr’s work on the atom and eventually was able to convince the committee. Thus, Bohr was awarded the 1922 prize and Einstein the overdue 1921 prize. However, Einstein could not attend the ceremonies because he was on his way to Japan for a series of lectures. He also needed to disappear to a faraway country because the German Foreign Minister, Walther Rathenau, had been assassinated by anti-Semites. A police investigation eventually found a list of targets with Einstein’s name on it. Friedman states that Einstein did not care about the medal but only about the prize money. The physicist used that money to keep his ex-wife and sons financially stable, and later, when one of his sons, Edouard, developed schizophrenia and had to be entered into an asylum.
|
||||
correct_award_00024
|
FactBench
|
2
| 1
|
https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1921/einstein/facts/
|
en
|
Albert Einstein – Facts
|
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The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921 was awarded to Albert Einstein "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect"
|
en
|
NobelPrize.org
|
https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1921/einstein/facts/
|
Albert Einstein
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921
Affiliation at the time of the award: Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut (now Max-Planck-Institut) für Physik, Berlin, Germany
Prize motivation: “for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect”
Albert Einstein received his Nobel Prize one year later, in 1922.
Prize share: 1/1
Life
Albert Einstein grew up in Munich, where his father founded an electrical engineering company. After studying at the ETH university in Zurich, Einstein worked at the patent office in Bern, during which time he produced several pioneering works in the field of physics. He was later employed at universities in Bern, Zurich, and Prague, and from 1914, in Berlin. After the Nazis seized power in Germany, Einstein immigrated to the US, where he worked at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey. Einstein married twice and had three children by his first marriage.
Work
If metal electrodes are exposed to light, electrical sparks between them occur more readily. For this photoelectric effect to occur, the light waves must be above a certain frequency, however. According to physics theory, the light's intensity should be critical. In one of several epoch-making studies beginning in 1905, Albert Einstein explained that light consists of quanta—packets with fixed energies corresponding to certain frequencies. One such light quantum, a photon, must have a certain minimum frequency before it can liberate an electron.
|
|||||
correct_award_00024
|
FactBench
|
3
| 47
|
https://www.facebook.com/NatGeoTV/videos/albert-einstein-national-geographic/795608401546011/
|
en
|
THIS DAY IN HISTORY: NOVEMBER 9, 1922 Albert Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics. Learn more about this brilliant physicist in #Genius,...
|
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[] | null |
THIS DAY IN HISTORY: NOVEMBER 9, 1922
Albert Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics.
Learn more about this brilliant physicist in #Genius,...
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de
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https://static.xx.fbcdn.net/rsrc.php/yT/r/aGT3gskzWBf.ico
|
https://www.facebook.com/NatGeoTV/videos/albert-einstein-national-geographic/795608401546011/
| ||||||
correct_award_00024
|
FactBench
|
0
| 12
|
https://testbook.com/question-answer/einstein-got-the-nobel-prize-for--5f8078b1abfbc1cb2bfd5483
|
en
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[Solved] Einstein got the Nobel Prize for
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The correct answer is the photoelectric effect.
Albert Einstein received his Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921 for his services to Theoretical Physics, and
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Testbook
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https://testbook.com/question-answer/einstein-got-the-nobel-prize-for--5f8078b1abfbc1cb2bfd5483
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On a hot summer afternoon in 1923 in the Conference Hall at the Gothenburg Jubilee Exhibition, Albert Einstein gave a talk on “Fundamental ideas and problems of the theory of relativity” as can be seen in fig. 1. In the large audience, besides the conference participants at the 17th Scandinavian Natural Sciences Meeting, were in the front row the Swedish King, Gustav V, and Svante Arrhenius (1859–1927) the man responsible for inviting Einstein. This lecture became Einstein’s Nobel Lecture for his 1921 Nobel Prize in physics that was awarded in 1922.
What was the background to this? Why on Earth did such a large crowd attend a physics lecture in the middle of a heat wave and why was Einstein not awarded the Nobel Prize for his theories of relativity as most people would expect? This paper will search for an explanation by looking into the evaluation work of Einstein for the Nobel Prize.
1 How the Nobel Prize works
The statutes of the Nobel Foundation govern how the Nobel system works. It is based on Alfred Nobel’s will, but the Nobel Foundation is nowhere mentioned in the will. The Nobel Foundation was instead created by the Prize awarding institutions to manage their common interests and facilitate the general collaboration between the Prize awarders. The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, mentioned in the will, awards the Nobel Prizes in physics and chemistry. Each Prize awarder also has their separate statutes that govern the evaluation work. Only invited nominators in certain categories are entitled to nominate. A successful candidate must have at least one nomination, but it is not automatically so that the most nominations get you the Prize. A five-person Nobel committee then evaluates all nominees, and the committee decides who are the most interesting candidates who are subjected to special reports. Then the Nobel Committee writes up a general report briefly discussing all nominees before presenting more extensive coverage of the main contenders, and most reasoning goes into that year’s committee proposal in the end. Then the proposal is discussed by the physics class of the Academy and finally there is the formal vote in pleno where all members of the Academy have the right to vote.
During the period from the first nomination of Einstein in 1910 until he was awarded the 1921 Prize in 1922 there was an increasing number of nominations as can be seen from fig. 2, but it was not until 1919, when the Nobel Committee made its first special evaluation of Einstein, and then it was the case of the Brownian motion.
2 Nominations of Einstein
Aant Elzinga, who has closely studied Einstein and the Nobel Prize, has grouped the nominations for Einstein in three periods. In the first period of nominations (1910–1914) it was mostly the special relativity that was proposed.
For these early nominations the Nobel Committee did not make any special report thus indicating that Einstein was not yet considered a main candidate. From the general reports it was claimed that an award would be premature, and the often-used argument that it would be better to await further results and possible confirmations was raised. Also, counterarguments like that the special relativity theory had no practical importance and thus of no benefit to mankind to quote from Nobel’s will were raised. Another argument was that it was a question of theory of knowledge rather than physics.
The second period (1915–1919) saw an increase in nominations where other work by Einstein was proposed as his work on the Brownian motion. But most of the other nominations kept suggesting Einstein for the special relativity theory and now also the general theory of relativity. Some nominators apparently sensed the committee’s unease with theoretical work and pointed out that Einstein had done experimental work. Now the committee argued that others had precedence, when it came to the Brownian motion and as for the general relativity theory only Mercury’s perihelion precession supported the theory whereas gravitational redshift and light bending were not yet confirmed. Also, arguments that the general theory of relativity was just a belief rather than a proper physical theory was raised.
The third period (1920–1922) is of course marked by the attention the famous 1919 solar eclipse expeditions got, as seen in fig. 3. Nominations were soaring and almost all were arguing for the theories of relativity. But one nominator suggested the photoelectric effect. Now the Nobel Committee, not ready to award Einstein, questioned the validity of the solar eclipse data and also questioned the 1921 nomination for Einstein for the photoelectric effect, where Arrhenius in his special report would argue that it was a lucky guess by Einstein and that it was experimentalists that had made the work worthy of recognition.
3 Special reports on Einstein
Let us now look at the special reports on Einstein as can be seen in table 1. In 1919 there were nominations for The Svedberg and Jean Perrin for their work on the motions of molecules, but since their work was based on Einstein’s work on the Brownian motion Arrhenius had been asked by his colleagues in the committee to also nominate Einstein for the sake of thoroughness. Arrhenius also got the task to write the special report on the three, where he concluded the section on Einstein:
As far as the prize-awarding of these works is concerned, it must be confessed that they have had as great a value for experimental research as Einstein’s other works. Nevertheless, Einstein’s theoretical work, the theory of relativity and the quantum theory, are by far most proposed of the majority of nominators compared to his molecular kinetic works, when it comes to awarding him with the Nobel Prize. This is undoubtedly due to the fact that these first-mentioned works seem far more apt to change our conception of nature and therefore have a greater significance than the molecular kinetic studies, which are in the very best agreement with, and are a consequence of, the classical conception of the motion of molecules. It would therefore, no doubt, seem strange to the learned world if Einstein received a prize precisely for the works referred to here, notwithstanding their obviously great merit and usefulness for the development of science, and not for his other great works, which is what have attracted the attention of nominators.
So, the argument was that Einstein could not be awarded the Nobel Prize for his work on the Brownian motion since his peers expected it to be for the theories of relativity or quantum theory. This meant that Perrin and Svedberg also were put on hold until 1926 when Perrin got the physics prize and Svedberg the chemistry prize. Instead, Max Planck was awarded the reserved 1918 Nobel Prize for physics “in recognition of the services he rendered to the advancement of Physics by his discovery of energy quanta” and Johannes Stark was awarded the 1919 Nobel Prize in physics for “for his discovery of the Doppler effect in canal rays and the splitting of spectral lines in electric fields”.
The next year, in 1920, Svante Arrhenius followed up his own argument and made a special report on Einstein’s theories of relativity in light of the results from the solar eclipse the previous year. Now Einstein was the candidate that had the most nominations and also by important nominators. Arguments were again made for Einstein’s theories of the Brownian motion, the specific heat, but most of all for the theories of relativity. And as for the general theory of relativity there were discussions of the three specific cases where the theory could be put to the test.
1. The shift of Mercury’s perihelion (where Einstein’s theory was in agreement with observations).
2. The bending of light by the Sun (where there were arguments for and against the accuracy of the observations).
3. The redshift of lines in the solar spectra (which could not yet be detected).
Arrhenius in his report described the great interest and astonishment that had followed the presentation of the solar eclipse results at the joint meeting in November 1919 with the Royal Society and the Royal Astronomical Society. But he also reported on the subsequent critique. Although there was much in favour of the Mercury perihelion shift, Arrhenius also brought up critique and other explanations. For the red shift he, quite lengthy, presented the tests that had been made and none delivered any clear support: “In any case, this effect on wavelength seems unsuitable for supporting Einstein’s theory”. Arrhenius even observed at the end of his report that there had appeared both uncritical admiration and unjust critique of Einstein.
The Nobel Prize in physics for 1920 instead went to the director of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures, Charles Edouard Guillaume, “in recognition of the service he has rendered to precision measurements in Physics by his discovery of anomalies in nickel steel alloys”.
Next year in 1921, there were even more nominations for Einstein. So, this year there were two special reports made on Einstein. One was written by Allvar Gullstrand (1862–1930) on the theories of relativity and the other one, due to a new nomination for the photoelectric effect, on which Arrhenius wrote the report.
Almost half of the general report in 1921 deals with Einstein. It first summed up arguments from Gullstrand’s special report and regarding the experimental tests of the theories of relativity that they had neither contradicted nor confirmed, and it was stated that “it demands a great deal of conviction in respect to phenomena, which lie entirely outside experience, it does not seem to meet the requirements which should apply to the awarding of the Nobel Prize”. Then followed brief summaries of the three different test options of Einstein’s theory arguing that they did not give any clear support. Gullstrand’s report also called into question the shift of Mercury’s perihelion, that many considered a solid argument for Einstein. Gullstrand, however, claimed that for now it was not clear if Einstein’s theory could be considered in agreement with Leverrier’s measurements. And since the general theory of relativity “so far in no way has been satisfactorily confirmed by experience, the committee does not currently consider themselves able to propose him for a Nobel Prize”. The end verdict this year was to wait for further observations and tests to determine the fortune of Einstein. This is a fate that Einstein has shared with many over the years, a cautious policy has perhaps helped the Nobel institution over the years. It must not be wrong. Noteworthy is that the general report in 1921 used terms as “Einstein’s followers” in connection with the discussion of the relativity theories. Normally, the general reports are very matter of fact, without references to anything outside the physics at hand. So, this phrase is special and cannot be understood in any positive sense.
But the general report continued with Einstein’s photoelectric effect. This was more summarily dismissed this year, based on the special report by Arrhenius, claiming that others than Einstein had been crucial in making the experimental work. Arrhenius also dismissed the argument from the nomination that the photoelectric law is fundamental for the quantum theory and its successful dealing with atomic phenomena. And since the 1918 Prize had gone to Planck, it was argued that this had already been awarded. So, prospects for Einstein seemed gloomy and the committee recommended that, since no prizeworthy candidate at all was at hand, the 1921 Nobel Prize should be reserved until next year, and such became the decision of the Academy.
4 Solving the gridlock
Something needed to change if this deadlock should go away. This dominance of experimentalists and experimental ethos in the committee has been observed by historians. And it was quite remarkable that the two members that got the task to evaluate Einstein were Allvar Gullstrand, a professor of ophtalmology and Nobel Laureate in Physiology or Medicine in 1911, and Svante Arrhenius, director of the Nobel Institute for Physical Chemistry and Nobel Laureate in chemistry in 1903. The five-person physics committee did not have any professional theoretical physicist among them at this time.
There were two professors of mathematical physics in Sweden. At Lund University the professor was an expert on sea currents and at this time not a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. The other professor of mathematical physics was also an expert on hydrodynamics, Carl Wilhelm Oseen (1879–1944). He became professor already in 1909 at Uppsala University, but had for many years during the 1910s struggled with tuberculosis. He had early on taken an interest in Niels Bohr and together with Rutherford he helped the Dane to get his professorship. He had also debated some aspects of quantum theory with Planck in 1914. Niels and Margarethe Bohr had visited Oseen in 1913 while the Swede stayed at a sanatorium the months before Bohr published his famous papers on the atomic structure. In 1919 Oseen held a summer lecture series for teachers about the quantum theory and the theories of relativity. From these lectures we can conclude that he was positive although not uncritical to these theories. The lectures, together with the attention that the solar eclipse observations added, helped initiate the founding of the Swedish Physical Society in 1920, where Oseen became the first president. His training from Lund University was in mathematics, so in 1921 he got elected to the Swedish Academy of Sciences, at first to a mathematical class. Later in 1922 he was transferred to the physics class. And more importantly already in the autumn of 1921 Oseen had been adjoined to the Nobel Committee for physics. And at the first meeting he attended, where the above-mentioned decision to reserve the 1921 Prize was recommended by the class, he managed to invoke a possible future opening for the photoelectric law and he:
emphasized that this discovery could gain further significance in the future, which is why he hoped that the committee’s statement should not be understood that the matter was decided once and for all.
In view of this and after further deliberation, the class decided to state that Einstein’s law for the photoelectric effect must be ascribed great importance, but that any awarding of the prize should wait until a more reliable understanding was attained of its significance for science.
For a long time, the Nobel Committee had relied on Gullstrand’s investigations of Einstein’s theory of relativity for the candidacy, and he found the whole thing to be a matter of “belief.” His correspondence with Oseen from this time shows that Gullstrand constantly tried to find errors in Einstein’s theory, whereupon Oseen rejected his objections. At one point, Oseen wrote that it “took a few minutes” for him to dismiss the problem that Gullstrand had posed. But Gullstrand returned with “the fable of the clock that slows down” which was something for “the relativist believer”.
5 Oseen’s tandem solution
1922 became a busy year for Oseen. In May 1922 the astronomer and astrophysicist Bernhard Hasselberg died after years of dwindling health. His last major impact on the committee’s work had been the prize for Guillaume. In September 1922 Gullstrand proposed that Oseen should replace Hasselberg in the committee and brought up Oseen’s grasp of theoretical physics as beneficial for the committee’s work. The nomination was signed by two other members as well as by The Svedberg, member of the chemistry committee. It should also be noted that Oseen was still only member of the applied mathematics and astronomy class and had to be adjoined, not only to the Nobel committee, but also to the physics class to take part in the class’ discussions of the Nobel committee’s proposals. But already before this decision the Nobel committee had submitted its recommendation to the Academy of the two available Nobel Prizes in physics (1921 & 1922), and before that, during the summer, the special reports, by the adjoint member Oseen, had been submitted.
But other important events had also taken place in this context during the summer of 1922. In June Niels Bohr was invited to deliver the Wolfskehl lectures in Göttingen. He travelled there accompanied by his Swedish assistant at this time, Oskar Klein, and they stayed at an inn in the outskirts of the city. At the same inn Oseen also boarded. He was making a rare trip and was anxious to listen to his old friend Niels Bohr and meet other colleagues, as can be seen from fig. 4 and fig. 5. At this conference Bohr presented Hendrik Kramers’ dispersion theory, to which a young Werner Heisenberg raised objections.
Oseen already had a very positive opinion of Bohr’s work, and despite the criticism made by Heisenberg in Göttingen (that actually impressed Bohr), Oseen returned to Uppsala where he sat down and wrote two special Nobel reports, one on Bohr and one on Einstein, see fig. 6. He finished his 34 pages report on Bohr, “Bohr’s atomic theory,” on August 9, and a few days later, on August 13, he finished his 12 pages report on “Einstein’s law for the photoelectric effect”. After submitting these reports he had ten days before the second Nordic Physicist Meeting started in Uppsala, where he was one of the organizers. Bohr attended giving the main lecture “On the Explanation of the Periodic System.” The meeting provided another opportunity for Bohr and Oseen to meet. This conference can be seen as an important step in establishing theoretical atomic physics as a central area for physics among Nordic physicists. It was also considered as something of a “summit meeting” between Oseen and Bohr.
If we look closer at the evaluations by Oseen in 1922, it becomes clear that to him Bohr and Einstein were a tandem. Bohr’s work was based on Einstein’s theory and Einstein’s theory became more palatable when connected to Bohr’s work. Such a solution would manage a Nobel Prize to Einstein, but avoiding the contested issue of the relativity theories, and at the same time solving the pressure of all the nominations for Einstein. No one but Oseen ever nominated Einstein only for the photoelectric effect. He was well aware of the opposition to Einstein’s relativity theories and the political and cultural aspects pertaining to them. However, he was a supporter and one of few in Sweden that actually understood the general theory of relativity at this time. And since there were two available prizes in 1922 it was an opportunity that could not be missed. The postponing in 1921 might thus actually have helped to accommodate the solution in 1922.
6 Finally, a Nobel Prize for Einstein
Looking closer at Oseen’s reports we can note the different sections, after the first theoretical examination he addressed the experimental confirmations of Einstein’s law. And the usage of “law” of course underscores the irrefutable nature of the theory. Especially Millikan’s work was referred to. Then came a section “The Einstein law and Bohr’s atomic theory” which concluded: “The Einstein proposition and Bohr’s objectively identical frequency conditions are currently one of the most trustworthy propositions in physics”. Then followed a section “A look at Einstein’s activities,” where other Einstein’s important contributions were listed. The first group was his works based on classical physics like the Brownian motion, the second group was his writings on the quantum theory, like his papers on the specific heat. The third group was his contributions to electromagnetic theory to which his special theory of relativity was counted. The fourth group was the general theory of relativity. All very important contributions depending on one’s particular interest. “In any case, no other discovery made by Einstein than his proposition on the quantum emission and absorption of light has generated as much interest in measuring physics” Oseen stated. This argument was set to thwart any objections from the overly cautious experimentalists in the committee and in the physics class.
Most important is of course the concluding part:
At a time when physicists, with few exceptions, were opposed to Planck’s quantum theory, Einstein has shown through an original and astute analysis that the energy exchange between matter and ether must take place in such a way that an atom emits or absorbs an energy quantum hν, where ν is the oscillation number. As an application of this proposition, Einstein has established the law that if an electron is photoelectrically triggered from a substance, its energy after release must have the value $h\nu – P$, where $P$ is the work needed to release the electron from the substance. This law has been most beautifully confirmed by measurements by Millikan and others. Einstein’s proposition has received its greatest significance and also the most convincing confirmation in that it is one of the assumptions on which Bohr built his atomic theory. Almost all confirmations of Bohr’s atomic theory are also confirmations of Einstein’s proposition.
The discovery of Einstein’s law is without a doubt one of the most significant events in the history of physics. Its discoverer seems to me to fully deserve a Nobel Prize in physics.
A stronger endorsement cannot be phrased but let us also briefly examine Oseen’s report on Bohr. The different sections gave a hint of the way his argument went: “The historical assumptions for Bohr’s atomic theory”, “The basis for Bohr’s theory of 1913”, “The results of Bohr’s theory from 1913”, “Theory for the Stark effect and the Zeeman effect”, “Bohr’s correspondence principle”, “Bohr’s rule for determining the stationary states”, “The atomic theory’s development 1913–1921”, “Bohr’s atomic theory of 1921”, “Confirmations of Bohr’s theory”, and “Difficulties in Bohr’s atomic theory” concluded the report and the final words should be noted:
The cornerstone of Bohr’s thought structure, the Einstein-Bohr condition $\epsilon_{1} - \epsilon_{2} = h\nu$, has, through studies by Franck et al. received an extremely comprehensive and overwhelming confirmation. [...] Finally, if one asks whether the Bohr atomic theory is worthy of a Nobel Prize in physics, it seems to me that the answer can be no other than this. Both with regard to its already confirmed findings and with regard to the powerful stimulus that this theory has given to both experimental and theoretical physics, Bohr’s atomic theory seems to me fully worthy of a Nobel Prize.
Also, an extremely strong endorsement. There was also another seven pages special report in 1922 by Allvar Gullstrand supplementing his special report from the previous year on Einstein’s theories of relativity. Here Gullstrand reiterated that these theories were a “matter of faith”, and he went through the three tests for the general theory. For the red shift Gullstrand quoted von Laue that there was room for further tests. And he continued to quote von Laue that there was no absolute certainty and that there was room for more and further investigations. For the perihelion test Gullstrand referred to some papers that did not fully support Einstein’s theory, and that any certain judgment therefore would have to wait. He also referred several times to “followers of the relativity theory”, and concluded:
It should be clear from the above that my opinion from last year that Einstein cannot at present be advocated for the award of the Nobel Prize in Physics, either for the special or the general theory of relativity or for the combined value of these theories, is not only still valid, but has been further confirmed by subsequent publications.
Despite Gullstrand’s stubborn objections to relativity, Oseen convinced his colleagues in the Nobel Committee for his tandem solution, and Gullstrand could still be content that the relativity theories were not awarded a Nobel Prize. The general report also stated that there was an overwhelming number of nominations for Einstein, which might have made the Committee and the Academy members extra prone to accept Oseen’s solution. Most nominations for Einstein were for the relativity theories, and only Oseen had nominated Einstein exclusively for the photoelectric effect. The committee referred to Gullstrand’s present and prior reports and to Arrhenius previous report and the committee “maintained its verdict from last year and considered itself unable to propose Einstein for the Nobel Prize for his theories of relativity and gravitation”. Then the report continued discussing Einstein and Bohr simultaneously according to Oseen’s arguments and concluded:
Due to what the committee here had the honour to state, may the committee suggest that of the two available Nobel Prizes for Physics, the one reserved from the previous year should be awarded to Professor Albert Einstein in Berlin for his merits in theoretical physics, especially his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect; and that this year’s Nobel Prize in Physics should be awarded to Professor Niels Bohr in Copenhagen for his merits in exploring the structure of atoms and the radiation emanating from them.
The class did approve of this suggestion by the Nobel Committee, which basically was Oseen’s tandem solution.
All this was well-received, also in the Academy in pleno and on November 9, 1922 the decision was made at the Nobel meeting of the Academy to award Einstein the reserved 1921 Physics Prize and Niels Bohr the 1922 Physics Prize. Noteworthy is that the Academy was anxious to keep any trace of the theories of relativity out of the motivation and they changed the phrase: “for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect” adding “regardless of the value that, after any confirmation, could be attributed to the theories of relativity and gravity, [...] award the 1921 prize [...] to Albert Einstein for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect.” This text also made it onto Einstein’s Nobel diploma making it stand out as the only Nobel diploma with text stating what the Laureate was not awarded for. The most common interpretation of this is that it is a symptom of the anxious and perhaps not so brilliant Swedish Committee. That could well be the case, but another interpretation might be possible as we shall see.
7 The end of nominations
Oseen had managed an incredible feat to have two of his own candidates each being awarded the Nobel Prize and thus defusing the difficult situation with the many nominations for Einstein. And as we have seen, the Nobel Prize to Einstein was intrinsically coupled to the Nobel Prize to Bohr and vice versa. Also clear is that it was all Oseen’s doing. No one beside members of the Nobel Committee could fully understand what had played out, but some people did. Oseen’s former colleague from Uppsala, Eva von Bahr-Bergius, was pleased with the end result and wrote to Oseen:
More than one month ago – when the names of the Nobel laureates were announced – I was determined to write to you. I felt a need to thank you for being there and taking care of the Nobel Prizes, so that physicists will not make a fool of themselves in the same way as the Swedish [Literary] Academy. Because your influence on these matters is very great, I understand very well. I would very much wish that someday you alone could be in charge of the Nobel Prizes, but I am afraid that you write such learned things that – at least here in Sweden – there is no one who can judge them.
I assume that there was a controversy about Einstein’s name. His opponents, who succeeded in excluding the theory of relativity from the prize statement, have thereby simply ensured that in the future he will receive the prize one more time.
So, this is another possible interpretation. That the non-awarding of the theories of relativity would only mean that Einstein would be awarded the Nobel Prize again. And there were no formal objections to such a chain of events, Marie Curie had a decade earlier received her second Nobel Prize. And Einstein if any could have been nominated again for the theories of relativity and other works. But the fact is that that did not happen. The following year there were two nominations for him, but they were actually late arrivals from the previous year. And thereafter there are no nominations at all for Einstein. So, apparently his peers considered that he was now put up on the Nobel shelf, which is also telling of how awards in science may function, especially the Nobel Prize.
But let us return to where we started. Einstein did not come to Stockholm to pick up his Nobel Prize, he was on a boat on his way from the USA to Japan, when the news broke, and there was no possibility for him to make it to the Prize awarding events in Stockholm. Since it is mandatory to deliver a Nobel Prize Lecture to receive the prize amount, he eventually came to Sweden the year after, and invited by Svante Arrhenius he delivered a lecture in Gothenburg on July 11, 1923 on “Fundamental ideas and problems of the theory of relativity.” But that was not the work he had been awarded for. But since most people were more interested in a lecture on relativity theory than the photoelectric effect as can be seen in the large crowd in fig. 1, this is what Arrhenius asked Einstein to talk about. And immediately after Arrhenius delivered the manuscript of the lecture for the Nobel Foundation yearbook, Les Prix Nobel, as Einstein’s Nobel Lecture. This was questioned in the Academy, but Arrhenius then said that the manuscript had already been set, and proofs already sent out. So, it was agreed that it should be allowed. Among Einstein’s critics in Sweden this caused an outrage and a lot of complaints to the Academy that had let this pass, complaints arrived also from abroad. The lecture should take place within six months, but this was after seven months; the lecture should take place in Stockholm, and most of all it should be about the Prize awarded work. There had been instances of delay earlier, the Curies held their lecture one and a half year late, but they held it in Stockholm and on the topic they had been awarded for at least. The reason for Arrhenius’ actions might be found in his argument in the 1919 special report not to award Einstein for the Brownian motion, since it would be strange if Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize for anything else than the theories of relativity. This is why Einstein’s Nobel lecture is about the theories of relativity, for which he was not awarded the Nobel Prize.
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correct_award_00024
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FactBench
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0
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https://www.lbi.org/griffinger/record/243964
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Albert Einstein receiving the Max Planck Medal from Max Planck
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The Edythe Griffinger Portal is a curated selection of items from the Art and Objects Collection, Archives, and Library of the Leo Baeck Institute (LBI).
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Biographical/Historical Information
Since 1929, the Max Planck medal was the highest award of the German Physical Society for extraordinary achievements in theoretical physics. Its first recipient was Albert Einstein on June 28, 1929.
The German theoretical physicist Max Planck contributed largely to the understanding of Quantum mechanics in physics and was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1918.
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correct_award_00024
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FactBench
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1
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https://www.lbi.org/griffinger/record/243964
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en
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Albert Einstein receiving the Max Planck Medal from Max Planck
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The Edythe Griffinger Portal is a curated selection of items from the Art and Objects Collection, Archives, and Library of the Leo Baeck Institute (LBI).
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https://www.lbi.org/griffinger/record/243964
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Biographical/Historical Information
Since 1929, the Max Planck medal was the highest award of the German Physical Society for extraordinary achievements in theoretical physics. Its first recipient was Albert Einstein on June 28, 1929.
The German theoretical physicist Max Planck contributed largely to the understanding of Quantum mechanics in physics and was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1918.
|
|||||
correct_award_00024
|
FactBench
|
3
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https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/
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en
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NobelPrize.org
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Physics Prize
|
en
|
NobelPrize.org
|
https://www.nobelprize.org/physics-prize-2/
|
“The said interest shall be divided into five equal parts, which shall be apportioned as follows: /- – -/ one part to the person who shall have made the most important discovery or invention within the field of physics …” (Excerpt from the will of Alfred Nobel)
Physics was the prize area which Alfred Nobel mentioned first in his will from 1895. At the end of the nineteenth century, many people considered physics as the foremost of the sciences, and perhaps Nobel saw it this way as well. His own research was also closely tied to physics.
The Nobel Prize in Physics is awarded by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, Stockholm, Sweden.
|
|||||
correct_award_00024
|
FactBench
|
1
| 33
|
https://dbpedia.org/page/List_of_awards_and_honors_received_by_Albert_Einstein
|
en
|
About: List of awards and honors received by Albert Einstein
|
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FilePath/Albert_Einstein_stamp_1956.jpg?width=300
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In 1922 Albert Einstein was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics, "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect". This refers to his 1905 paper on the photoelectric effect, "On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light", which was well supported by the experimental evidence by that time. The presentation speech began by mentioning "his theory of relativity [which had] been the subject of lively debate in philosophical circles [and] also has astrophysical implications which are being rigorously examined at the present time".
|
DBpedia
|
http://dbpedia.org/resource/List_of_awards_and_honors_received_by_Albert_Einstein
|
dbo:abstract
حصل ألبرت أينشتاين على جائزة نوبل عام 1921 في الفيزياء، «لخدماته في الفيزياء النظرية، وخاصة لاكتشافه قانون التأثير الكهروضوئي». يشير هذا إلى ورقة 1905 الخاصة به حول التأثير الكهروضوئي، «على وجهة نظر الكشف فيما يتعلق بالإنتاج والتحول للضوء»، والذي كان مدعومًا جيدًا بالأدلة التجريبية في ذلك الوقت. بدأ خطاب التقديم بالإشارة إلى «نظريته في النسبية (التي كانت) موضوع نقاش حيوي في الأوساط الفلسفية لها أيضًا آثار فيزيائية فلكية يجري فحصها بدقة في الوقت الحالي». (ar)
In 1922 Albert Einstein was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics, "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect". This refers to his 1905 paper on the photoelectric effect, "On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light", which was well supported by the experimental evidence by that time. The presentation speech began by mentioning "his theory of relativity [which had] been the subject of lively debate in philosophical circles [and] also has astrophysical implications which are being rigorously examined at the present time". (en)
O físico alemão Albert Einstein (1879-1955) recebeu uma série de prêmios e honrarias em sua homenagem. Em 1922, foi premiado com o Nobel de Física de 1921, "por seus serviços à física teórica e, especialmente, pela sua descoberta da lei do efeito fotoelétrico". Isso se refere ao seu artigo de 1905 "Sobre um ponto de vista heurístico relativo à produção e transformação da luz", que foi bem sustentado pela evidência experimental até então. O discurso de apresentação começou a mencionar "sua teoria da relatividade [que havia] sido objeto de intenso debate nos círculos filosóficos [e] também tem implicações astrofísicas que estavam a ser rigorosamente examinadas no presente momento". Entre as premiações que recebeu, foi condecorado com a Medalha Copley em 1925, a Medalha Max Planck em 1929, a Gibbs Lecture em 1934, e a Medalha Franklin em 1936. Escolas, centros de pesquisas, parques, um asteroide e um elemento químico receberam seu nome como homenagem. Foi eleito a pessoa do século XX pela TIME e "o maior físico de todos os tempos". (pt)
rdfs:comment
حصل ألبرت أينشتاين على جائزة نوبل عام 1921 في الفيزياء، «لخدماته في الفيزياء النظرية، وخاصة لاكتشافه قانون التأثير الكهروضوئي». يشير هذا إلى ورقة 1905 الخاصة به حول التأثير الكهروضوئي، «على وجهة نظر الكشف فيما يتعلق بالإنتاج والتحول للضوء»، والذي كان مدعومًا جيدًا بالأدلة التجريبية في ذلك الوقت. بدأ خطاب التقديم بالإشارة إلى «نظريته في النسبية (التي كانت) موضوع نقاش حيوي في الأوساط الفلسفية لها أيضًا آثار فيزيائية فلكية يجري فحصها بدقة في الوقت الحالي». (ar)
In 1922 Albert Einstein was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics, "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect". This refers to his 1905 paper on the photoelectric effect, "On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light", which was well supported by the experimental evidence by that time. The presentation speech began by mentioning "his theory of relativity [which had] been the subject of lively debate in philosophical circles [and] also has astrophysical implications which are being rigorously examined at the present time". (en)
O físico alemão Albert Einstein (1879-1955) recebeu uma série de prêmios e honrarias em sua homenagem. Em 1922, foi premiado com o Nobel de Física de 1921, "por seus serviços à física teórica e, especialmente, pela sua descoberta da lei do efeito fotoelétrico". Isso se refere ao seu artigo de 1905 "Sobre um ponto de vista heurístico relativo à produção e transformação da luz", que foi bem sustentado pela evidência experimental até então. O discurso de apresentação começou a mencionar "sua teoria da relatividade [que havia] sido objeto de intenso debate nos círculos filosóficos [e] também tem implicações astrofísicas que estavam a ser rigorosamente examinadas no presente momento". (pt)
|
||||
correct_award_00024
|
FactBench
|
0
| 90
|
https://www.huffpost.com/entry/einstein-fantasy-physics_b_4948045
|
en
|
Fantasy Physics: Should Einstein Have Won 7 Nobel Prizes?
|
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[
"particle physics",
"nobel prize physics",
"pi day",
"theory of relativity",
"science",
"Albert Einstein",
"quantum physics",
"Nobel Prize",
"Physics"
] | null |
[
"Andrew Delbanco"
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2014-03-12T20:10:38+00:00
|
While Einstein himself barely dwelt on honors, it is an interesting exercise to ask how many Nobel-caliber breakthroughs Einstein made during his productive research career. This analysis has a bit in common with fantasy sports.
|
en
|
/favicon.ico
|
HuffPost
|
https://www.huffpost.com/entry/einstein-fantasy-physics_b_4948045
|
While Einstein himself barely dwelt on honors, it is an interesting exercise to ask how many Nobel-caliber breakthroughs Einstein made during his productive research career. This analysis has a bit in common with fantasy sports.
Mendelson Family Professor of American Studies at Columbia; Recipient of the 2011 Humanities Medal
This post was published on the now-closed HuffPost Contributor platform. Contributors control their own work and posted freely to our site. If you need to flag this entry as abusive, send us an email.
Albert Einstein never cared too much about receiving awards and honors (or even birthdays, since Pi Day is this week), and that included the Nobel Prizes, which were established in 1901, at roughly the same time as Einstein was beginning his research career in physics. When he finally won the 1921 Prize (awarded in 1922), he did not win for his most famous achievement, Relativity Theory, which was still deemed too speculative and uncertain to endorse with the Prize. Instead, he won for his 1905 proposal of the law of the photoelectric effect and for general "services to theoretical physics." It was a political decision by the Nobel committee; Einstein was so renowned that their failure to select him had become an embarrassment. However, the only part of his brilliant portfolio that they either understood or trusted sufficiently to name for the award was this relatively minor implication of his 1905 paper on particles of light. The final irony in this selection was that, among the many controversial theories that Einstein had proposed in the previous 17 years, the only one not accepted by almost all of the leading theoretical physicists of the time was precisely his theory of light quanta (or photons), which he had used to find the law of the photoelectric effect!
In keeping with his relative indifference to such honors, Einstein declined to attend the award ceremony because he had previously committed to a lengthy trip to Japan at that time. Such was his indifference that when news reached him during his long voyage to Japan, he neglected to even mention it in his travel diary.
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While Einstein himself barely dwelt at all on this honor, it is an interesting exercise to ask how many Nobel-caliber breakthroughs Einstein made during his productive research career. This analysis has a bit in common with fantasy sports, in which athletes are judged and ranked by their statistical achievements, and arguments are made about who was the GOAT ("greatest of all time"). Let's call it fantasy physics. Join the fun as we count down Einstein's Nobel prize-winning efforts:
Let's start with the Prize he did receive. It absolutely was deserved, if the committee had had the courage to write the citation, "for his proposal of the existence of light quanta." The photon concept was unambiguously confirmed in experiments by 1925, and now is considered the paradigm for our modern quantum theory of force-carrying particles. So the photon is a Nobel slam dunk.
We can move next to two other "no-brainers," the two theories of relativity. The Special Theory, proposed in 1905, introduced the Principle of Relativity, which states that the law of physics must all be the same for bodies in uniform relative motion. This implied the radical notion that time itself does not pass uniformly for all observers. However, here it must be noted, that the equations of Special Relativity were first written down by Hendrik Lorentz, the great Dutch physicist whom Einstein admired the most of all his contemporaries. Lorentz just failed to give them the radical interpretation with which Einstein endowed them; he also failed to notice that they implied that energy and mass were interchangeable (E = mc2). Einstein would have been happy to share Special Relativity with Lorentz, so let's split this one 50-50 between the two.
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On the other hand, General Relativity, germinated in 1907 and completed in 1915, is all Albert. Like the photon, no one on the planet even had an inkling of this idea before Einstein. Einstein realized that the question of the relativity of motion was tied up with the theory of Gravity. From this simple seed of an idea, arose arguably the most beautiful and mathematically profound theory in all of physics, Einstein's Field Equations. These predict that matter curves space and that the geometry of our universe is non-Euclidean in general. This one is probably worth two Nobel prizes, but let's just mark it down for one.
Here we exhaust what most working physicists would immediately recognize as Einstein's works of genius, and we're only at 2.5 Nobels. But it is a remarkable fact that Einstein's work on early atomic theory -- what we now call quantum theory -- is vastly underrated. This is partially because Einstein himself downplayed it. He famously rejected the final version of the theory, dismissing it with the famous phrase, "God does not play dice." But if one looks at what he actually did, the Nobels keep piling up:
Most textbooks credit German physicist, Max Planck, with introducing the radical notion of quantization of energy -- the idea that when energy is exchanged between atoms and radiation (e.g. light), it can only happen in discrete chunks. However, Planck didn't really say this in his work; he said something much more provisional and ambiguous. It was Einstein in his 1905 paper (but then much more clearly in a follow-up paper on the vibrations of atoms in 1907) who really stated the modern principle first. He then boldly applied it to the mechanical motion of atoms in solids, even when they are not exchanging energy with radiation. Despite the textbooks, Einstein clearly should have shared Planck's Nobel Prize for the principle of quantization of energy. We are up to 3.0 Nobels for Big Al.
This next one is rarely mentioned. After Einstein proposed his particulate theory of light in 1905, he came up with a mathematical proof that particle and wave properties were present in one formula that described the fluctuations of the intensity of light. In 1923, the French physicist Louis de Broglie hypothesized that electrons actually had wavelike properties similar to light. He freely admitted his debt to Einstein for this idea, but when he got the Nobel Prize for "wave-particle" duality in 1929, it was not shared. It should have been. Another half for Albert, at 3.5 and counting.
In 1916, three years after Niels Bohr introduced his "solar system" model of the atom, where the electrons could only travel in certain "allowed orbits" with quantized energy, Einstein returned to thinking about how atoms would absorb light, with the benefit of Bohr's picture. He realized that once an atom had absorbed some light, it would eventually give that light energy back by a process called spontaneous emission. Without any particular event to cause it, the electron would jump down to a lower energy orbit, emitting a photon. This was the first time that it was proposed that the theory of atoms had such random, uncaused events, a notion which became a second pillar of quantum theory. In the same work he introduced the principle of stimulated emission, the basic idea behind the laser. One full Prize, please.
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In 1924, Einstein received a paper about particles of light out of the blue from the unknown Indian physicist, Satyendra Nath Bose. Although Bose did not clearly state his revolutionary idea, reading between the lines, Einstein detected a completely new principle of quantum theory -- the idea that all fundamental particles are indistinguishable. Einstein applied the principle to atoms and discovered that a simple gas of atoms, if sufficiently cooled, would cease to obey all the laws that physicists and chemists had discovered for gases over the centuries. It turns out that this discovery underlies some of the most dramatic quantum effects, such as superconductivity. No knowledgeable physicist would dispute that Einstein deserved a full Nobel Prize for this discovery, but I am sure that Einstein would have wanted to share it with Bose (who never did receive the Prize).
So we are at 5.0 "units" of Nobel Prize but seven trips to Stockholm. And this leaves out other arguably Nobel-caliber achievements (Brownian motion as well as the Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen effect, which underlies modern quantum information physics). And wait a minute -- when someone shares the Nobel Prize do we refer to them as a "half- Laureate"? No way. Even scientists who get a "measly" third of a Prize are Nobel Laureates for life. Thus by the standard we apply to normal humans, Einstein deserved at least seven Nobel Prizes. So next time you make your fantasy scientist draft, you know who to take at number one.
This article is cross-posted from a longer piece at the Princeton University Press web site.
A. Douglas Stone is author of Einstein and the Quantum: The Quest of The Valiant Swabian.
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From Our Partner
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correct_award_00024
|
FactBench
|
2
| 66
|
https://www.consejoculturalmundial.org/world-award-of-science/
|
en
|
Albert Einstein World Award of Science
|
http://www.consejoculturalmundial.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/Albert-Einstein-Medal-0983R-crop.jpg
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2022-01-02T12:00:18+00:00
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Winners of the Albert Einstein World Award of Science are elected by renowned scientists. Diploma, medal and cheque are awarded.
|
en
|
World Cultural Council
|
https://www.consejoculturalmundial.org/world-award-of-science/
|
In this century, the work of Albert Einstein is the most representative example of the search for the fundamental scientific laws of nature.
He was born in Ulm, Germany on March 14th, 1879. In 1916, he published “The General Theory of Relativity” which advanced twenty years time in contemporary scientific work in the area of theoretical physics. Among his most important contributions to humanity are, besides the above mentioned theory: “The Theory of Brownian Movement”, “The Inertia Principle of Energy”, “The Quantum Law in the Emission and Absorption of Light” and “The Theory of the Specific Heat of Solid Bodies”.
In 1921 he was granted the Nobel Prize in Physics for his Photoelectric Law.
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correct_award_00024
|
FactBench
|
2
| 89
|
https://www.ias.edu/scholars/einstein
|
en
|
Albert Einstein
|
[
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2019-12-09T16:45:06-05:00
|
en
|
/themes/custom/veblen/images/favicons/favicon.ico
|
Institute for Advanced Study
|
https://www.ias.edu/scholars/einstein
|
Physicist Albert Einstein (1879–1955) was one of the Institute’s first Faculty members, serving from 1933 until his death in 1955, and he played a significant part in its early development.
Einstein came to the United States to take up his appointment at the Institute at the invitation of Abraham Flexner, the Institute’s founding Director. During his time as an Institute Faculty member, Einstein pursued the goal of a unified field theory, and did so at a time when the goal of unifying the four fundamental forces of nature—gravity, electromagnetism, the strong nuclear force, and the weak nuclear force—had been set aside by the majority of working physicists. In recent years, this has again become a central goal of physicists and string theory has become the favored candidate to provide a framework for a unified understanding of the basic laws of the physical universe.
Nobel Laureate, Physics Prize, 1921
|
|||||
correct_award_00024
|
FactBench
|
3
| 8
|
https://testbook.com/question-answer/einstein-got-the-nobel-prize-for--5f8078b1abfbc1cb2bfd5483
|
en
|
[Solved] Einstein got the Nobel Prize for
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The correct answer is the photoelectric effect.
Albert Einstein received his Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921 for his services to Theoretical Physics, and
|
Testbook
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https://testbook.com/question-answer/einstein-got-the-nobel-prize-for--5f8078b1abfbc1cb2bfd5483
|
-> BPSC Answer Sheet Notice has been released. Candidates will be able to check their answer sheets online from 21st to 27th June 2024.
-> This is for the Mains Exam which was conducted on 20th and 21st January 2024. The BPSC 69th Mains Exam for General Hindi, General Studies, and Essay papers was conducted from 3rd to 6th January.
-> The 69th BPSC CCE Prelims Result was declared earlier for the exam which was held on 30th September 2023.
-> The total BPSC 69th Vacancy counts to 475 posts. The Bihar Public Service Commission (BPSC) issued a notification for the 69th Combined Examination.
-> This examination aims to vacancies in various departments of the Bihar Government.
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correct_award_00024
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FactBench
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3
| 92
|
https://www.barnebys.com/blog/celebrating-the-centennial-of-albert-einsteins-nobel-prize-lecture
|
en
|
Celebrating the Centennial of Albert Einstein's Nobel Prize Lecture
|
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2024-07-20T16:26:21.813000+00:00
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In honor of the anniversary, we look at some of the top Albert Einstein items, from signed letters to photographs, that are available on the market.
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en
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Barnebys.com
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https://www.barnebys.com/blog/celebrating-the-centennial-of-albert-einsteins-nobel-prize-lecture
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Albert Einstein gave his Nobel prize lecture entitled Fundamental Ideas and Problems of the Theory of Relativity on July 11, 1923. The centennial of this event is a reminder of the remarkable history of Einstein’s Nobel prize and Nobel prize address.
The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences had repeatedly rejected Einstein as a Nobel prize recipient despite his sixty nominations, most of them for relativity, over a decade. In 1921 the Committee for Physics became deadlocked, resulting in no award that year. The following year, the Academy awarded Einstein the unused 1921 prize – but pointedly not for the theory of relativity. The prize was for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect.
Einstein’s 1905 publication on the photoelectric effect was undoubtedly worthy of a Nobel prize. It explained the behavior of electron emission from metals when struck by light. His theory that light conveys energy in discrete packets, or quanta, was a foundation of quantum mechanics. But it was surprising to many that he didn’t receive the award for his most significant scientific contribution─the general theory of relativity─which is the basis of virtually everything we know about the universe’s structure, history, and behavior.
In March 1923, Svante Arrhenius, Chairman of the Committee for Physics, wrote to Einstein suggesting that he not wait until December to deliver his Nobel lecture in Stockholm but instead address the Scandinavian Society of Science in Gothenburg in July on the 300th anniversary of the city’s founding. Even though he had been instrumental in excluding relativity from Einstein’s Nobel award, Arrenhius suggested also that the address be about relativity. Einstein accepted the invitation and gave the lecture on July 11, 1923.
In honor of this centennial, here are six Einstein items being offered for purchase at Manhattan Rare Books:
Here are Einstein's manuscript scientific notes on relativity, c. 1912-1915. From 1912 onward, when Einstein returned from Prague to Zurich, he was intensely and incessantly involved in trying to generalize his special relativity theory from inertial to accelerated frames of reference. The effort included two years of collaboration with his friend Marcel Grossmann in Zurich, and then continued work in Berlin from spring 1914 onward, where Einstein took up a specially designated research chair sponsored by the Prussian Academy of Sciences. He achieved a successful result by November 1915, when he presented four communications of his new General Theory to the Prussian Academy. While most Einstein autograph material on the market is in the form of letters to friends or colleagues, or drafts of papers to be published, the present manuscript gives us a glimpse of Einstein doing what he did best - original research. It clearly illustrates his highly visual way of thinking, for the manuscript contains several illustrative diagrams alongside mathematical formulas.
Philippe Halsman’s now iconic 1947 photograph of Einstein has become not only one of the most celebrated images of Einstein, but one of the most recognizable images of the twentieth century. It was used to a 1966 US postage stamp of Einstein and was featured on the cover ofTime Magazine honoring Einstein as the “Person of the Century”.
Another master photograph of Einstein is this one by Yousuf Karsh taken in 1948. On February 11, 1948, Yousuf Karsh, perhaps the most accomplished portrait photographer of his generation, visited The Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton to fulfill a dream of his: to photograph Albert Einstein. As he later explained, “Among the tasks that life as a photographer had set me, a portrait of Albert Einstein had always seemed a ‘must’ – not only because this greatest refugee of our century has been accounted by all the world as the [most] outstanding scientist since Newton, but because his face, in all its rough grandeur, invited and challenged the camera...”
Also taken at Princeton is this rare suite of seven photographs of Einstein by photographer Roman Vishniac in 1942. As Vishniac recalled, "It was a singular experience. An idea had suddenly come to him, and the room was filled with the movement of the great man’s thought. I waited several minutes, and then when I saw that he did not intend to say anything more to me and that he was off in a world of his own, I started taking pictures." Einstein later admitted that a Vishniac photograph taken that day was his favorite portrait."
The imperative “to protect the rights of the individual... was Einstein’s most fundamental political tenet. Individualism and freedom were necessary for creative art and science to flourish. Personally, politically, and professionally, he was repulsed by any restraints. This remarkable letter – from 1943 – is one of the earliest examples of his interest in condemning racism in the United States. It is dated 22 September 1943 and written in English to Walter F. White, the enormously influential African-American civil rights leader who led the NAACP from 1929-1955, praising him for his work and revealing his own awareness of and frustrations with racism and prejudice in America.
This other letter was written by Einstein to his son Eduard “Tetel” Einstein in 1937. In German, Einstein offers life advice and discusses Freud, Shakespeare and Schiller. From an early age, Eduard became enamored with the teachings of Freud, even hanging a picture of famous psychiatrist on his bedroom wall. By the age of twenty he was diagnosed with schizophrenia and consequently was institutionalized several times throughout his life. Einstein advises Eduard in this letter that it is the pursuit and the work in attaining the goal that brings satisfaction and sustains one throughout life, even if “the work of a single person will not have much of an impact in the big picture”. This, he notes, is critical to understand after the illusions of youth have succumbed to reality.
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correct_award_00024
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FactBench
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1
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https://sweden.se/work-business/study-research/the-swedish-nobel-prize
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en
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The Nobel Prize
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https://sweden.se/_next/image?url=https%3A%2F%2Fcms.sweden.se%2Fapp%2Fuploads%2F2023%2F10%2Fwebb_DSC1615-scaled.jpg&w=1200&q=90
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https://sweden.se/_next/image?url=https%3A%2F%2Fcms.sweden.se%2Fapp%2Fuploads%2F2023%2F10%2Fwebb_DSC1615-scaled.jpg&w=1200&q=90
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2024-01-17T08:00:00+00:00
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The Nobel Prize is very prestigious and is awarded every year in physics, chemistry, literature, medicine/physiology, economics and peace.
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en
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sweden.se
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https://sweden.se/work-business/study-research/the-swedish-nobel-prize
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The Swedish Nobel Prize
Great minds think differently. The Nobel Prize is a celebration of excellence.
To many, the Nobel Prize is the most prestigious award in the world in its field. In accordance with Alfred Nobel's will, the prize celebrates ‘those who, during the preceding year, shall have conferred the greatest benefit on mankind’.
Prizes in physics, chemistry, physiology or medicine, literature and peace exist since 1901.
Later, in 1968, Sweden’s central bank (Sveriges Riksbank) established the Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel via a donation to the Nobel Foundation. Since then, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences awards the prize, basing selections on the same principles as the Nobel Prizes.
Prize-winning discoveries include X-rays, radioactivity and penicillin. Peace laureates include Nelson Mandela and the 14th Dalai Lama. Winners in literature have thrilled readers with works such as One Hundred Years of Solitude (Gabriel García Márquez) and The Grass is Singing (Doris Lessing).
Nobel Prize winners announced in October
Every year in early October, the winners are announced. Then on 10 December, the so-called Nobel Day, award ceremonies take place in the Swedish capital of Stockholm and the Norwegian capital of Oslo.
The years 2020 and 2021 were exceptions to the rule in Sweden. Due to the Covid-19 pandemic, the laureates received their diplomas and medals in their countries of residence. Nobel Week then featured as a digital event, with online award ceremonies and lectures, and without the usual Stockholm banquet.
Some winner statistics
Women have received the Nobel Prize and the Prize in Economic Sciences 61 times from 1901 to 2023. One woman, Marie Curie, is a two-time recipient – she won the 1903 award in physics and the 1911 award in chemistry.
In 1909, Swede Selma Lagerlöf became the first female literature laureate.
The oldest winner to date is John B. Goodenough (1922-2023), who was 97 when he received the Prize in Chemistry in 2019.
The youngest winner to date is Malala Yousafzai, who was 17 when she received the Peace Prize in 2014.
Four winners have been forced to decline the prize: Germans Richard Kuhn (Chemistry), Adolf Butenandt (Chemistry) and Gerhard Domagk (Physiology/Medicine) were forbidden by Adolf Hitler from accepting their prizes. Russian Boris Pasternak initially accepted the 1958 award in literature, but was later coerced into declining by Soviet authorities.
The three Germans later received their awards, but not the prize money.
Two winners have declined
Jean-Paul Sartre declined the 1964 Literature Prize because he had consistently declined all official honours.
In 1973, Lê Ðức Thọ and US Secretary of State Henry Kissinger were awarded the Peace Prize for negotiating the Vietnam peace agreement. But Lê Ðức Thọ declined the award, saying he could not accept the prize due to the situation in Vietnam.
A timeline of culture and science
From the first award in 1901 to the most recent ones in 2023, Nobel Prizes have been awarded 621 times. A total of 965 individuals and 27 organisations have been awarded, with some receiving the Nobel Prize more than once.
1901: Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen receives the first Nobel Prize in Physics for his discovery of X-rays.
1903: Marie Curie becomes the first female laureate, as the joint winner in physics for her research into radioactivity. Eight years later, in 1911, Curie receives the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for her discovery of radium.
1905: Austrian baroness and author Bertha von Suttner becomes the first woman to win the Nobel Peace Prize, in recognition of her work with the pacifist movements in Germany and Austria. Von Suttner also knew Alfred Nobel personally and is widely credited as the person who inspired him to create the Peace Prize.
1912: Swedish inventor and industrialist Gustaf Dalén wins the Nobel Prize in Physics for his contributions to lighthouse technology. He invented the AGA lighthouse, a type of automatic lighthouse that ran on acetylene gas. It made it possible to reduce gas consumption by 90 per cent compared with earlier constructions.
1914–1918: In the wake of World War I, only one Peace Prize is awarded. The International Committee of the Red Cross receives it in 1917, 'for the efforts to take care of wounded soldiers and prisoners of war and their families'. The International Committee of the Red Cross will go on to receive the Nobel Peace Prize twice more, in 1944, and jointly with the League of Red Cross Societies in 1963.
1922: Albert Einstein receives the Nobel Prize in Physics – for 1921, technically. The Nobel Committee for Physics' decision to give Einstein the award a year later is shortly explained here. Einstein is awarded '...for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect'.
1945: Sir Alexander Fleming, Ernst Boris Chain and Sir Howard Walter jointly receive the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine Florey for the discovery of penicillin.
1952: Selman Abraham Waksman receives the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, for his discovery of streptomycin – the first antibiotic effective against tuberculosis.
1968: The Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel is introduced as a Nobel Prize category.
1975: David Baltimore, Renato Dulbecco and Howard Martin Temin jointly receive the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 'for their discoveries concerning the interaction between tumour viruses and the genetic material of the cell'.
1983: American Barbara McClintock receives the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for her discovery of mobile genetic elements.
1993: Toni Morrison receives the Nobel Prize in Literature. Her novels are '...characterized by visionary force and poetic import, (giving) life to an essential aspect of American reality', writes the Swedish Academy.
2004: Aaron Ciechanover, Avram Hershko and Irwin Rose jointly receive the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the discovery of ubiquitin-mediated protein degradation.
2010: Robert G. Edwards of the United Kingdom receives the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for the development of in vitro fertilization.
2011: Swedish poet Tomas Tranströmer receives the Nobel Prize in Literature. 'Because, through his condensed, translucent images, he gives us fresh access to reality', writes the Swedish Academy.
2018: In the midst of a crisis, the Swedish Academy chooses not to hand out a literature prize. The Academy cites its diminished number of active members and a reduced public confidence as the reasons. The year after, the Academy announces the Nobel Prize in Literature for 2018 – Olga Tokarczuk – in parallel with the naming of the 2019 Laureate, Peter Handke.
2019: Ethiopian prime minister Abiy Ahmed Ali receives the Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts to resolve border conflicts between Ethiopia and neighbouring country Eritrea. The intent of the Prize is also to recognise all stakeholders working for peace and reconciliation in Ethiopia and in the East and Northeast African regions.
Previous Nobel Peace Prize Laureates include Martin Luther King (1964), Mother Teresa (1979) and Barack Obama (2009).
2023 winners:
(countries denote place of birth)
Physiology or Medicine
Katalin Karikó (Hungary), Drew Weissman (USA)
'For their discoveries concerning nucleoside base modifications that enabled the development of effective mRNA vaccines against COVID-19.'
Physics
Pierre Agostini (Tunisia), Ferencz Krausz (Hungary), Anne L'Huillier (France)
'For experimental methods that generate attosecond pulses of light for the study of electron dynamics in matter.'
Chemistry
Moungi G. Bawendi (France), Louis E. Brus (USA), Alexei I. Ekimov (former Soviet Union)
'For the discovery and synthesis of quantum dots.'
Literature
Jon Fosse (Norway)
'For his innovative plays and prose which give voice to the unsayable.'
Nobel Peace Prize
Narges Mohammadi (Iran)
'For her fight against the oppression of women in Iran and her fight to promote human rights and freedom for all.'
The Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel
Claudia Goldin (USA)
'For having advanced our understanding of women’s labour market outcomes.'
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correct_award_00024
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FactBench
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2
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https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1921/einstein/biographical/
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en
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Albert Einstein – Biographical
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The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921 was awarded to Albert Einstein "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect"
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en
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NobelPrize.org
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https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1921/einstein/biographical/
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Albert Einstein
Biographical
Questions and Answers on Albert Einstein
Albert Einstein was born at Ulm, in Württemberg, Germany, on March 14, 1879. Six weeks later the family moved to Munich, where he later on began his schooling at the Luitpold Gymnasium. Later, they moved to Italy and Albert continued his education at Aarau, Switzerland and in 1896 he entered the Swiss Federal Polytechnic School in Zurich to be trained as a teacher in physics and mathematics. In 1901, the year he gained his diploma, he acquired Swiss citizenship and, as he was unable to find a teaching post, he accepted a position as technical assistant in the Swiss Patent Office. In 1905 he obtained his doctor’s degree.
During his stay at the Patent Office, and in his spare time, he produced much of his remarkable work and in 1908 he was appointed Privatdozent in Berne. In 1909 he became Professor Extraordinary at Zurich, in 1911 Professor of Theoretical Physics at Prague, returning to Zurich in the following year to fill a similar post. In 1914 he was appointed Director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Physical Institute and Professor in the University of Berlin. He became a German citizen in 1914 and remained in Berlin until 1933 when he renounced his citizenship for political reasons and emigrated to America to take the position of Professor of Theoretical Physics at Princeton*. He became a United States citizen in 1940 and retired from his post in 1945.
After World War II, Einstein was a leading figure in the World Government Movement, he was offered the Presidency of the State of Israel, which he declined, and he collaborated with Dr. Chaim Weizmann in establishing the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
Einstein always appeared to have a clear view of the problems of physics and the determination to solve them. He had a strategy of his own and was able to visualize the main stages on the way to his goal. He regarded his major achievements as mere stepping-stones for the next advance.
At the start of his scientific work, Einstein realized the inadequacies of Newtonian mechanics and his special theory of relativity stemmed from an attempt to reconcile the laws of mechanics with the laws of the electromagnetic field. He dealt with classical problems of statistical mechanics and problems in which they were merged with quantum theory: this led to an explanation of the Brownian movement of molecules. He investigated the thermal properties of light with a low radiation density and his observations laid the foundation of the photon theory of light.
In his early days in Berlin, Einstein postulated that the correct interpretation of the special theory of relativity must also furnish a theory of gravitation and in 1916 he published his paper on the general theory of relativity. During this time he also contributed to the problems of the theory of radiation and statistical mechanics.
In the 1920s, Einstein embarked on the construction of unified field theories, although he continued to work on the probabilistic interpretation of quantum theory, and he persevered with this work in America. He contributed to statistical mechanics by his development of the quantum theory of a monatomic gas and he has also accomplished valuable work in connection with atomic transition probabilities and relativistic cosmology.
After his retirement he continued to work towards the unification of the basic concepts of physics, taking the opposite approach, geometrisation, to the majority of physicists.
Einstein’s researches are, of course, well chronicled and his more important works include Special Theory of Relativity (1905), Relativity (English translations, 1920 and 1950), General Theory of Relativity (1916), Investigations on Theory of Brownian Movement (1926), and The Evolution of Physics (1938). Among his non-scientific works, About Zionism (1930), Why War? (1933), My Philosophy (1934), and Out of My Later Years (1950) are perhaps the most important.
Albert Einstein received honorary doctorate degrees in science, medicine and philosophy from many European and American universities. During the 1920’s he lectured in Europe, America and the Far East, and he was awarded Fellowships or Memberships of all the leading scientific academies throughout the world. He gained numerous awards in recognition of his work, including the Copley Medal of the Royal Society of London in 1925, and the Franklin Medal of the Franklin Institute in 1935.
Einstein’s gifts inevitably resulted in his dwelling much in intellectual solitude and, for relaxation, music played an important part in his life. He married Mileva Maric in 1903 and they had a daughter and two sons; their marriage was dissolved in 1919 and in the same year he married his cousin, Elsa Löwenthal, who died in 1936. He died on April 18, 1955 at Princeton, New Jersey.
From Nobel Lectures, Physics 1901-1921, Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1967
This autobiography/biography was written at the time of the award and first published in the book series Les Prix Nobel. It was later edited and republished in Nobel Lectures. To cite this document, always state the source as shown above.
* Albert Einstein was formally associated with the Institute for Advanced Study located in Princeton, New Jersey.
Copyright © The Nobel Foundation 1922
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https://www.biography.com/scientists/albert-einstein
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Albert Einstein: Biography, Physicist, Nobel Prize Winner
|
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2014-04-03T01:07:56
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Physicist Albert Einstein developed the theory of relativity and won the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics. Read about his inventions, IQ, wives, death, and more.
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en
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/_assets/design-tokens/biography/static/images/favicon.3635572.ico
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Biography
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https://www.biography.com/scientists/albert-einstein
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1879-1955
Who Was Albert Einstein?
Albert Einstein was a German mathematician and physicist who developed the special and general theories of relativity. In 1921, he won the Nobel Prize in Physics for his explanation of the photoelectric effect. In the following decade, he immigrated to the United States after being targeted by the German Nazi Party. His work also had a major impact on the development of atomic energy. In his later years, Einstein focused on unified field theory. He died in April 1955 at age 76. With his passion for inquiry, Einstein is generally considered the most influential physicist of the 20th century.
Quick Facts
FULL NAME: Albert Einstein
BORN: March 14, 1879
DIED: April 18, 1955
BIRTHPLACE: Ulm, Württemberg, Germany
SPOUSES: Mileva Einstein-Maric (1903-1919) and Elsa Einstein (1919-1936)
CHILDREN: Lieserl, Hans, and Eduard
ASTROLOGICAL SIGN: Pisces
Early Life, Family, and Education
Albert Einstein was born on March 14, 1879, in Ulm, Württemberg, Germany. He grew up in a secular Jewish family. His father, Hermann Einstein, was a salesman and engineer who, with his brother, founded Elektrotechnische Fabrik J. Einstein & Cie, a Munich-based company that mass-produced electrical equipment. Einstein’s mother, the former Pauline Koch, ran the family household. Einstein had one sister, Maja, born two years after him.
Einstein attended elementary school at the Luitpold Gymnasium in Munich. However, he felt alienated there and struggled with the institution’s rigid pedagogical style. He also had what were considered speech challenges. However, he developed a passion for classical music and playing the violin, which would stay with him into his later years. Most significantly, Einstein’s youth was marked by deep inquisitiveness and inquiry.
Toward the end of the 1880s, Max Talmud, a Polish medical student who sometimes dined with the Einstein family, became an informal tutor to young Einstein. Talmud had introduced his pupil to a children’s science text that inspired Einstein to dream about the nature of light. Thus, during his teens, Einstein penned what would be seen as his first major paper, “The Investigation of the State of Aether in Magnetic Fields.”
Hermann relocated the family to Milan, Italy, in the mid-1890s after his business lost out on a major contract. Einstein was left at a relative’s boarding house in Munich to complete his schooling at the Luitpold.
Faced with military duty when he turned of age, Einstein allegedly withdrew from classes, using a doctor’s note to excuse himself and claim nervous exhaustion. With their son rejoining them in Italy, his parents understood Einstein’s perspective but were concerned about his future prospects as a school dropout and draft dodger.
Einstein was eventually able to gain admission into the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich, specifically due to his superb mathematics and physics scores on the entrance exam. He was still required to complete his pre-university education first and thus attended a high school in Aarau, Switzerland, helmed by Jost Winteler. Einstein lived with the schoolmaster’s family and fell in love with Winteler’s daughter Marie. Einstein later renounced his German citizenship and became a Swiss citizen at the dawn of the new century.
Einstein’s IQ
Einstein’s intelligence quotient was estimated to be around 160, but there are no indications he was ever actually tested.
Psychologist David Wechsler didn’t release the first edition of the WAIS cognitive test, which evolved into the WAIS-IV test commonly used today, until 1955—shortly before Einstein’s death. The maximum score of the current version is 160, with an IQ of 135 or higher ranking in the 99th percentile.
Magazine columnist Marilyn vos Savant has the highest-ever recorded IQ at 228 and was featured in the Guinness Book of World Records in the late 1980s. However, Guinness discontinued the category because of debates about testing accuracy. According to Parade, individuals believed to have higher IQs than Einstein include Leonardo Da Vinci, Marie Curie, Nikola Tesla, and Nicolaus Copernicus.
Patent Clerk
After graduating from university, Einstein faced major challenges in terms of finding academic positions, having alienated some professors over not attending class more regularly in lieu of studying independently.
Einstein eventually found steady work in 1902 after receiving a referral for a clerk position in a Swiss patent office. While working at the patent office, Einstein had the time to further explore ideas that had taken hold during his university studies and thus cemented his theorems on what would be known as the principle of relativity.
In 1905—seen by many as a “miracle year” for the theorist—Einstein had four papers published in the Annalen der Physik, one of the best-known physics journals of the era. Two focused on the photoelectric effect and Brownian motion. The two others, which outlined E=MC2 and the special theory of relativity, were defining for Einstein’s career and the course of the study of physics.
Inventions and Discoveries
As a physicist, Einstein had many discoveries, but he is perhaps best known for his theory of relativity and the equation E=MC2, which foreshadowed the development of atomic power and the atomic bomb.
Theory of Relativity
Einstein first proposed a special theory of relativity in 1905 in his paper “On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies,” which took physics in an electrifying new direction. The theory explains that space and time are actually connected, and Einstein called this joint structure space-time.
By November 1915, Einstein completed the general theory of relativity, which accounted for gravity’s relationship to space-time. Einstein considered this theory the culmination of his life research. He was convinced of the merits of general relativity because it allowed for a more accurate prediction of planetary orbits around the sun, which fell short in Isaac Newton’s theory. It also offered a more expansive, nuanced explanation of how gravitational forces worked.
Einstein’s assertions were affirmed via observations and measurements by British astronomers Sir Frank Dyson and Sir Arthur Eddington during the 1919 solar eclipse, and thus a global science icon was born. Today, the theories of relativity underpin the accuracy of GPS technology, among other phenomena.
Even so, Einstein did make one mistake when developing his general theory, which naturally predicted the universe is either expanding or contracting. Einstein didn’t believe this prediction initially, instead holding onto the belief that the universe was a fixed, static entity. To account for, this he factored in a “cosmological constant” to his equation. His later theories directly contracted this idea and asserted that the universe could be in a state of flux. Then, astronomer Edwin Hubble deduced that we indeed inhabit an expanding universe. Hubble and Einstein met at the Mount Wilson Observatory near Los Angeles in 1931.
Decades after Einstein’s death, in 2018, a team of scientists confirmed one aspect of Einstein’s general theory of relativity: that the light from a star passing close to a black hole would be stretched to longer wavelengths by the overwhelming gravitational field. Tracking star S2, their measurements indicated that the star’s orbital velocity increased to over 25 million kph as it neared the supermassive black hole at the center of the galaxy, its appearance shifting from blue to red as its wavelengths stretched to escape the pull of gravity.
Einstein’s E=MC²
Einstein’s 1905 paper on the matter-energy relationship proposed the equation E=MC²: the energy of a body (E) is equal to the mass (M) of that body times the speed of light squared (C²). This equation suggested that tiny particles of matter could be converted into huge amounts of energy, a discovery that heralded atomic power.
Famed quantum theorist Max Planck backed up the assertions of Einstein, who thus became a star of the lecture circuit and academia, taking on various positions before becoming director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics (today is known as the Max Planck Institute for Physics) from 1917 to 1933.
Nobel Prize in Physics
In 1921, Einstein won the Nobel Prize in Physics for his explanation of the photoelectric effect, since his ideas on relativity were still considered questionable. He wasn’t actually given the award until the following year due to a bureaucratic ruling, and during his acceptance speech, he still opted to speak about relativity.
Wives and Children
Albert Einstein with his second wife, Elsa
Einstein married Mileva Maric on January 6, 1903. While attending school in Zurich, Einstein met Maric, a Serbian physics student. Einstein continued to grow closer to Maric, but his parents were strongly against the relationship due to her ethnic background.
Nonetheless, Einstein continued to see her, with the two developing a correspondence via letters in which he expressed many of his scientific ideas. Einstein’s father passed away in 1902, and the couple married shortly thereafter.
Einstein and Mavic had three children. Their daughter, Lieserl, was born in 1902 before their wedding and might have been later raised by Maric’s relatives or given up for adoption. Her ultimate fate and whereabouts remain a mystery. The couple also had two sons: Hans Albert Einstein, who became a well-known hydraulic engineer, and Eduard “Tete” Einstein, who was diagnosed with schizophrenia as a young man.
The Einsteins’ marriage would not be a happy one, with the two divorcing in 1919 and Maric having an emotional breakdown in connection to the split. Einstein, as part of a settlement, agreed to give Maric any funds he might receive from possibly winning the Nobel Prize in the future.
During his marriage to Maric, Einstein had also begun an affair some time earlier with a cousin, Elsa Löwenthal. The couple wed in 1919, the same year of Einstein’s divorce. He would continue to see other women throughout his second marriage, which ended with Löwenthal’s death in 1936.
Travel Diaries
In his 40s, Einstein traveled extensively and journaled about his experiences. Some of his unfiltered private thoughts are shared two volumes of The Travel Diaries of Albert Einstein.
, published in 2018, focuses on his five-and-a-half month trip to the Far East, Palestine, and Spain. The scientist started a sea journey to Japan in Marseille, France, in autumn of 1922, accompanied by his second wife, Elsa. They journeyed through the Suez Canal, then to Sri Lanka, Singapore, Hong Kong, Shanghai, and Japan. The couple returned to Germany via Palestine and Spain in March 1923.
, released in 2023, covers three months that he spent lecturing and traveling in Argentina, Uruguay, and Brazil in 1925.
The Travel Diaries contain unflattering analyses of the people he came across, including the Chinese, Sri Lankans, and Argentinians, a surprise coming from a man known for vehemently denouncing racism in his later years. In an entry for November 1922, Einstein refers to residents of Hong Kong as “industrious, filthy, lethargic people.”
Becoming a U.S. Citizen
In 1933, Einstein took on a position at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, where he would spend the rest of his life.
At the time the Nazis, led by Adolf Hitler, were gaining prominence with violent propaganda and vitriol in an impoverished post-World War I Germany. The Nazi Party influenced other scientists to label Einstein’s work “Jewish physics.” Jewish citizens were barred from university work and other official jobs, and Einstein himself was targeted to be killed. Meanwhile, other European scientists also left regions threatened by Germany and immigrated to the United States, with concern over Nazi strategies to create an atomic weapon.
Not long after moving and beginning his career at IAS, Einstein expressed an appreciation for American meritocracy and the opportunities people had for free thought, a stark contrast to his own experiences coming of age. In 1935, Einstein was granted permanent residency in his adopted country and became an American citizen five years later.
In America, Einstein mostly devoted himself to working on a unified field theory, an all-embracing paradigm meant to unify the varied laws of physics. However, during World War II, he worked on Navy-based weapons systems and made big monetary donations to the military by auctioning off manuscripts worth millions.
Einstein and the Atomic Bomb
Albert Einstein gives a speech denouncing the use of hydrogen bombs in 1950.
In 1939, Einstein and fellow physicist Leo Szilard wrote to President Franklin D. Roosevelt to alert him of the possibility of a Nazi bomb and to galvanize the United States to create its own nuclear weapons.
The United States would eventually initiate the Manhattan Project, though Einstein wouldn’t take a direct part in its implementation due to his pacifist and socialist affiliations. Einstein was also the recipient of much scrutiny and major distrust from FBI director J. Edgar Hoover. In July 1940, the U.S. Army Intelligence office denied Einstein a security clearance to participate in the project, meaning J. Robert Oppenheimer and the scientists working in Los Alamos were forbidden from consulting with him.
Einstein had no knowledge of the U.S. plan to use atomic bombs in Japan in 1945. When he heard of the first bombing at Hiroshima, he reportedly said, “Ach! The world is not ready for it.”
Einstein became a major player in efforts to curtail usage of the A-bomb. The following year, he and Szilard founded the Emergency Committee of Atomic Scientists, and in 1947, via an essay for The Atlantic Monthly, Einstein espoused working with the United Nations to maintain nuclear weapons as a deterrent to conflict.
Time Travel and Quantum Theory
After World War II, Einstein continued to work on his unified field theory and key aspects of his general theory of relativity, including time travel, wormholes, black holes, and the origins of the universe.
However, he felt isolated in his endeavors since the majority of his colleagues had begun focusing their attention on quantum theory. In the last decade of his life, Einstein, who had always seen himself as a loner, withdrew even further from any sort of spotlight, preferring to stay close to Princeton and immerse himself in processing ideas with colleagues.
Personal Life
In the late 1940s, Einstein became a member of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), seeing the parallels between the treatment of Jews in Germany and Black people in the United States. He corresponded with scholar and activist W.E.B. Du Bois as well as performer Paul Robeson and campaigned for civil rights, calling racism a “disease” in a 1946 Lincoln University speech.
Einstein was very particular about his sleep schedule, claiming he needed 10 hours of sleep per day to function well. His theory of relativity allegedly came to him in a dream about cows being electrocuted. He was also known to take regular naps. He is said to have held objects like a spoon or pencil in his hand while falling asleep. That way, he could wake up before hitting the second stage of sleep—a hypnagogic process believed to boost creativity and capture sleep-inspired ideas.
Although sleep was important to Einstein, socks were not. He was famous for refusing to wear them. According to a letter he wrote to future wife Elsa, he stopped wearing them because he was annoyed by his big toe pushing through the material and creating a hole.
Albert Einstein sticks his tongue out in a famous 1951 photo from his birthday party.
One of the most recognizable photos of the 20th century shows Einstein sticking out his tongue while leaving his 72nd birthday party on March 14, 1951.
According to Discovery.com, Einstein was leaving his party at Princeton when a swarm of reporters and photographers approached and asked him to smile. Tired from doing so all night, he refused and rebelliously stuck his tongue out at the crowd for a moment before turning away. UPI photographer Arthur Sasse captured the shot.
Einstein was amused by the picture and ordered several prints to give to his friends. He also signed a copy of the photo that sold for $125,000 at a 2017 auction.
Death and Final Words
Einstein died on April 18, 1955, at age 76 at the University Medical Center at Princeton. The previous day, while working on a speech to honor Israel’s seventh anniversary, Einstein suffered an abdominal aortic aneurysm.
He was taken to the hospital for treatment but refused surgery, believing that he had lived his life and was content to accept his fate. “I want to go when I want,” he stated at the time. “It is tasteless to prolong life artificially. I have done my share, it is time to go. I will do it elegantly.”
According to the BBC, Einstein muttered a few words in German at the moment of his death. However, the nurse on duty didn’t speak German so their translation was lost forever.
In a 2014 interview, Life magazine photographer Ralph Morse said the hospital was swarmed by journalists, photographers, and onlookers once word of Einstein’s death spread. Morse decided to travel to Einstein’s office at the Institute for Advanced Studies, offering the superintendent alcohol to gain access. He was able to photograph the office just as Einstein left it.
After an autopsy, Einstein’s corpse was moved to a Princeton funeral home later that afternoon and then taken to Trenton, New Jersey, for a cremation ceremony. Morse said he was the only photographer present for the cremation, but Life managing editor Ed Thompson decided not to publish an exclusive story at the request of Einstein’s son Hans.
Einstein’s Brain
During Einstein’s autopsy, pathologist Thomas Stoltz Harvey had removed his brain, reportedly without his family’s consent, for preservation and future study by doctors of neuroscience.
However, during his life, Einstein participated in brain studies, and at least one biography claimed he hoped researchers would study his brain after he died. Einstein’s brain is now located at the Princeton University Medical Center. In keeping with his wishes, the rest of his body was cremated and the ashes scattered in a secret location.
In 1999, Canadian scientists who were studying Einstein’s brain found that his inferior parietal lobe, the area that processes spatial relationships, 3D-visualization, and mathematical thought, was 15 percent wider than in people who possess normal intelligence. According to The New York Times, the researchers believe it might help explain why Einstein was so intelligent.
In 2011, the Mütter Museum in Philadelphia received thin slices of Einstein’s brain from Dr. Lucy Rorke-Adams, a neuropathologist at the Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia, and put them on display. Rorke-Adams said she received the brain slides from Harvey.
Einstein in Books and Movies: "Oppenheimer" and More
Since Einstein’s death, a veritable mountain of books have been written on the iconic thinker’s life, including by Walter Isaacson and by Jürgen Neffe, both from 2007. Einstein’s own words are presented in the collection .
Einstein has also been portrayed on screen. Michael Emil played a character called “The Professor,” clearly based on Einstein, in the 1985 film Insignificance—in which alternate versions of Einstein, Marilyn Monroe, Joe DiMaggio, and Joseph McCarthy cross paths in a New York City hotel.
Walter Matthau portrayed Einstein in the fictional 1994 comedy I.Q., in which he plays matchmaker for his niece played by Meg Ryan. Einstein was also a character in the obscure comedy films I Killed Einstein, Gentlemen (1970) and Young Einstein (1988).
A much more historically accurate depiction of Einstein came in 2017, when he was the subject of the first season of Genius, a 10-part scripted miniseries by National Geographic. Johnny Flynn played a younger version of the scientist, while Geoffrey Rush portrayed Einstein in his later years after he had fled Germany. Ron Howard was the director.
Tom Conti plays Einstein in the 2023 biopic Oppenheimer, directed by Christopher Nolan and starring Cillian Murphy as scientist J. Robert Oppenheimer during his involvement with the Manhattan Project.
Quotes
The world is a dangerous place to live; not because of the people who are evil, but because of the people who don’t do anything about it.
A question that sometimes drives me hazy: Am I or are the others crazy?
A person who never made a mistake never tried anything new.
Logic will get you from A to B. Imagination will take you everywhere.
I want to go when I want. It is tasteless to prolong life artificially. I have done my share, it is time to go. I will do it elegantly.
If you can’t explain it simply, you don’t understand it well enough.
Nature shows us only the tail of the lion. But there is no doubt in my mind that the lion belongs with it even if he cannot reveal himself to the eye all at once because of his huge dimension. We see him only the way a louse sitting upon him would.
[T]he distinction between past, present, and future is only an illusion, however persistent.
Living in this “great age,” it is hard to understand that we belong to this mad, degenerate species, which imputes free will to itself. If only there were somewhere an island for the benevolent and the prudent! Then also I would want to be an ardent patriot.
I, at any rate, am convinced that He [God] is not playing at dice.
How strange is the lot of us mortals! Each of us is here for a brief sojourn; for what purpose he knows not, though he sometimes thinks he senses it.
I regard class differences as contrary to justice and, in the last resort, based on force.
I have never looked upon ease and happiness as ends in themselves—this critical basis I call the ideal of a pigsty. The ideals that have lighted my way, and time after time have given me new courage to face life cheerfully, have been Kindness, Beauty, and Truth.
My political ideal is democracy. Let every man be respected as an individual and no man idolized. It is an irony of fate that I myself have been the recipient of excessive admiration and reverence from my fellow-beings, through no fault and no merit of my own.
The most beautiful experience we can have is the mysterious. It is the fundamental emotion that stands at the cradle of true art and true science. Whoever does not know it and can no longer wonder, no longer marvel, is as good as dead, and his eyes are dimmed.
An autocratic system of coercion, in my opinion, soon degenerates. For force always attracts men of low morality, and I believe it to be an invariable rule that tyrants of genius are succeeded by scoundrels.
My passionate interest in social justice and social responsibility has always stood in curious contrast to a marked lack of desire for direct association with men and women. I am a horse for single harness, not cut out for tandem or team work. I have never belonged wholeheartedly to country or state, to my circle of friends, or even to my own family.
Everybody is a genius.
Fact Check: We strive for accuracy and fairness. If you see something that doesn’t look right, contact us!
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Nobel Laureates
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SUNY’s Nobel Laureates
Since 1901, the Nobel Prize has existed to acknowledge superior contributions to physics, chemistry, medicine, economics, literature, and the cause of peace. A number of prominent SUNY faculty members have been recipients of this esteemed award. These are the sixteen Nobel award winners, their achievements, the impact of those achievements, and their influence on their particular campuses.
C.N. Yang, Stony Brook University
1957 Nobel Prize in Physics
Considered to be as basic a contribution to science as Einstein's Theory of Relativity, the Yang-Mills theory brainstormed by C.N. Yang transformed the understanding of how subatomic particles interact, an idea that became a major influence on modern physics and mathematics. The breakthrough demonstrated that standard theories about parity conservation are violated at the subatomic level, in the process of nuclear decay that emits alpha or beta particles. Yang was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1957 in recognition of his work in statistical mechanics and symmetry principles. Yang was appointed Albert Einstein Professor Emeritus of Physics at Stony Brook University, where he became the first director of the newly-founded Institute for Theoretical Physics. His formative years took place during the infancy of particle physics, and he employed an inductive method of inquiry that he learned from Enrico Fermi and Edward Teller. Though Yang did the majority of his Nobel work at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, he led the Institute for Theoretical Physicsâwhich celebrated its fiftieth anniversary in 2017âthrough a fertile period of scientific achievement, especially the discovery of supergravity in 1976. Yang retired in 1999.
Sir John Carew Eccles, University at Buffalo
1963 Nobel Prize in Medicine
Developing a childhood interest in the intricacies of the human brain into a prestigious career as a researcher, teacher and author that spanned more than half a century, Sir John Carew Eccles was a pioneer in the study of higher brain functions. The University at Buffalo professor shared the 1963 Nobel Prize in Medicine with Alan Hodgkin and Andrew Huxley for his discovery of the chemical means of impulse communication across synapses, the junctions between nerve cells. His work essentially proved how, by physics and chemistry, messages are passed from one nerve cell to another, and his conclusions were seen as a key to understanding higher functions of the brain. âBrain research is the ultimate problem confronting man...To the extent that we have a better understanding of the brain, we will have a richer appreciation of ourselves, our fellow men, and of society, and in fact, of the whole world and its problems,â said Eccles, who has always been concerned with the biophysical properties of synaptic transmission. Beginning his work at the Australian National University, Eccles moved on to the Institute of Biomedical Research at Chicago, and in 1968 came to the University at Buffalo, where he became professor of physiology and medicine and directed a neurobiology research unit until he retired. While at UB, he published The Understanding of the Brain (1973). Eccles was named SUNY Distinguished Professor in 1975. He died in Switzerland in 1997.
Herbert A. Hauptman, University at Buffalo
1985 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
While conducting experiments, Herbert A. Hauptman pioneered using mathematics to determine the atomic structure of complex molecules, transforming the field of chemistry and inspiring a new era of research. Today, these direct methods, which he never ceased refining, are still widely used to solve complicated structures. Though the concepts were first met with skepticism, they led to his solution for the phase problem in X-ray crystallography while working with the crystallographic group of the Medical Foundation of the University at Buffalo. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry along with Jerome Karle in 1985. The advances in X-ray crystallography that Hauptmanâs work inspired continue to have a huge impact on the design of therapeutic drugs to prevent and treat life-threatening diseases. He became research director and later president of the Medical Foundation of Buffalo in 1972, which in 1994 was renamed the Hauptman-Woodward Medical Research Institute, where he continued to work daily into his nineties, passing in 2011. The Institute continues to do cutting-edge research, from identifying new classes of anti-tumor agents to finding new ways to fight opportunistic infections in AIDS patients.
Ronald Coase, University at Buffalo
1991 Nobel Prize in Economics
In âThe Nature of the Firmâ (1937) â his famous essay â Ronald Coase explained why the economy consists of a number of firms instead of a multitude of self-employed contractors: transaction costs, which drive up the price of products. This economic theory, thought at first controversial because of its counterintuitive challenge to Adam Smith's philosophy, has proved enduring and influential, inspiring entirely new fields of scholarship. After arriving from the London School of Economics, Coase served as a professor in the University at Buffalo's economics department for eight years. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Economics in 1991 for his work in describing the impact of transaction costs and property rights on the makeup and functioning of the economy. The majority of his prizewinning work was done at Buffalo.
Toni Morrison, Purchase College and University at Albany
1993 Nobel Prize in Literature
Novelist, essayist, playwright, librettist -- Toni Morrisonâs work spans page, stage and screen. Her unique narrative technique has earned wide acclaim and prestigious awards including the National Humanities Medal (2000), the Presidential Medal of Freedom (2012) and the PEN/Saul Bellow Award for Achievement in American Fiction (2016). Morrison is the first African American woman to receive the Nobel Prize, which recognized her in 1993 as someone "who in novels characterized by visionary force and poetic import, gives life to an essential aspect of American reality.â Her extensive resume also includes teacher. Morrison was a Visiting Lecturer in Literature at Purchase College from 1971-1972. In 1983, the State University of New York, through the collegeâs School of Humanities, awarded her with an honorary doctorate of humane letters degree. During her tenure as Schweitzer Chair in the Humanities at the University at Albany in the 1980s, Morrison taught classes in the Department of English; wrote the novel Beloved, which won the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction in 1988; completed the writing and oversaw the production of her first play, Dreaming Emmett; and sponsored five Schweitzer Humanities Fellows scholars and writers.
Robert F. Furchgott, Downstate Medical Center
1998 Nobel Prize in Medicine
The first Nobel Laureate within the State University of New York to have conducted his research on a SUNY campus, Robert F. Furchgott's discovery of the role that nitric oxide (NO) plays in the contraction and dilation of blood vessels inspired a revolution in the scientific comprehension of vascular physiology, and won him the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1998. Furchgott observed that the endothelium, a single layer of cells on the innermost surface of blood vessels, produces a diffusible substance that causes the underlying smooth muscle to relax. The substance was nitric oxide (NO). His discovery inspired an explosion in NO research and helped scientists understand and find new treatments for cardiovascular diseases and a host of other conditions ranging from immune disorders to memory loss. In honor of his work, Dr. Alfred Stracher of Downstate Medical Center suggested the establishment of the Robert F. Furchgott Society in 2005. The Society supports graduate students, fellows and residents conducting basic science and clinical studies in a broad array of subjects. Each year one exceptionally talented graduating Ph.D. student and one medical student is honored with The Robert F. Furchgott Award for Excellence in Research.
J.M. Coetzee, University at Buffalo
2003 Nobel Prize in Literature
In a letter to his friend and fellow novelist Paul Auster, J. M. Coetzee made a remark that concisely describes his work: âI must say that I get impatient with fiction that doesnât try something that hasnât been tried before, preferably with the medium itself.â He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2003. He was a faculty member in the Department of English at the University at Buffalo from 1968-71 when he began his first novel, Dusklands. Hailed as one of the most original contemporary novelists, Coetzee dramatizes the effects of racism, oppression, and fear in apartheid-era South Africa. His narrative devices include allegory, unreliable narrators, and symbolic settings. Other work includes In the Heart of the Country (1977), Waiting for the Barbarians (1980) and the Booker Prize winner Life & Times of Michael K (1983). From as early as 1968 he sought permanent residence in the United States, a process that was finally unsuccessful, in part due to his involvement in anti-Vietnam-War protests. He did return as Butler Professor at UB in 1984 and 1986. As a capper to his career, his recent release Late Essays: 2006-2017 collects most of the literary criticism Coetzee has written during the last 11 years.
Paul C. Lauterbur, Stony Brook University
2003 Nobel Prize in Medicine
While working as a professor of chemistry and radiology at Stony Brook University in 1971, Paul C. Lauterbur became interested in the possible biological applications of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) after reading a paper by Raymond V. Damadian, a physician at SUNY Downstate, who described how some cancerous tissues respond differently to magnetic fields than normal tissue. Lauterbur took the idea to the next step by conceiving a way to focus NMR signals so they revealed the specific locations of physical abnormalities. By creating gradients in the strength of the magnetic field, 2D and 3D images could be created, enabling a visual map of problem spots in the body. It was a novel idea and led to what is now known as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), for which Lauterbur shared the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 2003. The invention is one of the greatest scientific innovations of the 21st century, and benefits millions of people each year. The instrument on which Lauterbur performed his critical experimentsâa Varian A-60 NMR spectrometerâis on permanent display in the lobby of the Graduate Chemistry building at Stony Brook.
Robert Aumann, Stony Brook University
2005 Nobel Prize in Economics
A branch of applied mathematics, Game Theory seeks to explain conflict and cooperation between countries, businesses or people through the use of mathematical models. Robert Aumann, who spent 17 years as a part-time faculty member at Stony Brook University, where he helped found the Center for Game Theory, won the 2005 Nobel Prize in Economics his work in game theory. His signature contribution was in the realm of repeated games, which are situations in which players encounter the same situation over and over again. âHe's Mr. Game Theory,â said Stony Brook economics Prof. Yair Tauman. âHe's been in this field since 1953 and has made huge contributions to game theory. I think it was overdue for a long time.â Aumann now teaches at the Hebrew University in Jerusalem and returns each July to Stony Brook for a 10-day game theory conference attended by 1,500 economists from all over the world. By applying game theory to the study of war, Aumann has found that appeasement can actually cause war, while credible threats can reliably prevent it.
Marvin Geller, Robert Cess, Minghua Zhang and Edmund Chang, Stony Brook University
2007 Nobel Peace Prize
The Nobel Peace Prize 2007 was awarded jointly to Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and Albert Arnold (Al) Gore Jr. âFor their efforts to build up and disseminate greater knowledge about man-made climate change, and to lay the foundations for the measures that are needed to counteract such change.â Four faculty members at Stony Brook Universityâs School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences were acknowledged for their contributions to the IPCC.
Marvin Geller, a stratospheric expert and thirty-year veteran of international collaborations, was a key influence in crafting the 1987 United Nations Montreal Protocol to address the issue of ozone depletion. Broad compliance with the Protocol along with industry's creating of ozone-friendly substitutes for the now-controlled chemicals, has stabilized the ozone layer.
A recognized leader in the fields of climate change and atmospheric radiation transfer, Robert Cess found that since they have optical properties that change with their composition, clouds can reduce or increase global warming. This work was a critical element in the first IPCC Assessment Report that was published in 1990.
Minghua Zhang discovered two types of climate feedback processes: those that would speed climate change such as water vapor and those that would slow climate change, such as increased cooling in the upper troposphere, enabling the loss of system energy. This analysis was an essential element in the 1997 Kyoto Protocol, which set benchmarks for reducing emissions.
Thanks to improved climate computer models, Edmund Chang was able to effectively assess how midlatitude storms morph under global warming, which aids greatly in catastrophe prediction of events like superstorms. Chang made major contributions to the fourth IPCC Assessment Report.
Chang Kee Yung, Stony Brook University
2014 Nobel Prize in Physics
Since arriving at Stony Brook in 1990, Chang Kee Yung has been in the vanguard of recognizing the important role that neutrino physics would play in the subsequent decades. A SUNY Distinguished Professor in Physics, Yung started a research group called Nucleon Decay and Neutrino (NN) to study neutrino properties and search for proton decays. The NN group contributed significantly to the collaborations that made an historic discovery of the neutrino oscillation phenomenon, resulting in a Nobel Prize in Physics in 2014. The ground breaking experiments, which demonstrated that neutrinos change identities, entailed shooting high-energy pulses of particles from an accelerator on Japanâs east coast to a detector 185 miles away on the west coast. The findings could prove critical to understanding the role of antimatter in the origin of the cosmos. Yung has shifted his research effort to the Deep Underground Neutrino Experiment (DUNE), which is expected to discover charge-parity symmetry violation in the lepton sector, an important clue for scientists to understand the matter-antimatter asymmetry in the universe along with proton decay and neutrinos from supernova explosions.
Joachim Frank, University at Albany
2017 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
SUNY Distinguished Professor Joachim Frank, along with Jacques Dubochet of Switzerland and Richard Henderson of the United Kingdom, was awarded 2017 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for developing cryo-electron microscopy. The method, which radically improves the imaging of biomolecules, has initiated a new era in biochemistry. Thanks to their discoveries, electron microscopes now enable researchers to see molecules in high resolution, revealing everything from proteins that provoke antibiotic resistance to the surface of the Zika virus. This furthers the understanding of their operation and aids in the design of pharmaceuticals to combat them. From 1975 â 2008, Frank was a senior research scientist and lab chief with the Wadsworth Center, a partner of UAlbanyâs School of Public Health. During his time with Wadsworth and UAlbany, Frank became an investigator at the Howard Hughes Medical Institute and, in 2006, was elected to the National Academy of Sciences and the American Academy of Arts & Sciences. He was named a SUNY Distinguished Professor in 2007. Currently a professor in the Department of Biological Sciences at Columbia University, Frank maintains an affiliation with The RNA Institute at UAlbany on research related to structural biology.
M. Stanley Whittingham, Binghamton University
2019 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
SUNY Distinguished Professor M. Stanley Whittingham Whittingham won the prize for pioneering research leading to the development of the lithium-ion battery along with John B. Goodenough, Virginia H. Cockrell Centennial Chair in Engineering at the University of Texas at Austin and Akira Yoshino of Meijo University in Japan. The research he has been involved with for over 30 years has helped advance how we store and use energy at a foundational level. Whittingham came to Binghamton University in 1988 after 16 years at Exxon Research and Engineering Company, where he received the patent for a rechargeable lithium-ion battery, and Schlumberger-Doll Research. He holds the original patent on the concept of the use of intercalation chemistry in high-power density, highly reversible lithium batteries â work that provided the basis for subsequent discoveries that now power most laptop computers â and his research has been called âworld-leading.â His research has been continuously supported since his arrival in Binghamton, with over $7 million in federal research grants from the National Science Foundation and the Department of Energy. Whittingham also helped to establish the Materials Science and Engineering Program, bringing his creativity and innovation to the Universityâs graduate curriculum as well as to its laboratories.
These distinguished Nobel laureates serve as proof of the solid educational foundation at SUNY, past and present. Currently many are doing advanced work in the young fields of nanotechnology and biotechnology, and from this group more discoveriesâand awardsâmay yet emerge. These are the minds that are educating the next generation of scientists, artists and scholars, while working to improve the world.
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9,106 likes, 24 comments - nobelprize_org on April 18, 2021: "Albert Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics 1921 "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect." He passed away on 18 April 1955, 66 years ago today.
Read Einstein's Nobel Prize biography on nobelprize.org
#NobelPrize".
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Albert Einstein – Nobel Lecture
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The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921 was awarded to Albert Einstein "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect"
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Albert Einstein
Nobel Lecture
Lecture delivered to the Nordic Assembly of Naturalists at Gothenburg, July 11, 1923
Fundamental ideas and problems of the theory of relativity
Read the Nobel Lecture
English
Pdf 311 kB
From Nobel Lectures, Physics 1901-1921, Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1967
German
Pdf 3.57 MB
From Les Prix Nobel en 1921-1922, Editor Carl Gustaf Santesson, [Nobel Foundation], Stockholm, 1923
Copyright © The Nobel Foundation 1923
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Stanford University is home to 20 living Nobel laureates.
Sixteen additional Stanford laureates are deceased. The business of “claiming” laureates can be controversial: Where and when was a winner’s work done? Stanford, for example, lists but does not claim laureates who are not on the faculty, even if they have a significant Stanford connection. And Stanford does not list winners with a more fleeting or tenuous connection. John Steinbeck, the 1962 literature winner, for instance, did not make the cut although he attended Stanford – receiving a “C” in freshman English in 1919 and dropping out in 1921, only to reenter the university as a journalism major in 1923 and drop out again in 1925.
About the Nobel Prize
Carolyn Bertozzi
Chemistry (2022) Carolyn Bertozzi, the Baker Family Director of Sarafan ChEM-H, the Anne T. and Robert M. Bass Professor in the School of Humanities and Sciences, and professor, by courtesy, of chemical and systems biology and of radiology, won the 2022 Nobel Prize in chemistry. She shares the prize with K. Barry Sharpless, PhD ’68, of Scripps Research and Morton Meldal of the University of Copenhagen. They were cited “for the development of click chemistry and bioorthogonal chemistry.”
Guido Imbens
Economic Sciences (2021) Guido Imbens, the Applied Econometrics Professor at Stanford Graduate School of Business, professor of economics in the School of Humanities and Sciences, and senior fellow at the Stanford Institute for Economic Policy Research, won the 2021 Nobel Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences. He shares the prize with Josh Angrist of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and David Card of the University of California, Berkeley. Imbens and Angrist were honored for “their methodological contributions to the analysis of causal relationships.” David Card was honored for “his empirical contributions to labour economics.”
Paul Milgrom
Economic Sciences (2020) Paul Milgrom, the Shirley R. and Leonard W. Ely, Jr. Professor in the School of Humanities and Sciences, won the 2020 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences. He shares the prize with Robert Wilson, also of Stanford University. The pair were honored “for improvements to auction theory and inventions of new auction formats.”
Robert Wilson
Economic Sciences (2020) Robert Wilson, the Adams Distinguished Professor of Management, Emeritus, at Stanford Graduate School of Business, won the 2020 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences. He shares the prize with Paul Milgrom, also of Stanford University. The pair were honored “for improvements to auction theory and inventions of new auction formats.”
W.E. Moerner
Chemistry (2014) W.E. Moerner, the Harry S. Mosher Professor of Chemistry at Stanford, won the 2014 Nobel Prize in chemistry. He shares the prize with Eric Betzig, of Howard Hughes Medical Institute, and Stefan W. Hell, of the Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry, in Germany. The three were honored “for having bypassed a presumed scientific limitation stipulating that an optical microscope can never yield a resolution better than 0.2 micrometers.”
Michael Levitt
Chemistry (2013) Michael Levitt, the Robert W. and Vivian K. Cahill Professor in Cancer Research in the School of Medicine and professor of structural biology, won the 2013 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. He shares the prize with Martin Karplus of Université de Strasbourg, France, and Harvard University, and Arieh Warshel of the University of Southern California. The three were honored “for the development of multiscale models for complex chemical systems.”
Thomas Südhof
Medicine (2013) Thomas Südhof, the Avram Goldstein Professor in the School of Medicine and professor of molecular and cellular physiology, won the 2013 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. He shares the award with James Rothman of Yale University and Randy Schekman of UC-Berkeley. The three are honored “for their discoveries of machinery regulating vesicle traffic, a major transport system in our cells.”
Brian Kobilka
Chemistry (2012) Brian Kobilka, MD, the Hélène Irwin Fagan Chair in Cardiology in the School of Medicine and professor of molecular and cellular physiology, won the 2012 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work on G-protein-coupled receptors, or GPCRs.
Alvin Roth
Economic Sciences (2012) Roth, PhD ’74, the Craig and Susan McCaw Professor in the School of Humanities and Sciences, a professor of economics and a senior fellow at the Stanford Institute for Economic Policy Research, is a pioneer in the field of game theory and experimental economics and in their application to the design of new economic institutions. He was cited with Lloyd S. Shapley “for the theory of stable allocations and the practice of market design.”
Thomas J. Sargent
Economic Sciences (2011) Thomas J. Sargent, senior fellow (adjunct) at the Hoover Institution, shared the 2011 Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel with Christopher A. Sims for research that shed light on the cause-and-effect relationship between the economy and policy instruments such as interest rates and government spending.
Andrew Fire
Medicine (2006) Andrew Fire, the George D. Smith Professor in Molecular and Genetic Medicine and Professor of Pathology and Genetics, along with Craig Mello of the University of Massachusetts Medical School, won the Nobel Prize Physiology or Medicine in 2006. They were cited “for their discovery of RNA interference – gene silencing by double-stranded RNA.”
Roger Kornberg
Chemistry (2006) Roger Kornberg, the Mrs. George A. Winzer Professor in Medicine and professor of structural biology, won the 2006 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work in understanding how DNA is converted into RNA, a process known as transcription. In 2001 Kornberg published the first molecular snapshot of the protein machinery responsible – RNA polymerase – in action. The finding helped explain how cells express all the information in the human genome, and how that expression sometimes goes awry, leading to cancer, birth defects and other disorders.
A. Michael Spence
Economic Sciences (2001) A. Michael Spence, Philip H. Knight Professor, Emeritus, and former dean of Stanford Graduate School of Business; awarded the 2001 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences “for analyses of markets with asymmetric information.”
Joseph E. Stiglitz
Economic Sciences (2001) Joseph E. Stiglitz, Joan Kenney Professor of Economics, Emeritus; at Stanford 1974-1976 and 1988-2001. Awarded the 2001 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences “for analyses of markets with asymmetric information.”
Carl Wieman
Physics (2001) Carl Wieman, the Cheriton Professor in the School of Engineering, Emeritus, and professor emeritus of physics and of education, won the 2001 Nobel Prize in Physics. He shares the award with Wolfgang Ketterle, John D. MacArthur Professor of Physics at MIT, and Eric A. Cornell, senior scientist at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) and professor adjoint at the University of Colorado-Boulder and Stanford alumnus (1985). The three were honored “for the achievement of Bose-Einstein condensation in dilute gases of alkali atoms, and for early fundamental studies of the properties of the condensates.”
Robert Laughlin
Physics (1998) Robert Laughlin, the Anne T. and Robert M. Bass Professor in the School of Humanities and Sciences; professor of physics and applied physics. Awarded the 1998 Nobel Prize in physics with Horst L. Störmer and Daniel C. Tsui “for their discovery of a new form of quantum fluid with fractionally charged excitations.”
Steven Chu
Physics (1997) Steven Chu, the William R. Kenan Jr. Professor in the School of Humanities and Sciences and professor of physics and of molecular and cellular physiology. Awarded the 1997 Nobel Prize in physics with Claude Cohen-Tannoudji and William D. Phillips “for development of methods to cool and trap atoms with laser light.”
Myron S. Scholes
Economic Sciences (1997) Myron S. Scholes, the Frank E. Buck Professor of Finance, Emeritus, at Stanford Graduate School of Business. Awarded the 1997 Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel with Robert C. Merton “for a new method to determine the value of derivatives.”
Douglas Osheroff
Physics (1996) Douglas Osheroff, the J. G. Jackson and C. J. Wood Professor of Physics, Emeritus. Awarded the 1996 Nobel Prize in physics with David M. Lee and Robert C. Richardson “for their discovery of superfluidity in helium-3.”
William F. Sharpe
Economic Sciences (1990) William F. Sharpe, the STANCO 25 Professor at Stanford Graduate School of Business, Emeritus. Awarded the 1990 Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel with Harry M. Markowitz and Merton H. Miller “for their pioneering work in the theory of financial economics.”
Deceased
Kenneth J. Arrow
Economic Sciences (1972); died 2017; with John R. Hicks “for their pioneering contributions to general economic equilibrium theory and welfare theory.” Arrow, the Joan Kenney Professor of Economics and Professor of Operations Research, Emeritus, was a member of the Stanford faculty from 1949 to 1968. He returned to Stanford in 1979 and became emeritus in 1991.
Gary Becker
Economic Sciences (1992); died 2014; “for having extended the domain of microeconomic analysis to a wide range of human behavior and interaction, including nonmarket behavior.” Becker was a senior fellow at the Hoover Institution from 1990 until he died. He was also a professor at the University of Chicago.
Paul Berg
Chemistry (1980); died 2023; “for his fundamental studies of the biochemistry of nucleic acids, with particular regard to recombinant DNA.” The other half of the award went to Walter Gilbert and Frederick Sanger “for their contributions concerning the determination of base sequences in nucleic acids.” Berg, a professor of biochemistry, came to Stanford in 1959 and became emeritus in 2000.
Felix Bloch
Physics (1952); died 1983; with Edward Mills Purcell “for their development of new methods for nuclear magnetic precision measurements and discoveries in connection therewith.” Bloch, a professor of physics, came to Stanford in 1934 and became emeritus in 1971.
Paul Flory
Chemistry (1974); died 1985; “for his fundamental achievements, both theoretical and experimental, in the physical chemistry of the macromolecules.” Flory, a professor of chemistry, came to Stanford in 1961 and became emeritus in 1975.
Milton Friedman
Economics (1976); died 2006; awarded the Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel “for his achievements in the fields of consumption analysis, monetary history and theory, and for his demonstration of the complexity of stabilization policy.” Friedman was a senior research fellow at the Hoover Institution from 1977 until he died. He was also a professor emeritus at the University of Chicago.
Robert Hofstadter
Physics (1961); died 1990; “for his pioneering studies of electron scattering in atomic nuclei and for his thereby achieved discoveries concerning the structure of the nucleons.” Hofstadter, a professor of physics, came to Stanford in 1950 and became emeritus in 1985.
Arthur Kornberg
Medicine (1959) died 2007; Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine with Severo Ochoa “for their discovery of the mechanisms in the biological synthesis of ribonucleic acid and deoxyribonucleic acid.” Kornberg, a professor of biochemistry at the School of Medicine, came to Stanford in 1959 and became emeritus in 1988.
Douglass North
Economic sciences (1993); died 2015; with Robert W. Fogel “for having renewed research in economic history by applying economic theory and quantitative methods in order to explain economic and institutional change.” North was the Bartlett Burnap Senior Fellow at the Hoover Institution from 1997 to 2015.
Linus C. Pauling
Chemistry (1954); peace (1962); died 1994; at the time of the awards at the California Institute of Technology; chemistry: “for his research into the nature of the chemical bond and its application to the elucidation of the structure of complex substances”; peace: for his efforts to bring about an international ban on nuclear testing and to promote world peace. Pauling, a professor of chemistry, came to Stanford in 1969 and became emeritus in 1975.
Martin Perl
Physics (1995); died 2014; “for the discovery of the tau lepton.” He shared the award “for pioneering experimental contributions to lepton physics” with Frederick Reines, who was cited “for the detection of the neutrino.” Perl, who came to Stanford in 1963, was a professor at the SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory until he died.
Burton Richter
Physics (1976); died 2018; with Samuel C.C. Ting “for their pioneering work in the discovery of a heavy elementary particle of a new kind.” Richter came to Stanford as a research associate in 1956 and joined the faculty in 1960. He became emeritus in 2006. He was director of the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center (now SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory) from 1984 to 1999.
Arthur L. Schawlow
Physics (1981); died 1999; with Nicolaas Bloembergen “for their contribution to the development of laser spectroscopy.” Schawlow, a professor of physics, came to Stanford in 1961 and became emeritus in 1991.
William Shockley
Physics (1956); died 1989; at the time of the award at the Semiconductor Laboratory of Beckman Instruments; with John Bardeen and Walter Houser Brattain “for their researches on semiconductors and their discovery of the transistor effect.” Shockley, a professor of electrical engineering, came to Stanford in 1963 and became emeritus in 1975.
Henry Taube
Chemistry (1983); died 2005; “for his work on the mechanisms of electron transfer reactions, especially in metal complexes.” Taube, a professor of chemistry, came to Stanford in 1962 and became emeritus in 2001.
Richard E. Taylor
Physics (1990); died 2018; with Jerome I. Friedman and Henry W. Kendall “for their pioneering investigations concerning deep inelastic scattering of electrons on protons and bound neutrons, which have been of essential importance for the development of the quark model in particle physics.” Taylor, who earned his PhD at Stanford in 1962, spent his career as a particle physicist at SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory and Stanford University.
Other Nobel Connections
Ben Bernanke, economic sciences (2022), was on the economics faculty of Stanford Graduate School of Business 1979-1985. He shared the award with Douglas W. Diamond and Philip H. Dybvig “for research on banks and financial crises.”
Eric A. Cornell shared the 2001 physics prize with Carl E. Wieman and Wolfgang Ketterle “for creating Bose-Einstein condensation using laser cooling and evaporation techniques.” Cornell, a senior scientist at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) and professor adjoint at the University of Colorado-Boulder, received his bachelor’s degree in physics from Stanford in 1985. Wieman received his doctorate from Stanford in 1977 and is a professor emeritus of physics and of education at Stanford University.
Louise Glück, literature (2020), at the time of the award was the Mohr Visiting Poet in the Creative Writing Program, a position she held from 2017 to 2020. She was cited “for her unmistakable poetic voice that with austere beauty makes individual existence universal.” Glück died in 2023.
Robert H. Grubbs, chemistry (2005), was an NIH postdoctoral fellow at Stanford in 1968-69 working with chemistry Professor James Collman. Grubbs, a professor of chemistry at Caltech, was cited with Yves Chauvin and Richard R. Schrock “for the development of the metathesis method in organic synthesis.” Grubbs died in 2021.
Theodor Hänsch, physics (2005), was at Stanford from 1970 to 1986 (postdoc–professor). Since 1986 at the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität Munich and the Max-Planck-Institut für Quantenoptik, he was cited with John L. Hall “for their contributions to the development of laser-based precision spectroscopy, including the optical frequency comb technique.” They share the Nobel Prize with Roy J. Glauber.
John C. Harsanyi, economic sciences (1994), earned a Stanford degree: PhD ’59 in economics. The University of California-Berkeley professor was cited with John F. Nash and Reinhard Selten “for their pioneering analysis of equilibria in the theory of non-cooperative games.” Harsanyi died in 2000.
Dudley Herschbach, chemistry (1986), holds two Stanford degrees: BS ’54 in mathematics and MS ’55 in chemistry. The Harvard professor was cited with Yuan T. Lee and John C. Polanyi “for their contributions concerning the dynamics of chemical elementary processes.”
Bengt Holmström, economic sciences (2016), holds two Stanford degrees: MS ’75 in operations research and PhD ’78 in business. The MIT professor was cited with Oliver Hart “for their contributions to contract theory.”
Paul Krugman, economic sciences (2008), of Princeton University is a former member of the Stanford faculty. He was cited “for his analysis of trade patterns and location of economic activity.” Krugman was at Stanford from 1994 to 1996 (visiting professor in 1993-94).
Willis E. Lamb Jr., physics (1955), was a professor at Stanford at the time of his award; he left for Oxford University in 1956. Lamb was cited “for his discoveries concerning the fine structure of the hydrogen spectrum.” Lamb died in 2008.
Joshua Lederberg, physiology or medicine (1958), of the University of Wisconsin, Madison, at the time of his award, was chair of genetics at Stanford for several years. Lederberg shared the 1958 prize with two professors who left Stanford before they became Nobelists: George Beadle and Edward Tatum. Lederberg was cited “for his discoveries concerning genetic recombination and the organization of the genetic material of bacteria.” Beadle and Tatum were cited “for their discovery that genes act by regulating definite chemical events.” Lederberg died in 2008; Beadle in 1989; Tatum in 1975.
Paul Modrich, chemistry (2015), received his PhD in biochemistry from Stanford in 1973. The professor of biochemistry at Duke University School of Medicine was cited with Tomas Lindahl and Aziz Sancar “for mechanistic studies of DNA repair.”
Ferid Murad, physiology or medicine (1998), of the University of Texas Medical School at Houston, was a former professor of medicine at Stanford. He was cited with Robert F. Furchgott and Louis J. Ignarro “for their discoveries concerning nitric oxide as a signalling molecule in the cardiovascular system.” Murad died in 2023.
James E. Rothman, physiology or medicine (2013), of Yale University was a member of the Stanford faculty from 1978 to 1988. He was cited with Thomas C. Südhof, professor of molecular and cellular physiology at Stanford, and Randy W. Schekman “for their discoveries of machinery regulating vesicle traffic, a major transport system in our cells.”
Randy W. Schekman, physiology or medicine (2013), holds a Stanford degree: PhD ’75 in biochemistry. Schekman is a professor of molecular and cell biology at the University of California, Berkeley. He was cited with Thomas C. Südhof, professor of molecular and cellular physiology at Stanford, and James E. Rothman “for their discoveries of machinery regulating vesicle traffic, a major transport system in our cells.”
Melvin Schwartz, physics (1988), was a consulting professor at Stanford at the time of his award; he was a faculty member from 1966 to 1983. He shared the award with Leon M. Lederman and Jack Steinberger “for the neutrino beam method and the demonstration of the doublet structure of the leptons through the discovery of the muon neutrino.” Schwartz died in 2006.
K. Barry Sharpless, chemistry (2001, 2022), earned a Stanford degree: PhD ’68 in chemistry. The Scripps Research Institute professor was cited in 2001 “for his work on chirally catalysed oxidation reactions.” He was cited in 2022 for work with Carolyn Bertozzi of Stanford and Morton Meldal of the University of Copenhagen “for the development of click chemistry and bioorthogonal chemistry.”
Oliver Williamson, economic sciences (2009), held a Stanford degree: MBA ’60. A professor at the University of California, Berkeley, he was cited “for his analysis of economic governance, especially the boundaries of the firm.” He shared the award with Elinor Ostrom. Williamson died in 2020.
International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1985. Herbert L. Abrams, professor emeritus of radiology, was a co-founder (1980) and member of that organization. Abrams died in 2016.
The United Nations’ Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) shared the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize with former U.S. Vice President Al Gore “for their efforts to build up and disseminate greater knowledge about man-made climate change, and to lay the foundations for the measures that are needed to counteract such change.” Six Stanford scholars were lead authors of several major IPPC reports. The Stanford researchers, among roughly 2,000 scientists and policy experts from around the world who have contributed to the IPCC’s work, are Chris Field, professor of biology and of Earth system science; Thomas Heller, professor of law (now emeritus); Michael Mastrandrea, senior research scholar at the Stanford Woods Institute for the Environment; Terry Root, senior fellow at the Woods Institute (now emerita); Stephen Schneider (d. 2010), professor of biology and senior fellow at the Woods Institute; and John Weyant, professor (research) of management science and engineering.
The 2022 Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to human rights advocate Ales Bialiatski from Belarus, the Russian human rights organization Memorial, and the Ukrainian human rights organization Center for Civil Liberties. The recognition of these human rights organizations is particularly meaningful for the community of fellows at Stanford’s Center on Democracy, Development and the Rule of Law, based at the Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies, who share a personal connection to the leadership of both organizations. Oleksandra Matviichuk, a 2018 graduate of the Ukrainian Emerging Leaders program, is head of the Center for Civil Liberties in Ukraine. Anna Dobrovolskaya and Tonya Lokshina, who graduated from the Draper Hills Summer Fellow program in 2019 and 2005, led Russia-based Memorial before it was forced to close by the Russian government in December 2021.
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correct_award_00024
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https://www.biography.com/scientists/albert-einstein
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en
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Albert Einstein: Biography, Physicist, Nobel Prize Winner
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2014-04-03T01:07:56
|
Physicist Albert Einstein developed the theory of relativity and won the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics. Read about his inventions, IQ, wives, death, and more.
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en
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/_assets/design-tokens/biography/static/images/favicon.3635572.ico
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Biography
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https://www.biography.com/scientists/albert-einstein
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1879-1955
Who Was Albert Einstein?
Albert Einstein was a German mathematician and physicist who developed the special and general theories of relativity. In 1921, he won the Nobel Prize in Physics for his explanation of the photoelectric effect. In the following decade, he immigrated to the United States after being targeted by the German Nazi Party. His work also had a major impact on the development of atomic energy. In his later years, Einstein focused on unified field theory. He died in April 1955 at age 76. With his passion for inquiry, Einstein is generally considered the most influential physicist of the 20th century.
Quick Facts
FULL NAME: Albert Einstein
BORN: March 14, 1879
DIED: April 18, 1955
BIRTHPLACE: Ulm, Württemberg, Germany
SPOUSES: Mileva Einstein-Maric (1903-1919) and Elsa Einstein (1919-1936)
CHILDREN: Lieserl, Hans, and Eduard
ASTROLOGICAL SIGN: Pisces
Early Life, Family, and Education
Albert Einstein was born on March 14, 1879, in Ulm, Württemberg, Germany. He grew up in a secular Jewish family. His father, Hermann Einstein, was a salesman and engineer who, with his brother, founded Elektrotechnische Fabrik J. Einstein & Cie, a Munich-based company that mass-produced electrical equipment. Einstein’s mother, the former Pauline Koch, ran the family household. Einstein had one sister, Maja, born two years after him.
Einstein attended elementary school at the Luitpold Gymnasium in Munich. However, he felt alienated there and struggled with the institution’s rigid pedagogical style. He also had what were considered speech challenges. However, he developed a passion for classical music and playing the violin, which would stay with him into his later years. Most significantly, Einstein’s youth was marked by deep inquisitiveness and inquiry.
Toward the end of the 1880s, Max Talmud, a Polish medical student who sometimes dined with the Einstein family, became an informal tutor to young Einstein. Talmud had introduced his pupil to a children’s science text that inspired Einstein to dream about the nature of light. Thus, during his teens, Einstein penned what would be seen as his first major paper, “The Investigation of the State of Aether in Magnetic Fields.”
Hermann relocated the family to Milan, Italy, in the mid-1890s after his business lost out on a major contract. Einstein was left at a relative’s boarding house in Munich to complete his schooling at the Luitpold.
Faced with military duty when he turned of age, Einstein allegedly withdrew from classes, using a doctor’s note to excuse himself and claim nervous exhaustion. With their son rejoining them in Italy, his parents understood Einstein’s perspective but were concerned about his future prospects as a school dropout and draft dodger.
Einstein was eventually able to gain admission into the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich, specifically due to his superb mathematics and physics scores on the entrance exam. He was still required to complete his pre-university education first and thus attended a high school in Aarau, Switzerland, helmed by Jost Winteler. Einstein lived with the schoolmaster’s family and fell in love with Winteler’s daughter Marie. Einstein later renounced his German citizenship and became a Swiss citizen at the dawn of the new century.
Einstein’s IQ
Einstein’s intelligence quotient was estimated to be around 160, but there are no indications he was ever actually tested.
Psychologist David Wechsler didn’t release the first edition of the WAIS cognitive test, which evolved into the WAIS-IV test commonly used today, until 1955—shortly before Einstein’s death. The maximum score of the current version is 160, with an IQ of 135 or higher ranking in the 99th percentile.
Magazine columnist Marilyn vos Savant has the highest-ever recorded IQ at 228 and was featured in the Guinness Book of World Records in the late 1980s. However, Guinness discontinued the category because of debates about testing accuracy. According to Parade, individuals believed to have higher IQs than Einstein include Leonardo Da Vinci, Marie Curie, Nikola Tesla, and Nicolaus Copernicus.
Patent Clerk
After graduating from university, Einstein faced major challenges in terms of finding academic positions, having alienated some professors over not attending class more regularly in lieu of studying independently.
Einstein eventually found steady work in 1902 after receiving a referral for a clerk position in a Swiss patent office. While working at the patent office, Einstein had the time to further explore ideas that had taken hold during his university studies and thus cemented his theorems on what would be known as the principle of relativity.
In 1905—seen by many as a “miracle year” for the theorist—Einstein had four papers published in the Annalen der Physik, one of the best-known physics journals of the era. Two focused on the photoelectric effect and Brownian motion. The two others, which outlined E=MC2 and the special theory of relativity, were defining for Einstein’s career and the course of the study of physics.
Inventions and Discoveries
As a physicist, Einstein had many discoveries, but he is perhaps best known for his theory of relativity and the equation E=MC2, which foreshadowed the development of atomic power and the atomic bomb.
Theory of Relativity
Einstein first proposed a special theory of relativity in 1905 in his paper “On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies,” which took physics in an electrifying new direction. The theory explains that space and time are actually connected, and Einstein called this joint structure space-time.
By November 1915, Einstein completed the general theory of relativity, which accounted for gravity’s relationship to space-time. Einstein considered this theory the culmination of his life research. He was convinced of the merits of general relativity because it allowed for a more accurate prediction of planetary orbits around the sun, which fell short in Isaac Newton’s theory. It also offered a more expansive, nuanced explanation of how gravitational forces worked.
Einstein’s assertions were affirmed via observations and measurements by British astronomers Sir Frank Dyson and Sir Arthur Eddington during the 1919 solar eclipse, and thus a global science icon was born. Today, the theories of relativity underpin the accuracy of GPS technology, among other phenomena.
Even so, Einstein did make one mistake when developing his general theory, which naturally predicted the universe is either expanding or contracting. Einstein didn’t believe this prediction initially, instead holding onto the belief that the universe was a fixed, static entity. To account for, this he factored in a “cosmological constant” to his equation. His later theories directly contracted this idea and asserted that the universe could be in a state of flux. Then, astronomer Edwin Hubble deduced that we indeed inhabit an expanding universe. Hubble and Einstein met at the Mount Wilson Observatory near Los Angeles in 1931.
Decades after Einstein’s death, in 2018, a team of scientists confirmed one aspect of Einstein’s general theory of relativity: that the light from a star passing close to a black hole would be stretched to longer wavelengths by the overwhelming gravitational field. Tracking star S2, their measurements indicated that the star’s orbital velocity increased to over 25 million kph as it neared the supermassive black hole at the center of the galaxy, its appearance shifting from blue to red as its wavelengths stretched to escape the pull of gravity.
Einstein’s E=MC²
Einstein’s 1905 paper on the matter-energy relationship proposed the equation E=MC²: the energy of a body (E) is equal to the mass (M) of that body times the speed of light squared (C²). This equation suggested that tiny particles of matter could be converted into huge amounts of energy, a discovery that heralded atomic power.
Famed quantum theorist Max Planck backed up the assertions of Einstein, who thus became a star of the lecture circuit and academia, taking on various positions before becoming director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics (today is known as the Max Planck Institute for Physics) from 1917 to 1933.
Nobel Prize in Physics
In 1921, Einstein won the Nobel Prize in Physics for his explanation of the photoelectric effect, since his ideas on relativity were still considered questionable. He wasn’t actually given the award until the following year due to a bureaucratic ruling, and during his acceptance speech, he still opted to speak about relativity.
Wives and Children
Albert Einstein with his second wife, Elsa
Einstein married Mileva Maric on January 6, 1903. While attending school in Zurich, Einstein met Maric, a Serbian physics student. Einstein continued to grow closer to Maric, but his parents were strongly against the relationship due to her ethnic background.
Nonetheless, Einstein continued to see her, with the two developing a correspondence via letters in which he expressed many of his scientific ideas. Einstein’s father passed away in 1902, and the couple married shortly thereafter.
Einstein and Mavic had three children. Their daughter, Lieserl, was born in 1902 before their wedding and might have been later raised by Maric’s relatives or given up for adoption. Her ultimate fate and whereabouts remain a mystery. The couple also had two sons: Hans Albert Einstein, who became a well-known hydraulic engineer, and Eduard “Tete” Einstein, who was diagnosed with schizophrenia as a young man.
The Einsteins’ marriage would not be a happy one, with the two divorcing in 1919 and Maric having an emotional breakdown in connection to the split. Einstein, as part of a settlement, agreed to give Maric any funds he might receive from possibly winning the Nobel Prize in the future.
During his marriage to Maric, Einstein had also begun an affair some time earlier with a cousin, Elsa Löwenthal. The couple wed in 1919, the same year of Einstein’s divorce. He would continue to see other women throughout his second marriage, which ended with Löwenthal’s death in 1936.
Travel Diaries
In his 40s, Einstein traveled extensively and journaled about his experiences. Some of his unfiltered private thoughts are shared two volumes of The Travel Diaries of Albert Einstein.
, published in 2018, focuses on his five-and-a-half month trip to the Far East, Palestine, and Spain. The scientist started a sea journey to Japan in Marseille, France, in autumn of 1922, accompanied by his second wife, Elsa. They journeyed through the Suez Canal, then to Sri Lanka, Singapore, Hong Kong, Shanghai, and Japan. The couple returned to Germany via Palestine and Spain in March 1923.
, released in 2023, covers three months that he spent lecturing and traveling in Argentina, Uruguay, and Brazil in 1925.
The Travel Diaries contain unflattering analyses of the people he came across, including the Chinese, Sri Lankans, and Argentinians, a surprise coming from a man known for vehemently denouncing racism in his later years. In an entry for November 1922, Einstein refers to residents of Hong Kong as “industrious, filthy, lethargic people.”
Becoming a U.S. Citizen
In 1933, Einstein took on a position at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, where he would spend the rest of his life.
At the time the Nazis, led by Adolf Hitler, were gaining prominence with violent propaganda and vitriol in an impoverished post-World War I Germany. The Nazi Party influenced other scientists to label Einstein’s work “Jewish physics.” Jewish citizens were barred from university work and other official jobs, and Einstein himself was targeted to be killed. Meanwhile, other European scientists also left regions threatened by Germany and immigrated to the United States, with concern over Nazi strategies to create an atomic weapon.
Not long after moving and beginning his career at IAS, Einstein expressed an appreciation for American meritocracy and the opportunities people had for free thought, a stark contrast to his own experiences coming of age. In 1935, Einstein was granted permanent residency in his adopted country and became an American citizen five years later.
In America, Einstein mostly devoted himself to working on a unified field theory, an all-embracing paradigm meant to unify the varied laws of physics. However, during World War II, he worked on Navy-based weapons systems and made big monetary donations to the military by auctioning off manuscripts worth millions.
Einstein and the Atomic Bomb
Albert Einstein gives a speech denouncing the use of hydrogen bombs in 1950.
In 1939, Einstein and fellow physicist Leo Szilard wrote to President Franklin D. Roosevelt to alert him of the possibility of a Nazi bomb and to galvanize the United States to create its own nuclear weapons.
The United States would eventually initiate the Manhattan Project, though Einstein wouldn’t take a direct part in its implementation due to his pacifist and socialist affiliations. Einstein was also the recipient of much scrutiny and major distrust from FBI director J. Edgar Hoover. In July 1940, the U.S. Army Intelligence office denied Einstein a security clearance to participate in the project, meaning J. Robert Oppenheimer and the scientists working in Los Alamos were forbidden from consulting with him.
Einstein had no knowledge of the U.S. plan to use atomic bombs in Japan in 1945. When he heard of the first bombing at Hiroshima, he reportedly said, “Ach! The world is not ready for it.”
Einstein became a major player in efforts to curtail usage of the A-bomb. The following year, he and Szilard founded the Emergency Committee of Atomic Scientists, and in 1947, via an essay for The Atlantic Monthly, Einstein espoused working with the United Nations to maintain nuclear weapons as a deterrent to conflict.
Time Travel and Quantum Theory
After World War II, Einstein continued to work on his unified field theory and key aspects of his general theory of relativity, including time travel, wormholes, black holes, and the origins of the universe.
However, he felt isolated in his endeavors since the majority of his colleagues had begun focusing their attention on quantum theory. In the last decade of his life, Einstein, who had always seen himself as a loner, withdrew even further from any sort of spotlight, preferring to stay close to Princeton and immerse himself in processing ideas with colleagues.
Personal Life
In the late 1940s, Einstein became a member of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), seeing the parallels between the treatment of Jews in Germany and Black people in the United States. He corresponded with scholar and activist W.E.B. Du Bois as well as performer Paul Robeson and campaigned for civil rights, calling racism a “disease” in a 1946 Lincoln University speech.
Einstein was very particular about his sleep schedule, claiming he needed 10 hours of sleep per day to function well. His theory of relativity allegedly came to him in a dream about cows being electrocuted. He was also known to take regular naps. He is said to have held objects like a spoon or pencil in his hand while falling asleep. That way, he could wake up before hitting the second stage of sleep—a hypnagogic process believed to boost creativity and capture sleep-inspired ideas.
Although sleep was important to Einstein, socks were not. He was famous for refusing to wear them. According to a letter he wrote to future wife Elsa, he stopped wearing them because he was annoyed by his big toe pushing through the material and creating a hole.
Albert Einstein sticks his tongue out in a famous 1951 photo from his birthday party.
One of the most recognizable photos of the 20th century shows Einstein sticking out his tongue while leaving his 72nd birthday party on March 14, 1951.
According to Discovery.com, Einstein was leaving his party at Princeton when a swarm of reporters and photographers approached and asked him to smile. Tired from doing so all night, he refused and rebelliously stuck his tongue out at the crowd for a moment before turning away. UPI photographer Arthur Sasse captured the shot.
Einstein was amused by the picture and ordered several prints to give to his friends. He also signed a copy of the photo that sold for $125,000 at a 2017 auction.
Death and Final Words
Einstein died on April 18, 1955, at age 76 at the University Medical Center at Princeton. The previous day, while working on a speech to honor Israel’s seventh anniversary, Einstein suffered an abdominal aortic aneurysm.
He was taken to the hospital for treatment but refused surgery, believing that he had lived his life and was content to accept his fate. “I want to go when I want,” he stated at the time. “It is tasteless to prolong life artificially. I have done my share, it is time to go. I will do it elegantly.”
According to the BBC, Einstein muttered a few words in German at the moment of his death. However, the nurse on duty didn’t speak German so their translation was lost forever.
In a 2014 interview, Life magazine photographer Ralph Morse said the hospital was swarmed by journalists, photographers, and onlookers once word of Einstein’s death spread. Morse decided to travel to Einstein’s office at the Institute for Advanced Studies, offering the superintendent alcohol to gain access. He was able to photograph the office just as Einstein left it.
After an autopsy, Einstein’s corpse was moved to a Princeton funeral home later that afternoon and then taken to Trenton, New Jersey, for a cremation ceremony. Morse said he was the only photographer present for the cremation, but Life managing editor Ed Thompson decided not to publish an exclusive story at the request of Einstein’s son Hans.
Einstein’s Brain
During Einstein’s autopsy, pathologist Thomas Stoltz Harvey had removed his brain, reportedly without his family’s consent, for preservation and future study by doctors of neuroscience.
However, during his life, Einstein participated in brain studies, and at least one biography claimed he hoped researchers would study his brain after he died. Einstein’s brain is now located at the Princeton University Medical Center. In keeping with his wishes, the rest of his body was cremated and the ashes scattered in a secret location.
In 1999, Canadian scientists who were studying Einstein’s brain found that his inferior parietal lobe, the area that processes spatial relationships, 3D-visualization, and mathematical thought, was 15 percent wider than in people who possess normal intelligence. According to The New York Times, the researchers believe it might help explain why Einstein was so intelligent.
In 2011, the Mütter Museum in Philadelphia received thin slices of Einstein’s brain from Dr. Lucy Rorke-Adams, a neuropathologist at the Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia, and put them on display. Rorke-Adams said she received the brain slides from Harvey.
Einstein in Books and Movies: "Oppenheimer" and More
Since Einstein’s death, a veritable mountain of books have been written on the iconic thinker’s life, including by Walter Isaacson and by Jürgen Neffe, both from 2007. Einstein’s own words are presented in the collection .
Einstein has also been portrayed on screen. Michael Emil played a character called “The Professor,” clearly based on Einstein, in the 1985 film Insignificance—in which alternate versions of Einstein, Marilyn Monroe, Joe DiMaggio, and Joseph McCarthy cross paths in a New York City hotel.
Walter Matthau portrayed Einstein in the fictional 1994 comedy I.Q., in which he plays matchmaker for his niece played by Meg Ryan. Einstein was also a character in the obscure comedy films I Killed Einstein, Gentlemen (1970) and Young Einstein (1988).
A much more historically accurate depiction of Einstein came in 2017, when he was the subject of the first season of Genius, a 10-part scripted miniseries by National Geographic. Johnny Flynn played a younger version of the scientist, while Geoffrey Rush portrayed Einstein in his later years after he had fled Germany. Ron Howard was the director.
Tom Conti plays Einstein in the 2023 biopic Oppenheimer, directed by Christopher Nolan and starring Cillian Murphy as scientist J. Robert Oppenheimer during his involvement with the Manhattan Project.
Quotes
The world is a dangerous place to live; not because of the people who are evil, but because of the people who don’t do anything about it.
A question that sometimes drives me hazy: Am I or are the others crazy?
A person who never made a mistake never tried anything new.
Logic will get you from A to B. Imagination will take you everywhere.
I want to go when I want. It is tasteless to prolong life artificially. I have done my share, it is time to go. I will do it elegantly.
If you can’t explain it simply, you don’t understand it well enough.
Nature shows us only the tail of the lion. But there is no doubt in my mind that the lion belongs with it even if he cannot reveal himself to the eye all at once because of his huge dimension. We see him only the way a louse sitting upon him would.
[T]he distinction between past, present, and future is only an illusion, however persistent.
Living in this “great age,” it is hard to understand that we belong to this mad, degenerate species, which imputes free will to itself. If only there were somewhere an island for the benevolent and the prudent! Then also I would want to be an ardent patriot.
I, at any rate, am convinced that He [God] is not playing at dice.
How strange is the lot of us mortals! Each of us is here for a brief sojourn; for what purpose he knows not, though he sometimes thinks he senses it.
I regard class differences as contrary to justice and, in the last resort, based on force.
I have never looked upon ease and happiness as ends in themselves—this critical basis I call the ideal of a pigsty. The ideals that have lighted my way, and time after time have given me new courage to face life cheerfully, have been Kindness, Beauty, and Truth.
My political ideal is democracy. Let every man be respected as an individual and no man idolized. It is an irony of fate that I myself have been the recipient of excessive admiration and reverence from my fellow-beings, through no fault and no merit of my own.
The most beautiful experience we can have is the mysterious. It is the fundamental emotion that stands at the cradle of true art and true science. Whoever does not know it and can no longer wonder, no longer marvel, is as good as dead, and his eyes are dimmed.
An autocratic system of coercion, in my opinion, soon degenerates. For force always attracts men of low morality, and I believe it to be an invariable rule that tyrants of genius are succeeded by scoundrels.
My passionate interest in social justice and social responsibility has always stood in curious contrast to a marked lack of desire for direct association with men and women. I am a horse for single harness, not cut out for tandem or team work. I have never belonged wholeheartedly to country or state, to my circle of friends, or even to my own family.
Everybody is a genius.
Fact Check: We strive for accuracy and fairness. If you see something that doesn’t look right, contact us!
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10 Things You Probably Did Not Know About Einstein
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What do you know about Einstein ? Beyond the scientist, Einstein was all a historical figure. Discover some of the curiosities of his life in OpenMind
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Between March and September 1905, the mailbox of the German scientific journal Annalen der Physik received four studies that would forever change the laws of physics and without a doubt, our concept of reality: of light, matter, time and space. The author was a young man born in Germany on March 14, 1879, who worked in the patent office in Bern (Switzerland) at the time. His career as a physicist was stuck after his doctoral thesis and scientific passion had been relegated to his free time.Â
The four studies were published that year in Annalen der Physik. The first of them was âTheory of photoelectric effectâ, published on June 9th, which would win the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921. Shortly after, on July 18th, the study “On the movement of small particles suspended in stationary liquids required by the molecular-kinetic theory of heatâ was published, mathematically demonstrating that matter is composed of atoms and establishing a new field in physics: statistical physics.Â
On September 26th, the study “On the electrodynamics of moving bodies” was published. It was a summary of Einsteinâs new physics, and of the well-known theory of special relativity –Â the predecessor of general relativity. In the study, Einstein hypothesized that the speed of light is unchangeable, constant and independent of the observerâs movement. Therefore, with the exception of the constant speed of light, everything is relative, including time, distance and mass.Â

Finally, on November 21st, âDoes the inertia of a body depend upon its energy content?â was published – an overview of all of the previous studies. The mathematical demonstration of specific relativity and therefore, the verification of the equivalence between matter and energy, were condensed into the most famous formula in history: E= mc2.Â
But Albert Einstein is much more than âthe first high-profile scientist in historyâ as Jürgen Neffe called him in his biography. Thatâs why we want to explore his life and get to know the most famous scientist in history.Â
1. It all started with a compass
When his father showed him a compass for the first time, little Einstein was fascinated by how the contraption worked. That moment marked his life forever. Why did the needle point to the same place even when the compass was moved in a different direction? The magic of physics had captivated that little boy. “That experience made a deep and long-lasting impression on me. There must be something deeper behind thingsâ, the physician said years later as he reminisced about that moment. The compass is a symbol of the scientist’s career and history. In fact, there is even a movie in production with this title (âEinteinâs Compassâ).
2. Albert Einstein: world citizen
Einstein was a worldly man. He travelled to and lived in different countries (Italy, Switzerland, Belgium, UKâ¦), and he was also granted citizenship in 4 different states over the course of his life. The turbulent political situation in Europe (he left Germany due to Nazism) and his scientific career (he was linked to academic institutions in Prague, Berlin and the US) were the main reasons for moving. He was born a German in the Kingdom of Wurttemberg (present Germany). He renounced his nationality to avoid military service, which is why he lived as a stateless person for five years.
3. Playing the violin was his passion
Einstein inherited his love for music from his mother, Pauline, a talented pianist who insisted on there always being music at home. Music was not only a hobby for the scientist, he used it as therapy in his scientific work. Elsa Einstein, his second wife, explained that âmusic helps him when he is thinking about his theoriesâ. Besides, in his love of music he also coincided with other greatest physicists of the twentieth century, such as Max Planck and Werner Heisenberg, who were excellent pianists.
As well as playing the violin since he was 6 and discovering Mozart at the age of 13, Einsteinâs links to music went much further. In 1936 he met Bronislaw Huberman, an internationally-acclaimed violinist of Jewish origin who went on to become founder of the Philharmonic Orchestra of Israel. On a fundraising trip to the US, Einstein became his main âpartnerâ.
4. A desperate attempt: Einstein’s darkest deal
It was 1914 and after 11 years together, the marriage between Albert Einstein and Mileva Maric was on the rocks. Knowing that the romantic aspect of his relationship was hopeless, Einstein proposed a strange deal to the lady who was still his wife, with the intention of maintaining a cohabitation subject to certain terms and conditions that would allow them to stay together for the sake of their children. Mileva accepted the conditions, but it was to no avail as a few months later she left Einstein in Berlin and moved to Zurich with her children.
5.The father of the atomic bomb: how much truth is there in it?
âI do not consider myself to be the father of the discovery of the atomic bombâ
Albert Einstein, Atomic War or Peace, 1945 / Source: Historical Society of Princeton.
The figure of Einstein is falsely associated with the development of the atomic bomb and nuclear energy. Although his equation E=mc² explains the energy released in an atomic bomb, it does not explain how to make one. The scientist (Swiss at the time) never participated in the project that developed the atomic bomb, Project Manhattan. In fact, in 1940 the US Army Intelligence denied Einstein the necessary security authorization to work on the project. His only involvement was âan isolated actionâ: sending a letter to the President of the United States, Franklin D. Roosevelt. Einstein knew that German scientists were studying the potential of uranium and nuclear energy and he urged the President to do everything he could to win the battle from the United States before the Germans cracked it.
In light of the accusations and reproach over his involvement in the history of the atomic bomb, Einstein always described himself as a pacifist and defended his only isolated action, the letter to Roosevelt, as a desperate measure.
âHad I known that the Germans would not succeed in developing an atomic bomb, I would have done nothing.â
Albert Einstein, Newsweek magazine, Museum of American History.
6. What did Einstein do with his Nobel Prize money?
On November 10, 1922 Einstein found out that he had won a Nobel Prize through a telegram but, to what extent was he surprised? Despite the fact that we was already famous for his Theory of General Relativity, he received the award “for his services to theoretical physics and, in particular, for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect“, as the Swedish Academy announced at the time.
The prize awarded to Albert Einstein in 1922 was actually the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics, which had not been given to anyone that year and thus, it had been reserved until the following year, according to the statutes of the Nobel Foundation. Einstein could not attend to the ceremony in December 1922 because he was on a trip, so he gave his acceptance speech in July 1923.
Along with the prize he also received an economic reward of around 120,000 SEK, a sum that represented about 10 times a professor’s annual salary at the time. But Einstein never spent his award money. He gave it all to his former wife, Mileva Maric, as they had decided when they negotiated their divorce agreement, which was signed in 1919. Mileva used it to buy several houses and to look after her children. Why was Einstein so sure that he would receive a Nobel Prize at some point? Why was he so “generous” with Mileva?
7. He didn’t want to become a president
Chaim Weizmann was the first president of the State of Israel until his death in 1952. By then, Einstein was a consolidated scientist famous around the world, a pacifist and a human rights activist, in addition to a professed defender of the Jewish cause. Weizmann and Einstein knew each other and had collaborated at the foundation of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
After Weizmann’s death, Einstein received the proposal to become the second president in the history of Israel. Abba Eban, then his country’s ambassador to the United States, conveyed the proposal on behalf of the prime minister (David Ben Gurion) in a letter. Through the same means, the most famous physicist in history rejected the proposal: “All my life I’ve dealt with objective matters; therefore, I lack both natural aptitude and experience to properly deal with people and to perform official functions”. The same document includes one of Einstein’s most personal phrases:
 “My relationship with the Jewish people has become my strongest human bond”.
8. Einstein, a Soviet spy?
Einstein never took part in the Manhattan Project, the group of scientists tasked with developing the atomic bomb that would be dropped over Hiroshima (August 6, 1945) and Nagasaki (August 9, 1945). Despite the fact that he himself alerted President Roosevelt of the urgent need to develop the bomb before the Germans did, he was never invited to participate -and we will never know what he would have replied- because Einstein was a risk to national security.
FBI agents followed him for years, and even continued with the investigation after his death. What were they looking for? The scientist was regarded as a security risk by the U.S. intelligence service: this is evidenced by more than 1,400 pages of investigation (they are available on the FBI website). Einstein was a man of the world, he had many contacts and traveled abroad frequently. Moreover, his left-leaning political views, his human rights activism, or his fight against racism made him a target of the “Communist obsession” in the United States at the time.
9. Einstein’s legacy: between New Jersey and Jerusalem
Have you ever considered visiting Einstein’s grave? You wouldn’t be able to do it even if you wanted. Before he died, the physicist made it clear that he didn’t want to be buried, since he was terrified of the idea that his resting place might become a pilgrimage site for admirers and the curious. This is why he was cremated and his ashes were scattered in the United States, near the Delaware river, not far away from Princeton University, where he had developed most of his scientific career. But Einstein’s most important legacy, all his scientific and non-scientific papers, his photographs and the rights to his works, are kept in the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, in the Edmond J. Safra campus. Some of the documents have been digitized and are available to the public.
10. Einstein’s brain traveled around the United States in a bottle
It’s not science fiction. It is not a surprise that the brain of the most famous physicist of the 20th century was a sought-after “good”. Was that the secret behind his intelligence? This is probably what Thomas Stoltz Harvey, the forensic pathologist who oversaw Albert Einstein’s autopsy at Princeton Hospital (New Jersey, 1955), asked himself. He was not a specialist in analyzing brains and he had no authorization to remove it. But he did and for over 40 years he was determined to unveil his secret. He never arrived at a conclusion, although he did send several scientists a sample of the more than 170 slices in which he had divided the genius’s brain. Depressed, probably from remorse, he finally decided to get rid of his prized treasure and thought that Einstein’s brain should be given to his family. He tried to return it to Einstein’s granddaughter, Evelyn, on a trip from New Jersey to California, where she studied. In this unusual journey we was accompanied by writer Michael Paterniti, who described the trip in his book, “Driving Mr. Albert: A Trip Across America with Einstein’s Brain”.
By Dory Gascueña for OpenMind
@dorygascu
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Albert Einstein got a Nobel Prize in physics for his work on:(A) Special theory of relativity(B) General theory of relativity(C) Photoelectric effect(D) Theory of specific heats
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2020-11-09T02:32:49+05:30
|
Albert Einstein got a Nobel Prize in physics for his work on:(A) Special theory of relativity(B) General theory of relativity(C) Photoelectric effect(D) Theory of specific heats. Ans: Hint: All the theories in the given options are proposed by Albert...
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en
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https://www.vedantu.com/question-answer/albert-einstein-got-a-nobel-prize-in-physics-for-class-12-physics-cbse-5fa8aa51b0ec2513fe7d2373
|
Hint: All the theories in the given options are proposed by Albert Einstein. Recall these theories year wise and identify in which theory Albert Einstein proved the particle nature of light. For the same theory he was awarded with the Nobel Prize, the most honorable award in the world.
Complete step by step answer:
-We know that special theory of relativity and general theory of relativity were proposed by Albert Einstein in 1905 and 1915 respectively. Also, the theory of specific heats is proposed by Albert Einstein in 1906. But none of these theories got a Nobel Prize for his extraordinary work.
-Albert Einstein got the Nobel Prize for photoelectric effect that he proposed in 1905 in the same year he proposed the special theory of relativity. The phenomenon of photoelectric effect is also observed by other scientists before Einstein, but none of them can explain the phenomenon with proper proof.
Additional information:
According to photoelectric effect, the metal emits electrons when the photon of certain energy incident on it. The energy of the incident photon should be greater than the binding energy of the electron in the atom. Therefore, we call the energy of the photon as threshold energy to emit the electron from the metal surface. The energy of the photon is express as,
\[\Delta E = h\nu \]
Here, h is the Planck’s constant and \[\nu \] is the frequency of the photon.
According to Einstein as he proposed in the special theory of relativity, no object can attain the speed of light. Only massless objects like photons whose rest mass is zero can have the speed of light.
Note:The special theory of relativity links the space and time of the objects having the consistent speeds. This theory grabbed so much attention but could not get awarded with the Nobel Prize. The photoelectric effect was like the beginning of the new era, it has tremendous applications. In the same theory he proved that light can also behave as a particle.
|
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correct_award_00024
|
FactBench
|
3
| 9
|
https://www.swedenabroad.se/en/embassies/switzerland-bern/current/calendar/100-years-anniversary-of-albert-einsteins-nobel-prize/
|
en
|
100 years anniversary of Albert Einstein’s Nobel Prize
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https://www.swedenabroad.se/wwwroot/favicons/favicon.ico
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en
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/wwwroot/favicons/favicon.ico
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Sweden Abroad
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https://www.swedenabroad.se/en/embassies/switzerland-bern/current/calendar/100-years-anniversary-of-albert-einsteins-nobel-prize/
|
01 Oct 2021, 2.00 PM
Together, the Einstein Society Bern and the Swedish Embassy in Bern, give attention the 100 anniversary of the award of the Nobel Prize to Albert Einstein. Each in his own way, Albert Einstein and Alfred Nobel were two great minds whose legacies are as important today as ever.
The Swedish inventor and businessman Alfred Nobel stated in his will that the Nobel Prize should be awarded to “those who, during the preceding year, have conferred the greatest benefit to humankind during the last year”, something that proved difficult to evaluate in the area of physics in the first decades of the 20th century, as Einstein was way ahead of his time. In contrary to many people’s belief, the prize was not awarded to Albert Einstein for the relativity theory, but to honour his contributions to theoretical physics in general and, in particular, his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect. The Nobel Prize in Physics was, during this period, postponed or even skipped several years between 1915 and 1920 because of the difficulty to judge the “greatest benefit for human kind.” Nobody could at the time imagine the importance of Einstein’s relativity theory and the significance it has for research still today.
Albert Einstein in Switzerland
Albert Einstein was born in Germany but his family left the country when Einstein was a teenager. He completed his high school education in the Swiss town Aarau and then studied at the Federal Polytechnic School in Zürich. In 1901 Einstein gained Swiss citizenship and later was employed as a technical expert at the Swiss Patent Office in Bern. Between 1903 and 1905 Einstein lived in an apartment at Kramgasse 49 in Bern which today is the Einstein Haus museum. It was during Albert Einstein’s time in Bern that he produced much of his remarkable work. It is said that the medieval clock tower in Bern, the Zytglogge, which Einstein could see from his apartment, made him think of the particular role of time in the understanding of nature.
Alfred Nobel’s will
Alfred Nobel was a Swedish businessman, inventor and entrepreneur who also wrote poetry and plays. He spoke several languages and had an interest for social and peace issues. Alfred Nobel invented, among other things, the dynamite, which he patented in 1867. When he died almost twenty years later he had 355 patents. He left a will that in one single page created a document that would link his name to the world’s greatest achievements in various fields. The will stated that the interest of his fortune should be divided in five equal parts and be awarded in the fields of Physics, Chemistry, Physiology or Medicine, Literature and Peace.
Alfred Nobel’s family opposed to his fortune being converted into a prize. Even the Swedish King Oscar II opposed to it as he considered the fact that non-Scandinavian citizens could be awarded the prize unpatriotic. It was not until five years after Nobel’s death that all practical issues were solved and the first Nobel Prizes could be awarded. The first Nobel Peace Prize in 1901 was awarded to a Swiss, the founder of the International Committee of the Red Cross Jean Henry Dunant from Geneva, together with the French scientist, politician and peace activist Frédéric Passy.
The Nobel Prize in Physics
In 1922 Albert Einstein was awarded with the Nobel Prize in Physics for the year 1921. He had by then been nominated on 62 occasions for the prize. Einstein was invited to take part in the yearly festivities in Stockholm in December of 1922, but was travelling to Japan at the time. It was arranged that he instead would deliver his Nobel lecture during the celebrations of the 300 anniversary of the city of Göteborg in July 1923. The city’s anniversary was extensively celebrated and some of Göteborg’s most important landmarks such as the art museum, the museum of natural history and the amusement park Liseberg were inaugurated for this anniversary.
Albert Einsten’s visit was the cherry on top of the 300 anniversary celebration. Einstein held his speech on 11 July on the occasion of the Scandinavian Nature Researchers’ meeting, in a packed congress hall with king Gustav V in the front row. The speech had the title “Grundlagen und Probleme der Relativitätstheorie” and was a one hour overview of the relativity theory and in the laws of physics and our perception of time.
The Nobel Prize awarded 603 times
Between 1901 and 2020 the Nobel Prizes, and the Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel which was added in 1968, have been awarded 603 times to 962 people and organizations. With some receiving the Nobel Prize more than once, this makes a total of 930 individuals and 25 organizations. In 2020 the prize amounted to 10 million Swedish kronor, approximately 1 million CHF.
Visit the Einstein House in Bern to learn more about Albert Einstein. Read more about the Nobel Prize here: www.nobelprize.com
Albert Einstein´s speech in Göteborg. Sweden’s King Gustav V in the front row.
|
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correct_award_00024
|
FactBench
|
3
| 93
|
https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/databank/entries/bpeins.html
|
en
|
A Science Odyssey: People and Discoveries: Albert Einstein
|
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Albert Einstein
1879 - 1955
Albert Einstein is one of the most recognized and well-known scientists of the century. His theories solved centuries-old problems in physics and rocked even non-physicists' view of the world.
Einstein's early years did not mark him as a genius. His parents worried because he was so slow to learn to speak. Although his family was Jewish, he attended a Catholic elementary school, where he did not excel. Because of failed business ventures, the family moved several times during Einstein's childhood, finally to Italy when he was 15. He was supposed to remain in Germany and finish school. He left, however (historians debate whether he was expelled or arranged to be excused for illness), and joined his family in Italy. He also renounced his Germany citizenship then, which freed him from military service. He belonged to no country until he became a Swiss citizen in 1921.
From Italy he went to Switzerland to finish high school and attend the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology. He didn't care for such organized education; he hated having to attend classes regularly and take exams. He graduated with a teaching degree, but couldn't find a job. Finally he got a post at the Swiss patent office in Bern, in 1902. He worked there for seven years, which turned out to be the most productive period of his life. In 1903 he married a former classmate, Maria Maric, though his parents disapproved. They'd had a daughter Liserl in 1902, but she was given up for adoption. They later had two sons.
1905 was a huge year for Einstein. He published five papers in the German Yearbook of Physics, three or them groundbreaking. The first was on the motion of particles suspended in liquid. He developed a mathematical formula to explain that the visible motion of the particles was due to the invisible motion of the molecules of the liquid.
His second paper was on the photoelectric effect, or the release of electrons from metal when light shines on it. Einstein used the very recent ideas of Max Planck to explain the phenomenon. That is, he explained it in terms of quanta, or packets of energy. This was the first use of the theory outside of Planck's own work. Einstein received the Nobel Prize in physics for this paper.
Last and perhaps most famous, Einstein published his special theory of relativity. This resulted in the shocking conclusion that time is not constant. Neither is weight or mass. When moving at high speeds, all of these things get compressed; only the speed of light remains the same. That happens because, said Einstein, energy is equal to mass times the speed of light squared, or E = mc2.
In the following years, Einstein held positions at universities in Zurich, Prague, and Berlin. In 1914, Einstein was in Berlin. War broke out, and his wife and two sons returned to Switzerland. The couple's relationship had grown increasingly distant, and after the war the two were never reunited. They officially divorced in 1919. Some historians now believe that Maria Maric was instrumental in Einstein's early work, especially the mathematical calculations. In his letters to her he mentioned "our papers," and in one even wrote, "How happy and proud I will be when both of us together will have brought our work on relative motion to a successful end." As he gained greater prestige and scientific positions, she gained greater household responsibilities and their collaboration ended. When he received the Nobel Prize, however, Einstein gave the cash award to Maria Maric. Soon after their divorce, Einstein married his cousin Elsa.
Meanwhile, he kept grappling with the ideas of physics. There were problems with his special theory, and he knew it. The problems of gravity bothered him most. Whenever physicists worked out a natural law, gravity seemed to confuse it. In 1915, he wrote the general theory of relativity. It was extremely radical. To account for gravity, time and space must be curved around massive objects. The math was very complex and the whole idea so strange that most people didn't accept it. But Einstein suggested three ways it could be proven. One was to make observations of starlight during a solar eclipse. Conveniently, a solar eclipse occurred in 1919 and astronomers made the observations that proved the general theory of relativity. Einstein became a celebrity. Much of the world had just caught its breath after a long and horrifying war, and perhaps in relief, latched on to this amazing human achievement.
Einstein himself had always opposed war. He spoke against it during the First World War, and throughout the 1920s and 1930s. Hitler was rising to power in Germany, and though Einstein had renewed his German citizenship, he was considered suspect as both a Jew and a pacifist. It may be, too, that the absolutist Nazi party found that his relativity theories conflicted with what they considered pure physics. He was in California when Hitler took power in 1933, and he never returned to Germany. He took a position at the Institute for Advanced Studies in Princeton, where he remained for the rest of his life.
By the 1920s, Einstein's major contributions to physics were behind him. He debated quantum mechanics and the uncertainty principle with Niels Bohr, which helped Bohr clarify the concept, but it was a theory that Einstein never quite accepted. He spent his latter years in search of a unified field theory, or one basic equation to explain all of the forces of nature. He wrote on many topics, especially peace, but rising fascism in the years before World War II made him sign a 1939 letter to President Roosevelt, warning him that the Germans could create an atomic weapon. This led FDR to set up the Manhattan Project, an effort to secretly develop an atomic bomb. Though Einstein's formula E = mc2 was key to the project, Einstein was considered a security risk and was not involved.
In 1940 Einstein renounced his German citizenship for a second time and became a U.S. citizen. He became a supporter of disarmament and of a Jewish state. In 1952 the young nation of Israel offered Einstein the presidency, but he declined. The ninety-ninth element in the periodic table was discovered shortly after Einstein's death in 1955, and it was named "einsteinium."
"The most incomprehensible thing about the world is that it is comprehensible."
Related Features
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correct_award_00024
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| 67
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https://www.lbi.org/griffinger/record/243964
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en
|
Albert Einstein receiving the Max Planck Medal from Max Planck
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The Edythe Griffinger Portal is a curated selection of items from the Art and Objects Collection, Archives, and Library of the Leo Baeck Institute (LBI).
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https://www.lbi.org/griffinger/record/243964
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Biographical/Historical Information
Since 1929, the Max Planck medal was the highest award of the German Physical Society for extraordinary achievements in theoretical physics. Its first recipient was Albert Einstein on June 28, 1929.
The German theoretical physicist Max Planck contributed largely to the understanding of Quantum mechanics in physics and was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1918.
|
|||||
correct_award_00024
|
FactBench
|
0
| 2
|
https://www.advancedsciencenews.com/the-dramatic-story-behind-general-relativitys-nobel-prize-snub/
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en
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The dramatic story behind general relativity's Nobel Prize snub
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2022-08-10T07:00:00+00:00
|
More than 100 years on after Einstein's 1921 Nobel Prize, some confusion remains around the committee's reasons for omitting relativity.
|
en
|
Advanced Science News
|
https://www.advancedsciencenews.com/the-dramatic-story-behind-general-relativitys-nobel-prize-snub/
|
On 9 November 1922, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences voted to award Albert Einstein the previously reserved 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics for “his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect.”
This decision prompted several decades of speculation, especially with respect to the reason for omitting Einstein’s theories of relativity. When changes in the statutes (1974) eventually gave researchers access to official archival materials 50 years and older, historical scholarship could begin challenging conjecture and myth.
Yet, as the 100th-anniversary of this prize approaches, some confusion remains as to what actually transpired and what it means. The Academy of Sciences and related official Nobel sources have long represented this episode along a line that turns out to be incompatible with the historical record. Their version in part draws on physicist Abraham Pais’s account of how Einstein got a Nobel Prize.
Claiming Einstein received a prize for his theory of the photoelectric effect and attributing relativity’s absence simply to an unfortunate error in committee member Allvar Gullstrand’s evaluation, the Academy of Sciences’ narrative represents a misunderstanding and oversimplification of a much more complex and troubling history.
A Swedish prerogative
The Nobel Prize in physics may well be international in scope, but since its beginnings in 1901, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences has determined the outcome.
During the first 50 years of proceedings that have been studied in detail, committee members relied largely on their own judgement. No juggling of statistics related to nominations — number, frequency, or origin — explains the awards. Those entitled to nominate rarely provided a clear mandate for any single candidate. Regardless, the committee seldom selected those candidates who enjoyed a consensual or even majority status from the nominators.
The Swedish committee members’ own comprehension of scientific accomplishment, their own priorities as to what was important, and their own group dynamics all proved critical for the outcome. But in order to make sense of the committee reports, and the decisions recorded therein, a deeper understanding is needed of the committee members.
The committee’s well-polished texts represent an after-the-fact justification for its recommendations sent to the Academy of Sciences; the final reports are not repositories of the processes of trying to arrive at a consensus. The act of writing was also an act of erasing the, at times, contentious processes marked by, let’s name it, bias, arrogance, and even pettiness.
1920: Fame, reactionary foes, and a surprise
At a joint meeting of the Royal Society of London and Royal Astronomical Society held on 6 November 1919, the retired Cambridge physicist, J. J. Thomson, announced the results of the now-famous British eclipse expeditions. Notwithstanding a number of inconclusive photographic plates, a sufficient amount of reliable data confirmed the minute bending of starlight by the sun’s mass that Einstein had predicted based on his general theory of relativity.
In Europe, still recovering from the horror of world war and anxious over political and social upheavals in its wake, news of a theory that overthrew the foundations of physics, and glimpses of its highly unconventional creator, attracted media attention. During the first half of 1920, not only did much of the scientific community recognize Einstein for his achievement, but the ever-growing mass media’s attention also helped generate a world-wide fascination with relativity.
Scarcely understood by the general public, relativity nevertheless assumed an unprecedented role as symbol for the new uncertain era emerging from the ruins and upheavals of war and revolution. Political movements on both ends of the political spectrum began to embrace or attack relativity for their causes. Not necessarily to his liking, Einstein was transforming into an international celebrity the likes of which was unprecedented. Not all physicists accepted the British results as valid proof of Einstein’s theory; and not all physicists were intellectually equipped or willing to understand the theory.
Einstein was no stranger to the Nobel committee. He had been nominated as early as 1910; a trickle of nominations turned by 1917 into modest but substantial annual support. Although for 1920 few nominators sent in proposals, Einstein dominated the sparse list. These included nominations from Niels Bohr and several Dutch physicists including laureates, H. A. Lorentz, Heike Kamerlingh-Onnes, and Pieter Zeeman.
No doubt, some eligible nominators did not participate as a protest over a German sweep of science prizes in 1919 — Max Planck, Johannes Stark, and Fritz Haber — seemingly in defiance of the Allied nations’ boycott of German science.
The five-member Nobel Committee for Physics was dominated, as it had been from the start, by Swedish physicists with a strong commitment to an experimentalist creed that largely relegated sophisticated theory and mathematics to an insignificant role in the advance of physics.
In its 1920 general report to the Academy, the committee dismissed Einstein based on [a special report by committee member Svante Arrhenius] on the degree to which Einstein’s predictions based on relativity theory had been confirmed — the bending of starlight passing near the sun, the irregularities in Mercury’s orbit, and a shift toward the red end in the solar spectrum.
Much of his brief seven-page report emphasized the negative claims against relativity, including those from some of Einstein’s most ardent German detractors. Arrhenius completed his report during the first half of August 1920, just when German anti-Einstein agitation was becoming more public and more virulent.
Arrhenius refers to some of the extremist anti-relativity literature in his seven-page special report for the Nobel committee. After briefly noting general relativity’s ability to account for the minute irregularities in Mercury’s perihelion motion that Newtonian mechanics fails to explain, he then devotes over a half page to Ernst Gehrcke’s [previously published] criticism of Einstein on this largely undisputed success for relativity.
According to Gehrcke, this anomaly had already been resolved decades earlier by a little-known German researcher, Paul Gerber. Based on classical aether-physics, Gerber’s achievement meant there was no need to accept Einstein’s revolutionary reformulation of space and time to account for this puzzling phenomenon. When Einstein had earlier refused to respond to these claims, Gehrcke began to accuse Einstein of plagiarism, which in turn, became a common charge by the far-right against him and relativity.
Arrhenius failed however to mention that Max von Laue and other [supporters] had earlier decidedly refuted and repeatedly dismissed Gehrcke’s argument, by having demonstrated serious errors in Gerber’s calculations.
Turning to the British eclipse results, Arrhenius accepted the skeptics’ argument that the margin of experimental error was larger than the effect to be measured. He declared that these results cannot be admitted as evidence as questions remain about their degree of exactness. He then notes that all efforts to identify a redshift in the solar spectrum had failed.
Arrhenius closed his report, dated 17 August 1920, with several references to literature by various anti-Einstein writers. In a highly unusual practice, he cites articles published in newspapers, largely the ultranationalist Deutsche Zeitung. These included contributions from scientifically and politically dubious authors, such as Hermann Fricke and Johannes Riem, the latter an openly antisemitic Christian opponent of what he considered “Jewish materialism.”
Also mentioned are the “fanciful and fanatic publications” of Rudolf Mewes, a reactionary anti-Semite who supported restoring the Kaiser and opposed the alleged conspiracy to replace true German science with Jewish abstract, derivative knowledge. Arrhenius includes a comment that for the upcoming national meeting of German natural scientists at Bad Nauheim in September, preparations were underway for a “neutralizing [oskadliggörande]” of Einstein from “all layers of all the natural-science disciplines.” Toward that goal, both Gehrcke and Lenard, among others, were expected to be the main presenters.
Arrhenius concludes his evaluation with a quotation from Lenard’s recently reprinted polemic against relativity followed by an abrupt ending consisting of Lenard’s assertion that much of Einstein’s theory must be recognized as “untrustworthy [ovederhäftig].”
The report takes little notice of what the nominators and others found valuable in Einstein’s work. While he wrote his report, the full extent of the extremist political and racist background to much of the German anti-Einstein movement may not have been clear. Still, Weyland and Lenard’s letters coupled with the fact that Lenard and Gehrcke had long been highly critical of relativity were clear indicators of the evolving situation in Germany. Moreover, he met officially and privately in June 1920 with Einstein-supporters, Planck and von Laue, as well as with the ultranationalist relativity-opponent Stark, when they all attended the Nobel ceremony.
With his deep concern for German science, it is inconceivable that Arrhenius did not discuss current events with them. He enjoyed especially good relations with both Planck and Stark, the latter had recently arranged an honorary doctorate from Greifswald University in which he emphasized nordic Arrhenius’s role in helping German science and the common racial, religious, cultural, and political heritage of their nations.
It remains puzzling why Arrhenius included this literature in his report and why, when he shortly thereafter must have understood the unsavory political and racial views expressed by many of the major German opponents of relativity, he remained silent. What Arrhenius actually thought of Einstein and relativity is difficult to pin down. His extensive correspondence reveals no particular interest in relativity; he was not a passionate opponent as were several others on the Nobel committee. Still, Arrhenius might well have been surprised and dismayed by Einstein’s response to his letter of sympathy and solidarity sent to many German scientists in the aftermath of defeat in November 1918. Einstein expressed glee over the end of the Kaiser’s Empire and declared himself to be a democrat and republican, who was deeply concerned with issues of human rights. Neither Arrhenius nor his many close relationships in German science were democrats or republicans.
1921: Bias and arrogance
By 1921, Einstein’s status in the physics community was consolidated. As part of this process, he had received comparatively broad international public support from Nobel Prize nominators. Some, such as [the Dutch physicist, H. A.] Lorentz and Planck, portrayed Einstein’s status as being that of a scientific giant, the likes of which has not been seen since Newton. Both theoretical and experimental physicists proposed Einstein for the Nobel, especially for his work on relativity. Some claimed that it would be difficult to consider other candidates without first seeing Einstein recognized. Einstein’s mandate overshadowed all other candidates.
Gullstrand took it upon himself to write a detailed report on Einstein’s relativity and gravitational theories. Gullstrand, a brilliant contributor to physiological and geometric optics, defined himself as both ophthalmologist and physicist. He is largely remembered for his path-breaking instrumental innovations for studying the eye and his complex analyses of the eye as an optical system. He received the 1911 Nobel Prize in medicine.
Gullstrand’s extraordinary talents were accompanied by stubbornness and arrogance. For over 25 years, he refused to admit error after concluding that the retinal macula, responsible for color vision, was devoid of yellow coloring. Similarly, he rejected advice to abandon his personal cumbersome and confusing form of mathematical analysis when more expedient, and more readily comprehensible forms, became available. Like Arrhenius, his command of recent theoretical physics was limited.
Gullstrand’s unusually long, 50-page evaluative report appears at first glance to be comprehensive and to engage with details of Einstein’s work. Closer inspection shows an internal logic based on the premise that Einstein cannot be right.
By 1921, the political and racial aspects of the German anti-Einstein campaign was well known, yet Gullstrand explicitly stated that he accepts the content and conclusion of Arrhenius’ 1920 evaluation. Gullstrand aimed at defusing those aspects of Einstein’s theory that called for “an overhaul of the commonsense foundations of mechanics.”
According to Gullstrand that which remained once Einstein’s errors and unproven assertions were eliminated could best be treated successfully by classical mechanics. He refers to literature written by Einstein’s supporters as being subjective, delivering unsound and insufficiently proven claims from a “cult of believers.” “Belief” rather than evidence-based scientific reasoning recurs several times in Gullstrand’s discussions of those who accept Einstein’s theories. No similar criticisms are directed toward Einstein’s opponents.
Gullstrand does not explicitly refer to Gehrcke’s arguments related to Einstein’s treatment of the Mercury perihelion anomaly; no doubt because he presented his own critique and explanation. The British eclipse data, according to Gullstrand, are useless. Even if the minute bending of starlight actually received confirmation, that would not constitute proof of Einstein’s 4D space-time.
He based that conclusion on a little-known Norwegian-language, semipopular scientific article by meteorologist and aether-physicist Vilhelm Bjerknes. Gullstrand refers extensively to Bjerknes’ effort to account for the deflection using classical physics. In the end, Gullstrand asserts that Einstein’s theories are devoid of any real content and have no relationship with physical reality; they lacked “the significance for physics for which an awarding with a Nobel Prize can come into question.”
The committee accepted Gullstrand’s evaluation and recommended to the Academy that because no candidate was deemed worthy, the prize for 1921 should be reserved until 1922. No member of the Nobel committee accepted the British data as valid evidence
As usual, the minutes of the full Academy’s Nobel meeting record only the result of the vote, and little more. Still, a number of archival sources provide some insight into the event. The Academy’s discussion revealed gaps in Gullstrand’s command of physics and, in an emotional outburst, also his prejudice. Indeed, in spite of devoting almost a year aiming to prove Einstein wrong, his efforts to master the mathematical and theoretical details proved insufficient.
While working on his report, Gullstrand occasionally had discussed his objections to Einstein’s theories with [theoretical physicist Carl Wilhelm] Oseen, who tended to respond very quickly by pointing out Gullstrand’s misunderstandings. Oseen told the younger theoretical physicist, Oskar Klein, about these tribulations while noting that Gullstrand was hindering a prize for Einstein. Oseen confessed to Arnold Sommerfeld that it was a misfortune Gullstrand had to evaluate theoretical work that he did not understand.
A rebellion that year in the Academy against the committee was unlikely. Many if not most members of the Academy were staunchly conservative politically and scientifically. Equally important, the Academy’s culture of deference to authority meant that voting against Gullstrand’s conclusions would constitute a grave insult, especially when he, one of Sweden’s most accomplished scientists, was so adamantly opposed to Einstein.
It mattered little that leading international physicists had praised Einstein as the greatest living representative of their discipline and had declared his accomplishments in relativity theory to be among the most significant in the history of science. Local “expertise” had spoken; the Academy guarded its own authority and its own right to assess and judge.
For 1922, Einstein again dominated the nominations. Bohr also received strong support. Gullstrand supplemented his report. He rejected suggestions of bringing in a foreign expert to assist with the evaluation. Privately he declared that Einstein must never receive a Nobel Prize. He continued to adhere to Gehrcke’s argument that mass suggestion created the popular mania over relativity.
Gullstrand agreed that new discoveries will soon reveal Einstein’s hoax; the enormous interest in relativity will then rapidly “evaporate [fördunsta].” Again, Gullstrand ignored the nominators’ enthusiastic declarations and extraordinary praise. From his perspective, even scientists can succumb to mass suggestion.
As in 1921, Gullstrand declared that Einstein’s theories lack the significance for physics needed to be considered for a Nobel Prize. The committee accepted this judgement without any formal dissent.
1922: Enter a master of strategy
In addition to Einstein’s contributions to relativity and gravitation theory, some nominators had also been praising his many other seminal contributions as warranting a prize. These included his work with quantum theory, especially through his theories of the photoelectric effect and of specific heat of solids; others mentioned his work related to Brownian motion and kinetic theory. In both 1921 and 1922, one lone nominator, Oseen, specified Einstein’s discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect. He chose his words with care.
The law of the photoelectric effect emerged in connection with Einstein’s 1905 paper “On a Heuristic Point of View Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light,” where he suggested that light behaves at times as discrete, individual particles. Few physicists at first accepted Einstein’s claim for a corpuscular nature of light. A number of scientists gradually provided experimental data that tended to confirm the law.
When the committee met early in 1922 to assign reports, it accepted the need for greater expertise in theoretical physics. It petitioned the Academy in May to coopt Oseen for the committee as an ad hoc member. Once on the committee in June, he insisted on maintaining a clear demarcation between his own nomination of the discovery of the law and those that specified the theory of the photoelectric effect. Oseen wanted Einstein to receive a prize, but not for relativity; equally significant, he strongly supported awarding a prize to Bohr.
Oseen had long supported Bohr’s professional development and admired his quantum theory of the atom and its unexpected successes as something of great beauty. The Nobel committee had been dismissing Bohr’s candidacy on the basis that his quantum theory of the atom was in conflict with physical reality. Oseen understood the need for caution. He long despaired over the Academy and committee physicists’ lack of understanding of, and antagonism toward quantum theory. Now, with a brilliant strategic plan, Oseen recognized how he could overcome committee resistance to both Einstein and Bohr.
Oseen understood that he not only needed to be wary of the general lack of sympathy for quantum theory among Academy physicists, but he also had to overcome past committee evaluations. In particular, in 1921 Arrhenius wrote a short report for the committee on the theory of the photoelectric effect. He argued that regardless of Einstein’s genius-like insights, quantum theory was largely developed by others. Moreover, he concluded that it would seem odd to recognize Einstein for this considerably “less significant” accomplishment than for relativity and other work, such as related to Brownian motion. He recommended rejecting Oseen’s initial 1921 nomination for the discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect.
With Arrhenius’s prior assessment in mind and wanting to defuse potential opposition, Oseen closed his evaluation with a discussion on the relative significance of Einstein’s many accomplishments. Rejecting any universal hierarchy of importance, he suggests that each type of researcher considers its own preferred Einstein achievement as the most significant. He then provides a list, so that, for example, theoretical physicists might be drawn to Einstein’s contributions to quantum theory; mathematical physicists and epistemologists would be most attracted to the general theory of relativity. And for “the measuring physicist” —the type of physical scientist most represented and admired in the Academy—no work of Einstein’s can compete in significance with the discovery of a new fundamental law of nature, the law of the photoelectric effect.
Oseen then wrote an evaluation of Bohr’s quantum model of the atom. By emphasizing the very close bond between Einstein’s empirically proven fundamental law of nature and Bohr’s theory, Oseen overcame the committee’s earlier charges of speculative theory in conflict with the established laws of physics. Oseen convinced his colleagues in the committee to accept his proposals for the two physics prizes to be awarded in 1922.
When the Academy took up the committee recommendations, dissent emerged over the official motivation for Einstein’s prize. According to Mittag-Leffler’s diary entry, a long discussion ensued over competing suggestions for the wording. Finally, a proposal from conservative Former Prime-Minister, Hjalmar Hammarsköld “won”: relativity was not to be mentioned. This would indicate that further criticism of Gullstrand’s evaluation must have emerged. Mittag-Leffler, for one, wished to include both relativity and the discovery of the law in the official motivation for the prize. He disapproved as “a dangerous precedent” the vague general phrase relating to Einstein’s contributions to theoretical physics.
After the vote, the Academy made it clear that relativity should not be mentioned on the Nobel diploma or in any other official documentation.
Historigraphical Remarks
At the Nobel ceremony in December 1922, a tendency began of clouding the record of how the committee and Academy processed Einstein’s strongly supported candidacy (Einstein, who was away in Japan, did not attend). Of course, the statutes required secrecy, yet when Arrhenius delivered introductory comments about Einstein’s prize, he felt compelled to explain why the ever-so-prominent theory of relativity was not being recognized.
Although such ceremonial presentations are normally dubious sources for the history of discovery and of committee’s actions, Arrhenius’s presentation is especially problematic. He presented a misleading narrative. He explained the omission of relativity as it “… pertains essentially to epistemology and has therefore been the subject of lively debate in philosophical circles. It will be no secret that the famous philosopher [Henri] Bergson in Paris has challenged this theory, while other philosophers have acclaimed it wholeheartedly.”
The message here being that relativity belongs to philosophy and not physics. Regardless, if special and general relativity were at best philosophical exercises, why then did so many prominent physicists nominate Einstein for a Nobel physics prize for his work on relativity? Why, for example, did the Italians award their Medaglia Matteucci physics prize in 1921 to Einstein for relativity?
Arrhenius’s comments subsequently stimulated research and speculation on the role of Swedish philosophers’ attitudes to relativity and their relevance for the outcome in the Academy. Einstein’s differences with Bergson have even been declared to be the reason why relativity was denied a prize. Although Swedish philosophers debated relativity, no evidence exists that they had any influence on committee evaluations or Academy decisions.
In August 1981, the first detailed analysis of the Einstein prize, including the preliminary recognition of the critical roles of Gullstrand and Oseen, was presented at a Nobel Symposium and in Nature. An alternative and less controversial narrative was written the following year by Einstein biographer, Abraham Pais with the help of the secretary of the Nobel Committee for Physics, Bengt Nagel. This work is the origin of the mistaken claim that Einstein received a prize for the theory of the photoelectric effect as well as the simplified notion that Gullstrand merely made an unfortunate mistake in his evaluation as the reason for the lack of recognition of relativity.
While this certified — indeed let’s call it what it is — sanitized version of history is certainly the more pleasant, there is very little that we, as a scientific community, can learn from a simple “mistake”. The development of general relativity is one of the most impressive scientific feats of the 20th century. The fact that the community’s most prestigious scientific award never recognized this achievement is at best an anomaly and at worst a scandal.
When the time is taken to properly interrogate the deeply flawed process that led to relativity being snubbed, we can see the toxic effect of contemporary politics and bigotry on the science of the day. Whether or not a scientific advancement is worthy of recognition by the scientific establishment should have nothing to do with the race, gender, religion, social background, or the politics of the scientists involved.
These events occurred in the not-too-distant past. While much progress has been made in recent decades within academia to try eradicating bigotry and prejudice from science, we must accept that such pernicious influences can again creep into the community. It is incumbent on scientists to regard history as more than an opportunity for celebration. Only by embracing the full texture of science past and by remembering and understanding what took place not so long ago, can we protect against new incursions of ideas that are antithetical to the ideals we hold for science.
This article was originally published in Annalen der Physik’s ongoing “Then and now” series, which is dedicated to the history of physics. The article has been modified for this website version.
Access the full article here: Robert Marc Friedman, The 100th Anniversary of Einstein’s Nobel Prize: Facts and Fiction, Annalen der Physik (2022). DOI: 10.1002/andp.202200305
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Albert Einstein (1879-1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist and winner of the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics. Einstein influenced the beginning of the Manhattan Project. In collaboration with Leo Szilard, Einstein wrote a letter to President Roosevelt in 1939, warning of possible German nuclear weapons research and proposing that the United…
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Nuclear Museum
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https://ahf.nuclearmuseum.org/ahf/profile/albert-einstein/
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Albert Einstein (1879-1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist and winner of the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics.
Einstein influenced the beginning of the Manhattan Project. In collaboration with Leo Szilard, Einstein wrote a letter to President Roosevelt in 1939, warning of possible German nuclear weapons research and proposing that the United States begin its own research into atomic energy.
Einstein played no role in the Manhattan Project, having been denied a security clearance in July 1940 due to his pacifist tendencies. After World War II, he worked to control nuclear proliferation. He later regretted signing the letter to Roosevelt, saying in a Newsweek interview that “had I known that the Germans would not succeed in developing an atomic bomb, I would have done nothing.”
Scientific Contributions
In 1896, Einstein began studying to be a physics and mathematics teacher at the Swiss Federal Polytechnic School in Zurich. He graduated in 1901, the same year he became a citizen of Switzerland. He then worked at the Swiss Patent Office. Einstein earned his Ph.D from the University of Zurich during his “miracle year,” 1905, where he published four groundbreaking papers and won notice from academics.
Einstein’s special theory of relativity sought to harmonize the laws of mechanics and laws of the electromagnetic field. His investigations also helped establish the photon theory of light. Based on the special theory of relativity, he proposed a theory of gravitation, and in 1916 he published his paper on the general theory of relativity. In 1921, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics “for his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect.” For more on Einstein’s scientific contributions, visit the Nobel Prize website.
Later Years
As the Nazis rose to power in Germany, Einstein left for the United States and accepted a position at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, NJ in 1933. Einstein became an American citizen in 1940. Einstein turned down an offer to serve as President of Israel, and was a co-founder of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. He died on April 18, 1955.
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Albert Einstein is awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics (9th November, 1921)
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Einstein was not only a visionary physicist but also a pre-eminent scientist whose theories and discoveries profoundly affected the way people viewed the universe. In this episode, Rusted Post Box traces the life journey of Albert Einstein through various philatelic, notaphily and numismatic issues. A global science icon, he brought to the world a fuller understanding of the interaction of space, time and gravity through his visionary papers.<br><br> Rusted Post Box is a series of docudramas that relates various stamps, coins and notes to significant historic events. With the help of the newly established online museum, www.mintageworld.com, this series aims at imparting knowledge and creating interest in the areas of Philately, Numismatics and Notaphily within the general public, collectors, students and scholars alike.<br><br> Promoted by the “Ultra” group, mintageworld.com is the first website of its kind in the world, where all the three fields have been brought under one roof.
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THIS DAY IN HISTORY: NOVEMBER 9, 1922 Albert Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics. Learn more about this brilliant physicist in #Genius,...
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THIS DAY IN HISTORY: NOVEMBER 9, 1922
Albert Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics.
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"I think writing is a kind of gift. A new novel or a new play, it's a gift I get... I need to have breaks or pauses when I don't write. You can't get gifts all the time." Literature laureate Jon Fosse in our new podcast episode: https://lnkd.in/eUA9wtbj #NobelPrize
“They made me fall in love with quantum mechanics and atomic physics,” said physics laureate Anne L’Huillier of two “great teachers”. She benefitted from being taught by Claude Cohen-Tannoudji and Serge Haroche, who would be awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1997 and 2012 respectively. L'Huillier was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics 2023 for experimental methods that generate attosecond pulses of light for the study of electron dynamics in matter. Learn more about her life and work: https://lnkd.in/egnFT-SC Were you inspired by any great teachers?
What does chess have to do with economics? The answer is game theory. In these games like chess, players must think ahead and devise a strategy based on expected countermoves from other players. These interactions characterise many economic situations. Game theory is a theoretical framework that tries to produce the most optimal decision-making of competing actors in a strategic setting. When describing the economic theory, Reinhard Selten told the New York Times that the theory was like chess: “You may not always be right, but such thinking probably makes you play better and keeps you from making as many dumb moves.” The foundations for using game theory in economics were introduced in a monumental study by John von Neumann and Oskar Morgenstern entitled 'Theory of Games and Economic Behavior' (1944). Fifty years later, Selten, John Harsanyi and John Nash were awarded the prize in economic sciences for their contributions to the field. Learn more: https://bit.ly/3zOES62 #WorldChessDay
"The excitement of learning separates youth from old age. As long as you're learning, you're not old." Take a look at some snapshots of the pioneering physicist Rosalyn Yalow throughout her life. She was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1977 for developing radioimmunoassays of peptide hormones. Learn more: https://bit.ly/2XFRZ63 Photos (top, and then left to right): Portrait of Rosalyn Yalow, Yalow on her wedding day in June 1943, Yalow in the lab, Yalow receives her Nobel Prize in 1977.
"One of the most important things as a scientist is that you have to be an optimist. If you’re a pessimist, a failed experiment will tell you that the whole idea is bad and you’ll quit. When you fail you have to continue." - chemistry laureate Richard Henderson's advice to young scientists.
“I’m fascinated by my work … I didn’t go into my career just to collect prizes or accolades or even money. I don’t have much money. I went into it for the adventure of it, the mystery of it,” said laureate Edmund Phelps. He was awarded the prize in economic sciences for his analysis of intertemporal trade-offs in macroeconomic policy, especially about inflation, wages, and unemployment. In the late 1960s, Phelps began his prize-awarded work, which challenged the assumption that high levels of unemployment corresponded with low levels of inflation and vice versa. He shares wisdom about the quest for “a good life” in his Nobel Prize interview, including this philosophical nugget: “It’s hard to draw lessons from the past about what to avoid in the present.” Watch it here: https://lnkd.in/ebEJA3QG
Rosalyn Yalow described herself as a determined and single-minded child. Growing up, her parents wanted her to become a schoolmistress. Instead, Yalow became a nuclear physicist who revolutionised the medical world. Yalow became a physicist when being a woman was seen as an impediment to success, but she persevered. When she could not pay for her graduate degree, Yalow worked as a biochemist's secretary at Columbia University in exchange for classes. In 1941, Yalow accepted an assistantship at the University of Illinois at Champaign-Urbana in the College of Engineering; she was the only woman in a faculty of 400. She earned her PhD in nuclear physics and learned how to build and use equipment to measure radioactive substances. With her research partner Solomon Berson, Yalow made a transformative contribution to medical research: radioimmunoassay, a method for measuring concentrations of substances in the blood. Yalow was awarded the 1977 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine "for the development of radioimmunoassays of peptide hormones." With the help of radioimmunoassay, she proved that type 2 diabetes is caused by the body's inefficient use, rather than lack, of insulin. Learn more: https://bit.ly/2D64qQd
“I will never stop striving for the realisation of democracy, freedom and equality. Surely, the Nobel Peace Prize will make me more resilient, determined, hopeful and enthusiastic.” – peace laureate Narges Mohammadi. The Iranian human rights advocate has been sentenced to 36 years and 3 months in prison and 154 lashes. She has not seen her children Ali and Kiana since 2015. Yet despite her captivity in the notorious Evin prison, she continues to stand at the forefront of major protests against the Iranian regime and fight for women’s rights. For condemning a "full-scale war against women" by the Iranian regime, there is a possibility that Mohammadi could be punished further. Watch the moving Nobel Prize lecture delivered by her children: https://lnkd.in/eHQzQ63M
|
|||
correct_award_00024
|
FactBench
|
0
| 13
|
https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2014/09/einstein-didnt-win-a-nobel-for-relativity-he-won-it-for-this/380451/
|
en
|
It Wasn't Relativity That Won Einstein His Nobel Prize
|
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[
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"internal Nobel hand-wringing",
"light",
"solar cell",
"American named Charles",
"decade Robert Millikan",
"Einstein",
"Albert Einstein"
] | null |
[
"Sarah Laskow"
] |
2014-09-19T10:30:00+00:00
|
At 26, the famous physicist explained the science behind today's solar energy revolution.
|
en
|
https://cdn.theatlantic.com/_next/static/images/favicon-3888b0e329526a975703e3059a02b92d.ico
|
The Atlantic
|
https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2014/09/einstein-didnt-win-a-nobel-for-relativity-he-won-it-for-this/380451/
|
Albert Einstein never won a Nobel prize for the theory of relativity—in fact, it was only through long, political jockeying within the Nobel committee that he won the prize at all. Instead, when he was given the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics (in 1922, after a long bout of internal Nobel hand-wringing), he received it primarily for his explanation of the photoelectric effect. Extraordinarily enough, he came up with both his relativity theory, and the photoelectric effect in the same year: 1905.
At the turn of the century, physicists already knew that, in some circumstances, exposing certain materials to light could create an electric current. An American named Charles Fritts had even created a working solar cell from selenium more than two decades before, in the early 1880s.
But observing that light can create electricity is not the same as understanding why light can create electricity. That was baffling.
It was understood, at that point, that light worked as a wave. But if that was true, it didn't make any sense that light could create an electric current: A wave of light just wouldn't have enough energy to cause materials like selenium to shoot off electrons as fast as they did when exposed to light.
In 1905, Einstein was 26 and producing physics papers that would change the way we think about the world for decades to come. He wasn't quite the wild-haired celebrity yet:
But in a paper published in March 1905, Einstein suggested that, perhaps, light wasn't a wave. Phenomena like the photoelectric effect, he wrote,
are more readily understood if one assumes that the energy of light is discontinuously distributed in space. In accordance with the assumption to be considered here, the energy of a light ray spreading out from a point source is not continuously distributed over an increasing space but consists of a finite number of energy quanta which are localized at points in space, which move without dividing, and which can only be produced and absorbed as complete units.
In other words, light could create electricity if it behaved, sometimes, like a particle rather than a wave. (This should sound familiar to anyone who remembers physics class.)
Only one section of the paper covered the photoelectric effect, but it outlined how a light particle might deliver enough energy, all at once, to knock an electron off an atom and create an electric current. This, it turned out, was easier to show experimentally than some of the other ideas Einstein had outlined. Within a decade Robert Millikan had verified, experimentally, the equation that Einstein had used to describe the photoelectric effect.
|
||||
correct_award_00024
|
FactBench
|
2
| 0
|
https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1921/summary/
|
en
|
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921
|
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The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921 was awarded to Albert Einstein "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect"
|
en
|
NobelPrize.org
|
https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1921/summary/
|
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921 was awarded to Albert Einstein "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect"
Albert Einstein received his Nobel Prize one year later, in 1922. During the selection process in 1921, the Nobel Committee for Physics decided that none of the year's nominations met the criteria as outlined in the will of Alfred Nobel. According to the Nobel Foundation's statutes, the Nobel Prize can in such a case be reserved until the following year, and this statute was then applied. Albert Einstein therefore received his Nobel Prize for 1921 one year later, in 1922.
To cite this section
MLA style: The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921. NobelPrize.org. Nobel Prize Outreach AB 2024. Sat. 20 Jul 2024. <https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1921/summary/>
Back to top Back To Top Takes users back to the top of the page
|
|||||
correct_award_00024
|
FactBench
|
3
| 46
|
https://unacademy.com/content/general-awareness/albert-einstein-biography/
|
en
|
Albert Einstein Biography: Birth, Early Life, Education, Scientific Career, Inventions, Awards, Honours, and More
|
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2022-09-13T09:25:14+00:00
|
Albert Einstein was one of the most recognized and inspirational scientists of the world. He not only postulated several theories that were reliable in physics but also won the Nobel Prize in physics.
|
en
|
Unacademy
|
https://unacademy.com/content/general-awareness/albert-einstein-biography/
|
Albert Einstein, born in the year 1879, was one of the well-known scientists of that era. He was a German physicist who is widely known for his theory of relativity and several other theories that were postulated by him. He was one of the most influential scientists of this generation. He won a Nobel prize for physics as well in the year 1921. However, Albert Einstein was one of the genius boys from a young age. He published his first paper when he was 16 years old. Moreover, he was also a lecturer who used to teach his students physics and mathematics. He was an inspiration to learn, grow and believe in yourself.
Albert Einstein was born in the small state of Ulm in Germany on the 14th of March 1879. He belongs to a middle-class Jewish family, and his father, Herman Einstein, was a featherbed dealer in his initial days. However, he moved on to set up an Electrochemical manufacturing base. Apart from his father, his family had Pauline Koch, who was his mother, and Maria Einstein, who was her sister and only sibling. However, his whole family shifted to Italy, where he had to complete his schooling. Later by the year 1896, he got a job at Swiss Federal Polytechnic school, where he taught physics and maths.
After moving to Italy, he had to complete his schooling in the Swiss town of Arau, After which he continued his study and received his diploma as well as Ph.D. by the year 1905. Moreover, he also got a job as a technical assistant in the company named Swiss Patent Office. However, the education flow of Albert Einstein was not very smooth due to the downfall of his father’s business. Even though in such a condition, Albert continued his study and maintained the strong grounds to achieve his Ph.D. One of the fine facts is that Albert Einstein met Mileva Maric, who was a physics student who relocated from Serbia along with him, and she became his wife in the future.
Albert Einstein was one of those boys who used to be involved in their education and steadiest life. However, as a matter of fact, he found his future wife among one of his physics classmates. Mileva Merrick, who was a physics student who relocated from Serbia, came in contact with Albert Einstein, and later on, by the year 1903, they got married to each other. They were a happy couple with two sons and a daughter until the year 1919. In the year 1919, they both got divorced. However, in the same year, Albert married Elson Leventhal, who was his cousin. Whereas by the year 1936, Elsa died due to natural causes, and Albert didn’t marry any other woman after that.
Considering the fact of the scientific career of Albert Einstein, he had one of the leading and repeated figurines after World War Two under the world government moment. Before joining hands with doctor Jane Weissman at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Albert Einstein was also offered the opportunity of being the president of the state of Israel. Moreover, the paper that Einstein published in 1905 got the attention of one of the influential faces Max Planck. Lastly, Albert Einstein figured out a third of relativity by the end of November 1915. Moreover, he also had the upper hand in the photoelectric effect.
In the last days of his life, Albert Einstein was diagnosed with an abdominal aortic aneurysm, Due to which type on the 18th of April, 1955. Even after his death, His work is still under-recognized, and there are a number of scientists he’s working with under his thoughts and theories. Moreover, there are a number of Nobel prizes associated with a number of theories that have been postulated by Einstein in his early days. This new generation of scientists using this space ignites to verify as well as identify the cosmology of Albert Einstein.
Advert Einstein was one of the influential and well-known scientists of this generation. He was born and brought up by a middle-class family in the year 1879 in Germany; however, his family had to relocate to Italy, and he completed his education there. Has been a genius boy since his younger age. He had quite a great interest in studying and researching several aspects of physics. Therefore he came forward with the research paper that caught the eyes of the most influential scientists of that time, so stop, which led to the rise of Albert Einstein and his knowledge.
|
|||||
correct_award_00024
|
FactBench
|
3
| 31
|
https://www.facebook.com/nobelprize/posts/albert-einstein-was-awarded-the-nobel-prize-in-physics-1921-for-his-services-to-/10156335041729103/
|
en
|
Nobel Prize
|
[] |
[] |
[] |
[
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Albert Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics 1921 "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the...
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de
|
https://static.xx.fbcdn.net/rsrc.php/yT/r/aGT3gskzWBf.ico
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https://www.facebook.com/nobelprize/posts/albert-einstein-was-awarded-the-nobel-prize-in-physics-1921-for-his-services-to-/10156335041729103/
| ||||||
correct_award_00024
|
FactBench
|
1
| 28
|
https://www.republicworld.com/world-news/albert-einstein-won-nobel-prize-for-physics-on-this-day-in-1921-read-details
|
en
|
Albert Einstein won Nobel Prize for Physics on this day in 1921; read details
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2020-11-09T15:55:10+05:30
|
en
|
../favicon.ico
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Republic World
|
https://www.republicworld.com/world-news/albert-einstein-won-nobel-prize-for-physics-on-this-day-in-1921-read-details
| ||||||
correct_award_00024
|
FactBench
|
0
| 64
|
https://www.yahoo.com/entertainment/einstein-bomb-netflix-did-albert-143751992.html
|
en
|
Einstein and the Bomb on Netflix: Did Albert Einstein Win the Nobel Prize?
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[
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2024-02-19T14:37:51+00:00
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The new Netflix docudrama titled Einstein and the Bomb showcases the life and career of German-born theoretical physicist, Albert Einstein. In addition, it also shows the time in his life when he back and forth between his status as a refugee in England. Albert Einstein was a renowned recipient of the prestigious Nobel Prize in […] The post Einstein and the Bomb on Netflix: Did Albert Einstein Win the Nobel Prize? appeared first on ComingSoon.net - Movie Trailers, TV & Streaming News, and More.
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https://s.yimg.com/rz/l/favicon.ico
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Yahoo Entertainment
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https://www.yahoo.com/entertainment/einstein-bomb-netflix-did-albert-143751992.html
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The new Netflix docudrama titled Einstein and the Bomb showcases the life and career of German-born theoretical physicist, Albert Einstein. In addition, it also shows the time in his life when he back and forth between his status as a refugee in England.
Albert Einstein was a renowned recipient of the prestigious Nobel Prize in Physics. According to the Nobel Prize’s official website, he received the honor “for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect”. The theoretical physicist explained that light consists of quanta—packets. They have fixed energies corresponding to certain frequencies. Furthermore, one such light quantum, a photon, must have a certain minimum frequency before it can free an electron.
According to Rotten Tomatoes, the synopsis of Einstein and the Bomb reads, “Using archival footage and his own words. This docudrama chronicles what happened after the scientist fled Nazi Germany and dives into the mind of this tortured genius.”
When did Albert Einstein win the Nobel Prize?
Albert Einstein won the Nobel Prize in Physics in the year,1921. However, according to the Nobel Prize’s official website, he received it a year later in 1922. Apparently, during the selection process in 1921, the Nobel Committee for Physics decided that zero nominations met the criteria as outlined in Alfred Nobel’s will. In such cases, the award can be reserved until the following year, and this statute was then applied.
Einstein had been fascinated with the world’s greatest scientific mysteries since he was a child. In Einstein and the Bomb, his character states, “As a child, 4 or 5, my father showed me a compass. This experience made a deep and lasting impression on me. Since this needle behaved in such a determined way, something deeply hidden had to be behind things… The most beautiful thing we can experience is the mysterious.”
Einstein and the Bomb was directed and produced by Anthony Philipson and Anne Mensah respectively.
|
||
correct_award_00024
|
FactBench
|
2
| 92
|
https://physics.osu.edu/news/nobel-prize-physics-awarded-3-scientists-work-electrons
|
en
|
Nobel Prize in Physics Awarded to 3 Scientists for Work on Electrons
|
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The Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to Pierre Agostini, Ferenc Krausz and Anne L’Huillier on Tuesd
|
en
|
/themes/asc_bootstrap_bux/favicon.ico
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https://physics.osu.edu/news/nobel-prize-physics-awarded-3-scientists-work-electrons
|
The Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to Pierre Agostini, Ferenc Krausz and Anne L’Huillier on Tuesday for their experiments that “have given humanity new tools for exploring the world of electrons inside atoms and molecules.”
Electrons’ movements in atoms and molecules are so quick that they are measured in “attoseconds,” and the experiments conducted by the three scientists demonstrated that attosecond pulses could be observed and measured, the awarding committee said.
Eva Olsson, the chair of the Nobel Committee for Physics, said at a news conference on Tuesday that attosecond science “allows us to address fundamental questions” such as the time scale of the photoelectric effect for which Albert Einstein received the 1921 Nobel in Physics.
An attosecond is a millionth of a trillionth of a second. The number of them in one second is the same as the number of seconds that have elapsed since the universe came into existence, 13.8 billion years ago, according the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, which awards the physics prize.
“Now that the attosecond world has become accessible” the Nobel committee wrote on the social platform X, “these short bursts of light can be used to study the movements of electrons.”
Who are the winners?
Pierre Agostini is an emeritus professor at Ohio State University.
Ferenc Krausz is director at the Max Planck Institute of Quantum Optics in Germany and a professor of experimental physics at Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich.
Anne L’Huillier is a professor at Lund University in Sweden.
Why did the committee say they were receiving the prize?
“Pierre Agostini, Ferenc Krausz and Anne L’Huillier have demonstrated a way to create extremely short pulses of light that can be used to measure the rapid processes in which electrons move or change energy,” the awarding committee said.
The laureates’ contributions have enabled the investigation of processes so rapid that they were “previously impossible to follow,” it added.
Read more: https://www.nytimes.com/2023/10/03/science/nobel-prize-physics.html?smid=nytcore-ios-share&referringSource=articleShare
Read more! https://news.osu.edu/ohio-states-agostini-wins-nobel-prize-in-physics/
Read some more! Ohio State News (osu.edu)
Further reading on Science.org: Ultrafast light experiments win physics Nobel | Science | AAAS
|
|||||
correct_award_00024
|
FactBench
|
3
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https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-009-9761-5_11
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en
|
The Nobel Prize for Einstein [1922a]
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[
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"Robert S"
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1978-07-20T00:00:00
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Albert Einstein has been awarded the Nobel Prize. After the enormous popularity that the creation of the theory of relativity has brought to this great man, this distinction will hardly come as a surprise to the general public. What is surprising is that the citation...
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en
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SpringerLink
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https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-009-9761-5_11
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Albert Einstein has been awarded the Nobel Prize. After the enormous popularity that the creation of the theory of relativity has brought to this great man, this distinction will hardly come as a surprise to the general public. What is surprising is that the citation from the Swedish Academy of the Sciences does not mention the theory of relativity, but specifically honors Einstein for a different achievement: “for his investigations in the field of theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery- of the law of the photoelectric effect”. It would seem that the Swedish Academy wished to avoid taking a position on the question of the theory of relativity — in itself a display of justifiable caution, since the Nobel Prize ought not to render a decision in scientific disputes. Nonetheless, the Nobel Committee has thereby rejected the historic opportunity to do public honor to one of the greatest physical theories of all time.
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correct_award_00024
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1
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https://everything-everywhere.com/how-many-nobel-prizes-should-albert-einstein-have-won/
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en
|
How Many Nobel Prizes Should Albert Einstein Have Won?
|
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2020-12-04T22:44:36+00:00
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How Many Nobel Prizes Should Albert Einstein Have Won?
|
en
|
Everything Everywhere
|
https://everything-everywhere.com/how-many-nobel-prizes-should-albert-einstein-have-won/
|
Subscribe
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Transcript
In the 120 year history of the Nobel Prize, there have been four people who have been given an award twice.
One of them is not Albert Einstein.
Yet, when you look at his list of accomplishments and the different fields of physics which he has touched, he arguably deserved more than one Nobel prize.
Join me as I play fantasy physics and try to figure out how many Nobel Prizes Albert Einstien should have won on this episode of Everything Everywhere Daily.
The history of Albert Einstein and the Nobel Prize is a rather complex one.
By the year 1920, Einstein was unquestionably the most famous scientist in the world. Yet, he had not won a Nobel Prize.
He had developed the Special and General theories of Relativity, he had set the equivalence of mass and energy in his famous E=mc2 equation, and had contributed to many other areas of physics.
His work on relativity had been nominated by many physicists over several years, but the Nobel committee never gave him a prize.
There were a bunch of reasons why Einstein was never given a Nobel Prize. Being Jewish and pacifist were big ones. The Nobel committee didn’t want to honor someone who was so outside the mainstream. The biggest reason, however, was that he was a theoretical physicist. The prize had, up until this point, primarily been given to people who proved things through experimentation.
In 1919, evidence for the General Theory of Relativity was finally found during a solar eclipse when British astronomer Arthur Stanley Eddington detected light from stars which was bent by the gravity of the sun.
Everyone figured that 1920 would be the year when Einstein finally won his Nobel Prize. Instead, the award was given to Charles Edouard Guillaume “in recognition of the service he has rendered to precision measurements in Physics by his discovery of anomalies in nickel steel alloys”.
Yeah, Guillaume was just as surprised as everyone else that he won.
Well, OK. Maybe there wasn’t enough time for the result to sink in. Surely, 1921 would be the year that Einstien would win, right?
In 1921, they gave the Nobel Prize in Physics to no one. Yeah, they decided to give it to no one, rather than give it to Einstein.
The attitude of the Nobel committee was summed up by one Allvar Gullstrand, a Swedish ophthalmologist who sat on the physics committee. In his diaries, found long after his death, he wrote of the 1921 physics prize, “Einstein must never receive a Nobel Prize, even if the whole world demands it.”
By 1922, the Nobel Committee was looking ridiculous in the eyes of the world and in the eyes of the physics community for not giving Einstein a prize.
The rules of the prize stipulate that if no one were given an award in the sciences, it would roll over to the next year. So in 1922, they could retroactively give the 1921 prize.
The committee determined that they had to give the award to Einstein to maintain their respectability in the scientific world. It was just a matter of what they were going to give it to him for. This was probably the only time in the history of the Nobel when the winner was determined before the reason for the award.
In 1922 the nominations poured in again, and again there were dozens of nominations for Einstein and the General Theory of Relativity. However, there was one nomination for Einstein which wasn’t for relativity. Carl Wilhelm Oseen, a Swedish physicist, nominated Einstein for his work in discovering the photoelectric effect.
The photoelectric effect basically holds that photons of light will have more energy at shorter wavelengths.
The committee decided to give Einstein the 1921 award, which wasn’t given out the previous year and give the 1922 award to Niels Bohr who developed the theory of the atom. By giving an award to Einstein and Bohr at the same time, it eliminated having to give one to Einstein by himself.
So Einstein won his Nobel Prize, but it explicitly was not for relativity. In fact, when he was notified by the Nobel Committee they stated:
… the Royal Academy of Sciences has decided to award you last year’s Nobel Prize for physics, in consideration of your work in theoretical physics and in particular your discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect, but without taking into account the value which will be accorded your relativity and gravitation theories after these are confirmed in the future.
They left the door open for a future prize, but none was ever given.
Einstein didn’t really care much about the prize. He didn’t attend the prize ceremony because he was lecturing in Japan. All the money he won went to his ex-wife in a previous divorce settlement. Later in his life when he was asked which honors he was more proud of, he put the German Physical Society’s Max Planck Medal first and didn’t mention the Nobel Prize at all.
Given that we now have 120 years of Nobel Prizes under our belt, it is an interesting question to ask, how many Nobel Prizes should or could Einstein have won?
For the purposes of this theoretical discussion on theoretical physics, I’ll set a few rules:
Any prize he might share with someone else will count as a prize for Einstein. After all, if you share a prize with someone, you are still considered a Nobel laureate, and you still get the medal. You only split the prize money.
The Nobel committee does not award posthumous prizes. So for the purposes of this discussion, we’ll either assume that they do, or that Einstein is now 141 years old, and that he didn’t do any more physics after 1955, which was the year he died.
Before we dive in, how many people have ever won more than one Nobel prize?
The answer is four.
They are Marie Curie, who won in Physics in 1903 and Chemistry in 1911.
Linus Pauling, who won in Chemistry in 1954 and Peace in 1962.
John Bardeen, who won in Physics in 1956 and 1972.
And Frederick Sanger, who won in Chemistry in 1958 and 1980.
So with that, let’s start the Einstein count. For this I’ll basically count any scientific contributions which were at a Nobel Prize level, based on previous awards.
Number one is of course the prize he did win for the photoelectric effect. There is an argument that the 1921 and 1922 prizes that Einstein and Bohr received were really a single shared prize for the same thing, but it makes no difference for our purposes.
Number two would be for special relativity. He developed this in 1905 and he would probably end up sharing this prize with Hendrik Lorentz who developed some of the equations for it.
Number three would be for General Relativity which he published in 1915. This was all his and he would have gotten this alone.
Number four would be sharing in the 1929 prize with Louis de Broglie, for wave-particle duality. De Broglie freely admitted Einstein’s contribution to this, but Einstein was never given credit by the Nobel Committee.
Number five would be from his 1916 paper on spontaneous emission of light from atoms. This was the first time the idea of randomness was put in quantum mechanics, and it is now a pillar of science. This paper also developed the idea of stimulated emission, which was the theoretical basis for lasers. The 1964 Nobel Prize in Physics was given for the invention of the laser.
Number six would be the work he did with Indian physicist, Satyendra Bose in developing what became known as the Bose-Einstein Condensate. This is a state of matter at extremely low temperatures. The 2001 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded for proving and creating a Bose-Einstein Condensate, and Bose also never received a Nobel Prize.
Number seven would be for figuring out Browning Motion. The 1926 prize in physics was given to Jean Baptiste Perrin for experimentally proving the theory which Einstein established in 1905.
A possible eight prize could have been given for his work with quantum entanglement. The theoretical basis was set by Einstein, Boris Podolsky, and Nathan Rosen. They published a paper in 1935 titled “Can Quantum-Mechanical Description of Physical Reality be Considered Complete?”. This was the theoretical basis that led to the 2012 Nobel Prize.
A possible ninth prize could be a share of the 1933 prize which went to Erwin Schrödinger. Einstein was involved in the creation of Schrödinger’s equations and contributed enough to jointly share in the prize.
A possible tenth prize could be his theory of gravity waves, which was finally proven true and awarded a Nobel prize in 2017.
So far we are at ten, and these are just things which actually did win Nobel Prizes, for which Einstein played a major part in the development of the theories which made winning the prize possible for someone else, or for his theories of relativity, which were obviously overlooked and ignored by the committee.
There is an 11th thing for which he could have won a prize for which is often overlooked. Peace. In his later years, Einstein was a big advocate for nuclear disarmament. Given his role in the development of the atomic bomb, he felt it was his duty.
Given that Chemist Linus Pauling won a peace prize in 1962 for basically the same thing, and Einstein was far more famous and influential, it is not at all out of the question that he could have shared the 1962 Nobel Peace Prize if he had lived that long.
So, 11 theoretical Nobel Prizes isn’t too shabby.
It is hard to overstate the impact Einstein had on almost every area of physics in the 20th century.
Yet, believe it or not, Einstein might not be the greatest of all time in physics. I’ll investigate that in a future episode when I dish out the theoretical Nobel prizes for one Isaac Newton.
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https://www.history.com/topics/inventions/albert-einstein
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Albert Einstein
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2009-10-27T11:53:24+00:00
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en
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HISTORY
|
https://www.history.com/topics/inventions/albert-einstein
|
Einstein’s Early Life (1879-1904)
Born on March 14, 1879, in the southern German city of Ulm, Albert Einstein grew up in a middle-class Jewish family in Munich. As a child, Einstein became fascinated by music (he played the violin), mathematics and science. He dropped out of school in 1894 and moved to Switzerland, where he resumed his schooling and later gained admission to the Swiss Federal Polytechnic Institute in Zurich. In 1896, he renounced his German citizenship, and remained officially stateless before becoming a Swiss citizen in 1901.
While at Zurich Polytechnic, Einstein fell in love with his fellow student Mileva Maric, but his parents opposed the match and he lacked the money to marry. The couple had an illegitimate daughter, Lieserl, born in early 1902, of whom little is known. After finding a position as a clerk at the Swiss patent office in Bern, Einstein married Maric in 1903; they would have two more children, Hans Albert (born 1904) and Eduard (born 1910).
Einstein’s Miracle Year (1905)
While working at the patent office, Einstein did some of the most creative work of his life, producing no fewer than four groundbreaking articles in 1905 alone. In the first paper, he applied the quantum theory (developed by German physicist Max Planck) to light in order to explain the phenomenon known as the photoelectric effect, by which a material will emit electrically charged particles when hit by light. The second article contained Einstein’s experimental proof of the existence of atoms, which he got by analyzing the phenomenon of Brownian motion, in which tiny particles were suspended in water.
In the third and most famous article, titled “On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies,” Einstein confronted the apparent contradiction between two principal theories of physics: Isaac Newton’s concepts of absolute space and time and James Clerk Maxwell’s idea that the speed of light was a constant. To do this, Einstein introduced his special theory of relativity, which held that the laws of physics are the same even for objects moving in different inertial frames (i.e. at constant speeds relative to each other), and that the speed of light is a constant in all inertial frames. A fourth paper concerned the fundamental relationship between mass and energy, concepts viewed previously as completely separate. Einstein’s famous equation E = mc2 (where “c” was the constant speed of light) expressed this relationship.
From Zurich to Berlin (1906-1932)
Einstein continued working at the patent office until 1909, when he finally found a full-time academic post at the University of Zurich. In 1913, he arrived at the University of Berlin, where he was made director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics. The move coincided with the beginning of Einstein’s romantic relationship with a cousin of his, Elsa Lowenthal, whom he would eventually marry after divorcing Mileva. In 1915, Einstein published the general theory of relativity, which he considered his masterwork. This theory found that gravity, as well as motion, can affect time and space. According to Einstein’s equivalence principle–which held that gravity’s pull in one direction is equivalent to an acceleration of speed in the opposite direction–if light is bent by acceleration, it must also be bent by gravity. In 1919, two expeditions sent to perform experiments during a solar eclipse found that light rays from distant stars were deflected or bent by the gravity of the sun in just the way Einstein had predicted.
The general theory of relativity was the first major theory of gravity since Newton’s, more than 250 years before, and the results made a tremendous splash worldwide, with the London Times proclaiming a “Revolution in Science” and a “New Theory of the Universe.” Einstein began touring the world, speaking in front of crowds of thousands in the United States, Britain, France and Japan. In 1921, he won the Nobel Prize for his work on the photoelectric effect, as his work on relativity remained controversial at the time. Einstein soon began building on his theories to form a new science of cosmology, which held that the universe was dynamic instead of static, and was capable of expanding and contracting.
Einstein Moves to the United States (1933-39)
A longtime pacifist and a Jew, Einstein became the target of hostility in Weimar Germany, where many citizens were suffering plummeting economic fortunes in the aftermath of defeat in the Great War. In December 1932, a month before Adolf Hitler became chancellor of Germany, Einstein made the decision to emigrate to the United States, where he took a position at the newly founded Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey. He would never again enter the country of his birth.
By the time Einstein’s wife Elsa died in 1936, he had been involved for more than a decade with his efforts to find a unified field theory, which would incorporate all the laws of the universe, and those of physics, into a single framework. In the process, Einstein became increasingly isolated from many of his colleagues, who were focused mainly on the quantum theory and its implications, rather than on relativity.
Einstein’s Later Life (1939-1955)
In the late 1930s, Einstein’s theories, including his equation E=mc2, helped form the basis of the development of the atomic bomb. In 1939, at the urging of the Hungarian physicist Leo Szilard, Einstein wrote to President Franklin D. Roosevelt advising him to approve funding for the development of uranium before Germany could gain the upper hand. Einstein, who became a U.S. citizen in 1940 but retained his Swiss citizenship, was never asked to participate in the resulting Manhattan Project, as the U.S. government suspected his socialist and pacifist views. In 1952, Einstein declined an offer extended by David Ben-Gurion, Israel’s premier, to become president of Israel.
Throughout the last years of his life, Einstein continued his quest for a unified field theory. Though he published an article on the theory in Scientific American in 1950, it remained unfinished when he died, of an aortic aneurysm, five years later. In the decades following his death, Einstein’s reputation and stature in the world of physics only grew, as physicists began to unravel the mystery of the so-called “strong force” (the missing piece of his unified field theory) and space satellites further verified the principles of his cosmology.
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https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1921/einstein/biographical/
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Albert Einstein – Biographical
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The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921 was awarded to Albert Einstein "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect"
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NobelPrize.org
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https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1921/einstein/biographical/
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Albert Einstein
Biographical
Questions and Answers on Albert Einstein
Albert Einstein was born at Ulm, in Württemberg, Germany, on March 14, 1879. Six weeks later the family moved to Munich, where he later on began his schooling at the Luitpold Gymnasium. Later, they moved to Italy and Albert continued his education at Aarau, Switzerland and in 1896 he entered the Swiss Federal Polytechnic School in Zurich to be trained as a teacher in physics and mathematics. In 1901, the year he gained his diploma, he acquired Swiss citizenship and, as he was unable to find a teaching post, he accepted a position as technical assistant in the Swiss Patent Office. In 1905 he obtained his doctor’s degree.
During his stay at the Patent Office, and in his spare time, he produced much of his remarkable work and in 1908 he was appointed Privatdozent in Berne. In 1909 he became Professor Extraordinary at Zurich, in 1911 Professor of Theoretical Physics at Prague, returning to Zurich in the following year to fill a similar post. In 1914 he was appointed Director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Physical Institute and Professor in the University of Berlin. He became a German citizen in 1914 and remained in Berlin until 1933 when he renounced his citizenship for political reasons and emigrated to America to take the position of Professor of Theoretical Physics at Princeton*. He became a United States citizen in 1940 and retired from his post in 1945.
After World War II, Einstein was a leading figure in the World Government Movement, he was offered the Presidency of the State of Israel, which he declined, and he collaborated with Dr. Chaim Weizmann in establishing the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
Einstein always appeared to have a clear view of the problems of physics and the determination to solve them. He had a strategy of his own and was able to visualize the main stages on the way to his goal. He regarded his major achievements as mere stepping-stones for the next advance.
At the start of his scientific work, Einstein realized the inadequacies of Newtonian mechanics and his special theory of relativity stemmed from an attempt to reconcile the laws of mechanics with the laws of the electromagnetic field. He dealt with classical problems of statistical mechanics and problems in which they were merged with quantum theory: this led to an explanation of the Brownian movement of molecules. He investigated the thermal properties of light with a low radiation density and his observations laid the foundation of the photon theory of light.
In his early days in Berlin, Einstein postulated that the correct interpretation of the special theory of relativity must also furnish a theory of gravitation and in 1916 he published his paper on the general theory of relativity. During this time he also contributed to the problems of the theory of radiation and statistical mechanics.
In the 1920s, Einstein embarked on the construction of unified field theories, although he continued to work on the probabilistic interpretation of quantum theory, and he persevered with this work in America. He contributed to statistical mechanics by his development of the quantum theory of a monatomic gas and he has also accomplished valuable work in connection with atomic transition probabilities and relativistic cosmology.
After his retirement he continued to work towards the unification of the basic concepts of physics, taking the opposite approach, geometrisation, to the majority of physicists.
Einstein’s researches are, of course, well chronicled and his more important works include Special Theory of Relativity (1905), Relativity (English translations, 1920 and 1950), General Theory of Relativity (1916), Investigations on Theory of Brownian Movement (1926), and The Evolution of Physics (1938). Among his non-scientific works, About Zionism (1930), Why War? (1933), My Philosophy (1934), and Out of My Later Years (1950) are perhaps the most important.
Albert Einstein received honorary doctorate degrees in science, medicine and philosophy from many European and American universities. During the 1920’s he lectured in Europe, America and the Far East, and he was awarded Fellowships or Memberships of all the leading scientific academies throughout the world. He gained numerous awards in recognition of his work, including the Copley Medal of the Royal Society of London in 1925, and the Franklin Medal of the Franklin Institute in 1935.
Einstein’s gifts inevitably resulted in his dwelling much in intellectual solitude and, for relaxation, music played an important part in his life. He married Mileva Maric in 1903 and they had a daughter and two sons; their marriage was dissolved in 1919 and in the same year he married his cousin, Elsa Löwenthal, who died in 1936. He died on April 18, 1955 at Princeton, New Jersey.
From Nobel Lectures, Physics 1901-1921, Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1967
This autobiography/biography was written at the time of the award and first published in the book series Les Prix Nobel. It was later edited and republished in Nobel Lectures. To cite this document, always state the source as shown above.
* Albert Einstein was formally associated with the Institute for Advanced Study located in Princeton, New Jersey.
Copyright © The Nobel Foundation 1922
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"Einstein was convinced he would get it at some point"
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"Einstein was convinced he would get it at some point" Interview with Hans-Rudolf Ott on what the Nobel Prize meant to Albert Einstein
05 Oct 2021, 9.00 AM
In 1922 Albert Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize of Physics for the year 1921. In a letter to the Nobel Committee after being informed about the prize Albert Einstein wrote: “I am very glad to have received the Nobel Prize – also because there is no longer any reason for people to ask me the accusing question: Why don’t you get the Nobel Prize?”. Was the prize important to Albert Einstein and if so, why?
Hans-Rudolf Ott is an expert on Albert Einstein. He is also the president of the Einstein Society Bern and Professor of Physics, working at ETH Zürich where Albert Einstein taught between 1912 and 1914.
“Albert Einstein counted on the Nobel Prize. In 1914 when he separated from his wife Mileva Maric, she would not agree to a formal divorce. Later, in 1918, he asked her again to agree to a divorce and offered her to receive the Nobel Prize money if he ever would get the prestigious award”, says Hans-Rudolf Ott.
He continues: “In 1915 Albert Einstein succeeded in formulating the General Theory of Relativity and Gravitation. The theory used mathematical tools that were not widely known at the time and therefore, only a few specialists were able to appreciate its content. A year later, another of Einstein’s theories, the Law of the Photoelectric Effect which is based on the light-quantum hypothesis, was experimentally verified by Robert Millikan. In 1919 one of the predictions of the General Theory of Relativity was verified by a British team. The data collected by the British team was claimed to quantitatively confirm Einstein’s theoretical prediction. This made a headline in the British newspaper The Times. Albert Einstein gained world prominence, but was still not awarded the Nobel Prize.”
Difficult task for the Nobel Committee
Hans-Rudolf Ott thinks the Nobel Committee for the Physics award faced, and still does, a difficult task. Alfred Nobel’s will states that the Nobel Prize be awarded to “those who, during the preceding year, have conferred the greatest benefit to humankind.
“It was not easy to interpret the will, the Nobel Prize was still quite young, and it was not clear at the time what Einstein’s work meant for humankind. A lot of his discoveries were proven and valued only much later. With respect of his General Theory of Relativity, just a few of his contemporary peers actually understood what he had done.”
When the Nobel Committee finally awarded Albert Einstein with the 1921 prize in 1922, he had been nominated more than 60 times. He was honoured with the Nobel Prize for his discovery of the Law of the Photoelectric Effect and his contributions to theoretical physics in general.
“Einstein’s Law of Photoelectric Effect had been experimentally verified in 1916. Therefore it was, to some extent, more in line with the Nobel committee’s directives to award Einstein for this work.”
In his otherwise so detailed diary Albert Einstein doesn’t mention the day he finds out he is laureated:
“Because he was so sure he deserved it and eventually would get it”, says Hans- Rudolf Ott.
Financial problems
Shortly after having moved to Berlin in 1914, Albert Einstein separated from his wife Mileva Maric, a former study colleague at the Zürich Polytechnic. Maric returned to Zürich with the couple’s two sons, while Einstein stayed in Berlin.
“At the time of the separation Einstein had a high income. However, after the first world war the German currency lost its value and suddenly Einstein found it impossible to pay the agreed allowance to his former wife who lived in Switzerland”, says Hans-Rudolf Ott.
The Nobel Prize being paid in Swedish kronor gave Einstein the economic freedom to offer his former wife what he had promised. The prize sum was 121 572 kronor, almost 50 times Einstein’s yearly salary at the time. Part of the money was used to buy a house in Zürich and the rental income of the rest of the money secured the living costs of Mileva Maric and the two sons.
“Viewed in this light, the award of the Nobel Prize was not only a well deserved recognition of Einstein’s scientific achievements, it also prevented his financial ruin and secured the financial support for his former wife and the children”, says Hans-Rudolf Ott.
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https://www.britannica.com/topic/Winners-of-the-Nobel-Prize-for-Physics-1856942
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Winners of the Nobel Prize for Physics | Nobel Laureates, Physics Fields, Discoveries
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The Nobel Prize for Physics is awarded, according to the will of Swedish inventor and industrialist Alfred Bernhard Nobel, “to those who, during the preceding year, shall have conferred the greatest benefit on mankind” in the field of physics. It is conferred by the Royal Swedish Academy of
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https://www.britannica.com/topic/Winners-of-the-Nobel-Prize-for-Physics-1856942
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1901 Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen Germany discovery of X-rays 1902 Hendrik Antoon Lorentz Netherlands investigation of the influence of magnetism on radiation Pieter Zeeman Netherlands investigation of the influence of magnetism on radiation 1903 Henri Becquerel France discovery of spontaneous radioactivity Marie Curie France investigations of radiation phenomena discovered by Becquerel Pierre Curie France investigations of radiation phenomena discovered by Becquerel 1904 Lord Rayleigh U.K. discovery of argon 1905 Philipp Lenard Germany research on cathode rays 1906 Sir J.J. Thomson U.K. researches into electrical conductivity of gases 1907 A.A. Michelson U.S. spectroscopic and metrological investigations 1908 Gabriel Lippmann France photographic reproduction of colours 1909 Ferdinand Braun Germany development of wireless telegraphy Guglielmo Marconi Italy development of wireless telegraphy 1910 Johannes Diederik van der Waals Netherlands research concerning the equation of state of gases and liquids 1911 Wilhelm Wien Germany discoveries regarding laws governing heat radiation 1912 Nils Dalén Sweden invention of automatic regulators for lighting coastal beacons and light buoys 1913 Heike Kamerlingh Onnes Netherlands investigation into the properties of matter at low temperatures; production of liquid helium 1914 Max von Laue Germany discovery of diffraction of X-rays by crystals 1915 Sir Lawrence Bragg U.K. analysis of crystal structure by means of X-rays Sir William Bragg U.K. analysis of crystal structure by means of X-rays 1917 Charles Glover Barkla U.K. discovery of characteristic X-radiation of elements 1918 Max Planck Germany discovery of the elemental quanta 1919 Johannes Stark Germany discovery of the Doppler effect in positive ion rays and division of spectral lines in an electric field 1920 Charles Édouard Guillaume Switzerland discovery of anomalies in alloys 1921 Albert Einstein Switzerland work in theoretical physics 1922 Niels Bohr Denmark investigation of atomic structure and radiation 1923 Robert Andrews Millikan U.S. work on elementary electric charge and the photoelectric effect 1924 Karl Manne Georg Siegbahn Sweden work in X-ray spectroscopy 1925 James Franck Germany discovery of the laws governing the impact of an electron upon an atom Gustav Hertz Germany discovery of the laws governing the impact of an electron upon an atom 1926 Jean Perrin France work on the discontinuous structure of matter 1927 Arthur Holly Compton U.S. discovery of wavelength change in diffused X-rays C.T.R. Wilson U.K. method of making visible the paths of electrically charged particles 1928 Sir Owen Willans Richardson U.K. work on electron emission by hot metals 1929 Louis de Broglie France discovery of the wave nature of electrons 1930 Sir Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman India work on light diffusion; discovery of the Raman effect 1932 Werner Heisenberg Germany creation of quantum mechanics 1933 P.A.M. Dirac U.K. introduction of wave equations in quantum mechanics Erwin Schrödinger Austria introduction of wave equations in quantum mechanics 1935 Sir James Chadwick U.K. discovery of the neutron 1936 Carl David Anderson U.S. discovery of the positron Victor Francis Hess Austria discovery of cosmic radiation 1937 Clinton Joseph Davisson U.S. experimental demonstration of the interference phenomenon in crystals irradiated by electrons Sir George Paget Thomson U.K. experimental demonstration of the interference phenomenon in crystals irradiated by electrons 1938 Enrico Fermi Italy disclosure of artificial radioactive elements produced by neutron irradiation 1939 Ernest Orlando Lawrence U.S. invention of the cyclotron 1943 Otto Stern U.S. discovery of the magnetic moment of the proton 1944 Isidor Isaac Rabi U.S. resonance method for registration of various properties of atomic nuclei 1945 Wolfgang Pauli Austria discovery of the exclusion principle of electrons 1946 Percy Williams Bridgman U.S. discoveries in the domain of high-pressure physics 1947 Sir Edward Victor Appleton U.K. discovery of the Appleton layer in the upper atmosphere 1948 Patrick M.S. Blackett U.K. discoveries in the domain of nuclear physics and cosmic radiation 1949 Yukawa Hideki Japan prediction of the existence of mesons 1950 Cecil Frank Powell U.K. photographic method of studying nuclear processes; discoveries concerning mesons 1951 Sir John Douglas Cockcroft U.K. work on transmutation of atomic nuclei by accelerated particles Ernest Thomas Sinton Walton Ireland work on transmutation of atomic nuclei by accelerated particles 1952 Felix Bloch U.S. discovery of nuclear magnetic resonance in solids E.M. Purcell U.S. discovery of nuclear magnetic resonance in solids 1953 Frits Zernike Netherlands method of phase-contrast microscopy 1954 Max Born U.K. statistical studies of atomic wave functions Walther Bothe West Germany invention of the coincidence method 1955 Polykarp Kusch U.S. measurement of the magnetic moment of the electron Willis Eugene Lamb, Jr. U.S. discoveries in the hydrogen spectrum 1956 John Bardeen U.S. investigations on semiconductors and invention of the transistor Walter H. Brattain U.S. investigations on semiconductors and invention of the transistor William B. Shockley U.S. investigations on semiconductors and invention of the transistor 1957 Tsung-Dao Lee China discovery of violations of the principle of parity Chen Ning Yang China discovery of violations of the principle of parity 1958 Pavel Alekseyevich Cherenkov U.S.S.R. discovery and interpretation of the Cherenkov effect Ilya Mikhaylovich Frank U.S.S.R. discovery and interpretation of the Cherenkov effect Igor Yevgenyevich Tamm U.S.S.R. discovery and interpretation of the Cherenkov effect 1959 Owen Chamberlain U.S. confirmation of the existence of the antiproton Emilio Segrè U.S. confirmation of the existence of the antiproton 1960 Donald A. Glaser U.S. development of the bubble chamber 1961 Robert Hofstadter U.S. determination of the shape and size of atomic nucleons Rudolf Ludwig Mössbauer West Germany discovery of the Mössbauer effect 1962 Lev Davidovich Landau U.S.S.R. contributions to the understanding of condensed states of matter 1963 J. Hans D. Jensen West Germany development of the shell model theory of the structure of atomic nuclei Maria Goeppert Mayer U.S. development of the shell model theory of the structure of atomic nuclei Eugene Paul Wigner U.S. principles governing interaction of protons and neutrons in the nucleus 1964 Nikolay Gennadiyevich Basov U.S.S.R. work in quantum electronics leading to construction of instruments based on maser-laser principles Aleksandr Mikhaylovich Prokhorov U.S.S.R. work in quantum electronics leading to construction of instruments based on maser-laser principles Charles Hard Townes U.S. work in quantum electronics leading to construction of instruments based on maser-laser principles 1965 Richard P. Feynman U.S. basic principles of quantum electrodynamics Julian Seymour Schwinger U.S. basic principles of quantum electrodynamics Tomonaga Shin'ichiro Japan basic principles of quantum electrodynamics 1966 Alfred Kastler France discovery of optical methods for studying Hertzian resonances in atoms 1967 Hans Albrecht Bethe U.S. discoveries concerning the energy production of stars 1968 Luis W. Alvarez U.S. work with elementary particles, discovery of resonance states 1969 Murray Gell-Mann U.S. classification of elementary particles and their interactions 1970 Hannes Alfvén Sweden work in magnetohydrodynamics and in antiferromagnetism and ferrimagnetism Louis-Eugène-Félix Néel France work in magnetohydrodynamics and in antiferromagnetism and ferrimagnetism 1971 Dennis Gabor U.K. invention of holography 1972 John Bardeen U.S. development of the theory of superconductivity Leon N. Cooper U.S. development of the theory of superconductivity John Robert Schrieffer U.S. development of the theory of superconductivity 1973 Leo Esaki Japan tunneling in semiconductors and superconductors Ivar Giaever U.S. tunneling in semiconductors and superconductors Brian D. Josephson U.K. tunneling in semiconductors and superconductors 1974 Antony Hewish U.K. work in radio astronomy Sir Martin Ryle U.K. work in radio astronomy 1975 Aage N. Bohr Denmark work on the atomic nucleus that paved the way for nuclear fusion Ben R. Mottelson Denmark work on the atomic nucleus that paved the way for nuclear fusion James Rainwater U.S. work on the atomic nucleus that paved the way for nuclear fusion 1976 Burton Richter U.S. discovery of a new class of elementary particles (psi, or J) Samuel C.C. Ting U.S. discovery of a new class of elementary particles (psi, or J) 1977 Philip W. Anderson U.S. contributions to understanding the behaviour of electrons in magnetic, noncrystalline solids Sir Nevill F. Mott U.K. contributions to understanding the behaviour of electrons in magnetic, noncrystalline solids John H. Van Vleck U.S. contributions to understanding the behaviour of electrons in magnetic, noncrystalline solids 1978 Pyotr Leonidovich Kapitsa U.S.S.R. invention and application of a helium liquefier Arno Penzias U.S. discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation, providing support for the big-bang theory Robert Woodrow Wilson U.S. discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation, providing support for the big-bang theory 1979 Sheldon Lee Glashow U.S. unification of electromagnetism and the weak interactions of subatomic particles Abdus Salam Pakistan unification of electromagnetism and the weak interactions of subatomic particles Steven Weinberg U.S. unification of electromagnetism and the weak interactions of subatomic particles 1980 James Watson Cronin U.S. demonstration of simultaneous violation of both charge-conjugation and parity-inversion symmetries Val Logsdon Fitch U.S. demonstration of simultaneous violation of both charge-conjugation and parity-inversion symmetries 1981 Nicolaas Bloembergen U.S. applications of lasers in spectroscopy Arthur Leonard Schawlow U.S. applications of lasers in spectroscopy Kai Manne Börje Siegbahn Sweden electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis 1982 Kenneth Geddes Wilson U.S. analysis of continuous phase transitions 1983 Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar U.S. contributions to understanding the evolution and devolution of stars William A. Fowler U.S. contributions to understanding the evolution and devolution of stars 1984 Simon van der Meer Netherlands discovery of subatomic particles W and Z, which supports the electroweak theory Carlo Rubbia Italy discovery of subatomic particles W and Z, which supports the electroweak theory 1985 Klaus von Klitzing West Germany discovery of the quantized Hall effect, permitting exact measurements of electrical resistance 1986 Gerd Binnig West Germany development of electron microscopes Heinrich Rohrer Switzerland development of electron microscopes Ernst Ruska West Germany development of electron microscopes 1987 J. Georg Bednorz West Germany discovery of new superconducting materials Karl Alex Müller Switzerland discovery of new superconducting materials 1988 Leon Max Lederman U.S. research in subatomic particles Melvin Schwartz U.S. research in subatomic particles Jack Steinberger U.S. research in subatomic particles 1989 Hans Georg Dehmelt U.S. development of methods to isolate atoms and subatomic particles for study Wolfgang Paul West Germany development of methods to isolate atoms and subatomic particles for study Norman Foster Ramsey U.S. development of the atomic clock 1990 Jerome Isaac Friedman U.S. discovery of quarks Henry Way Kendall U.S. discovery of quarks Richard E. Taylor Canada discovery of quarks 1991 Pierre-Gilles de Gennes France discovery of general rules for behaviour of molecules 1992 Georges Charpak France invention of a detector that traces subatomic particles 1993 Russell Alan Hulse U.S. identifying binary pulsars Joseph H. Taylor, Jr. U.S. identifying binary pulsars 1994 Bertram N. Brockhouse Canada development of neutron-scattering techniques Clifford G. Shull U.S. development of neutron-scattering techniques 1995 Martin Lewis Perl U.S. discovery of the tau subatomic particle Frederick Reines U.S. discovery of the neutrino 1996 David M. Lee U.S. discovery of superfluidity in the isotope helium-3 Douglas D. Osheroff U.S. discovery of superfluidity in the isotope helium-3 Robert C. Richardson U.S. discovery of superfluidity in the isotope helium-3 1997 Steven Chu U.S. process of trapping atoms with laser cooling Claude Cohen-Tannoudji France process of trapping atoms with laser cooling William D. Phillips U.S. process of trapping atoms with laser cooling 1998 Robert B. Laughlin U.S. discovery of the fractional quantum Hall effect Horst L. Störmer U.S. discovery of the fractional quantum Hall effect Daniel C. Tsui U.S. discovery of the fractional quantum Hall effect 1999 Gerardus 't Hooft Netherlands study of the quantum structure of electroweak interactions Martinus J.G. Veltman Netherlands study of the quantum structure of electroweak interactions 2000 Zhores I. Alferov Russia development of fast semiconductors for use in microelectronics Jack S. Kilby U.S. development of the integrated circuit (microchip) Herbert Kroemer Germany development of fast semiconductors for use in microelectronics 2001 Eric A. Cornell U.S. achievement of Bose-Einstein condensation in dilute gases of alkali atoms; early fundamental studies of the properties of the condensates Wolfgang Ketterle Germany achievement of Bose-Einstein condensation in dilute gases of alkali atoms; early fundamental studies of the properties of the condensates Carl E. Wieman U.S. achievement of Bose-Einstein condensation in dilute gases of alkali atoms; early fundamental studies of the properties of the condensates 2002 Raymond Davis, Jr. U.S. detection of neutrinos Riccardo Giacconi U.S. seminal discoveries of cosmic sources of X-rays Koshiba Masatoshi Japan detection of neutrinos 2003 Alexei A. Abrikosov U.S. discoveries regarding superconductivity and superfluidity at very low temperatures Vitaly L. Ginzburg Russia discoveries regarding superconductivity and superfluidity at very low temperatures Anthony J. Leggett U.S. discoveries regarding superconductivity and superfluidity at very low temperatures 2004 David J. Gross U.S. discovery of asymptotic freedom in the theory of the strong interaction H. David Politzer U.S. discovery of asymptotic freedom in the theory of the strong interaction Frank Wilczek U.S. discovery of asymptotic freedom in the theory of the strong interaction 2005 Roy J. Glauber U.S. contributions to the field of optics John L. Hall U.S. contributions to the development of laser spectroscopy Theodor W. Hänsch Germany contributions to the development of laser spectroscopy 2006 John C. Mather U.S. discovery of the blackbody form and anisotropy of the cosmic microwave background radiation George F. Smoot U.S. discovery of the blackbody form and anisotropy of the cosmic microwave background radiation 2007 Albert Fert France discovery of giant magnetoresistance Peter Grünberg Germany discovery of giant magnetoresistance 2008 Kobayashi Makoto Japan discovery of the origin of the broken symmetry which predicts the existence of at least three families of quarks in nature Maskawa Toshihide Japan discovery of the origin of the broken symmetry which predicts the existence of at least three families of quarks in nature Yoichiro Nambu U.S. discovery of the mechanism of spontaneous broken symmetry in subatomic physics 2009 Willard Boyle Canada/U.S. invention of the CCD sensor, an imaging semiconductor circuit Charles Kao U.K./U.S. achievements concerning the transmission of light in fibres for optical communication George E. Smith U.S. invention of the CCD sensor, an imaging semiconductor circuit 2010 Andre Geim Netherlands experiments regarding the two-dimensional material graphene Konstantin Novoselov Russia/U.K. experiments regarding the two-dimensional material graphene 2011 Saul Perlmutter U.S. discovery of the accelerating expansion of the universe through observations of distant supernovae Brian P. Schmidt U.S./Australia discovery of the accelerating expansion of the universe through observations of distant supernovae Adam G. Riess U.S. discovery of the accelerating expansion of the universe through observations of distant supernovae 2012 Serge Haroche France development of methods that enable measuring and manipulation of individual quantum systems David J. Wineland U.S. development of methods that enable measuring and manipulation of individual quantum systems 2013 François Englert Belgium theoretical discovery of a mechanism that contributes to the understanding of the origin of mass of subatomic particles 2015 Kajita Takaaki Japan discovery of neutrino oscillations, which show that neutrinos have mass Arthur B. McDonald Canada discovery of neutrino oscillations, which show that neutrinos have mass 2016 David Thouless U.K. theoretical discoveries of topological phase transitions and topological phases of matter Duncan Haldane U.K. theoretical discoveries of topological phase transitions and topological phases of matter Michael Kosterlitz U.K. theoretical discoveries of topological phase transitions and topological phases of matter 2017 Barry C. Barish U.S. decisive contributions to the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory detector and the observation of gravitational waves Kip S. Thorne U.S. decisive contributions to the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory detector and the observation of gravitational waves Rainer Weiss U.S. decisive contributions to the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory detector and the observation of gravitational waves 2018 Arthur Ashkin U.S. invention of optical tweezers and their application to biological systems Gérard Mourou France invention of a method of generating high-intensity ultra-short optical pulses Donna Strickland Canada invention of a method of generating high-intensity ultra-short optical pulses 2019 James Peebles Canada/U.S. theoretical discoveries in physical cosmology Michel Mayor Switzerland discovery of an exoplanet orbiting a solar-type star Didier Queloz Switzerland discovery of an exoplanet orbiting a solar-type star 2020 Reinhard Genzel Germany discovery of a supermassive compact object at the centre of the Milky Way Galaxy Andrea Ghez U.S. discovery of a supermassive compact object at the centre of the Milky Way Galaxy Roger Penrose U.K. discovery that black hole formation is a robust prediction of the general theory of relativity 2021 Klaus Hasselmann Germany development of the foundation for human knowledge of the Earth's climate and how humanity influences it Manabe Syukuro Japan/U.S. development of the foundation for human knowledge of the Earth's climate and how humanity influences it Giorgio Parisi Italy discovery of the interplay of disorder and fluctuations in physical systems from atomic to planetary scales 2022 Alain Aspect France experiments with quantum entanglement that laid the foundation for a new era of quantum technology John F. Clauser U.S. experiments with quantum entanglement that laid the foundation for a new era of quantum technology Anton Zeilinger Austria experiments with quantum entanglement that laid the foundation for a new era of quantum technology 2023 Pierre Agostini France development of experimental methods that generate attosecond pulses of light for the study of electron dynamics in matter Ferenc Krausz Hungary development of experimental methods that generate attosecond pulses of light for the study of electron dynamics in matter
|
||||
correct_award_00024
|
FactBench
|
2
| 84
|
https://www.tiktok.com/%40fascience7/video/7329173804675009793
|
en
|
Make Your Day
|
[] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
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en
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correct_award_00024
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FactBench
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0
| 72
|
https://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/einstein/life-and-times/career-scientist
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en
|
Career Scientist
|
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Einstein recognized early in life that he had a talent for mathematics and abstract thought, and the intellectual freedom of theoretical physics appealed to him. While still establishing himself as...
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en
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/favicon.ico
|
American Museum of Natural History
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https://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/einstein/life-and-times/career-scientist
|
The Path to Princeton
Self-reliant from a young age, Einstein carved out a distinguished career through his unfaltering dedication to science. As a boy, he struggled against a structured education system that wouldn't allow his imagination to flourish. Einstein recognized early in life that he had a talent for mathematics and abstract thought, and the intellectual freedom of theoretical physics appealed to him.
While still establishing himself as a physicist, Einstein had to move to wherever jobs were available. Academic institutions in Berlin, Zurich, Bern, Prague, and other European cities were well known to him. Einstein soon developed a reputation as a brilliant professor and was a visiting scholar at research institutes around the world. During a repeat visit to the California Institute of Technology, a colleague offered Einstein a position at the newly founded Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey. In 1933 Einstein made one final move: to Princeton, where he lived out his last decades as a theoretical physicist at the Institute.
Patent Clerk to Professor
Einstein's first job out of college was that of a patent clerk at the Swiss Federal Office for Intellectual Property in Bern. Einstein later fondly remembered the patent office as the place where he "hatched his most beautiful ideas."
After seven years at the patent office and one year as a guest lecturer at the University of Bern, Einstein moved his family from their Bern residence when he became a professor of theoretical physics at the University of Zurich.
The Institute for Advanced Study
Tucked away on a quiet campus off the bustling streets of downtown Princeton, the Institute for Advanced Study was for Einstein a "free thinker's" paradise where he could focus solely on theoretical physics. His office in Fuld Hall was sparsely furnished, except for a chalkboard, chairs, a desk, and shelves stacked with papers. There, Einstein and his assistants tried unsuccessfully to formulate the "Grand Unified Theory," which is still pursued by physicists today.
Einstein's Miracles of 1905
One great accomplishment may be enough for some lifetimes but not for Albert Einstein's. Now known as his "annus mirabilis," or miraculous year, 1905 was a great turning point in the young physicist's career. Einstein received his Ph.D. from the University of Zurich, and he wrote four groundbreaking articles that were published in the prestigious journal Annalen der Physik:
On a Heuristic Point of View Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light, Annalen der Physik, 1905
On the Movement of Small Particles Suspended in Stationary Liquids Required by the Molecular-Kinetic Theory of Heat, Annalen der Physik, 1905
On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies, Annalen der Physik, 1905
Does the Inertia of a Body Depend upon its Energy Content?, Annalen der Physik, 1905
The 26-year-old scientist knew his work was important, but even he could not predict how the physics world would react. In 1901 he had written to Mileva Mari, "I am now working very eagerly on electrodynamics of moving bodies, which promises to become a capital paper." Better known as the Special Theory of Relativity, that "capital paper" and three others spurred intense discussion in the scientific community; the newly graduated Ph.D. was now seen as a noteworthy physicist. Some historians have noted that if Einstein had never published anything after 1905, he still would have been known as one of the greatest thinkers of our time.
Einstein's Nobel Prize
The path to Sweden to accept the Nobel Prize is often long and difficult. In fact, Einstein never actually made it to Stockholm to accept his medal. Famous thanks to a 1919 eclipse that confirmed his General Theory of Relativity, Einstein was in the midst of a world lecture tour when the Nobel committee awarded him the 1921 prize. He won for his distinguished career in physics, most notably for his 1905 theory of light and electrons called the Photoelectric Effect, not his more controversial theory of relativity.
Einstein and his wife Elsa were headed to Japan when the Nobel telegram arrived at their Berlin residence in 1922. The German ambassador to Sweden attended the December award ceremony on Einstein's behalf, overlooking that the scientist had renounced his German citizenship in 1896. After much confusion over whether Einstein was a German or Swiss citizen, the Swedish ambassador hand-delivered the medal to Einstein in Berlin in 1923. Later that year Einstein visited Sweden to give his "Nobel lecture"—on relativity.
Einstein's Nobel Prize Medal
1922
Alfred Nobel (1833–1896), a Swedish inventor of dynamite and other explosive technology, requested that upon his death his estate be used to establish a foundation of good will. Decreed in 1900, the Nobel Foundation provides prize money to Nobel recipients, named by separate committees. The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences chooses the winners of the Nobel Prize in Physics.
The central image on Einstein's Nobel medal depicts the Genius of Science unveiling Nature, in the form of the goddess Isis. She is emerging from the clouds holding a vessel of abundance. Surrounding the image are the words, "Inventions enhance life which is beautified through art." The reverse side bears an image of Alfred Nobel.
Nobel Prize in Physics Certificate
In 1922, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences retroactively awarded Albert Einstein the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics for his groundbreaking theory of the Photoelectric Effect. Members of the prize committee had nominated Einstein nearly every year between 1910 and 1922, but there was much debate as to which groundbreaking theory they should cite. Some said General Relativity, but a mere eclipse was not enough proof for all committee members to stake their reputations on Einstein's new theory. With the medal came a sum of 121,592 kronor (roughly $32,000), which Einstein gave to his ex-wife Mileva as part of their divorce agreement.
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correct_award_00024
|
FactBench
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| 12
|
https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2014/09/einstein-didnt-win-a-nobel-for-relativity-he-won-it-for-this/380451/
|
en
|
It Wasn't Relativity That Won Einstein His Nobel Prize
|
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[
"photoelectric effect",
"nobel prize",
"electric current",
"internal Nobel hand-wringing",
"light",
"solar cell",
"American named Charles",
"decade Robert Millikan",
"Einstein",
"Albert Einstein"
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[
"Sarah Laskow"
] |
2014-09-19T10:30:00+00:00
|
At 26, the famous physicist explained the science behind today's solar energy revolution.
|
en
|
https://cdn.theatlantic.com/_next/static/images/favicon-3888b0e329526a975703e3059a02b92d.ico
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The Atlantic
|
https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2014/09/einstein-didnt-win-a-nobel-for-relativity-he-won-it-for-this/380451/
|
Albert Einstein never won a Nobel prize for the theory of relativity—in fact, it was only through long, political jockeying within the Nobel committee that he won the prize at all. Instead, when he was given the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics (in 1922, after a long bout of internal Nobel hand-wringing), he received it primarily for his explanation of the photoelectric effect. Extraordinarily enough, he came up with both his relativity theory, and the photoelectric effect in the same year: 1905.
At the turn of the century, physicists already knew that, in some circumstances, exposing certain materials to light could create an electric current. An American named Charles Fritts had even created a working solar cell from selenium more than two decades before, in the early 1880s.
But observing that light can create electricity is not the same as understanding why light can create electricity. That was baffling.
It was understood, at that point, that light worked as a wave. But if that was true, it didn't make any sense that light could create an electric current: A wave of light just wouldn't have enough energy to cause materials like selenium to shoot off electrons as fast as they did when exposed to light.
In 1905, Einstein was 26 and producing physics papers that would change the way we think about the world for decades to come. He wasn't quite the wild-haired celebrity yet:
But in a paper published in March 1905, Einstein suggested that, perhaps, light wasn't a wave. Phenomena like the photoelectric effect, he wrote,
are more readily understood if one assumes that the energy of light is discontinuously distributed in space. In accordance with the assumption to be considered here, the energy of a light ray spreading out from a point source is not continuously distributed over an increasing space but consists of a finite number of energy quanta which are localized at points in space, which move without dividing, and which can only be produced and absorbed as complete units.
In other words, light could create electricity if it behaved, sometimes, like a particle rather than a wave. (This should sound familiar to anyone who remembers physics class.)
Only one section of the paper covered the photoelectric effect, but it outlined how a light particle might deliver enough energy, all at once, to knock an electron off an atom and create an electric current. This, it turned out, was easier to show experimentally than some of the other ideas Einstein had outlined. Within a decade Robert Millikan had verified, experimentally, the equation that Einstein had used to describe the photoelectric effect.
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correct_award_00024
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FactBench
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2
| 47
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https://www.einstein-online.info/en/spotlight/nobel/
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en
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Einstein’s Nobel heritage « Einstein
|
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https://www.einstein-online.info/en/spotlight/nobel/
|
An overview of Nobel prizes connected with relativistic physics
An article by Markus Pössel
Einstein’s theories of relativity are the foundation for much of modern physics – small wonder that there is a sizeable number of Nobel prizes related to relativity. Here’s a list with brief descriptions of the most important ones:
1921 – Albert Einstein
Ironically, while relativity has led to so many Nobel prizes, it only played a minor role in Einstein’s own. To be sure, it is prominently featured in the laudatio by Svante Arrhenius, however, the Nobel committee’s brief prize announcement is more vague, referring to Einstein’s “services to Theoretical Physics” with explicit mention given only to his finding the law of the photoelectric effect.
Nobelprize.org: Physics 1921
1933 – Paul Dirac (jointly with Erwin Schrödinger)
Dirac’s prize was the first of many given for work on the connection between special relativity and quantum theory. He was the pioneer of relativistic quantum mechanics, formulating what is nowadays called the Dirac equation, the first equation for the quantum behaviour of relativistic matter particles. Using his equation, he discovered a fundamental relativistic quantum phenomenon: the fact that, for every species of relativistic particle, there must be a kind of mirror image, a species of corresponding anti-particles. In a world in which electrons exist, which carry negative electric charge, Dirac’s equation demands the existence of anti-electrons, particles with the same mass as electrons, but a positive electric charge.
Nobelprize.org: Physics 1933
1936 – Carl D. Anderson (jointly with Victor F. Hess)
What, at first sight, appeared to be a stumbling stone for Dirac’s theory – where were those anti-electrons he postulated? – later turned into a triumph. Among the particles of cosmic rays, a highly energetic particle radiation reaching the earth’s surface from space, Carl Anderson discovered traces of anti-electrons. Diracs anti-particles, with the same mass as electrons but the opposite electric charge, really do exist! Today, antiparticles are a basic feature of all models of particle physics, and anti-electrons are now commonly called positrons.
Nobelprize.org: Physics 1936
1949 – Hideki Yukawa
The force that bonds protons and neutrons together to form atomic nuclei has a strictly limited range: while it keeps the nucleus stable, even a neutron flying by outside, a trillionth of a metre distant, is out of range and will not feel any influence. At the time Yukawa thought about this strange situation, physicists already knew of carrier particles and their role concerning elementary forces: forces are transmitted by particles. For instance, on a quantum level, the electric repulsion between two two electrons is explained by the exchange of photons flitting back and forth. The emission and absorption of these photons by the electrons is the way that the influence is transmitted from one electron to the other. Yukawa found an explanation for the short-range nuclear force that is directly linked to the fact that the carrier particle in question has a non-zero (rest) mass. He was able to derive this directly from a relativistic quantum equation for massive particles called the Klein-Gordon equation.
Nobelprize.org: Physics 1949
1951 – John Cockcroft and Ernest T. S. Walton
Cockcroft and Walton bombarded atomic nuclei of the element Lithium with fast protons, thus creating helium nuclei in the first controlled transmutation of one species of nucleus to another. Summing up the energies before and after the transmutation, they managed to test directly the equivalence of mass and energy postulated by Einstein: the helium nuclei that result have a slightly lower mass than that of proton and lithium nucleus combined, and this difference in mass leads to a kinetic energy of the resulting nuclei that is higher than expected by non-relativistic physics, exactly following Einstein’s prediction.
Nobelprize.org: Physics 1951
1955 – Willis Eugene Lamb and Polykarp Kusch
Lamb and Kusch performed precision measurements, establishing the reality of two effects that ordinary relativistic quantum theory à la Dirac cannot explained: what’s now called the Lamb shift and a deviation of the electron’s magnetic properties from Dirac’s prediction. These measurements contributed to the eventual development of relativistic quantum field theories, concretely: of quantum electrodynamics, the relativistic quantum theory of the electromagnetic field.
Nobelprize.org: Physics 1955
1959 – Emilio Segrè and Owen Chamberlain
In relativistic quantum theories, for every species of particle, there is a species of antiparticles. Segrè and Chamberlain received their prize for the discovery of anti-protons, the antiparticles of protons, one of the two species of particle atomic nuclei are made of.
Nobelprize.org: Physics 1959
1963 – Eugene Wigner (jointly with Maria Goeppert-Mayer and J. Hans D. Jensen)
At the heart of special relativity is the relativity principle, in brief: observers that are in motion relative to each other are nevertheless on an equal footing; the physical laws are exactly the same for each of them. In physics, such equality is called a symmetry. Whether or not a physical theory, be it a model of electromagnetic phenomena, fluid dynamics or a theory of heat, is consistent with the relativity principle can be examined in a general framework that analyzes the theory’s symmetries. Wigner was the first to apply this framework to quantum theory, laying the foundation of modern relativistic quantum field theories.
Nobelprize.org: Physics 1963
1965 – Shin-Itiro Tomonaga, Julian Schwinger, Richard P. Feynman
The development from earlier relativistic quantum mechanics to relativistic quantum field theories has already been mentioned. In these quantum field theories, not only the matter particles, but also the forces acting between them follow quantum laws. The distinction between matter and forces becomes blurred: The action of a force is represented by the exchange of particles, the corresponding carrier particles. Tomonaga, Schwinger and Feynman were the first to formulate such a theory of relativistic quantum forces for the simplest case, that of the electromagnetic force, creating what is known as quantum electrodynamics. This was the starting point leading to the formulation of the more general quantum field theories of the standard model of particle physics and to more relativistic Nobel prizes which are not included in this list as they do not add any fundamentally new cross-links with relativity.
Nobelprize.org: Physics 1965
1974 – Antony Hewish (jointly with Martin Ryle)
The discovery that won Hewish his prize, although not a consequence of relativity, is nonetheless an important step for relativistic astrophysics. Together with his graduate student Jocelyn Bell-Burnell, Hewish discovered the first pulsar, opening up the field of observational astronomy of neutron stars.
Nobelprize.org: Physics 1974
1978 – Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson (jointly with Pjotr Leonidovich Kapitsa)
Penzias and Wilson won their Nobel prize for the first detection of the cosmic background radiation, an afterglow from the early, hot days of the universe. With their discovery, they confirmed a prediction made by Ralph Alpher and Robert Herman in 1948 on the basis of the relativistic big bang models.
Nobelprize.org: Physics 1978
1983 – Subramanyan Chandrasekhar and William A. Fowler
Chandrasekhars work on the stability of White Dwarfs, the final states of low-mass stars, was the beginning of a journey that would lead scientists to stellar black holes. The Chandrasekhar mass named after him is the maximal mass for which the inner pressure of the White Dwarf can resist further collaps. For remnants with higher mass, the collapse continues, forming a neutron star or even a black hole.
Fowler won the prize for his research on the origin of the chemical elements in the universe. Part of that work concerned another prediction of the big bang models of relativistic cosmology, namely that of the formation of light elements in the early universe.
Nobelprize.org: Physics 1983
1993 – Russell A. Hulse and Joseph H. Taylor
Hulse and Taylor discovered the first binary pulsar: a binary in which a pulsar and a companion star orbit each other. Their observations of this pulsar, called PSR1913+16, led to the first indirect detection of gravitational waves.
Nobelprize.org: Physics 1993
2002 – Riccardo Giacconi (jointly with Raymond Davis Jr. and Masatoshi Koshiba)
Giacconi won the prize for his pioneering work in X-ray astronomy, in part for the first detection of objects that, to the best of our knowledge, are black holes.
Nobelprize.org: Physics 2002
2006 – John C. Mather and George F. Smoot
Mather and Smoot received their prize for their contributions to the COBE satellite mission, in particular for precise measurements of the blackbody nature of the cosmic background radiation (confirming an important prediction of the big bang models) and for detecting the tiny fluctuations in the background radiation which are the first seeds for the large scale structure we can observe in the universe today.
Nobelprize.org: Physics 2006
2011 – Saul Perlmutter, Brian P. Schmidt, and Adam G. Riess
Perlmutter received half of the prize, Schmidt and Riess a fourth each. They were awarded for their discovery of the accelerated expansion of the universe. They used the observation of supernovae in distant galaxies. This discovery, published in 1998, shook cosmology to its foundations. Until then, cosmology assumed that expansion would slow down over time. Without knowing exactly what its nature is, the acceleration is attributed to the “dark energy”.
Nobelprize.org: Physics 2011
2017 – Rainer Weiss, Barry C. Barish, and Kip S. Thorne
Half of the prize went to Weiss, the other half to Barish and Thorne. They all received the award for their contribution to the LIGO Observatory and the successful first measurement of gravitational waves in 2015.
Nobelprize.org: Physics 2017
2020 – Roger Penrose, Reinhard Genzel, and Andrea Ghez
Roger Penrose received half the prize, Reinhard Genzel and Andrea Ghez together received the other half. Roger Penrose’s work on the formation of black holes as a robust prediction of general relativity was honoured, as was the discovery of the supermassive black hole at the center of our Galaxy by Reinhard Genzel and Andrea Ghez.
Nobelprize.org: Physics 2020
Further Information
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How Nobel Winners Spend Their Prize Money
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In divorce papers signed in 1919, which finally dissolved Einstein's troubled marriage to his first wife, Mileva Maric, the theoretical physicist left all his Nobel money to Maric and their two sons....
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In divorce papers signed in 1919, which finally dissolved Einstein's troubled marriage to his first wife, Mileva Maric, the theoretical physicist left all his Nobel money to Maric and their two sons. There has been a lot of speculation around that decision. Some have suggested that Einstein felt indebted to Maric it has been rumored that she, herself a budding young scientist, helped author some of Einstein's most famous work. Although there's no clear evidence that she co-wrote any of his papers, few historians doubt that she assisted her husband and often provided him a sounding board.
Perhaps more intriguing is Einstein's bold prescience: He left the money to Maric in 1919 (in a notarized document, no less), yet was not awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics until 1921. R.F.
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Albert Einstein – Nobel Prize in Physics 1921
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1905 was Albert Einstein’s annus mirabilis: he published no less than five groundbreaking papers. Among these was his Light Quanta Hypothesis, for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize.
In 1905, 26-year-old Albert Einstein submitted to the University of Zurich his dissertation entitled “Eine neue Bestimmung der Moleküldimensionen” (A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions). Within just a few months, he published another four papers, any of which would today be regarded as worthy of a Nobel Prize. His groundbreaking work included the Theory of Special Relativity and the Light Quanta Hypothesis; the latter being singled out for the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921.
Einstein's revolutionary Light Quanta Hypothesis states that light consists of tiny bundles of energy (quanta). If the energy of light shining on a metallic surface is sufficient, the surface will emit electrons. The electrical charge released during this process can be measured. This phenomenon is called the photoelectric effect. Though this effect had long been known in physics, Einstein was the first to explain it correctly, by developing the Light Quanta Hypothesis. Only some twenty years later was the hypothesis confirmed experimentally.
From 1896 to 1900, Einstein studied physics at the Federal Polytechnical School (today’s ETH). Although the only successful student of his year, he was not offered an assistant’s position there when he completed his studies – probably on account of his average grades, and because he often skipped classes. Rather than attend lectures, Einstein preferred to stay at home and study the masters of theoretical physics, with “holy fervor,” as he later recalled.
As he did not obtain a position at ETH, Einstein worked from 1902 to 1909 as an employee of the Federal Patent Office in Berne. In 1909 the University of Zurich created an associate professorship in theoretical physics for him. This was Einstein’s first academic position; he left it in 1911 for a professorship in Prague.
Einstein returned to Zurich from 1912 to 1914 as a professor at ETH. In 1914 he left for Berlin, and even turned down a later offer of a double professorship at the University of Zurich and ETH. He emigrated to America in 1933, never to return to Europe.
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Case Files: Albert Einstein
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Introduction Though he described himself as a "mathematical ignoramus," Albert Einstein's thinking was so complex that accomplished members of the scientific community still struggle to wrap their minds around the meaning and implications of his theories. Born in Germany in 1879, the frizzy-haired physicist conducted some of his most important research in Princeton, New Jersey, where he spent the later years of his life.
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Introduction
Though he described himself as a "mathematical ignoramus," Albert Einstein's thinking was so complex that accomplished members of the scientific community still struggle to wrap their minds around the meaning and implications of his theories. Born in Germany in 1879, the frizzy-haired physicist conducted some of his most important research in Princeton, New Jersey, where he spent the later years of his life. Perhaps best known for his Theory of Relativity and his equation E=mc2, Einstein's work revolutionized the field of theoretical physics and made him a celebrity throughout the globe.
As he presented Einstein at Medal Day exercises, Dr. Frederick Palmer, Jr. of The Franklin Institute's Committee on Science and the Arts said:"The romance of his achievement has been such that mathematical physics has become popular with the public."
Who was Albert Einstein? What were his achievements in the field of physics?
The Nature of a Genius
Before he was known as a genius whose work profoundly changed the way the world thinks about physics, Albert Einstein thought of himself as "merely curious." In his youth, his curiosity lead him to explore the field of natural science through private reading outside of his high school classes, and to apply his knowledge to his own thoughts and questions about the nature of the cosmos.
Einstein was a philosopher and a human rights activist as well as a scientist. During his lifetime he witnessed two world wars and predicted the invention of the atomic bomb in a now-famous letter to President Franklin Delano Roosevelt. Einstein eloquently recorded his thoughts on religion, science and human rights, and the pages of his writings are imbued with the complex emotions and musings of a man who witnessed profound changes in the world around him, and whose direct involvement in major scientific breakthroughs inspired him to think about the extent to which developments in science effect society at large.
Despite the fame brought to him by his theories and research, Einstein's sense of humility remained intact. Though anecdotal episodes from his youth show some signs of arrogance and frustration with his fame, his adulthood is marked by a mature gratitude for his abilities and a resigned acceptance of his celebrity status. Reflecting on his success in his later years Einstein wrote, "For the most part I do the thing which my own nature drives me to do. It is embarrassing to earn so much respect and love for it."
The "Lone Traveler" Sets Out
Albert began his schooling in Germany, where his teachers disciplined him and his classmates were disrespectful to the young Einstein. His primary school classes emphasized memorization and learning by rote. Albert was reprimanded by his German elementary school teachers for thinking too much about the meaning of their questions and failing to produce responses as quickly as his peers. At home, Albert obediently completed his homework before engaging in solitary games. One of his favorite pastimes as a child was constructing houses of cards, which sometimes was able to reach four stories. Even as a young child Einstein valued solitude, and in 1930 he would reflect: "I am truly a 'lone traveler' and have never belonged to my country, my home, my friends, and even my immediate family with my whole heart; in the face of all these ties, I have never lost a sense of distance and a need for solitude—feelings which increase with the years" (qtd in Cassidy 64).
Working Ahead
In the fall of 1888, when Einstein was nine years old, he entered a secondary school in Munich, Germany called the Luitpold-Gymnasium. This school emphasized non-scientific subjects like Latin and ancient Greek. While he did earn good grades in his classes, they did not spark his interest. It was during these secondary school days that Albert began to diverge from the curriculum prescribed for him, engaging in his own private reading. At age thirteen he asked his parents to purchase the mathematics textbook that he would be using the following year, and proceeded to work his way through the entire mathematics program at the Lutipold-Gymnasium in a matter of months. He indulged his passion for physics and physical phenomena by reading textbooks that were, at the time, key writings on the natural sciences.
In Need of a Liberal Arts Education
As his thoughts shifted towards college and more advanced studies, Albert was determined to apply to the Federal Institute of Technology (FIT) in Zurich, Switzerland. He disliked the Lutipold-Gymnasium and did not complete his studies there. He instead committed himself to a period of self-study, during which he acquired knowledge of theoretical physics. He took the FIT's competitive entrance exam at age sixteen, more than a year younger than the other students who sat for the exam at the same time. The results of his exam revealed that he had done well on the mathematical-physical section of the test, while he had failed the general portion of the exam which tested his knowledge of literary and political history and of foreign language. Albert was thus required to attend a secondary school in the nearby Swiss town of Aarau before he was admitted to the FIT.
Einstein began his studies at the Federal Institute of Technology (FIT) in October of 1896. As a college student he often skipped lectures and studied for tests by borrowing notes from his classmates, and would later describe himself as a mediocre university student. While not an avid participant in his classes, Albert's genuine interest in theoretical physics inspired him to devote large periods of time to its study. He participated in a number of physics experiments while a student, and consistently strove to unite the abstract concepts of theoretical physics with practical matters. His doctoral thesis made strides towards such unification, combining the theoretical claim for the existence of molecules with a description of the physical law governing the behavior of molecules. Einstein used experimental data to further describe this law and to further develop the relationship between the theoretical and the practical.
Princeton Days
After he completed his degree at the FIT, Einstein found work as an assistant professor and eventually as a full professor of theoretical physics. He preferred researching to teaching, and in 1914 he accepted a paid research position in Berlin, Germany, which was considered the "capital city" of physics at that point in time. In 1933 the rise of Nazi power in Germany prompted Einstein to resign from his position in Berlin and flee to the United States, where he took up residence at 112 Mercer Street in Princeton, New Jersey and assumed a position on the faculty of Princeton's Institute for Advanced Study.
Oswald Veblen, the first professor in the Institute for Advanced Study, helped select and relocate Einstein and other foreign mathematicians after Hitler's rise to power in Europe. Veblen was a leading geometer and served a term as president of the American Mathematical Society and of the International Congress of Mathematicians, held at Harvard. Though highly respected as a scholar, Veblen valued his relationships with his students and helped design common spaces in Princeton buildings in order to help encourage the formation of student-faculty relationships.
The verification and publication of Einstein's Theory of Relativity in 1919 brought him instant celebrity status.
Under Investigation
In August of 1939 Einstein mailed a letter to the White House, informing President Franklin Delano Roosevelt of the potential threat posed by the discovery of and subsequent experimentation with nuclear fission in Berlin, Germany. His ominous prediction read:
"This new phenomenon would also lead to the construction of bombs, and it is conceivable—though much less certain—that extremely powerful bombs of a new type may thus be constructed. A single bomb of this type, carried by boat and exploded in a port, might very well destroy the whole port together with some of the surrounding territory."
History indicates that Einstein sent four letters to President Roosevelt, each expressing an increased urgency for action. In December of 1941, Roosevelt heeded Einstein's warning and convened the American investigation into nuclear fission and the development of such a bomb known as the Manhattan Project. This top secret project went underway in a laboratory in Los Alamos, New Mexico. Four years later, in 1945, the United States dropped the newly-developed atomic bomb, devastating the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
Despite his role in alerting the President to the possibility of nuclear weapons, Einstein did not participate in the Manhattan Project. Though he was granted American citizenship in 1940, his involvement with liberal organizations whose missions called for world peace made Einstein a "radical" in the eyes of the Federal Bureau of Investigation. In response to the perceived threat posed by Einstein, the FBI compiled an extensive secret file on the scientist, monitoring and recording his movements. His status as a security threat prevented Einstein from gaining the security clearance necessary to enter the secret laboratory in New Mexico. It is very likely that this was not a source of disappointment for Einstein, who publicly declared his dedication to pacifism. He was quite distressed when the public mind associated him with the dropping of the atomic bombs in 1945 and the subsequent civilian casualties.
Interested in learning more about Albert Einstein? Learn More About His Benjamin Franklin Award
Personal Commitments
Einstein committed to his family, and throughout the course of his life he married twice and had three children. All three children were a product of his relationship with Mileva Maric, whom he encountered while he was a university student. Mileva was a classmate and a fellow scientist, and evidence suggests that she was instrumental in the development of some of her husband's theories. Einstein's children were named Lieserl, Hans Albert and Eduard, who was known as "Tete." Einstein eventually divorced Mileva, marrying his cousin Else Löwenthal four months later.
Einstein was also deeply committed to his Jewish faith. His religious beliefs inspired him to grapple with philosophical thoughts and to champion the cause of Zionists and their quest for a Jewish home state in Palestine. He was offered the presidency of Israel in 1952, though he declined this honor. He died three years later of an aneurysm of the abdominal aorta, bequeathing much of his writings and photographs to the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
An Eternal Riddle
Though he is conceived of as a genius in modern society, Einstein's ways of thinking diverged sharply from those of a majority of other scientists when he initially penned some of his most famous theories. In the early years of the 20th Century, theorists were not regarded with great respect, but Einstein viewed theoretical work as a high calling. Contemplating theoretical physics, Einstein wrote, "I soon learned to scent out that which was able to lead to fundamentals and to turn aside from everything else, from the multitude of things which clutter up the mind and divert it from the essential...Out yonder there is this huge world, which exists independently of us human beings and which stands before us like a great, eternal riddle."
Electromagnetic Waves
Some scientists in the late 1800s and early 1900s believed in and described an entity known as "the ether." The ether was thought to be a backdrop at a state of absolute rest against which the movement of elements of the cosmos occurred. Einstein disagreed with the existence of the ether, which will be seen during the discussion of his theory of special relativity. However, an understanding of the ether is important for understanding the theory of electromagnetic phenomena which preceded Einstein's theory of relativity.
During the 19th Century, scientists Michael Farady, James Clerk Maxwell and Heinrich Hertz formulated a theory that described electromagnetic phenomena. This theory indicated that electric and magnetic forces resulted from the effect of electric and magnetic fields existing in space between electric charges. These electric charges were produced by the ether, which was thought to be able to exert electric forces on ordinary matter. Hertz showed that moving electromagnetic fields could break away from ordinary matter and propagate through the ether as independent electromagnetic waves carrying energy. These electromagnetic waves come in both visible and invisible forms. Hertz showed that visible light is one visible form of the electromagnetic wave. Invisible electromagnetic waves include radio waves, x-rays and microwaves. The concept of such waves moving through the ether can be likened to the waves that spread over a pond after a stone is thrown into the water. The ripples in the pond can be thought of as the equivalent of electromagnetic waves, and the still water as the equivalent of the ether. In a pond, the force of the stone hitting the water results in the ripples. One of the things puzzling the scientists of Einstein's time was what exactly caused the formation of electromagnetic fields whose independent movement resulted in the electromagnetic waves which they conceived of as moving through space.
The Electron
In 1897, the source of electromagnetic fields was discovered: the electron. At the time of its discovery, the electron possessed the smallest mass known. It also carried the smallest electric charge known. Because of its charge, it was found to be the source of electromagnetic fields. However, the electron posed a problem for scientists grappling with electromagnetic theory. As is discussed above, electromagnetic theory dealt with fields and waves, entities that were thought to be continuous and without mass. Electrons are neither continuous nor without mass: they are individual, charged particles that have mass. Electrons thus did not "fit into" electromagnetic theory as it was understood in the late 19th Century. They posed yet another riddle for Einstein and his contemporaries.
A Quantum Leap
In 1905, Einstein challenged the concept that visible light, one form of the electromagnetic wave, always behaved as a continuous wave. Einstein argued that in certain cases light behaves as individual particles. He called these particles "light quanta," and said that each "light quanta" carries a "quantum," meaning a fixed quantity of energy. A light beam is thus composed of many "light quanta" which are observed as one continuous wave. The total energy of a light beam, Einstein said, is the sum total of the individual energies of the distinct "light quanta." Today, these "light quanta" are called "photons." Theories that treat total energy as "quantized" (meaning that total energy is calculated by adding together the fixed energies of the individual "quanta" of which the overall energy is composed) are known as quantum theories.
It's (Photo) Electric!
Einstein's light quantum hypothesis helped to explain certain visible light behavior which could not be explained if visible light were understood to exist in the form of a wave, rather than in the form of tiny individual particles. One of these phenomena was known as the photoelectric effect. Scientists had observed that, when light hit metal, electrons were ejected from the surface of the metal. Einstein's light quanta could eject electrons from the surface of the metal by changing the energy states of the electrons they hit. Light quanta are little bundles of energy, and according to electron theory, electrons absorb energy. The act of absorbing energy takes an electron to a higher energy state, causing it to jump. When it returns to its state of rest, it emits the energy it has absorbed in the form of light. This results in the observable ejection of electrons from the metal's surface known as the photoelectric effect.
Galileo and Relativity
Though Einstein is the scientist most frequently associated with the theory of relativity, there are several thinkers who are responsible for its formulation. The first known person to theorize about relativity was Galileo, who articulated the first "relativity principle" in the seventeenth century. In generating his relativity principle, Galileo removed the distinction between stationary and moving observers, arguing that people on earth cannot tell if they are really at rest or if they are moving with the rotation of the earth each day. To demonstrate this, Galileo used the example of a cannonball falling from the top of a ship's mast. He noted that the cannonball will land at the base of the mast whether the ship is moving steadily through the ocean, or whether it is at rest in a dock. Even if they observe the falling ball, people on the ship cannot tell if they are really at rest or if they are moving with the ship. They cannot distinguish their state of rest from the ship's state by observing motion that takes place within the "reference frame" of the ship. In other words, a person at rest on the deck of a ship cannot determine whether the ship is at rest or moving at a steady speed through the ocean by observing actions that happen on the ship itself. That person must observe the ship relative to its surrounding environment in order to make such a determination.
A Matter of Principle
In 1905, Einstein wrote a paper entitled, "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies." This paper served as the foundation for his theory of relativity. It also included many of the theories and results of scientists whose work had preceded Einstein, so much so that many of his contemporaries had a difficult time distinguishing Einstein's "theory of special relativity" from other accepted theories of the time. The main difference between Einstein's theories and other prevalent scientific theories of the 1900s lies in how Einstein went about deriving his theories. While many of his contemporaries drew "constructive theories," Einstein drew "principle theories."
Einstein's theories were not hypotheses built on data reached through experimentation. Rather, they were universal principles intended to impact all of physics. Throughout his life, Einstein was driven by a desire to isolate a single theory that would unify gravitation and electromagnetic fields. Though this single theory has not yet been found, Einstein's work has inspired physicists of today to continue the search for a unified theory.
Special Relativity
Einstein's theory of special relativity is fundamentally a theory of measurement. He qualified the theory as "special" because it refers only to uniform velocities (meaning to objects either at rest or moving at a constant speed). In formulating his theory, Einstein dismissed the concept of the "ether," and with it the "idea of absolute rest." Prior to the generation of Einstein's theory of special relativity, physicists had understood motion to occur against a backdrop of absolute rest (the "ether"), with this backdrop acting as a reference point for all motion. In dismissing the concept of this backdrop, Einstein called for a reconsideration of all motion. According to his theory, all motion is relative and every concept that incorporates space and time must be considered in relative terms. This means that there is no constant point of reference against which to measure motion. Measurement of motion is never absolute, but relative to a given position in space and time. Returning to Galileo's cannonball, Einstein considered this: the cannonball falling from the mast of the ship would appear to an observer standing on the deck of that ship as though it dropped straight down; however, to an observer standing on the shore, the cannonball would appear to follow a curved trajectory on its way to the base of the mast. Which trajectory did the ball actually follow? According to Einstein's theory of special relativity, the answer is, both—and neither. Each observer's observation is valid in its own reference frame, yet each is no more than an artifact of the measurement, or observation, undertaken by the observer.
Implications of Relativity
Einstein's theory of special relativity has many complex consequences, which confuse even scientists of the present. One of the most famous consequences of this theory is the formula E=mc2. This theory relates energy to mass times the square of the speed of light. Often considered the "speed limit" of the universe, the speed of light is equivalent to about 186,000 miles per second.
Four-Dimensional Space
In 1904, mathematician Hermann Minowski succeeded in representing Einstein's theory of special relativity mathematically. He did so by introducing the concept of four dimensions: three of space and one of time. Using his mathematical representation, he was able to describe the positions and motions of objects such as speeding electrons as they moved through space. Minowski's four-dimensional space-time helped Einstein to develop his theory of general relativity, which he would come to regard as his greatest achievement.
Principle of Equivalence
Special relativity applies only to cases in which objects are moving at a uniform velocity. General relativity, however, is applicable to all forms of accelerated motion. This theory of general relativity arose from Einstein's principle of equivalence. Einstein formulated this principle by examining a given mass in two different states. The first state occurs when the mass in question is acted on by gravity, and the second when the mass is in a state of inertia (when it resists forces and accelerations). According to Einstein's principle of equivalence, the given mass is equivalent in both states. Take, for example, a spinning top. According to the principle of equivalence, the top has the same mass whether it is falling off a desk (being acted on by gravity) or whether it is spinning atop a desk (in a state of inertia). This principle may seem obvious, and in fact people since Newton's time had simply assumed it to be true. However, the implications of the principle of equivalence are far from obvious, and Einstein was the first to realize those implications.
General Relativity
Einstein's theory of general relativity unites his theory of special relativity with the concept of gravity conceived of by Sir Isaac Newton. Einstein's key insight was that gravitation is not the result of a force. It is rather a manifestation of curved space and time. Einstein's theory of general relativity can be understood by considering the following scenario. An astronaut sitting in a space capsule waiting to launch at Cape Canaveral feels his normal weight. While in space, free from gravitational pull, the astronaut feels weightless. However, if the space capsule were to accelerate upwards in space at exactly the acceleration of gravity back on earth, the astronaut would be pushed into his seat with a force exactly equivalent to his own weight. The astronaut would be unable to distinguish between the sensation of sitting in the space capsule prior to launch in Cape Canaveral, and the sensation of sitting in the space capsule as it accelerates upwards in space at exactly the acceleration of gravity. He could only distinguish between the two by looking out the window.
Curved Space
Einstein's theory of general relativity describes space as curved, with the "curved space" being the four-dimensional space-time conceived of by Minowski. The curvature of space results in the effects of gravity. This notion of curved space becomes more tangible by thinking again about the astronaut and the space capsule, but this time introducing a beam of light into the capsule. If a beam of light is shone from the top of one capsule wall to the opposite wall while the capsule is accelerating upwards in space, the light will appear curved. This is because, in the time it takes for the light beam to move across the cabin to the opposite wall, the cabin will have accelerated upwards and the beam will appear to curve across the cabin and hit below the spot directly across from where it started. The light will also appear to curve across the top of the space capsule if the capsule is at rest in Cape Canaveral. In other words, the light beam acts as if it is being pulled down by gravity. The space-time through which it moves can be understood to be curved by the presence of a massive body: in this case, the earth. In space, the curvature of space itself causes all objects, such as light or planets or spaceships, to follow the curvature. In both cases, the gravitational effect occurs because of the curvature of space.
Acknowledgement
Albert Einstein was awarded a 1935 Franklin Medal by The Franklin Institute "In recognition of his contributions to theoretical physics, especially his work on Relativity and the Photo-Electric effect."
Additionally, Einstein received honorary doctorate degrees in science, medicine, and philosophy from many European and American universities. He was awarded Fellowships or Memberships of all the leading scientific academies throughout the world.
A few of Albert Einstein's notable prizes include the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics, the 1925 Royal Society Copley Medal, and the 1929 Max Planck Medal.
Fan Mail
Many inquisitive schoolchildren mailed letters to Albert Einstein, asking the famous physicist questions about science and about his personal life. Einstein's letters to and from children are bound together in a book entitled Dear Professor Einstein, and the abbreviated text of one of these exchanges is reproduced below. You can follow the example of the children who sent their questions to Dr. Einstein by writing to your own favorite scientists. Talk to your teacher about the kinds of questions you could ask, and how you should go about contacting the scientists whose work is of interest to you.
Cape Town, South Africa
10th July, 1946
Dear Sir,
I am awfully interested in Science, so are quite a lot of people in my form at school. My best friends are the Wilson twins. Every night after Lights Out at school, Pat Wilson and I lean out of our cubicle windows, which are next to each other, and discuss Astronomy, which we both prefer to anything as far as work goes. Pat has a telescope and we study those stars that we can see. We usually have to creep past the prefect's room to other parts of the building to carry on our observations. We have been caught a few times now, though, so it is rather difficult.
What worries me most is How can Space go on forever? I have read many books on the subject, but they all say they could not possibly explain, as no ordinary reader would understand. If you do not mind me saying so, I do not really see how it could be spiral. But then, of course you obviously know what you are saying, and I could not contradict!
I trust you are well, and will continue to make many more great Scientific discoveries.
I remain,
Yours obediently,
Tyfanny
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August 25, 1946
Dear Tyfanny,
Thank you for your letter of July 10th.
Be not worried about "curved space." You will understand at a later time that for it this status is the easiest it could possibly have. Used in the right sense the word "curved" has not exactly the same meaning as in everyday language.
I hope that yours and your friend's future astronomical investigations will not be discovered anymore by the eyes and ears of your school-government. This is the attitude taken by most good citizens toward their government and I think rightly so.
Yours sincerely,
Albert Einstein
View Einstein's Case File Bibliography
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https://content.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,1848817_1848816_1848815,00.html
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How Nobel Winners Spend Their Prize Money
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2008-10-10T00:00:00
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In divorce papers signed in 1919, which finally dissolved Einstein's troubled marriage to his first wife, Mileva Maric, the theoretical physicist left all his Nobel money to Maric and their two sons....
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https://content.time.com/time/favicon.ico
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TIME.com
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https://content.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,1848817_1848816_1848815,00.html
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In divorce papers signed in 1919, which finally dissolved Einstein's troubled marriage to his first wife, Mileva Maric, the theoretical physicist left all his Nobel money to Maric and their two sons. There has been a lot of speculation around that decision. Some have suggested that Einstein felt indebted to Maric it has been rumored that she, herself a budding young scientist, helped author some of Einstein's most famous work. Although there's no clear evidence that she co-wrote any of his papers, few historians doubt that she assisted her husband and often provided him a sounding board.
Perhaps more intriguing is Einstein's bold prescience: He left the money to Maric in 1919 (in a notarized document, no less), yet was not awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics until 1921. R.F.
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correct_award_00024
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FactBench
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https://physics.mit.edu/about-physics/nobel-prize/
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Nobel Prize
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2021-09-28T15:09:34+00:00
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The Official Website of MIT Department of Physics
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MIT Physics
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https://physics.mit.edu/about-physics/nobel-prize/
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We have been very fortunate to have current and former faculty, former employees, and alumni of our program honored by being awarded a Nobel Prize. Below is a list of many of our celebrated physicists.
2020 – Andrea Ghez ’87 (co-recipient with Reinhard Genzel) “for the discovery of a supermassive compact object at the centre of our galaxy.”
2017 – Rainer Weiss ’55 PhD ’62, Professor of Physics, Emeritus (2001–present) (co-recipient with Barry C. Barish and Kip S. Thorne) “for decisive contributions to the LIGO detector and the observation of gravitational waves.”
2011 – Adam G. Riess ’92 (co-recipient with Saul Perlmutter and Brian P. Schmidt) “for the discovery of the accelerating expansion of the Universe through observations of distant supernovae.”
2006 – George Smoot ’66, PhD ’71 (co-recipient with John C. Mather) “for their discovery of the blackbody form and anisotropy of the cosmic microwave background radiation.”
2004 – Frank Wilczek, Herman Feshbach Professor of Physics (co-recipient with David J. Gross and H. David Politzer “for the discovery of asymptotic freedom in the theory of the strong interaction.”
2001 – Eric A. Cornell PhD ’90, Wolfgang Ketterle, John D. MacArthur Professor of Physics, and Carl E. Wieman ’73 “for the achievement of Bose-Einstein condensation in dilute gases of alkali atoms, and for early fundamental studies of the properties of the condensates.”
1998 – Robert B. Laughlin PhD ’79 (co-recipient with Horst L. Störmer and Daniel C. Tsui) “for their discovery of a new form of quantum fluid with fractionally charged excitations.”
1997 – William D. Phillips ’76 (co-recipient with Steven Chu, Claude Cohen-Tannoudji) “for development of methods to cool and trap atoms with laser light.”
1994 – Clifford G. Shull, former Professor of Physics Emeritus (1986–2001) (co-recipient with Bertram N. Brockhouse) “for the development of the neutron diffraction technique.”
1990 – Jerome I. Friedman, Professor of Physics Emeritus and former Physics Department Head (1983-1988), and Henry W. Kendall, former Julius A. Stratton Professor of Physics (co-recipient with Richard E. Taylor) “for their pioneering investigations concerning deep inelastic scattering of electrons on protons and bound neutrons, which have been of essential importance for the development of the quark model in particle physics.”
1989 – Sidney Altman ’60 (co-recipient with Thomas R. Cech, a former MIT Biology postdoc) in Chemistry for the “discovery of catalytic properties of RNA.”
1989 – Norman. F. Ramsey, former Radiation Laboratory employee (co-recipient with Hans G. Dehmelt and Wolfgang Paul), “for the invention of the separated oscillatory fields method and its use in the hydrogen maser and other atomic clocks”, the other half jointly to Hans G. Dehmelt and Wolfgang Paul “for the development of the ion trap technique.”
1988 – Jack Steinberger, a researcher with the Radiation Laboratory’s antenna group (co-recipient with Leon M. Lederman and Melvin Schwartz) “for the neutrino beam method and the demonstration of the doublet structure of the leptons through the discovery of the muon neutrino.”
1979 – Steven Weinberg, former Professor of Physics (1969-1973), (co-recipient with Sheldon Lee Glashow and Abdus Salam) “for their contributions to the theory of the unified weak and electromagnetic interaction between elementary particles, including, inter alia, the prediction of the weak neutral current.”
1977 – John Hasbrouck Van Vleck, former Rad Lab employee, (co-recipient with Philip W. Anderson and Sir Nevill Mott) “for their fundamental theoretical investigations of the electronic structure of magnetic and disordered systems.”
1976 – Burton Richter ’52 PhD ’56 and Samuel Chao Chung Ting, Thomas Dudley Cabot Institute Professor of Physics, “for their pioneering work in the discovery of a heavy elementary particle of a new kind.”
1972 – John Robert Schrieffer ‘ 53 (co-recipient with John Bardeen and Leon Neil Cooper) “for their jointly developed theory of superconductivity, usually called the BCS-theory.”
1969 – Murray Gell-Mann PhD ’51 “for his contributions and discoveries concerning the classification of elementary particles and their interactions.”
1968 – Luis W. Alvarez, former Radiation Laboratory employee, “for his decisive contributions to elementary particle physics, in particular the discovery of a large number of resonance states, made possible through his development of the technique of using hydrogen bubble chamber and data analysis.”
1967 – Hans Albrecht Bethe, former Radiation Laboratory employee, “for his contributions to the theory of nuclear reactions, especially his discoveries concerning the energy production in stars.”
1965 – Richard P. Feynman ’39 (co-recipient with Sin-Itiro Tomonaga and Julian Schwinger (former Rad Lab employee)) “for their fundamental work in quantum electrodynamics, with deep-ploughing consequences for the physics of elementary particles.”
1964 – Charles Hard Townes, former Provost and Professor of Physics (1961–1966), (co-recipient with Nicolay Gennadiyevich Basov and Aleksandr Mikhailovich Prokhorov) “for fundamental work in the field of quantum electronics, which has led to the construction of oscillators and amplifiers based on the maser-laser principle.”
1956 – William Bradford Shockley PhD ’36 (co-recipient with John Bardeen and Walter Houser Brattain) “for their researches on semiconductors and their discovery of the transistor effect.”
1952 – E. M. Purcell, former Radiation Laboratory employee, (co-recipient with Felix Bloch) “for their development of new methods for nuclear magnetic precision measurements and discoveries in connection therewith.”
1951 – Edwin M. McMillan, former Radiation Laboratory employee, (co-recipient of Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Glenn Theodore Seaborg) “for their discoveries in the chemistry of the transuranium elements.”
1944 – I.I. Rabi, former Radiation Laboratory employee, “for his resonance method for recording the magnetic properties of atomic nuclei.”
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https://home.cern/news/news/knowledge-sharing/cern-congratulates-winners-2022-nobel-prize-physics
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CERN congratulates winners of 2022 Nobel Prize in Physics
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2024-07-18T13:27:08+00:00
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The 2022 Nobel Prize in Physics has been awarded to Alain Aspect, John Clauser and Anton Zeilinger for groundbreaking experiments with entangled photons that open a path to advanced quantum technologies. Working independently in the 1970s and 80s, their work established the violation of so-called Bell inequalities and pioneered the field of quantum information science. Quantum entanglement is a striking example of the difference between the microscopic world and everyday macroscopic experience. When two particles exist in an entangled state, a measurement of one determines the state of the other, no matter how far apart they are. First elucidated by Erwin Schrödinger in 1935, leading to his well-known cat paradox, entanglement was rejected by Albert Einstein as “spooky action at a distance” and sparked a long philosophical debate about the physical interpretation of quantum mechanics. Was it a complete theory, or was the paradoxical correlation between entangled particles due to “hidden variables” that dictate in which state an experiment will find them? In 1964, the late CERN theorist John Bell proposed a theorem, known as Bell’s inequalities, that allowed this question to be put to the test. Roughly speaking, it states that if hidden values are in play, the correlation between the results of a large number of measurements will never exceed a certain value; conversely, if quantum mechanics is complete, this value can be exceeded, as measured experimentally. John Clauser (J. F. Clauser & Associates, US) was the first to investigate Bell’s theorem experimentally, obtaining measurements that clearly violated a Bell inequality and thus supported quantum mechanics. Alain Aspect (Université Paris-Saclay and École Polytechnique, France) put the findings on more solid ground by devising ways to perform measurements of entangled pairs of photons after they had left their source, thus ruling out the effects of the setting in which they were emitted. Using refined tools and a long series of experiments, Anton Zeilinger (University of Vienna, Austria) started to use entangled quantum states to demonstrate, among other things, quantum teleportation, which allows a quantum state to be transferred from one particle to another at a distance. These delicate, pioneering experiments not only confirmed quantum theory, but established the basis for a new field of science and technology that has applications in computing, communication, sensing and simulation. In 2020, CERN joined this rapidly growing global endeavour with the launch of the CERN Quantum Technology Initiative.
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CERN
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https://home.cern/news/news/knowledge-sharing/cern-congratulates-winners-2022-nobel-prize-physics
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The 2022 Nobel Prize in Physics has been awarded to Alain Aspect, John Clauser and Anton Zeilinger for groundbreaking experiments with entangled photons that open a path to advanced quantum technologies. Working independently in the 1970s and 80s, their work established the violation of so-called Bell inequalities and pioneered the field of quantum information science.
Quantum entanglement is a striking example of the difference between the microscopic world and everyday macroscopic experience. When two particles exist in an entangled state, a measurement of one determines the state of the other, no matter how far apart they are. First elucidated by Erwin Schrödinger in 1935, leading to his well-known cat paradox, entanglement was rejected by Albert Einstein as “spooky action at a distance” and sparked a long philosophical debate about the physical interpretation of quantum mechanics. Was it a complete theory, or was the paradoxical correlation between entangled particles due to “hidden variables” that dictate in which state an experiment will find them?
In 1964, the late CERN theorist John Bell proposed a theorem, known as Bell’s inequalities, that allowed this question to be put to the test. Roughly speaking, it states that if hidden values are in play, the correlation between the results of a large number of measurements will never exceed a certain value; conversely, if quantum mechanics is complete, this value can be exceeded, as measured experimentally.
John Clauser (J. F. Clauser & Associates, US) was the first to investigate Bell’s theorem experimentally, obtaining measurements that clearly violated a Bell inequality and thus supported quantum mechanics. Alain Aspect (Université Paris-Saclay and École Polytechnique, France) put the findings on more solid ground by devising ways to perform measurements of entangled pairs of photons after they had left their source, thus ruling out the effects of the setting in which they were emitted. Using refined tools and a long series of experiments, Anton Zeilinger (University of Vienna, Austria) started to use entangled quantum states to demonstrate, among other things, quantum teleportation, which allows a quantum state to be transferred from one particle to another at a distance.
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https://www.huffpost.com/entry/einstein-fantasy-physics_b_4948045
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Fantasy Physics: Should Einstein Have Won 7 Nobel Prizes?
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2014-03-12T20:10:38+00:00
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While Einstein himself barely dwelt on honors, it is an interesting exercise to ask how many Nobel-caliber breakthroughs Einstein made during his productive research career. This analysis has a bit in common with fantasy sports.
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/favicon.ico
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HuffPost
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https://www.huffpost.com/entry/einstein-fantasy-physics_b_4948045
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While Einstein himself barely dwelt on honors, it is an interesting exercise to ask how many Nobel-caliber breakthroughs Einstein made during his productive research career. This analysis has a bit in common with fantasy sports.
Mendelson Family Professor of American Studies at Columbia; Recipient of the 2011 Humanities Medal
This post was published on the now-closed HuffPost Contributor platform. Contributors control their own work and posted freely to our site. If you need to flag this entry as abusive, send us an email.
Albert Einstein never cared too much about receiving awards and honors (or even birthdays, since Pi Day is this week), and that included the Nobel Prizes, which were established in 1901, at roughly the same time as Einstein was beginning his research career in physics. When he finally won the 1921 Prize (awarded in 1922), he did not win for his most famous achievement, Relativity Theory, which was still deemed too speculative and uncertain to endorse with the Prize. Instead, he won for his 1905 proposal of the law of the photoelectric effect and for general "services to theoretical physics." It was a political decision by the Nobel committee; Einstein was so renowned that their failure to select him had become an embarrassment. However, the only part of his brilliant portfolio that they either understood or trusted sufficiently to name for the award was this relatively minor implication of his 1905 paper on particles of light. The final irony in this selection was that, among the many controversial theories that Einstein had proposed in the previous 17 years, the only one not accepted by almost all of the leading theoretical physicists of the time was precisely his theory of light quanta (or photons), which he had used to find the law of the photoelectric effect!
In keeping with his relative indifference to such honors, Einstein declined to attend the award ceremony because he had previously committed to a lengthy trip to Japan at that time. Such was his indifference that when news reached him during his long voyage to Japan, he neglected to even mention it in his travel diary.
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While Einstein himself barely dwelt at all on this honor, it is an interesting exercise to ask how many Nobel-caliber breakthroughs Einstein made during his productive research career. This analysis has a bit in common with fantasy sports, in which athletes are judged and ranked by their statistical achievements, and arguments are made about who was the GOAT ("greatest of all time"). Let's call it fantasy physics. Join the fun as we count down Einstein's Nobel prize-winning efforts:
Let's start with the Prize he did receive. It absolutely was deserved, if the committee had had the courage to write the citation, "for his proposal of the existence of light quanta." The photon concept was unambiguously confirmed in experiments by 1925, and now is considered the paradigm for our modern quantum theory of force-carrying particles. So the photon is a Nobel slam dunk.
We can move next to two other "no-brainers," the two theories of relativity. The Special Theory, proposed in 1905, introduced the Principle of Relativity, which states that the law of physics must all be the same for bodies in uniform relative motion. This implied the radical notion that time itself does not pass uniformly for all observers. However, here it must be noted, that the equations of Special Relativity were first written down by Hendrik Lorentz, the great Dutch physicist whom Einstein admired the most of all his contemporaries. Lorentz just failed to give them the radical interpretation with which Einstein endowed them; he also failed to notice that they implied that energy and mass were interchangeable (E = mc2). Einstein would have been happy to share Special Relativity with Lorentz, so let's split this one 50-50 between the two.
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On the other hand, General Relativity, germinated in 1907 and completed in 1915, is all Albert. Like the photon, no one on the planet even had an inkling of this idea before Einstein. Einstein realized that the question of the relativity of motion was tied up with the theory of Gravity. From this simple seed of an idea, arose arguably the most beautiful and mathematically profound theory in all of physics, Einstein's Field Equations. These predict that matter curves space and that the geometry of our universe is non-Euclidean in general. This one is probably worth two Nobel prizes, but let's just mark it down for one.
Here we exhaust what most working physicists would immediately recognize as Einstein's works of genius, and we're only at 2.5 Nobels. But it is a remarkable fact that Einstein's work on early atomic theory -- what we now call quantum theory -- is vastly underrated. This is partially because Einstein himself downplayed it. He famously rejected the final version of the theory, dismissing it with the famous phrase, "God does not play dice." But if one looks at what he actually did, the Nobels keep piling up:
Most textbooks credit German physicist, Max Planck, with introducing the radical notion of quantization of energy -- the idea that when energy is exchanged between atoms and radiation (e.g. light), it can only happen in discrete chunks. However, Planck didn't really say this in his work; he said something much more provisional and ambiguous. It was Einstein in his 1905 paper (but then much more clearly in a follow-up paper on the vibrations of atoms in 1907) who really stated the modern principle first. He then boldly applied it to the mechanical motion of atoms in solids, even when they are not exchanging energy with radiation. Despite the textbooks, Einstein clearly should have shared Planck's Nobel Prize for the principle of quantization of energy. We are up to 3.0 Nobels for Big Al.
This next one is rarely mentioned. After Einstein proposed his particulate theory of light in 1905, he came up with a mathematical proof that particle and wave properties were present in one formula that described the fluctuations of the intensity of light. In 1923, the French physicist Louis de Broglie hypothesized that electrons actually had wavelike properties similar to light. He freely admitted his debt to Einstein for this idea, but when he got the Nobel Prize for "wave-particle" duality in 1929, it was not shared. It should have been. Another half for Albert, at 3.5 and counting.
In 1916, three years after Niels Bohr introduced his "solar system" model of the atom, where the electrons could only travel in certain "allowed orbits" with quantized energy, Einstein returned to thinking about how atoms would absorb light, with the benefit of Bohr's picture. He realized that once an atom had absorbed some light, it would eventually give that light energy back by a process called spontaneous emission. Without any particular event to cause it, the electron would jump down to a lower energy orbit, emitting a photon. This was the first time that it was proposed that the theory of atoms had such random, uncaused events, a notion which became a second pillar of quantum theory. In the same work he introduced the principle of stimulated emission, the basic idea behind the laser. One full Prize, please.
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In 1924, Einstein received a paper about particles of light out of the blue from the unknown Indian physicist, Satyendra Nath Bose. Although Bose did not clearly state his revolutionary idea, reading between the lines, Einstein detected a completely new principle of quantum theory -- the idea that all fundamental particles are indistinguishable. Einstein applied the principle to atoms and discovered that a simple gas of atoms, if sufficiently cooled, would cease to obey all the laws that physicists and chemists had discovered for gases over the centuries. It turns out that this discovery underlies some of the most dramatic quantum effects, such as superconductivity. No knowledgeable physicist would dispute that Einstein deserved a full Nobel Prize for this discovery, but I am sure that Einstein would have wanted to share it with Bose (who never did receive the Prize).
So we are at 5.0 "units" of Nobel Prize but seven trips to Stockholm. And this leaves out other arguably Nobel-caliber achievements (Brownian motion as well as the Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen effect, which underlies modern quantum information physics). And wait a minute -- when someone shares the Nobel Prize do we refer to them as a "half- Laureate"? No way. Even scientists who get a "measly" third of a Prize are Nobel Laureates for life. Thus by the standard we apply to normal humans, Einstein deserved at least seven Nobel Prizes. So next time you make your fantasy scientist draft, you know who to take at number one.
This article is cross-posted from a longer piece at the Princeton University Press web site.
A. Douglas Stone is author of Einstein and the Quantum: The Quest of The Valiant Swabian.
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From Our Partner
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https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/databank/entries/bpeins.html
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A Science Odyssey: People and Discoveries: Albert Einstein
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Albert Einstein
1879 - 1955
Albert Einstein is one of the most recognized and well-known scientists of the century. His theories solved centuries-old problems in physics and rocked even non-physicists' view of the world.
Einstein's early years did not mark him as a genius. His parents worried because he was so slow to learn to speak. Although his family was Jewish, he attended a Catholic elementary school, where he did not excel. Because of failed business ventures, the family moved several times during Einstein's childhood, finally to Italy when he was 15. He was supposed to remain in Germany and finish school. He left, however (historians debate whether he was expelled or arranged to be excused for illness), and joined his family in Italy. He also renounced his Germany citizenship then, which freed him from military service. He belonged to no country until he became a Swiss citizen in 1921.
From Italy he went to Switzerland to finish high school and attend the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology. He didn't care for such organized education; he hated having to attend classes regularly and take exams. He graduated with a teaching degree, but couldn't find a job. Finally he got a post at the Swiss patent office in Bern, in 1902. He worked there for seven years, which turned out to be the most productive period of his life. In 1903 he married a former classmate, Maria Maric, though his parents disapproved. They'd had a daughter Liserl in 1902, but she was given up for adoption. They later had two sons.
1905 was a huge year for Einstein. He published five papers in the German Yearbook of Physics, three or them groundbreaking. The first was on the motion of particles suspended in liquid. He developed a mathematical formula to explain that the visible motion of the particles was due to the invisible motion of the molecules of the liquid.
His second paper was on the photoelectric effect, or the release of electrons from metal when light shines on it. Einstein used the very recent ideas of Max Planck to explain the phenomenon. That is, he explained it in terms of quanta, or packets of energy. This was the first use of the theory outside of Planck's own work. Einstein received the Nobel Prize in physics for this paper.
Last and perhaps most famous, Einstein published his special theory of relativity. This resulted in the shocking conclusion that time is not constant. Neither is weight or mass. When moving at high speeds, all of these things get compressed; only the speed of light remains the same. That happens because, said Einstein, energy is equal to mass times the speed of light squared, or E = mc2.
In the following years, Einstein held positions at universities in Zurich, Prague, and Berlin. In 1914, Einstein was in Berlin. War broke out, and his wife and two sons returned to Switzerland. The couple's relationship had grown increasingly distant, and after the war the two were never reunited. They officially divorced in 1919. Some historians now believe that Maria Maric was instrumental in Einstein's early work, especially the mathematical calculations. In his letters to her he mentioned "our papers," and in one even wrote, "How happy and proud I will be when both of us together will have brought our work on relative motion to a successful end." As he gained greater prestige and scientific positions, she gained greater household responsibilities and their collaboration ended. When he received the Nobel Prize, however, Einstein gave the cash award to Maria Maric. Soon after their divorce, Einstein married his cousin Elsa.
Meanwhile, he kept grappling with the ideas of physics. There were problems with his special theory, and he knew it. The problems of gravity bothered him most. Whenever physicists worked out a natural law, gravity seemed to confuse it. In 1915, he wrote the general theory of relativity. It was extremely radical. To account for gravity, time and space must be curved around massive objects. The math was very complex and the whole idea so strange that most people didn't accept it. But Einstein suggested three ways it could be proven. One was to make observations of starlight during a solar eclipse. Conveniently, a solar eclipse occurred in 1919 and astronomers made the observations that proved the general theory of relativity. Einstein became a celebrity. Much of the world had just caught its breath after a long and horrifying war, and perhaps in relief, latched on to this amazing human achievement.
Einstein himself had always opposed war. He spoke against it during the First World War, and throughout the 1920s and 1930s. Hitler was rising to power in Germany, and though Einstein had renewed his German citizenship, he was considered suspect as both a Jew and a pacifist. It may be, too, that the absolutist Nazi party found that his relativity theories conflicted with what they considered pure physics. He was in California when Hitler took power in 1933, and he never returned to Germany. He took a position at the Institute for Advanced Studies in Princeton, where he remained for the rest of his life.
By the 1920s, Einstein's major contributions to physics were behind him. He debated quantum mechanics and the uncertainty principle with Niels Bohr, which helped Bohr clarify the concept, but it was a theory that Einstein never quite accepted. He spent his latter years in search of a unified field theory, or one basic equation to explain all of the forces of nature. He wrote on many topics, especially peace, but rising fascism in the years before World War II made him sign a 1939 letter to President Roosevelt, warning him that the Germans could create an atomic weapon. This led FDR to set up the Manhattan Project, an effort to secretly develop an atomic bomb. Though Einstein's formula E = mc2 was key to the project, Einstein was considered a security risk and was not involved.
In 1940 Einstein renounced his German citizenship for a second time and became a U.S. citizen. He became a supporter of disarmament and of a Jewish state. In 1952 the young nation of Israel offered Einstein the presidency, but he declined. The ninety-ninth element in the periodic table was discovered shortly after Einstein's death in 1955, and it was named "einsteinium."
"The most incomprehensible thing about the world is that it is comprehensible."
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The Nobel Prize
Einstein was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on the photoelectric effect and for "Merits in theoretical physics". The mystery was why it had taken so long for the greatest physics of his generation received this greatest tribute in physics. Einstein was passed in 1920 because of the massive wave of publicity that followed the confirmation of his general theory of relativity. In 1921, the Nobel Committee chose not to award a prize that year. Only in 1922 did the committee see reason to award him the 1921 prize. Einstein's reaction was typical, he went to Japan and did not personally accept the award.
Relativity
Einstein had always expected to win the Nobel Prize someday. He was so convinced that when negotiating the divorce with Mileva in 1918 he offered her the full amount of a future Nobel Prize. The 1921 price was 121,572 Swedish kronor, or $32,250 - nowadays, approximately $400,000. Whether he has ever kept this promise is historically doubted by historians. Evidence found in 2006 shows that Einstein instead invested a large portion of the money and then lost it in the economically noisy period of the Great Depression.
The 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics for the photoelectric effect and the possibly deliberately vague formulation of "merits in theoretical physics" was the only Nobel Prize to be awarded. Perhaps one of the greatest injustices in science is that the Nobel Committee has never acknowledged its theory of relativity. Together with quantum theory, it turned out to be one of the two major pillars of 20th-century physics. Einstein has been nominated many times for his special theory of relativity from 1905 between 1910 and 1922. However, he never won, because his theory was so revolutionary that the committee claimed the supporting evidence was too thin. Posthumous nominations are not allowed, so there will be no Nobel Prize for Albert Einstein's greatest spiritual achievement.
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https://www.sciencealert.com/scientists-win-physics-nobel-prize-for-proving-einstein-wrong
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Scientists Win Physics Nobel Prize For Proving Einstein Wrong
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2022-10-05T00:37:55+00:00
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The 2022 Nobel prize for physics has been awarded to a trio of scientists for pioneering experiments in quantum mechanics, the theory covering the micro-world of atoms and particles.
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ScienceAlert
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https://www.sciencealert.com/scientists-win-physics-nobel-prize-for-proving-einstein-wrong
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The 2022 Nobel prize for physics has been awarded to a trio of scientists for pioneering experiments in quantum mechanics, the theory covering the micro-world of atoms and particles.
Alain Aspect from Université Paris-Saclay in France, John Clauser from J.F. Clauser & Associates in the US, and Anton Zeilinger from University of Vienna in Austria, will share the prize sum of 10 million Swedish kronor (US$915,000) "for experiments with entangled photons, establishing the violation of Bell inequalities and pioneering quantum information science".
The world of quantum mechanics appears very odd indeed. In school, we are taught that we can use equations in physics to predict exactly how things will behave in the future – where a ball will go if we roll it down a hill, for example.
Quantum mechanics is different from this. Rather than predicting individual outcomes, it tells us the probability of finding subatomic particles in particular places. A particle can actually be in several places at the same time, before "picking" one location at random when we measure it.
Even the great Albert Einstein himself was unsettled by this – to the point where he was convinced that it was wrong. Rather than outcomes being random, he thought there must be some "hidden variables" – forces or laws that we can't see – which predictably influence the results of our measurements.
Some physicists, however, embraced the consequences of quantum mechanics. John Bell, a physicist from Northern Ireland, made an important breakthrough in 1964, devising a theoretical test to show that the hidden variables Einstein had in mind don't exist.
According to quantum mechanics, particles can be "entangled", spookily connected so that if you manipulate one then you automatically and immediately also manipulate the other.
If this spookiness – particles far apart mysteriously influencing each other instantaneously – were to be explained by the particles communicating with each other through hidden variables, it would require faster-than-light communication between the two, which Einstein's theories forbid.
Quantum entanglement is a challenging concept to understand, essentially linking the properties of particles no matter how far apart they are. Imagine a light bulb that emits two photons (light particles) that travel in opposite directions away from it.
If these photons are entangled, then they can share a property, such as their polarization, no matter their distance. Bell imagined doing experiments on these two photons separately and comparing the results of them to prove that they were entangled (truly and mysteriously linked).
Clauser put Bell's theory into practice at a time when doing experiments on single photons was almost unthinkable. In 1972, just eight years after Bell's famous thought experiment, Clauser showed that light could indeed be entangled.
While Clauser's results were groundbreaking, there were a few alternative, more exotic explanations for the results he obtained.
If light didn't behave quite as the physicists thought, perhaps his results could be explained without entanglement. These explanations are known as loopholes in Bell's test, and Aspect was the first to challenge this.
Aspect came up with an ingenious experiment to rule out one of the most important potential loopholes in Bell's test. He showed that the entangled photons in the experiment aren't actually communicating with each other through hidden variables to decide the outcome of Bell's test.
This means they really are spookily linked.
In science it is incredibly important to test the concepts that we believe to be correct. And few have played a more important role in doing this than Aspect. Quantum mechanics has been tested time and again over the past century and survived unscathed.
Quantum technology
At this point, you may be forgiven for wondering why it matters how the microscopic world behaves, or that photons can be entangled. This is where the vision of Zeilinger really shines.
We once harnessed our knowledge of classical mechanics to build machines, to make factories, leading to the industrial revolution. Knowledge of the behavior of electronics and semiconductors has driven the digital revolution.
But understanding quantum mechanics allows us to exploit it, to build devices that are capable of doing new things. Indeed, many believe that it will drive the next revolution, of quantum technology.
Quantum entanglement can be harnessed in computing to process information in ways that were not possible before. Detecting small changes in entanglement can allow sensors to detect things with greater precision than ever before.
Communicating with entangled light can also guarantee security, as measurements of quantum systems can reveal the presence of the eavesdropper.
Zeilinger's work paved the way for the quantum technological revolution by showing how it is possible to link a series of entangled systems together, to build the quantum equivalent of a network.
In 2022, these applications of quantum mechanics are not science fiction. We have the first quantum computers. The Micius satellite uses entanglement to enable secure communications across the world. And quantum sensors are being used in applications from medical imaging to detecting submarines.
Ultimately, the 2022 Nobel panel have recognized the importance of the practical foundations producing, manipulating, and testing quantum entanglement and the revolution it is helping to drive.
I am pleased to see this trio receiving the award. In 2002, I started a PhD at the University of Cambridge that was inspired by their work. The aim of my project was to make a simple semiconductor device to generate entangled light.
This was to greatly simplify the equipment needed to do quantum experiments and to allow practical devices for real-world applications to be built. Our work was successful and it amazes and excites me to see the leaps and bounds that have been made in the field since.
Robert Young, Professor of Physics and Director of the Lancaster Quantum Technology Centre, Lancaster University
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FactBench
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http://www.jonsprout.com/cms/my-hero-links/101-einstein-albert
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en
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Einstein, Albert
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Albert Einstein biography and song lyrics by Jonathan Sprout
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Albert Einstein (1879-1955) is considered the most creative scientific genius of modern times. He questioned the obvious and marveled at nature's mysteries while changing our understanding of the world. “Imagination is more important than knowledge,” he said. He was a master of both. He forever changed the laws of physics with his formula E=mc2, proving that energy and mass are different forms of the same thing. A kind, gentle, and absent-minded professor who rarely wore socks and seldom combed his hair, he became one of the world’s most visible supporters of peace and human rights. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921 and named Person of the Century by Time Magazine in 1999. His name is now another word for “genius.”
Learn from yesterday, live for today, hope for tomorrow.
The important thing is to not stop questioning.—Albert Einstein
E=mc²
(By Jonathan Sprout and Dave Kinnoin)
He was a simple man of curiosity
Who took a second look at what no one else could see.
He followed logic along imagination’s path.
With ever-twinkling eyes beneath that crazy hair,
He saw a universe of questions waiting there
And found the answers to nature’s mysteries using math.
A simple desk and chair, an out-the-window stare,
Crumpled papers in the trash,
A brain that could not quit, and scientific grit,
Then in a flash…
Refrain: E=mc².
Even Einstein was not prepared
For the formula that loudly declared he was a genius!
It was this dreamer who found the key
To a secret so we all could see
The true definition of energy.
E=mc².
His violin was handy. Sometimes you can’t resist
A bit of fun distraction when you’re a physicist.
The man knew everything, but kept his brilliance in disguise.
He said he had no talents, yet he was born to think.
Knew how to fix equations, but not the kitchen sink.
Became a pacifist and won a Nobel Prize.
A formal dinner tux, applause, and lots of bucks—
Everybody screamed his name.
It was his work with light that made his day that night.
Hear the acclaim!
Refrain
Bridge: Six hundred seventy-one million miles per hour squared,
Multiplied by mass. What would that be?
Refrain
©2014 Kanukatunes (ASCAP) and Song Wizard Music (ASCAP)
Lead vocal: Jonathan Sprout
Drum programming, string programming, schmaltz violin: Joe Mennonna
Bass: Al Renino
Guitar: Jimmy Hammer, Leslie Chew, and Jonathan Sprout
Keyboards: Joe Mennonna and Jimmy Hammer
Background vocals: Jimmy Hammer and Susie Stevens
Key Words:
Physics ~ a branch of science that deals with matter (a physical substance that occupies space) and energy (what is required to perform work). Einstein was a physicist. He was an expert in physics.
E=mc2~ an equation where E represents units of energy and m represents units of mass; c2 is the speed of light multiplied by itself. This is the formula that Albert Einstein developed. It shows that a small amount of matter can release a huge amount of energy, and it is called the “Theory of Relativity.”
Absent-minded professor ~ someone who is often forgetful or inattentive. Einstein was often so engaged in what he was thinking that he did not pay attention to the things going on around him -- and he was constantly thinking! He was filled with curiosity, and he was always asking questions.
Nobel Prize ~ an international prize awarded each year in the fields of physics, chemistry, physiology or medicine, literature, economics, and the promotion of peace. The first Nobel Prize was given in 1901. Einstein’s Nobel Prize was awarded for “his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect,” not for his Theory of Relativity.
Genius ~ a person who is exceptionally intelligent. Einstein was considered a genius. If you say someone is “an Einstein,” you mean he/she is really, really smart!
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https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1921/ceremony-speech/
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Nobel Prize in Physics 1921
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The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921 was awarded to Albert Einstein "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect"
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NobelPrize.org
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https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1921/ceremony-speech/
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Award ceremony speech
Presentation Speech by Professor S. Arrhenius, Chairman of the Nobel Committee for Physics of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, on December 10, 1922*
Your Majesty, Your Royal Highnesses, Ladies and Gentlemen.
There is probably no physicist living today whose name has become so widely known as that of Albert Einstein. Most discussion centres on his theory of relativity. This pertains essentially to epistemology and has therefore been the subject of lively debate in philosophical circles. It will be no secret that the famous philosopher Bergson in Paris has challenged this theory, while other philosophers have acclaimed it wholeheartedly. The theory in question also has astrophysical implications which are being rigorously examined at the present time.
Throughout the first decade of this century the so-called Brownian movement stimulated the keenest interest. In 1905 Einstein founded a kinetic theory to account for this movement by means of which he derived the chief properties of suspensions, i.e. liquids with solid particles suspended in them. This theory, based on classical mechanics, helps to explain the behaviour of what are known as colloidal solutions, a behaviour which has been studied by Svedberg, Perrin, Zsigmondy and countless other scientists within the context of what has grown into a large branch of science, colloid chemistry.
A third group of studies, for which in particular Einstein has received the Nobel Prize, falls within the domain of the quantum theory founded by Planck in 1900. This theory asserts that radiant energy consists of individual particles, termed “quanta”, approximately in the same way as matter is made up of particles, i.e. atoms. This remarkable theory, for which Planck received the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1918, suffered from a variety of drawbacks and about the middle of the first decade of this century it reached a kind of impasse. Then Einstein came forward with his work on specific heat and the photoelectric effect. This latter had been discovered by the famous physicist Hertz in 1887. He found that an electrical spark passing between two spheres does so more readily if its path is illuminated with the light from another electrical discharge. A more exhaustive study of this interesting phenomenon was carried out by Hallwachs who showed that under certain conditions a negatively charged body, e.g. a metal plate, illuminated with light of a particular colour – ultraviolet has the strongest effect – loses its negative charge and ultimately assumes a positive charge. In 1899 Lenard demonstrated the cause to be the emission of electrons at a certain velocity from the negatively charged body. The most extraordinary aspect of this effect was that the electron emission velocity is independent of the intensity of the illuminating light, which is proportional only to the number of electrons, whereas the velocity increases with the frequency of the light. Lenard stressed that this phenomenon was not in good agreement with the then prevailing concepts.
An associated phenomenon is photo-luminescence, i.e.phosphorescence and fluorescence. When light impinges on a substance the latter will occasionally become luminous as a result of phosphorescence or fluorescence. Since the energy of the light quantum increases with the frequency, it will be obvious that a light quantum with a certain frequency can only give rise to the formation of a light quantum of lower or, at most, equal frequency. Otherwise energy would be created. The phosphorescent or fluorescent light hence has a lower frequency than the light inducing the photo-luminescence. This is Stokes’ rule which was explained in this way by Einstein by means of the quantum theory.
Similarly, when a quantum of light falls on a metal plate it can at most yield the whole of its energy to an electron there. A part of this energy is consumed in carrying the electron out into the air, the remainder stays with the electron as kinetic energy. This applies to an electron in the surface layer of the metal. From this can be calculated the positive potential to which the metal can be charged by irradiation. Only if the quantum contains sufficient energy for the electron to perform the work of detaching itself from the metal does the electron move out into the air. Consequently, only light having a frequency greater than a certain limit is capable of inducing a photo-electric effect, however high the intensity of the irradiating light. If this limit is exceeded the effect is proportional to the light intensity at constant frequency. Similar behaviour occurs in the ionisation of gas molecules and the so-called ionisation potential may be calculated, provided that the frequency of the light capable of ionising the gas is known.
Einstein’s law of the photo-electrical effect has been extremely rigorously tested by the American Millikan and his pupils and passed the test brilliantly. Owing to these studies by Einstein the quantum theory has been perfected to a high degree and an extensive literature grew up in this field whereby the extraordinary value of this theory was proved. Einstein’s law has become the basis of quantitative photo-chemistry in the same way as Faraday’s law is the basis of electro-chemistry.**
* The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921 was announced on November 9, 1922.
** Being too remote from Sweden, Professor Einstein could not attend the ceremony.
From Nobel Lectures, Physics 1901-1921, Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1967
Copyright © The Nobel Foundation 1922
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https://dbpedia.org/page/List_of_awards_and_honors_received_by_Albert_Einstein
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About: List of awards and honors received by Albert Einstein
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In 1922 Albert Einstein was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics, "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect". This refers to his 1905 paper on the photoelectric effect, "On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light", which was well supported by the experimental evidence by that time. The presentation speech began by mentioning "his theory of relativity [which had] been the subject of lively debate in philosophical circles [and] also has astrophysical implications which are being rigorously examined at the present time".
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DBpedia
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http://dbpedia.org/resource/List_of_awards_and_honors_received_by_Albert_Einstein
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dbo:abstract
حصل ألبرت أينشتاين على جائزة نوبل عام 1921 في الفيزياء، «لخدماته في الفيزياء النظرية، وخاصة لاكتشافه قانون التأثير الكهروضوئي». يشير هذا إلى ورقة 1905 الخاصة به حول التأثير الكهروضوئي، «على وجهة نظر الكشف فيما يتعلق بالإنتاج والتحول للضوء»، والذي كان مدعومًا جيدًا بالأدلة التجريبية في ذلك الوقت. بدأ خطاب التقديم بالإشارة إلى «نظريته في النسبية (التي كانت) موضوع نقاش حيوي في الأوساط الفلسفية لها أيضًا آثار فيزيائية فلكية يجري فحصها بدقة في الوقت الحالي». (ar)
In 1922 Albert Einstein was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics, "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect". This refers to his 1905 paper on the photoelectric effect, "On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light", which was well supported by the experimental evidence by that time. The presentation speech began by mentioning "his theory of relativity [which had] been the subject of lively debate in philosophical circles [and] also has astrophysical implications which are being rigorously examined at the present time". (en)
O físico alemão Albert Einstein (1879-1955) recebeu uma série de prêmios e honrarias em sua homenagem. Em 1922, foi premiado com o Nobel de Física de 1921, "por seus serviços à física teórica e, especialmente, pela sua descoberta da lei do efeito fotoelétrico". Isso se refere ao seu artigo de 1905 "Sobre um ponto de vista heurístico relativo à produção e transformação da luz", que foi bem sustentado pela evidência experimental até então. O discurso de apresentação começou a mencionar "sua teoria da relatividade [que havia] sido objeto de intenso debate nos círculos filosóficos [e] também tem implicações astrofísicas que estavam a ser rigorosamente examinadas no presente momento". Entre as premiações que recebeu, foi condecorado com a Medalha Copley em 1925, a Medalha Max Planck em 1929, a Gibbs Lecture em 1934, e a Medalha Franklin em 1936. Escolas, centros de pesquisas, parques, um asteroide e um elemento químico receberam seu nome como homenagem. Foi eleito a pessoa do século XX pela TIME e "o maior físico de todos os tempos". (pt)
rdfs:comment
حصل ألبرت أينشتاين على جائزة نوبل عام 1921 في الفيزياء، «لخدماته في الفيزياء النظرية، وخاصة لاكتشافه قانون التأثير الكهروضوئي». يشير هذا إلى ورقة 1905 الخاصة به حول التأثير الكهروضوئي، «على وجهة نظر الكشف فيما يتعلق بالإنتاج والتحول للضوء»، والذي كان مدعومًا جيدًا بالأدلة التجريبية في ذلك الوقت. بدأ خطاب التقديم بالإشارة إلى «نظريته في النسبية (التي كانت) موضوع نقاش حيوي في الأوساط الفلسفية لها أيضًا آثار فيزيائية فلكية يجري فحصها بدقة في الوقت الحالي». (ar)
In 1922 Albert Einstein was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics, "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect". This refers to his 1905 paper on the photoelectric effect, "On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light", which was well supported by the experimental evidence by that time. The presentation speech began by mentioning "his theory of relativity [which had] been the subject of lively debate in philosophical circles [and] also has astrophysical implications which are being rigorously examined at the present time". (en)
O físico alemão Albert Einstein (1879-1955) recebeu uma série de prêmios e honrarias em sua homenagem. Em 1922, foi premiado com o Nobel de Física de 1921, "por seus serviços à física teórica e, especialmente, pela sua descoberta da lei do efeito fotoelétrico". Isso se refere ao seu artigo de 1905 "Sobre um ponto de vista heurístico relativo à produção e transformação da luz", que foi bem sustentado pela evidência experimental até então. O discurso de apresentação começou a mencionar "sua teoria da relatividade [que havia] sido objeto de intenso debate nos círculos filosóficos [e] também tem implicações astrofísicas que estavam a ser rigorosamente examinadas no presente momento". (pt)
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https://einstein-website.de/en/honours-prizes-awards/
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Honours, prizes, awards – ALBERT EINSTEIN
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University of Geneva
Dr. h. c. – awarded on July 9, 1909
On Friday, July 9, 1909, the University of Geneva awarded Albert Einstein the honorary doctorate on occasion of the 350th founding year of the university. 110 persons were honored during this ceremony. Among the honored persons were also the French chemist and physicist Marie Curie (1867-1934) and the German chemist and philosopher Wilhelm Ostwald (1853-1932). Einstein was awarded the honorary doctorate following the proposal of the experimental physicist and Director of the Physical Institute of the University of Geneva Charles Eugène Guye (1866-1942). Einstein was present during the ceremony. On the day of the award he wrote in a letter to Lucien Chavan (1868-1942) and his wife Jeanne: “… I send you an affectionate greeting from the hospitable Geneva. I am delighted about the friendliness and kindness of the people …”
It was Chavan who had convinced Einstein to take part in the ceremony which is connected with the award, after Einstein had, accidentally, thrown the invitation into the “official wastepaper basket” of the Bernese patent-office.
In his memories concerning the end of the ceremony it says:
“The ceremony ended with the most opulent feast that I have taken part in during my whole life. Then I said to a patrician from Geneva who was sitting next to me: ‘Do you know what Calvin would have made if he was still alive?’ As he said no, and asked me for my opinion, I said: ‘He would have erected a large pyre, and he would have burned us all because of sinful gluttony.’ The man did no longer speak to me, and this is the last thing I can remember with regard to the noteworthy ceremony.”
Source: “Albert Einstein – A biography” Albrecht Fölsing, Suhrkamp Verlag, Frankfurt / Main, 1993
It was the reformer Johannes Calvin (1509-1564) who had, in 1559, founded the Geneva Academy, the predecessor of the University of Geneva.
It was Albert Einstein‘s first honorary doctorate, but many more were to follow.
University of Rostock
Dr. h. c. – awarded on November 12, 1919
On the day of the celebration of the 500th anniversary (Wednesday, November 12, 1919) of the University of Rostock, Albert Einstein and Max Planck (German physicist and Nobel laureate, 1858-1947) were awarded the honorary doctorate.
Einstein was awarded a honorary doctorate in medicine “in recognition of the enormous work of his mind”. In his letter of thanks to the dean of the medical faculty Einstein wrote: “I thank you very much for sending me the certificate which represents your excellent taste, and for your friendly covering letter. The wonderful celebration of your venerable university and the heartfelt hospitality which I was allowed to experience in Rostock will always be a nice memory for me.”
The honorary doctorate which Einstein was awarded in Rostock is the only one he was given in Germany!
Translation:
„On the day of the celebration of five hundred years Rostock University, the Medical Faculty awards professor Albert Einstein, Doctor of Philosophy, the honorary Doctor of Medicine in recognition of the enormous work of his mind, through which he has renewed the terms of space and time, gravity and matter from scratch.
Rostock, November 12, 1919.
The Dean“
Illustration Credit:
Courtesy Universitaetsarchiv Rostock
Signature: Prom. med. Nr. 150/ 1919, Albert Einstein
Princeton University
Dr. h. c. – awarded on May 9, 1921
“We greet the new Columbus of science, who travels lonesome through the foreign seas of thinking.” The German speech held by the president and head of the Princeton University John Hibben, began with these words. It was held on the occasion of awarding Albert Einstein the honorary doctorate on Monday, May 9, 1921. The celebration took place in Alexander Hall.
Albert Einstein, who visited the United States for the first time, accompanied Chaim Weizmann (1874-1952) to succeed in financing the planned Hebrew University of Jerusalem. They stayed from the beginning of April until the end of May. In Washington, Einstein was welcomed in the White House by President Warren G. Harding (1865-1923). After that he visited, among other cities, Princeton, Chicago and Cleveland. In Princeton he held the first of five lectures on the theory of relativity – Stafford Little Lectures (May 9 to May 13) after being awarded the honorary doctorate. The lecture hall was overcrowded. Not only students and members of the faculty, but also many curious and sensation-seeking people were present. Einstein spoke German, so only few people could follow his explanations. After he had finished his speech, Einstein’s lecture was summed up in English by a member of staff of the physical faculty. The demand for the second and the three following lectures was no longer that great and all the interested people found a comfortable place.
These lectures have been translated into English and published entitled “The Meaning of Relativity.” The German text was published in 1922 entitled: “Four Lectures on the Theory of Relativity.”
Approximately ten years later, the little town of Princeton, New Jersey, should become Albert Einstein’s new home.
University of Manchester
Dr. h. c. – awarded on June 9, 1921
Albert Einstein was awarded the honorary doctorate in natural sciences in the big lecture hall of the University of Manchester on Thursday, June 9, 1921. He was honored by the Vice Chancellor of the University, the English mineralogist Sir Henry Alexander Miers (1858-1942). Einstein said German words of thanks, and also held his lecture in German language.
In its evening edition of June 10, the Vossische Zeitung reported about the ceremony:
“Einstein honored in Manchester. The yesterday lecture of Prof. Einstein at the University of Manchester was, as our London reporter says, a homage to the German scholar. The big lecture hall of the university was filled with approximately thousand persons who gave Einstein a warm welcome. Before the lecture was held, the chemist Prof. Diron, who explained Einstein‘s merits, stood up and explained that the name of the discoverer of the theory of relativity may be mentioned next to the ones of the greatest researchers. He had done more for the progress of the world than statesmen and conquerors. The Vice Chancellor of the university, Sir Henry Miers, then awarded Einstein the honorary doctorate and explained that science was independent from the blood feud between the people. Manchester was proud to be able to honor the German scholar. Einstein then held his lecture in German. He thanked for the honors that were awarded to him, and expressed his hope that the demonstration would contribute to the improvement of the international relationships.”
During the time from June 8 until June 17, Einstein was on a lecture tour through England (Liverpool, Manchester, London and Oxford). Politically significant was his London encounter with the British politician Lord Richard Haldane (1856-1928) and with Prime Minister David Lloyd Georg (1863-1945).
Nobel Foundation, Stockholm
Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
Nobel Prize – awarded on December 10, 1922
Albert Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for the year 1921. He was awarded the prize “for his work on theoretical physics, especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect”. It is remarkable that Einstein was not awarded the Nobel Prize for the theory of relativity.
During the presentation of awards, the laureate is awarded the Nobel Certificate and the golden Nobel Medal with the picture of the founder Alfred Nobel (Swedish chemist and industrial, 1833-1896) by the Swedish king. The prize money is only payed when the Nobel speech has been held.
Einstein was on a journey through Japan when he was awarded the prize on December 10, 1922. Who should take receipt of the prize for him? Shortly before the presentation of awards there were still differences of opinion about the nationality of Einstein. Was he a German or a Swiss citizen? Finally it was the German legate in Sweden who received the prize in Einstein’s name. Einstein himself was handed over the document and the medal in Berlin by the Swedish ambassador in Germany. As the statutes of the Nobel Foundation stipulate that the Nobel laureate has to hold his Nobel speech before he receives the prize money, Einstein still had to wait for some time until he received the money.
Einstein held his Nobel speech on July 11, 1923 in the Jubilee Hall in Goeteborg in presence of the king and in front of about 2000 listeners. He spoke about “fundamental ideas and problems of the theory of relativity”. After the speech King Gustav V had a vivid chat with Einstein.
The total amount of the prize money – about 120.000 Swedish Krones (back then converted about 180.000 Swiss Francs) – Einstein made available to his first wife Mileva and his two sons Hans Albert and Eduard.
University of Madrid
Dr. h. c. – awarded on March 8, 1923
Fulfilling the traditional customs Albert Einstein received the degree of an honorary doctor on Thursday, March 8, 1923 – in the morning and during a special meeting of the University of Madrid. Speeches were among others held by the Principal of the University, Professor José Rodríguez Carracido (1856-1928), Professor José Maria Plans (1878-1934), a student of the University, and the German ambassador in Madrid, Ernst Langwerth von Simmern (1865-1942). He held his speech in Spanish language. Albert Einstein held his acceptance speech in German.
Einstein‘s entry into his travel log dated March 8, 1923:
„Ehrendoktor Aecht spanische Reden mit zugehörigem bengalischem Feuer Lange aber inhaltlich gute Rede des d. Gesandten über deutsch-span. Beziehungen; (aber ins) ächt deutsch. Nichts rhetorisches. (Abends) Dann Besuch bei techn. Studenten. Reden und nichts als Reden, aber gut gemeint. Abends Vortrag Dann bei Kuno 1) musizieren. Ein Künstler (Direktor des Konservatoriums 2)) Poras spielte herrlich Violine.”
Translation:
“Honorary doctor Aecht Spanish speeches with corresponding Bengal firework Long but contentwise good speech of the German ambassador concerning German-Spanish relationships; (however) into ächt German. Nothing rhetorical. (in the evening) Then visiting technical students. Speeches and nothing but speeches, however, well-meant. In the evening lecture. Then playing music with Kuno 1). An artist (Director of the Conservatory 2)) Poras plays the violin – magnificent!”
Source:
Publisher: Diana Kormos Buchwald, among others, The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein, Volume 13, Princeton 2012
1) Kuno Kocherthaler, a relative of Einstein
2) Antonio Fernandez Bordas (1870-1950)
Albert Einstein and his wife Elsa were on a lecture tour through Spain with the stations Barcelona, Madrid and Zaragoza. They stayed in Spain from February 22 until March 15, 1923.
During Einstein‘s stay in Madrid he was awarded the diploma of a corresponding foreign member by the Academia de Ciencias on March 4. It was a formal meeting under the presidency of the Spanish King.
Order “Pour le mérite”
admission to the order – June 7, 1923
On Thursday, June 7, 1923 Albert Einstein was admitted to the order “Pour le mérite”. He received the medal Pour le mérite for science and arts, with which persons were and still are awarded “who have made themselves a name through widely spread recognition of their work in science and arts”.
The poet Gerhart Hauptmann (1862-1946), the mathematician Felix Klein (1849-1925), the sculptor Hugo Lederer (1871-1940) and the painter Max Liebermann (1847-1935) were also admitted to the order on this day.
Due to the political situation and thus the incidents in nazi Germany, Einstein renounced the membership to the order in 1933. An attempt of the President of the Federal Republic of Germany, Theodor Heuss (1884-1963), at the beginning of the 1950ies to persuade Einstein to renew his membership was in vain.
The order Pour le mérite for science and arts was founded by Friedrich Wilhelm IV, King of Prussia (1795-1861) in May 1842. The first civil Order of Merit of this kind in Europe should complete the military order of Frederick II, King of Prussia (1712-1786, “Frederick the Great”) of 1740. In 1924 it was converted into an “independent organisation of excellent scientists and artists” with new statutes. In the 30ies the fate of the order was uncertain and its disbanding was given a serious thought. Only through the President of the Federal Republic of Germany, Theodor Heuss, the order was revived and again entered the public consciousness in May 1952.
The order Pour le mérite is nowadays regarded as one of the highest awards in Germany, which a scientist or artist can achieved.
Genootschap ter Bevordering van Natuur-, Genees- en Heelkunde
Genootschaps Medal – awarded on Dezember 13, 1923
The Dutch society Genootschap ter bevordering van Natuur-, Genees- en Heelkunde, which was founded in Amsterdam in 1790, promotes and supports activities in the areas of science and medicine. On Thursday, December 13, 1923, the society awarded its highest distinction, the Genootschaps Medal, in the auditorium of the Amsterdam university and thus honoured Albert Einstein and the Dutch physicist Hendrik Antoon Lorentz (1853-1928). The list of previous laureates contained names like for example the Dutch physicists and Nobel Prize laureates Johannes Diderik van der Waals (1837-1923) and Heike Kamerlingh Onnes (1853-1926).
Albert Einstein took personally part in the celebration taking place on occasion of the annual meeting of the “Genootschap” on December 13. Despite acceptance of the invitation, H. A. Lorentz did not.
In advance there was a letter from the Board of the society to Albert Einstein, which was dated “October 25, 1923”:
„Hochgeehrter Herr Professor Einstein,
im Namen der “Genootschap ter Bevordering van Natuur-, Genees- en Heelkunde in Amsterdam” haben wir das Vergnügen Ihnen mitzuteilen, dass die “Genootschap” in ihrer Sitzung vom 22. Oktober 1923 Ihnen und Herrn Professor H. A. Lorentz ihre goldene Medaille zuerkannt hat. Die Verleihung dieser Medaillen wird am 31. Oktober 1923 in der Jahresversammlung der Gen. in der Aula der Universität nachmittags um 4 Uhr stattfinden.
Es würde uns eine ganz besondere Ehre sein, wenn Sie der Verleihung dieser Medaillen durch Herrn Prof. J. D. v. d. Waals, Professor der Physik an unserer Universität, persönlich beiwohnen könnten, wie auch Herr Professor Lorentz es uns versprochen hat. …
Mit einer zustimmenden Antwort würden Sie uns eine besondere Freude machen. …”
Translation:
“Highly honoured Professor Einstein,
in the name of the “Genootschap ter Bevordering van Natuur-, Genees- en Heelkunde in Amsterdam” we have the pleasure to inform you that the “Genootschap” has awarded you and Professor H. A. Lorentz its golden medal in its meeting dated October 22, 1923. The presentation of these medals will take place in the annual meeting of the Gen. in the auditorium of the university on October 31, 1923 at 4 pm.
It would be a very special honour for us if you could personally attend to the presentation of these medals by Prof. J. D. v. d. Waals, professor of physics at our university, like also Professor Lorentz has promised to do. …
You would specially please us if you sent us a positive answer. …“
The presentation date which is mentioned in the letter seems to have been postponed.
Royal Society of London
Copley Medal – awarded on November 30, 1925
Albert Einstein was awarded the Copley Medal of the Royal Society in London in a ceremony on Monday, November 30, 1925. As tradition has it, the highest award of the society was handed over during its annual celebration. In 1925 the celebration took place in Burlington House, Piccadilly, in London. At the annual celebration the Royal Society awarded also other medals and prizes.
Einstein was awarded the Copley Medal by the English neurophysiologist Sir Charles Sherrington (1857-1952), the retiring president of the society. The presentation of the medal was one of the last official actions of Sherrington. After the presentation of the medals he handed over the position of the president after one term of office (five years) to the British physicist from New Zealand, Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937), from 1931 on Lord Rutherford of Nelson.
Some of the people who were awarded the Copley Medal before and after Einstein were the German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss (1838), the British physicist Sir William Thomson (1883), from 1892 on Lord Kelvin of Largs, the Dutch physicist Hendrik Antoon Lorentz (1918), the German physicist Max Planck (1929), the Danish physicist Niels Bohr (1938) and the English physicist Paul A.M. Dirac (1952).
Sir Geoffrey Copley made money available to the Royal Society to promote scientific work (1709). A few years later the Copley Medal was suggested:
“…a medal or other honorary prize should be bestowed on the person whose experiment should be best approved…”
The English physicist Stephen Gray (1666-1736) was awarded the first Copley Medal in 1731. The medal consists of silver and gold. It was and still is awarded for special scientific work.
Royal Astronomical Society
Gold Medal – awarded on February 12, 1926
Some weeks after Einstein had been awarded the Copley Medal of the Royal Society in London, he was awarded another prize in England. This time the Royal Astronomical Society (RAS) awarded him, also in London, its highest award, the Gold Medal. The Gold Medal was awarded for special performance in the field of astronomy. It is still awarded by the RAS, which also awards the Eddington and the Herschel Medal.
It was not possible for Einstein to receive the Gold Medal personally. In a letter of thanks which he had written before the award he wrote to the RAS: “…He who finds a thought which lets us look into the secret of nature – even if only a little bit deeper – has won mercy. He who then still experiences the recognition, sympathies and promotion of the greatest persons of his time almost obtains more luck than a human being is able to bear. In this consciousness I thank you in humble attitude for the great award you judged I deserve. I would like to come to you personally to receive the Medal awarded to me; but unfortunately I am not able to…”
Already in 1919 the RAS had, on proposal of the English astronomer and astrophysicist Arthur Stanley Eddington (1882-1944), decided to award Albert Einstein the Gold Medal for the year 1920. But “patriotic” members of the RAS prevented this. The result was that no medal was awarded in 1920. Einstein still had to wait for six years until he received the highest award of the RAS.
University of Paris
Dr. h. c. – awarded on November 9, 1929
On Saturday, November 9, 1929, the University of Paris awarded Albert Einstein the honorary doctorate in the hall of the Sorbonne. The principal of the university, the French historian Sébastien Charléty (1867-1945), awarded Einstein the honorary doctorate diploma.
On November 12, the Vossische Zeitung reported about the ceremony what follows:
“Einstein honorary doctorate of the Sorbonne. From Paris we hear: In the large amphitheater of the Sorbonne there was, on Sunday evening, under the chairmanship of the principal Professor Charléty and in the presence of the whole scientific and intellectual Paris, a festive presentation of the honorary doctorate and the insignias of an honorary doctorate of the University of Paris for Professor Albert Einstein. The dean of the faculty for mathematics and natural sciences, Professor Maurain, celebrated the merits and the work of Einstein in a speech which the audience interrupted through minute-long applause. Einstein stood up and thanked with a bow. The applause was even longer when the principal awarded Einstein the doctorate diploma and covered his shoulder with the “Robenschleife” in the colors of the city of Paris. The ceremony was also attended by the German ambassador v. Hösch, with whom Professor Einstein stays during his visit in Paris.”
The dean of the faculty for mathematics and sciences, who is mentioned in the article, was the French geophysicist Charles Honoré Maurain (1871-1967). The German ambassador in Paris was Leopold von Hoesch (1881-1936).
Einstein‘s stay in Paris began on November 7 and ended on November 14. During his stay he held two lectures in the Institute Henri Poincaré and took part in a meeting of the Académie des sciences and the academic society Societé française de Philosophie.
ETH, Zurich
Dr. h. c. – awarded on November 7, 1930
On occasion of the 75th anniversary of the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich (Eidgenoessische Technische Hochschule, ETH), Albert Einstein was awarded the Honorary Doctorate of Science in a ceremony on Friday, November 7, 1930. The nomination was initiated by the department of mathematics of the ETH.
In the letter of the nomination it said: “To the completer of classical physics in the theory of relativity and the pioneer of quantum physics, its former student and teacher, in recognition of his excellent scientific performance and in thankful remembrance of his work which he performed for Switzerland and the college.”
The honorary doctorate of his Alma mater surely meant a lot to Albert Einstein.
From October 1896 to July 1900 Einstein had studied at the ETH and from October 1912 to March 1914 he worked there as full professor for theoretical physics.
Yeshiva College, New York
Dr. h. c. – awarded on October 8, 1934
On Monday, October 8, 1934, Albert Einstein received in a ceremony the degree of an honorary doctor (Doctor of Humane Letters, honoris causa) of the Yeshiva College in New York, USA.
Einstein had approved of the award of the degree of an honorary doctor in a letter to the College dated September 1, 1934. Dr. Bernard Revel (1885-1940), the first President of the Yeshiva College in New York, USA, which was founded in 1928, welcomed the attendees to the ceremony on occasion of the award of the degree of an honorary doctor, which at the same time was the official beginning of the academic year 1934/35.
After the award of the degree of an honorary doctor Einstein held his acceptance speech. He spoke in German: „Es erfüllt mich mit besonderer Freude und Genugtuung …” (“It is my special pleasure and satisfaction…“). Further speakers were among others the Governor of the Federal State of New York, Herbert Henry Lehman (1878-1963), and Herman Bernstein (1876-1935), editor of the Jewish Daily Bulletin.
Franklin Institute, Philadelphia
Franklin Medal – awarded on May 15, 1935
On Wednesday, May 15, 1935 Albert Einstein received the Benjamin Franklin Medal (Benjamin Franklin, American politician, author and scientist, 1706–1790) in a ceremony. It was awarded in recognition of his fundamental contributions to theoretical physics; especially for his theories of relativity and his work on the photoelectric effect.
The Franklin Medal is one of the highest awards of the Franklin Institute. It was and still is awarded for special performance in the field of science and the arts. The Franklin Institute also awards other medals than the Franklin Medal.
In the ceremony, which took place in the evening at the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia, USA, not only the two Franklin Medals, but also five Longstreth Medals and seven Wetherill Medals were awarded. Einstein did not hold any speech.
Harvard University
Dr. h. c. – awarded on June 20, 1935
In 1935 Albert Einstein received a new honorary doctorate, this time by the most traditional and most important university of the USA, the Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts. It was Thursday, June 20, 1935 when he was awarded in a ceremony the Doctor of Science in a ceremony. The president of the university, J.B. Conant, said in a speech about Einstein: “…Acclaimed by the world as a great revolutionist of theoretical physics, his bold speculations, now become basis doctrine, will be remembered when mankind`s present troubles are long forgotten…”
Source: Harvard Alumni Bulletin, July 5, 1935
At the same time like Einstein, the German author Thomas Mann (1857-1955) was honoured. He was awarded the Doctor of Letters. About Mann, Conant said in his speech: “… Novelist of rare distinction, an interpreter of life to many in the western world, one of the few contemporary guardians of the great tradition of Germany culture …”
Source: Harvard Alumni Bulletin, July 5, 1935
Like Einstein, Mann and his family had also emigrated to the USA in 1933. Both the emigrants received long lasting applause from the people present at the presentation of awards. Thomas Mann later stated in a letter to his publisher that his and Einstein’s honorary doctorate “had not been possible without any interference of president Roosevelt“.
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Albert Einstein Albert Einstein did not talk until he was three years old.
Albert Einstein was born in 1879 in Ulm, Germany. He attended school where he learned math and science. He was also taught at home. At home he learned Judaism and violin. He taught himself how to do geometry.
Einstein felt that he would make a good math and physics teacher. In 1900, he graduated as a teacher. He had a very hard time finding a teaching job at a university. He took a temporary job as a high school teacher. That only lasted a short time. By 1902, he was working in an office that handed out patents on new inventions. He worked in the patent office for seven years.
While working in the patent office, he wrote papers about his ideas on physics topics. His ideas were new and very good. In 1909, he was able to get a job teaching at a university. He continued to write about his ideas on physics. His ideas were so good that he was given the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1921.
Einstein was a very good scientist. He was also a good citizen. Einstein spoke out against the country in which he was born. He did not think that Germany should be fighting in World War I. Some Germans did not like the fact that he was speaking against his homeland. There were also some Germans that did not like the fact he was a Jew.
Einstein went to the Unites States in 1932 to work at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey. While he was in the United States, Nazis took control of Germany. Einstein spoke out against the Nazis that came to power in 1932. Once the Nazis were in control, he did not go back to Germany. He became a United States citizen in 1940. He contributed money to help the United States win World War II against Germany.
Einstein became ill in 1949. He cut back on his travels and his workload. Einstein was so highly thought of that Israel offered him the job of President in 1952. He did not take the job because of his bad health. Einstein died in 1955 in Princeton, New Jersey.
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