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correct_award_00024
|
FactBench
|
2
| 80
|
https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1921/einstein/questions-and-answers/
|
en
|
Albert Einstein – Questions and answers
|
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The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921 was awarded to Albert Einstein "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect"
|
en
|
NobelPrize.org
|
https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1921/einstein/questions-and-answers/
|
Albert Einstein
Questions and Answers
Question: When was Albert Einstein born?
Answer: Albert Einstein was born on 14 March 1879.
Question: Where was he born?
Answer: He was born in Ulm, Germany.
Question: When did he die?
Answer: He died 18 April 1955 in Princeton, New Jersey, USA.
Question: Who were his parents?
Answer: His father was Hermann Einstein and his mother was Pauline Einstein (born Koch).
Question: Did he have any sisters and brothers?
Answer: He had one sister named Maja.
Question: Did he marry and have children?
Answer: He was married to Mileva Marić between 1903 and 1919. They had three children, Lieserl (born 1902), Hans Albert (born 1904) and Eduard (born 1910). He married Elsa Löwenthal in 1919 and they lived together until her death in 1936.
Question: Where did he receive his education?
Answer: He received his main education at the following schools:
Catholic elementary school in Munich, Germany (1885-1888)
Luitpold Gymnasium in Munich, Germany (1888-1894)
Cantonal school in Aarau, Switzerland (1895-1896)
Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich, Switzerland (1896-1900)
Ph.D. from Zurich University, Switzerland (1905)
Question: When was Albert Einstein awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics?
Answer: The Nobel Prize Awarding Institution, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, decided to reserve the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921, and therefore no Physics Prize was awarded that year. According to the statutes, a reserved prize can be awarded the year after, and Albert Einstein was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics in 1922.
Question: Did Albert Einstein attend the Nobel Prize Award Ceremony?
Answer: The Nobel Prize was announced on 9 November 1922. Being too remote from Sweden, Albert Einstein could not attend the Nobel Prize Award Ceremony in Stockholm on 10 December the same year.
Question: For what did he receive the Nobel Prize?
Answer: Einstein was rewarded for his many contributions to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect.
Question: What is the photoelectric effect?
Answer: The photoelectric effect is a phenomenon in which electrons are emitted from the surface of matter (usually metals) when light shines upon it. Einstein explained the effect by proposing that light consists of small particles, or quanta, called photons, which carry energy that is proportional to the frequency of light. The electrons in the matter that absorb the energy of the photon get ejected. These findings were published in 1905 in the paper “On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light”. Einstein’s observations that the photoelectric effect could only be explained if light behaves like a particle, not a wave, was instrumental in establishing the hypothesis that light can behave both like a wave and a particle.
Question: What are the practical applications of the photoelectric effect?
Answer: The photoelectric effect is very important for our daily life. It is the basis for photosynthesis, which is like a very effective solar cell where sunlight is absorbed by plants to make them grow. The effect also forms the basis for a variety of devices such as photodiodes, which are used in light detection within fibre optics, telecommunications networks, solar cells, imaging and many other applications.
Question: When did he deliver his Nobel Lecture?
Answer: He gave his Nobel Lecture on 11 July 1923 in Gothenburg, Sweden.
Question: What other scientific accomplishments is Albert Einstein known for?
Answer: Albert Einstein is one of the most influential physicists in the 20th century. In 1905 Einstein published four landmark papers in physics – on the photoelectric effect, Brownian motion, the special theory of relativity and equivalence of matter and energy (E=mc2). The year 2005 was named the “World Year of Physics” in recognition of the 100th anniversary of Einstein’s publications. Einstein is also well known for his general relativity theory published 1915 that complements his special relativity theory of 1905.
First published 25 January 2008
|
|||||
correct_award_00024
|
FactBench
|
3
| 23
|
https://www.discovermagazine.com/the-sciences/einstein-vs-the-nobel-prize
|
en
|
Einstein vs. the Nobel Prize
|
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""
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[
"Virginia Hughes"
] |
2006-09-28T05:00:00+00:00
|
Why the Nobel Committee repeatedly dissed this "world-bluffing Jewish physicist"
|
en
|
/assets/favicon/favicon16.png
|
Discover Magazine
|
https://www.discovermagazine.com/the-sciences/einstein-vs-the-nobel-prize
|
When Albert Einstein listed the most important honors of his life, he began with the German Physical Society's Max Planck Medal, named for a physicist he revered. He went on from there to list the prizes and honorary doctorate degrees awarded him in many nations. Conspicuously absent was the plaudit with the highest profile and payout: the Nobel Prize. But in context this omission isn't so surprising. The Nobel nod—17 years after Einstein published his special theory of relativity—came long after recognition by the physics world and even the general public. Even more bizarre, the prize was awarded to Einstein not for his relativity revolution, but for the comparatively obscure discovery of the photoelectric effect. Why? After years of sifting through letters and diaries of the Scandinavian archives, science historian Robert Marc Friedman says it was an intentional snub fueled by the biases of the day—a prejudice against pacifists, Jews, and, most of all, theoretical physics.
In 1905, while working as a patent clerk in Switzerland, 26-year-old Albert Einstein published five seminal papers on the nature of space, light, and motion. One paper introduced the special theory of relativity, which dramatically broke with Newton's universally accepted description of how physics worked. Special relativity did away with the notion of absolute space and time—Einstein said they were instead "relative" to the observer's conditions—effectively flipping the Newtonian model on its apple-bruised head. In 1915, Einstein expanded the theory by incorporating gravity: it was not just a force of attraction between bodies, he said, but the result of distortions in space itself. This new, more robust version was called the theory of general relativity.
Today, general relativity is celebrated as Einstein's most impressive work. But as Friedman wrote in his 2001 book, The Politics of Excellence, in post-War Germany Einstein was despised as a pacifist Jew who renounced his German citizenship, went to meetings of radical groups, and publicly supported socialism. His theories were dismissed as "world-bluffing Jewish physics" by some prominent German physicists, who claimed to practice "true" German science based on observations of the natural world and hypotheses that could be tested in a laboratory.
Luckily for Einstein, British astronomer Arthur Stanley Eddington believed there was a way to test the general theory. If massive objects curved space itself, as Einstein proposed, then they should bend nearby rays of light, as well. During six minutes of a total solar eclipse on May 29, 1919, Eddington measured the positions of stars that appeared next to the blotted-out sun. Sure enough, they followed the predictions of Einstein's general theory.
Eddington revealed the results of his eclipse experiment on November 6, and Einstein became a household name throughout the world practically overnight—literally overnight in some places; the next day, the London Times ran the headline, "Revolution in Science, New Theory of the Universe." Within a month, the news traveled through the American press; a New York Times headline declared, "Given the Speed, Time Is Naught."
The nominations for Einstein that poured into the laps of the Nobel Committee members as they were reviewing candidates for the 1920 prize were not exactly well received. The committee did not want a "political and intellectual radical, who—it was said—did not conduct experiments, crowned as the pinnacle of physics," says Friedman. So the 1920 prize was given to the Swiss Charles-Edouard Guillaume for his ho-hum discovery of an inert nickel-steel alloy. When the announcement was made, Friedman says the previously unknown Guillaume "was as surprised as the rest of the world."
By the next year, "Einstein-mania" was in full bloom. During his first trip to the United States he gave many public lectures on relativity, and received the prestigious Barnard Medal from the National Academy of Sciences. After one particularly crowded lecture at Princeton, legend has it that Einstein said wryly to the chairman, "I never realized that so many Americans were interested in tensor analysis."
As his quirky personality and untamed tresses gained more popularity with the general public, his momentous theory gained more credibility in the scientific community. In 1921, swarms of both theoreticians and experimentalists again nominated Einstein for his work on relativity. Reporters kept asking him, to his great annoyance, if this would be the year that he received a Nobel Prize.
But 1921 was not the year, thanks to one stubborn senior member of the prize committee, ophthalmologist Allvar Gullstrand. "Einstein must never receive a Nobel Prize, even if the whole world demands it," said Gullstrand, according to a Swedish mathematician's diary dug up by Friedman. Gullstrand's arguments, however biased, convinced the rest of the committee. In 1921, the Swedish Academy of Sciences awarded no physics prize.
Two prizes were thus available in 1922. By this time, Einstein's popularity was so great that many members of the committee feared for their international reputations if they didn't recognize him in some way. As in the previous two years, Einstein received many nominations for his relativity theory. But this year there was one nomination—from Carl Wilhelm Oseen—not for relativity, but for the discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect. In another of his 1905 papers, Einstein had proposed that light, which had been thought to act only as a wave, sometimes acted as a particle—and laboratory experiments conducted in 1916 showed he was right.
In his exhaustive research, Friedman realized that Oseen lobbied the committee to recognize the photoelectric effect not as a "theory," but as a fundamental "law" of nature–not because he cared about recognizing Einstein, but because he had another theoretical physicist in mind for that second available prize: Niels Bohr. Bohr had proposed a new quantum theory of the atom that Oseen felt was "the most beautiful of all the beautiful" ideas in recent theoretical physics. In his report to the committee, Oseen exaggerated the close bond between Einstein's proven law of nature and Bohr's new atom. "In one brilliant stroke," Friedman says, "he saw how to meet the objections against both Einstein and Bohr."
The committee was indeed won over. On November 10, 1922, they gave the 1922 prize to Bohr and the delayed 1921 prize to Einstein, "especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect." Einstein, en route to Japan (and perhaps huffy after the committee's long delay) did not attend the official ceremony. According to Friedman, Einstein didn't care much about the medal, anyway, though he did care about the money. As the German mark decreased in value after the war, Einstein needed a hard foreign currency for alimony payments to his ex-wife. Moreover, under the terms of his 1919 divorce settlement, she was already entitled to all the money "from an eventual Nobel Prize." Bruce Hunt, an Einstein historian at the University of Texas at Austin, says that calling attention to these financial arrangements "brings out the fact that Einstein was a much more worldly and savvy man than his later public image would suggest."
Of course, Einstein isn't the only player who emerges as being not quite angelic. "The decisions of the Nobel Committees are often treated by the press and public as the voice of god," Hunt says. But Friedman's research brought to light "how political the deliberations of the Nobel Committees sometimes were—and presumably still are."
|
||||
correct_award_00024
|
FactBench
|
2
| 38
|
https://twitter.com/PhysInHistory/status/1725187248864268588%3Flang%3Den
|
en
|
x.com
|
[] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[] | null |
X (formerly Twitter)
| null | ||||||||
correct_award_00024
|
FactBench
|
3
| 1
|
https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1921/einstein/facts/
|
en
|
Albert Einstein – Facts
|
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The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921 was awarded to Albert Einstein "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect"
|
en
|
NobelPrize.org
|
https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1921/einstein/facts/
|
Albert Einstein
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921
Affiliation at the time of the award: Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut (now Max-Planck-Institut) für Physik, Berlin, Germany
Prize motivation: “for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect”
Albert Einstein received his Nobel Prize one year later, in 1922.
Prize share: 1/1
Life
Albert Einstein grew up in Munich, where his father founded an electrical engineering company. After studying at the ETH university in Zurich, Einstein worked at the patent office in Bern, during which time he produced several pioneering works in the field of physics. He was later employed at universities in Bern, Zurich, and Prague, and from 1914, in Berlin. After the Nazis seized power in Germany, Einstein immigrated to the US, where he worked at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey. Einstein married twice and had three children by his first marriage.
Work
If metal electrodes are exposed to light, electrical sparks between them occur more readily. For this photoelectric effect to occur, the light waves must be above a certain frequency, however. According to physics theory, the light's intensity should be critical. In one of several epoch-making studies beginning in 1905, Albert Einstein explained that light consists of quanta—packets with fixed energies corresponding to certain frequencies. One such light quantum, a photon, must have a certain minimum frequency before it can liberate an electron.
|
|||||
correct_award_00024
|
FactBench
|
1
| 82
|
https://electricladiespodcast.com/albert-abraham-michelson/
|
en
|
Albert Abraham Michelson
|
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2021-05-29T19:19:46+00:00
|
Albert Michelson, Nobel Laureate: 1907 Albert Abraham Michelson – Nobel Prize 1907, physics, First American scientist to win the Nobel & Joan Michelson’s great-great uncle Albert Abraham Michelson (Dec. 19, 1852 – May 9, 1931) was the first American scientist to be awarded the Nobel Prize. He won it in 1907 under the physics rubric,… Continue reading Albert Abraham Michelson
|
en
|
Electric Ladies
|
https://electricladiespodcast.com/albert-abraham-michelson/
|
Albert Abraham Michelson (Dec. 19, 1852 – May 9, 1931) was the first American scientist to be awarded the Nobel Prize. He won it in 1907 under the physics rubric, for measuring the speed of light – that is, Albert Michelson is literally the “C” in Albert Einstein’s famous equation E=MC2.
Albert Einstein called Albert Michelson “the father of physics” and said to Albert Michelson at a presentation they did together on January 24, 1931: “It was you who led the physicists into new paths, and through your marvelous experimental work, paved the way for the development of the theory of relativity…Without your work, this theory would be scarcely more than an interesting speculation.”
Albert Michelson attended the United States Naval Academy (the Academy) upon special appointment to it by then-President Grant – after multiple tries and rejections due to a combination of antisemitism and lack of political connections. He graduated in 1873, and became an instructor in physics and chemistry there after two years serving in the West Indies. The science building there now bears his name, Michelson Hall and the plaza in front of it has disks showing in part how he measured the speed of light.
He measured the speed of light – using an interferometer he had designed in 1881 to do so – while trying to prove that ether existed. Albert Michelson was using the speed of light as the “K” or constant, thinking the light would slow down going through the ether. Instead, he measured the speed of light with such unprecedented accuracy that he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics, becoming the first American to receive it.
Michelson resigned from the Navy in 1883 to become a Professor of Physics in the Case School of Applied Science (now Case Western Reserve) in Cleveland, Ohio, then taught physics at Clark University in Massachusetts. In 1892, he became Professor of Physics and the first Head of Department at the then-new University of Chicago, and the physics building now bears his name. (He rejoined the Navy during WWI, invented the echelon spectroscope, and during his wartime service in the Navy he developed devices for naval use, including a rangefinder which was adapted as part of U.S. Navy equipment. He resigned the Navy in 1929.)
Albert Michelson was President of the American Physical Society (1900), the American Association for the Advancement of Science (1910-1911), and the National Academy of Sciences (1923-1927). He was also a Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society, the Royal Society of London and the Optical Society, and an Associate of l’Académie Française.
|
|||||
correct_award_00024
|
FactBench
|
1
| 94
|
https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo/albert-einstein-1921-nobel-prize.html
|
en
|
Albert einstein 1921 nobel prize hi
|
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Find the perfect albert einstein 1921 nobel prize stock photo, image, vector, illustration or 360 image. Available for both RF and RM licensing.
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en
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Alamy
|
https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo/albert-einstein-1921-nobel-prize.html
|
Alamy and its logo are trademarks of Alamy Ltd. and are registered in certain countries. Copyright © 20/07/2024 Alamy Ltd. All rights reserved.
|
|||||
correct_award_00024
|
FactBench
|
0
| 60
|
https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo/albert-einstein-1921-nobel-prize.html
|
en
|
Albert einstein 1921 nobel prize hi
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en
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Alamy
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https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo/albert-einstein-1921-nobel-prize.html
|
Alamy and its logo are trademarks of Alamy Ltd. and are registered in certain countries. Copyright © 20/07/2024 Alamy Ltd. All rights reserved.
|
|||||
correct_award_00024
|
FactBench
|
2
| 79
|
https://www.mpg.de/nobel-prize
|
en
|
Max-Planck-Gesellschaft
|
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[
"nobel prize",
"nobel laureates of the Max Planck Society",
"max planck institute"
] | null |
[] | null |
31 Max Planck Society scientists have been awarded the Nobel Prize. Internationally, the Nobel Prize is considered to be the highest distinction in the various disciplines.
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en
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https://www.mpg.de/nobel-prize
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Nobel Prizes
A digital story about the Nobel Laureates of the Max Planck Society in eight chapters. more
Since 1901, the Nobel Prize has been awarded in physics, chemistry, physiology or medicine, literature and peace efforts. Internationally, the Nobel Prize is considered to be the highest distinction in the various disciplines. The prize, which was instituted by Swedish inventor and industrialist Alfred Nobel, is to be distributed to “those who, during the preceding year, shall have conferred the greatest benefit on mankind”, according to his will. Since 2001, the prize amount, which is derived from the income in interests on the Foundation’s investments, is set to 10 million Swedish kronor per category. To date, the following scientists from the Max Planck Society and its predecessor the Kaiser Wilhelm Society have been awarded the Nobel Prize.
In retrospect, the research awarded in this way reflects an important piece of scientific history since the beginning of the 20th century. The relevance of many of the works is particularly evident in the long term. The Max Planck Society counts 31 award winners in the natural science disciplines. In the year the prize was awarded, they were scientific members of the Max Planck Society or of the Kaiser Wilhelm Society as its predecessor.
Other scientists were no longer or not yet Scientific Members at the time the prize was awarded, but had carried out the most important part of their research in the Max Planck Society or had left a lasting mark on it through their commitment to research and administration.
2023 - Nobel Prize in Physics
Prof. Dr. Ferenc Krausz
Max Planck Institute of Quantum Optics, Garching
(*1962)
Ferenc Krausz, Director at the Max Planck Institute of Quantum Optics and Professor at the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, together with Pierre Agostini and Anne L'Huillier, has been honoured with the 2023 Nobel Prize in Physics. The Nobel Committee is honouring the two reserachers for the foundation of attosecond physics. An attosecond is the billionth part of a billionth of a second. Laser pulses lasting only a few attoseconds can be used to track the movements of individual electrons. This not only provides fundamental insights into the behaviour of electrons in atoms, molecules and solids, but could also help to develop electronic components more quickly.
More information in the Digital Story
2022 - Nobel Prize in Medicine
Prof. Dr. Svante Pääbo
Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig
(*1955)
The Nobel Prize in Medicine 2022 was awarded to Svante Pääbo "for his discoveries concerning the genomes of extinct hominins and human evolution". Pääbo succeeded in making the genetic material of extinct early humans available with more efficient extraction and sequencing methods. In 2010, he and his team were able to reconstruct a first version of the Neanderthal genome from bones that are tens of thousands of years old. He thus laid the foundation for the new discipline of palaeogenetics, which has revolutionised our understanding of the evolutionary history of modern humans within just a few years.
More information in the Digital Story
2021 - Nobel Prize in Chemistry
Prof. Dr. Benjamin List
Max-Planck-Institut für Kohlenforschung, Mülheim an der Ruhr
(*1968)
The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2021 was awarded jointly to Benjamin List and David W.C. MacMillan "for the development of asymmetric organocatalysis." The two researchers had discovered that small organic molecules also mediate chemical reactions. Previously, it was assumed that only enzymes and metals, including often toxic heavy metals or expensive and rare precious metals, could accelerate chemical reactions and steer them in a desired direction. It is particularly interesting that the small organic molecules are suitable for so-called asymmetric synthesis: In this process, only one of two enantiomers is formed - these are molecules that are like the left and right hand, i.e. cannot be spatially aligned. Such molecules are involved in all biological processes and also play an important role as medical agents.
More information in the Digital Story
2021 - Nobel Prize in Physics
Prof. Klaus Hasselmann
Max Planck Institute for Meteorology, Hamburg
(*1931)
The Nobel Prize in Physics 2021 was awarded "for pioneering contributions to the understanding of complex systems". One half goes jointly to Klaus Hasselmann and Syukuro Manabe "for the physical modelling of the Earth's climate, the quantification of fluctuations and the reliable prediction of global warming" and the other half to Giorgio Parisi "for the discovery of the interplay of disorder and fluctuations in physical systems from atomic to planetary scales".
More information in the Digital Story
2020 - Nobel Prize in Chemistry
Prof. Emmanuelle Charpentier , Ph.D.
Max Planck Unit for the Science of Pathogens, Berlin
(*1968)
The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2020 was awarded jointly to Emmanuelle Charpentier from the Max Planck Research Unit for the Science of Pathogens (at the time of the awarded research at the University of Vienna and Umeå University) and Jennifer A. Doudna "for the development of a method for genome editing." The two award winners have described how the CRISPR-Cas9 system targets DNA and how it can be used as a versatile genetic tool to alter the genome. They have contributed significantly to the development of the CRISPR-Cas9 technology into a powerful and versatile tool that can be used to efficiently alter any gene sequence in the cells of living organisms.
More information in the Digital Story
2020 - Nobel Prize in Physics
Prof. Dr. Reinhard Genzel
Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, Garching
(*1952)
Reinhard Genzel, Director at the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics in Garching, received the Nobel Prize for Physics 2020 together with Roger Penrose and Andrea Ghez. The Royal Swedish Academy honours the scientists for their black hole research. Using high-precision methods, the group around Genzel also observed bursts of brightness from gas in the immediate vicinity of the black hole and a gravitational redshift caused by this mass monster in the light of a passing star.
More information in the Digital Story
2014 - Nobel Prize in Chemistry
Prof. Dr. Stefan W. Hell
Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry, Göttingen
(*1962)
In 2014, the Nobel Prize in Chemistry went to three researchers: Stefan W. Hell (Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry, Göttingen), Eric Betzig (Howard Hughes Medical Institute) and William E. Moerner (Standford University) in honour for their contributions to nano-optics, with which they have overcome the physical resolution limit of optical microscopy and imaging with a chemical trick.
More information in the Digital Story
2007 - Nobel Prize in Chemistry
Prof. Dr. Gerhard Ertl
Fritz Haber Institute of the Max Planck Society, Berlin
(*1936)
In 2007, Gerhard Ertl was honoured for his work on chemical processes on solid surfaces. His studies formed the basis for our understanding of industrial catalysts and catalytic processes. This means that today we are able to understand very different processes, such as the function of fuel cells or of catalysts in cars. Chemical reactions on catalytic surfaces play a vital role in many industrial operations, such as the production of artificial fertilizers.
More information in the Digital Story
2005 - Nobel Prize in Physics
Prof. Dr. Theodor Hänsch
Max Planck Institute of Quantum Optics, Garching
(*1941)
In 2005, Theodor W. Hänsch and the Americans Roy J. Glauber and John L. Hall were honoured for their research on spectroscopy. Hänsch and Hall received the coveted prize “for their contributions to the development of laser-based precision spectroscopy, including the optical frequency comb technique”. The scientists developed an optical frequency comb generator, which made it possible, for the first time, to count the number of light oscillations per second accurately. Such optical frequency measurements may be million-fold more accurate than determining the light wavelengths using conventional spectroscopy.
More information in the Digital Story
1995 - Nobel Prize in Medicine
Prof. Dr. Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard
Max Planck Institute for Biology Tübingen, Tübingen
(*1942)
Biologist Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard received the distinction together with Edward B. Lewis and Eric F. Wieschaus for their research on the genetic control of early embryonic development. Using the egg of the fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster), Nüsslein-Volhard and Eric Wieschaus identified and classified genes that determine the body plan and the formation of body segments. They developed the gradient theory, which describes how gradients in the egg and in the embryo control the gene expression, drawing parallels in embryonic development between insects and vertebrates.
More information in the Digital Story
1995 - Nobel Prize in Chemistry
Paul Crutzen
Max Planck Institute for Chemistry, Mainz
(1933 - 2021)
The work of Paul Crutzen, Mario Molina and Sherwood Rowland in atmospheric chemistry has largely contributed to explaining the chemical processes that cause ozone to form and decompose. They demonstrated, among other things, how sensitive the ozone layer is to the anthropogenic emission of air pollutants.
More information in the Digital Story
1991 - Nobel Prize in Medicine
Prof. Dr. Erwin Neher
Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry, Göttingen
(*1944)
Prof. Dr. Bert Sakmann
Max Planck Institute for Medical Research, Heidelberg
(*1942)
Erwin Neher and Bert Sakmann were awarded the Nobel Prize “for their discoveries concerning the function of single ion channels in cells”. They were the first to prove that the cell envelope contains tiny ion channels which regulate many functions in the body. Sakmann and Neher developed the Patch Clamp Technique, which they used to study electric signals and the opening and closing of excitable cells, as well as to explore the transmission of signals within the cell and between cells.
More information (Erwin Neher) in the Digital Story
More information (Bert Sakmann) in the Digital Story
1988 - Nobel Prize in Chemistry
Prof. Dr. Robert Huber
Max Planck Institute of Biochemistry, Martinsried
(*1937)
Prof. Dr. Hartmut Michel
Max Planck Institute of Biophysics, Frankfurt am Main
(*1948)
Johann Deisenhofer
(*1943)
In 1988, Robert Huber, Hartmut Michel and Johann Deisenhofer were awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their joint studies and determination of the three-dimensional structure of a photosynthetic reaction centre. This allowed them to gain fundamental insights about photosynthesis – a process that is a condition for life on earth. The scientists were the first to succeed in unravelling the makeup of a membrane-bound protein, revealing the structure of the molecule, atom by atom. The protein is taken from a bacterium which, like green plants and algae, uses light energy from the sun to build organic substances.
More information (Robert Huber) in the Digital Story
More information (Hartmut Michel) in the Digital Story
More information (Johann Deisenhofer) in the Digital Story
1986 - Nobel Prize in Physics
Ernst Ruska
Fritz Haber Institute of the Max Planck Society, Berlin
(1906-1988)
One half of the 1986 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to Ernst Ruska for his “fundamental work in electron optics and for the design of the first electron microscope” (the other half was awarded jointly to Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer, IBM Research Laboratory, Zurich, Switzerland, for their design of the scanning tunnelling microscope). Ernst Ruska’s invention is one of the most important of this century. Its development began with work carried out by Ruska as a young student at the Berlin Technical University at the end of the 1920s. He found that a magnetic coil could act as a lens that could be used to obtain an image of an object irradiated with electrons. By coupling two such electron lenses, he produced a primitive microscope. Ruska very quickly improved various details and in 1933 was able to construct the first electron microscope with a performance clearly superior to that of conventional light microscopes. The scientist subsequently contributed actively to the development of commercial mass-produced electron microscopes which rapidly found application within many areas of science.
More information in the Digital Story
1985 - Nobel Prize in Physics
Klaus von Klitzing
Max Planck Institute for Solid State Research, Stuttgart
(*1943)
Klaus von Klitzing was awarded the Nobel Prize for the discovery of the “quantised Hall effect”. He discovered that the unit for electric resistance (ohm) is accurately determined by Planck’s energy quantum h and the charge of the electrons e, and therefore constitutes a universal natural constant. The von Klitzing constant is a universal standard and highly accurate means of measuring resistance.
More information in the Digital Story
1973 - Nobel Prize in Medicine
Konrad Lorenz
(1903-1989)
Konrad Lorenz, Karl von Frisch and Nikolaas Tinbergen were awarded the Nobel Prize jointly “for their discoveries concerning the organisation and elicitation of individual and social behaviour patterns”. Lorenz combined his observations of animals in a concise physiological theory of instinctive activities, thereby paving the way for comparing the behaviour of different species. More consistently than scientists before him, Lorenz focused on two genetic particularities in his work: innate triggers of behaviour patterns (“key stimuli” and “innate releasing mechanisms”) and an early critical period of development in various animal species, in which an “imprinting process” elicits an irreversible behaviour pattern.
More information in the Digital Story
1967 - Nobel Prize in Chemistry
Manfred Eigen
(1927 - 2019)
Manfred Eigen shared the Nobel Prize with Ronald George Wreyford Norrish and George Porter “for their studies of extremely fast chemical reactions, effected by disturbing the equilibrium by means of very short pulses of energy”. Eigen developed the relaxation methods for the study of faster reactions in the range of nanoseconds. The common characteristic of this method is that a chemical system in equilibrium is disturbed by singular (pressure, temperature, electromagnetic field) or periodic (sound waves) fast influences. This will cause small changes in concentration which vanish (comparatively slowly, given their smallness) as the equilibrium is re-established. Eigen developed these relaxation measurements to unsurpassed mastery and thus solved important questions in biochemistry, such as that of the control of enzymatic activities, which in turn regulate many metabolic processes in the cell.
More information in the Digital Story
1964 - Nobel Prize in Medicine
Feodor Lynen
(1911-1979)
Konrad Bloch and Feodor Lynen received the Nobel Prize jointly “for their discoveries concerning the mechanism and regulation of the cholesterol and fatty acid metabolism”. By succeeding in isolating activated acetic acid (acetyl coenzyme A) in yeast, Lynen established the basis for clinical research on lipid metabolism disorders, for example in Diabetes mellitus, or in the onset of atherosclerosis.
More information in the Digital Story
1963 - Nobel Prize in Chemistry
Karl Ziegler
(1898-1973)
The Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded jointly to Karl Ziegler and Giulio Natta “for their discoveries in the field of the chemistry and technology of high polymers”. The discovery of organometallic compound catalysts made of aluminium and titanium, the Ziegler-Natta catalysts, transformed both chemistry as a science and the chemical industry and its technology. Using the catalysts, ethylene could, for the first time, be polymerised into polyethylene at atmospheric pressure. Until then, this had only been possible under extreme conditions (a pressure of 1000 at and temperatures of 200 degrees Celsius). Today, a global annual production of several billion tonnes makes polyethylene one of the most commonly used plastics. Due to its sought-after properties, it is very versatile.
More information in the Digital Story
1954 - Nobel Prize in Physics
Walther Bothe
(1891-1957)
Walther Bothe received the Nobel Prize for the coincidence method and his discoveries made therewith. He shared the prize with Max Born. The coincidence measurements proved the penetration of extraterrestrial radiation – cosmic radiation. When studying cosmic radiation, Bothe used Geiger-Müller tubes that were set up so that they only displayed a discharge if a particle passed through them linearly; this meant that it could be established from which direction the charged particles were coming. Indeed, the particles generally fell vertically towards the earth’s surface, however their incidence intensity would shrink to zero if the device was instead pointed towards the horizon. This seems logical, since particles which do not fall vertically would have to penetrate a much thicker air layer. The thicker the air layer, the fewer the particles that penetrate it – only those particles particularly rich in energy “make it through”.
More information in the Digital Story
1944 - Nobel Prize in Chemistry
Otto Hahn
Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry, Berlin (Today: Max Planck Institute for Chemistry, Mainz)
(1879–1968)
Otto Hahn received the prize “for his discovery of the fission of heavy atomic nuclei”. It was the unplanned result of a joint research project with physicist Lise Meitner to investigate radioactive decay phenomena and the possible generation of transuranics by bombarding uranium atomic nuclei with neutrons. Meitner had fled Nazi Germany a few months before the discovery in 1938. But from exile, she provided the physical explanation of the chemical measurement results of Otto Hahn and Fritz Straßmann. Otto Hahn was one of the pioneers of radiochemistry research, which began around 1900. After the Second World War and in the wake of the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, he and other Nobel Prize winners appealed to politicians to use nuclear power only for peaceful purposes. He was President of the Max Planck Society from 1948 to 1960.
More information in the Digital Story
1939 -Nobel Prize in Chemistry
Adolf Butenandt
Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Biochemistry, Berlin (Today: Max Planck Institute for Biochemistry, Martinsried)
(1903-1995)
Adolf Butenandt shares the 1939 prize “for his work on sex hormones” with Leopold Ružička. Because Adolf Hitler had forbidden Germans to accept the Nobel Prize, Butenandt did not accept the award (without prize money) until 1949. Butenandt had been working on steroid hormones since the 1920s. He isolated the sex hormones oestrone, progesterone, and androsterone and elucidated their chemical structures. His research paved the way to hormone treatments and the development of the birth control pill. After the Second World War, Adolf Butenandt left a lasting mark on the West German scientific system. He was also President of the Max Planck Society from 1960 to 1972.
More information in the Digital Story
1938 - Nobel Prize in Chemistry
Richard Kuhn
Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Medical Research, Heidelberg (Today: Max Planck Institute for Medical Research, Heidelberg)
(1900–1967)
For 1938, the prize went to biochemist Richard Kuhn for his work on carotenoids and vitamins. Like Adolf Butenandt, Kuhn did not accept the prize until 1949 because Adolf Hitler had forbidden Germans from doing so. Since the early 1930s, Kuhn had devoted himself to natural product chemistry and was able to elucidate and synthesize the structures of vitamins A and B12. Kuhn’s behaviour during National Socialism is viewed very critically today because from 1941, he participated in poison gas research and denounced his Jewish colleagues.
More information in the Digital Story
1936 - Nobel Prize in Chemistry
Peter J. W. Debye
Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics, Berlin (Today: Max Planck Institute for Physics, Munich)
(1884–1966)
Physicist Peter Debye received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for “his investigations on dipole moments as well as on the diffraction of X-rays and electrons in gases”. He was one of the pioneers of quantum mechanics and the application of this to problems in solid-state physics. Among other things, he developed the theory of substance-specific heat on crystals and investigated the thermal conductivity of crystals. To this end, he also conducted experiments near absolute zero and operated one of the first refrigeration laboratories at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics in Berlin of which he was also the Director. In 1940, Debye vacated his post because he did not want to take German citizenship (this was a condition of the Nazi regime to be allowed to continue in office as a Dutch native). He emigrated to the US, where he continued his career at Cornell University.
More information in the Digital Story
1931 - Nobel Prize in Medicine
Otto Heinrich Warburg
Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Cell Physiology, Berlin
(1883–1970)
The Nobel Commission awarded Otto Heinrich Warburg the prize “for the discovery of the nature and function of the respiratory enzyme”. They thus honoured his fundamental research on metabolic processes in plant and animal cells. In his banquet speech at the award ceremony, Warburg himself summed up the essence of his work: “Traces of a heavy metal compound transfer oxygen in living cells and thus free up the forces for what happens in the organic world”. Warburg was also interested in metabolic processes in cancer cells and developed novel standard measuring instruments for the biochemical laboratory. Although a member of a Jewish family, he was able to continue working at his Institute for cell physiology during the Nazi regime. It became the Max Planck Institute in 1953 and was closed after his death.
More information in the Digital Story
1921 - Nobel Prize in Physics
Albert Einstein
Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics, Berlin (Today: Max Planck Institute for Physics, Munich)
(1879–1955)
Albert Einstein received the prize “for his services to theoretical physics, especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect”, which he described in 1905. Contrary to the prevailing theory of James Maxwell – but in agreement with the radiation formula of Max Planck – Einstein assumed that light consisted of particles (photons) that could change the energy of electrons upon impact. This was an important step on the way to quantum mechanics.
However, Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity, which he published in 1915 as Director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics in Berlin and which made him the most famous physicist of the 20th century, was not considered for the Nobel Prize. After the National Socialists came to power, Einstein, who had already been subjected to anti-Semitic attacks for years, did not return from a trip to the US. He applied for expatriation – without notable professional colleagues showing solidarity with him. In 1949, Einstein declined an invitation to become an External Scientific Member of the Max Planck Society citing the atrocities of National Socialism and the lack of sense of guilt in Germany.
More information in the Digital Story
1918 - Nobel Prize in Chemistry
Fritz Haber
Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry, Berlin (Today: Fritz Haber Institute of the Max Planck Society)
(1868–1934)
“For the synthesis of ammonia from its elements” as they occur in the ambient air, Fritz Haber received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry at the end of the First World War. The committee paid tribute to him as a researcher who had solved the problem of the world food supply. Thanks to Haber’s process, which was brought to industrial maturity together with Carl Bosch, ammonia was now available in inexhaustible quantities. It provided the basis for the production of artificial fertilisers, the use of which revolutionized agriculture and made it many times more productive. However, Haber was also placed on the war crimes list of the victorious Allied powers in 1918 because he had developed poison gas weapons for the German troops in violation of the Hague Convention and had promoted the gas war side by side with the military. In 1933 Haber, who came from a Jewish family, resigned as Director of the Institute in protest against the new Nazi laws on the dismissal of Jews and fled to Switzerland in order to escape the National Socialists.
More information in the Digital Story
1915 - Nobel Prize in Chemistry
Richard Willstätter
Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry, Berlin (Today: Max Planck Institute for Chemistry, Mainz)
(1872–1942)
Richard Willstätter was awarded the Nobel Prize “for his studies of pigments, especially chlorophyll, in the plant kingdom”. His work provided fundamental insights into the composition of leaf and flower pigments. He identified magnesium as the central component of chlorophyll and the most important for photosynthesis. He did further work in anaesthesia, analgesics, and enzyme research. During the First World War, he developed a gas mask filter. Willstätter received a call to the University of Munich in September 1915, which he accepted in 1916. In 1924, he resigned from his professorship in protest against anti-Semitic movements at the university and emigrated to Switzerland during the Nazi regime.
More information in the Digital Story
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How Many Nobel Prizes Should Albert Einstein Have Won?
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2020-12-04T22:44:36+00:00
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How Many Nobel Prizes Should Albert Einstein Have Won?
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Everything Everywhere
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https://everything-everywhere.com/how-many-nobel-prizes-should-albert-einstein-have-won/
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Transcript
In the 120 year history of the Nobel Prize, there have been four people who have been given an award twice.
One of them is not Albert Einstein.
Yet, when you look at his list of accomplishments and the different fields of physics which he has touched, he arguably deserved more than one Nobel prize.
Join me as I play fantasy physics and try to figure out how many Nobel Prizes Albert Einstien should have won on this episode of Everything Everywhere Daily.
The history of Albert Einstein and the Nobel Prize is a rather complex one.
By the year 1920, Einstein was unquestionably the most famous scientist in the world. Yet, he had not won a Nobel Prize.
He had developed the Special and General theories of Relativity, he had set the equivalence of mass and energy in his famous E=mc2 equation, and had contributed to many other areas of physics.
His work on relativity had been nominated by many physicists over several years, but the Nobel committee never gave him a prize.
There were a bunch of reasons why Einstein was never given a Nobel Prize. Being Jewish and pacifist were big ones. The Nobel committee didn’t want to honor someone who was so outside the mainstream. The biggest reason, however, was that he was a theoretical physicist. The prize had, up until this point, primarily been given to people who proved things through experimentation.
In 1919, evidence for the General Theory of Relativity was finally found during a solar eclipse when British astronomer Arthur Stanley Eddington detected light from stars which was bent by the gravity of the sun.
Everyone figured that 1920 would be the year when Einstein finally won his Nobel Prize. Instead, the award was given to Charles Edouard Guillaume “in recognition of the service he has rendered to precision measurements in Physics by his discovery of anomalies in nickel steel alloys”.
Yeah, Guillaume was just as surprised as everyone else that he won.
Well, OK. Maybe there wasn’t enough time for the result to sink in. Surely, 1921 would be the year that Einstien would win, right?
In 1921, they gave the Nobel Prize in Physics to no one. Yeah, they decided to give it to no one, rather than give it to Einstein.
The attitude of the Nobel committee was summed up by one Allvar Gullstrand, a Swedish ophthalmologist who sat on the physics committee. In his diaries, found long after his death, he wrote of the 1921 physics prize, “Einstein must never receive a Nobel Prize, even if the whole world demands it.”
By 1922, the Nobel Committee was looking ridiculous in the eyes of the world and in the eyes of the physics community for not giving Einstein a prize.
The rules of the prize stipulate that if no one were given an award in the sciences, it would roll over to the next year. So in 1922, they could retroactively give the 1921 prize.
The committee determined that they had to give the award to Einstein to maintain their respectability in the scientific world. It was just a matter of what they were going to give it to him for. This was probably the only time in the history of the Nobel when the winner was determined before the reason for the award.
In 1922 the nominations poured in again, and again there were dozens of nominations for Einstein and the General Theory of Relativity. However, there was one nomination for Einstein which wasn’t for relativity. Carl Wilhelm Oseen, a Swedish physicist, nominated Einstein for his work in discovering the photoelectric effect.
The photoelectric effect basically holds that photons of light will have more energy at shorter wavelengths.
The committee decided to give Einstein the 1921 award, which wasn’t given out the previous year and give the 1922 award to Niels Bohr who developed the theory of the atom. By giving an award to Einstein and Bohr at the same time, it eliminated having to give one to Einstein by himself.
So Einstein won his Nobel Prize, but it explicitly was not for relativity. In fact, when he was notified by the Nobel Committee they stated:
… the Royal Academy of Sciences has decided to award you last year’s Nobel Prize for physics, in consideration of your work in theoretical physics and in particular your discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect, but without taking into account the value which will be accorded your relativity and gravitation theories after these are confirmed in the future.
They left the door open for a future prize, but none was ever given.
Einstein didn’t really care much about the prize. He didn’t attend the prize ceremony because he was lecturing in Japan. All the money he won went to his ex-wife in a previous divorce settlement. Later in his life when he was asked which honors he was more proud of, he put the German Physical Society’s Max Planck Medal first and didn’t mention the Nobel Prize at all.
Given that we now have 120 years of Nobel Prizes under our belt, it is an interesting question to ask, how many Nobel Prizes should or could Einstein have won?
For the purposes of this theoretical discussion on theoretical physics, I’ll set a few rules:
Any prize he might share with someone else will count as a prize for Einstein. After all, if you share a prize with someone, you are still considered a Nobel laureate, and you still get the medal. You only split the prize money.
The Nobel committee does not award posthumous prizes. So for the purposes of this discussion, we’ll either assume that they do, or that Einstein is now 141 years old, and that he didn’t do any more physics after 1955, which was the year he died.
Before we dive in, how many people have ever won more than one Nobel prize?
The answer is four.
They are Marie Curie, who won in Physics in 1903 and Chemistry in 1911.
Linus Pauling, who won in Chemistry in 1954 and Peace in 1962.
John Bardeen, who won in Physics in 1956 and 1972.
And Frederick Sanger, who won in Chemistry in 1958 and 1980.
So with that, let’s start the Einstein count. For this I’ll basically count any scientific contributions which were at a Nobel Prize level, based on previous awards.
Number one is of course the prize he did win for the photoelectric effect. There is an argument that the 1921 and 1922 prizes that Einstein and Bohr received were really a single shared prize for the same thing, but it makes no difference for our purposes.
Number two would be for special relativity. He developed this in 1905 and he would probably end up sharing this prize with Hendrik Lorentz who developed some of the equations for it.
Number three would be for General Relativity which he published in 1915. This was all his and he would have gotten this alone.
Number four would be sharing in the 1929 prize with Louis de Broglie, for wave-particle duality. De Broglie freely admitted Einstein’s contribution to this, but Einstein was never given credit by the Nobel Committee.
Number five would be from his 1916 paper on spontaneous emission of light from atoms. This was the first time the idea of randomness was put in quantum mechanics, and it is now a pillar of science. This paper also developed the idea of stimulated emission, which was the theoretical basis for lasers. The 1964 Nobel Prize in Physics was given for the invention of the laser.
Number six would be the work he did with Indian physicist, Satyendra Bose in developing what became known as the Bose-Einstein Condensate. This is a state of matter at extremely low temperatures. The 2001 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded for proving and creating a Bose-Einstein Condensate, and Bose also never received a Nobel Prize.
Number seven would be for figuring out Browning Motion. The 1926 prize in physics was given to Jean Baptiste Perrin for experimentally proving the theory which Einstein established in 1905.
A possible eight prize could have been given for his work with quantum entanglement. The theoretical basis was set by Einstein, Boris Podolsky, and Nathan Rosen. They published a paper in 1935 titled “Can Quantum-Mechanical Description of Physical Reality be Considered Complete?”. This was the theoretical basis that led to the 2012 Nobel Prize.
A possible ninth prize could be a share of the 1933 prize which went to Erwin Schrödinger. Einstein was involved in the creation of Schrödinger’s equations and contributed enough to jointly share in the prize.
A possible tenth prize could be his theory of gravity waves, which was finally proven true and awarded a Nobel prize in 2017.
So far we are at ten, and these are just things which actually did win Nobel Prizes, for which Einstein played a major part in the development of the theories which made winning the prize possible for someone else, or for his theories of relativity, which were obviously overlooked and ignored by the committee.
There is an 11th thing for which he could have won a prize for which is often overlooked. Peace. In his later years, Einstein was a big advocate for nuclear disarmament. Given his role in the development of the atomic bomb, he felt it was his duty.
Given that Chemist Linus Pauling won a peace prize in 1962 for basically the same thing, and Einstein was far more famous and influential, it is not at all out of the question that he could have shared the 1962 Nobel Peace Prize if he had lived that long.
So, 11 theoretical Nobel Prizes isn’t too shabby.
It is hard to overstate the impact Einstein had on almost every area of physics in the 20th century.
Yet, believe it or not, Einstein might not be the greatest of all time in physics. I’ll investigate that in a future episode when I dish out the theoretical Nobel prizes for one Isaac Newton.
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Albert Einstein
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein
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German-born physicist (1879–1955)
"Einstein" redirects here. For other uses, see Einstein (disambiguation) and Albert Einstein (disambiguation).
Albert Einstein ( EYEN-styne;[4] German: [ˈalbɛɐt ˈʔaɪnʃtaɪn] ⓘ; 14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist who is widely held as one of the most influential scientists. Best known for developing the theory of relativity, Einstein also made important contributions to quantum mechanics.[1][5] His mass–energy equivalence formula E = mc2, which arises from relativity theory, has been called "the world's most famous equation".[6] He received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect",[7] a pivotal step in the development of quantum theory. His intellectual achievements and originality have made the word Einstein broadly synonymous with genius.[8]
Born in the German Empire, Einstein moved to Switzerland in 1895, forsaking his German citizenship (as a subject of the Kingdom of Württemberg)[note 1] the following year. In 1897, at the age of seventeen, he enrolled in the mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at the Swiss federal polytechnic school in Zürich, graduating in 1900. In 1901, he acquired Swiss citizenship, which he kept for the rest of his life. In 1903, he secured a permanent position at the Swiss Patent Office in Bern. In 1905, he submitted a successful PhD dissertation to the University of Zurich. In 1914, he moved to Berlin in order to join the Prussian Academy of Sciences and the Humboldt University of Berlin. In 1917, he became director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics; he also became a German citizen again, this time as a subject of the Kingdom of Prussia.[note 1] In 1933, while he was visiting the United States, Adolf Hitler came to power in Germany. Horrified by the Nazi war of extermination against his fellow Jews,[9] Einstein decided to remain in the US, and was granted American citizenship in 1940.[10] On the eve of World War II, he endorsed a letter to President Franklin D. Roosevelt alerting him to the potential German nuclear weapons program and recommended that the US begin similar research. Einstein supported the Allies but generally viewed the idea of nuclear weapons with great dismay.[11]
Einstein's work is also known for its influence on the philosophy of science.[12][13] In 1905, he published four groundbreaking papers, sometimes described as his annus mirabilis (miracle year). These papers outlined a theory of the photoelectric effect, explained brownian motion, introduced his special theory of relativity—a theory which addressed the inability of classical mechanics to account satisfactorily for the behavior of the electromagnetic field—and demonstrated that if the special theory is correct, mass and energy are equivalent to each other. In 1915, he proposed a general theory of relativity that extended his system of mechanics to incorporate gravitation. A cosmological paper that he published the following year laid out the implications of general relativity for the modeling of the structure and evolution of the universe as a whole.[15][16]
In the middle part of his career, Einstein made important contributions to statistical mechanics and quantum theory. Especially notable was his work on the quantum physics of radiation, in which light consists of particles, subsequently called photons. With the Indian physicist Satyendra Nath Bose, he laid the groundwork for Bose-Einstein statistics. For much of the last phase of his academic life, Einstein worked on two endeavors that proved ultimately unsuccessful. First, he advocated against quantum theory's introduction of fundamental randomness into science's picture of the world, objecting that "God does not play dice".[17] Second, he attempted to devise a unified field theory by generalizing his geometric theory of gravitation to include electromagnetism too. As a result, he became increasingly isolated from the mainstream modern physics. In a 1999 poll of 130 leading physicists worldwide by the British journal Physics World, Einstein was ranked top among physicists for making the most important contributions to physics.[18]
Life and career
Childhood, youth and education
See also: Einstein family
Albert Einstein was born in Ulm,[19] in the Kingdom of Württemberg in the German Empire, on 14 March 1879.[20][21] His parents, secular Ashkenazi Jews, were Hermann Einstein, a salesman and engineer, and Pauline Koch. In 1880, the family moved to Munich's borough of Ludwigsvorstadt-Isarvorstadt, where Einstein's father and his uncle Jakob founded Elektrotechnische Fabrik J. Einstein & Cie, a company that manufactured electrical equipment based on direct current.[19]
Albert attended St. Peter‘s Catholic elementary school in Munich from the age of five. When he was eight, he was transferred to the Luitpold Gymnasium, where he received advanced primary and then secondary school education.
In 1894, Hermann and Jakob's company tendered for a contract to install electric lighting in Munich, but without success—they lacked the capital that would have been required to update their technology from direct current to the more efficient, alternating current alternative.[23] The failure of their bid forced them to sell their Munich factory and search for new opportunities elsewhere. The Einstein family moved to Italy, first to Milan and a few months later to Pavia, where they settled in Palazzo Cornazzani.[24] Einstein, then fifteen, stayed behind in Munich in order to finish his schooling. His father wanted him to study electrical engineering, but he was a fractious pupil who found the Gymnasium's regimen and teaching methods far from congenial. He later wrote that the school's policy of strict rote learning was harmful to creativity. At the end of December 1894, a letter from a doctor persuaded the Luitpold's authorities to release him from its care, and he joined his family in Pavia. While in Italy as a teenager, he wrote an essay entitled "On the Investigation of the State of the Ether in a Magnetic Field".[27]
Einstein excelled at physics and mathematics from an early age, and soon acquired the mathematical expertise normally only found in a child several years his senior. He began teaching himself algebra, calculus and Euclidean geometry when he was twelve; he made such rapid progress that he discovered an original proof of the Pythagorean theorem before his thirteenth birthday.[28][30] A family tutor, Max Talmud, said that only a short time after he had given the twelve year old Einstein a geometry textbook, the boy "had worked through the whole book. He thereupon devoted himself to higher mathematics ... Soon the flight of his mathematical genius was so high I could not follow." Einstein recorded that he had "mastered integral and differential calculus" while still just fourteen. His love of algebra and geometry was so great that at twelve, he was already confident that nature could be understood as a "mathematical structure".
At thirteen, when his range of enthusiasms had broadened to include music and philosophy, Talmud introduced Einstein to Kant's Critique of Pure Reason. Kant became his favorite philosopher; according to Talmud, "At the time he was still a child, only thirteen years old, yet Kant's works, incomprehensible to ordinary mortals, seemed to be clear to him."
In 1895, at the age of sixteen, Einstein sat the entrance examination for the federal polytechnic school (later the Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule, ETH) in Zürich, Switzerland. He failed to reach the required standard in the general part of the test, but performed with distinction in physics and mathematics. On the advice of the polytechnic's principal, he completed his secondary education at the Argovian cantonal school (a gymnasium) in Aarau, Switzerland, graduating in 1896.[35] While lodging in Aarau with the family of Jost Winteler, he fell in love with Winteler's daughter, Marie. (His sister, Maja, later married Winteler's son Paul. )
In January 1896, with his father's approval, Einstein renounced his citizenship of the German Kingdom of Württemberg in order to avoid conscription into military service. The Matura (graduation for the successful completion of higher secondary schooling), awarded to him in September 1896, acknowledged him to have performed well across most of the curriculum, allotting him a top grade of 6 for history, physics, algebra, geometry, and descriptive geometry. At seventeen, he enrolled in the four-year mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at the federal polytechnic school. Marie Winteler, a year older than him, took up a teaching post in Olsberg, Switzerland.
The five other polytechnic school freshmen following the same course as Einstein included just one woman, a twenty year old Serbian, Mileva Marić. Over the next few years, the pair spent many hours discussing their shared interests and learning about topics in physics that the polytechnic school's lectures did not cover. In his letters to Marić, Einstein confessed that exploring science with her by his side was much more enjoyable than reading a textbook in solitude. Eventually the two students became not only friends but also lovers.[39]
Historians of physics are divided on the question of the extent to which Marić contributed to the insights of Einstein's annus mirabilis publications. There is at least some evidence that he was influenced by her scientific ideas,[39][40][41] but there are scholars who doubt whether her impact on his thought was of any great significance at all.[43][45]
Marriages, relationships and children
Correspondence between Einstein and Marić, discovered and published in 1987, revealed that in early 1902, while Marić was visiting her parents in Novi Sad, she gave birth to a daughter, Lieserl. When Marić returned to Switzerland it was without the child, whose fate is uncertain. A letter of Einstein's that he wrote in September 1903 suggests that the girl was either given up for adoption or died of scarlet fever in infancy.[46]
Einstein and Marić married in January 1903. In May 1904, their son Hans Albert was born in Bern, Switzerland. Their son Eduard was born in Zürich in July 1910. In letters that Einstein wrote to Marie Winteler in the months before Eduard's arrival, he described his love for his wife as "misguided" and mourned the "missed life" that he imagined he would have enjoyed if he had married Winteler instead: "I think of you in heartfelt love every spare minute and am so unhappy as only a man can be."[48]
In 1912, Einstein entered into a relationship with Elsa Löwenthal, who was both his first cousin on his mother's side and his second cousin on his father's.[50] When Marić learned of his infidelity soon after moving to Berlin with him in April 1914, she returned to Zürich, taking Hans Albert and Eduard with her.[39] Einstein and Marić were granted a divorce on 14 February 1919 on the grounds of having lived apart for five years.[52] As part of the divorce settlement, Einstein agreed that if he were to win a Nobel Prize, he would give the money that he received to Marić; he won the prize two years later.[54]
Einstein married Löwenthal in 1919. In 1923, he began a relationship with a secretary named Betty Neumann, the niece of his close friend Hans Mühsam.[57][58][59][60] Löwenthal nevertheless remained loyal to him, accompanying him when he emigrated to the United States in 1933. In 1935, she was diagnosed with heart and kidney problems. She died in December 1936.
A volume of Einstein's letters released by Hebrew University of Jerusalem in 2006[62] added further names to the catalog of women with whom he was romantically involved. They included Margarete Lebach (a married Austrian),[63] Estella Katzenellenbogen (the rich owner of a florist business), Toni Mendel (a wealthy Jewish widow) and Ethel Michanowski (a Berlin socialite), with whom he spent time and from whom he accepted gifts while married to Löwenthal.[64][65] After being widowed, Einstein was briefly in a relationship with Margarita Konenkova, thought by some to be a Russian spy; her husband, the Russian sculptor Sergei Konenkov, created the bronze bust of Einstein at the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton.[66][67]
Following an episode of acute mental illness at about the age of twenty, Einstein's son Eduard was diagnosed with schizophrenia.[68] He spent the remainder of his life either in the care of his mother or in temporary confinement in an asylum. After her death, he was committed permanently to Burghölzli, the Psychiatric University Hospital in Zürich.
1902–1909: Assistant at the Swiss Patent Office
Einstein graduated from the federal polytechnic school in 1900, duly certified as competent to teach mathematics and physics. His successful acquisition of Swiss citizenship in February 1901 was not followed by the usual sequel of conscription; the Swiss authorities deemed him medically unfit for military service. He found that Swiss schools too appeared to have no use for him, failing to offer him a teaching position despite the almost two years that he spent applying for one. Eventually it was with the help of Marcel Grossmann's father that he secured a post in Bern at the Swiss Patent Office,[72] as an assistant examiner – level III.[74][75]
Patent applications that landed on Einstein's desk for his evaluation included ideas for a gravel sorter and an electric typewriter.[75] His employers were pleased enough with his work to make his position permanent in 1903, although they did not think that he should be promoted until he had "fully mastered machine technology". It is conceivable that his labors at the patent office had a bearing on his development of his special theory of relativity. He arrived at his revolutionary ideas about space, time and light through thought experiments about the transmission of signals and the synchronization of clocks, matters which also figured in some of the inventions submitted to him for assessment.
In 1902, Einstein and some friends whom he had met in Bern formed a group that held regular meetings to discuss science and philosophy. Their choice of a name for their club, the Olympia Academy, was an ironic comment upon its far from Olympian status. Sometimes they were joined by Marić, who limited her participation in their proceedings to careful listening. The thinkers whose works they reflected upon included Henri Poincaré, Ernst Mach and David Hume, all of whom significantly influenced Einstein's own subsequent ideas and beliefs.
1900–1905: First scientific papers
Einstein's first paper, "Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen" ("Conclusions drawn from the phenomena of capillarity"), in which he proposed a model of intermolecular attraction that he afterwards disavowed as worthless, was published in the journal Annalen der Physik in 1901.[80] His 24-page doctoral dissertation also addressed a topic in molecular physics. Titled "Eine neue Bestimmung der Moleküldimensionen" ("A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions") and dedicated to his friend Marcel Grossman, it was completed on 30 April 1905 and approved by Professor Alfred Kleiner of the University of Zurich three months later. (Einstein was formally awarded his PhD on 15 January 1906.)[83] Four other pieces of work that Einstein completed in 1905—his famous papers on the photoelectric effect, Brownian motion, his special theory of relativity and the equivalence of mass and energy—have led to the year being celebrated as an annus mirabilis for physics akin to 1666 (the year in which Isaac Newton experienced his greatest epiphanies). The publications deeply impressed Einstein's contemporaries.[84]
1908–1933: Early academic career
Einstein's sabbatical as a civil servant approached its end in 1908, when he secured a junior teaching position at the University of Bern. In 1909, a lecture on relativistic electrodynamics that he gave at the University of Zurich, much admired by Alfred Kleiner, led to Zürich's luring him away from Bern with a newly created associate professorship.[85] Promotion to a full professorship followed in April 1911, when he accepted a chair at the German Charles-Ferdinand University in Prague, a move which required him to become an Austrian citizen of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.[87] His time in Prague saw him producing eleven research papers.[88]
In July 1912, he returned to his alma mater, the ETH Zurich, to take up a chair in theoretical physics. His teaching activities there centred on thermodynamics and analytical mechanics, and his research interests included the molecular theory of heat, continuum mechanics and the development of a relativistic theory of gravitation. In his work on the latter topic, he was assisted by his friend, Marcel Grossmann, whose knowledge of the kind of mathematics required was greater than his own.[89]
In the spring of 1913, two German visitors, Max Planck and Walther Nernst, called upon Einstein in Zürich in the hope of persuading him to relocate to Berlin. They offered him membership of the Prussian Academy of Sciences, the directorship of the planned Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics and a chair at the Humboldt University of Berlin that would allow him to pursue his research supported by a professorial salary but with no teaching duties to burden him.[50] Their invitation was all the more appealing to him because Berlin happened to be the home of his latest girlfriend, Elsa Löwenthal. He duly joined the Academy on 24 July 1913,[91] and moved into an apartment in the Berlin district of Dahlem on 1 April 1914.[50] He was installed in his Humboldt University position shortly thereafter.[91]
The outbreak of the First World War in July 1914 marked the beginning of Einstein's gradual estrangement from the nation of his birth. When the "Manifesto of the Ninety-Three" was published in October 1914—a document signed by a host of prominent German thinkers that justified Germany's belligerence—Einstein was one of the few German intellectuals to distance himself from it and sign the alternative, eirenic "Manifesto to the Europeans" instead. However, this expression of his doubts about German policy did not prevent him from being elected to a two-year term as president of the German Physical Society in 1916. When the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics opened its doors the following year—its foundation delayed because of the war—Einstein was appointed its first director, just as Planck and Nernst had promised.[95]
Einstein was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1920,[96] and a Foreign Member of the Royal Society in 1921. In 1922, he was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect".[7] At this point some physicists still regarded the general theory of relativity sceptically, and the Nobel citation displayed a degree of doubt even about the work on photoelectricity that it acknowledged: it did not assent to Einstein's notion of the particulate nature of light, which only won over the entire scientific community when S. N. Bose derived the Planck spectrum in 1924. That same year, Einstein was elected an International Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.[97] Britain's closest equivalent of the Nobel award, the Royal Society's Copley Medal, was not hung around Einstein's neck until 1925.[1] He was elected an International Member of the American Philosophical Society in 1930.[98]
Einstein resigned from the Prussian Academy in March 1933. His accomplishments in Berlin had included the completion of the general theory of relativity, proving the Einstein–de Haas effect, contributing to the quantum theory of radiation, and the development of Bose–Einstein statistics.[50]
1919: Putting general relativity to the test
In 1907, Einstein reached a milestone on his long journey from his special theory of relativity to a new idea of gravitation with the formulation of his equivalence principle, which asserts that an observer in an infinitesimally small box falling freely in a gravitational field would be unable to find any evidence that the field exists. In 1911, he used the principle to estimate the amount by which a ray of light from a distant star would be bent by the gravitational pull of the Sun as it passed close to the Sun's photosphere (that is, the Sun's apparent surface). He reworked his calculation in 1913, having now found a way to model gravitation with the Riemann curvature tensor of a non-Euclidean four-dimensional spacetime. By the fall of 1915, his reimagining of the mathematics of gravitation in terms of Riemannian geometry was complete, and he applied his new theory not just to the behavior of the Sun as a gravitational lens but also to another astronomical phenomenon, the precession of the perihelion of Mercury (a slow drift in the point in Mercury's elliptical orbit at which it approaches the Sun most closely).[50][100] A total eclipse of the Sun that took place on 29 May 1919 provided an opportunity to put his theory of gravitational lensing to the test, and observations performed by Sir Arthur Eddington yielded results that were consistent with his calculations. Eddington's work was reported at length in newspapers around the world. On 7 November 1919, for example, the leading British newspaper, The Times, printed a banner headline that read: "Revolution in Science – New Theory of the Universe – Newtonian Ideas Overthrown".[101]
1921–1923: Coming to terms with fame
With Eddington's eclipse observations widely reported not just in academic journals but by the popular press as well, Einstein became "perhaps the world's first celebrity scientist", a genius who had shattered a paradigm that had been basic to physicists' understanding of the universe since the seventeenth century.[102]
Einstein began his new life as an intellectual icon in America, where he arrived on 2 April 1921. He was welcomed to New York City by Mayor John Francis Hylan, and then spent three weeks giving lectures and attending receptions.[103] He spoke several times at Columbia University and Princeton, and in Washington, he visited the White House with representatives of the National Academy of Sciences. He returned to Europe via London, where he was the guest of the philosopher and statesman Viscount Haldane. He used his time in the British capital to meet several people prominent in British scientific, political or intellectual life, and to deliver a lecture at King's College. In July 1921, he published an essay, "My First Impression of the U.S.A.", in which he sought to sketch the American character, much as had Alexis de Tocqueville in Democracy in America (1835).[106] He wrote of his transatlantic hosts in highly approving terms: "What strikes a visitor is the joyous, positive attitude to life ... The American is friendly, self-confident, optimistic, and without envy."
In 1922, Einstein's travels were to the old world rather than the new. He devoted six months to a tour of Asia that saw him speaking in Japan, Singapore and Sri Lanka (then known as Ceylon). After his first public lecture in Tokyo, he met Emperor Yoshihito and his wife at the Imperial Palace, with thousands of spectators thronging the streets in the hope of catching a glimpse of him. (In a letter to his sons, he wrote that Japanese people seemed to him to be generally modest, intelligent and considerate, and to have a true appreciation of art. But his picture of them in his diary was less flattering: "[the] intellectual needs of this nation seem to be weaker than their artistic ones – natural disposition?" His journal also contains views of China and India which were uncomplimentary. Of Chinese people, he wrote that "even the children are spiritless and look obtuse... It would be a pity if these Chinese supplant all other races. For the likes of us the mere thought is unspeakably dreary".[109][110]) He was greeted with even greater enthusiasm on the last leg of his tour, in which he spent twelve days in Mandatory Palestine, newly entrusted to British rule by the League of Nations in the aftermath of the First World War. Sir Herbert Samuel, the British High Commissioner, welcomed him with a degree of ceremony normally only accorded to a visiting head of state, including a cannon salute. One reception held in his honor was stormed by people determined to hear him speak: he told them that he was happy that Jews were beginning to be recognized as a force in the world.
Einstein's decision to tour the eastern hemisphere in 1922 meant that he was unable to go to Stockholm in the December of that year to participate in the Nobel prize ceremony. His place at the traditional Nobel banquet was taken by a German diplomat, who gave a speech praising him not only as a physicist but also as a campaigner for peace.[112] A two-week visit to Spain that he undertook in 1923 saw him collecting another award, a membership of the Spanish Academy of Sciences signified by a diploma handed to him by King Alfonso XIII. (His Spanish trip also gave him a chance to meet a fellow Nobel laureate, the neuroanatomist Santiago Ramón y Cajal.)[113]
1922–1932: Serving the League of Nations
From 1922 until 1932, with the exception of a few months in 1923 and 1924, Einstein was a member of the Geneva-based International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation of the League of Nations, a group set up by the League to encourage scientists, artists, scholars, teachers and other people engaged in the life of the mind to work more closely with their counterparts in other countries.[114][115] He was appointed as a German delegate rather than as a representative of Switzerland because of the machinations of two Catholic activists, Oskar Halecki and Giuseppe Motta. By persuading Secretary General Eric Drummond to deny Einstein the place on the committee reserved for a Swiss thinker, they created an opening for Gonzague de Reynold, who used his League of Nations position as a platform from which to promote traditional Catholic doctrine.[116] Einstein's former physics professor Hendrik Lorentz and the Polish chemist Marie Curie were also members of the committee.[117]
1925: Touring South America
In March and April 1925, Einstein and his wife visited South America, where they spent about a week in Brazil, a week in Uruguay and a month in Argentina.[118] Their tour was suggested by Jorge Duclout (1856–1927) and Mauricio Nirenstein (1877–1935)[119] with the support of several Argentine scholars, including Julio Rey Pastor, Jakob Laub, and Leopoldo Lugones. and was financed primarily by the Council of the University of Buenos Aires and the Asociación Hebraica Argentina (Argentine Hebraic Association) with a smaller contribution from the Argentine-Germanic Cultural Institution.[120]
1930–1931: Touring the US
In December 1930, Einstein began another significant sojourn in the United States, drawn back to the US by the offer of a two month research fellowship at the California Institute of Technology. Caltech supported him in his wish that he should not be exposed to quite as much attention from the media as he had experienced when visiting the US in 1921, and he therefore declined all the invitations to receive prizes or make speeches that his admirers poured down upon him. But he remained willing to allow his fans at least some of the time with him that they requested.
After arriving in New York City, Einstein was taken to various places and events, including Chinatown, a lunch with the editors of The New York Times, and a performance of Carmen at the Metropolitan Opera, where he was cheered by the audience on his arrival. During the days following, he was given the keys to the city by Mayor Jimmy Walker and met Nicholas Murray Butler, the president of Columbia University, who described Einstein as "the ruling monarch of the mind". Harry Emerson Fosdick, pastor at New York's Riverside Church, gave Einstein a tour of the church and showed him a full-size statue that the church made of Einstein, standing at the entrance. Also during his stay in New York, he joined a crowd of 15,000 people at Madison Square Garden during a Hanukkah celebration.
Einstein next traveled to California, where he met Caltech president and Nobel laureate Robert A. Millikan. His friendship with Millikan was "awkward", as Millikan "had a penchant for patriotic militarism", where Einstein was a pronounced pacifist. During an address to Caltech's students, Einstein noted that science was often inclined to do more harm than good.
This aversion to war also led Einstein to befriend author Upton Sinclair and film star Charlie Chaplin, both noted for their pacifism. Carl Laemmle, head of Universal Studios, gave Einstein a tour of his studio and introduced him to Chaplin. They had an instant rapport, with Chaplin inviting Einstein and his wife, Elsa, to his home for dinner. Chaplin said Einstein's outward persona, calm and gentle, seemed to conceal a "highly emotional temperament", from which came his "extraordinary intellectual energy".
Chaplin's film City Lights was to premiere a few days later in Hollywood, and Chaplin invited Einstein and Elsa to join him as his special guests. Walter Isaacson, Einstein's biographer, described this as "one of the most memorable scenes in the new era of celebrity". Chaplin visited Einstein at his home on a later trip to Berlin and recalled his "modest little flat" and the piano at which he had begun writing his theory. Chaplin speculated that it was "possibly used as kindling wood by the Nazis".
1933: Emigration to the US
In February 1933, while on a visit to the United States, Einstein knew he could not return to Germany with the rise to power of the Nazis under Germany's new chancellor, Adolf Hitler.
While at American universities in early 1933, he undertook his third two-month visiting professorship at the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena. In February and March 1933, the Gestapo repeatedly raided his family's apartment in Berlin.[129] He and his wife Elsa returned to Europe in March, and during the trip, they learned that the German Reichstag had passed the Enabling Act on 23 March, transforming Hitler's government into a de facto legal dictatorship, and that they would not be able to proceed to Berlin. Later on, they heard that their cottage had been raided by the Nazis and Einstein's personal sailboat confiscated. Upon landing in Antwerp, Belgium on 28 March, Einstein immediately went to the German consulate and surrendered his passport, formally renouncing his German citizenship. The Nazis later sold his boat and converted his cottage into a Hitler Youth camp.[131]
Refugee status
In April 1933, Einstein discovered that the new German government had passed laws barring Jews from holding any official positions, including teaching at universities. Historian Gerald Holton describes how, with "virtually no audible protest being raised by their colleagues", thousands of Jewish scientists were suddenly forced to give up their university positions and their names were removed from the rolls of institutions where they were employed.
A month later, Einstein's works were among those targeted by the German Student Union in the Nazi book burnings, with Nazi propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels proclaiming, "Jewish intellectualism is dead." One German magazine included him in a list of enemies of the German regime with the phrase, "not yet hanged", offering a $5,000 bounty on his head.[133] In a subsequent letter to physicist and friend Max Born, who had already emigrated from Germany to England, Einstein wrote, "... I must confess that the degree of their brutality and cowardice came as something of a surprise." After moving to the US, he described the book burnings as a "spontaneous emotional outburst" by those who "shun popular enlightenment", and "more than anything else in the world, fear the influence of men of intellectual independence".
Einstein was now without a permanent home, unsure where he would live and work, and equally worried about the fate of countless other scientists still in Germany. Aided by the Academic Assistance Council, founded in April 1933 by British Liberal politician William Beveridge to help academics escape Nazi persecution, Einstein was able to leave Germany.[135] He rented a house in De Haan, Belgium, where he lived for a few months. In late July 1933, he visited England for about six weeks at the invitation of the British Member of Parliament Commander Oliver Locker-Lampson, who had become friends with him in the preceding years.[136] Locker-Lampson invited him to stay near his Cromer home in a secluded wooden cabin on Roughton Heath in the Parish of Roughton, Norfolk. To protect Einstein, Locker-Lampson had two bodyguards watch over him; a photo of them carrying shotguns and guarding Einstein was published in the Daily Herald on 24 July 1933.[138]
Locker-Lampson took Einstein to meet Winston Churchill at his home, and later, Austen Chamberlain and former Prime Minister Lloyd George. Einstein asked them to help bring Jewish scientists out of Germany. British historian Martin Gilbert notes that Churchill responded immediately, and sent his friend, physicist Frederick Lindemann, to Germany to seek out Jewish scientists and place them in British universities.[140] Churchill later observed that as a result of Germany having driven the Jews out, they had lowered their "technical standards" and put the Allies' technology ahead of theirs.[140]
Einstein later contacted leaders of other nations, including Turkey's Prime Minister, İsmet İnönü, to whom he wrote in September 1933 requesting placement of unemployed German-Jewish scientists. As a result of Einstein's letter, Jewish invitees to Turkey eventually totaled over "1,000 saved individuals".[141]
Locker-Lampson also submitted a bill to parliament to extend British citizenship to Einstein, during which period Einstein made a number of public appearances describing the crisis brewing in Europe. In one of his speeches he denounced Germany's treatment of Jews, while at the same time he introduced a bill promoting Jewish citizenship in Palestine, as they were being denied citizenship elsewhere.[143] In his speech he described Einstein as a "citizen of the world" who should be offered a temporary shelter in the UK.[note 3][144] Both bills failed, however, and Einstein then accepted an earlier offer from the Institute for Advanced Study, in Princeton, New Jersey, US, to become a resident scholar.
Resident scholar at the Institute for Advanced Study
On 3 October 1933, Einstein delivered a speech on the importance of academic freedom before a packed audience at the Royal Albert Hall in London, with The Times reporting he was wildly cheered throughout.[135] Four days later he returned to the US and took up a position at the Institute for Advanced Study, noted for having become a refuge for scientists fleeing Nazi Germany.[146] At the time, most American universities, including Harvard, Princeton and Yale, had minimal or no Jewish faculty or students, as a result of their Jewish quotas, which lasted until the late 1940s.[146]
Einstein was still undecided on his future. He had offers from several European universities, including Christ Church, Oxford, where he stayed for three short periods between May 1931 and June 1933 and was offered a five-year research fellowship (called a "studentship" at Christ Church),[147][148] but in 1935, he arrived at the decision to remain permanently in the United States and apply for citizenship.
Einstein's affiliation with the Institute for Advanced Study would last until his death in 1955.[150] He was one of the four first selected (along with John von Neumann, Kurt Gödel, and Hermann Weyl[151]) at the new Institute. He soon developed a close friendship with Gödel; the two would take long walks together discussing their work. Bruria Kaufman, his assistant, later became a physicist. During this period, Einstein tried to develop a unified field theory and to refute the accepted interpretation of quantum physics, both unsuccessfully. He lived in Princeton at his home from 1935 onwards. The Albert Einstein House was made a National Historic Landmark in 1976.
World War II and the Manhattan Project
See also: Einstein–Szilárd letter
In 1939, a group of Hungarian scientists that included émigré physicist Leó Szilárd attempted to alert Washington to ongoing Nazi atomic bomb research. The group's warnings were discounted. Einstein and Szilárd, along with other refugees such as Edward Teller and Eugene Wigner, "regarded it as their responsibility to alert Americans to the possibility that German scientists might win the race to build an atomic bomb, and to warn that Hitler would be more than willing to resort to such a weapon."[153] To make certain the US was aware of the danger, in July 1939, a few months before the beginning of World War II in Europe, Szilárd and Wigner visited Einstein to explain the possibility of atomic bombs, which Einstein, a pacifist, said he had never considered.[154] He was asked to lend his support by writing a letter, with Szilárd, to President Roosevelt, recommending the US pay attention and engage in its own nuclear weapons research.
The letter is believed to be "arguably the key stimulus for the U.S. adoption of serious investigations into nuclear weapons on the eve of the U.S. entry into World War II".[155] In addition to the letter, Einstein used his connections with the Belgian royal family[156] and the Belgian queen mother to get access with a personal envoy to the White House's Oval Office. Some say that as a result of Einstein's letter and his meetings with Roosevelt, the US entered the "race" to develop the bomb, drawing on its "immense material, financial, and scientific resources" to initiate the Manhattan Project.
For Einstein, "war was a disease ... [and] he called for resistance to war." By signing the letter to Roosevelt, some argue he went against his pacifist principles.[157] In 1954, a year before his death, Einstein said to his old friend, Linus Pauling, "I made one great mistake in my life—when I signed the letter to President Roosevelt recommending that atom bombs be made; but there was some justification—the danger that the Germans would make them ..." In 1955, Einstein and ten other intellectuals and scientists, including British philosopher Bertrand Russell, signed a manifesto highlighting the danger of nuclear weapons.[159] In 1960 Einstein was included posthumously as a charter member of the World Academy of Art and Science (WAAS),[160] an organization founded by distinguished scientists and intellectuals who committed themselves to the responsible and ethical advances of science, particularly in light of the development of nuclear weapons.
US citizenship
Einstein became an American citizen in 1940. Not long after settling into his career at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, he expressed his appreciation of the meritocracy in American culture compared to Europe. He recognized the "right of individuals to say and think what they pleased" without social barriers. As a result, individuals were encouraged, he said, to be more creative, a trait he valued from his early education.
Einstein joined the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in Princeton, where he campaigned for the civil rights of African Americans. He considered racism America's "worst disease",[133][162] seeing it as "handed down from one generation to the next". As part of his involvement, he corresponded with civil rights activist W. E. B. Du Bois and was prepared to testify on his behalf during his trial as an alleged foreign agent in 1951. When Einstein offered to be a character witness for Du Bois, the judge decided to drop the case.[165]
In 1946, Einstein visited Lincoln University in Pennsylvania, a historically black college, where he was awarded an honorary degree. Lincoln was the first university in the United States to grant college degrees to African Americans; alumni include Langston Hughes and Thurgood Marshall. Einstein gave a speech about racism in America, adding, "I do not intend to be quiet about it."[166] A resident of Princeton recalls that Einstein had once paid the college tuition for a black student.[165] Einstein has said, "Being a Jew myself, perhaps I can understand and empathize with how black people feel as victims of discrimination".[162]
Personal views
Political views
In 1918, Einstein was one of the signatories of the founding proclamation of the German Democratic Party, a liberal party.[167][168] Later in his life, Einstein's political view was in favor of socialism and critical of capitalism, which he detailed in his essays such as "Why Socialism?".[170] His opinions on the Bolsheviks also changed with time. In 1925, he criticized them for not having a "well-regulated system of government" and called their rule a "regime of terror and a tragedy in human history". He later adopted a more moderated view, criticizing their methods but praising them, which is shown by his 1929 remark on Vladimir Lenin:
In Lenin I honor a man, who in total sacrifice of his own person has committed his entire energy to realizing social justice. I do not find his methods advisable. One thing is certain, however: men like him are the guardians and renewers of mankind's conscience.
Einstein offered and was called on to give judgments and opinions on matters often unrelated to theoretical physics or mathematics. He strongly advocated the idea of a democratic global government that would check the power of nation-states in the framework of a world federation. He wrote "I advocate world government because I am convinced that there is no other possible way of eliminating the most terrible danger in which man has ever found himself."[173] The FBI created a secret dossier on Einstein in 1932; by the time of his death, it was 1,427 pages long.[174]
Einstein was deeply impressed by Mahatma Gandhi, with whom he corresponded. He described Gandhi as "a role model for the generations to come".[175] The initial connection was established on 27 September 1931, when Wilfrid Israel took his Indian guest V. A. Sundaram to meet his friend Einstein at his summer home in the town of Caputh. Sundaram was Gandhi's disciple and special envoy, whom Wilfrid Israel met while visiting India and visiting the Indian leader's home in 1925. During the visit, Einstein wrote a short letter to Gandhi that was delivered to him through his envoy, and Gandhi responded quickly with his own letter. Although in the end Einstein and Gandhi were unable to meet as they had hoped, the direct connection between them was established through Wilfrid Israel.[176]
Relationship with Zionism
Einstein was a figurehead leader in the establishment of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem,[177] which opened in 1925.[178] Earlier, in 1921, he was asked by the biochemist and president of the World Zionist Organization, Chaim Weizmann, to help raise funds for the planned university. He made suggestions for the creation of an Institute of Agriculture, a Chemical Institute and an Institute of Microbiology in order to fight the various ongoing epidemics such as malaria, which he called an "evil" that was undermining a third of the country's development. He also promoted the establishment of an Oriental Studies Institute, to include language courses given in both Hebrew and Arabic.
Einstein was not a nationalist and opposed the creation of an independent Jewish state. He felt that the waves of arriving Jews of the Aliyah could live alongside existing Arabs in Palestine. The state of Israel was established without his help in 1948; Einstein was limited to a marginal role in the Zionist movement.[183] Upon the death of Israeli president Weizmann in November 1952, Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion offered Einstein the largely ceremonial position of President of Israel at the urging of Ezriel Carlebach.[184][185] The offer was presented by Israel's ambassador in Washington, Abba Eban, who explained that the offer "embodies the deepest respect which the Jewish people can repose in any of its sons". Einstein wrote that he was "deeply moved", but "at once saddened and ashamed" that he could not accept it.
Religious and philosophical views
Einstein expounded his spiritual outlook in a wide array of writings and interviews.[187] He said he had sympathy for the impersonal pantheistic God of Baruch Spinoza's philosophy. He did not believe in a personal god who concerns himself with fates and actions of human beings, a view which he described as naïve. He clarified, however, that "I am not an atheist", preferring to call himself an agnostic,[192] or a "deeply religious nonbeliever". When asked if he believed in an afterlife, Einstein replied, "No. And one life is enough for me."
Einstein was primarily affiliated with non-religious humanist and Ethical Culture groups in both the UK and US. He served on the advisory board of the First Humanist Society of New York,[194] and was an honorary associate of the Rationalist Association, which publishes New Humanist in Britain. For the 75th anniversary of the New York Society for Ethical Culture, he stated that the idea of Ethical Culture embodied his personal conception of what is most valuable and enduring in religious idealism. He observed, "Without 'ethical culture' there is no salvation for humanity."
In a German-language letter to philosopher Eric Gutkind, dated 3 January 1954, Einstein wrote:
The word God is for me nothing more than the expression and product of human weaknesses, the Bible a collection of honorable, but still primitive legends which are nevertheless pretty childish. No interpretation no matter how subtle can (for me) change this. ... For me the Jewish religion like all other religions is an incarnation of the most childish superstitions. And the Jewish people to whom I gladly belong and with whose mentality I have a deep affinity have no different quality for me than all other people. ... I cannot see anything 'chosen' about them.[196]
Einstein had been sympathetic toward vegetarianism for a long time. In a letter in 1930 to Hermann Huth, vice-president of the German Vegetarian Federation (Deutsche Vegetarier-Bund), he wrote:
Although I have been prevented by outward circumstances from observing a strictly vegetarian diet, I have long been an adherent to the cause in principle. Besides agreeing with the aims of vegetarianism for aesthetic and moral reasons, it is my view that a vegetarian manner of living by its purely physical effect on the human temperament would most beneficially influence the lot of mankind.[197]
He became a vegetarian himself only during the last part of his life. In March 1954 he wrote in a letter: "So I am living without fats, without meat, without fish, but am feeling quite well this way. It almost seems to me that man was not born to be a carnivore."[198]
Love of music
Einstein developed an appreciation for music at an early age. In his late journals he wrote:
If I were not a physicist, I would probably be a musician. I often think in music. I live my daydreams in music. I see my life in terms of music ... I get most joy in life out of music.[199][200]
His mother played the piano reasonably well and wanted her son to learn the violin, not only to instill in him a love of music but also to help him assimilate into German culture. According to conductor Leon Botstein, Einstein began playing when he was 5. However, he did not enjoy it at that age.[201]
When he turned 13, he discovered the violin sonatas of Mozart, whereupon he became enamored of Mozart's compositions and studied music more willingly. Einstein taught himself to play without "ever practicing systematically". He said that "love is a better teacher than a sense of duty".[201] At the age of 17, he was heard by a school examiner in Aarau while playing Beethoven's violin sonatas. The examiner stated afterward that his playing was "remarkable and revealing of 'great insight'". What struck the examiner, writes Botstein, was that Einstein "displayed a deep love of the music, a quality that was and remains in short supply. Music possessed an unusual meaning for this student."[201]
Music took on a pivotal and permanent role in Einstein's life from that period on. Although the idea of becoming a professional musician himself was not on his mind at any time, among those with whom Einstein played chamber music were a few professionals, including Kurt Appelbaum, and he performed for private audiences and friends. Chamber music had also become a regular part of his social life while living in Bern, Zürich, and Berlin, where he played with Max Planck and his son, among others. He is sometimes erroneously credited as the editor of the 1937 edition of the Köchel catalog of Mozart's work; that edition was prepared by Alfred Einstein, who may have been a distant relation.[202][203]
In 1931, while engaged in research at the California Institute of Technology, he visited the Zoellner family conservatory in Los Angeles, where he played some of Beethoven and Mozart's works with members of the Zoellner Quartet.[204][205] Near the end of his life, when the young Juilliard Quartet visited him in Princeton, he played his violin with them, and the quartet was "impressed by Einstein's level of coordination and intonation".[201]
Death
On 17 April 1955, Einstein experienced internal bleeding caused by the rupture of an abdominal aortic aneurysm, which had previously been reinforced surgically by Rudolph Nissen in 1948.[206] He took the draft of a speech he was preparing for a television appearance commemorating the state of Israel's seventh anniversary with him to the hospital, but he did not live to complete it.[207]
Einstein refused surgery, saying, "I want to go when I want. It is tasteless to prolong life artificially. I have done my share; it is time to go. I will do it elegantly."[208] He died in the Princeton Hospital early the next morning at the age of 76, having continued to work until near the end.[209]
During the autopsy, the pathologist Thomas Stoltz Harvey removed Einstein's brain for preservation without the permission of his family, in the hope that the neuroscience of the future would be able to discover what made Einstein so intelligent.[210] Einstein's remains were cremated in Trenton, New Jersey,[211] and his ashes were scattered at an undisclosed location.[212][213]
In a memorial lecture delivered on 13 December 1965 at UNESCO headquarters, nuclear physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer summarized his impression of Einstein as a person: "He was almost wholly without sophistication and wholly without worldliness ... There was always with him a wonderful purity at once childlike and profoundly stubborn."[214]
Einstein bequeathed his personal archives, library, and intellectual assets to the Hebrew University of Jerusalem in Israel.[215]
Scientific career
Throughout his life, Einstein published hundreds of books and articles.[19][216] He published more than 300 scientific papers and 150 non-scientific ones.[15][216] On 5 December 2014, universities and archives announced the release of Einstein's papers, comprising more than 30,000 unique documents.[218] Einstein's intellectual achievements and originality have made the word "Einstein" synonymous with "genius".[8] In addition to the work he did by himself he also collaborated with other scientists on additional projects including the Bose–Einstein statistics, the Einstein refrigerator and others.[219][220]
1905 – Annus Mirabilis papers
The Annus Mirabilis papers are four articles pertaining to the photoelectric effect (which gave rise to quantum theory), Brownian motion, the special theory of relativity, and E = mc2 that Einstein published in the Annalen der Physik scientific journal in 1905. These four works contributed substantially to the foundation of modern physics and changed views on space, time, and matter. The four papers are:
Title (translated) Area of focus Received Published Significance "On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light" Photoelectric effect 18 March 9 June Resolved an unsolved puzzle by suggesting that energy is exchanged only in discrete amounts (quanta).[222] This idea was pivotal to the early development of quantum theory.[223] "On the Motion of Small Particles Suspended in a Stationary Liquid, as Required by the Molecular Kinetic Theory of Heat" Brownian motion 11 May 18 July Explained empirical evidence for the atomic theory, supporting the application of statistical physics. "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies" Special relativity 30 June 26 September Reconciled Maxwell's equations for electricity and magnetism with the laws of mechanics by introducing changes to mechanics, resulting from analysis based on empirical evidence that the speed of light is independent of the motion of the observer.[226] Discredited the concept of a "luminiferous ether".[227] "Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content?" Matter–energy equivalence 27 September 21 November Equivalence of matter and energy, E = mc2, the existence of "rest energy", and the basis of nuclear energy.
Statistical mechanics
Thermodynamic fluctuations and statistical physics
Einstein's first paper[229] submitted in 1900 to Annalen der Physik was on capillary attraction. It was published in 1901 with the title "Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen", which translates as "Conclusions from the capillarity phenomena". Two papers he published in 1902–1903 (thermodynamics) attempted to interpret atomic phenomena from a statistical point of view. These papers were the foundation for the 1905 paper on Brownian motion, which showed that Brownian movement can be construed as firm evidence that molecules exist. His research in 1903 and 1904 was mainly concerned with the effect of finite atomic size on diffusion phenomena.[229]
Theory of critical opalescence
Main article: Critical opalescence
Einstein returned to the problem of thermodynamic fluctuations, giving a treatment of the density variations in a fluid at its critical point. Ordinarily the density fluctuations are controlled by the second derivative of the free energy with respect to the density. At the critical point, this derivative is zero, leading to large fluctuations. The effect of density fluctuations is that light of all wavelengths is scattered, making the fluid look milky white. Einstein relates this to Rayleigh scattering, which is what happens when the fluctuation size is much smaller than the wavelength, and which explains why the sky is blue.[230] Einstein quantitatively derived critical opalescence from a treatment of density fluctuations, and demonstrated how both the effect and Rayleigh scattering originate from the atomistic constitution of matter.
Special relativity
Main article: History of special relativity
Einstein's "Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper" ("On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies") was received on 30 June 1905 and published 26 September of that same year. It reconciled conflicts between Maxwell's equations (the laws of electricity and magnetism) and the laws of Newtonian mechanics by introducing changes to the laws of mechanics. Observationally, the effects of these changes are most apparent at high speeds (where objects are moving at speeds close to the speed of light). The theory developed in this paper later became known as Einstein's special theory of relativity.
This paper predicted that, when measured in the frame of a relatively moving observer, a clock carried by a moving body would appear to slow down, and the body itself would contract in its direction of motion. This paper also argued that the idea of a luminiferous aether—one of the leading theoretical entities in physics at the time—was superfluous.[note 4]
In his paper on mass–energy equivalence, Einstein produced E = mc2 as a consequence of his special relativity equations. Einstein's 1905 work on relativity remained controversial for many years, but was accepted by leading physicists, starting with Max Planck.[note 5]
Einstein originally framed special relativity in terms of kinematics (the study of moving bodies). In 1908, Hermann Minkowski reinterpreted special relativity in geometric terms as a theory of spacetime. Einstein adopted Minkowski's formalism in his 1915 general theory of relativity.
General relativity
General relativity and the equivalence principle
Main article: History of general relativity
See also: Theory of relativity and Einstein field equations
General relativity (GR) is a theory of gravitation that was developed by Einstein between 1907 and 1915. According to it, the observed gravitational attraction between masses results from the warping of spacetime by those masses. General relativity has developed into an essential tool in modern astrophysics; it provides the foundation for the current understanding of black holes, regions of space where gravitational attraction is so strong that not even light can escape.[235]
As Einstein later said, the reason for the development of general relativity was that the preference of inertial motions within special relativity was unsatisfactory, while a theory which from the outset prefers no state of motion (even accelerated ones) should appear more satisfactory. Consequently, in 1907 he published an article on acceleration under special relativity. In that article titled "On the Relativity Principle and the Conclusions Drawn from It", he argued that free fall is really inertial motion, and that for a free-falling observer the rules of special relativity must apply. This argument is called the equivalence principle. In the same article, Einstein also predicted the phenomena of gravitational time dilation, gravitational redshift and gravitational lensing.
In 1911, Einstein published another article "On the Influence of Gravitation on the Propagation of Light" expanding on the 1907 article, in which he estimated the amount of deflection of light by massive bodies. Thus, the theoretical prediction of general relativity could for the first time be tested experimentally.
Gravitational waves
In 1916, Einstein predicted gravitational waves, ripples in the curvature of spacetime which propagate as waves, traveling outward from the source, transporting energy as gravitational radiation. The existence of gravitational waves is possible under general relativity due to its Lorentz invariance which brings the concept of a finite speed of propagation of the physical interactions of gravity with it. By contrast, gravitational waves cannot exist in the Newtonian theory of gravitation, which postulates that the physical interactions of gravity propagate at infinite speed.
The first, indirect, detection of gravitational waves came in the 1970s through observation of a pair of closely orbiting neutron stars, PSR B1913+16.[242] The explanation for the decay in their orbital period was that they were emitting gravitational waves.[242][243] Einstein's prediction was confirmed on 11 February 2016, when researchers at LIGO published the first observation of gravitational waves,[244] detected on Earth on 14 September 2015, nearly one hundred years after the prediction.[242][245][246][247][248]
Hole argument and Entwurf theory
While developing general relativity, Einstein became confused about the gauge invariance in the theory. He formulated an argument that led him to conclude that a general relativistic field theory is impossible. He gave up looking for fully generally covariant tensor equations and searched for equations that would be invariant under general linear transformations only.[249]
In June 1913, the Entwurf ('draft') theory was the result of these investigations. As its name suggests, it was a sketch of a theory, less elegant and more difficult than general relativity, with the equations of motion supplemented by additional gauge fixing conditions. After more than two years of intensive work, Einstein realized that the hole argument was mistaken[250] and abandoned the theory in November 1915.
Physical cosmology
Main article: Physical cosmology
In 1917, Einstein applied the general theory of relativity to the structure of the universe as a whole. He discovered that the general field equations predicted a universe that was dynamic, either contracting or expanding. As observational evidence for a dynamic universe was lacking at the time, Einstein introduced a new term, the cosmological constant, into the field equations, in order to allow the theory to predict a static universe. The modified field equations predicted a static universe of closed curvature, in accordance with Einstein's understanding of Mach's principle in these years. This model became known as the Einstein World or Einstein's static universe.[253]
Following the discovery of the recession of the galaxies by Edwin Hubble in 1929, Einstein abandoned his static model of the universe, and proposed two dynamic models of the cosmos, the Friedmann–Einstein universe of 1931[255] and the Einstein–de Sitter universe of 1932.[257] In each of these models, Einstein discarded the cosmological constant, claiming that it was "in any case theoretically unsatisfactory".[255][258]
In many Einstein biographies, it is claimed that Einstein referred to the cosmological constant in later years as his "biggest blunder", based on a letter George Gamow claimed to have received from him. The astrophysicist Mario Livio has cast doubt on this claim.[259]
In late 2013, a team led by the Irish physicist Cormac O'Raifeartaigh discovered evidence that, shortly after learning of Hubble's observations of the recession of the galaxies, Einstein considered a steady-state model of the universe.[260][261] In a hitherto overlooked manuscript, apparently written in early 1931, Einstein explored a model of the expanding universe in which the density of matter remains constant due to a continuous creation of matter, a process that he associated with the cosmological constant.[262][263] As he stated in the paper, "In what follows, I would like to draw attention to a solution to equation (1) that can account for Hubbel's [sic] facts, and in which the density is constant over time" ... "If one considers a physically bounded volume, particles of matter will be continually leaving it. For the density to remain constant, new particles of matter must be continually formed in the volume from space."
It thus appears that Einstein considered a steady-state model of the expanding universe many years before Hoyle, Bondi and Gold.[264][265] However, Einstein's steady-state model contained a fundamental flaw and he quickly abandoned the idea.[262][263][266]
Energy momentum pseudotensor
Main article: Stress–energy–momentum pseudotensor
General relativity includes a dynamical spacetime, so it is difficult to see how to identify the conserved energy and momentum. Noether's theorem allows these quantities to be determined from a Lagrangian with translation invariance, but general covariance makes translation invariance into something of a gauge symmetry. The energy and momentum derived within general relativity by Noether's prescriptions do not make a real tensor for this reason.[267]
Einstein argued that this is true for a fundamental reason: the gravitational field could be made to vanish by a choice of coordinates. He maintained that the non-covariant energy momentum pseudotensor was, in fact, the best description of the energy momentum distribution in a gravitational field. While the use of non-covariant objects like pseudotensors was criticized by Erwin Schrödinger and others, Einstein's approach has been echoed by physicists including Lev Landau and Evgeny Lifshitz.[268]
Wormholes
In 1935, Einstein collaborated with Nathan Rosen to produce a model of a wormhole, often called Einstein–Rosen bridges.[270] His motivation was to model elementary particles with charge as a solution of gravitational field equations, in line with the program outlined in the paper "Do Gravitational Fields play an Important Role in the Constitution of the Elementary Particles?". These solutions cut and pasted Schwarzschild black holes to make a bridge between two patches. Because these solutions included spacetime curvature without the presence of a physical body, Einstein and Rosen suggested that they could provide the beginnings of a theory that avoided the notion of point particles. However, it was later found that Einstein–Rosen bridges are not stable.[271]
Einstein–Cartan theory
Main article: Einstein–Cartan theory
In order to incorporate spinning point particles into general relativity, the affine connection needed to be generalized to include an antisymmetric part, called the torsion. This modification was made by Einstein and Cartan in the 1920s.
Equations of motion
Main article: Einstein–Infeld–Hoffmann equations
In general relativity, gravitational force is reimagined as curvature of spacetime. A curved path like an orbit is not the result of a force deflecting a body from an ideal straight-line path, but rather the body's attempt to fall freely through a background that is itself curved by the presence of other masses. A remark by John Archibald Wheeler that has become proverbial among physicists summarizes the theory: "Spacetime tells matter how to move; matter tells spacetime how to curve."[272][273] The Einstein field equations cover the latter aspect of the theory, relating the curvature of spacetime to the distribution of matter and energy. The geodesic equation covers the former aspect, stating that freely falling bodies follow lines that are as straight as possible in a curved spacetime. Einstein regarded this as an "independent fundamental assumption" that had to be postulated in addition to the field equations in order to complete the theory. Believing this to be a shortcoming in how general relativity was originally presented, he wished to derive it from the field equations themselves. Since the equations of general relativity are non-linear, a lump of energy made out of pure gravitational fields, like a black hole, would move on a trajectory which is determined by the Einstein field equations themselves, not by a new law. Accordingly, Einstein proposed that the field equations would determine the path of a singular solution, like a black hole, to be a geodesic. Both physicists and philosophers have often repeated the assertion that the geodesic equation can be obtained from applying the field equations to the motion of a gravitational singularity, but this claim remains disputed.[274][275]
Old quantum theory
Main article: Old quantum theory
Photons and energy quanta
In a 1905 paper, Einstein postulated that light itself consists of localized particles (quanta). Einstein's light quanta were nearly universally rejected by all physicists, including Max Planck and Niels Bohr. This idea only became universally accepted in 1919, with Robert Millikan's detailed experiments on the photoelectric effect, and with the measurement of Compton scattering.
Einstein concluded that each wave of frequency f is associated with a collection of photons with energy hf each, where h is the Planck constant. He did not say much more, because he was not sure how the particles were related to the wave. But he did suggest that this idea would explain certain experimental results, notably the photoelectric effect.
Quantized atomic vibrations
Main article: Einstein solid
In 1907, Einstein proposed a model of matter where each atom in a lattice structure is an independent harmonic oscillator. In the Einstein model, each atom oscillates independently—a series of equally spaced quantized states for each oscillator. Einstein was aware that getting the frequency of the actual oscillations would be difficult, but he nevertheless proposed this theory because it was a particularly clear demonstration that quantum mechanics could solve the specific heat problem in classical mechanics. Peter Debye refined this model.[276]
Bose–Einstein statistics
Main article: Bose–Einstein statistics
In 1924, Einstein received a description of a statistical model from Indian physicist Satyendra Nath Bose, based on a counting method that assumed that light could be understood as a gas of indistinguishable particles. Einstein noted that Bose's statistics applied to some atoms as well as to the proposed light particles, and submitted his translation of Bose's paper to the Zeitschrift für Physik. Einstein also published his own articles describing the model and its implications, among them the Bose–Einstein condensate phenomenon that some particulates should appear at very low temperatures. It was not until 1995 that the first such condensate was produced experimentally by Eric Allin Cornell and Carl Wieman using ultra-cooling equipment built at the NIST–JILA laboratory at the University of Colorado at Boulder.[278] Bose–Einstein statistics are now used to describe the behaviors of any assembly of bosons. Einstein's sketches for this project may be seen in the Einstein Archive in the library of the Leiden University.[219]
Wave–particle duality
Although the patent office promoted Einstein to Technical Examiner Second Class in 1906, he had not given up on academia. In 1908, he became a Privatdozent at the University of Bern. In "Über die Entwicklung unserer Anschauungen über das Wesen und die Konstitution der Strahlung" ("The Development of our Views on the Composition and Essence of Radiation"), on the quantization of light, and in an earlier 1909 paper, Einstein showed that Max Planck's energy quanta must have well-defined momenta and act in some respects as independent, point-like particles. This paper introduced the photon concept (although the name photon was introduced later by Gilbert N. Lewis in 1926) and inspired the notion of wave–particle duality in quantum mechanics. Einstein saw this wave–particle duality in radiation as concrete evidence for his conviction that physics needed a new, unified foundation.
Zero-point energy
In a series of works completed from 1911 to 1913, Planck reformulated his 1900 quantum theory and introduced the idea of zero-point energy in his "second quantum theory". Soon, this idea attracted the attention of Einstein and his assistant Otto Stern. Assuming the energy of rotating diatomic molecules contains zero-point energy, they then compared the theoretical specific heat of hydrogen gas with the experimental data. The numbers matched nicely. However, after publishing the findings, they promptly withdrew their support, because they no longer had confidence in the correctness of the idea of zero-point energy.
Stimulated emission
In 1917, at the height of his work on relativity, Einstein published an article in Physikalische Zeitschrift that proposed the possibility of stimulated emission, the physical process that makes possible the maser and the laser. This article showed that the statistics of absorption and emission of light would only be consistent with Planck's distribution law if the emission of light into a mode with n photons would be enhanced statistically compared to the emission of light into an empty mode. This paper was enormously influential in the later development of quantum mechanics, because it was the first paper to show that the statistics of atomic transitions had simple laws.[282]
Matter waves
Einstein discovered Louis de Broglie's work and supported his ideas, which were received skeptically at first. In another major paper from this era, Einstein observed that de Broglie waves could explain the quantization rules of Bohr and Sommerfeld. This paper would inspire Schrödinger's work of 1926.[283][284]
Quantum mechanics
Einstein's objections to quantum mechanics
Einstein played a major role in developing quantum theory, beginning with his 1905 paper on the photoelectric effect. However, he became displeased with modern quantum mechanics as it had evolved after 1925, despite its acceptance by other physicists. He was skeptical that the randomness of quantum mechanics was fundamental rather than the result of determinism, stating that God "is not playing at dice".[285] Until the end of his life, he continued to maintain that quantum mechanics was incomplete.[286]
Bohr versus Einstein
Main article: Bohr–Einstein debates
The Bohr–Einstein debates were a series of public disputes about quantum mechanics between Einstein and Niels Bohr, who were two of its founders. Their debates are remembered because of their importance to the philosophy of science.[287][289] Their debates would influence later interpretations of quantum mechanics.
Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox
Main article: EPR paradox
Einstein never fully accepted quantum mechanics. While he recognized that it made correct predictions, he believed a more fundamental description of nature must be possible. Over the years he presented multiple arguments to this effect, but the one he preferred most dated to a debate with Bohr in 1930. Einstein suggested a thought experiment in which two objects are allowed to interact and then moved apart a great distance from each other. The quantum-mechanical description of the two objects is a mathematical entity known as a wavefunction. If the wavefunction that describes the two objects before their interaction is given, then the Schrödinger equation provides the wavefunction that describes them after their interaction. But because of what would later be called quantum entanglement, measuring one object would lead to an instantaneous change of the wavefunction describing the other object, no matter how far away it is. Moreover, the choice of which measurement to perform upon the first object would affect what wavefunction could result for the second object. Einstein reasoned that no influence could propagate from the first object to the second instantaneously fast. Indeed, he argued, physics depends on being able to tell one thing apart from another, and such instantaneous influences would call that into question. Because the true "physical condition" of the second object could not be immediately altered by an action done to the first, Einstein concluded, the wavefunction could not be that true physical condition, only an incomplete description of it.
A more famous version of this argument came in 1935, when Einstein published a paper with Boris Podolsky and Nathan Rosen that laid out what would become known as the EPR paradox. In this thought experiment, two particles interact in such a way that the wavefunction describing them is entangled. Then, no matter how far the two particles were separated, a precise position measurement on one particle would imply the ability to predict, perfectly, the result of measuring the position of the other particle. Likewise, a precise momentum measurement of one particle would result in an equally precise prediction for of the momentum of the other particle, without needing to disturb the other particle in any way. They argued that no action taken on the first particle could instantaneously affect the other, since this would involve information being transmitted faster than light, which is forbidden by the theory of relativity. They invoked a principle, later known as the "EPR criterion of reality", positing that: "If, without in any way disturbing a system, we can predict with certainty (i.e., with probability equal to unity) the value of a physical quantity, then there exists an element of reality corresponding to that quantity." From this, they inferred that the second particle must have a definite value of both position and of momentum prior to either quantity being measured. But quantum mechanics considers these two observables incompatible and thus does not associate simultaneous values for both to any system. Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen therefore concluded that quantum theory does not provide a complete description of reality.
In 1964, John Stewart Bell carried the analysis of quantum entanglement much further. He deduced that if measurements are performed independently on the two separated particles of an entangled pair, then the assumption that the outcomes depend upon hidden variables within each half implies a mathematical constraint on how the outcomes on the two measurements are correlated. This constraint would later be called a Bell inequality. Bell then showed that quantum physics predicts correlations that violate this inequality. Consequently, the only way that hidden variables could explain the predictions of quantum physics is if they are "nonlocal", which is to say that somehow the two particles are able to interact instantaneously no matter how widely they ever become separated. Bell argued that because an explanation of quantum phenomena in terms of hidden variables would require nonlocality, the EPR paradox "is resolved in the way which Einstein would have liked least".
Despite this, and although Einstein personally found the argument in the EPR paper overly complicated, that paper became among the most influential papers published in Physical Review. It is considered a centerpiece of the development of quantum information theory.
Unified field theory
Main article: Classical unified field theories
Encouraged by his success with general relativity, Einstein sought an even more ambitious geometrical theory that would treat gravitation and electromagnetism as aspects of a single entity. In 1950, he described his unified field theory in a Scientific American article titled "On the Generalized Theory of Gravitation". His attempt to find the most fundamental laws of nature won him praise but not success: a particularly conspicuous blemish of his model was that it did not accommodate the strong and weak nuclear forces, neither of which was well understood until many years after his death. Although most researchers now believe that Einstein's approach to unifying physics was mistaken, his goal of a theory of everything is one to which his successors still aspire.[299]
Other investigations
Main article: Einstein's unsuccessful investigations
Einstein conducted other investigations that were unsuccessful and abandoned. These pertain to force, superconductivity, and other research.
Collaboration with other scientists
In addition to longtime collaborators Leopold Infeld, Nathan Rosen, Peter Bergmann and others, Einstein also had some one-shot collaborations with various scientists.
Einstein–de Haas experiment
Main article: Einstein–de Haas effect
In 1908, Owen Willans Richardson predicted that a change in the magnetic moment of a free body will cause this body to rotate. This effect is a consequence of the conservation of angular momentum and is strong enough to be observable in ferromagnetic materials.[300] Einstein and Wander Johannes de Haas published two papers in 1915 claiming the first experimental observation of the effect.[301][302] Measurements of this kind demonstrate that the phenomenon of magnetization is caused by the alignment (polarization) of the angular momenta of the electrons in the material along the axis of magnetization. These measurements also allow the separation of the two contributions to the magnetization: that which is associated with the spin and with the orbital motion of the electrons. The Einstein-de Haas experiment is the only experiment concived, realized and published by Albert Einstein himself.
A complete original version of the Einstein-de Haas experimental equipment was donated by Geertruida de Haas-Lorentz, wife of de Haas and daughter of Lorentz, to the Ampère Museum in Lyon France in 1961 where it is currently on display. It was lost among the museum's holdings and was rediscovered in 2023.[303][304]
Einstein as an inventor
In 1926, Einstein and his former student Leó Szilárd co-invented (and in 1930, patented) the Einstein refrigerator. This absorption refrigerator was then revolutionary for having no moving parts and using only heat as an input.[305] On 11 November 1930, U.S. patent 1,781,541 was awarded to Einstein and Leó Szilárd for the refrigerator. Their invention was not immediately put into commercial production, but the most promising of their patents were acquired by the Swedish company Electrolux.[note 6]
Einstein also invented an electromagnetic pump,[307] sound reproduction device,[308] and several other household devices.[309]
Non-scientific legacy
While traveling, Einstein wrote daily to his wife Elsa and adopted stepdaughters Margot and Ilse. The letters were included in the papers bequeathed to the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Margot Einstein permitted the personal letters to be made available to the public, but requested that it not be done until twenty years after her death (she died in 1986[310]). Barbara Wolff, of the Hebrew University's Albert Einstein Archives, told the BBC that there are about 3,500 pages of private correspondence written between 1912 and 1955.[311]
Einstein's right of publicity was litigated in 2015 in a federal district court in California. Although the court initially held that the right had expired,[312] that ruling was immediately appealed, and the decision was later vacated in its entirety. The underlying claims between the parties in that lawsuit were ultimately settled. The right is enforceable, and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem is the exclusive representative of that right.[313] Corbis, successor to The Roger Richman Agency, licenses the use of his name and associated imagery, as agent for the university.[314]
Mount Einstein in the Chugach Mountains of Alaska was named in 1955.
Mount Einstein in New Zealand's Paparoa Range was named after him in 1970 by the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research.[315]
In popular culture
Einstein became one of the most famous scientific celebrities after the confirmation of his general theory of relativity in 1919.[316][317][318] Although most of the public had little understanding of his work, he was widely recognized and admired. In the period before World War II, The New Yorker published a vignette in their "The Talk of the Town" feature saying that Einstein was so well known in America that he would be stopped on the street by people wanting him to explain "that theory". Eventually he came to cope with unwanted enquirers by pretending to be someone else: "Pardon me, sorry! Always I am mistaken for Professor Einstein."[319]
Einstein has been the subject of or inspiration for many novels, films, plays, and works of music.[320] He is a favorite model for depictions of absent-minded professors; his expressive face and distinctive hairstyle have been widely copied and exaggerated. Time magazine's Frederic Golden wrote that Einstein was "a cartoonist's dream come true".[321]
Many popular quotations are often misattributed to him.[322][323]
Awards and honors
Einstein received numerous awards and honors, and in 1922, he was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect". None of the nominations in 1921 met the criteria set by Alfred Nobel, so the 1921 prize was carried forward and awarded to Einstein in 1922.[7]
Einsteinium, a synthetic chemical element, was named in his honor in 1955, a few months after his death.[324]
Publications
Scientific
Others
See also
Notes
References
Works cited
Further reading
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On a hot summer afternoon in 1923 in the Conference Hall at the Gothenburg Jubilee Exhibition, Albert Einstein gave a talk on “Fundamental ideas and problems of the theory of relativity” as can be seen in fig. 1. In the large audience, besides the conference participants at the 17th Scandinavian Natural Sciences Meeting, were in the front row the Swedish King, Gustav V, and Svante Arrhenius (1859–1927) the man responsible for inviting Einstein. This lecture became Einstein’s Nobel Lecture for his 1921 Nobel Prize in physics that was awarded in 1922.
What was the background to this? Why on Earth did such a large crowd attend a physics lecture in the middle of a heat wave and why was Einstein not awarded the Nobel Prize for his theories of relativity as most people would expect? This paper will search for an explanation by looking into the evaluation work of Einstein for the Nobel Prize.
1 How the Nobel Prize works
The statutes of the Nobel Foundation govern how the Nobel system works. It is based on Alfred Nobel’s will, but the Nobel Foundation is nowhere mentioned in the will. The Nobel Foundation was instead created by the Prize awarding institutions to manage their common interests and facilitate the general collaboration between the Prize awarders. The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, mentioned in the will, awards the Nobel Prizes in physics and chemistry. Each Prize awarder also has their separate statutes that govern the evaluation work. Only invited nominators in certain categories are entitled to nominate. A successful candidate must have at least one nomination, but it is not automatically so that the most nominations get you the Prize. A five-person Nobel committee then evaluates all nominees, and the committee decides who are the most interesting candidates who are subjected to special reports. Then the Nobel Committee writes up a general report briefly discussing all nominees before presenting more extensive coverage of the main contenders, and most reasoning goes into that year’s committee proposal in the end. Then the proposal is discussed by the physics class of the Academy and finally there is the formal vote in pleno where all members of the Academy have the right to vote.
During the period from the first nomination of Einstein in 1910 until he was awarded the 1921 Prize in 1922 there was an increasing number of nominations as can be seen from fig. 2, but it was not until 1919, when the Nobel Committee made its first special evaluation of Einstein, and then it was the case of the Brownian motion.
2 Nominations of Einstein
Aant Elzinga, who has closely studied Einstein and the Nobel Prize, has grouped the nominations for Einstein in three periods. In the first period of nominations (1910–1914) it was mostly the special relativity that was proposed.
For these early nominations the Nobel Committee did not make any special report thus indicating that Einstein was not yet considered a main candidate. From the general reports it was claimed that an award would be premature, and the often-used argument that it would be better to await further results and possible confirmations was raised. Also, counterarguments like that the special relativity theory had no practical importance and thus of no benefit to mankind to quote from Nobel’s will were raised. Another argument was that it was a question of theory of knowledge rather than physics.
The second period (1915–1919) saw an increase in nominations where other work by Einstein was proposed as his work on the Brownian motion. But most of the other nominations kept suggesting Einstein for the special relativity theory and now also the general theory of relativity. Some nominators apparently sensed the committee’s unease with theoretical work and pointed out that Einstein had done experimental work. Now the committee argued that others had precedence, when it came to the Brownian motion and as for the general relativity theory only Mercury’s perihelion precession supported the theory whereas gravitational redshift and light bending were not yet confirmed. Also, arguments that the general theory of relativity was just a belief rather than a proper physical theory was raised.
The third period (1920–1922) is of course marked by the attention the famous 1919 solar eclipse expeditions got, as seen in fig. 3. Nominations were soaring and almost all were arguing for the theories of relativity. But one nominator suggested the photoelectric effect. Now the Nobel Committee, not ready to award Einstein, questioned the validity of the solar eclipse data and also questioned the 1921 nomination for Einstein for the photoelectric effect, where Arrhenius in his special report would argue that it was a lucky guess by Einstein and that it was experimentalists that had made the work worthy of recognition.
3 Special reports on Einstein
Let us now look at the special reports on Einstein as can be seen in table 1. In 1919 there were nominations for The Svedberg and Jean Perrin for their work on the motions of molecules, but since their work was based on Einstein’s work on the Brownian motion Arrhenius had been asked by his colleagues in the committee to also nominate Einstein for the sake of thoroughness. Arrhenius also got the task to write the special report on the three, where he concluded the section on Einstein:
As far as the prize-awarding of these works is concerned, it must be confessed that they have had as great a value for experimental research as Einstein’s other works. Nevertheless, Einstein’s theoretical work, the theory of relativity and the quantum theory, are by far most proposed of the majority of nominators compared to his molecular kinetic works, when it comes to awarding him with the Nobel Prize. This is undoubtedly due to the fact that these first-mentioned works seem far more apt to change our conception of nature and therefore have a greater significance than the molecular kinetic studies, which are in the very best agreement with, and are a consequence of, the classical conception of the motion of molecules. It would therefore, no doubt, seem strange to the learned world if Einstein received a prize precisely for the works referred to here, notwithstanding their obviously great merit and usefulness for the development of science, and not for his other great works, which is what have attracted the attention of nominators.
So, the argument was that Einstein could not be awarded the Nobel Prize for his work on the Brownian motion since his peers expected it to be for the theories of relativity or quantum theory. This meant that Perrin and Svedberg also were put on hold until 1926 when Perrin got the physics prize and Svedberg the chemistry prize. Instead, Max Planck was awarded the reserved 1918 Nobel Prize for physics “in recognition of the services he rendered to the advancement of Physics by his discovery of energy quanta” and Johannes Stark was awarded the 1919 Nobel Prize in physics for “for his discovery of the Doppler effect in canal rays and the splitting of spectral lines in electric fields”.
The next year, in 1920, Svante Arrhenius followed up his own argument and made a special report on Einstein’s theories of relativity in light of the results from the solar eclipse the previous year. Now Einstein was the candidate that had the most nominations and also by important nominators. Arguments were again made for Einstein’s theories of the Brownian motion, the specific heat, but most of all for the theories of relativity. And as for the general theory of relativity there were discussions of the three specific cases where the theory could be put to the test.
1. The shift of Mercury’s perihelion (where Einstein’s theory was in agreement with observations).
2. The bending of light by the Sun (where there were arguments for and against the accuracy of the observations).
3. The redshift of lines in the solar spectra (which could not yet be detected).
Arrhenius in his report described the great interest and astonishment that had followed the presentation of the solar eclipse results at the joint meeting in November 1919 with the Royal Society and the Royal Astronomical Society. But he also reported on the subsequent critique. Although there was much in favour of the Mercury perihelion shift, Arrhenius also brought up critique and other explanations. For the red shift he, quite lengthy, presented the tests that had been made and none delivered any clear support: “In any case, this effect on wavelength seems unsuitable for supporting Einstein’s theory”. Arrhenius even observed at the end of his report that there had appeared both uncritical admiration and unjust critique of Einstein.
The Nobel Prize in physics for 1920 instead went to the director of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures, Charles Edouard Guillaume, “in recognition of the service he has rendered to precision measurements in Physics by his discovery of anomalies in nickel steel alloys”.
Next year in 1921, there were even more nominations for Einstein. So, this year there were two special reports made on Einstein. One was written by Allvar Gullstrand (1862–1930) on the theories of relativity and the other one, due to a new nomination for the photoelectric effect, on which Arrhenius wrote the report.
Almost half of the general report in 1921 deals with Einstein. It first summed up arguments from Gullstrand’s special report and regarding the experimental tests of the theories of relativity that they had neither contradicted nor confirmed, and it was stated that “it demands a great deal of conviction in respect to phenomena, which lie entirely outside experience, it does not seem to meet the requirements which should apply to the awarding of the Nobel Prize”. Then followed brief summaries of the three different test options of Einstein’s theory arguing that they did not give any clear support. Gullstrand’s report also called into question the shift of Mercury’s perihelion, that many considered a solid argument for Einstein. Gullstrand, however, claimed that for now it was not clear if Einstein’s theory could be considered in agreement with Leverrier’s measurements. And since the general theory of relativity “so far in no way has been satisfactorily confirmed by experience, the committee does not currently consider themselves able to propose him for a Nobel Prize”. The end verdict this year was to wait for further observations and tests to determine the fortune of Einstein. This is a fate that Einstein has shared with many over the years, a cautious policy has perhaps helped the Nobel institution over the years. It must not be wrong. Noteworthy is that the general report in 1921 used terms as “Einstein’s followers” in connection with the discussion of the relativity theories. Normally, the general reports are very matter of fact, without references to anything outside the physics at hand. So, this phrase is special and cannot be understood in any positive sense.
But the general report continued with Einstein’s photoelectric effect. This was more summarily dismissed this year, based on the special report by Arrhenius, claiming that others than Einstein had been crucial in making the experimental work. Arrhenius also dismissed the argument from the nomination that the photoelectric law is fundamental for the quantum theory and its successful dealing with atomic phenomena. And since the 1918 Prize had gone to Planck, it was argued that this had already been awarded. So, prospects for Einstein seemed gloomy and the committee recommended that, since no prizeworthy candidate at all was at hand, the 1921 Nobel Prize should be reserved until next year, and such became the decision of the Academy.
4 Solving the gridlock
Something needed to change if this deadlock should go away. This dominance of experimentalists and experimental ethos in the committee has been observed by historians. And it was quite remarkable that the two members that got the task to evaluate Einstein were Allvar Gullstrand, a professor of ophtalmology and Nobel Laureate in Physiology or Medicine in 1911, and Svante Arrhenius, director of the Nobel Institute for Physical Chemistry and Nobel Laureate in chemistry in 1903. The five-person physics committee did not have any professional theoretical physicist among them at this time.
There were two professors of mathematical physics in Sweden. At Lund University the professor was an expert on sea currents and at this time not a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. The other professor of mathematical physics was also an expert on hydrodynamics, Carl Wilhelm Oseen (1879–1944). He became professor already in 1909 at Uppsala University, but had for many years during the 1910s struggled with tuberculosis. He had early on taken an interest in Niels Bohr and together with Rutherford he helped the Dane to get his professorship. He had also debated some aspects of quantum theory with Planck in 1914. Niels and Margarethe Bohr had visited Oseen in 1913 while the Swede stayed at a sanatorium the months before Bohr published his famous papers on the atomic structure. In 1919 Oseen held a summer lecture series for teachers about the quantum theory and the theories of relativity. From these lectures we can conclude that he was positive although not uncritical to these theories. The lectures, together with the attention that the solar eclipse observations added, helped initiate the founding of the Swedish Physical Society in 1920, where Oseen became the first president. His training from Lund University was in mathematics, so in 1921 he got elected to the Swedish Academy of Sciences, at first to a mathematical class. Later in 1922 he was transferred to the physics class. And more importantly already in the autumn of 1921 Oseen had been adjoined to the Nobel Committee for physics. And at the first meeting he attended, where the above-mentioned decision to reserve the 1921 Prize was recommended by the class, he managed to invoke a possible future opening for the photoelectric law and he:
emphasized that this discovery could gain further significance in the future, which is why he hoped that the committee’s statement should not be understood that the matter was decided once and for all.
In view of this and after further deliberation, the class decided to state that Einstein’s law for the photoelectric effect must be ascribed great importance, but that any awarding of the prize should wait until a more reliable understanding was attained of its significance for science.
For a long time, the Nobel Committee had relied on Gullstrand’s investigations of Einstein’s theory of relativity for the candidacy, and he found the whole thing to be a matter of “belief.” His correspondence with Oseen from this time shows that Gullstrand constantly tried to find errors in Einstein’s theory, whereupon Oseen rejected his objections. At one point, Oseen wrote that it “took a few minutes” for him to dismiss the problem that Gullstrand had posed. But Gullstrand returned with “the fable of the clock that slows down” which was something for “the relativist believer”.
5 Oseen’s tandem solution
1922 became a busy year for Oseen. In May 1922 the astronomer and astrophysicist Bernhard Hasselberg died after years of dwindling health. His last major impact on the committee’s work had been the prize for Guillaume. In September 1922 Gullstrand proposed that Oseen should replace Hasselberg in the committee and brought up Oseen’s grasp of theoretical physics as beneficial for the committee’s work. The nomination was signed by two other members as well as by The Svedberg, member of the chemistry committee. It should also be noted that Oseen was still only member of the applied mathematics and astronomy class and had to be adjoined, not only to the Nobel committee, but also to the physics class to take part in the class’ discussions of the Nobel committee’s proposals. But already before this decision the Nobel committee had submitted its recommendation to the Academy of the two available Nobel Prizes in physics (1921 & 1922), and before that, during the summer, the special reports, by the adjoint member Oseen, had been submitted.
But other important events had also taken place in this context during the summer of 1922. In June Niels Bohr was invited to deliver the Wolfskehl lectures in Göttingen. He travelled there accompanied by his Swedish assistant at this time, Oskar Klein, and they stayed at an inn in the outskirts of the city. At the same inn Oseen also boarded. He was making a rare trip and was anxious to listen to his old friend Niels Bohr and meet other colleagues, as can be seen from fig. 4 and fig. 5. At this conference Bohr presented Hendrik Kramers’ dispersion theory, to which a young Werner Heisenberg raised objections.
Oseen already had a very positive opinion of Bohr’s work, and despite the criticism made by Heisenberg in Göttingen (that actually impressed Bohr), Oseen returned to Uppsala where he sat down and wrote two special Nobel reports, one on Bohr and one on Einstein, see fig. 6. He finished his 34 pages report on Bohr, “Bohr’s atomic theory,” on August 9, and a few days later, on August 13, he finished his 12 pages report on “Einstein’s law for the photoelectric effect”. After submitting these reports he had ten days before the second Nordic Physicist Meeting started in Uppsala, where he was one of the organizers. Bohr attended giving the main lecture “On the Explanation of the Periodic System.” The meeting provided another opportunity for Bohr and Oseen to meet. This conference can be seen as an important step in establishing theoretical atomic physics as a central area for physics among Nordic physicists. It was also considered as something of a “summit meeting” between Oseen and Bohr.
If we look closer at the evaluations by Oseen in 1922, it becomes clear that to him Bohr and Einstein were a tandem. Bohr’s work was based on Einstein’s theory and Einstein’s theory became more palatable when connected to Bohr’s work. Such a solution would manage a Nobel Prize to Einstein, but avoiding the contested issue of the relativity theories, and at the same time solving the pressure of all the nominations for Einstein. No one but Oseen ever nominated Einstein only for the photoelectric effect. He was well aware of the opposition to Einstein’s relativity theories and the political and cultural aspects pertaining to them. However, he was a supporter and one of few in Sweden that actually understood the general theory of relativity at this time. And since there were two available prizes in 1922 it was an opportunity that could not be missed. The postponing in 1921 might thus actually have helped to accommodate the solution in 1922.
6 Finally, a Nobel Prize for Einstein
Looking closer at Oseen’s reports we can note the different sections, after the first theoretical examination he addressed the experimental confirmations of Einstein’s law. And the usage of “law” of course underscores the irrefutable nature of the theory. Especially Millikan’s work was referred to. Then came a section “The Einstein law and Bohr’s atomic theory” which concluded: “The Einstein proposition and Bohr’s objectively identical frequency conditions are currently one of the most trustworthy propositions in physics”. Then followed a section “A look at Einstein’s activities,” where other Einstein’s important contributions were listed. The first group was his works based on classical physics like the Brownian motion, the second group was his writings on the quantum theory, like his papers on the specific heat. The third group was his contributions to electromagnetic theory to which his special theory of relativity was counted. The fourth group was the general theory of relativity. All very important contributions depending on one’s particular interest. “In any case, no other discovery made by Einstein than his proposition on the quantum emission and absorption of light has generated as much interest in measuring physics” Oseen stated. This argument was set to thwart any objections from the overly cautious experimentalists in the committee and in the physics class.
Most important is of course the concluding part:
At a time when physicists, with few exceptions, were opposed to Planck’s quantum theory, Einstein has shown through an original and astute analysis that the energy exchange between matter and ether must take place in such a way that an atom emits or absorbs an energy quantum hν, where ν is the oscillation number. As an application of this proposition, Einstein has established the law that if an electron is photoelectrically triggered from a substance, its energy after release must have the value $h\nu – P$, where $P$ is the work needed to release the electron from the substance. This law has been most beautifully confirmed by measurements by Millikan and others. Einstein’s proposition has received its greatest significance and also the most convincing confirmation in that it is one of the assumptions on which Bohr built his atomic theory. Almost all confirmations of Bohr’s atomic theory are also confirmations of Einstein’s proposition.
The discovery of Einstein’s law is without a doubt one of the most significant events in the history of physics. Its discoverer seems to me to fully deserve a Nobel Prize in physics.
A stronger endorsement cannot be phrased but let us also briefly examine Oseen’s report on Bohr. The different sections gave a hint of the way his argument went: “The historical assumptions for Bohr’s atomic theory”, “The basis for Bohr’s theory of 1913”, “The results of Bohr’s theory from 1913”, “Theory for the Stark effect and the Zeeman effect”, “Bohr’s correspondence principle”, “Bohr’s rule for determining the stationary states”, “The atomic theory’s development 1913–1921”, “Bohr’s atomic theory of 1921”, “Confirmations of Bohr’s theory”, and “Difficulties in Bohr’s atomic theory” concluded the report and the final words should be noted:
The cornerstone of Bohr’s thought structure, the Einstein-Bohr condition $\epsilon_{1} - \epsilon_{2} = h\nu$, has, through studies by Franck et al. received an extremely comprehensive and overwhelming confirmation. [...] Finally, if one asks whether the Bohr atomic theory is worthy of a Nobel Prize in physics, it seems to me that the answer can be no other than this. Both with regard to its already confirmed findings and with regard to the powerful stimulus that this theory has given to both experimental and theoretical physics, Bohr’s atomic theory seems to me fully worthy of a Nobel Prize.
Also, an extremely strong endorsement. There was also another seven pages special report in 1922 by Allvar Gullstrand supplementing his special report from the previous year on Einstein’s theories of relativity. Here Gullstrand reiterated that these theories were a “matter of faith”, and he went through the three tests for the general theory. For the red shift Gullstrand quoted von Laue that there was room for further tests. And he continued to quote von Laue that there was no absolute certainty and that there was room for more and further investigations. For the perihelion test Gullstrand referred to some papers that did not fully support Einstein’s theory, and that any certain judgment therefore would have to wait. He also referred several times to “followers of the relativity theory”, and concluded:
It should be clear from the above that my opinion from last year that Einstein cannot at present be advocated for the award of the Nobel Prize in Physics, either for the special or the general theory of relativity or for the combined value of these theories, is not only still valid, but has been further confirmed by subsequent publications.
Despite Gullstrand’s stubborn objections to relativity, Oseen convinced his colleagues in the Nobel Committee for his tandem solution, and Gullstrand could still be content that the relativity theories were not awarded a Nobel Prize. The general report also stated that there was an overwhelming number of nominations for Einstein, which might have made the Committee and the Academy members extra prone to accept Oseen’s solution. Most nominations for Einstein were for the relativity theories, and only Oseen had nominated Einstein exclusively for the photoelectric effect. The committee referred to Gullstrand’s present and prior reports and to Arrhenius previous report and the committee “maintained its verdict from last year and considered itself unable to propose Einstein for the Nobel Prize for his theories of relativity and gravitation”. Then the report continued discussing Einstein and Bohr simultaneously according to Oseen’s arguments and concluded:
Due to what the committee here had the honour to state, may the committee suggest that of the two available Nobel Prizes for Physics, the one reserved from the previous year should be awarded to Professor Albert Einstein in Berlin for his merits in theoretical physics, especially his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect; and that this year’s Nobel Prize in Physics should be awarded to Professor Niels Bohr in Copenhagen for his merits in exploring the structure of atoms and the radiation emanating from them.
The class did approve of this suggestion by the Nobel Committee, which basically was Oseen’s tandem solution.
All this was well-received, also in the Academy in pleno and on November 9, 1922 the decision was made at the Nobel meeting of the Academy to award Einstein the reserved 1921 Physics Prize and Niels Bohr the 1922 Physics Prize. Noteworthy is that the Academy was anxious to keep any trace of the theories of relativity out of the motivation and they changed the phrase: “for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect” adding “regardless of the value that, after any confirmation, could be attributed to the theories of relativity and gravity, [...] award the 1921 prize [...] to Albert Einstein for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect.” This text also made it onto Einstein’s Nobel diploma making it stand out as the only Nobel diploma with text stating what the Laureate was not awarded for. The most common interpretation of this is that it is a symptom of the anxious and perhaps not so brilliant Swedish Committee. That could well be the case, but another interpretation might be possible as we shall see.
7 The end of nominations
Oseen had managed an incredible feat to have two of his own candidates each being awarded the Nobel Prize and thus defusing the difficult situation with the many nominations for Einstein. And as we have seen, the Nobel Prize to Einstein was intrinsically coupled to the Nobel Prize to Bohr and vice versa. Also clear is that it was all Oseen’s doing. No one beside members of the Nobel Committee could fully understand what had played out, but some people did. Oseen’s former colleague from Uppsala, Eva von Bahr-Bergius, was pleased with the end result and wrote to Oseen:
More than one month ago – when the names of the Nobel laureates were announced – I was determined to write to you. I felt a need to thank you for being there and taking care of the Nobel Prizes, so that physicists will not make a fool of themselves in the same way as the Swedish [Literary] Academy. Because your influence on these matters is very great, I understand very well. I would very much wish that someday you alone could be in charge of the Nobel Prizes, but I am afraid that you write such learned things that – at least here in Sweden – there is no one who can judge them.
I assume that there was a controversy about Einstein’s name. His opponents, who succeeded in excluding the theory of relativity from the prize statement, have thereby simply ensured that in the future he will receive the prize one more time.
So, this is another possible interpretation. That the non-awarding of the theories of relativity would only mean that Einstein would be awarded the Nobel Prize again. And there were no formal objections to such a chain of events, Marie Curie had a decade earlier received her second Nobel Prize. And Einstein if any could have been nominated again for the theories of relativity and other works. But the fact is that that did not happen. The following year there were two nominations for him, but they were actually late arrivals from the previous year. And thereafter there are no nominations at all for Einstein. So, apparently his peers considered that he was now put up on the Nobel shelf, which is also telling of how awards in science may function, especially the Nobel Prize.
But let us return to where we started. Einstein did not come to Stockholm to pick up his Nobel Prize, he was on a boat on his way from the USA to Japan, when the news broke, and there was no possibility for him to make it to the Prize awarding events in Stockholm. Since it is mandatory to deliver a Nobel Prize Lecture to receive the prize amount, he eventually came to Sweden the year after, and invited by Svante Arrhenius he delivered a lecture in Gothenburg on July 11, 1923 on “Fundamental ideas and problems of the theory of relativity.” But that was not the work he had been awarded for. But since most people were more interested in a lecture on relativity theory than the photoelectric effect as can be seen in the large crowd in fig. 1, this is what Arrhenius asked Einstein to talk about. And immediately after Arrhenius delivered the manuscript of the lecture for the Nobel Foundation yearbook, Les Prix Nobel, as Einstein’s Nobel Lecture. This was questioned in the Academy, but Arrhenius then said that the manuscript had already been set, and proofs already sent out. So, it was agreed that it should be allowed. Among Einstein’s critics in Sweden this caused an outrage and a lot of complaints to the Academy that had let this pass, complaints arrived also from abroad. The lecture should take place within six months, but this was after seven months; the lecture should take place in Stockholm, and most of all it should be about the Prize awarded work. There had been instances of delay earlier, the Curies held their lecture one and a half year late, but they held it in Stockholm and on the topic they had been awarded for at least. The reason for Arrhenius’ actions might be found in his argument in the 1919 special report not to award Einstein for the Brownian motion, since it would be strange if Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize for anything else than the theories of relativity. This is why Einstein’s Nobel lecture is about the theories of relativity, for which he was not awarded the Nobel Prize.
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https://alberteinstein-p1.weebly.com/awardshonors.html
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Awards/Honors
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There were many awards that Einstein was given during his lifetime. One of the most significant was the Nobel Prize for Physics, which he won in 1921. He was given this award for his...
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Albert Einstein
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http://alberteinstein-p1.weebly.com/awardshonors.html
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correct_award_00024
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https://www.itechpost.com/articles/114967/20221109/albert-einstein-albert-einstein-nobel-prize-albert-einstein-physics-albert-einstein-nobel-prize-physics-albert-einstein-nobel-prize-physics-1922.htm
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en
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Albert Einstein Won the Nobel Prize in Physics on This Day in 1922
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2022-11-09T02:20:00-05:00
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Commemorating Einstein's 1922 Nobel Prize in Physics, 100 years today since. It has been a whole 100 years since Albert Einstein won his Nobel Prize in Physics for his expansion of the photoelectric effect in 1922 at only 26 years old.
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en
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iTech Post
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https://www.itechpost.com/articles/114967/20221109/albert-einstein-albert-einstein-nobel-prize-albert-einstein-physics-albert-einstein-nobel-prize-physics-albert-einstein-nobel-prize-physics-1922.htm
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It has been a whole 100 years since Albert Einstein won his Nobel Prize in Physics for his expansion of the photoelectric effect in 1922 at only 26 years old.
While everyone was expecting the genius to win the prize for his theory on relativity, it was his idea on what is behind today's solar energy revolution that earned him the well-coveted merit.
What Was This Award-Winning Photoelectric Effect Explanation
According to The Atlantic, even from the beginning of the turn of the century, scientists already had an idea that light could produce electric current once exposed to certain conditions.
However, despite this observation, no one really understood why light could create electricity since it was then understood that light worked as a wave.
With this contradiction, in 1905, Einstein produced a paper that suggested that light was not a wave but was something discontinuously distributed in space.
According to his explanation of the photoelectric effect, light is spread out and scattered from a point source but is consisted of energy quanta localized at different points in space.
This means that Einstein believed that light behaved like a particle rather than a wave, which is why it can create electric current.
The Nobel Prize Organization adds that photoelectric explains that if metal electrodes are exposed to light, sparks will actualize between them.
For this to happen, light waves would be at a certain frequency, and the light's intensity should be critical for it to work.
This discovery was what warranted Einstein to win the Nobel Prize in 1922, a year after no one won the Nobel Prize in 1921.
According to the Nobel Prize Organization, during the committee's selection process for Physics, they found that nobody met the criteria outlined by the foundation and reserved the 1921 prize for next year.
This made Einstein the 1921 Nobel Prize winner in the field of Physics in the year 1922.
Read More: Israel Allocates Millions for Einstein Museum
Many Thought That Einstein's Nobel Prize Was For The Theory Of Relativity
Contrary to popular belief, despite the theory of relativity being Einstein's most well-known contributions to science, it was what won him the Nobel Prize.
According to Advanced Science News, while he came up with the theory of relativity and the photoelectric effect explanation, Einstein was only awarded for the latter.
The reserved Nobel Prize of 1921 was awarded to Einstein the next year for "his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of photoelectric effect," reports say.
The decision prompted speculations from left and right, relating the controversy to the access that was granted to the official archival materials at the organization.
However, Advanced Science New writes that Einstein not winning an award for his theory of relativity might have been just a case of bias, arrogance, and pettiness among committee members at the time.
In 1954, almost 50 years after the scientist won the award for his contribution to the law of photoelectric effect, solar cells were created to run electrical equipment.
These solar cells have later been developed into the solar energy people use in modern technology today, proving that addressing a gap in knowledge can lead to something useful, The Atlantic writes.
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On a hot summer afternoon in 1923 in the Conference Hall at the Gothenburg Jubilee Exhibition, Albert Einstein gave a talk on “Fundamental ideas and problems of the theory of relativity” as can be seen in fig. 1. In the large audience, besides the conference participants at the 17th Scandinavian Natural Sciences Meeting, were in the front row the Swedish King, Gustav V, and Svante Arrhenius (1859–1927) the man responsible for inviting Einstein. This lecture became Einstein’s Nobel Lecture for his 1921 Nobel Prize in physics that was awarded in 1922.
What was the background to this? Why on Earth did such a large crowd attend a physics lecture in the middle of a heat wave and why was Einstein not awarded the Nobel Prize for his theories of relativity as most people would expect? This paper will search for an explanation by looking into the evaluation work of Einstein for the Nobel Prize.
1 How the Nobel Prize works
The statutes of the Nobel Foundation govern how the Nobel system works. It is based on Alfred Nobel’s will, but the Nobel Foundation is nowhere mentioned in the will. The Nobel Foundation was instead created by the Prize awarding institutions to manage their common interests and facilitate the general collaboration between the Prize awarders. The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, mentioned in the will, awards the Nobel Prizes in physics and chemistry. Each Prize awarder also has their separate statutes that govern the evaluation work. Only invited nominators in certain categories are entitled to nominate. A successful candidate must have at least one nomination, but it is not automatically so that the most nominations get you the Prize. A five-person Nobel committee then evaluates all nominees, and the committee decides who are the most interesting candidates who are subjected to special reports. Then the Nobel Committee writes up a general report briefly discussing all nominees before presenting more extensive coverage of the main contenders, and most reasoning goes into that year’s committee proposal in the end. Then the proposal is discussed by the physics class of the Academy and finally there is the formal vote in pleno where all members of the Academy have the right to vote.
During the period from the first nomination of Einstein in 1910 until he was awarded the 1921 Prize in 1922 there was an increasing number of nominations as can be seen from fig. 2, but it was not until 1919, when the Nobel Committee made its first special evaluation of Einstein, and then it was the case of the Brownian motion.
2 Nominations of Einstein
Aant Elzinga, who has closely studied Einstein and the Nobel Prize, has grouped the nominations for Einstein in three periods. In the first period of nominations (1910–1914) it was mostly the special relativity that was proposed.
For these early nominations the Nobel Committee did not make any special report thus indicating that Einstein was not yet considered a main candidate. From the general reports it was claimed that an award would be premature, and the often-used argument that it would be better to await further results and possible confirmations was raised. Also, counterarguments like that the special relativity theory had no practical importance and thus of no benefit to mankind to quote from Nobel’s will were raised. Another argument was that it was a question of theory of knowledge rather than physics.
The second period (1915–1919) saw an increase in nominations where other work by Einstein was proposed as his work on the Brownian motion. But most of the other nominations kept suggesting Einstein for the special relativity theory and now also the general theory of relativity. Some nominators apparently sensed the committee’s unease with theoretical work and pointed out that Einstein had done experimental work. Now the committee argued that others had precedence, when it came to the Brownian motion and as for the general relativity theory only Mercury’s perihelion precession supported the theory whereas gravitational redshift and light bending were not yet confirmed. Also, arguments that the general theory of relativity was just a belief rather than a proper physical theory was raised.
The third period (1920–1922) is of course marked by the attention the famous 1919 solar eclipse expeditions got, as seen in fig. 3. Nominations were soaring and almost all were arguing for the theories of relativity. But one nominator suggested the photoelectric effect. Now the Nobel Committee, not ready to award Einstein, questioned the validity of the solar eclipse data and also questioned the 1921 nomination for Einstein for the photoelectric effect, where Arrhenius in his special report would argue that it was a lucky guess by Einstein and that it was experimentalists that had made the work worthy of recognition.
3 Special reports on Einstein
Let us now look at the special reports on Einstein as can be seen in table 1. In 1919 there were nominations for The Svedberg and Jean Perrin for their work on the motions of molecules, but since their work was based on Einstein’s work on the Brownian motion Arrhenius had been asked by his colleagues in the committee to also nominate Einstein for the sake of thoroughness. Arrhenius also got the task to write the special report on the three, where he concluded the section on Einstein:
As far as the prize-awarding of these works is concerned, it must be confessed that they have had as great a value for experimental research as Einstein’s other works. Nevertheless, Einstein’s theoretical work, the theory of relativity and the quantum theory, are by far most proposed of the majority of nominators compared to his molecular kinetic works, when it comes to awarding him with the Nobel Prize. This is undoubtedly due to the fact that these first-mentioned works seem far more apt to change our conception of nature and therefore have a greater significance than the molecular kinetic studies, which are in the very best agreement with, and are a consequence of, the classical conception of the motion of molecules. It would therefore, no doubt, seem strange to the learned world if Einstein received a prize precisely for the works referred to here, notwithstanding their obviously great merit and usefulness for the development of science, and not for his other great works, which is what have attracted the attention of nominators.
So, the argument was that Einstein could not be awarded the Nobel Prize for his work on the Brownian motion since his peers expected it to be for the theories of relativity or quantum theory. This meant that Perrin and Svedberg also were put on hold until 1926 when Perrin got the physics prize and Svedberg the chemistry prize. Instead, Max Planck was awarded the reserved 1918 Nobel Prize for physics “in recognition of the services he rendered to the advancement of Physics by his discovery of energy quanta” and Johannes Stark was awarded the 1919 Nobel Prize in physics for “for his discovery of the Doppler effect in canal rays and the splitting of spectral lines in electric fields”.
The next year, in 1920, Svante Arrhenius followed up his own argument and made a special report on Einstein’s theories of relativity in light of the results from the solar eclipse the previous year. Now Einstein was the candidate that had the most nominations and also by important nominators. Arguments were again made for Einstein’s theories of the Brownian motion, the specific heat, but most of all for the theories of relativity. And as for the general theory of relativity there were discussions of the three specific cases where the theory could be put to the test.
1. The shift of Mercury’s perihelion (where Einstein’s theory was in agreement with observations).
2. The bending of light by the Sun (where there were arguments for and against the accuracy of the observations).
3. The redshift of lines in the solar spectra (which could not yet be detected).
Arrhenius in his report described the great interest and astonishment that had followed the presentation of the solar eclipse results at the joint meeting in November 1919 with the Royal Society and the Royal Astronomical Society. But he also reported on the subsequent critique. Although there was much in favour of the Mercury perihelion shift, Arrhenius also brought up critique and other explanations. For the red shift he, quite lengthy, presented the tests that had been made and none delivered any clear support: “In any case, this effect on wavelength seems unsuitable for supporting Einstein’s theory”. Arrhenius even observed at the end of his report that there had appeared both uncritical admiration and unjust critique of Einstein.
The Nobel Prize in physics for 1920 instead went to the director of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures, Charles Edouard Guillaume, “in recognition of the service he has rendered to precision measurements in Physics by his discovery of anomalies in nickel steel alloys”.
Next year in 1921, there were even more nominations for Einstein. So, this year there were two special reports made on Einstein. One was written by Allvar Gullstrand (1862–1930) on the theories of relativity and the other one, due to a new nomination for the photoelectric effect, on which Arrhenius wrote the report.
Almost half of the general report in 1921 deals with Einstein. It first summed up arguments from Gullstrand’s special report and regarding the experimental tests of the theories of relativity that they had neither contradicted nor confirmed, and it was stated that “it demands a great deal of conviction in respect to phenomena, which lie entirely outside experience, it does not seem to meet the requirements which should apply to the awarding of the Nobel Prize”. Then followed brief summaries of the three different test options of Einstein’s theory arguing that they did not give any clear support. Gullstrand’s report also called into question the shift of Mercury’s perihelion, that many considered a solid argument for Einstein. Gullstrand, however, claimed that for now it was not clear if Einstein’s theory could be considered in agreement with Leverrier’s measurements. And since the general theory of relativity “so far in no way has been satisfactorily confirmed by experience, the committee does not currently consider themselves able to propose him for a Nobel Prize”. The end verdict this year was to wait for further observations and tests to determine the fortune of Einstein. This is a fate that Einstein has shared with many over the years, a cautious policy has perhaps helped the Nobel institution over the years. It must not be wrong. Noteworthy is that the general report in 1921 used terms as “Einstein’s followers” in connection with the discussion of the relativity theories. Normally, the general reports are very matter of fact, without references to anything outside the physics at hand. So, this phrase is special and cannot be understood in any positive sense.
But the general report continued with Einstein’s photoelectric effect. This was more summarily dismissed this year, based on the special report by Arrhenius, claiming that others than Einstein had been crucial in making the experimental work. Arrhenius also dismissed the argument from the nomination that the photoelectric law is fundamental for the quantum theory and its successful dealing with atomic phenomena. And since the 1918 Prize had gone to Planck, it was argued that this had already been awarded. So, prospects for Einstein seemed gloomy and the committee recommended that, since no prizeworthy candidate at all was at hand, the 1921 Nobel Prize should be reserved until next year, and such became the decision of the Academy.
4 Solving the gridlock
Something needed to change if this deadlock should go away. This dominance of experimentalists and experimental ethos in the committee has been observed by historians. And it was quite remarkable that the two members that got the task to evaluate Einstein were Allvar Gullstrand, a professor of ophtalmology and Nobel Laureate in Physiology or Medicine in 1911, and Svante Arrhenius, director of the Nobel Institute for Physical Chemistry and Nobel Laureate in chemistry in 1903. The five-person physics committee did not have any professional theoretical physicist among them at this time.
There were two professors of mathematical physics in Sweden. At Lund University the professor was an expert on sea currents and at this time not a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. The other professor of mathematical physics was also an expert on hydrodynamics, Carl Wilhelm Oseen (1879–1944). He became professor already in 1909 at Uppsala University, but had for many years during the 1910s struggled with tuberculosis. He had early on taken an interest in Niels Bohr and together with Rutherford he helped the Dane to get his professorship. He had also debated some aspects of quantum theory with Planck in 1914. Niels and Margarethe Bohr had visited Oseen in 1913 while the Swede stayed at a sanatorium the months before Bohr published his famous papers on the atomic structure. In 1919 Oseen held a summer lecture series for teachers about the quantum theory and the theories of relativity. From these lectures we can conclude that he was positive although not uncritical to these theories. The lectures, together with the attention that the solar eclipse observations added, helped initiate the founding of the Swedish Physical Society in 1920, where Oseen became the first president. His training from Lund University was in mathematics, so in 1921 he got elected to the Swedish Academy of Sciences, at first to a mathematical class. Later in 1922 he was transferred to the physics class. And more importantly already in the autumn of 1921 Oseen had been adjoined to the Nobel Committee for physics. And at the first meeting he attended, where the above-mentioned decision to reserve the 1921 Prize was recommended by the class, he managed to invoke a possible future opening for the photoelectric law and he:
emphasized that this discovery could gain further significance in the future, which is why he hoped that the committee’s statement should not be understood that the matter was decided once and for all.
In view of this and after further deliberation, the class decided to state that Einstein’s law for the photoelectric effect must be ascribed great importance, but that any awarding of the prize should wait until a more reliable understanding was attained of its significance for science.
For a long time, the Nobel Committee had relied on Gullstrand’s investigations of Einstein’s theory of relativity for the candidacy, and he found the whole thing to be a matter of “belief.” His correspondence with Oseen from this time shows that Gullstrand constantly tried to find errors in Einstein’s theory, whereupon Oseen rejected his objections. At one point, Oseen wrote that it “took a few minutes” for him to dismiss the problem that Gullstrand had posed. But Gullstrand returned with “the fable of the clock that slows down” which was something for “the relativist believer”.
5 Oseen’s tandem solution
1922 became a busy year for Oseen. In May 1922 the astronomer and astrophysicist Bernhard Hasselberg died after years of dwindling health. His last major impact on the committee’s work had been the prize for Guillaume. In September 1922 Gullstrand proposed that Oseen should replace Hasselberg in the committee and brought up Oseen’s grasp of theoretical physics as beneficial for the committee’s work. The nomination was signed by two other members as well as by The Svedberg, member of the chemistry committee. It should also be noted that Oseen was still only member of the applied mathematics and astronomy class and had to be adjoined, not only to the Nobel committee, but also to the physics class to take part in the class’ discussions of the Nobel committee’s proposals. But already before this decision the Nobel committee had submitted its recommendation to the Academy of the two available Nobel Prizes in physics (1921 & 1922), and before that, during the summer, the special reports, by the adjoint member Oseen, had been submitted.
But other important events had also taken place in this context during the summer of 1922. In June Niels Bohr was invited to deliver the Wolfskehl lectures in Göttingen. He travelled there accompanied by his Swedish assistant at this time, Oskar Klein, and they stayed at an inn in the outskirts of the city. At the same inn Oseen also boarded. He was making a rare trip and was anxious to listen to his old friend Niels Bohr and meet other colleagues, as can be seen from fig. 4 and fig. 5. At this conference Bohr presented Hendrik Kramers’ dispersion theory, to which a young Werner Heisenberg raised objections.
Oseen already had a very positive opinion of Bohr’s work, and despite the criticism made by Heisenberg in Göttingen (that actually impressed Bohr), Oseen returned to Uppsala where he sat down and wrote two special Nobel reports, one on Bohr and one on Einstein, see fig. 6. He finished his 34 pages report on Bohr, “Bohr’s atomic theory,” on August 9, and a few days later, on August 13, he finished his 12 pages report on “Einstein’s law for the photoelectric effect”. After submitting these reports he had ten days before the second Nordic Physicist Meeting started in Uppsala, where he was one of the organizers. Bohr attended giving the main lecture “On the Explanation of the Periodic System.” The meeting provided another opportunity for Bohr and Oseen to meet. This conference can be seen as an important step in establishing theoretical atomic physics as a central area for physics among Nordic physicists. It was also considered as something of a “summit meeting” between Oseen and Bohr.
If we look closer at the evaluations by Oseen in 1922, it becomes clear that to him Bohr and Einstein were a tandem. Bohr’s work was based on Einstein’s theory and Einstein’s theory became more palatable when connected to Bohr’s work. Such a solution would manage a Nobel Prize to Einstein, but avoiding the contested issue of the relativity theories, and at the same time solving the pressure of all the nominations for Einstein. No one but Oseen ever nominated Einstein only for the photoelectric effect. He was well aware of the opposition to Einstein’s relativity theories and the political and cultural aspects pertaining to them. However, he was a supporter and one of few in Sweden that actually understood the general theory of relativity at this time. And since there were two available prizes in 1922 it was an opportunity that could not be missed. The postponing in 1921 might thus actually have helped to accommodate the solution in 1922.
6 Finally, a Nobel Prize for Einstein
Looking closer at Oseen’s reports we can note the different sections, after the first theoretical examination he addressed the experimental confirmations of Einstein’s law. And the usage of “law” of course underscores the irrefutable nature of the theory. Especially Millikan’s work was referred to. Then came a section “The Einstein law and Bohr’s atomic theory” which concluded: “The Einstein proposition and Bohr’s objectively identical frequency conditions are currently one of the most trustworthy propositions in physics”. Then followed a section “A look at Einstein’s activities,” where other Einstein’s important contributions were listed. The first group was his works based on classical physics like the Brownian motion, the second group was his writings on the quantum theory, like his papers on the specific heat. The third group was his contributions to electromagnetic theory to which his special theory of relativity was counted. The fourth group was the general theory of relativity. All very important contributions depending on one’s particular interest. “In any case, no other discovery made by Einstein than his proposition on the quantum emission and absorption of light has generated as much interest in measuring physics” Oseen stated. This argument was set to thwart any objections from the overly cautious experimentalists in the committee and in the physics class.
Most important is of course the concluding part:
At a time when physicists, with few exceptions, were opposed to Planck’s quantum theory, Einstein has shown through an original and astute analysis that the energy exchange between matter and ether must take place in such a way that an atom emits or absorbs an energy quantum hν, where ν is the oscillation number. As an application of this proposition, Einstein has established the law that if an electron is photoelectrically triggered from a substance, its energy after release must have the value $h\nu – P$, where $P$ is the work needed to release the electron from the substance. This law has been most beautifully confirmed by measurements by Millikan and others. Einstein’s proposition has received its greatest significance and also the most convincing confirmation in that it is one of the assumptions on which Bohr built his atomic theory. Almost all confirmations of Bohr’s atomic theory are also confirmations of Einstein’s proposition.
The discovery of Einstein’s law is without a doubt one of the most significant events in the history of physics. Its discoverer seems to me to fully deserve a Nobel Prize in physics.
A stronger endorsement cannot be phrased but let us also briefly examine Oseen’s report on Bohr. The different sections gave a hint of the way his argument went: “The historical assumptions for Bohr’s atomic theory”, “The basis for Bohr’s theory of 1913”, “The results of Bohr’s theory from 1913”, “Theory for the Stark effect and the Zeeman effect”, “Bohr’s correspondence principle”, “Bohr’s rule for determining the stationary states”, “The atomic theory’s development 1913–1921”, “Bohr’s atomic theory of 1921”, “Confirmations of Bohr’s theory”, and “Difficulties in Bohr’s atomic theory” concluded the report and the final words should be noted:
The cornerstone of Bohr’s thought structure, the Einstein-Bohr condition $\epsilon_{1} - \epsilon_{2} = h\nu$, has, through studies by Franck et al. received an extremely comprehensive and overwhelming confirmation. [...] Finally, if one asks whether the Bohr atomic theory is worthy of a Nobel Prize in physics, it seems to me that the answer can be no other than this. Both with regard to its already confirmed findings and with regard to the powerful stimulus that this theory has given to both experimental and theoretical physics, Bohr’s atomic theory seems to me fully worthy of a Nobel Prize.
Also, an extremely strong endorsement. There was also another seven pages special report in 1922 by Allvar Gullstrand supplementing his special report from the previous year on Einstein’s theories of relativity. Here Gullstrand reiterated that these theories were a “matter of faith”, and he went through the three tests for the general theory. For the red shift Gullstrand quoted von Laue that there was room for further tests. And he continued to quote von Laue that there was no absolute certainty and that there was room for more and further investigations. For the perihelion test Gullstrand referred to some papers that did not fully support Einstein’s theory, and that any certain judgment therefore would have to wait. He also referred several times to “followers of the relativity theory”, and concluded:
It should be clear from the above that my opinion from last year that Einstein cannot at present be advocated for the award of the Nobel Prize in Physics, either for the special or the general theory of relativity or for the combined value of these theories, is not only still valid, but has been further confirmed by subsequent publications.
Despite Gullstrand’s stubborn objections to relativity, Oseen convinced his colleagues in the Nobel Committee for his tandem solution, and Gullstrand could still be content that the relativity theories were not awarded a Nobel Prize. The general report also stated that there was an overwhelming number of nominations for Einstein, which might have made the Committee and the Academy members extra prone to accept Oseen’s solution. Most nominations for Einstein were for the relativity theories, and only Oseen had nominated Einstein exclusively for the photoelectric effect. The committee referred to Gullstrand’s present and prior reports and to Arrhenius previous report and the committee “maintained its verdict from last year and considered itself unable to propose Einstein for the Nobel Prize for his theories of relativity and gravitation”. Then the report continued discussing Einstein and Bohr simultaneously according to Oseen’s arguments and concluded:
Due to what the committee here had the honour to state, may the committee suggest that of the two available Nobel Prizes for Physics, the one reserved from the previous year should be awarded to Professor Albert Einstein in Berlin for his merits in theoretical physics, especially his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect; and that this year’s Nobel Prize in Physics should be awarded to Professor Niels Bohr in Copenhagen for his merits in exploring the structure of atoms and the radiation emanating from them.
The class did approve of this suggestion by the Nobel Committee, which basically was Oseen’s tandem solution.
All this was well-received, also in the Academy in pleno and on November 9, 1922 the decision was made at the Nobel meeting of the Academy to award Einstein the reserved 1921 Physics Prize and Niels Bohr the 1922 Physics Prize. Noteworthy is that the Academy was anxious to keep any trace of the theories of relativity out of the motivation and they changed the phrase: “for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect” adding “regardless of the value that, after any confirmation, could be attributed to the theories of relativity and gravity, [...] award the 1921 prize [...] to Albert Einstein for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect.” This text also made it onto Einstein’s Nobel diploma making it stand out as the only Nobel diploma with text stating what the Laureate was not awarded for. The most common interpretation of this is that it is a symptom of the anxious and perhaps not so brilliant Swedish Committee. That could well be the case, but another interpretation might be possible as we shall see.
7 The end of nominations
Oseen had managed an incredible feat to have two of his own candidates each being awarded the Nobel Prize and thus defusing the difficult situation with the many nominations for Einstein. And as we have seen, the Nobel Prize to Einstein was intrinsically coupled to the Nobel Prize to Bohr and vice versa. Also clear is that it was all Oseen’s doing. No one beside members of the Nobel Committee could fully understand what had played out, but some people did. Oseen’s former colleague from Uppsala, Eva von Bahr-Bergius, was pleased with the end result and wrote to Oseen:
More than one month ago – when the names of the Nobel laureates were announced – I was determined to write to you. I felt a need to thank you for being there and taking care of the Nobel Prizes, so that physicists will not make a fool of themselves in the same way as the Swedish [Literary] Academy. Because your influence on these matters is very great, I understand very well. I would very much wish that someday you alone could be in charge of the Nobel Prizes, but I am afraid that you write such learned things that – at least here in Sweden – there is no one who can judge them.
I assume that there was a controversy about Einstein’s name. His opponents, who succeeded in excluding the theory of relativity from the prize statement, have thereby simply ensured that in the future he will receive the prize one more time.
So, this is another possible interpretation. That the non-awarding of the theories of relativity would only mean that Einstein would be awarded the Nobel Prize again. And there were no formal objections to such a chain of events, Marie Curie had a decade earlier received her second Nobel Prize. And Einstein if any could have been nominated again for the theories of relativity and other works. But the fact is that that did not happen. The following year there were two nominations for him, but they were actually late arrivals from the previous year. And thereafter there are no nominations at all for Einstein. So, apparently his peers considered that he was now put up on the Nobel shelf, which is also telling of how awards in science may function, especially the Nobel Prize.
But let us return to where we started. Einstein did not come to Stockholm to pick up his Nobel Prize, he was on a boat on his way from the USA to Japan, when the news broke, and there was no possibility for him to make it to the Prize awarding events in Stockholm. Since it is mandatory to deliver a Nobel Prize Lecture to receive the prize amount, he eventually came to Sweden the year after, and invited by Svante Arrhenius he delivered a lecture in Gothenburg on July 11, 1923 on “Fundamental ideas and problems of the theory of relativity.” But that was not the work he had been awarded for. But since most people were more interested in a lecture on relativity theory than the photoelectric effect as can be seen in the large crowd in fig. 1, this is what Arrhenius asked Einstein to talk about. And immediately after Arrhenius delivered the manuscript of the lecture for the Nobel Foundation yearbook, Les Prix Nobel, as Einstein’s Nobel Lecture. This was questioned in the Academy, but Arrhenius then said that the manuscript had already been set, and proofs already sent out. So, it was agreed that it should be allowed. Among Einstein’s critics in Sweden this caused an outrage and a lot of complaints to the Academy that had let this pass, complaints arrived also from abroad. The lecture should take place within six months, but this was after seven months; the lecture should take place in Stockholm, and most of all it should be about the Prize awarded work. There had been instances of delay earlier, the Curies held their lecture one and a half year late, but they held it in Stockholm and on the topic they had been awarded for at least. The reason for Arrhenius’ actions might be found in his argument in the 1919 special report not to award Einstein for the Brownian motion, since it would be strange if Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize for anything else than the theories of relativity. This is why Einstein’s Nobel lecture is about the theories of relativity, for which he was not awarded the Nobel Prize.
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correct_award_00024
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1
| 36
|
https://www.bartbeemsterboer.nl/story-life-awards.html
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en
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Einstein in 2 minutes
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Albert Einstein
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en
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favicon/apple-icon-144x144.png
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The Nobel Prize
Einstein was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on the photoelectric effect and for "Merits in theoretical physics". The mystery was why it had taken so long for the greatest physics of his generation received this greatest tribute in physics. Einstein was passed in 1920 because of the massive wave of publicity that followed the confirmation of his general theory of relativity. In 1921, the Nobel Committee chose not to award a prize that year. Only in 1922 did the committee see reason to award him the 1921 prize. Einstein's reaction was typical, he went to Japan and did not personally accept the award.
Relativity
Einstein had always expected to win the Nobel Prize someday. He was so convinced that when negotiating the divorce with Mileva in 1918 he offered her the full amount of a future Nobel Prize. The 1921 price was 121,572 Swedish kronor, or $32,250 - nowadays, approximately $400,000. Whether he has ever kept this promise is historically doubted by historians. Evidence found in 2006 shows that Einstein instead invested a large portion of the money and then lost it in the economically noisy period of the Great Depression.
The 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics for the photoelectric effect and the possibly deliberately vague formulation of "merits in theoretical physics" was the only Nobel Prize to be awarded. Perhaps one of the greatest injustices in science is that the Nobel Committee has never acknowledged its theory of relativity. Together with quantum theory, it turned out to be one of the two major pillars of 20th-century physics. Einstein has been nominated many times for his special theory of relativity from 1905 between 1910 and 1922. However, he never won, because his theory was so revolutionary that the committee claimed the supporting evidence was too thin. Posthumous nominations are not allowed, so there will be no Nobel Prize for Albert Einstein's greatest spiritual achievement.
Other prices
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correct_award_00024
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FactBench
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0
| 6
|
https://www.uzh.ch/en/researchinnovation/excellence/nobelprize/einstein.html
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en
|
Albert Einstein – Nobel Prize in Physics 1921
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1905 was Albert Einstein’s annus mirabilis: he published no less than five groundbreaking papers. Among these was his Light Quanta Hypothesis, for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize.
In 1905, 26-year-old Albert Einstein submitted to the University of Zurich his dissertation entitled “Eine neue Bestimmung der Moleküldimensionen” (A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions). Within just a few months, he published another four papers, any of which would today be regarded as worthy of a Nobel Prize. His groundbreaking work included the Theory of Special Relativity and the Light Quanta Hypothesis; the latter being singled out for the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921.
Einstein's revolutionary Light Quanta Hypothesis states that light consists of tiny bundles of energy (quanta). If the energy of light shining on a metallic surface is sufficient, the surface will emit electrons. The electrical charge released during this process can be measured. This phenomenon is called the photoelectric effect. Though this effect had long been known in physics, Einstein was the first to explain it correctly, by developing the Light Quanta Hypothesis. Only some twenty years later was the hypothesis confirmed experimentally.
From 1896 to 1900, Einstein studied physics at the Federal Polytechnical School (today’s ETH). Although the only successful student of his year, he was not offered an assistant’s position there when he completed his studies – probably on account of his average grades, and because he often skipped classes. Rather than attend lectures, Einstein preferred to stay at home and study the masters of theoretical physics, with “holy fervor,” as he later recalled.
As he did not obtain a position at ETH, Einstein worked from 1902 to 1909 as an employee of the Federal Patent Office in Berne. In 1909 the University of Zurich created an associate professorship in theoretical physics for him. This was Einstein’s first academic position; he left it in 1911 for a professorship in Prague.
Einstein returned to Zurich from 1912 to 1914 as a professor at ETH. In 1914 he left for Berlin, and even turned down a later offer of a double professorship at the University of Zurich and ETH. He emigrated to America in 1933, never to return to Europe.
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correct_award_00024
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FactBench
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2
| 63
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https://everything-everywhere.com/how-many-nobel-prizes-should-albert-einstein-have-won/
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en
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How Many Nobel Prizes Should Albert Einstein Have Won?
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2020-12-04T22:44:36+00:00
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How Many Nobel Prizes Should Albert Einstein Have Won?
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en
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Everything Everywhere
|
https://everything-everywhere.com/how-many-nobel-prizes-should-albert-einstein-have-won/
|
Subscribe
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Transcript
In the 120 year history of the Nobel Prize, there have been four people who have been given an award twice.
One of them is not Albert Einstein.
Yet, when you look at his list of accomplishments and the different fields of physics which he has touched, he arguably deserved more than one Nobel prize.
Join me as I play fantasy physics and try to figure out how many Nobel Prizes Albert Einstien should have won on this episode of Everything Everywhere Daily.
The history of Albert Einstein and the Nobel Prize is a rather complex one.
By the year 1920, Einstein was unquestionably the most famous scientist in the world. Yet, he had not won a Nobel Prize.
He had developed the Special and General theories of Relativity, he had set the equivalence of mass and energy in his famous E=mc2 equation, and had contributed to many other areas of physics.
His work on relativity had been nominated by many physicists over several years, but the Nobel committee never gave him a prize.
There were a bunch of reasons why Einstein was never given a Nobel Prize. Being Jewish and pacifist were big ones. The Nobel committee didn’t want to honor someone who was so outside the mainstream. The biggest reason, however, was that he was a theoretical physicist. The prize had, up until this point, primarily been given to people who proved things through experimentation.
In 1919, evidence for the General Theory of Relativity was finally found during a solar eclipse when British astronomer Arthur Stanley Eddington detected light from stars which was bent by the gravity of the sun.
Everyone figured that 1920 would be the year when Einstein finally won his Nobel Prize. Instead, the award was given to Charles Edouard Guillaume “in recognition of the service he has rendered to precision measurements in Physics by his discovery of anomalies in nickel steel alloys”.
Yeah, Guillaume was just as surprised as everyone else that he won.
Well, OK. Maybe there wasn’t enough time for the result to sink in. Surely, 1921 would be the year that Einstien would win, right?
In 1921, they gave the Nobel Prize in Physics to no one. Yeah, they decided to give it to no one, rather than give it to Einstein.
The attitude of the Nobel committee was summed up by one Allvar Gullstrand, a Swedish ophthalmologist who sat on the physics committee. In his diaries, found long after his death, he wrote of the 1921 physics prize, “Einstein must never receive a Nobel Prize, even if the whole world demands it.”
By 1922, the Nobel Committee was looking ridiculous in the eyes of the world and in the eyes of the physics community for not giving Einstein a prize.
The rules of the prize stipulate that if no one were given an award in the sciences, it would roll over to the next year. So in 1922, they could retroactively give the 1921 prize.
The committee determined that they had to give the award to Einstein to maintain their respectability in the scientific world. It was just a matter of what they were going to give it to him for. This was probably the only time in the history of the Nobel when the winner was determined before the reason for the award.
In 1922 the nominations poured in again, and again there were dozens of nominations for Einstein and the General Theory of Relativity. However, there was one nomination for Einstein which wasn’t for relativity. Carl Wilhelm Oseen, a Swedish physicist, nominated Einstein for his work in discovering the photoelectric effect.
The photoelectric effect basically holds that photons of light will have more energy at shorter wavelengths.
The committee decided to give Einstein the 1921 award, which wasn’t given out the previous year and give the 1922 award to Niels Bohr who developed the theory of the atom. By giving an award to Einstein and Bohr at the same time, it eliminated having to give one to Einstein by himself.
So Einstein won his Nobel Prize, but it explicitly was not for relativity. In fact, when he was notified by the Nobel Committee they stated:
… the Royal Academy of Sciences has decided to award you last year’s Nobel Prize for physics, in consideration of your work in theoretical physics and in particular your discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect, but without taking into account the value which will be accorded your relativity and gravitation theories after these are confirmed in the future.
They left the door open for a future prize, but none was ever given.
Einstein didn’t really care much about the prize. He didn’t attend the prize ceremony because he was lecturing in Japan. All the money he won went to his ex-wife in a previous divorce settlement. Later in his life when he was asked which honors he was more proud of, he put the German Physical Society’s Max Planck Medal first and didn’t mention the Nobel Prize at all.
Given that we now have 120 years of Nobel Prizes under our belt, it is an interesting question to ask, how many Nobel Prizes should or could Einstein have won?
For the purposes of this theoretical discussion on theoretical physics, I’ll set a few rules:
Any prize he might share with someone else will count as a prize for Einstein. After all, if you share a prize with someone, you are still considered a Nobel laureate, and you still get the medal. You only split the prize money.
The Nobel committee does not award posthumous prizes. So for the purposes of this discussion, we’ll either assume that they do, or that Einstein is now 141 years old, and that he didn’t do any more physics after 1955, which was the year he died.
Before we dive in, how many people have ever won more than one Nobel prize?
The answer is four.
They are Marie Curie, who won in Physics in 1903 and Chemistry in 1911.
Linus Pauling, who won in Chemistry in 1954 and Peace in 1962.
John Bardeen, who won in Physics in 1956 and 1972.
And Frederick Sanger, who won in Chemistry in 1958 and 1980.
So with that, let’s start the Einstein count. For this I’ll basically count any scientific contributions which were at a Nobel Prize level, based on previous awards.
Number one is of course the prize he did win for the photoelectric effect. There is an argument that the 1921 and 1922 prizes that Einstein and Bohr received were really a single shared prize for the same thing, but it makes no difference for our purposes.
Number two would be for special relativity. He developed this in 1905 and he would probably end up sharing this prize with Hendrik Lorentz who developed some of the equations for it.
Number three would be for General Relativity which he published in 1915. This was all his and he would have gotten this alone.
Number four would be sharing in the 1929 prize with Louis de Broglie, for wave-particle duality. De Broglie freely admitted Einstein’s contribution to this, but Einstein was never given credit by the Nobel Committee.
Number five would be from his 1916 paper on spontaneous emission of light from atoms. This was the first time the idea of randomness was put in quantum mechanics, and it is now a pillar of science. This paper also developed the idea of stimulated emission, which was the theoretical basis for lasers. The 1964 Nobel Prize in Physics was given for the invention of the laser.
Number six would be the work he did with Indian physicist, Satyendra Bose in developing what became known as the Bose-Einstein Condensate. This is a state of matter at extremely low temperatures. The 2001 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded for proving and creating a Bose-Einstein Condensate, and Bose also never received a Nobel Prize.
Number seven would be for figuring out Browning Motion. The 1926 prize in physics was given to Jean Baptiste Perrin for experimentally proving the theory which Einstein established in 1905.
A possible eight prize could have been given for his work with quantum entanglement. The theoretical basis was set by Einstein, Boris Podolsky, and Nathan Rosen. They published a paper in 1935 titled “Can Quantum-Mechanical Description of Physical Reality be Considered Complete?”. This was the theoretical basis that led to the 2012 Nobel Prize.
A possible ninth prize could be a share of the 1933 prize which went to Erwin Schrödinger. Einstein was involved in the creation of Schrödinger’s equations and contributed enough to jointly share in the prize.
A possible tenth prize could be his theory of gravity waves, which was finally proven true and awarded a Nobel prize in 2017.
So far we are at ten, and these are just things which actually did win Nobel Prizes, for which Einstein played a major part in the development of the theories which made winning the prize possible for someone else, or for his theories of relativity, which were obviously overlooked and ignored by the committee.
There is an 11th thing for which he could have won a prize for which is often overlooked. Peace. In his later years, Einstein was a big advocate for nuclear disarmament. Given his role in the development of the atomic bomb, he felt it was his duty.
Given that Chemist Linus Pauling won a peace prize in 1962 for basically the same thing, and Einstein was far more famous and influential, it is not at all out of the question that he could have shared the 1962 Nobel Peace Prize if he had lived that long.
So, 11 theoretical Nobel Prizes isn’t too shabby.
It is hard to overstate the impact Einstein had on almost every area of physics in the 20th century.
Yet, believe it or not, Einstein might not be the greatest of all time in physics. I’ll investigate that in a future episode when I dish out the theoretical Nobel prizes for one Isaac Newton.
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| 95
|
https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/10/3/pierre-agostini-ferenc-krausz-anne-lhuillier-win-nobel-prize-for-physics
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en
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Pierre Agostini, Ferenc Krausz, Anne L’Huillier win Nobel Prize for physics
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The top award in physics goes to three scientists for ‘experimental methods that generate attosecond pulses of light’.
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Al Jazeera
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https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/10/3/pierre-agostini-ferenc-krausz-anne-lhuillier-win-nobel-prize-for-physics
|
Pierre Agostini, Ferenc Krausz and Anne L’Huillier have won the 2023 Nobel Prize in physics for “experimental methods that generate attosecond pulses of light for the study of electron dynamics in matter”, the award-giving body says.
“The laureates’ experiments have produced pulses of light so short that they are measured in attoseconds, thus demonstrating that these pulses can be used to provide images of processes inside atoms and molecules,” the award-giving body said in a statement on Tuesday.
Agostini of The Ohio State University in the United States, Krausz of the Max Planck Institute of Quantum Optics and Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich in Germany, and L’Huillier of Lund University in Sweden are awarded 11 million Swedish crowns (about $1m).
In addition to the financial prize, winners will receive a Nobel Prize diploma and a gold medal.
L’Huillier is only the fifth woman to win a Nobel in physics.
“This is the most prestigious and I am so happy to get this prize. It’s incredible,” she told the news conference as the prize was announced. “As you know, there are not so many women who got this prize so it’s very special.”
Al Jazeera’s Paul Rhys, reporting from Stockholm, said that the scientists’ methods open the path for examining changes in molecules at a new level.
“One particular application of it, which has been mooted, is that blood samples can be examined with these flashes of light to notice any changes,” he said.
“That means that diseases such as lung cancer could be detected at an incredibly early stage and obviously stop them developing,” Rhys added.
The award, announced in the Swedish capital Stockholm on Tuesday morning, is the second Nobel of the season after the 2023 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was announced on Monday.
The prize in medicine went to mRNA researchers Hungarian-born US citizens Katalin Kariko and Drew Weissman for their groundbreaking technology that paved the way for messenger RNA (mRNA) COVID-19 vaccines.
Four more prizes to be announced
The awards for chemistry, literature and peace are scheduled to be awarded on Wednesday, Thursday and Friday in Stockholm. The award for economics will be announced on October 9.
Nobel prizes were founded through the 1895 will of Swedish inventor and philanthropist Alfred Nobel. The Economics Prize, created in 1968, is the only Nobel that was not included in the will.
While the award for peace can hog the limelight, the physics prize has likewise often taken centre stage with winners such as Albert Einstein and awards for science that have fundamentally changed how we see the world.
Last year, Alain Aspect, John Clauser and Anton Zeilinger won the prize for physics for work on quantum entanglement, where two particles are linked regardless of the space between them, something that unsettled Einstein himself who once referred to it as “spooky action at a distance”.
Each diploma is a unique work of art, created by Swedish and Norwegian artists and calligraphers.
The laureates collect these prizes in an official ceremony on December 10, the anniversary of Nobel’s death.
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FactBench
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3
| 97
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https://sweden.se/work-business/study-research/the-swedish-nobel-prize
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en
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The Nobel Prize
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2024-01-17T08:00:00+00:00
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The Nobel Prize is very prestigious and is awarded every year in physics, chemistry, literature, medicine/physiology, economics and peace.
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en
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sweden.se
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https://sweden.se/work-business/study-research/the-swedish-nobel-prize
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The Swedish Nobel Prize
Great minds think differently. The Nobel Prize is a celebration of excellence.
To many, the Nobel Prize is the most prestigious award in the world in its field. In accordance with Alfred Nobel's will, the prize celebrates ‘those who, during the preceding year, shall have conferred the greatest benefit on mankind’.
Prizes in physics, chemistry, physiology or medicine, literature and peace exist since 1901.
Later, in 1968, Sweden’s central bank (Sveriges Riksbank) established the Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel via a donation to the Nobel Foundation. Since then, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences awards the prize, basing selections on the same principles as the Nobel Prizes.
Prize-winning discoveries include X-rays, radioactivity and penicillin. Peace laureates include Nelson Mandela and the 14th Dalai Lama. Winners in literature have thrilled readers with works such as One Hundred Years of Solitude (Gabriel García Márquez) and The Grass is Singing (Doris Lessing).
Nobel Prize winners announced in October
Every year in early October, the winners are announced. Then on 10 December, the so-called Nobel Day, award ceremonies take place in the Swedish capital of Stockholm and the Norwegian capital of Oslo.
The years 2020 and 2021 were exceptions to the rule in Sweden. Due to the Covid-19 pandemic, the laureates received their diplomas and medals in their countries of residence. Nobel Week then featured as a digital event, with online award ceremonies and lectures, and without the usual Stockholm banquet.
Some winner statistics
Women have received the Nobel Prize and the Prize in Economic Sciences 61 times from 1901 to 2023. One woman, Marie Curie, is a two-time recipient – she won the 1903 award in physics and the 1911 award in chemistry.
In 1909, Swede Selma Lagerlöf became the first female literature laureate.
The oldest winner to date is John B. Goodenough (1922-2023), who was 97 when he received the Prize in Chemistry in 2019.
The youngest winner to date is Malala Yousafzai, who was 17 when she received the Peace Prize in 2014.
Four winners have been forced to decline the prize: Germans Richard Kuhn (Chemistry), Adolf Butenandt (Chemistry) and Gerhard Domagk (Physiology/Medicine) were forbidden by Adolf Hitler from accepting their prizes. Russian Boris Pasternak initially accepted the 1958 award in literature, but was later coerced into declining by Soviet authorities.
The three Germans later received their awards, but not the prize money.
Two winners have declined
Jean-Paul Sartre declined the 1964 Literature Prize because he had consistently declined all official honours.
In 1973, Lê Ðức Thọ and US Secretary of State Henry Kissinger were awarded the Peace Prize for negotiating the Vietnam peace agreement. But Lê Ðức Thọ declined the award, saying he could not accept the prize due to the situation in Vietnam.
A timeline of culture and science
From the first award in 1901 to the most recent ones in 2023, Nobel Prizes have been awarded 621 times. A total of 965 individuals and 27 organisations have been awarded, with some receiving the Nobel Prize more than once.
1901: Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen receives the first Nobel Prize in Physics for his discovery of X-rays.
1903: Marie Curie becomes the first female laureate, as the joint winner in physics for her research into radioactivity. Eight years later, in 1911, Curie receives the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for her discovery of radium.
1905: Austrian baroness and author Bertha von Suttner becomes the first woman to win the Nobel Peace Prize, in recognition of her work with the pacifist movements in Germany and Austria. Von Suttner also knew Alfred Nobel personally and is widely credited as the person who inspired him to create the Peace Prize.
1912: Swedish inventor and industrialist Gustaf Dalén wins the Nobel Prize in Physics for his contributions to lighthouse technology. He invented the AGA lighthouse, a type of automatic lighthouse that ran on acetylene gas. It made it possible to reduce gas consumption by 90 per cent compared with earlier constructions.
1914–1918: In the wake of World War I, only one Peace Prize is awarded. The International Committee of the Red Cross receives it in 1917, 'for the efforts to take care of wounded soldiers and prisoners of war and their families'. The International Committee of the Red Cross will go on to receive the Nobel Peace Prize twice more, in 1944, and jointly with the League of Red Cross Societies in 1963.
1922: Albert Einstein receives the Nobel Prize in Physics – for 1921, technically. The Nobel Committee for Physics' decision to give Einstein the award a year later is shortly explained here. Einstein is awarded '...for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect'.
1945: Sir Alexander Fleming, Ernst Boris Chain and Sir Howard Walter jointly receive the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine Florey for the discovery of penicillin.
1952: Selman Abraham Waksman receives the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, for his discovery of streptomycin – the first antibiotic effective against tuberculosis.
1968: The Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel is introduced as a Nobel Prize category.
1975: David Baltimore, Renato Dulbecco and Howard Martin Temin jointly receive the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 'for their discoveries concerning the interaction between tumour viruses and the genetic material of the cell'.
1983: American Barbara McClintock receives the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for her discovery of mobile genetic elements.
1993: Toni Morrison receives the Nobel Prize in Literature. Her novels are '...characterized by visionary force and poetic import, (giving) life to an essential aspect of American reality', writes the Swedish Academy.
2004: Aaron Ciechanover, Avram Hershko and Irwin Rose jointly receive the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the discovery of ubiquitin-mediated protein degradation.
2010: Robert G. Edwards of the United Kingdom receives the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for the development of in vitro fertilization.
2011: Swedish poet Tomas Tranströmer receives the Nobel Prize in Literature. 'Because, through his condensed, translucent images, he gives us fresh access to reality', writes the Swedish Academy.
2018: In the midst of a crisis, the Swedish Academy chooses not to hand out a literature prize. The Academy cites its diminished number of active members and a reduced public confidence as the reasons. The year after, the Academy announces the Nobel Prize in Literature for 2018 – Olga Tokarczuk – in parallel with the naming of the 2019 Laureate, Peter Handke.
2019: Ethiopian prime minister Abiy Ahmed Ali receives the Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts to resolve border conflicts between Ethiopia and neighbouring country Eritrea. The intent of the Prize is also to recognise all stakeholders working for peace and reconciliation in Ethiopia and in the East and Northeast African regions.
Previous Nobel Peace Prize Laureates include Martin Luther King (1964), Mother Teresa (1979) and Barack Obama (2009).
2023 winners:
(countries denote place of birth)
Physiology or Medicine
Katalin Karikó (Hungary), Drew Weissman (USA)
'For their discoveries concerning nucleoside base modifications that enabled the development of effective mRNA vaccines against COVID-19.'
Physics
Pierre Agostini (Tunisia), Ferencz Krausz (Hungary), Anne L'Huillier (France)
'For experimental methods that generate attosecond pulses of light for the study of electron dynamics in matter.'
Chemistry
Moungi G. Bawendi (France), Louis E. Brus (USA), Alexei I. Ekimov (former Soviet Union)
'For the discovery and synthesis of quantum dots.'
Literature
Jon Fosse (Norway)
'For his innovative plays and prose which give voice to the unsayable.'
Nobel Peace Prize
Narges Mohammadi (Iran)
'For her fight against the oppression of women in Iran and her fight to promote human rights and freedom for all.'
The Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel
Claudia Goldin (USA)
'For having advanced our understanding of women’s labour market outcomes.'
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The Nobel Prizes are prizes instituted by the will of Alfred Bernhard Nobel. They are awarded to people, and some organizations, which have done outstanding research, invented groundbreaking techniques or equipment, or made outstanding contributions to society. The Nobel Prizes, which are generally awarded annually in the categories of physics, chemistry, physiology or medicine, literature, peace, and economics, are widely regarded as the supreme commendation in the world. Unfortunately, those who select and those who receive the prizes do not always live up to the standard envisioned by Nobel. Nevertheless, the incentive to benefit humankind inspires many recipients to strive to fulfill their potential, offering their best work for the sake of all.
Introduction
Between 1901 and 2010, the Nobel Prizes and the Prize in Economic Sciences were awarded 543 times. These include 817 Laureates and 23 organizations (since some individuals and organizations have been honored more than once, a total of 813 different individuals and 20 unique organizations have received awards). A prize may be given to two works if they are both considered worthy of the prize. Also, a prize may be awarded jointly to two or three persons who collaborated on the work that is being rewarded. A few prize winners have declined the award. The prize cannot be revoked and nominees must be living at the time of their nomination. Since 1974, the award cannot be given out posthumously.
There are years in which one or more prizes are not awarded, usually because no work was found to be of the required standard stipulated by Alfred Nobel. However, the prizes must be awarded at least once every five years. During World War II, no prizes were awarded in any category from 1940 through 1942. The selection of the peace prize in particular was greatly hampered by Nazi Germany's occupation of Norway.
Nobel's Will
The prizes were instituted by the final will of Alfred Nobel, a Swedish chemist, industrialist, and the inventor of dynamite. Alfred Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime, the last one written on November 27, 1895, more than a year before he died. He signed it at the Swedish-Norwegian Club in Paris on November 27, 1895. Nobel's work had directly involved the creation of explosives, and he became increasingly uneasy with the military usage of his inventions. It is said that his will was motivated in part by his reading of a premature obituary of himself, published in error by a French newspaper on the occasion of the death of Nobel's brother Ludvig, which condemned Alfred as a "merchant of death." After his death, Alfred left 94 percent of his worth to the establishment of five prizes:
The whole of my remaining realizable estate shall be dealt with in the following way:
The capital shall be invested by my executors in safe securities and shall constitute a fund, the interest on which shall be annually distributed in the form of prizes to those who, during the preceding year, shall have conferred the greatest benefit on mankind. The said interest shall be divided into five equal parts, which shall be apportioned as follows: one part to the person who shall have made the most important discovery or invention within the field of physics; one part to the person who shall have made the most important chemical discovery or improvement; one part to the person who shall have made the most important discovery within the domain of physiology or medicine; one part to the person who shall have produced in the field of literature the most outstanding work of an idealistic tendency; and one part to the person who shall have done the most or the best work for fraternity among nations, for the abolition or reduction of standing armies and for the holding and promotion of peace congresses.
The prizes for physics and chemistry shall be awarded by the Swedish Academy of Sciences; that for physiological or medical works by the Caroline Institute in Stockholm; that for literature by the Academy in Stockholm; and that for champions of peace by a committee of five persons to be elected by the Norwegian Storting. It is my express wish that in awarding the prizes no consideration whatever shall be given to the nationality of the candidates, so that the most worthy shall receive the prize, whether he be a Scandinavian or not.
Although Nobel's will established the prizes, his plan was incomplete and took five years before the Nobel Foundation could be established and the first prizes were awarded on December 10, 1901.
Prize Categories
Alfred Nobel's will made provision for only five prizes; the economics prize was added later in his memory. The six prizes awarded are:
Nobel Prize in Physics – Awarded by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
Nobel Prize in Chemistry – Awarded by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine – Awarded by the Karolinska Institute
Nobel Prize in Literature – Awarded by the Swedish Academy
Nobel Prize in Peace – Awarded by the Norwegian Nobel Committee
Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics – Also known as the Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel, it was instituted in 1969 by Sveriges Riksbank, the Bank of Sweden. Although it is awarded by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences with the official Nobel prizes, it is not paid for by his money, and is technically not a Nobel Prize.
Nomination and Selection
As compared with other prizes, the Nobel Prize nomination and selection process is long and rigorous. This is an important reason why the prizes have grown in importance and prestige over the years to become the most important prizes in their field.
Forms, which amount to a personal and exclusive invitation, are sent to about 3,000 selected individuals to invite them to submit nominations for noteworthy candidates. The strictly enforced submission deadline for nominations is January 31. Self-nominations are automatically disqualified and only living persons are eligible for the Nobel Prize. Unlike many other awards, the Nobel Prize nominees are never publicly announced, and they are not supposed to be told that they were ever considered for the prize. These records are sealed for 50 years.
After the nomination deadline, a committee compiles and reduces the number of nominations to a list of 200 preliminary candidates. The list is sent to selected experts in the field of each nominee's work and the list is further shortened to around 15 final candidates. The committee then writes a report with recommendations and sends it to the academy or other corresponding institution, depending on the category of the prize. As an example of institute size, the Assembly for the Prize for Medicine has 50 members. The members of the institution then vote to select the winner.
Posthumous nominations for the Prize have been disallowed since 1974. This has sometimes sparked criticism that people deserving of a Nobel Prize did not receive the award because they died before being nominated. In two cases, the prize has been awarded posthumously to people who were nominated when they were still alive. This was the case with UN Secretary General Dag Hammarskjöld (1961 Peace Prize) and Erik Axel Karlfeldt (1931 Prize in Literature); both of whom were awarded the prize in the years they died.
Awarding Ceremonies
The committees and institutions that serve as selection boards for the prizes typically announce the names of the laureates in October. The prizes are awarded at formal ceremonies held annually on December 10, the anniversary of Alfred Nobel's death.
Each prize can be given to a maximum of three recipients per year. The prizes constitute a gold medal, a diploma, and a sum of money. The monetary award is currently about 10 million Swedish Kronor, which is slightly more than one million Euros or about $1.3 million dollars. This was originally intended to allow laureates to continue working or researching without the pressures of raising money. In actual fact, many prize winners have retired before winning. If there are two winners in one category, the award money is split equally between them. If there are three winners, the awarding committee has the option of splitting the prize money equally among all three, or awarding half of the prize money to one recipient and one-quarter to each of the other recipients. It is common for the winners to donate the prize money to benefit scientific, cultural, or humanitarian causes.
Nobel Prize in Physics
The Nobel Prize in Physics is awarded annually to the person (or persons) who is recognized as having made the most impact, be it discovery or invention, to the field of physics. It is bestowed by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.
Award Winners
In 1903, husband and wife Pierre and Marie Curie were jointly awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for their influential research regarding radiation, a phenomena originally discovered by Professor Henri Becquerel. In 1911, Curie received her second Nobel Prize in Physics for isolating radium. She is one of only two women ever to have received the award.
The 1915 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to the first-ever father-son team recognizing Sir William Henry Bragg and his son, Sir William Lawrence Bragg, for their analyses of crystal structure through means of x-rays. As of 2006, Sir William Lawrence Bragg remains as the youngest award winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics, receiving the award at age 25.
In 1921, Albert Einstein received the Nobel Prize in Physics for his explanation of the 1905 photoelectric effect. When receiving this award, Einstein was also commended "for his services to Theoretical Physics,” which is believed to have incorporated the often counter-intuitive concepts and advanced constructs of his relativity theory. At the time, a large portion of his theory was believed to be in too far advance of possible experimental verification. In the years following, and with aid of advancing technologies, many of these aspects were physically proven, including Einstein’s discovery of gravitational waves, the bending of light, and the structure of black holes.
Controversies
In 1915, Thomas Edison and Nikola Tesla were mentioned as potential laureates, though it is believed that due to their animosity toward each other that neither was ever given the award despite the enormous scientific contributions of each. There is some indication that each sought to minimize the other one's achievements, that both refused to ever accept the award if the other received it first, and that both rejected any possibility of sharing it—as was rumored in the press at the time. Tesla had a greater financial need for the award than Edison: in 1916, he filed for bankruptcy.
In 1939, Lise Meitner contributed directly to the discovery of nuclear fission but received no Nobel Prize recognition. In fact, it was she, not winner Otto Hahn, who first analyzed the accumulated experimental data and discovered fission. In his defense, Hahn claimed to be under strong pressure from the Nazis to minimize Meitner's role since she was Jewish. He maintained this position even after the war.
Nobel Prize in Chemistry
The Nobel Prize in Chemistry is awarded annually by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences to the person or persons who are believed to have made the most important contribution to the field of chemistry, be it in research, analysis, or discovery.
Award Winners
The first Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Jacobus Van’t Hoff of the Netherlands for his discovery of the laws of chemical dynamics and osmotic pressures in solutions.
In 1911, Marie Curie received her second Nobel Prize, this time in the field of chemistry. She was awarded the prize for her discovery of radium, its subsequent isolation, and further in-depth analysis of the element. In 1935, Curie’s daughter, Irene Joliot Curie, was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry along with husband Frederic Joliot for their synthesis of new radioactive elements.
In 2006, American Roger D. Kornberg was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his studies of the molecular basis of eukaryotic transcription, or the process of which genetic information from DNA is copied to RNA. Kornberg’s father, Arthur Kornberg, was awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1959.
Controversies
Dmitri Mendeleev, who originated the periodic table of chemical elements, was never awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. Mendeleev died in 1907; six years after the first Nobel Prizes were awarded. He came within one vote of winning the prize in 1906.
In 1938, German chemist Richard Kuhn was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in recognition of his work regarding carotenoids and vitamins. In 1939, German chemist Adolf Butenant was awarded the prize for his work regarding sex hormones. Both winners were forced to decline the award in the consecutive years due to pressures from the German government. In later years, both chemists received the award’s diploma and medal.
Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine has been awarded every year since 1901 and recognizes a person or persons who have made outstanding contributions to the fields of physiology or medicine. Recognized contributions have included the discovery of penicillin, genetic engineering, and blood typing.
Award Winners
The first Nobel Prize in Medicine was awarded to Emil Von Behing of Germany for his work on serum therapy, particularly for its use in treating diphtheria.
In 1932, Canadians Frederick Banting and John Macleod received the Nobel Prize in Medicine for the discovery of insulin. Associate Charles Best first isolated insulin, but was excluded from the Nobel Prize in favor of Macleod. This snub so incensed Best's colleague, Frederick Banting, that he later voluntarily shared half of his 1923 Nobel Prize award money with Best.
The most recognized discovery was awarded in 1962, given to Francis Harry Compton Crick, James Dewey Watson, and Maurice Hugh Frederick Wilkins "for their discoveries concerning the molecular structure of nucleic acids and its significance for information transfer in living material," or the discovery of DNA.
Controversies
Oswald Theodore Avery, best known for his 1944 discovery that DNA is the material of which genes and chromosomes are composed, never received a Nobel Prize, though two Nobel Laureates Joshua Lederberg and Arne Tiselius unfailingly praised him for his work and service as a pioneering platform for further genetic research and advance.
Jonas Salk and Albert Sabin, who discovered, respectively, the injected and oral vaccines for polio, never received Nobel Prizes even though their discoveries have enabled humankind to conquer a dreaded disease and have saved the lives of thousands of people since the late 1950s.
Nobel Prize in Literature
The Nobel Prize in Literature is awarded annually to an author from any country that has, in the words of Alfred Nobel, produced "the most outstanding work of an idealistic tendency." The work in this case generally refers to an author's collection as a whole, not to any individual work, though individual works are sometimes cited in the awards. The Swedish Academy decides who, if anyone, will receive the prize in any given year.
Award Winners
The first person to be awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature was French poet and philosopher Sully Prudhomme, who was commended for his poetic combination of both heart and intellect within his work.
In 1902, the prize was awarded to Theodor Mommsen in recognition of his contribution to historical writing, in particular A History of Rome. Mommsen received the award at age 85, and remains the oldest prize winner in literature to date.
In 1907, Englishman Rudyard Kipling was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature for his talents regarding narration, originality, and imagination within his collected works. Kipling is the youngest prize winner in literature to date, receiving the award at age 42.
In 1953, the Nobel Prize in Literature was awarded the Sir Winston Churchill of the United Kingdom for “his mastery of historical and biographical description as well as for brilliant oratory in defending exalted human values.” One year later American Ernest Hemingway received the prize for his mastery of narration, particularly commended for his work The Old Man and the Sea.
Controversies
The original citation of this Nobel Prize has led to much controversy. In the original Swedish translation, the word idealisk can mean either "idealistic" or "ideal." In earlier years the Nobel Committee stuck closely to the intent of the will, and left out certain world-renowned writers such as Leo Tolstoy and Henrik Ibsen for the prize because their works were not deemed "idealistic" enough. In later years the wording has been interpreted more liberally, and the prize has been awarded for lasting literary merit.
The choice of the 2004 winner, Elfriede Jelinek, drew criticism from within the academy itself. Knut Ahnlund, who had not played an active role in the academy since 1996, resigned after Jelinek received the award, saying that picking the author had caused "irreparable damage" to the award's reputation.
TV and radio personality Gert Fylking started the tradition of shouting Äntligen!, Swedish for "At last!," at the announcing of the award winner, as a protest to the academy’s constant nomination of "authors more or less unknown to the general public." Fylking later agreed to stop his outburst, though the tradition has been carried on by others.
Nobel Prize in Peace
According to Alfred Nobel's will, the Nobel Peace Prize should be awarded "to the person who shall have done the most or the best work for fraternity between the nations, for the abolition or reduction of standing armies and for the holding and promotion of peace congresses." The Peace Prize is awarded annually in Norway’s capital city of Oslo, unlike the other Nobel Prizes, which are awarded in Stockholm, Sweden.
The first Nobel Peace Prize was awarded in 1901, given by the President of Norwegian Parliament until the establishment of the Norwegian Nobel Committee in 1904. The five members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee are appointed by the Norwegian Parliament, or the Stortinget, and it is entrusted both with the preparatory work related to prize adjudication and with the awarding of the Nobel Peace Prize. Its members are independent and do not answer to lawmakers. Members of the Norwegian government are not allowed to take any part in it.
Award Winners
In 1901, winners Henry Dunant, founder of the Red Cross, and renowned pacifist Frederic Passy shared the first Nobel Prize in Peace for their influential humanitarian efforts and peace movements.
Nobel Peace-laureates often have a lifetime's history of working at and promoting humanitarian issues, as in the examples of German medic Albert Schweitzer (1952 laureate); civil rights leader Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. (1964 laureate); the worldwide human rights organization Amnesty International (1977 laureate); missionary leader Mother Teresa (1979 laureate); Aung San Suu Kyi, a Buddhist nonviolent pro-democracy activist (1991 laureate); and Yitzhak Rabin, Israeli prime minister (1994 laureate). Still others are selected for tireless efforts, as in the examples of Jimmy Carter (1992 laureate) and Mohamed ElBaradei (2005 laureate).
Controversies
Some award winners have been quite controversial, often due to the recipient's political activity, as in the case of Henry Kissinger (1973 laureate), Mikhail Gorbachev (1990 laureate), or Yasser Arafat (1994 laureate) whose Fatah movement began, and still serves as a terrorist organization. The 2007 prize awarded to Al Gore and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), given for efforts to raise awareness on climate-change and to develop measures to counteract it, was criticized because the work was not directly related to ending conflict. The 2009 prize awarded to Barack Obama in the first year of Obama's presidency was criticized as being premature. The 2010 prize awarded to Chinese dissident Liu Xiaobo was viewed negatively in China, with some in the government arguing that Liu did not promote "international friendship, disarmament, and peace meetings." Perhaps the most controversial award winners were Le Duc Tho and Kissinger, whose recognition prompted two dissenting committee members to resign.
All Nobel Peace Prize nominations from 1901 to 1951 have been released in a database, and showed Adolf Hitler to be nominated in 1939. The nomination was retracted in February of the same year. Other infamous nominees include Joseph Stalin and Benito Mussolini.
Mahatma Gandhi never received the Nobel Peace Prize, though he was nominated for it five times between 1937 and 1948. Decades after Ghandi’s death, the Nobel Committee publicly declared its regret for the omission and may have tacitly acknowledged its error when in 1948, the year of Gandhi's death, the committee made no award, stating "there was no suitable living candidate." Similarly, when the Dalai Lama was awarded the Peace Prize in 1989, the chairman of the committee said that this was "in part a tribute to the memory of Mahatma Gandhi."
Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics
The Nobel Prize in Economics is a prize awarded each year for outstanding intellectual contributions in the field of economics. The award was instituted by the Bank of Sweden, the world's oldest central bank, at its 300th anniversary in 1968. Although it was not one of the awards established in the will of Alfred Nobel, economics laureates receive their diploma and gold medal from the Swedish monarch at the same December 10th ceremony in Stockholm as the other Nobel laureates. The amount of money awarded to the economics laureates is also equal to that of the other prizes.
The prestige of the prize derives in part from its association with the awards created by Alfred Nobel's will, an association which has often been a source of controversy. The prize is commonly referred to as the Nobel Prize in Economics or, more correctly, as the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics.
In February 1995, it was decided that the economics prize be essentially defined as a prize in social sciences, opening the Nobel Prize to great contributions in fields like political science, psychology, and sociology. The Economics Prize Committee has also undergone changes to require two non-economists to decide the prize each year, whereas previously the prize committee had consisted of five economists.
The economics laureates, like the Nobel laureates in chemistry and physics, are chosen by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. Nominations of about one hundred living persons are made each year by qualified nominators and are received by a five to eight member committee, which then submits its choice of winners to the Nobel Assembly for its final approval. As with the other prizes, no more than three people can share the prize for a given year and they must be living at the time the prize is awarded.
Winners of the Nobel Prize in Economics have included Ragnar Frisch and Jan Tinbergen (1969) for their development of dynamic economic models, Wassily Leontief (1973) for the development of the input-output method, and Edmund S. Phelps (2006) for his analysis of inter-temporal tradeoffs in macroeconomic policy.
Criticisms of the Nobel Prizes
The Nobel Prizes have been criticized over the years, with people suggesting that formal agreements and name recognition are more important than actual achievements in the process of deciding who is awarded a prize. Perhaps the most infamous case of this was in 1973 when Henry Kissinger and Le Duc Tho shared the Peace Prize for bringing peace to Vietnam, even though the Vietnam War was ongoing at the time. Le Duc Tho declined the award, for the stated reason that peace had not been achieved.
The strict rules against a Nobel Prize being awarded to more than three people at once is also a cause for controversy. Where a prize is awarded to recognize an achievement by a team of more than three collaborators, inevitably one or more will miss out. For example, in 2002, a prize was awarded to Koichi Tanaka and John Fenn for the development of mass spectrometry in protein chemistry, failing to recognize the achievements of Franz Hillenkamp and Michael Karas of the Institute for Physical and Theoretical Chemistry at the University of Frankfurt.
Similarly, the rule against posthumous prizes often fails to recognize important achievements by a collaborator who happens to have died before the prize is awarded. For example, Rosalind Franklin made some of the key developments in the discovery of the structure of DNA in 1953, but she died of ovarian cancer in 1958 and the Prize was awarded to Francis Crick, James D. Watson, and Maurice Wilkins, Franklin's collaborators, in 1962.
Criticism was levied towards the 2005 Nobel Prize in Physics, specifically the recognition of Roy Glauber and not George Sudarshan for the award. Arguably, Sudarshan's work is the more accepted of the two. Though Glauber did publish his work first in 1963, Sudarshan's work later that same year is the work upon which most of quantum optics is based.
Mathematics
The Nobel Prizes are also criticized for their lack of a mathematics award. There are several possible reasons why Nobel created no prize for mathematics. Nobel's will speaks of prizes for those "inventions or discoveries" of greatest practical benefit to mankind, possibly having in mind practical rather than theoretical works. Mathematics was not considered a practical science from which humanity could benefit, a key purpose for the Nobel Foundation.
One other possible reason was that there was already a well-known Scandinavian prize for mathematicians. The existing mathematical awards at the time were mainly due to the work of Gösta Mittag-Leffler, who founded the Acta Mathematica, a century later still one of the world's leading mathematical journals. Through his influence in Stockholm, he persuaded King Oscar II to endow prize competitions and honor distinguished mathematicians all over Europe, including Hermite, Joseph Louis François Bertrand, Karl Theodor Wilhelm Weierstrass, and Henri Poincaré.
In 2001, the government of Norway began awarding the Abel Prize, specifically with the intention of being a substitute for the missing mathematics Nobel. Beginning in 2004, the Shaw Prize, which resembles the Nobel Prize, included an award in mathematical sciences. The Fields Medal is often described as the "Nobel Prize of mathematics," but the comparison is not very apt because the Fields is limited to mathematicians not over forty years old.
Repeat Recipients
In the history of the Nobel Prize, there have been only four people to have received two Nobel Prizes: Marie Curie, Linus Pauling, John Bardeen, and Frederick Sanger.
Curie was awarded the 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics after discovering radioactivity. She was later awarded the 1911 Nobel Prize in Chemistry after her isolation of radium.
Linus Pauling received the 1954 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for construction of the Hybridized Orbital Theory, and later the 1962 Nobel Peace Prize for activism in regards to the Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty.
John Bardeen was awarded both the 1956 and 1972 Nobel Prize in Physics for his invention of the transistor, and later for his theory of superconductivity.
Frederick Sanger was awarded both the 1958 and 1980 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for identifying the structure of the insulin molecule, and later for his virus nucleotide sequencing.
Additionally, the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1917, 1944, and 1963. The first two prizes were specifically in recognition of the group's work during the world wars.
Recipients In Absentia
Carl von Ossietzky, the 1935 Nobel Peace Prize winner, was at first required by the Nazi German government to decline the Nobel Prize, a demand that Ossietzky did not honor, and then was prevented by the same government from going to Oslo personally to accept the Nobel Prize. He was kept under surveillance—a virtual house arrest—in a civilian hospital until his death in 1938, even though the German Propaganda Ministry was known to have publicly declared Ossietzky's freedom to go to Norway to accept the award. After this incident, in 1937, the German government decreed that in the future no German could accept any Nobel Prize.
Andrei Sakharov, the first Soviet citizen to be awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, in 1975, was not allowed to receive or personally travel to Oslo to accept the prize. He was described as "a Judas" and a "laboratory rat of the West" by the Soviet authorities. His wife, Elena Bonner, who was in Italy for medical treatment, received the prize in her husband's stead and presented the Nobel Prize acceptance speech by proxy.
Aung San Suu Kyi was awarded the 1991 Nobel Peace Prize, but was not allowed to make any formal acceptance speech or statement of any kind to that effect, nor leave Myanmar (Burma) to receive the prize. Her sons Alexander and Kim accepted the Nobel Peace Prize on her behalf.
Elfriede Jelinek was awarded the 2004 Nobel Prize in Literature, but declined to go in person to Stockholm to receive the prize, citing severe social phobia and mental illness. She made a video instead and wrote out the speech text to be read out in lieu.
Harold Pinter was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2005, but was unable to attend the ceremonies owing to poor health. He, too, delivered his controversial, "all-defying" speech via video.
Liu Xiaobo was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2010 "for his long and non-violent struggle for fundamental human rights in China." He was imprisoned in his country at the time of the award and neither he nor his family were allowed to attend the ceremony.
References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees
Abrams, Irwin. The Nobel Peace Prize and the Laureates. Watson Publishing International, 2001. ISBN 0881353884
Feldman, Burton. The Nobel Prize: A History of Genius, Controversy, and Prestige. Arcade Publishing, 2001. ISBN 1559705922
Fredholm, Lotta. “The Discovery of the Molecular Structure of DNA – The Double Helix.” Nobel Foundation. Retrieved December 9, 2019.
Nobel Foundation. “Nobel Prize Facts.” Retrieved December 9, 2019.
Nobel Foundation. “Nomination and selection of Nobel Laureates ” Retrieved December 9, 2019.
Spinney, Laura. “Nobel Prize controversy.” The Scientist December 11, 2002. Retrieved December 9, 2019.
The Nobel Prize Internet Archive. “Why is there no Nobel Prize in Mathematics?” Retrieved December 9, 2019.
Tønnesson, Øyvind. “With Fascism on the Doorstep: The Nobel Institution in Norway, 1940–1945.” Retrieved December 9, 2019.
Worek, Michael. The Nobel Prize: The Story of Alfred Nobel and the Most Famous Prize in the World. Firefly Books, 2010. ISBN 978-1554077113
All links retrieved November 15, 2022.
Nobelprize.org — Official site
The Nobel Prize Internet Archive
The Nobel Peace Prize
|
||||||
correct_award_00024
|
FactBench
|
2
| 34
|
https://testbook.com/question-answer/albert-einstein-was-awarded-the-nobel-prize-for-__--61d490ec75d83190f48f1f47
|
en
|
[Solved] Albert Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize for
|
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] | null |
[] | null |
The correct answer is Photoelectric Effect.
Key Points
Albert Einstein was given the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921 "for his services to theoretic
|
Testbook
|
https://testbook.com/question-answer/albert-einstein-was-awarded-the-nobel-prize-for-__--61d490ec75d83190f48f1f47
|
The RRB NTPC Notification 2024 is expected to be released soon. The RRB NTPC exam is conducted to fill up Non-Technical Popular Category posts. The candidates with successful selection under RRB NTPC get a salary ranging between Rs. 19,900 to Rs. 35,400. here.
|
||||||
correct_award_00024
|
FactBench
|
2
| 22
|
https://www.toppr.com/ask/question/einstein-got-his-nobel-prize-for/
|
en
|
Einstein got his Nobel Prize Explanation of Photoelectric effectHis theory of relativityHis theory of atomic heats of solidsNone of the above
|
[] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[
"Toppr"
] |
2020-01-09T00:00:00
|
Click here:point_up_2:to get an answer to your question :writing_hand:einstein got his nobel prize for
|
en
|
/ask/images/favicon.ico
|
Toppr Ask
| null |
Question
Einstein got his Nobel Prize for
Explanation of Photoelectric effect
His theory of relativity
His theory of atomic heats of solids
None of the above
|
||||
correct_award_00024
|
FactBench
|
1
| 20
|
https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1921/einstein/nominations/
|
en
|
Albert Einstein – Nominations
|
[
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[
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] | null |
[] | null |
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921 was awarded to Albert Einstein "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect"
|
en
|
NobelPrize.org
|
https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1921/einstein/nominations/
|
Nobel Prizes and laureates
Eleven laureates were awarded a Nobel Prize in 2023, for achievements that have conferred the greatest benefit to humankind. Their work and discoveries range from effective mRNA vaccines and attosecond physics to fighting against the oppression of women.
See them all presented here.
|
|||||
correct_award_00024
|
FactBench
|
0
| 83
|
https://news.drake.edu/2023/10/24/drake-university-professors-study-cited-in-2023-nobel-prize-in-physics/
|
en
|
Drake University professor’s study cited in 2023 Nobel Prize in Physics
|
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] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[
"Ashton Hockman"
] |
2023-10-24T00:00:00
|
Professor Klaus Bartschat’s 2014 paper identified a source of error in experimental results obtained with Nobel Prize-winning technology This year’s Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to three Laureates for the development of extremely short laser pulses, which—for the first time—can be used to image electron dynamics in atoms and molecules. This breakthrough enables the...
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en
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Drake University Newsroom
|
https://news.drake.edu/2023/10/24/drake-university-professors-study-cited-in-2023-nobel-prize-in-physics/
|
Professor Klaus Bartschat’s 2014 paper identified a source of error in experimental results obtained with Nobel Prize-winning technology
This year’s Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to three Laureates for the development of extremely short laser pulses, which—for the first time—can be used to image electron dynamics in atoms and molecules. This breakthrough enables the study of fundamental physics questions, such as the time it takes for an electron to escape from an atom or molecule exposed to electromagnetic radiation, also known as the Photoelectric Effect. It is also expected to have important consequences in medicine and materials development.
The Nobel Prize announcement cited findings from a 2014 paper titled, Time delays for attosecond streaking in photoionization of neon, authored by Dr. Klaus Bartschat, the Ellis & Nelle Levitt Distinguished Professor of Physics at Drake University, alongside co-authors Johannes Feist, Oleg Zatsarinny, Stefan Nagele, Renate Pazourek, Joachim Burgdörfer, Xiaoxu Guan, and Barry I. Schneider.
“Our group is very excited to have pin-pointed the source of the problem in an experiment performed in the group of a Nobel Prize winner,” Professor Bartschat said.
Background
In 1921, Albert Einstein won the Nobel Prize in Physics for explaining the Photoelectric Effect. While this was important for science on many levels, Einstein did not indicate how long it might take for an electron to escape from the target. Whatever that time may be, however, it was believed to be so immeasurably short that the process was essentially viewed as instantaneous until assertions of a non-zero time delay between absorption of the light and the electron escape were made in 2010.
In a pioneering experiment published in 2010, experimentalists in Munich, Germany in the group of the Ferenc Krausz (one of the 2023 Nobel Prize winners) claimed to have measured a time difference of 21 attoseconds for electrons escaping from two different subshells of the Neon atom.
“One attosecond is 1 billionth of 1 billionth of a second,” explained Professor Bartschat. “For illustration purposes, there are about twice as many attoseconds in one second as there are seconds in the age of the universe.”
Several theoretical groups all over the world tried to reproduce the experimental results but failed. They did find a difference, but it was approximately 10 attoseconds, or about half the time of what the experimentalists claimed. In 2014, Dr. Bartschat of Drake University, and his co-authors, published their paper, in which they also obtained about 10 attoseconds. However, instead of just publishing their number, they went further and suggested a so-called “shake-up” mechanism, i.e., a temporary occupation of other subshells in neon, as a potential source of error in the interpretation of the experimental results.
In 2017, the experiment was repeated in Lund, Sweden by the group of Anne L’Hullier (another of the Nobel Prize winners). They were able to eliminate the shake-up mechanism by improving the energy resolution and, indeed, confirmed the theoretical prediction of this being the problem in the earlier setup.
Applications in Science and Society
In addition to addressing fundamental questions in quantum physics, being able to produce and control such short pulses is expected to have important consequences for a large number of applications, including diagnostics and treatment in medicine, as well as the potential of affecting chemical reactions to make new materials with specially designed properties.
“In other words, we will not only be able to image and measure electron dynamics, but hopefully one day also manage to influence the electrons in ways previously thought to be impossible,” said Professor Bartschat.
|
|||||
wrong_mix_property_subsidiary_00108
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FactBench
|
0
| 80
|
https://patentlyo.com/patent/2008/07/the-death-of-go-2.html
|
en
|
The Death of Google’s Patents?
|
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[
"federal circuit en banc",
"licenses",
"venue"
] | null |
[
"Dennis Crouch →",
"Dennis Crouch"
] |
2008-07-21T13:44:16-05:00
|
By John F. Duffy* [File Attachment (42 KB)] The Patent and Trademark Office has now made clear that its …
|
en
|
Patently-O
|
https://patentlyo.com/patent/2008/07/the-death-of-go-2.html
|
By John F. Duffy [File Attachment (42 KB)]
The Patent and Trademark Office has now made clear that its newly developed position on patentable subject matter will invalidate many and perhaps most software patents, including pioneering patent claims to such innovators as Google, Inc.
In a series of cases including In re Nuijten, In re Comiskey and In re Bilski, the Patent and Trademark Office has argued in favor of imposing new restrictions on the scope of patentable subject matter set forth by Congress in § 101 of the Patent Act. In the most recent of these three—the currently pending en banc Bilski appeal—the Office takes the position that process inventions generally are unpatentable unless they “result in a physical transformation of an article” or are “tied to a particular machine.” Perhaps, the agency has conceded, some “new, unforeseen technology” might warrant an “exception” to this formalistic test, but in the agency’s view, no such technology has yet emerged so there is no reason currently to use a more inclusive standard.
The Bilski en banc hearing attracted enormous attention, and yet there has remained a sense among many patent practitioners that the PTO’s attempts to curtail section 101 would affect only a few atypical patent claims. The vast bulk of patents on software, business and information technology are thought by some not to be threatened because those innovations are typically implemented on a machine—namely, a computer—and the tie to a machine would provide security against the agency’s contractions of § 101. Even if that view were right, the contraction of patent eligibility would be very troubling because the patent system is supposed to be designed to encourage the atypical, the unusual and the innovative. But that view is wrong.
The logic of the PTO’s positions in Nuijten, Comiskey and Bilski has always threatened to destabilize whole fields of patenting, most especially in the field of software patents. If the PTO’s test is followed, the crucial question for the vitality of patents on computer implemented inventions is whether a general purpose computer qualifies as a “particular” machine within the meaning of the agency’s test. In two recent decisions announced after the oral arguments in the Bilski case, Ex parte Langemyr (May 28, 2008) and Ex parte Wasynczuk (June 2, 2008), the PTO Board of Patent Appeals and Interferences has now supplied an answer to that question: A general purpose computer is not a particular machine, and thus innovative software processes are unpatentable if they are tied only to a general purpose computer.
That stark answer should capture the attention of the many inventors and firms owning, or seeking to own, patents on innovative computer implemented processes, for the PTO’s new interpretation of patentable subject matter provides a clear avenue to reject patent applications and to invalid issued patents on all such innovations without regard to how meritorious or creative the innovation is. To understand the sweeping implications of this new position, we need only to consider how the PTO’s position applies to the patent on Google’s PageRank technology, which is surely one of the most famous and valuable of all modern software patents and which is now almost surely invalid under the agency’s position.
The Patent on Google’s PageRank Technology
Google has constructed its web search technology using a “technology for ranking web pages” that the company refers to as “PageRank.” This patented technology was developed by Larry Page and Sergey Brin while they were attending < ?xml:namespace prefix ="" st1 />Stanford University. Stanford owns the patent, and Google holds a perpetual license on the technology that is exclusive through at least 2011. The first claim of this important patent reads:
A computer implemented method of scoring a plurality of linked documents, comprising:
obtaining a plurality of documents, at least some of the documents being linked documents, at least some of the documents being linking documents, and at least some of the documents being both linked documents and linking documents, each of the linked documents being pointed to by a link in one or more of the linking documents;
assigning a score to each of the linked documents based on scores of the one or more linking documents; and
processing the linked documents according to their scores.
U.S. Pat. No. 6,285,999 (filed Jan. 9, 1998, issued Sept. 4, 2001). .
How does Google’s patent fare under the position advanced by the government in Bilski? The first part of the government’s test recognizes the patentable eligibility for processes that result in “a physical transformation of an article.” Google’s PageRank process seems to fail that part of the test, for the process merely generates a set of scores (which are merely numbers) that are then used to score or rank documents. The documents themselves probably do not qualify as physical articles under the government’s restrictive test, for the documents are typically virtual webpages. Moreover, even if the documents would count as physical articles, they are not transformed; the process merely ranks them. The total output from the Google patent is just a mass of intangible data, and worse still it is intangible data about intangible documents. Simply put, there’s no “physical,” no “transformation,” and no “article.” Indeed, Google’s process is even less physical than the process at issue in Bilski, which involved hedging the volatility in money flows. Dollars and cents seem real and physical enough for many people. If processes affecting money flows do not qualify as producing a physical transformation, it seems impossible to imagine that a process would qualify where it only scores virtual documents by virtual links to other virtual documents.
The second part of the PTO’s proposed eligibility test is thus crucial. Unlike the patent claim in Bilski, which was not limited to machine implemented hedges, Google’s PageRank patent claim expressly states that it is “computer implemented.” But the government’s test does not merely require a connection to a machine; it requires a tie to a particular machine.
On a recent panel held after the oral argument in Bilski, I raised the issue of Google’s patent claim with Ray Chen, the lawyer who represented the PTO in Bilski, and he asserted that, under the PTO’s position, the Google claim was probably still patentable. But in light of the PTO’s subsequent decisions in Langemyr and Wasynczuk, it is increasingly hard to see how Google’s PageRank patent survives. Nor is that one patent an anomaly in Google’s portfolio. Indeed, other patents owned by Google include claims that do not even include a formal limitation to a computer. Google might have thought that the patent system would surely protect new technological developments that are highly creative and socially valuable. The PTO’s new position proves that view mistaken.
Langemyr and Wasynczuk
The patent claim at issue in Langemyr covers a “method executed in a computer apparatus” for producing a model of a physical system using a set of partial differential equations. Even though Langemyr’s claimed invention is more closely tied to the physical world than Google’s PageRank technology is—Langemyr is, after all, modeling the physical systems rather than scoring virtual documents by their virtual links to other virtual documents—the PTO Board still had little difficulty finding that Langemyr’s claimed process does not contain a “physical transformation” and therefore does not qualify as patentable subject matter under the first part of the PTO’s test. The Board reasoned that the claimed process produced no “transformation of subject matter but merely an abstract mathematical expression that is created from the previous steps.” The process, the Board noted, “does not require any physical output into the real world.” Precisely the same can be said of Google’s patented process, which produces merely mathematical expressions—a set of ranks or scores—and lacks any physical output into the real world.
Thus for both Langemyr and Google, patent eligibility under the PTO’s test comes down to the interpretation of the second part of the PTO’s test. Both the Langemyr and Google patent claims are expressly limited to processes “executed” (Langemyr) or “implemented” (Google) on a general purpose computer, and the Langemyr decision holds that “the limitation that the method is ‘executed in a computer apparatus’ does not tie the method to a ‘particular machine.’” The key flaw in Langemyr’s claim, the PTO Board reasoned, was its general applicability to all computer: “Any and all computing systems will suffice, indicating that the claim is not directed to the function of any particular machine. … Thus, the claimed method is not tied to ‘a particular machine,’ but rather is tied only to a general purpose computer.”
In these crucial passages, the PTO Board has provided the foundation for rejecting and invalidating huge swaths of software patents, including not merely Langemyr’s claims, but those of Google, Microsoft, IBM and many other companies. If we want to evaluate the PTO’s ongoing attempts to constrict § 101, it does not seem an understatement to say that the constriction is truly breathtaking, given that the PTO’s position pushes outside the patent system Google’s PageRank patent, even though that patent covers one of the most widely known and commercially successful innovations of our era.
This is not, however, the end of the story. The PTO’s decision in Ex parte Wasynczuk provides one final twist so Kafkaesque as to strain credulity.
As in Langemyr, the invention at issue in Wasynczuk relates to a “computer-implemented” process for modeling physical systems. As in Langemyr, the PTO Board in Wasynczuk holds the broadest claim in the application to be unpatentable subject matter because “the sole structural limitation recited is the ‘computer-implemented system’ of the preamble” and that limitation “is not any particular apparatus” because the computer could be “essentially any conventional apparatus that performs the claimed functions.”
Yet unlike in Langemyr, the application in Wasynczuk also included a narrower claim in which “the first simulating step [of the claimed process] is performed on ‘a first physical computing device’ and the second simulating step is performed on ‘a second physical computing device.’” The PTO Board holds that claim to be patentable subject matter. The Board concluded that the collection of the two “physical computing devices” operating together “is ‘a particular apparatus’ to which the process is tied, not simply a generic computing device for performing the steps.” Distribution of the process over two general purpose computing devices quite clearly seems to be the key to patentability in the Board’s view, for the Board emphasized that the narrower claim covered only the embodiment in Wasynczuk’s specification that “uses two computing devices” not the embodiment that “uses a single computer.” In sum, an innovative process is not patentable when operating on a single computer processor but is when operating on two processors, even though the Board recognizes that the process in the unpatentable claim “is essentially the method” set forth in the patentable claim.
Google’s PageRank patent claim is of course not saved by the PTO’s caveat that two computer processors are better one when it comes to patentable subject matter. The PageRank claim requires only computer implementation and is thus invalid under both Langemyr and Wasynczuk. But the Wasynczuk definition of “particular machine” opens up vast possibilities for future litigation. In an age when even simple laptops often contain multiple processors, many patent claims could be written as functioning on multiple “physical computing devices.” Will such claims generally be patent eligible? Will dual core processors operating on a single chip (e.g., Intel’s Centrino Duo® chip) constitute a “particular machine”? Or will the processors have to be physically separate chips or physically separate computers? Will the patent claims have to specify that certain steps occur only on one processor while other steps occur solely on the other? Will the result be different if the processors share steps to some degree? All these and many more fascinating questions will provide ample billable hours for patent attorneys even as inventors look on with utter horror and disbelief at the crucial importance the legal system is placing on distinctions that are technologically meaningless to the innovations sought to be patented.
Requiem (?) for Google’s Patent
The apparent death of Google’s pioneering PageRank patent under the PTO’s new rule for patentable subject matter may be a cause for celebration among those who are philosophically opposed to property rights in innovation and are eager to confine the patent system’s ambit. It will surely be cause for mourning among those who believe that allowing patents on cutting edge technologies has served the country well for more than two centuries and that a radical departure from the traditional approach would be unwise. And it is likely to generate puzzlement among business people and innovators, who may wonder how agency decisions supposedly premised on the need for ensuring that “that the patent system be directed to protecting technological innovations” have ended up rendering unpatentable innovations in search engine technology, computer modeling, bioinformatics and many other innovations in cutting edge fields related to software and information technology.
Undeniably, however, the pallor now cast upon Google’s patents and many other software patents highlight the stakes in the Federal Circuit’s pending en banc decision in Bilski. The PTO Board’s reasoning in Wasynczuk also reveals that the agency’s proposed new rule for patentable subject matter will not produce certainty but will instead open up software patents to new and previously unimagined litigation over the precise scope of the concept of a “particular machine.” Vast industries of modern innovation must now wait to see whether the courts will follow the agency’s lead.
ranking the initial set of documents to obtain a relevance score for each document in the initial set of documents;
calculating a local score value for at least two of the documents in the initial set, the local score value quantifying an amount that the at least two documents are referenced by other documents in the initial set of documents; and
refining the relevance scores for the documents in the initial set based on the local score values.
|
|||||
wrong_mix_property_subsidiary_00108
|
FactBench
|
0
| 42
|
https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/draft-ietf-harts-guide/02/
|
en
|
Humanities and Arts: Sharing Center Stage on the Internet
|
[
"https://static.ietf.org/dt/12.19.0/ietf/images/ietf-logo-nor-white.svg",
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[
"Walter Stickle",
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] | null |
Humanities and Arts: Sharing Center Stage on the Internet
|
en
|
IETF Datatracker
|
https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/draft-ietf-harts-guide/02/
|
INTERNET-DRAFT J. Max HARTS Working Group Rainfarm Category: Informational S. Stoner ArtsEdge May 1997 Expires November 1997 Humanities and Arts: Sharing Center Stage on the Internet [draft-ietf-harts-guide-02.txt] Status of this Memo Distribution of this document is unlimited. Please send all input, information, and comments to harts@isi.edu. This document is an Internet-Draft. Internet-Drafts are working documents of the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), its areas, and its working groups. Note that other groups may also distribute working documents as Internet-Drafts. Internet-Drafts are draft documents valid for a maximum of six months and may be updated, replaced, or obsoleted by other documents at any time. It is inappropriate to use Internet-Drafts as reference material or to cite them other than as "work in progress." To learn to current status of any Internet-Draft, please check the "1id- abstracts.txt" listing contained in the Internet-Drafts Shadow Directories on ftp.is.co.za (Africa), nic.nordu.net (Europe), munnari.oz.au (Pacific Rim), ds.internic.net (US East Coast), or ftp.isi.edu (US West Coast). This memo provides information for the Internet, Humanities, and Arts communities. This memo does not specify an Internet standard of any kind. Distribution of this memo is unlimited. Abstract This document is designed primarily for individuals who have limited knowledge of, or experience with, the Internet. The purpose of this document is to provide members of the arts and humanities communities with an introduction to the Internet as a valuable tool, resource, and medium for the creation, presentation, and preservation of arts and humanities-based content. The intended audience is practicing artists, scholars, related professionals, and others who's knowledge, expertise and support is important to ensuring the arts and humanities are well-placed in the global information infrastructure. For purposes of simplicity this document will use the word "Artist" to mean both Artist and Humanist: "all practitioners who work in the fields of the visual, performance, and literary arts, as well as Humanities and Arts [draft-ietf-harts-guide-02.txt] [Page 1] INTERNET-DRAFT Sharing Center Stage on the Internet museum curators, librarians, and others who are involved in the research, restoration, and presentation of that which comprises our cultural heritage." (See Section 1.1 for further definitions of Arts and Humanitites.) Table of Contents i. Conventions for this Draft.................................. 3 1. Introduction................................................ 4 1.1 Definition of Arts and Humanities........................... 4 1.2 What is the Internet........................................ 4 1.3 What is the World Wide Web.................................. 5 2. What does the Internet mean to the "Artist?"................ 7 2.1 Access to the Global Community: Museums, libraries, newspapers, periodicals, stores......... 8 2.2 Discovering the work of others.............................. 8 2.3 Freely Available software, and other information............ 9 2.4 Sharing your work with others............................... 10 2.5 Communicating about the arts................................ 10 2.6 Collaborating............................................... 9 3. Forums...................................................... 11 3.1 Message Based Communications................................ 11 3.1.1 Electronic mail (email)..................................... 11 3.1.2 Mailing list server (listserv).............................. 12 3.1.3 Newsgroups.................................................. 12 3.1.4 Electronic Bulletin Board System (BBS) ..................... 13 3.2 Real-Time Communications.................................... 13 3.2.1 Internet Relay Chat (IRC)................................... 13 3.2.2 Multi-User Dungeon (MUD).................................... 14 3.2.3 Audio/Video Conferencing.................................... 14 3.2.4 Whiteboard Systems.......................................... 14 3.3 Archives.................................................... 14 3.3.1 Searching................................................... 15 3.3.2 Compound Searches........................................... 16 4. Accessing the Internet...................................... 17 4.1 Getting Started............................................. 18 4.2 Internet Service Providers.................................. 20 4.3 Computer Software and Hardware Tools........................ 21 4.4 Multimedia.................................................. 22 5. Creating Content............................................ 23 5.1 Getting Help................................................ 23 5.2 Basic Design Issues: Understanding Formats.................. 24 5.3 Text and Hypertext.......................................... 24 5.4 Graphic and Moving Images................................... 24 5.5 Music and Sound............................................. 24 5.6 Content Design Issues....................................... 26 5.7 Publicizing your Work....................................... 26 Humanities and Arts [draft-ietf-harts-guide-02.txt] [Page 2] INTERNET-DRAFT Sharing Center Stage on the Internet 6. Issues and Challenges....................................... 26 6.1 Security Issues............................................. 27 6.2 Viruses..................................................... 27 6.3 Rights...................................................... 27 6.4 Conducting Business over the Internet....................... 28 6.5 Netiquette.................................................. 28 7. Glossary.................................................... 28 8. Resources................................................... 28 8.1 RFCs........................................................ 29 8.1.1 Using RFC-INFO@ISI.EDU to retrieve RFCs..................... 29 9. References.................................................. 29 10. Security Considerations..................................... 30 11. Acknowledgments............................................. 32 12. Authors' Address............................................ 32 Appendix A. Examples/Projects on the Internet of Interest to the Arts and Humanities Communities Appendix B. Some other URL's of interest Appendix C. Examples for using the RFC server RFC-INFO@ISI.EDU i. Conventions and Notes in the March 1997 Draft. We have agreed that testimonial sections are essential, so we need everyone to begin collecting quotes and experiences for each section. Also every section should have many pointers to more information. Any and all input, suggestions, and submissions graciously accepted. This draft includes the following notation to aid completion: - At the sign of two asterisks (**) are important notes and questions. - At the sign of two plus signs (++) information is needed. Where known a contributor is mentioned by name, otherwise, please volunteer! - At the sign of two question marks(??) we need to decide what goes there. 1. Introduction This document has been structured to provide information about, and examples of, the wide range of functions and capabilities inherent to online services. It will also show the potential of networking technologies for enhancing Arts and Humanities content and interests. Humanities and Arts [draft-ietf-harts-guide-02.txt] [Page 3] INTERNET-DRAFT Sharing Center Stage on the Internet The basic functions of the Internet are described, along with their application for building online communities of interest (including the Arts and Humanities). This is followed by discussion and examples of how Arts and Humanities content can be represented, stored, and retrieved on the Internet. Also provided are examples of hardware and software being used, and in development, to support the creation and presentation of new artistic and literary works. In addition to illustrating the great potential of the Internet, this document aspires to provide an introduction to the issues and challenges that affect the development and presentation of arts and humanities content online. Finally, some tools and resources have been provided to assist both novice and experienced users in benefiting from, and contributing to the global online arts and humanities community. 1.1 Definitions of Arts and Humanities For purposes of this document the term "Arts" includes, but is not limited to, dance, design arts, folk arts, literary arts, media and film arts, music, theater, and visual arts. The term "Humanities" includes, but is not limited to, the study of the following: language, both modern and classical; linguistics; literature; history; jurisprudence philosophy; archaeology; comparative religion; ethics; the history, criticism and theory of the arts; those aspects of social sciences which have humanistic content and employ humanistic methods; and the study and application of the humanities to the human environment. 1.2 What is the Internet? As new users, the first question that probably comes to mind is: "What is the Internet?" The answer is: "People, computers and information electronically linked around the world by a common Protocol for communicating with each other." The beginnings come from the US Department of Defense's desire to transport government and military information during the time of a "nuclear event". Thus the Advanced Research Projects Agency was formed, which created ARPANET. From this, over the next 26 years or so, grew the network known as "The Internet", now dubbed the "Information Superhighway". There are several million computers connected and over 40 million users. The common language or "Communication Protocol" which these computers on the Internet speak, is the Internet Protocol, or IP. Humanities and Arts [draft-ietf-harts-guide-02.txt] [Page 4] INTERNET-DRAFT Sharing Center Stage on the Internet This is the underlying layer which allows transmission of diverse data, information, text, pictures, sound, etc. to be passed between otherwise incompatible machines. The Internet should not be confused with America OnLine (AOL), CompuServe, Prodigy, and other type service providers, which may use their own, often proprietary, protocols and are sites unto themselves but may have connections to the Internet. The Internet should also not be confused with the World Wide Web which is the topic of the next section. 1.3 What is the World Wide Web? The World Wide Web, often called, "The Web" is a vast multimedia document distributed among a large number of the computers on the internet. This document is in a format called HyperText which allows information in the web to be linked by words or pictures viewed on the computer. The Web is broken up into a large set of pages (Web Pages) of information connected by HyperText "Links" which let you click on a highlighted word or picture to call up a page of related information. This is what differentiates HyperText from "normal" text. In "normal" text, each sentence or idea is connected in a single sequence or "train of thought", from beginning to end. In HyperText however, the flow of ideas branches out, so that each idea may be connected to many different "trains of thought" that jump from link to link. This allows you to read HyperText documents, in a way more naturally resembling human thought. There is no central hierarchy that organizes the Web. Instead, the information is distributed among many "Web Sites" created and used by the many people involved. A Web Site is much like a magazine in that it has a Front Page, called the Home Page, and may have many other pages of related information that can be connected in whatever way the author wishes. For example, you could create a "Cool Music" Web Page and place it on a Web Server, which can be any computer somewhere on the internet running software to provide access to the resident Web Pages. Anyone on the internet could then use a piece of software called a Web Browser to ask the Web Server to look at your Home Page. This Home Page could be a striking artwork featuring a list of your favorite albums and a few labeled buttons. While your music plays from their speakers they choose to click on any album that catches their eye, or go to lists of information sorted by Artist, Label, or Genre. Once they get to the page for any particular album, they would see the artwork, a song list, and many other links to follow. Clicking on a song could pull up the song lyrics, or perhaps even download parts of the song. Or they could follow a link from your page to the HomePage of the artist's record company, or to magazines Humanities and Arts [draft-ietf-harts-guide-02.txt] [Page 5] INTERNET-DRAFT Sharing Center Stage on the Internet that have interviewed the band. If the information is out there, your page could link to it. Web pages are written in a format called HTML, the HyperText Markup Language. This is a protocol for putting special symbols into a text document that specify links to other pages, fonts to use, images to load, and many other things. It is simple enough that most people can learn to use it, but rich enough in possibility that there will always be a thriving community of people making web pages for others. In order to download information from distant places in the internet, your computer will be using a protocol called HTTP, the HyperText Transfer Protocol. HTTP was designed to allow web browser software to connect to web server software on another machine and request the transmission of a web page in the form of an HTML document and any associated images, audio, video, etc. Since any part of a page can link to any accessible data on the Internet, each link must include a reference to exactly where on the internet the information is. This is the job of the Uniform Resource Locator, URL. The URL is very much like your home address. When you tell someone your "address", you give your postal code, country, state, town/city, street, building, and your name. A URL is a machine readable (and hence somewhat cryptic) text string which tells both people and machines where to find the information. It contains the name, directory, machine, host address, and the protocol for accessing that information. URLs usually take the form "http://www.something.com", where "www" indicates the locations World Wide Web server, "something" indicates the name of the organization who runs it, and "com" indicates that that organization is a Company. Other extensions which indicate types of organizations, are ".gov" for US government sites, ".edu" for educational sites, and ".org" for other organizations such as "not for profit", etc. There are also specific extensions for each country in the world, such as ".CA" for sites in Canada, ".nl" for sites in the Netherlands, etc. http in this example is the protocol used to access it. Since http is the primary protocol of the web, many browsers now assume it, and you will likely only need to know the protocol being used if its different from http. Other protocols include "ftp", the File Transfer Protocol, and "gopher" which are both text based, rather than graphic based. (See also Section 3 - Forums) After the communication protocol and site address are identified, the document's URL can go on to specify a particular page at the site. The example above will retrieve www.something.com's default homepage, usually index.html. The .html extension on that filename indicates that the file is formatted with the HyperText Markup Language. Other file extensions might be .txt for standard format Text files, .gif for Graphic Image Format files, .jpg, another graphics format, .wav for certain audio files, and many others. Humanities and Arts [draft-ietf-harts-guide-02.txt] [Page 6] INTERNET-DRAFT Sharing Center Stage on the Internet You can start browsing the Internet, or "surfing" as its often called, by entering a URL into your web browser, which will download the appropriate file. If you then select a link, your browser will read the URL built into the page itself, and use it to find and access the appropriate information. At last check there were hundreds of thousands of web sites, home pages, and hosts on the Web. The contents of those sites are almost as varied. Some pages are personal pages containing photos of family members, lists of hobbies, or the sharing of collections such as song lyrics. Some pages are strictly business, selling everything from abalone to zymoscopes. (If you're interested in doing business over the Web, please read Sections 6 and 10 on Security.) Still other pages provide services such as information searches, and weather reports. 2. What does the Internet mean to the Artist? The internet is exerting a profound influence on our society. Human culture is based on communication, and the widespread availability of information and the thought-like constructions of HyperText are the most powerful new ideas in communication since the invention of writing. A glance back at history will easily show how written language has shaped our societies. These results are only a foreshadowing of the things to come. Even now in its infancy, the effects of the internet can be easily seen in popular media as well as in the way we do business. But the most dramatic influences are in the children who are now growing up with the net. Many parents are aware of the influence television has over their children. Eventually the net may become a superset of all TV, but with added power to inform as well as entertain. If we raise the internet right, it will return the favor by nurturing a generation that may well grow up wiser than ourselves. And so we have a great responsibility to make sure that the best parts of human culture are represented on the internet. Because the net is still primarily created and run by Scientists and Engineers who are creatures of mind, it is the heart and soul of the internet that needs help. Artists are the heart and soul of human culture, and must bring the fruits of their efforts to the net to give the net culture (and future generations) their essence of humanity. And if that doesn't convince you, we will also show that there are many ways in which artists may exploit the net for their own personal gain. As the online culture becomes a more balanced representation of humanity, the net will become an essential tool for collaboration, communication, and distribution of art. The day is coming where those who are not on the net will be greatly handicapped in the expression and distribution of their art. Humanities and Arts [draft-ietf-harts-guide-02.txt] [Page 7] INTERNET-DRAFT Sharing Center Stage on the Internet A great many visual and performing arts institutions and organizations have now established sites on the World Wide Web and a significant number of online discussion groups focus on the arts and humanities. Consortiums of museums and libraries are now using networking technologies to support research and projects involving more effective ways to collect, store, and disseminate objects of antiquity and other non-textual primary sources, as well as textual sources. Thousands of sites are also created by individuals and for institutions, organizations, and businesses for reasons ranging from commerce to simple self expression. The net is the new frontier for the growth of humanity. Can you afford not to be involved? 2.1 Access to the Global Community Access to art is no longer constrained by vicinity. Hang out your electronic shingle and just imagine who might drop in. The Internet connects hundreds of countries, thousands of cities, and countless groups and individuals around the globe. People all around the world will be looking for what they want on the net, and if you have what they want, then through the magic of the net, you are their next door neighbor. The Internet explorer will find that more and more sites are becoming multilingual. The Internet provides a forum in which diverse cultures can merge, and allows the explorer to visit faraway places from the privacy and safety of their own computer. 2.2 Discovering the work of others Once you have the basic tools for using the Internet (See Section 4) you will begin to understand how easy, helpful, informative, and exciting it can be. With a few quick strokes you have accessed a great library, museum, or gallery, toured a faraway city, or looked up an old friend. You might find an out of print book you have always wanted, then either read it on your computer screen, or print it out on your printer. If you do not have a printer, simply save it to your floppy disk and bring that to a shop or friend with a printer. Its really that easy. You could spend the afternoon at the Smithsonian, or the Louvre without ever leaving your chair. For a more athletic adventure, you could put your computer in front of your treadmill, and jog through the online Olympics site. When you are ready, you can explore deeper. Follow other links to smaller sites, lesser known writers, artists, poets, and thinkers, and discover the emerging world they are creating. With the proper tools you can even view moving pictures, and listen to music and other audio. Humanities and Arts [draft-ietf-harts-guide-02.txt] [Page 8] INTERNET-DRAFT Sharing Center Stage on the Internet With access to the Internet, the world is at your fingertips. Even more than art, literature, and humor, online is information. Bring your questions on health, the environment, government, and religion, and look though volumes of documentation on your concerns, or discuss your questions with others electronically. Once you get used to it, you will even be downloading more information and tools to assist you further. Examples of sites to explore, and good starting points can be found in Appendices A and B. 2.3 Access to Freely Available Software, and Other Information There is a world of useful software available to you via the Internet. Known as Shareware, Public Domain, or Freely Copyable, you can find many software programs you may download and use on your own machine, often completely free, occasionally for a small and/or optional fee which helps the author to afford to create more software for general use. There are also libraries, stores, and news groups you can peruse in search of just the tool or information you want. As you explore the Internet, you will begin to find information that is beyond your reach without the right tools for viewing, listening, etc. For example, someone may have put up a sound file using a format which cannot be recognized by the software you have installed. In these cases, that person will often have included a pointer to the exact tool necessary to recognize their format, or convert the format, and you can download, install, and use this tool right away. Using the basic tools acquired to access the Internet (See Section 4), you can begin to add to your collection software tools, both for accessing the information already on the Internet, and for creating your own content (See Section 5). 2.4 Sharing your work with others There are many people both like, and unlike, yourself with whom you can meet, communicate, and share ideas. Some like to just talk, you can listen if you like. Others like to just listen, so you and others can talk. There are also many forms that communication can take, from private electronic mail, to group video conferencing, to moderated newsgroups, to public bulletin boards. See Section 3 for more information on Electronic Forums. Artists often want to share their work with other artists on the Internet so that they will receive comments and recognition for their work. It is a great place to explore new ideas with other artists as well. Perhaps a painter has tried a new paint and has a review of it, or has developed a new way to mix colors, or a photographer wants to share how to get a difficult shot. Perhaps you would like to Humanities and Arts [draft-ietf-harts-guide-02.txt] [Page 9] INTERNET-DRAFT Sharing Center Stage on the Internet locate a rare album, or debate one musicians merit over anothers. There are many types of content that artists can share. Including: - text: stories, poetry, historic accounts, transcripts, etc. - images of their visual work: paintings, photographs, sculpture - images of themselves: photographs, self-portraits - sound files of their audio works or voice presentations of their works: books on tape, speeches, tutorials, music - moving pictures: video arts, performance arts, etc. - a description of their art process and works of art - resume and/or biographical data - contact information in the form of electronic mail address, postal mail address, phone, etc. Electronic mail is most popular because it allows people to respond spontaneously. After you've met some of the global critics, and compared your work with others, you may feel so bold as to share your work with others. Perhaps emailing a manuscript to a publisher, or putting up scans of your art will entice a buyer. Perhaps it will entice a critic to say wonderful things about you to a buyer. Perhaps putting your work on the Internet will bring fortune and fame, or perhaps it will encourage others to put their work up. Increasing the cultural content of the Internet will have profound results in all areas of the Arts. 2.5 Communicating about the arts Perhaps you prefer to discuss and compare the works of others with producers, collectors, gallery owners or other professionals in your field, or related fields. You might want to find out who's hot and why. You could also find out where, and when shows, showings, benefits, conferences, releases, signings, and performances are taking place, or announce your own showing. They say that for every artist, there is a critic, and you could meet one, or be one, on the Internet. 2.6 Collaborating There are many ways of collaborating over the Internet. There are art and literature projects which explore the Internet by asking people to put their feelings, thoughts, and ideas about the Internet in, and there are projects which simply arrive, or are downloaded over the Internet, in which people participate. There are also games which are played over the Internet, by players all over the planet. These types of games, which are described in in greater detail in Section 3, can be both entertainment and a learning experience. Some games offer players the opportunity to Humanities and Arts [draft-ietf-harts-guide-02.txt] [Page 10] INTERNET-DRAFT Sharing Center Stage on the Internet alter the environment, so that ideas and information contained in the game evolve over time into a jointly constructed experience. 3. Forums Websters defines a forum as "A public meeting place for open discussion." In the world that could be a park or an auditorium. In the Internet, a forum will be electronic, but it may still feel like a roomful of people. Many forums exist on the Internet. There are interactive forums where you can share information in real-time and carry on discussions with others. There are message-based forums where you send or receive a message and others involved in that forum can respond later, and there are archived forums where information is stored, and may be retrieved by anyone but modified only by its owner. While we have attempted to list and describe a few of the more popular forums, we have not created an exhaustive, complete, or up-to-the-minute list here. You can find information on forums, lists and sites in many magazines and books today. (See Section 4.1 - Getting Started) 3.1 Message-based Communications In Message-based communication, a message is sent by one user, and received by one or many. For example, you might send a dinner invitation to an individual, a couple, or a group. In the same way, you send electronic messages to individuals or groups. Just like your Postal Service for physical mail, there are electronic mail servers for electronic mail. Just like you have a physical address to which your physical mail is sent, there is an electronic mail address to which your electronic mail is sent. Message-based Communications includes electronic mail, listservs, newsgroups, and bulletin boards. 3.1.1 E-mail Electronic mail (email) is a system whereby a computer user can exchange messages with other computer users (or groups of users) via a communications network. Typical use of email consists of downloading messages as received from a mailbox or mail server, then reading and replying to them solely electronically using a mail program which behaves much like a word processor for the most part. The user can send mail to, or receive mail from, any other user with Internet access. Electronic mail is much like paper mail, in that it is sent, delivered, and contains information. That information can be textual, graphic, or even sound. (See Section 4 - Accessing the Internet, and Section 5 - Creating Content, for more information on non-textonly email Humanities and Arts [draft-ietf-harts-guide-02.txt] [Page 11] INTERNET-DRAFT Sharing Center Stage on the Internet messages.) You will get an Electronic mail, or Email address usually from your Internet Service Provider (See Section 4). Your email address contains your name, and the address of the machine on which you receive your mail. The name of the machine will be in two parts, (separated by a dot or period symbol ".") the name of the machine itself, and the "domain" it is in. (See the documents reference in Section 8 - Resources, for more information on domain names). The possible extensions for a domain name will be one of: .edu, for educational institutions; .gov, for government sites; .com, for commercial companies; .org, for other organizations; or it might be a locational domain name which would contain the city, state, region, and country, as la.ca.us would be Los Angeles, California, United States. An email address takes the form "yourname"@"yoursite"."yourdomain" For example, if your name is Jo Cool and you get your Internet service from Dirigible Online, your email address might be jcool@dirigible.com. 3.1.2 Listserv (mailing list server) A Listserv is an automated program that accepts email messages from users and performs basic operations on mailing lists for those users. In the Internet, listservs are usually accessed as either "list-request@host.domain" or "listserv@host.domain"; for example, the list server for the hypothetical list "newsreports@acme.org" would be "newsreports-request@acme.org". Sending email to "newsreports@acme.org" causes the message to be sent to all the list subscribers, which is inappropriate for "Subscribe" and "Unsubscribe" requests. Sending a message to "listserv@acme.org" sends the message only to the list server. Using "listserv@acme.org" you would put the listname in the subject field with "Subscribe me@my.domain" as the body of the message. Not all mailing lists use list servers to handle list administration duties. 3.1.3 Newsgroups A Newsgroup is an electronic bulletin board system created originally by the Unix community and which is accessible via the Internet. Usenet News forms a discussion forum accessible by millions of users in almost every country in the world. Usenet News consists of thousands of topics arranged in a hierarchical form. Major topics include "comp" for computer topics, "rec" for recreational topics, "soc" for social topics, "sci" for science topics, and there are many others we will not list here. Within the major topics are subtopics, such as "rec.music" for general music content, and "rec.music.classical" for classical music, or "sci.med.physics" for discussions relating to the physics of medical science. Humanities and Arts [draft-ietf-harts-guide-02.txt] [Page 12] INTERNET-DRAFT Sharing Center Stage on the Internet If you have access to newsgroups, it would be wise to check news.announce.newusers first. This newsgroup provides detailed information on Newsgroups, such as how to find the right place to post or even information on newsgroup writing style. Local Newsgroups are those that are accessible through your organization or company which contain news that is relevant only to your organization. For example, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) has many internal Newsgroups that are of interest only to GSFC's employees and none of the other NASA centers. Therefore, newsgroups have been formed to provide internal information to NASA GSFC employees only and no one else. Some examples are: gsfc.carpool, gsfc.dialup or gsfc.220.civil.servants. Another example of a local newsgroup is news that is posted regarding your community or the vicinity in which you live. For example, if you lived in the Washington D.C. area some of the local newsgroups would be: dc.biking, dc.jobs or dc.smithsonian. 3.1.4 Electronic Bulletin Board System (BBS) A Bulletin Board System consists of a computer, and associated software, typically providing electronic messaging services, archives of files, and any other services or activities of interest to the bulletin board systems' operator. Typical use of a BBS has the user dial into the BBS via their modem and telephone line and select from a hierarchy of lists, files, subdirectories, or other data maintained by the operator. Once connected, the user can often send messages to other BBS users within the system. Although BBSs have traditionally been the domain of hobbyists, an increasing number of BBSs are connected directly to the Internet, and many BBSs are currently operated by government, educational, research, and commercial institutions. 3.2. Real-Time Communications Real-Time Communications describes the process of communicating with others via the Internet virtually simultaneously. Generally in a forum where you type something, which another user sees on their screen, and types something, which you see a moment later. The moment between when they begin typing, and you begin seeing their words, is known as "net-lag". Forums which communicate in real-time are the Internet Relay Chat (IRC), the Multi-User Dungeon (MUD), Audio/Video Conferencing (AVC), and White Board Systems (WBS). Humanities and Arts [draft-ietf-harts-guide-02.txt] [Page 13] INTERNET-DRAFT Sharing Center Stage on the Internet 3.2.1 IRC - Internet Relay Chat, WebChat Internet Relay Chat, or IRC, provides a text-based mechanism for communication with multiple participants. IRC is an interactive forum set up in virtual rooms that you can move between, and where others can virtually "hang out". Chat rooms can be used to discuss common ideas or topics, or as part of a collaborative process. The connection method used will be specific to each IRC site. Web chat is like IRC but it is done via a web browser such as Netscape Navigator or Internet Explorer and it is not a text only forum. Once you have chosen the group you want to participate in, you must choose a nickname, commonly known in the chat world as a "handle" for yourself (usually a very creative name). With some software you can have your nickname link to your webpage or email. Some software also allows you to post a very small picture next to your name. Many webchat sites require the user to register before being able to participate in the activity. If any additional software is needed based on your particular software and PC configuration the site will point you in the right direction so you can download the necessary software. Some sites will provide you with chat etiquette guidelines. Please be sure to read the directions before you participate in the Chat session. Once you begin to chat you may find that there are some abbreviation used that you are not familiar with. These abbreviations are for various actions or phrases. Some very common ones are: by the way (btw), in my humble/honest opinion (imho), or ta ta for now (ttfn). The following sites point to some of the chat groups accessible via the Web: The Chat Hole - http://acm.ewu.edu/homepage/wmundell/chathole.htm WebChat Broadcasting System - http://pages.wbs.net/ Yahoo! - Computers and Internet: Internet: World Wide Web: Chat - http://www.yahoo.com/Computers_and_Internet/Internet /World_Wide_Web/Chat/ 3.2.2 MUD - Multi-User Dungeon An interactive game environment where both real other players and virtual other players exist and with whom you can communicate to share ideas or solve puzzles, etc. The word "Dungeon" refers to the setting of many of the original games of this sort, in which you, our hero, must escape from a dungeon-like environment where evil goblins, demons, and other "bad-guys" are trying to kill you. Generally the goal, in order Humanities and Arts [draft-ietf-harts-guide-02.txt] [Page 14] INTERNET-DRAFT Sharing Center Stage on the Internet to win the game, is to find and retrieve some treasure, or reach some hidden place, and find the way out. ++ vrml, avatar, digital editing systems, proprietary (palace, urban ++ desires) ++ Expand on the concept of "shared construction" -- that this ++ enables information and ideas to accrue over time. 3.2.3 Audio/Video Conferencing CU-SeeMe is a desktop videoconferencing software tool. CU-SeeMe allows Macintosh and Windows users with an Internet connection and a desktop camera (some go for as little as $100) to see, hear and speak with other CU-SeeMe users across the world. This program was developed at Cornell University in Ithaca, New York, USA and is freely available. CU-SeeMe allows the user to have a one-to-one communication. It is also possible to have a one-to-many or many-to-many communication by installing a reflector on a Unix machine or using a public site (more on this later). To download the software, see: ftp://cu-seeme.cornell.edu/pub/cu-seeme or go to Cornell University's CU-SeeMe Page at http://cu-seeme.cornell.edu/ for more information. This site also provides detailed information on what is needed to run CU-SeeMe. Another reliable site is the CU-SeeMe Home Page: http://www.indstate.edu/msattler/sci-tech/comp/CU-SeeMe/ For one-to-many or many-to-many communication, a reflector is needed. The reflector software must be installed on a Unix machine. The software can be obtained from Cornell University's CU-SeeMe Page mentioned above. For a list of public reflectors see: http://www.indstate.edu/msattler/sci-tech/comp/CU-SeeMe/reflectors/ nicknames.html Please note that there are Netiquette rules that ought to be observed when using a reflector, please see: http://cu-seeme.cornell.edu/Reflector.html There is an enhanced commercial version of CU-SeeMe, information on that can also be found at CU-SeeMe Home Page mentioned above. ++ multicasting ++ Expand on uses Humanities and Arts [draft-ietf-harts-guide-02.txt] [Page 15] INTERNET-DRAFT Sharing Center Stage on the Internet 3.2.4 Whiteboard Systems A Whiteboard is analogous to the blackboard, and is physically quite similar. A Whiteboard System allows people on the Internet to share text, drawings, and other graphic information which is being written in real-time on an electronically enhanced whiteboard. Software exists which allows connections between two sites, or hundreds, over the Internet, the Web, or your telephone. ++ commercial, non-commercial, internet, non-internet. ++ PictureTel, SmartBoard, ++ wwwphone is freely available. Send mail to: jay@eit.com 3.3 Archives Archive is defined in Webster's New World Dictionary as: n. 1 a) a place where public records, documents, etc. are kept b) a place where material having documentary interest, as private papers, institutional records,memorabilia, or photographs, is kept. Archives on the Internet are pretty much the exact same thing. The motive and much of the content is the same, but the media changes (from paper files, to electronic files), and as such allows for a much greater diversity of content. Archives on the Internet also allow many people access to their files simultaneously, and from all over the world. Any and all information that people want to make available on the Internet can be. This means there is a truly vast amount of information out there, with more being added every day. In fact there is so much information that it is sometimes difficult and confusing to find the information you want. This is the topic of our next section. 3.3.1 Searching One of the great challenges facing the internet is how to organize the vast amounts of information in ways that allow most people to find what they want. In theory, there may be a "perfect" organization, but in practice, we will never achieve it. This means that finding the information you want on the net may require some skill on your part. Fortunately there are many tools and strategies that may be helpful. One of the all time great ideas for finding the information you want is a thing called a search engine. A search engine is a computer program usually living on a remote computer that spends its time downloading information from other computers and building an index of what lives where. This behavior has given them the nickname of Web Crawlers. What this means to you, is that you can call up the Search Engine's home page, and enter in a subject, name, title, or random Humanities and Arts [draft-ietf-harts-guide-02.txt] [Page 16] INTERNET-DRAFT Sharing Center Stage on the Internet string pattern, which is then used to search the engines index for stuff out on the net that seems related. This can lead to both a large volume of information, and some rather startling discoveries of information from unsuspected sources. Some of the available Searchers and Indices on the Internet include: Yahoo - Index of WWW sites, with search capabilities http://www.yahoo.com/ DejaNews - USENET (news groups) search engine http://www.dejanews.com/ WebCrawler - http://query.webcrawler.com/ Lycos - http://www.lycos.com/ AltaVista - WWW and USENET search engine http://www.altavista.digital.com/ Magellan - Index of reviewed and rated Internet sites, with search capabilities http://www.mckinley.com/ Yahoo, for example, has a high-level category called "Arts", which has a multitude of subcategories below it, most of which have further subdivision, each of which can contain lists of lists. For example, to find information on Modern Dance, one can follow the links to http://www.yahoo.com/Recreation/Dance/Modern/Groups or simply type "Modern Dance" into the search field and choose from a list of selections returned. On a typical attempt on March 25, 1997, Yahoo returned 4 major categories of Modern Dance, and offered 82 other links to related pages around the web. There are many other Searchers and Indices on the Internet, and a good way to find them, is to do a search for them in one of the services above, or others you encounter in your travels. 3.3.2 Compound Searches After experimenting with the available search engines, it quickly becomes clear that searching on a broad category can result in too much information. For example, a recent search at AltaVista for the subject "Rembrandt" matched over 8500 individual items, including information on the famous artist (Rembrandt von Rijn (1606-1669)), URL: http://www.bod.net/CJackson/rembrand/rembrand.htm and His Self-Portrait, URL:http://found.cs.nyu.edu/fox/art/rembrandt/self1660.html a hotel in Thailand (Rembrandt Hotel and Plaza, Bangkok), URL:http://www.siam.net/rembrandt/index.html and a pizza restaurant in California Humanities and Arts [draft-ietf-harts-guide-02.txt] [Page 17] INTERNET-DRAFT Sharing Center Stage on the Internet URL:http://www.lososos.com/Rembrandt'sCafe/. To be more particular in what you find, all of the available search engines allow you to do compound searches, in which multiple keywords are used, possibly in combination with Boolean logic operators such as AND, OR, and NOT. For example, to focus in on Rembrandt the artist, at the exclusion of pizza cafes, try the following advanced search in Magellan: Rembrandt AND artist AND portrait NOT pizza Note that the method of entering search items differs slightly from service to service. When trying a new service, check the available help topic before searching. And as with any new skill, practice, practice, practice! Test of search scope: Lycos: rembrandt. 1837 relevant documents Lycos: rembrandt and artist and portrait 6 relevant documents Yahoo: rembrandt 2 Catagory and 39 site matches Yahoo: rembrandt and artist 2 Catagory and 11 site matches AltaVista: rembrandt about "10000" documents AltaVista: rembrandt +artist +museum about "100" documents WebCrawler: rembrandt. 347 matching "rembrandt" WebCrawler: rembrandt and artist and portrait 21 matching documents Magellan: rembrandt 666 results Magellan: rembrandt and artist and portrait 39379 results You'll notice, in the above statistics, that the numbers for Magellan are quite different from the others. This is because different search engines may function differently. When you do a this+that search on Magellan, it looks for all instances of This AND all instances of That rather than the standard response of Only documents which contain both This AND That. On almost all the sites I have explored, there is an explanation of how the search process works on that site. You should read that explanation if you're having trouble or need further information. You will also begin to see patterns in the way people name, or file, their information, which will help you find more information. Some may list their links to ART, while others list their links to PAINTINGS. Also many people put links to related pages in their pages, so one page you find that doesn't have what you're looking for, may have a pointer to another page that does have what you're looking for. Searching is an iterative process, keep going from one search key to another, and continue down multiple levels to see what is out there. Its known as Exploring, or Surfing the Net, and it is a major part of the joy of the Internet. Humanities and Arts [draft-ietf-harts-guide-02.txt] [Page 18] INTERNET-DRAFT Sharing Center Stage on the Internet 4. Accessing the Internet Accessing the Internet in terms of simply receiving, downloading, and viewing files, uses most of the same tools (software and hardware) needed to create files and make them available on the Internet. This section, and the next, overlap in the areas of basic hardware and software. The Internet can be accessed in many comfortable ways: at school, at home, at work, and even at trendy CyberCoffeeHouses. Accessing the Internet is not synonymous with publishing and displaying on the Internet, however. You may need different equipment for creating and retrieving content. 4.1 Getting Started Many Internet Service Providers (See Section 4.2) offer free instruction to get you started in accessing the Internet as well as creating content. With the competition of Internet providers, you should be able to find one or two that offer the instruction you need. Artists in smaller communities may need to rely more heavily upon online sources of information. Check with local libraries and schools which may offer classes on Internet related subjects, including getting connected, or check the Internet section available in most bookstores today. Don't be dissuaded if you find limited access. The Internet will soon be everywhere, but if you don't want to wait, then do what these enterprising youths did... When several students from large universities returned home to Taos, NM, a couple of summers ago, they left behind their Internet connections. Missing their connectivity, they approached the owner of a local bakery and suggested he start an Internet room where he could charge people by the hour to use the Internet. The entrepreneurial baker applied for a government grant and received a a few computers with high speed modems. You may be able to find a place like this, often called a CyberCafe, rather than having to create one. Try your local magazine stand for the latest periodicals, or your public library or bookstore for pointers to other people who will know more. Once you have some Internet access, you can find out more about Cybercafes, InternetCafes, and other physical Internet access points, by searching as described in Section 3, and in the newsgroup alt.cybercafes. Humanities and Arts [draft-ietf-harts-guide-02.txt] [Page 19] INTERNET-DRAFT Sharing Center Stage on the Internet 4.2 Internet Service Providers Being an Internet Service Provider (ISP) these days is pretty easy and can be financially worthwhile, so there are alot of them, and they are starting and failing every day. In addition to the information and pointers you will find in this document, many organizations exist to help you locate, and choose a service provider. In any case, be sure to get references, not only for the ISP but also for the organizations who recommend them. Some organizations exist solely to recommend those who pay them. Most Internet related magazines these days contain extensive advertising by ISPs in your area. See Appendix D for a listing of many magazines which now contain information and pointers about the Internet. As we discussed in Section 1, every machine on the Internet needs an address by which it is accessed. Even machines which are only browsing need an address to which the browsed information is returned. This is actually called your IP (Internet Protocol) address. Usually you will get your IP address from your work, school, or ISP when you get your configuration information for your Internet connection. If you were trying to get an IP Address on your own, you would go to the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA). The following is sent out by the IANA in response to a request for an IP network number assignment. You should get your IP address (a 32bit number) from your network service provider. Your network service provider works with a regional registry to manage these addresses. The regional registry for the US is the Internic, for Europe is RIPE, for the Asia and Pacific region is the AP-NIC, and parts of the world not otherwise covered are managed by the Internic. If for some reason your network service provider does not provide you with an IP address, you can contact the your regional registry at one of the following addresses: Internic <hostmaster@internic.net> RIPE <ncc@ripe.net> AP-NIC <admin@apnic.net> Please do contact your network service provider first, though. The regional registry will want to know all the gory details about why that didn't work out before they allocate you an address directly. Humanities and Arts [draft-ietf-harts-guide-02.txt] [Page 20] INTERNET-DRAFT Sharing Center Stage on the Internet 4.3 Computer Software and Hardware Tools A basic computer system consists of a box containing a Central Processor Unit (CPU), MotherBoard, and Floppy Drive. It will also come with a keyboard, and you will need a Hard Drive, Memory, and a Video Monitor. How much memory, how large a hard drive, and how fabulous a monitor, will vary with your needs and experience. To connect to an ISP you will also need a modem and a phone line. Your normal telephone line will do, but if you have call-waiting you will probably want to disable it for the duration of your networking session so that you do not lose data to a lost connection. There are many types of computers available including PC's, Macs, and other Workstations. The most affordable systems are generally PCs and Macs. You may also need to choose an Operating System (OS) for the machine you choose. Personal Computers (PCs) can run a version of DOS, anything from Microsoft(R), or a version of Unix (BSDI, FreeBSD, Linux, etc.) Apple Macintosh computers can run the common Mac Windows, or Apples version of Unix. Workstations generally run a Unix derived OS. With any system, you should ensure that it contains the software and hardware necessary to maintain both itself and your data. While computer data is not particularly fragile, it is still sometimes lost due to hardware or software problems or simple human error. For this reason it is considered important to "back up" your system by making extra copies of important data. While simply copying data onto floppy disks could work, the small storage size of the disks makes it alot of work and prone to human error. Many large capacity disk and tape drives are available with special software specifically for doing backups. It is highly recommended that you purchase a backup solution along with your computer. It is also important to protect your data from being damaged by computer viruses. When you connect to the net and move data back and forth, it is possible that there can be a small piece of software (called a virus) that could hide in some of the data and "infect" your system, possibly then using your system to infect other machines that you connect to. These viruses are often created by misguided people as a sort of computer prank, and can accidentally or maliciously damage your data. Fortunately it is possible to buy virus checking software that can regularly scan your system to see if it has been infected. This software is important whether you are downloading information from the net, or using other peoples floppy disks. See Section 6 for more information on viruses. Determining your ideal hardware and software configuration will take some time and patience. You need an understanding of what you want to do, and how, and whether you wish to simply view, or create. You'll also want to know the limitations and expandability potential Humanities and Arts [draft-ietf-harts-guide-02.txt] [Page 21] INTERNET-DRAFT Sharing Center Stage on the Internet of the system, so you can determine if it will have a useful lifespan. If the machine cannot grow for the foreseeable few years, it will become obsolete before its given you its fullest value. 4.4 Multimedia Depending upon your needs, you may require special hardware installed in the machine, or attached externally by cables. These additional pieces of hardware are known as peripherals. The peripherals needed for accessing information on the Internet might include the following: - a sound card and speakers to hear sounds, music, speech, etc. - a CD-ROM player to read stored images of artwork - midi equipment for audio artists - video equipment for participating in video forums - a printer to make hardcopy of files, or images - Other equipment for creating content See Section 5. Most of these peripherals will require specialized software. If you plan to purchase all the hardware and software at once, find a vendor who will connect and test all the hardware, software, and peripherals for you. Due to the complexity of these systems, they can be difficult to configure for the inexperienced user. Also, verify that the vendor will stand behind their equipment, and this configuration in the event that it doesn't work the way you want it to. Hook the system up, and test it extensively right away, so as to determine any problems before your warrantee period expires. 5. Creating Content As the hardware and software of the net becomes cheaper and better understood, the technology itself will become less important than the content which lives on the net. Many of the rewards of the Internet will go to the people who create such content. There are different ways to add content to the Internet. One may start with pre-existing content, such as paintings or stories, and find a place for it, or one may create content specifically for the net such as a web page. Let us for the moment assume that you have already created something which you would like to make available on the net. There are many ways in which you could do this. You could deal with agencies who provide this service professionally, find friends or others willing to do it for free, or get yourself on the net in some fashion and create a place for it yourself. Humanities and Arts [draft-ietf-harts-guide-02.txt] [Page 22] INTERNET-DRAFT Sharing Center Stage on the Internet If you chose to do it yourself, you will need your own computer and some form of internet access from an Internet Service Provider (ISP) or Web Space Provider (WSP). Once you have a place to put your content, you will need to put it in the right format. Images may have to be digitized, audio may have to be recorded into computer files, etc. Section 5.2 discusses the various information formats in more detail. While hardware, such as image scanners, are readily available, there are also many other options available. For example, most print, or copy shops today can do high quality image scans and some WSPs may provide this as one of their services. If you are placing your content on the Web, a web page must be created for it in the form of an HTML document that references the content in the appropriate file format. While this is easy enough to do yourself, many WSPs also offer this service, and there are also independent web page designers who may be able to do a better job. Creating online content involves moving your art into an electronic format and then, perhaps, re-formatting it for the Internet. For some art forms, the initial electronic step is fairly painless: translating a short story, poem, novel (or any type of creative writing that doesn't have much desktop publishing formatting, for example) into HTML is fairly straight forward. Likewise, moving a computer graphic to the Internet requires a converter program to make the graphic follow the right format. Performing arts, sculpture, and other pieces that are hard to capture on a computer disk, require more work and creative thinking. Much of the information needed to help you think creatively about publicizing your work online is available in classes, books, local Internet cafes, and on the Internet itself. Many Internet magazines are available for subscriptions or individual issues can help get you started. Most new bookstores and, to some extent, used bookstores provide numerous volumes of Internet information. However, even the most recently published books may contain outdated information. The latest 'standards' can be obtained directly from the Internet Engineering Task Force, or IETF, at http://www.ietf.org/. The document you are reading now is a product of that organization. If you learn better by doing, rather than reading, you may be interested in taking a HTML or Internet Introduction course at a local college. Most larger metropolitan area schools provide classes for the basics, which can also expose you to other artists. Make sure you read the course description; some courses may only cover accessing the Internet while you may want to actually be creating documents. If no colleges in your area offer classes, contact the computer science department or the continuing education office and suggest a topic. If the school can obtain enough support, they may offer a class the following semester. Humanities and Arts [draft-ietf-harts-guide-02.txt] [Page 23] INTERNET-DRAFT Sharing Center Stage on the Internet 5.1 Getting Help: Consultants, Web Page Designers, Providers, etc. Once you're connected to the Internet, there are many more ways of getting help with it. Try the forums, listed in Section 3, such as Newsgroups, Bulletin Boards, and Chat rooms. If you've checked the local netiquette guidelines, and behave accordingly, the Internet community will usually be very helpful toward new arrivals. When looking for good consultants and web page designers, start with the sites you like, and find out who did their pages. Discuss your needs with other artists, or check the phone book, library, books, magazines and other periodicals for artist collectives and groups who may be available to assist you. Look for groups whose cause is artisticly motivated, rather than trusting people who are paid to point you at a particular consultant or assistant. Know what you want. If it takes you a while to figure out what you want, take that time. This shouldn't be something you need to rush into. The Internet isn't going to go away. Whatever you decide to do, don't be afraid to ask for references. A good provider of services will always be happy to provide you with a list of happy customers. 5.2 Basic design issues: Understanding Formats As discribed in Section 1.3, there are many file formats available on the Internet. You'll need to understand a little bit about the formats you'll want to present, in order to create them for others to see. Some formats are called Public Domain, and are freely copyable, and the software tools used to create this content is available for you to download off the net. Other formats are called Proprietary, and are only readable and creatable using software you must purchase from the vendor who created it, or their authorized reseller. Some formats, and their associated formatting tools, come along with other software packages. For example, Microsoft Windows comes with a Sound Recorder, which makes and plays back .wav files. Now people who want sound cues in the software they write for Windows can use .wav files and give you more options with the tools you have. So you can now surf the net for .wav files to add to the usefulness of those tools. For more information on file formats, connect to: http://www.matisse.net/files/formats.html or http://rodent.lib.rochester.edu/multimed/contents.htm (note the extension in this case is .htm rather than .html - this is the case when files are created in an environment that only supports three character extensions, such as DOS. ++ List, define, and describe, formats and extensions... ++ Sound, Image, Text, Hypertext Humanities and Arts [draft-ietf-harts-guide-02.txt] [Page 24] INTERNET-DRAFT Sharing Center Stage on the Internet Some artists are actually using html as an artform in itself and are helping to push the boundaries of this medium. ++ Mention scanners, tablets, speakers, recorders, ++ encoders/decoders, slide reader video equipment, software needed, ++ Save in-depth for the appropriate subsection. ++ Don't forget Examples: How people are creating content ... 5.3 Text and Hypertext ++ what and how 5.4 Graphic and Moving images ++ Creating mpeg, jpeg, gif, jpg, Compression: jpg vs. gif ++ What is a thumbnail? 5.5 Music and Sound The World Wide Web supports audio data as well as visual data. The most obvious way to send audio across the net would be to use digital audio like that used for the Compact Disc or "CD". However, CD format digital audio requires 44,100 16 bit words per second for a mono signal, and twice that for a stereo signal. While there are many places where one can find digital audio in Windows ".wav", or the MacIntosh ".au" format, these files typically take a very long time to download even a few seconds of audio. The size of these formats makes them too inefficient for widespread use on the net today. It is however possible to do "useful" audio over the net. The emerging "de facto" standard seems to be _RealAudio_, based on the freely distributable server/player application, _RealAudio_ version 2.0, developed by the Seattle based company Progressive Networks. First released in 1995, RealAudio allows useable digital audio in realtime over a 28.8 kB line, and has already been put into service on the home pages of most major record companies as well as in many niche applications. In addition, RealAudio provides a "Voice mode" optimized for understandable speech transmission over a 14.4kB line. Unfortunately the quality of _RealAudio_ leaves much to be desired. In particular, the sample rate in Music Mode is only 8Khz (as compared to CD quality 44.1 Khz), meaning that all high frequencies above 4khz are simply missing. The resulting audio is still pleasing to listen to, but sounds very dull and dark. More information about RealAudio can be found at www.RealAudio.com. Humanities and Arts [draft-ietf-harts-guide-02.txt] [Page 25] INTERNET-DRAFT Sharing Center Stage on the Internet Clearly Digital Audio is the way of the future, but until more bandwidth is available to the average person, it may not be the way of the present. Fortunately, at least in the area of music, there is an interesting alternative. MIDI (the Musical Instrument Digital Interface), as developed for electronic musical instruments (keyboards, samplers, drum machines, etc.) works well for certain kinds of music over the net. It involves sending no sound sources at all, just the description of the music -- kind of like the score, without the instruments. If the receiver has the right instruments on their computer (such as the sounds defined in the General Midi soundset found on many soundcards), they can play back the musical score. The big disadvantage to using MIDI is that other than the limited selection of sounds in the General Midi set, it is extremely difficult to make sure the music sounds more than approximately like the original. And there is no way to handle non-MIDI instruments such as guitar or voice, so it is useless to hear the new song by your favorite rock and roll band. The big advantage to MIDI is how fast it works over slow net connections. For example, five minutes of music, fits in a mere 30k file, and usually will not take more than a few seconds even on the slowest of dialup connections! This makes it ideal for applications such as networked games, or music to go along with a web page. There are many ways of embedding MIDI files into HTML documents, for WWW distribution. Anyone who wants to add MIDI to a page can choose to use existing public access MIDI file banks, of which there are many, or to produce new MIDI themselves. Crescendo is one package available for embedding MIDI files in HTML http://www.liveupdate.com Crescendo works for both MacIntosh and Windows. Helpful Links: Publicly Available Audio and Music Applications http://reality.sgi.com/employees/cook/audio.apps/public.html Music of J.S. Bach for keyboard ftp://ftp.cs.ruu.nl/pub/MIDI/SONGS/CLASSICAL/BACH/HARPSICHORD/ RISM (repertoire of manuscript sources), plus other access to online scholarly music resources. http://rism.harvard.edu/RISM/ Crescendo is used in the web pages at http://mcentury.citi.doc.ca along with a growing number of others. One very interesting use of Crescendo occurs on the Music Theory Online publication, a serious scholarly site for publishing and debating musicology and music theory. Articles there now routinely include short musical examples, a great sign of the future of scholarly publishing in the age of Humanities and Arts [draft-ietf-harts-guide-02.txt] [Page 26] INTERNET-DRAFT Sharing Center Stage on the Internet dynamic, interactive content. http://boethius.music.ucsb.edu/mto/issues/mto.96.2.4/ Formerly, debate on musical form and structure occurred in the pages of journals, referring usually to music examples in terms of its visual notation. This notation requires a certain degree of training to decode, effectively restricting the potential readership to those with this professional training. With sound examples embedded directly in the text, at least the aural effect of the music comes across, even to those unable to read the notation accurately. This shift is appropriate to the newer trends in music scholarship, which talk about music in terms of its social and cultural context, instead of only in formal terms. 5.6 Content Design Issues Know your intended audience. If you want more people to see your work, you'll need to make it more accessible. Many sites are very careful about what content they will allow access to. If you want all audiences to be able to view your work, make sure you are careful about your content and language. Another content design issue is tool friendliness. Some machines have limitations which will not allow them to see or hear what you'd like them to. For example, older or less expensive models of monitors may have monochrome, or one-color displays, or display only 16 colors, or 256 colors. If you create and view images which look fabulous with a 64,000 color display, you may want to test them using a 16 color display to see what the effect is. Sometimes you can modify your image slightly to get a wider audience while only having a minor impact on the effect. The following sites give you pointers on what to consider when designing a web page that is content- rich: - Sun's Guide to Web Style - http://www.sun.com/styleguide/ - Yale C/AIM Web Style Guide - http://info.med.yale.edu/caim/manual/ - Web Development - http://www.december.com/web/develop.html - A Guide to Creating a Successful Web Site = http://www.hooked.net/~larrylin/web.htm - Bandwidth Conservation Society - http://www.infohiway.com/faster/ This is resource for web developers with an interest in optimizing performance. See Section 6 for other issues and challenges relating to content. 5.7 Publicizing your work ++ advertising on the net. point to Sally's doc. Humanities and Arts [draft-ietf-harts-guide-02.txt] [Page 27] INTERNET-DRAFT Sharing Center Stage on the Internet 6. Issues and Challenges The Internet has many issues and challenges, among which are security, privacy, property rights, copyrights and freedom of speech. Security issues involve both the security of your data, as well as your image. Viruses can be transmitted easily over the net, and precautions should always be taken. If you choose to keep your own information available on the net it can be the subject of vandalism and theft. You may also find yourself being persecuted for the information you provide as more and more people join the Internet community and feel the need to impose their morality upon it. This is no different from any society. We must draw our own lines, and our own conclusions. This section is terribly brief, and entirely summary in nature, and is in no way intended to be comprehensive. It is intended to warn you and advise you. If you have real concerns about your property rights, copyrights, and/or personal rights, please do your own research. Internet laws are in such a state of flux that they are changing as I write this, and they will be changing as you read it. At last check, however, freedom of speech was prevailing in the United States, and so far the government has not upheld any laws prohibiting the exhibition of anything on the Internet. Support your local constitutional rights. 6.1 Security Issues ++ See Section 10. but describe here also. ++ Security of content, site, ownership. 6.2 Viruses A "virus" is a program that modifies other programs by placing a copy of itself inside them. It cannot run independently. It requires that its host program be run to activate it. The damage caused by a virus may consist of the deletion of data or programs, maybe even reformatting of the hard disk, but more subtle damage is also possible. Some viruses may modify data or introduce typing errors into text. Other viruses may have no intentional effects other than replicating itself. Viruses can be transmitted over the Internet inside other programs, but usually they are transmitted by floppy disk. Your best bet is to purchase a really versatile and up-to-date virus checking program from your local software retailer, and run it over every floppy you plan to read, and every program you plan to run, as well as periodically over the entire machine. Humanities and Arts [draft-ietf-harts-guide-02.txt] [Page 28] INTERNET-DRAFT Sharing Center Stage on the Internet Computer viruses are enough like organic viruses that many of the same precautions apply. Early detection is key. Diligence will mitigate potential damage, but frequent incremental backups are your best strategy for recovery. 6.3 Rights ++ Intro to protecting your copyright on the Internet. ++ References: Copyright law, cases, etc. ** Remember Laws on Intellectual property are constantly changing! ++ examples of: copyright, trademark, disclaimers, international ++ concerns big issue re: other countries who do not recognize US law ++ goes both ways... respecting others copyrights ++ The implications of the Telecom Reform Bill with regard to ++ Freedom of Speech. ++ Censorship issues, need *your* help. ++ INTERNATIONALIZE: ie: Canada will not allow the import of anything ++ that is "degrading" to women. Etc. 6.4 Conducting Business over the Internet ++ Secure transaction are possible, pointers to pgp, etc. 6.5 Netiquette ++ The Responsible Use of the Network document outline, and pointers. ++ ie: AVOID SHOUTING FYI 28 "Netiquette Guidelines", (Also RFC 1855), October 1995. ++ It never hurts to keep silent until you know your audience better. ++ Not being offended by others, ie: don't take it personally ++ keeping in mind international cultural differences, etc. 7. Glossary ++ point to userglos, trainmat, and useful stuff that needs to be on ++ the same doc. for ease of use FYI 29 "Catalogue of Network Training Materials", (Also RFC 2007), October 1996. FYI 22 "Frequently Asked Questions for Schools", (Also RFC 1941), May 1996. FYI 18 "Internet Users' Glossary", (Also RFC 1983), August 1996. Humanities and Arts [draft-ietf-harts-guide-02.txt] [Page 29] INTERNET-DRAFT Sharing Center Stage on the Internet ** words contained within this document which need to be defined for ** the audience: Boolean, 8. Resources ++ Places to find more information of use and interest. ++ specific arts and humanities studies, projects, programs, getty Much of the information provided by this document was gathered from other documents. Wherever important to the discussion, a pointer to the document was given, however, many more documents are available on many other topics. 8.1 Request for Comment One of the most important collections of informational documents about the Internet are written as Requests for Comment by the Internet Engineering Task Force. The name Request for Comment is historical, as these documents are submitted by their authors' for the approval of the Internet community as Internet Standards, and valid Informational RFCs called FYIs, of which this document is one. Basically, if the IETF collective uses a tool or resource, they document its use in an RFC so that there is no mystery to its functionality, uses, designations, specifications, or purposes. More information on RFCs, FYIs, the IETF, and its organizations, documents, policies and purposes can be found in the RFCs themselves, by a number of means. 8.1.1 The ISI RFC-INFO service There are many way to get copies of RFCs over the Internet (see ConneqXions, Vol.6,No.1, January 1992). Most of these simply access a directory of files where each RFC is in a file. The searching capability (if any) is limited to the filename recognition features of that system. The ISI RFC-INFO server is a system you can search for an RFC by author, date, or keyword (all title words are automatically keywords). RFC-INFO is an e-mail based service to help in locating and retrieval of RFCs and FYIs. Users can ask for "lists" of all RFCs and FYIs having certain attributes ("filters") such as their ID, keywords, title, author, issuing organization, and date. Once an RFC is uniquely identified (e.g., by its RFC number) it may also be retrieved. To use the service send e-mail to RFC-INFO@ISI.EDU with your requests in the body of the message. Feel free to put anything in the SUBJECT, the system ignores it. (All is case independent.) Humanities and Arts [draft-ietf-harts-guide-02.txt] [Page 30] INTERNET-DRAFT Sharing Center Stage on the Internet See Appendix C. Examples for using the RFC server RFC-INFO@ISI.EDU 9. References ++ should we create [#] footnotes?? i.e.: ISN doc, etc. ++ reference the publications and/or sites of key ++ arts and humanities organizations (e.g. Getty, NINCH) 10. Security Considerations ** jkrey points to site sec. handbook: ** "The "current" Work in Progress for the Site Security Handbook WG ** is the I-D - draft-ietf-ssh-handbook-03.txt. This group is ** working on a companion document for the "user". Stay tuned for ** the I-D. They should have that out before San Jose." There are a wide variety of ways in which systems can be violated, some intentional, some accidental. Of the intentional attacks, a portion may be exploratory, others simply abusive of your resources (using up your CPU time) but many are actively malicious. No system is 100% safe, but there are steps you can take to protect against misconfigured devices spraying packets, casual intruders, and a variety of focused assaults. Your best defense is to educate yourself on the subject of security. There are places on the net devoted to teaching users about security - most prominently, the CERT Coordination Center located at the Software Engineering Institute at Carnegie Mellon university. You can point your web browser (or direct your ftp connection) to ftp://info.cert.org/pub/cert_faq to start. This is a frequently asked questions guide and general overview on CERT. It includes a bibliography of suggested reading and a variety of sources to find more information. Next, you should probably read ftp://info.cert.org/pub/tech_tips/security_info which contains a (primarily based on the UNIX operating system) checklist to help you determine whether you're site has suffered a security breach. You can use it to guide you through handling a specific incident if you think your system has been compromised or you can use it as a list of common vulnerabilities. CERT also maintains a wide variety of bulletins, software patches, and tools to help you keep up to date and secure. Before you are even online, you should consider some basic steps: 10.1 Formulate a security policy. It should include policies regarding physical access procedures, Humanities and Arts [draft-ietf-harts-guide-02.txt] [Page 31] INTERNET-DRAFT Sharing Center Stage on the Internet security incident response, online privileges and back-up media. Put a message at the login to establish your policy clearly. An example: "This system is for the use of authorized users only. It may be monitored in the course of routine operation to detect unauthorized use. Evidence of unauthorized use or criminal activity may result in legal prosecution." 10.1.1. Talk to your Internet Service Provider. Depending upon your provider and router management situation, there are a number of things your ISP should be able to do for you to make your site more secure. Foremost, packet filtering on the router that connects you to the internet. You will want to consider IP filters to allow specific types of traffic (web, ftp, mail, etc.) to certain machines (the mailhost, the web server, etc.) and no others. Other filters can block certain types of IP spoofing where the intruder masks his or her identity using an IP address from inside your network to defeat your filters. Discuss your concerns and questions with your provider - the company may have standards or tools they can recommend. 10.1.2. Make sure your systems are up to date. A significant number of incidents happen because older versions of software have well-known weaknesses that can be exploited from almost anywhere on the internet. CERT provides a depository for software patches designed by concerned net.citizens, CERT's engineers and by the vendors themselves. 10.1.3. Use the tools available. Consider recording MD5 checksums on read-only media (the MD5-digest algorithm determines an electronic "fingerprint" for files to indicate their uniqueness -comparing more recent checksums to older ones can alert you to changes in important system files), installing tripwire on your systems (notes size and MD5 checksum changes, among other sanity checks), and periodically testing the integrity of your machines with programs an intruder might use, like SATAN and crack. [Details on MD5 are contained in RFC 1321.] Most files and fixes go through the basics before leaving you to figure things out on your own, but security can be a complicated issue, both technically and morally. When good security is implemented, no one really notices. Unfortunately, no one notices when it's not taken care of either. That is until the system crashes, your data gets corrupted, or you get a phone call from an irate company whose site was cracked from your machines. It doesn't matter if you carry only public information. It doesn't matter if you think you're too small or unimportant to be noticed. No one is Humanities and Arts [draft-ietf-harts-guide-02.txt] [Page 32] INTERNET-DRAFT Sharing Center Stage on the Internet too small or too big, no site is immune. Take precautions and be prepared. 11. Acknowledgments Joseph Aiuto Sepideh Boroumand Michael Century Kelly Cooper Lile Elam Dan Harrington Julie Jensen Walter Stickle 12. Authors' Address Janet Max jlm@rainfarm.com Scott Stoner stoner@artsedge.kennedy-center.org Humanities and Arts [draft-ietf-harts-guide-02.txt] [Page 33] INTERNET-DRAFT Sharing Center Stage on the Internet Appendix A. ++humanities computing projects, research projects, ++text encoding project (michael century) need to maintain perspective ++of the historic art archives and the "current" art in culture ++AHIB? Marty Harris, Susan Sigfried NIDGE? Examples of Projects on the Internet of Interest to the Arts and Humanities Communities The commonplace insight about the web as a new distribution channel for cultural products is that it effaces the traditional border between producer and consumer. Publishers exploit two-way interactivity by re-designing the editorial mix to include reader response. Here follows some examples of the way creative artists attempt to design structures flexible enough for significant viewer input. RENGA (http://renga.ntticc.or.jp) - An inspired transposition of a traditional collaborative writing practice into the realm of digital media supported by the NTT InterCommunication Centre in Tokyo. Renga means linked-image or linked-poem, and draws on the Japanese tradition of collaboration which effaces the unique notion of original author. PING (http://www.artcom.de/ping/mapper) - by Art+Com, a Berlin based media centre and thinktank. Art+Com is a leader in producing high-end net visualization projects. Ping lets the browser add a link, which then becomes a part of the ongoing visual structure. It is similar, in this sense, to the Toronto Centre for Landscape Architecture's OASIS site. Art+Com's T-Vision project (http://www.artcom.de/projects/terra) which uses satellites and networked VR computers to permit an astonishing fly-in to earth from space: acclaimed as one of the most imaginative realizations of the potential of networked computing. OASIS(Image)INTERNET-DRAFT Toronto Centre for Landscape Architecture's OASIS site requires a specialized browser, but from a standard Netscape connection, you can view stills that give a sense of the beautiful images produced by the collaborative "design process". It is introduced by its designers as follows: Oasis is a shared 3-Dimensional navigational environment for the world wide web. This virtual landscape allows one to bury their own information links throughout the terrain or to discover and connect to new information left by others. TechnoSphere (http://www.lond-inst.ac.uk/TechnoSphere/) Is TechnoSphere a Game? Yes and no. It's an experiment on a global scale, a chance to Humanities and Arts [draft-ietf-harts-guide-02.txt] [Page 34] INTERNET-DRAFT Sharing Center Stage on the Internet develop complex artificial life on digital networks. TechnoSphere is interactive like a game, but transgresses the linear boundaries of branching and hierarchical games narrative to enable freer movement. TechnoSphere is designed to encourage a non-linear experiential exploration. Body Missing (http://yorku.ca/BodyMissing/index.html) Toronto artist Vera Frenkel created this richly evocative site on the disappearance of art and memory as an extension of her Transit Bar installation. It is conceived as a site open to new 'reconstructions' of the artworks confiscated during the Third Reich. First opened to the public as part of the ISEA95 exhibition in Montreal, it has since earned widespread critical comment and praise. Molecular Clinic 1.0 (http://sc_web.cnds.canon.co.jp/molecular_clinic/artlab_bionet) Molecular Clinic 1.0 ' is an art project realized through a collaboration between ARTLAB and Seiko Mikami, and is one of the most elaborate custom designed art projects yet created for the Web. During their initial visit users should download the MOLECULAR ENGINE VIEWER, which is a type of molecular laboratory for their computer. What they will see on the web site after this initial download is a virtual space containing a three dimensional computer generated Spider and Monolith object. The user will be able to navigate through and into this virtual space and can zoom into the spider all the way to the molecular level. File Room (http://fileroom.aaup.uic.edu/FILEROOM.html) - Cumulative database info on Censorship, hosted in Chicago but conceived by Spanish artist Antoni Muntadas. Idea Futures (http://if.arc.ab.ca/~jamesm/IF/IF.html) - Winner of the grand prize at the 1995 Ars Electronica competition for Web Sites, Idea Futures is a stock market of ideas, based on the theories of mathematical economist Robin Hanson. The 'truth' of any claim is assigned a weight calculated by the amount of virtual cash which members of the exchange are willing to bet. The scheme leads might lead toward a radical democratization of academic discourse, but just as easily, toward the trivialization of thought. See the following for a philosophical critique of the system. (http://merzbau.citi.doc.ca/~henry/Matrix/Erewhon.html) Firefly (http://www.agents-inc.com/) also a prize winner at Ars Electronica in 1995, Firefly is an prototypical example of what enthusiasts call a "personal music recommendation agent", which makes suggestions for what you might like to listen to, based on a stored profile of your own likes and dislikes, and the evolving ratings submitted to the system by other members. Worth visiting, if only to understand what all the fashionable hype about 'intelligent agents' Humanities and Arts [draft-ietf-harts-guide-02.txt] [Page 35] INTERNET-DRAFT Sharing Center Stage on the Internet is all about; skeptics should know that even the promoters of these services admit the circularity of their systems: they're capable of reinforcing existing taste, but little else. Humanities and Arts [draft-ietf-harts-guide-02.txt] [Page 36] INTERNET-DRAFT Sharing Center Stage on the Internet Appendix B: Some other URL's of interest Art on the Net http://www.art.net/Welcome.html Artist Memorials http://www.cascade.net/kahlo.html Writers http://the-tech.mit.edu/Shakespeare/ http://www.rain.org/~da5e/tom_robbins.html Photography http://www.nyip.com/ Personal Journals http://grateful.dead.net/RobertHunterArchive.html http://www.cjnetworks.com/~jessa/ Musical Groups http://www.dead.net (Grateful Dead) http://www.netspace.org/phish/ (Phish) Humanities and Arts [draft-ietf-harts-guide-02.txt] [Page 36] INTERNET-DRAFT Sharing Center Stage on the Internet Appendix C: To get started you may send a message to RFC-INFO@ISI.EDU with requests such as in the following examples (without the explanation between []): Help: Help [to get this information] List: FYI [list the FYI notes] List: RFC [list RFCs with window as keyword or in title] keywords: window List: FYI [list FYIs about windows] Keywords: window List: * [list both RFCs and FYIs about windows] Keywords: window List: RFC [list RFCs about ARPANET, ARPA NETWORK, etc.] title: ARPA*NET List: RFC [list RFCs issued by MITRE, dated 1989-1991] Organization: MITRE Dated-after: Jan-01-1989 Dated-before: Dec-31-1991 List: RFC [list RFCs obsoleting a given RFC] Obsoletes: RFC0010 List: RFC [list RFCs by authors starting with "Bracken"] Author: Bracken* [* is a wild card matches everything] List: RFC [list RFCs by both Postel and Gillman] Authors: J. Postel [note, the "filters" are ANDed] Authors: R. Gillman List: RFC [list RFCs by any Crocker] Authors: Crocker Humanities and Arts [draft-ietf-harts-guide-02.txt] [Page 37]
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wrong_mix_property_subsidiary_00108
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FactBench
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0
| 28
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http://www.tiburonmedia.com/
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en
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.:: Tiburon Media Group ::.
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http://www.tiburonmedia.com/assets/images/favicon.ico
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Sean Eilers
CEO & Founder
Sean founded Tiburon Media Group in 2003 and leads the organization. Along with day to day operations, he continues to guide the company's technology innovation and development. Prior to founding Tiburon Media, Sean was Vice President, US Media Sales for Terra Lycos. At Lycos, he was responsible for the media sales, direct marketing and subscription sales teams, which monetized properties like Lycos, Wired, Gamesville, Quote, Raging Bull, Tripod, Angelfire and Sonique. He was also instrumental in the acquisition of Get Relevant, one of the original co-registration platform technologies. Sean joined Lycos in 1999, through their acquisition of Gamesville, where he held the position of Director of Sales. Prior to joining Gamesville, he held sales management positions with Cox Interactive Sales and Listing Link, having begun his online advertising career in 1995. Sean has served in numerous corporate advisory positions and as a board member of the Bay Area Interactive Group. Sean earned a Bachelor's Degree in Economics from the University of California, Davis.
Tom Callagy
VP of Sales
Tom joined Tiburon Media Group in June of 2006. As the VP of Sales Tom manages client relationships with most of the largest companies and agencies in almost every vertical of the Lead Generation space. Prior to joining Tiburon Media Group Tom was a National Accounts Manager for Lycos, where he developed and maintained client relationships. Tom has also held Sales Management positions with the Cintas Corporation FAS Division, in medical sales. Tom brings to Tiburon Media Group a strong customer management background and sales experience in the interactive marketing business.
Danielle Carire
Director of Finance
Danielle joined Tiburon Media in December, 2003 as the Director of Finance. She is responsible for financial reporting, billing, credit and collections. Prior to joining Tiburon Media, Danielle was a Sales Development Specialist for Terra Lycos where she liaised with the sales department and finance department, reporting to the VP of Sales. Danielle joined Lycos in 1999 when they acquired Gamesville. Prior to Lycos she was a Manager of Traffic and Distribution for Rysher Entertainment. Danielle earned a Bachelorâs Degree in Communications from Brooklyn College.
Rahul Richhi
Director of Information Technology
Rahul joined the TMG team in 2006 managing a team of developers, engineers and database administrators. His research duties include sourcing best of breed technologies in developing a state of the art application/database platform for TMG. In parallel, Rahul facilitated migration of all processing capacity to a cloud based network to enhance scalability. Along with handling day to day technical requests he is responsible for research & development of the new technologies to enhance TMG's proprietary platform. Rahul consults closely with TMG clients to understand their business needs and improve work flow.
Rahul earned a B.A. from Delhi University, Masters in Computer Applications from Department of IT Ministry, New Delhi and a MBA from SCDL, Pune, India. He is Cisco Certified (CCNA) and PMP Trained.
Tara Collins
Operations Manager
Tara joined Tiburon Media in August 2011, interfacing directly with the TMG Sales Team and Publishers to maximize revenue within the TMG Lead Generation Network. Prior to joining Tiburon Media, Tara was a leading Sales Manager for Restoration Hardware, opening numerous new store locations with corporate directors and leading product training for new store teams.
Tara earned a Bachelor's Degree in Business Management from University of Phoenix.
McLaren Behrendt
Campaign Manager
McLaren joined Tiburon Media in January, 2020 as a Campaign Manager, working directly with the TMG Sales Team and Publishers to maximize revenue and optimize campaign performance. When she is not at work you will see her catching a live show or at the beach. She studied Political Science at University of Denver.
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FactBench
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0
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As recently as July 2000, research firm IDC forecast that telematics revenue would top $42 billion by 2010, up from $1 billion in 1998. Analysts from Adventis, GartnerG2 and others who convened in Detroit called those predictions "outlandish," curbing 2010 revenue estimates to $20 billion. Many are also saying that the automakers must cede a larger piece of the smaller pie to wireless and electronics companies.
"This was definitely a case of bubble fever," said Andrew Cole, keynote speaker and wireless practice leader at London-based strategy consulting firm Adventis.
"The automakers created the car and make a decent amount of money from it, but other companies were trying to make more money in the downstream market. The automakers saw this and said, 'Why should the technology companies get the profit? Let's squat on the revenue stream,' regardless if it wasn't in their core business area."
Executives from Tokyo, Seoul and Paris could barely veil their contempt for the technology industry during the Detroit event--yet many turned that same criticism on themselves for their willingness to adopt New Economy metrics to a Rust Belt industry. Some said dot-coms hoodwinked stockholders and investment bankers and convinced a broad segment of Corporate America to suspend normal rules about profit and growth in favor of wacky metrics that didn't emphasize sound business theory. Many executives now are questioning why they came along for the ride.
Harel Kodesh, a former Microsoft engineer who became president and CEO of telematics provider Wingcast 18 months ago, said some telematics executives adopted metrics such as "eardrops"--the amount of time consumers used dashboard electronics such as embedded cell phones, similar to the now discredited "eyeballs" metric online advertisers used in the late '90s.
But the switch to goofy standards may have been a bigger disservice to telematics providers than eyeballs was to online advertisers, Kodesh said. That's because telematics providers have to train consumers on how to safely use dashboard gadgets such as satellite navigation and real-time traffic reports through voice-recognition software. Online advertisers, on the other hand, don't have to teach people to read banner ads.
"At the height of the Internet bubble, people thought about getting eyeballs and eardrops--to hell with profit as long as you can get people online in whatever form 'online' takes," said Kodesh, who heads the San Diego, Calif.-based joint venture between Ford Motor and Qualcomm. The venture is set to launch products in about two months. "We all forgot that consumer education is a long-term effort."
Angst, anger and humility
The auto industry's dot-com angst isn't unique. Executives in industries ranging from academics to healthcare complain that the dot-com bubble perverted business models, particularly in areas where technology overlapped with other industries.
For example, realtors in tech meccas such as San Jose, Calif., and Boston say that housing prices are still in the process of readjusting to post-bubble economics; airline executives complain that the Internet forced them to rush e-commerce into sales structures before they could come up with the best model.
But telematics--the place where the high-powered technology and automobile industries intersect--was perhaps the most interesting and long-lasting case of "bubble fever," and possibly the most ironic.
Until the 1990s, the tech sector was considered a bit player in the U.S. economy, dwarfed by Detroit's big iron. Automobiles had been a cornerstone of the U.S. economy since the 1950s, when suburbia exploded and few American families could do without at least one vehicle.
But technology gained footing in the 1990s, boosted by companies' soaring stock prices and consumers' eagerness to purchase PCs, cell phones and other gadgets. Economists at Well Capital Management in Minneapolis determined last year that the tech sector accounted for nearly half of the U.S. economic growth in the 1990s. Did the auto industry leap into telematics in part to regain some of its economic thunder?
Auto executives dismiss such theories outright, but many admit they were shifting focus to technology, ranging from satellite TV at General Motors and a giant e-commerce marketplace for automakers called Covisint. In the late 1990s, Michigan even spearheaded a massive business campaign called "Automation Alley," an effort to court tech companies on its corporate Interstate 75 corridor.
Even though activity in the tech sector quieted after the spring 2000 stock implosion, Silicon Valley's courting of Detroit intensified in the second half of 2000 and 2001, when a venture capital drought in the tech sector forced start-ups to turn to deep-pocketed automakers. Many auto executives said they were almost flattered by the attention from tech companies--and the chance to shake off their image as Rust Belt stalwarts.
"We saw a plethora of different opportunities, and we were really enticed," said Scott Kubicki, vice president of OnStar Core Services. "You could bite at those apples pretty quickly, but we only bit at a few. We were pretty conservative, but we got offered a ton of opportunities. Everyone wanted to partner with us. People were calling us who thought we were 'Old Economy' only a year before."
Although the telematics implosion didn't force any automakers into bankruptcy or cause the deep-pocketed companies to scramble for more venture funding, auto executives say they've learned valuable lessons about their future because of the bubble.
Peter van Alstine, vice president of telematics for Boston-based consulting firm Cross Country Automotive Services, said the important lesson he learned was that telematics, like the Internet, is in its infancy. He also learned that telematics is here to stay, even if the niche doesn't immediately produce billions in new revenue for automakers.
"This is a long-distance race," van Alstine said, noting that several years of OnStar promotions have resulted in only about 2.2 million customers. "Right now there are some customers willing to pay $20 or $30 per month, but it's going to be a long put to get 10 million or more customers."
Numerous executives said that the bubble and its bursting have forced them to scrutinize business practices--and even question whether to stay in the telematics niche at all. Many automakers, including Ford and DaimlerChrysler, are revamping business strategies to provide little more than a dashboard outlet or hub and rely heavily if not entirely on wireless and electronics partners to provide products and services. (By contrast, General Motors's OnStar mobile communication division is emphasizing more embedded devices.)
"We have learned in the last year to become very humble," Bruno Simon, director of telematics at Paris-based Renault. "We've had many experiences, but the only thing we're sure of is that we've burned a lot of cash out and haven't brought a lot of cash in," Simon said.
The cure for the dot-com hangover
It's unclear how damaging telematics' dot-com hangover will be or how long it will last.
Pessimism at the Detroit conference and in the ranks of telematics service providers around the world has become so pervasive that some experts worry about a morale drain in the emerging sector.
"The telematics high has cooled off significantly," said GartnerG2 automotive analyst Thilo Koslowski. "There was a big vision and dream to realize revenue for car manufacturers, and now we realize that won't happen anytime soon and that vision was overly optimistic."
Although dot-com fever caused the auto industry to inflate potential profits and then forced companies to retrench, the Internet bubble may have been fortuitously timed. Some say it forced the automakers to consider broader ramifications and potential liabilities of cell phones and electronics.
As cell phones became ubiquitous on American roads in the late 1990s, some safety advocates were lobbying against the use of traditional cell phones while driving because of driver distraction. At least 40 states have proposed legislation banning traditional handheld phones, and in 2001 New York became the first state to ban handheld phones for drivers while their cars were in motion.
Judges and consumers also debated who was responsible for deaths caused by distraction. In 1995, a motorcyclist died after a Smith Barney broker hit him while talking on his cell phone and driving his Mercedes Benz at the time of the accident. Although the firm did not supply the phone, lawyers alleged that Smith Barney encouraged workers to use personal phones for business. Smith Barney settled the case for $500,000 in 1999.
Automakers are now weighing such tragedies and political movements carefully as they try to find a killer app for telematics. Many now say that hands-free calling through embedded speech-recognition technology could increase revenue--and reduce the number of crashes and win political allies. Auto executives say their foray into telematics could help them stay ahead of the curve if more states pass New York-style bans or if consumer outrage increases.
"Whether hands-free becomes law is irrelevant," said Jack Withrow, director of telematics for Chrysler, the Auburn Hills, Mich.-based division of Germany's DaimlerChrysler. "The public is saying, 'We want to talk on the phone safely,' and the automakers are now in a position to give them the ability to do just that."
|
||||||||
wrong_mix_property_subsidiary_00108
|
FactBench
|
0
| 0
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lycos
|
en
|
Wikipedia
|
[
"https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Lycos_logo.png/220px-Lycos_logo.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/d3/Lycos_screenshot.png/250px-Lycos_screenshot.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/42px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Crystal_Clear_app_linneighborhood.svg/28px-Crystal_Clear_app_linneighborhood.svg.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Kakao_CI_black.png/100px-Kakao_CI_black.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png",
"https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/footer/poweredby_mediawiki.svg"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[
"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"
] |
2001-10-30T12:33:46+00:00
|
en
|
/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lycos
|
Search engine and web portal
This article is about the search engine. For the former corporation Terra Lycos, see Terra Networks. For the defunct European venture, see Lycos Europe.
Lycos, Inc. (stylized as LYCOS), is a web search engine and web portal established in 1994, spun out of Carnegie Mellon University. Lycos also encompasses a network of email, web hosting, social networking, and entertainment websites. The company is based in Waltham, Massachusetts, and is a subsidiary of Ybrant Digital.
The word "Lycos" is short for "Lycosidae", which is Latin for "wolf spider".[4]
Lycos is a university spin-off that began in May 1994 as a research project by Michael Loren Mauldin of Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh. Lycos Inc. was formed with approximately US$2 million in venture capital funding from CMGI. Bob Davis became the CEO and first employee of the new company in 1995, and concentrated on building the company into an advertising-supported web portal, led by Bill Townsend, who served as Vice President, Advertising. Lycos enjoyed several years of growth during the 1990s and became the most visited online destination in the world in 1999, with a global presence in more than 40 countries.[5][6]
In April 1996, the company completed the fastest initial public offering from inception to offering in NASDAQ (LCOS) history, ending its first day with a market value of $300 million. It also became the first search engine to go public, before its big rivals Yahoo! and Excite.[7] Lycos started offering e-mail services in October 1997,[8] the same year it became one of the first profitable Internet businesses in the world. In 1998, Lycos acquired Tripod.com for $58 million in an attempt to "break into the portal market".[9]
Lycos Europe was a joint venture between Lycos and the Bertelsmann transnational media corporation, but it has always been a distinct corporate entity. Although Lycos Europe remains the largest of Lycos's overseas ventures, several other Lycos subsidiaries also entered into joint venture agreements including Lycos Canada, Lycos Korea and Lycos Asia.[10]
Lycos was one of the most popular websites on the internet, ranking 8th in 1997, and peaking at 4th in both 1999 and 2001.[11]
On May 16, 2000, near the peak of the dot-com bubble, Lycos announced its intent to be acquired by Terra Networks, the Internet arm of the Spanish telecommunications giant Telefónica, for $12.5 billion.[12] The acquisition price represented a return of nearly 3,000 times the company's initial venture capital investment and about 20 times its initial public offering valuation.[13] The transaction closed in October 2000 and the merged company was renamed Terra Lycos, although the Lycos brand continued to be used in the United States. Overseas, the company continued to be known as Terra Networks.
Having been set back by the dot-com bubble burst, Lycos abandoned its own search crawler in late 2001, and started using FAST.[13]
In August 2004, Terra announced that it was selling Lycos to Seoul, South Korea–based Daum Communications Corporation, now Kakao, for $95.4 million in cash, less than 2% of Terra's initial multibillion-dollar investment.[13] In October 2004, the transaction closed and the company name was changed back to Lycos.[13]
Under new ownership, Lycos began to refocus its strategy. The company moved away from being a search-centric portal and toward a community destination for broadband entertainment content.[13] With a new management team in place, Lycos also began divesting properties that were not core to its new strategy. In July 2006, Wired News, which had been part of Lycos since the purchase of Wired Digital in 1998, was sold[13] to Condé Nast Publications and re-merged with Wired Magazine. The Lycos Finance division, best known for Quote.com and RagingBull.com, was sold[13] to FT Interactive Data Corporation in February 2006, while its online dating site, Matchmaker.com, was sold[13] to Date.com. In 2006, Lycos regained ownership of the Lycos trademark from Carnegie Mellon University, allowing the company to rename to Lycos, Inc.[13]
During 2006, Lycos introduced several media services, including Lycos Phone which combined video chat, real-time video on demand, and an MP3 player.[14] In November 2006, Lycos began to roll out applications centered on social media, including its video application, Lycos Cinema, that featured simultaneous watch and chat functionality.[15] In February 2007, Lycos MIX was launched, allowing users to pull video clips from YouTube, Google Video, Yahoo! Video and MySpace Video. Lycos MIX also allowed users to create playlists where other users could add video comments and chat in real-time.[16]
As part of a corporate restructuring to focus on mobile, social networks and location-based services, Daum sold Lycos for $36 million in August 2010 to Ybrant Digital, an Internet marketing company based in Hyderabad, India.[17][18][19] Ybrant Digital paid $20 million at signing and there has been a legal dispute over magnitude of the second installment between Ybrant and Daum. In 2018, a New York court ruled in favor of Daum and appointed Daum (by then merged with Kakao) as receiver of Ybrant's 56% ownership interest in Lycos.[20]
In May 2012, Lycos announced the appointment of former employee Rob Balazy as CEO of Media division of Lycos.[21]
In September 2014, Ed Noel was appointed in place of Rob and manages the operations under the title of General Manager of Lycos Media.[22]
In June 2015, Lycos announced a pair of wearable devices, called Band and Ring.[23]
Lycos Internet was renamed Brightcom Group in May 2018.[24]
Angelfire, a Lycos property which provides paid web hosting, blogging and web publishing tools
Tripod, a Lycos property providing paid web hosting, blogging and web publishing tools
Lycos Chat, a photo chatting community.
Lycos Domains, Internet domain name purchasing
Lycos Mail, an e-mail provider formerly known as Mailcity.com. (As of 15 May 2018 providing only paid services.[25])
Lycos Weather
Lycos Yellow Pages
Chickmail, a free e-mail service sponsored by ChickClick
Chickpages, a free web hosting service sponsored by ChickClick[26]
Estromail, a free e-mail service sponsored by Estronet
Estropages, a free web hosting service sponsored by Estronet
Gamesville, Lycos multi-player gaming site
GetRelevant.com, a Lycos online advertising site
Gurlmail, a free e-mail service sponsored by Delia's for Gurl.com
Gurlpages, a free web hosting service sponsored by Delia's for Gurl.com[26]
Hotbot, a search engine
InsiderInfo
Lycos Radio, allowed users to create and host their own free Internet radio shows
Matchmaker.com, a dating site
Quote.com and RagingBull.com, finance sites
Weather Zombie, a Lycos property which provided weather forecasts, with a zombie theme, via AccuWeather
Webmonkey, web-building help and tutorials
WhoWhere.com, a people search engine
Wired.com, the online arm of Wired magazine
Internet portal
List of search engines
Search engine
Comparison of search engines
|
||||||
wrong_mix_property_subsidiary_00108
|
FactBench
|
0
| 89
|
https://www.obliquity.com/computer/spambait/2002_03.html
|
en
|
March 2002
|
[
"https://www.obliquity.com/iconz/logo.png"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[
"David Harper",
"L.M. Stockman"
] | null |
The following unsolicited bulk emails were received during the month of March 2002.
|
en
| null |
The following unsolicited bulk emails were sent to our various email accounts this month. For reasons of privacy, information pertaining to our email addresses, user names or local machines has been deleted from the Header portions of each message.
Message 1
Header
Received: from [211.250.123.194] (helo=211.250.123.194) by [deleted]; Sun, 03 Mar 2002 15:55:42 +0000 From: COOL NEW MAG <coolnew @ yahoo.com> To: [deleted] Subject: COOL NEW MAG Sender: COOL NEW MAG <coolnew @ yahoo.com> Mime-Version: 1.0 Content-Type: text/html; charset="iso-8859-1" Date: Sun, 3 Mar 2002 10:00:07 -0600 Message-Id: <E16hYKr-0005qI-00 @ he101war.uk.vianw.net>
Complaints
about.com: Host of advertised site.
atlantic.net: Host of advertised site. Domain name server for advertised site.
netgears.com: Host of advertised site.
Kwangwoon Elementary School: Originator.
Responses
about.com: Auto-acknowledgment.
atlantic.net: Auto-acknowledgment.
Messages 2-27
The smoking remains of advertisements which detonated in our spam filters:
2 March 2002 11:32 [(888) 703-8383]
Subject: == New Report Reveals Lack of Financail Literacy == 5025161210876554
2 March 2002 15:53
Subject: Skinny White Young Teens make their first porn video!
3 March 2002 18:53 [visosite.com]
Subject: Got a High Rate Mortgage? B
1 January 1970 01:00
Subject: word REMOVE in the subject line to: doggy123 @ 2911.net
4 March 2002 08:10 [sdi-labs.com]
Subject: TEST, DECA, D-BOL! GET BIG, RIPPED & STRONG!
4 March 2002 09:52
Subject: Advertising is a must!
4 March 2002 18:39 [sdi-labs.com]
Subject: DECA, TEST, D-BOL! GET BIG, RIPPED & STRONG!
5 March 2002 08:29 [net2surge.com]
Subject: Earn upto 11% back from Chase Stockback Mastercard!
5 March 2002 16:01 [sdi-labs.com]
Subject: DECA, WINNI-V , D-BOL! GET BIG, RIPPED & STRONG
5 March 2002 17:43 [Azadegan Foundation, Washington DC]
Subject: Urgent! Iran! Can you help? Please also forward.
5 March 2002 19:00 [china-lutong.com]
Subject: Head & Rotor VE(CHINA-LuTong) 03/03
5 March 2002 20:36 [intermega.com.br/leutar]
Subject: hey, would you like to see me naked ??? you know you would..... >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>13173
6 March 2002 03:52 [alacarteresearch.com]
Subject: Join focus groups to earn money
6 March 2002 03:52
Subject: Guaranteed, Targeted Traffic!
6 March 2002 18:11
Subject: Get a 25% sign-up bonus at Winners Land Casino!!!
7 March 2002 00:17
Subject: from Bozrah
7 March 2002 08:29 "pump and dump"
Subject: <><> YOU WILL NEVER FORGET THIS <><>
7 March 2002 09:17
Subject: Is She Cheating?
7 March 2002 10:36 "pump and dump"
Subject: INFORMATION FOR TRADERS
7 March 2002 16:16 [218.24.129.154]
Subject: Life Insurance Price War Continues
8 March 2002 02:12
Subject: Website Service
8 March 2002 05:47
Subject: Speeding toward the 40 mark? Past it?
8 March 2002 05:53 [visosite.com]
Subject: Are You Paying Too Much for Life Insurance?
8 March 2002 20:42 "pyramid scheme"
Subject: Make $50,000 in 90 days Sending E-mails at Home
9 March 2002 09:29
Subject: I may have found you 45 extra years.
9 March 2002 15:33
Subject: Don't marvel when you turn 100
Message 28
Header
Received: from [210.204.185.188] (helo=yahoo.com) by [deleted]; Sun, 10 Mar 2002 02:39:35 +0000 Received: from [56.247.171.100] by m10.grp.snv.yahoo.com with SMTP; 10 Mar 2002 05:42:32 -0300 Received: from [173.85.88.67] by sydint1.microthin.com.au with SMTP; 10 Mar 2002 03:36:32 -0100 Received: from [48.168.20.88] by m10.grp.snv.yahoo.com with esmtp; Sat, 09 Mar 2002 22:30:33 +0400 Received: from unknown (HELO rly-xw05.mx.aol.com) (83.61.51.130) by rly-xr01.mx.aol.com with SMTP; Sun, 10 Mar 2002 05:24:33 -0300 Received: from smtp-server1.cfl.rr.com ([132.199.95.67]) by web13708.mail.yahoo.com with SMTP; Sat, 09 Mar 2002 16:18:34 +1000 Reply-To: <kmm620343810d84 @ yahoo.com> Message-ID: <033e63e46b2c$5575a5d2$4ce65bc6@dfmdnk> From: <kmm620343810d84 @ yahoo.com> To: [deleted] Subject: business marketing Date: Sat, 09 Mar 2002 20:36:49 +0600 MiME-Version: 1.0 Content-Type: multipart/mixed; boundary="----=_NextPart_000_00E6_58D16A1B.C4172C41" X-Priority: 3 (Normal) X-MSMail-Priority: Normal X-Mailer: Microsoft Outlook IMO, Build 9.0.2416 (9.0.2910.0) Importance: Normal
Complaints
eltel.net: Host of advertised site.
rt.ru: Upstream from advertised site.
Sungshin Girls Middle School: Originator.
yahoo.com: Return address. Email provider.
Responses
rt.ru: Auto-acknowledgment.
yahoo.com: Auto-acknowledgment.
Messages 29-30
The smoking remains of advertisements which detonated in our spam filters:
10 March 2002 03:00
Subject: Human Growth Hormone.
10 March 2002 07:11 [sdi-labs.com]
Subject: TEST, D-BOL, DECA! GET BIG, RIPPED & STRONG! : A D V E R T I S E M E N T !
Message 31
Header
Received: from [62.159.137.13] (helo=email.etschenberg) by [deleted]; Mon, 11 Mar 2002 12:57:44 +0000 Received: from mx08.hotmail.com (server2.zxcvhosting.com [209.61.184.183]) by email.etschenberg with SMTP (Microsoft Exchange Internet Mail Service Version 5.5.2653.13) id FX9NL5T8; Sun, 10 Mar 2002 17:52:47 +0100 Message-ID: <0000647c0455$000016de$00000b50 @ mx08.hotmail.com> To: [deleted] Cc: [deleted] From: 23E_1 @ hotmail.com Subject: tired of working 9-5...fire your boss... >>>>>>>>>>>30030 Date: Mon, 11 Mar 2002 00:50:04 -1800 MIME-Version: 1.0 Content-Type: text/html; charset="iso-8859-1" Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable
Complaints
rackspace.com: Originator.
telekom.de: Relay.
Responses
rackspace.com: Terminated.
Web site found to be terminated.
Messages 32-34
The smoking remains of advertisements which detonated in our spam filters:
11 March 2002 01:34 [(443) 593-1436]
Subject: $$$$ 200k/yr WORK AT HOME
11 March 2002 03:37 [(443) 593-1436]
Subject: $$$$ 200k/yr WORK AT HOME
11 March 2002 09:39 [biz031.freewebhost4all.com]
Subject: Free Foreign Currency Trading Report
Message 35
Header
Received: from [200.54.146.98] (helo=mail.cambiaso-hnos.cl) by [deleted]; Mon, 11 Mar 2002 16:56:33 +0000 Received: from sbxl.net - 129.37.157.123 by mail.cambiaso-hnos.cl with Microsoft SMTPSVC(5.5.1775.675.6); Mon, 11 Mar 2002 13:40:01 -0400 From: <toughtraffic_rep @ yahoo.com> To: [deleted] Subject: Your business MIME-Version: 1.0 Content-Type: multipart/mixed; boundary="----=_NextPart_000_0016_51AA9FE4.376C68CC" X-Priority: 3 X-MSMail-Priority: Normal X-Mailer: Microsoft Outlook Express 5.00.2919.6700 X-MimeOLE: Produced By Microsoft MimeOLE V5.00.2919.6700 Message-ID: <072d50140170b32APPS_MAIL @ mail.cambiaso-hnos.cl> Date: 11 Mar 2002 13:40:03 -0400
Complaints
prserv.net: Host of advertised site. Originator.
internetempresas.cl: Relay.
yahoo.com: Return address. Email provider.
Responses
prserv.net: Auto-acknowledgment.
internetempresas.cl: Postmaster bounced.
yahoo.com: Appropriate actions are being taken.
Message 36
Header
Received: from [166.114.56.18] (helo=emprehome.ceprobol.gov.bo) by [deleted]; Mon, 11 Mar 2002 09:40:54 +0000 Received: from mx08.hotmail.com (server2.zxcvhosting.com [209.61.184.183]) by emprehome.ceprobol.gov.bo with SMTP (Microsoft Exchange Internet Mail Service Version 5.5.2653.13) id GJB1L3YA; Mon, 11 Mar 2002 05:42:38 -0400 Message-ID: <0000137e6b4e$00003bd4$00000965 @ mx08.hotmail.com> To: [deleted] Cc: [deleted] From: 2dd3E_1 @ hotmail.com Subject: Are you and your family protected? >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>30608 Date: Mon, 11 Mar 2002 17:31:17 -1800 MIME-Version: 1.0 Content-Type: text/html; charset="iso-8859-1" Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable
Complaints
rackspace.com: Originator.
bolnet.bo: Relay.
Responses
rackspace.com: Terminated.
Web site found to be terminated.
Messages 37-52
The smoking remains of advertisements which detonated in our spam filters:
11 March 2002 23:41 [65.118.155.143]
Subject: Take Your Site To The Top !
12 March 2002 16:53 [freehgh.bxemail.com]
Subject: Tired Of Dieting? Learn About HGH And Permanent Weight Loss! 4723151197655443333222
12 March 2002 16:53 [freehgh.bxemail.com]
Subject: Tired Of Dieting? Learn About HGH And Permanent Weight Loss! 4723151197655443333222
12 March 2002 16:53 [freehgh.bxemail.com]
Subject: Tired Of Dieting? Learn About HGH And Permanent Weight Loss! 4723151197655443333222
12 March 2002 16:53 [freehgh.bxemail.com]
Subject: Tired Of Dieting? Learn About HGH And Permanent Weight Loss! 4723151197655443333222
12 March 2002 16:53 [freehgh.bxemail.com]
Subject: Tired Of Dieting? Learn About HGH And Permanent Weight Loss! 4723151197655443333222
12 March 2002 16:53 [freehgh.bxemail.com]
Subject: Tired Of Dieting? Learn About HGH And Permanent Weight Loss! 4723151197655443333222
12 March 2002 16:53 [freehgh.bxemail.com]
Subject: Tired Of Dieting? Learn About HGH And Permanent Weight Loss! 4723151197655443333222
12 March 2002 16:53 [freehgh.bxemail.com]
Subject: Tired Of Dieting? Learn About HGH And Permanent Weight Loss! 4723151197655443333222
12 March 2002 16:53 [freehgh.bxemail.com]
Subject: Tired Of Dieting? Learn About HGH And Permanent Weight Loss! 4723151197655443333222
12 March 2002 16:53 [freehgh.bxemail.com]
Subject: Tired Of Dieting? Learn About HGH And Permanent Weight Loss! 4723151197655443333222
12 March 2002 04:09
Subject: Ultimate Spy Tool!
12 March 2002 04:39 [4mortquotes.com]
Subject: Great opportunity for foreign residents
12 March 2002 11:03
Subject: hello
12 March 2002 16:08
Subject: Don't let the French Riviera go by!
12 March 2002 18:25
Subject: MAKE THOUSANDS IN WEEKS
Message 53
Header
Received: from unknown (HELO smtp.harbornet.com) ([199.2.132.49]) (envelope-sender <atatum @ ups.edu>) by [deleted]; 13 Mar 2002 03:09:48 -0000 Received: from dellg1 (router.click-network.com [131.191.38.239]) by smtp.harbornet.com (8.9.3/8.9.3) with SMTP id TAA27819 for [deleted]; Tue, 12 Mar 2002 19:17:06 -0800 (PST) From: "Ashley Tatum" <atatum @ ups.edu> To: [deleted] Subject: FW: HOT JOBS - MARCH 12 Date: Tue, 12 Mar 2002 19:05:56 -0800 Message-ID: <HEEEJAOKNEKBAGLKHCKGEENKCCAA.atatum @ ups.edu> MIME-Version: 1.0 Content-Type: text/plain; charset="us-ascii" Content-Transfer-Encoding: 7bit X-Priority: 3 (Normal) X-MSMail-Priority: Normal X-Mailer: Microsoft Outlook IMO, Build 9.0.2416 (9.0.2911.0) Importance: Normal X-MimeOLE: Produced By Microsoft MimeOLE V5.50.4807.1700
Complaints
ups.edu: Advertised site. Return address.
click-network.com: Originator.
harbornet.com: Relay.
Message 54
The smoking remains of advertisements which detonated in our spam filters:
12 March 2002 22:03 [mortquote4u.com]
Subject: Tired Of Your High Mortgage Rate - REFINANCE TODAY...
Message 55
Header
Received: from unknown (HELO hostinghome.de) ([217.115.139.35]) (envelope-sender <DTMI7076 @ eudoramail.com>) by [deleted]; 13 Mar 2002 04:30:49 -0000 Received: from mx1.eudoramail.com [204.32.146.223] by hostinghome.de with ESMTP (SMTPD32-7.04) id A1EB12B0154; Wed, 13 Mar 2002 05:13:31 +0100 Message-ID: <00002cb04aff$00002c5a$00002e8f @ mx1.eudoramail.com> To: [deleted] From: DTMI7076 @ eudoramail.com Subject: (OTCBB : DTMI) Special Investment Alert CXXCBG Date: Tue, 12 Mar 2002 22:12:06 -1800 MIME-Version: 1.0 Content-Type: text/html; charset="iso-8859-1" Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable Reply-To: YTHK9501 @ eudoramail.com
Complaints
yahoo.com: Host of advertised site.
icgcomm.com: Originator.
hosteurope.de: Relay.
eudoramail.com: Email provider.
Responses
yahoo.com: Declined to act.
eudoramail.com: Forged or terminated.
Messages 56-60
The smoking remains of advertisements which detonated in our spam filters:
13 March 2002 15:03 [4mortquotes.com]
Subject: Learn how to double your money in less than 30 days
13 March 2002 20:50 [superwebcenter.com]
Subject: Marketing tools to promote your products... / Paris Audio eguides & trip inside Paris...
13 March 2002 21:35
Subject: SAVE UP TO 70% OFF OF YOUR INSURANCE - FREE QUOTE (1997rmgZ5-561Ts@14)
14 March 2002 09:08 [sdi-labs.com]
Subject: TEST, DECA, D-BOL! GET BIG, RIPPED & STRONG! : A D V E R T I S E M E N T !
14 March 2002 10:28
Subject: Closer to the half century mark?
Message 61
Header
Received: from [216.185.66.38] (helo=prowler.lynxcanada.com) by [deleted]; Fri, 15 Mar 2002 03:22:23 +0000 Received: (from daemon@localhost) by prowler.lynxcanada.com (8.9.3/8.9.3) id XAA31833; Thu, 14 Mar 2002 23:21:39 -0500 Date: Thu, 14 Mar 2002 23:21:39 -0500 From: daemon <daemon @ prowler.lynxcanada.com> Message-Id: <200203150421.XAA31833 @ prowler.lynxcanada.com> To: [deleted] Subject: Free Customized Site Search for Your Website
Complaints
lynxcanada.com: Administrative contact for advertised site. Host of advertised site. Domain name server for advertised site. Originator. Return address.
fibrewired.on.ca: Upstream from advertised site.
Responses
fibrewired.on.ca: Postmaster bounced.
Messages 62-67
The smoking remains of advertisements which detonated in our spam filters:
15 March 2002 05:50 "pump and dump"
Subject: <><> FEAR ONLY MISSED OPPORTUNITIES <><>
15 March 2002 08:24 [mortquote4u.com]
Subject: Tired Of Your High Mortgage Rate - REFINANCE TODAY....
15 March 2002 10:01 "pump and dump"
Subject: ok
15 March 2002 10:53 [207.136.184.182]
Subject: Mandy, I caught him cheating again
15 March 2002 15:44 [biz031.freewebhost4all.com]
Subject: Foreign Currency Trading Report!
15 March 2002 21:27
Subject: Smart Investing can Make You Wealthy 4498yVmg1-592tNka3682Abl22
Message 68
Header
Received: from [211.34.29.2] (helo=earthlink.com) by [deleted]; Sat, 16 Mar 2002 09:36:47 +0000 Reply-To: <stampernl @ earthlink.com> Message-ID: <003c55a53c1b$4764e2e4$1bb10ba3@pmwwnm> From: <stampernl @ earthlink.com> To: [deleted] Subject: 41-Biz Opportunity,. Date: Fri, 15 Mar 2002 23:26:02 +1000 MiME-Version: 1.0 Content-Type: text/html; charset="iso-8859-1" X-Priority: 3 (Normal) X-MSMail-Priority: Normal X-Mailer: Microsoft Outlook, Build 10.0.2616 Importance: Normal
Complaints
ihw.com.cn: Host of advertised site.
cnc.ac.cn: Upstream from advertised site.
Mokpo Girl's High School: Originator.
yahoo.com: Email provider.
Responses
ihw.com.cn: Postmaster bounced.
yahoo.com: Auto-acknowledgment.
Messages 69-72
The smoking remains of advertisements which detonated in our spam filters:
16 March 2002 05:28
Subject: (0246N@5)
16 March 2002 09:52
Subject: °Ã±à Ãõ¿ª§Ã®¸¦ [¼±¹°¯¹«·á]·à µå¸®°à ÃýôôÃ. (±¤°Ã)**
16 March 2002 10:52
Subject: µÃû¤f¨ý¿W¯S , à ý«Ã¤H¦Y¤F¦^¨ýµL½a !!
16 March 2002 12:45 [lolportal.com]
Subject: Re: for all fans of tiny little girls
Message 73
Header
Message-Id: [deleted] Received: from unknown (HELO 211.252.19.2) ([211.252.19.2]) (envelope-sender <qxsfreexxxmail54 @ hotmail.com>) by [deleted]; 16 Mar 2002 20:34:24 -0000 From: nynFree XXX <qxsfreexxxmail54 @ hotmail.com> To: [deleted] Subject: More Free Anal Porn qlwy Sender: nynFree XXX <qxsfreexxxmail54 @ hotmail.com> Mime-Version: 1.0 Content-Type: text/html; charset="iso-8859-1" Date: Sat, 16 Mar 2002 15:30:05 -0500
Complaints
labyrinth.net.au: Host of advertised site.
lycos.co.uk: Host of advertised site.
systemnine.net: Domain name server for advertised site.
level3.com: Upstream from advertised site.
Hwangjunbuk Elementary School: Originator.
Responses
lycos.co.uk: Auto-acknowledgment.
Message 74
Header
Received: from 213-98-118-212.uc.nombres.ttd.es ([213.98.118.212] helo=REMOVT_89) by [deleted]; Sat, 16 Mar 2002 16:26:30 +0000 Reply-To: "UNI-NG"<unig @ terra.es> From: "UNI-NG"<unig @ terra.es> To: "" [deleted] Organization: TERAPIAS-UNIG X-Priority: 3 X-MSMail-Priority: Normal Subject: info para:[deleted] Sender: "UNI-NG"<unig @ terra.es> Mime-Version: 1.0 Content-Type: text/plain; charset="windows-1252" Date: Sat, 16 Mar 2002 17:33:29 +0100 Message-Id: [deleted] X-MIME-Autoconverted: from 8bit to quoted-printable by [deleted] Content-Transfer-Encoding: 8bit X-MIME-Autoconverted: from quoted-printable to 8bit by [deleted] Content-Length: 1544
Complaints
airtel.es: Host of advertised site. Domain name server for advertised site.
kpnqwest.net: Domain name server for advertised site.
telefonica.es: Originator.
terra.es: Return address. Email provider.
Responses
airtel.es: Postmaster bounced.
telefonica.es: Postmaster bounced.
terra.es: Appropriate actions are being taken.
Message 75
Header
Received: from [196.44.132.147] (helo=mailserver) by [deleted]; Sat, 16 Mar 2002 16:14:29 +0000 From: "John Allen" <worldad @ boxfrog.com> To: [deleted] Subject: Freedom and Unlimited Space Mime-Version: 1.0 Content-Type: text/plain; charset="iso-8859-1" Date: Sat, 16 Mar 2002 18:12:23 Message-Id: <E16mGp9-0005PV-00 @ he102war.uk.vianw.net>
Complaints
vkn.de: Host of advertised site. Domain name server for advertised site.
uu.net: Upstream from advertised site.
iway.na: Originator.
Responses
uu.net: Auto-acknowledgment.
iway.na: Bounced.
Message 76
Header
Received: from 213-98-118-212.uc.nombres.ttd.es ([213.98.118.212] helo=REMOVT_89) by [deleted]; Sun, 17 Mar 2002 07:39:49 +0000 Reply-To: "UNI-NG"<unig @ terra.es> From: "UNI-NG"<unig @ terra.es> To: "" [deleted] Organization: TERAPIAS-UNIG X-Priority: 3 X-MSMail-Priority: Normal Subject: info para:[deleted] Sender: "UNI-NG"<unig @ terra.es> Mime-Version: 1.0 Content-Type: text/plain; charset="windows-1252" Date: Sun, 17 Mar 2002 08:46:52 +0100 Message-Id: [deleted] X-MIME-Autoconverted: from 8bit to quoted-printable by [deleted] Content-Transfer-Encoding: 8bit X-MIME-Autoconverted: from quoted-printable to 8bit by [deleted] Content-Length: 1545
Complaints
airtel.es: Host of advertised site. Domain name server for advertised site.
kpnqwest.net: Domain name server for advertised site.
telefonica.es: Originator.
terra.es: Return address. Email provider.
Responses
airtel.es: Postmaster bounced.
telefonica.es: Postmaster bounced.
terra.es: Appropriate actions are being taken.
Messages 77-99
The smoking remains of advertisements which detonated in our spam filters:
17 March 2002 11:01 [202.102.9.82]
Subject: Rubbish you say? N
17 March 2002 11:12
Subject: Save up to 75% on Term Life. Get instant quotes in 30 seconds. VQGESOG
17 March 2002 18:07
Subject: ==¥ìÃ¥ëe¦@¦³ 50 ´X-ó¥[·ù¦¨¥\ªº®Ã¨ò !==
17 March 2002 21:04 [vacationtime.jspboy.net]
Subject: 1720 Register to win your Dream Vacation 182154
17 March 2002 21:57 [lolportal.com]
Subject: Re: for all fans of tiny little girls
17 March 2002 21:27
Subject: CLICK NOW FOR CHEAP DRUGS
16 July 2001 09:56 "pump and dump"
Subject: SFCEF - Hi Growth Software company goes to market
18 July 2001 06:56 [208.49.103.40]
Subject: brooke_19ucla @ aol.com - ...my roomates wild on ecstasy
19 July 2001 06:39 [65.115.15.13]
Subject: info about refinancing
19 July 2001 06:39 [65.115.15.13]
Subject: info about refinancing
19 July 2001 21:50 [65.115.15.13]
Subject: virtual refinancing for free
19 July 2001 23:13 [65.115.15.13]
Subject: no credi t - no problem ac cept credit card s today
20 July 2001 03:42 [65.115.15.13]
Subject: In 24 Hrs You can accept credit cards
20 July 2001 03:05 [65.115.15.13]
Subject: In 24 Hrs You can accept credit cards
20 July 2001 21:38 [65.115.15.13]
Subject: curious about refinancing - we make it easy
20 July 2001 21:53 [65.115.15.13]
Subject: curious about refinancing - we make it easy
20 July 2001 23:09 [65.115.15.13]
Subject: curious about refinancing - we make it easy
21 July 2001 01:23 [65.115.15.13]
Subject: refinancing - we make it easy
18 March 2002 04:56 "pump and dump"
Subject: (NASDAQ: EUNI) - WATCH THIS STOCK TRADE TOMORROW
18 March 2002 03:11 [resumeauthor.com]
Subject: Job Opportunities
18 March 2002 10:21 [210.58.98.204]
Subject: ½Ã¤@¦Ã·~§UªºÃ~,ê"ð±z°µ100¦ì·@°Ãªº·~ÃZ
18 March 2002 13:02 [overnightrx.com]
Subject: Prescription Weight-loss and Viagra (009@3)
18 March 2002 19:27 [66.55.5.250/ameridebt]
Subject: Get Out Of Debt, Consolidate! adv
Message 100
Header
Received: from [65.121.184.26] (helo=ombramarketing.com) by [deleted]; Tue, 19 Mar 2002 11:00:10 +0000 Received: (qmail 46352 invoked from network); 19 Mar 2002 05:50:50 -0000 Received: from unknown (HELO ombraapp11) (65.121.184.27) by outbound.ombramarketing.com with SMTP; 19 Mar 2002 05:50:50 -0000 Message-ID: <41442375.1016514819101.mu @ ombramarketing.com> Date: Mon, 18 Mar 2002 20:19:26 -0800 (PST) From: emailsaver <ESWh30020318 @ ombramarketing.com> To: [deleted] Subject: Welcome to emailsaver! Mime-Version: 1.0 Content-Type: text/html Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable
Complaints
exodus.net: Host of advertised site.
qwest.net: Originator. Host of advertised site.
Responses
exodus.net: Auto-acknowledgment.
qwest.net: Auto-acknowledgment.
Messages 101-102
The smoking remains of advertisements which detonated in our spam filters:
19 March 2002 14:26
Subject: Advisory 22938
20 March 2002 00:35
Subject: __µÃû¥[·ù©±__¼ö¯P©Ã¶Ã¤¤
Message 103
Header
Received: from [65.121.184.28] (helo=outbounda.ombramarketing.com) by [deleted]; Wed, 20 Mar 2002 13:27:17 +0000 Received: from [65.121.184.28] by outbounda.ombramarketing.com (10.16.1.150) with ESMTP; 20 Mar 2002 05:30:55 +0000 Message-ID: <41442375.1016631054943.mu @ ombramarketing.com> Date: Wed, 20 Mar 2002 05:17:54 -0800 (PST) From: emailsaver <ESCD20020319 @ ombramarketing.com> To: [deleted] Subject: Price Reduced: Get Norton Anti-Virus for $24.99 ($300 value) Mime-Version: 1.0 Content-Type: text/html Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable
Complaints
exodus.net: Host of advertised site.
qwest.net: Originator. Host of advertised site.
Since this involved the sale of pirated software, the manufacturer Symantec Corporation was notified.
Responses
exodus.net: Auto-acknowledgment.
qwest.net: Auto-acknowledgment.
Messages 104-111
The smoking remains of advertisements which detonated in our spam filters:
20 March 2002 10:46 [consumerpackage.net]
Subject: have you seen what your credit report says
20 March 2002 10:51 "pyramid scheme"
Subject: A real and valid opportunity to change your life forever 361812976544333222222
20 March 2002 14:12 [reports @ the-financial-news.com]
Subject: Production Mini-plants in mobile containers
20 March 2002 14:47 [Ideal Health For You, Philadelphia PA]
Subject: Custom-made Nutrition Program
20 March 2002 14:47 [Ideal Health For You, Philadelphia PA]
Subject: Custom-made Nutrition Program
20 March 2002 16:55 [buy-sells.com]
Subject: Join
20 March 2002 17:55 [0mbra.com]
Subject: Eliminate Your Debt! Reduce Your Payments by 50%
20 March 2002 22:00 [buy-sells.com]
Subject: improve
Message 112
Header
Return-Path: <null @ enter-for-free.com> Received: from [203.33.196.3] (helo=ns2.marketmailer.com) by [deleted]; Wed, 20 Mar 2002 12:24:02 +0000 Received: from ns2.marketmailer.com (localhost [127.0.0.1]) by ns2.marketmailer.com (Postfix) with SMTP id 74E9A1D29 for [deleted]; Wed, 20 Mar 2002 22:24:07 +0000 (GMT) From: "Melani" <mel @ enter-for-free.com> To: [deleted] Subject: GET 100% FREE ACCESS TO PORN PAYSITES Message-ID: <000000000000.g2K4KR0IO4X7@localhost> MIME-Version: 1.0 Content-Type: multipart/alternative; boundary="=====_10129709865725=_" Date: Wed, 20 Mar 2002 22:24:07 +0000 (GMT)
Complaints
twtelecom.net: Host of advertised site.
PicPay Ltd.: Host of advertised site. Domain name server for advertised site. Originator. Return address.
iseek.com.au: Upstream from advertised site.
optus.net.au: Upstream from advertised site.
Responses
twtelecom.net: Auto-acknowledgment.
Messages 113-147
The smoking remains of advertisements which detonated in our spam filters:
21 March 2002 04:19 [216.240.159.59]
Subject: Your Best Source for VIAGRA, VITARA, Propecia, VALTREX, Zyban, XENICAL and more! Quick & Discrete Shipments! 18964332
21 March 2002 06:36 [overnightrx.com]
Subject: Prescription Weight-Loss and Viagra 303-3
21 March 2002 09:19 [new_aff @ yahoo.com]
Subject: Work whenever you want
21 March 2002 11:55 [ilovexxxmovies.com]
Subject: Signup Confirmation
22 March 2002 01:45 [consumerpackage.net]
Subject: have you seen what your credit report says
22 March 2002 02:19 [visosite.com]
Subject: Get an Instant Term Life Quote for FREE
22 March 2002 05:13 [visosite.com]
Subject: My life insurance premium just dropped 70%?
22 March 2002 11:05
Subject: Your website traffic
22 March 2002 12:03 [goOpt.net]
Subject: Pay yourself 1st
22 March 2002 14:30 [visosite.com]
Subject: Finally Legal Help You Can AFFORD!
22 March 2002 19:45 [mclasstoys.com]
Subject: ...shy about shopping for adult toys?
22 March 2002 21:11 [findouteverything.com]
Subject: NEW DEBT ELIMINATION SETTLEMENTS FAST FINAL FRIENDLY! (0036WkFA@8)
22 March 2002 22:23 [getafreecomputer.net]
Subject: Get A FREE Computer System & Get Paid To Give Them Away !!! 5445Ql5
23 March 2002 05:50 [66.118.155.150]
Subject: Adv: Slash your cable TV bill! ji
23 March 2002 07:19 [zedoweb.com/mortgage]
Subject: easily refinance with the lowest rates in history
23 March 2002 13:35 [210.58.98.204]
Subject: µêÃÃÂ¥D¾÷ 1¦~Â¥uÂn3600
23 March 2002 20:09 [consumerpackage.net]
Subject: have you seen these cards
6 February 2002 23:54 [shop4loan.net]
Subject: refinance and save with such low rates
7 February 2002 00:53 [shop4loan.net]
Subject: refinance and save with such low rates
24 March 2002 07:59 [imustplay.com]
Subject: Save up to 70% on Inkjet Cartridges, FREE Shipping - no minimum
24 March 2002 21:15 [Emaildata @ 163.com]
Subject: Grow Your Business
25 March 2002 16:07
Subject: How The Government Can Guarantee Your Investment
25 March 2002 21:06 [titsandasses.net]
Subject: ADV ADLT -- She's Your Little T & A
25 March 2002 21:06 [titsandasses.net]
Subject: ADV ADLT -- She's Your Little T & A
26 March 2002 00:33 [eu-domain.biz]
Subject: Preregister your .eu domain now!
26 March 2002 06:48
Subject: NEW LIFE INSURANCE - LOWEST RATES AROUND - FREE QUOTE (4452HByW8-821rvvX4194nUQm9-841pt@30)
26 March 2002 07:25 [visosite.com]
Subject: Legal Help You Can AFFORD!
26 March 2002 20:42 [smoke.shop4all.net]
Subject: Fw: Marlboro,Winston,Camel $15.50+free delivery.
26 March 2002 22:13 [emma.uk.com]
Subject: EMMA's Fight Against Racism Wins Major Award!
27 March 2002 01:53 [visosite.com]
Subject: ADV Regarding your Business Phone System Quote
27 March 2002 15:42 [contact801 @ excite.com]
Subject: In search of entrepreneurs... 1273
27 March 2002 20:24 "pump and dump"
Subject: (OTCBB: PAXM) Special Investment Alert
28 March 2002 04:13
Subject: $100,000 In 55 Minutes FLAT!
28 March 2002 06:06
Subject: $100,000 In 55 Minutes FLAT!
28 March 2002 07:11 [overnightrx.com]
Subject: Prescription Weight-Loss and Viagra 5952C-5
Message 148
Header
Received: from c19697.rochd1.qld.optusnet.com.au ([210.49.65.27] helo=netone) by [deleted]; Thu, 28 Mar 2002 11:40:51 +0000 Received: from mail by ara.seed.net.tw with SMTP id 932jgSDztFIINlPKsRliSj; Thu, 28 Mar 2002 21:48:04 +1000 Message-ID: <b5L1C @ pchome.com.tw> From: IPMental@[deleted] To: Bag@[deleted] Subject: No more to pay long distance call MIME-Version: 1.0 Content-Type: multipart/related; type="multipart/alternative"; boundary="----=_NextPart_TjdGbDm8VwINzFA4u" X-Mailer: G9e2n59gzX6dhz5BPfRN6V X-Priority: 3 X-MSMail-Priority: Normal Date: Thu, 28 Mar 2002 11:40:51 +0000 Content-Length: 6805
Complaints
psinet.com.hk: Host of advertised site.
optus.net.au: Originator.
hotmail.com: Email provider.
Responses
optus.net.au: Auto-acknowledgment.
hotmail.com: Declined to act.
Messages 149-158
The smoking remains of advertisements which detonated in our spam filters:
28 March 2002 18:40 [xmarketing.org]
Subject: ADV:EXPENSIVE WEBSITES AT DIRT CHEAP PRICES 536515
28 March 2002 19:23 [xmarketing.org]
Subject: ADV:ON HOW To Become Our Branch Office 416483
29 March 2002 19:43 [overnightrx.com]
Subject: Prescription Weight-Loss and Viagra 3426-4
29 March 2002 20:37 [ilovexxxmovies.com]
Subject: This is the REAL hacked passwords 6727ruwv2-337Tb-14
29 March 2002 20:37 [ilovexxxmovies.com]
Subject: This is the REAL hacked passwords 6727ruwv2-337Tb-14
30 March 2002 02:19 [imustplay.com]
Subject: FREE COMPUTER TRAINING
30 March 2002 02:55 [67.105.127.97]
Subject: Stop wasting money save 65%-85% Inkjets & Laser supplies
30 March 2002 05:26 [emailsvc.net]
Subject: Special Thanks From equalaMAIL
30 March 2002 05:58
Subject: Got a High Rate Mortgage? CMTYY
30 March 2002 08:18 [coachtra1 @ navegalia.com]
Subject: Publi/Coa@ch Motivación para:[deleted]
Message 159
Header
Received: from [4.64.121.59] (helo=lsanca2-ar30-4-64-121-059.vz.dsl.gtei.net) by [deleted]; Sun, 31 Mar 2002 03:08:20 +0100 Received: from mail pickup service by lsanca2-ar30-4-64-121-059.vz.dsl.gtei.net with Microsoft SMTPSVC; Sat, 30 Mar 2002 17:56:40 -0800 From: Jenny Sassoon <jennysassoon @ gtei.net> To: [deleted] Subject: Family BBQ on Sunday _ Reply-To: Jenny Sassoon <jennysassoon @ gtei.net> Mime-Version: 1.0 Content-Type: text/html; charset="iso-8859-1" Message-ID: <BLUESHADOWb2tyFGcbN000069c4 @ lsanca2-ar30-4-64-121-059.vz.dsl.gtei.net> X-OriginalArrivalTime: 31 Mar 2002 01:56:40.0211 (UTC) FILETIME=[4C9BAE30:01C1D857] Date: 30 Mar 2002 17:56:40 -0800
Complaints
dsl.net: Host of advertised site.
gtei.net: Originator. Return address.
Responses
gtei.net: Auto-acknowledgment.
Messages 160-162
The smoking remains of advertisements which detonated in our spam filters:
30 March 2002 20:39 [moreprettynakedgirls.com]
Subject: ADV ADLT More Pretty Naked Girls Are Waiting
30 March 2002 20:39 [moreprettynakedgirls.com]
Subject: ADV ADLT More Pretty Naked Girls Are Waiting
30 March 2002 23:38
Subject: Tired of Cellphone static and dropouts? Check this out...
Message 163
Header
Received: from cm61-10-118-50.hkcable.com.hk ([61.10.118.50] helo=oldcat) by [deleted]; Sun, 31 Mar 2002 04:43:30 +0100 Received: from hotmail by venus.seed.net.tw with SMTP id 1CjYULOWYK95NYl2; Sun, 31 Mar 2002 11:43:48 +0800 Message-ID: <zDks1PReik3oje2 @ mail.ht.net.tw> From: QUALITY.LIMOSINE.SERVICE.¨ô©ö«Ã¹BªA°Ã@[deleted] To: BAG@[deleted], BEARING@[deleted], \AUSTRALIA.TXT@[deleted], \AUSTRIA.TXT@[deleted], \BELGIUM.TXT@[deleted], \CANADA.TXT@[deleted], \CASINO-MAIL.TXT@[deleted], \CHINA.TXT@[deleted], \DENMARK.TXT@[deleted], FINLAND.TXT@[deleted], \FRANCE.TXT@[deleted], \GERMANY.TXT@[deleted], \GREECE.TXT@[deleted], \HUNGARY.TXT@[deleted], \IRELAND.TXT@[deleted], \ISRAEL.TXT@[deleted], \ITALY.TXT@[deleted], \JAPAN.TXT@[deleted], \KOREA.TXT@[deleted] (SOUTH), \MEXICO.TXT@[deleted], \NETHERLANDS.TXT@[deleted], \NEW.ZEALAND.TXT@[deleted], \NORWAY.TXT@[deleted], \PUERTO.RICO.TXT@[deleted], \SINGAPORE.TXT@[deleted], \SOUTH.AFRICA.TXT@[deleted], \SPAIN.TXT@[deleted], \SWITZERLAND.TXT@[deleted], \TAIWAN.TXT@[deleted], \UNITED.KINGDOM.TXT@[deleted], \UNITED.STATES.TXT@[deleted], COMPANIES@[deleted], COMPUTER@[deleted], COSMETIC@[deleted], DRUGS@[deleted], ELECTRONIC@[deleted], FLOWER@[deleted], FOOD@[deleted], FURNITURE@[deleted], GARMENT@[deleted], \AUSTRALIA.TXT@[deleted], \AUSTRIA.TXT@[deleted], \BELGIUM.TXT@[deleted], \CANADA.TXT@[deleted], \CHINA.TXT@[deleted], \DENMARK.TXT@[deleted], \FINLAND.TXT@[deleted], \FRANCE.TXT@[deleted], \GERMANY.TXT@[deleted], \GIFT.TXT@[deleted], \GREECE.TXT@[deleted], \HONG.KONG.TXT@[deleted], \HUNGARY.TXT@[deleted], \IRELAN.TXT@[deleted], \ISRAEL.TXT@[deleted], \ITALY.TXT@[deleted], \JAPAN.TXT@[deleted], \KOREA.TXT@[deleted], \MEXICO.TXT@[deleted], \NETHERLANDS.TXT@[deleted], \NEW.ZEALAND.TXT@[deleted], \NORWAY.TXT@[deleted], \PUERTO.RICO.TXT@[deleted], \SINGAPORE.TXT@[deleted], \SOUTH.AFRICA.TXT@[deleted], \SPAIN.TXT@[deleted], \SWITZERLAND.TXT@[deleted], \TAIWAN.TXT@[deleted], \UNITED.KINGDOM.TXT@[deleted], \UNITED.STATES.TXT@[deleted], HONG.KONG@[deleted], \CN.TXT@[deleted], \HK.TXT@[deleted], \HOUSEWARE.TXT@[deleted], \TW.TXT@[deleted], \HONG.KONG.TXT@[deleted], \CHINA.TXT@[deleted], JEWELLERY@[deleted], \CHINA.TXT@[deleted], \HONG.KONG.TXT@[deleted], LAW@[deleted], LITERATURE@[deleted], MOBLEILE-PHONE@[deleted], MOBLEILE-PHONE@[deleted], NEWS@[deleted], \CHINA.TXT@[deleted], \HONG.KONG.TXT@[deleted], SCHOOL@[deleted], SCIENCE@[deleted], SPORTS@[deleted], CH@[deleted], HK@[deleted], TOYS@[deleted], TRADING@[deleted], TEXTILE@[deleted], TRAVEL@[deleted], WATCH@[deleted] Subject: ¥»¤½¥q³Ã¦³¦h½ø»¨µÃ¥ªv©Ã¨® X-Mailer: RVJpCa6JVSkzlXBW0m51Sj Content-Type: text/plain; X-Priority: 3 X-MSMail-Priority: Normal Date: Sun, 31 Mar 2002 04:43:30 +0100 Content-Transfer-Encoding: 8bit X-MIME-Autoconverted: from Quoted-Printable to 8bit by [deleted] Content-Length: 1145
Complaint
hkcable.com: Originator.
Messages 164-165
The smoking remains of advertisements which detonated in our spam filters:
31 March 2002 09:27 [mclasstoys.com]
Subject: ...shy about shopping for adult toys?
31 March 2002 19:25 [amazingofferings.com]
Subject: Welcome New Member!
Messages 166-466
These were filtered out at the ISP level.
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6088
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dbpedia
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2
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https://www.amazon.com/Fighting-Plains-NON-USA-FORMAT-Reg-0/dp/B07H126FFS
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en
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Amazon.com
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6088
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dbpedia
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The country of origin of this photograph is Italy. It is in the public domain there because its copyright term has expired. According to Law for the Protection of Copyright and Neighbouring Rights n.633, 22 April 1941 and later revisions, images of people or of aspects, elements and facts of natural or social life, obtained with photographic process or with an analogue one, including reproductions of figurative art and film frames of film stocks (Art. 87) are protected for a period of 20 years from creation (Art. 92). This provision shall not apply to photographs of writings, documents, business papers, material objects, technical drawings and similar products (Art. 87). Italian law makes an important distinction between "works of photographic art" and "simple photographs" (Art. 2, § 7). Photographs that are "intellectual work with creative characteristics" are protected for 70 years after the author's death (Art. 32 bis), whereas simple photographs are protected for a period of 20 years from creation.
This may not apply in countries that don't apply the rule of the shorter term to works from Italy. In particular, these are in the public domain in the United States only if:
wasn't in copyright in the United States due to being registered for copyright there (see Commons:Copyright tags#United States for most cases) and
was created prior to 1976 and published prior to 1978 — then it was out-of-copyright in Italy on the URAA date of restoration (January 1, 1996) (17 U.S.C. § 104A) (in most cases; for all cases, see Template:PD-Italy/US). If so, please add {{PD-1996}} in addition to this copyright tag. If the image was created after 1975 or was published after 1977, please add {{Not-PD-US-URAA}}.
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https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0042594/
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Süßer Reis (1950)
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1953-07-30T00:00:00
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Süßer Reis: Directed by Mario Mattoli. With Walter Chiari, Silvana Pampanini, Isa Barzizza, Carlo Campanini. Two twin brothers grew up and never met (due to the fact that the father with the couple would have had 13 children and therefore for superstition he closed one in an orphanage), the one goalkeeper of Juventus and the other employee at the state lottery.
|
en
|
IMDb
|
https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0042594/
|
Two twin brothers grew up and never met (due to the fact that the father with the couple would have had 13 children and therefore for superstition he closed one in an orphanage), the one goa... Read allTwo twin brothers grew up and never met (due to the fact that the father with the couple would have had 13 children and therefore for superstition he closed one in an orphanage), the one goalkeeper of Juventus and the other employee at the state lottery.Two twin brothers grew up and never met (due to the fact that the father with the couple would have had 13 children and therefore for superstition he closed one in an orphanage), the one goalkeeper of Juventus and the other employee at the state lottery.
|
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6088
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dbpedia
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1
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https://www.yumpu.com/it/document/view/33284897/programma-societa-italiana-di-neurologia
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Programma - Società italiana di neurologia
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Programma - Società italiana di neurologia
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yumpu.com
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https://www.yumpu.com/it/document/view/33284897/programma-societa-italiana-di-neurologia
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Page 3: L’opera «L’Etna, l’inafferra
Page 7 and 8: Sotto l’Alto Patronato della Pres
Page 9 and 10: CONSIGLIO DIRETTIVO SIN Presidente
Page 11 and 12: BREVE STORIA DI CATANIA Seconda cit
Page 13: AZIENDE ESPOSITRICI 13 Allergan Pha
Page 16 and 17: SABATO 23 OTTOBRE TEATRO “MASSIMO
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LUNEDI 25 OTTOBRE AUDITORIUM SALA E
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25 O T T O B R E • A U D I T O R
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25 O T T O B R E • S A L A D E M
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25 O T T O B R E • S A L A CONFER
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25 O T T O B R E • S A L A F I L
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25 O T T O B R E • GRUPPO DI STUD
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25 O T T O B R E • S A L A ASSOCI
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09.00 11.00 11.30 13.30 13.30 14.30
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26 O T T O B R E • S A L A P I T
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26 O T T O B R E • S A L A F I L
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26 O T T O B R E • CORSO ore 14.3
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26 O T T O B R E • A U D I T O R
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8.30 10.30 11.30 13.30 AUDITORIUM S
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27 O T T O B R E • S A L A E M P
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27 O T T O B R E • S A L A F I L
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27 O T T O B R E • S A L A ASSOCI
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27 O T T O B R E • CHIUSURA DEI L
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11. BMAA EFFECTS ON SUBSTANTIA NIGR
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37. MARKERS OF LGG MALIGNANT DEGENE
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DEMENZA ED INVECCHIAMENTO 1 Moderat
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OF COMPLETE ATRIOVENTRICULAR BLOCK:
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110. EVALUATION OF BDNF GENE AS RIS
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133. THE CLINICAL PICTURE OF PERSIS
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158. A FAMILY AFFECTED BY PRIMARY F
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PERFORMANCE: AN IN VIVO FMRI INVEST
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210. SENSORIMOTOR RHYTHM-BASED BRAI
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CERAVOLO, S. ROSSI, D. MAFFEI, H. S
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252. MUTATIONAL ANALYSIS OF THE DCX
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L. MERICO, M. ACQUAVIVA, A. PANARO,
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298. DIAGNOSTIC CRITERIA FOR THE DI
Page 171 and 172:
EPILESSIA 1 Moderatori V. SOFIA (Ca
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348. FUNCTIONING AND DISABILITY IN
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MALATTIE DEL MOTONEURONE Moderatori
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397. FUS GENE ANALYSIS IN AN ITALIA
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420. INCREASE OF RECENTLY-RELEASED
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POSTER ore 16.30 - 17.30 DISORDINI
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459. AMYGDALAR LOCAL STRUCTURAL DIF
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M. VALERIANI, S. TARANTINO, C. VOLL
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HEMOGLOBIN SATURATION IN MILD COGNI
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M. PRONTERA, M. ELIA, G. BOERO, G.
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F. PESCINI, F. CESARI, B. GIUSTI, J
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S. VIDALE, C. DE PIAZZA, L. SACCO,
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603. EARLY MOOD DEPRESSION IN SEVER
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IN MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS PATIENTS WITH
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651. INTRACELLULAR OXIDATIVE ACTIVI
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POSTER ore 10.30 - 11.30 DISORDINI
Page 203 and 204:
NEUROIMMUNOLOGIA Moderatori P. ANNU
Page 205 and 206:
709. WHITE MATTER ARCHITECTURE AND
Page 207 and 208:
732. FUNCTIONAL NEUROIMAGING CORREL
Page 209 and 210:
NEUROSCIENZE DI BASE Moderatori D.
Page 211 and 212:
785. LAMBERT-EATON MYASTENIC SYNDRO
Page 213 and 214:
809. BK CHANNEL BETA4 SUBUNIT GENE
Page 215 and 216:
830. RANDOMIZED PLACEBO-CONTROLLED
Page 217 and 218:
854. FATIGUE IN MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS
Page 219 and 220:
878. HEALTH PROFESSIONALS’ PERSPE
Page 221 and 222:
pagnatori o gli eventuali interessa
Page 223 and 224:
ECM ● ISTRUZIONI Al Vostro arrivo
Page 225 and 226:
In particolare, dei 150 crediti del
Page 227 and 228:
MEDA PHARMA SPA MERCK SERONO SPA MI
Page 229 and 230:
Catania Centro Congressuale Le Cimi
Page 231 and 232:
Catania Centro Congressuale Le Cimi
|
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6088
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dbpedia
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1
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https://issuu.com/robertosala/docs/segno252
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en
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Segno 252
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2016-05-04T16:40:22+00:00
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Marzo-Maggio 2015
|
en
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/favicon.ico
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Issuu
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https://issuu.com/robertosala/docs/segno252
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Welcome to Issuu’s blog: home to product news, tips, resources, interviews (and more) related to content marketing and publishing.
Here you'll find an answer to your question.
|
||||
6088
|
dbpedia
|
3
| 2
|
https://www.royalbooks.com/pages/books/152153/mario-mattoli-steno-marion-monicelli-carlo-campanini-walter-chiari-silvana-pampanini-director/linafferrabile-12-original-photograph-from-the-1950-film
|
en
|
Mario Mattoli, Steno Marion Monicelli, Carlo Campanini Walter
|
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Italy: Industrie Cinematografiche Sociali ICS , 1950. Vintage keybook photograph of actress Silvana Pampanini from the 1950 Italian comedy. Twin brothers discover each other as adults after being separated at birth due to them being the twelfth and unlucky thirteenth children born into a family. 8 x 10 inches. Three-hole punch to the top edge as called for. Very Good plus, with light curling and a short diagonal crease to the bottom
|
en
|
https://www.royalbooks.com/favicon.ico
|
Royal Books
|
https://www.royalbooks.com/pages/books/152153/mario-mattoli-steno-marion-monicelli-carlo-campanini-walter-chiari-silvana-pampanini-director/linafferrabile-12-original-photograph-from-the-1950-film
|
L'inafferrabile 12
Mario Mattoli (director)
Marion Monicelli, Steno (screenwriters)
Walter Chiari, Carlo Campanini, Silvana Pampanini (starring)
Italy: Industrie Cinematografiche Sociali (ICS), 1950. Vintage keybook photograph of actress Silvana Pampanini from the 1950 Italian comedy.
Twin brothers discover each other as adults after being separated at birth due to them being the twelfth and unlucky thirteenth children born into a family.
8 x 10 inches. Three-hole punch to the top edge as called for. Very Good plus, with light curling and a short diagonal crease to the bottom left corner.
[Book #152153]
|
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6088
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https://letterboxd.com/film/linafferrabile-12/
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L'inafferrabile 12 (1950)
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https://letterboxd.com/film/linafferrabile-12/
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Two twin brothers grew up and never met (due to the fact that the father with the couple would have had 13 children and therefore for superstition he closed one in an orphanage), the one goalkeeper of Juventus and the other employee at the state lottery.
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https://www.yumpu.com/en/document/view/7110801/minerva-pictures
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L'inafferrabile 12 (1950)
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Two twin brothers grew up and never met (due to the fact that the father with the couple would have had 13 children and therefore for superstition he closed one in an orphanage), the one goalkeeper of Juventus and the other employee at the state lottery.
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https://letterboxd.com/film/linafferrabile-12/
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Two twin brothers grew up and never met (due to the fact that the father with the couple would have had 13 children and therefore for superstition he closed one in an orphanage), the one goalkeeper of Juventus and the other employee at the state lottery.
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https://www.academia.edu/71582602/Characterising_the_Anthropocene_Ecological_Degradation_in_Italian_Twenty_First_Century_Literary_Writing
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en
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Characterising the Anthropocene: Ecological Degradation in Italian Twenty-First Century Literary Writing
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[
"Alessandro Macilenti",
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] |
2022-02-15T00:00:00
|
The twenty-first century has witnessed the exacerbation of ecological issues that began to manifest themselves in the mid-twentieth century. It has become increasingly clear that the current environmental crisis poses an unprecedented existential
|
https://www.academia.edu/71582602/Characterising_the_Anthropocene_Ecological_Degradation_in_Italian_Twenty_First_Century_Literary_Writing
|
The twenty-first century has witnessed the exacerbation of ecological issues that began to manifest themselves in the mid-twentieth century. It is increasingly clear that the current environmental crisis poses an unprecedented existential threat to civilization as well as to Homo sapiens itself. Whereas the physical and social sciences have been defining the now inevitable transition to a very different (and more inhospitable) Earth, the humanities have yet to assert their role as a transformative force in the current environmental criticalities. My thesis shows how Italian literature draws from the treasure-trove of the emotive to exert powerful psychological effects on the reader, therefore representing an invaluable tool to introduce the Italian public to the discomforting truths of a rapidly degrading global ecosystem while avoiding the polarising effect which haunts impersonal science communication.
This volume explores Italian science fiction from the nineteenth century to the twenty-first, covering literary texts, films, music, and visual works by figures as diverse as Maria Rosa Cutrufelli, Peter Kolosimo, Primo Levi, Antonio Margheriti, Gilda Musa, and Roberto Vacca. It broadens the horizons of both Italian studies and the environmental humanities by addressing a long-neglected genre, and expands understanding of relations between the ecological, the imaginary, and the sociopolitical. The chapters draw on a variety of methodological frameworks, including animal studies, ecocriticism, ecofeminism, eco-media studies, energy humanities, and posthumanism. There is a wealth of insights regarding topics such as anthropocentrism/speciesism, ecomodernist thought, environmental justice struggles at the planetary and regional level, non-human and new materialist ontologies, utopian/dystopian philosophies, and prospects for transitioning beyond the crisis of petromodernity through the construction of post-depletion futures.
It is difficult to define what belongs exclusively to Environmental History (EH), and even more what belongs to Italian Environmental History (IEH). This discipline often includes research concerned with different chronological periods, issues, approaches, and methods. This plurality of perspectives reflects the varied and often contrasting labels attached to those studies. This plurality of paths and experiences should not be considered a problem, but an opportunity to overcome the limitations of the current hyperspecialized structuring of research. For this reason, we have chosen to refer to the multidisciplinary area of the environmental humanities as the common ground. On the other hand, we have chosen a new way to present IEH to an international public: the interview and, especially in the last part, the multidisciplinary and hybrid dialogue
Barron, Patrick and Anna Re, eds. Italian Environmental Literature: An Anthology. New York: Italica Press, 2003. --------------------- Italian Environmental Literature An Anthology Edited by Patrick Barron and Anna Re Foreword by John Elder Preface by Rebecca West ITALY has always presented itself in the modern Anglophone mind as the quintessential urban society: art, style and high culture; ancient, medieval and Renaissance cities; modern urban blight, crime and immigration. Yet Italy has perhaps the longest and most continuous tradition of environmental thinking and writing, stretching from the bucolic ideal of the ancient Romans, through the religious stewardship of creation enshrined by Benedict of Nursia in the sixth century in the monastic movement, to the nature mysticism of the high Middle Ages symbolized by Francis of Assisi. IN THE MODERN ERA Italy took its place very early on alongside the American conservation movement, and by the later 20th century it boasted a fully aware — and politically active — environmental movement. THIS VOLUME brings together, for the first time — in Italy or for an English-speaking audience — a collection of over 40 authors from this deep and broad tradition of Italian environmental writing. Poetry and prose, the essay, the political and economic tract, and the new arts are all represented in this collection. THE AUTHORS include: Corrado Alvaro Daria Menicanti Mariella Bettarini Eugenio Montale Virginio Bettini Giuseppe Moretti Giuseppe Bonaviri Giorgio Nebbia Italo Calvino Luciana Notari Dino Campana Anna Maria Ortese Carlo Cassola Giovanni Pascoli Antonio Cederna Pier Paolo Pasolini Gianni Celati Fulco Pratesi Gabriele D’Annunzio Salvatore Quasimodo Laura Conti Nuto Revelli Giuseppe Dessì Monica Sarsini Danilo Dolci Massimo Scalia Corrado Govoni Carlo Sgorlon Tonino Guerra Ignazio Silone Jolanda Insana Mario Rigoni Stern Carlo Levi Studio Azzurro Nicola Licciardello Alfredo Todisco Loredana Lucarini Giuseppe Ungaretti Gianna Manzini Andrea Zanzotto. Gianni Mattioli
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L'inafferrabile 12 (Original photograph from the 1950 film) by Mario Mattoli (director); Marion Monicelli, Steno (screenwriters); Walter Chiari, Carlo Campanini, Silvana Pampanini (starring): (1950)
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1950-08-16T00:00:00
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Industrie Cinematografiche Sociali (ICS), Italy - 1950 - Vintage keybook photograph of actress Silvana Pampanini from the 1950 Italian comedy. Twin brothers discover each other as adults after being separated at birth due to them being the twelfth and unlucky thirteenth children born into a family. 8 x 10 inches. Three-hole punch to the top edge as called for. Very Good plus, with light curling and a short diagonal crease to the bottom left corner. - L'inafferrabile 12 (Original photograph from the 1950 film)
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https://www.abebooks.com/Linafferrabile-12-Original-photograph-1950-film/31069232996/bd
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Terms of Sale:
If you have questions about a book, feel free to call us anytime at 410-366-7329. Mailing address: Royal Books / 32 West 25th Street / Baltimore, MD / 21218. We accept VISA/MC/AMEX/DISCOVER, check or money order, and PayPal (ID is mail@royalbooks.com).
All books noted as First Editions are also First Printings unless indicated otherwise. All books are guaranteed to be as described, and may be returned at any time for any reason for a full refund, including return postage. Libraries, institutions...
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Italy: Industrie Cinematografiche Sociali (ICS), 1950. Vintage keybook photograph of actress Silvana Pampanini from the 1950 Italian comedy. Twin...
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· Italy
by Mario Mattoli (director); Marion Monicelli, Steno (screenwriters); Walter Chiari, Carlo Campanini, Silvana Pampanini (starring)
Italy: Industrie Cinematografiche Sociali (ICS), 1950. Vintage keybook photograph of actress Silvana Pampanini from the 1950 Italian comedy.
Twin brothers discover each other as adults after being separated at birth due to them being the twelfth and unlucky thirteenth children born into a family.
8 x 10 inches. Three-hole punch to the top edge as called for. Very Good plus, with light curling and a short diagonal crease to the bottom left corner. (Inventory #: 152153)
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6088
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Alamy
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https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo/mario-mattoli.html
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Alamy and its logo are trademarks of Alamy Ltd. and are registered in certain countries. Copyright © 29/08/2024 Alamy Ltd. All rights reserved.
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https://www.abaa.org/book/1443366318
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L'inafferrabile 12 (Original photograph from the 1950 film) by Mario Mattoli (director); Marion Monicelli, Steno (screenwriters); Walter Chiari, Carlo Campanini, Silvana Pampanini (starring)
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Italy: Industrie Cinematografiche Sociali (ICS), 1950. Vintage keybook photograph of actress Silvana Pampanini from the 1950 Italian comedy. Twin...
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· Italy
by Mario Mattoli (director); Marion Monicelli, Steno (screenwriters); Walter Chiari, Carlo Campanini, Silvana Pampanini (starring)
Italy: Industrie Cinematografiche Sociali (ICS), 1950. Vintage keybook photograph of actress Silvana Pampanini from the 1950 Italian comedy.
Twin brothers discover each other as adults after being separated at birth due to them being the twelfth and unlucky thirteenth children born into a family.
8 x 10 inches. Three-hole punch to the top edge as called for. Very Good plus, with light curling and a short diagonal crease to the bottom left corner. (Inventory #: 152153)
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https://letterboxd.com/film/linafferrabile-12/
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L'inafferrabile 12 (1950)
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Two twin brothers grew up and never met (due to the fact that the father with the couple would have had 13 children and therefore for superstition he closed one in an orphanage), the one goalkeeper of Juventus and the other employee at the state lottery.
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Programma - Società italiana di neurologia
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Page 3: L’opera «L’Etna, l’inafferra
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M. PRONTERA, M. ELIA, G. BOERO, G.
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809. BK CHANNEL BETA4 SUBUNIT GENE
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878. HEALTH PROFESSIONALS’ PERSPE
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pagnatori o gli eventuali interessa
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ECM ● ISTRUZIONI Al Vostro arrivo
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In particolare, dei 150 crediti del
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MEDA PHARMA SPA MERCK SERONO SPA MI
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Catania Centro Congressuale Le Cimi
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Catania Centro Congressuale Le Cimi
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6088
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dbpedia
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https://www.abebooks.co.uk/Linafferrabile-12-Original-photograph-1950-film/31069232996/bd
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L'inafferrabile 12 (Original photograph from the 1950 film) by Mario Mattoli (director); Marion Monicelli, Steno (screenwriters); Walter Chiari, Carlo Campanini, Silvana Pampanini (starring): (1950)
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Industrie Cinematografiche Sociali (ICS), Italy - 1950 - Vintage keybook photograph of actress Silvana Pampanini from the 1950 Italian comedy. Twin brothers discover each other as adults after being separated at birth due to them being the twelfth and unlucky thirteenth children born into a family. 8 x 10 inches. Three-hole punch to the top edge as called for. Very Good plus, with light curling and a short diagonal crease to the bottom left corner. - L'inafferrabile 12 (Original photograph from the 1950 film)
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https://www.abebooks.co.uk/Linafferrabile-12-Original-photograph-1950-film/31069232996/bd
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Terms of Sale:
If you have questions about a book, feel free to call us anytime at 410-366-7329. Our fax number is 443-524-0942. Mailing address: Royal Books / 32 West 25th Street / Baltimore, MD / 21218. We accept VISA/MC/AMEX/DISCOVER, check or money order, and PayPal (ID is mail@royalbooks.com).
All books noted as First Editions are also First Printings unless indicated otherwise. All books are guaranteed to be as described, and may be returned at any time for any reason for a full refund, including return ...
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Italian_films_of_1966
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List of Italian films of 1966
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This film-related list is incomplete; you can help by adding missing items.
Seven Golden Women Against Two 07 Vincenzo Cascino Mickey Hargitay Detective comedy
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Plaster Casts: Making, Collecting and Displaying from Classical Antiquity to the Present 9783110216875, 9783110208566
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Citation preview
Plaster Casts
Transformationen der Antike
Herausgegeben von Hartmut Böhme, Horst Bredekamp, Johannes Helmrath, Christoph Markschies, Ernst Osterkamp, Dominik Perler, Ulrich Schmitzer
Wissenschaftlicher Beirat: Frank Fehrenbach, Niklaus Largier, Martin Mulsow, Wolfgang Proß, Ernst A. Schmidt, Jürgen Paul Schwindt
Band 18
De Gruyter
Plaster Casts Making, Collecting and Displaying from Classical Antiquity to the Present
Edited by
Rune Frederiksen and Eckart Marchand
De Gruyter
The publication of this volume was made possible through the generous support of the Henry Moore Foundation, Leeds, the Mortimer and Teresa Sackler Fund of Worcester College, Oxford, the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (using funds provided to the Collaborative Research Centre 644 „Transformations of Antiquity“), the Elizabeth Cayzer Charitable Trust, and the following benefactors and institutions of the University of Oxford: the Craven Committee, the Fell Fund, the Classics Faculty and the History Faculty.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Plaster casts : making, collecting, and displaying from classical antiquity to the present / edited by Rune Frederiksen and Eckart Marchand. p. cm. -- (Transformationen der Antike, ISSN 1864-5208 ; Bd. 18) Papers originating from an international conference of the same name, held at Oxford University, Sept. 23-27, 2007. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-3-11-020856-6 (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. Antiquities--Collection and preservation--Congresses. 2. Cultural property--Protection--Congresses. 3. Plaster casts--Congresses. 4. Sculpture, Ancient--Conservation and restoration--Congresses. 5. Art, Ancient--Conservation and restoration--Congresses. 6. Archaeology-Methodology--Congresses. I. Frederiksen, Rune. II. Marchand, Eckart. CC135.P595 2010 363.6'9--dc22 2010010470
ISBN 978-3-11-020856-6 e-ISBN 978-3-11-021687-5 ISSN 1864-5208 Bibliographic Information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliographie; detailed bibliographic data are available in the Internet at http://dnb.d-nb.de
© Copyright 2010 by Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. KG, D-10785 Berlin / New York. Cover Design: Martin Zech, Bremen Logo „Transformation der Antike“: Karsten Asshauer – SEQUENZ Data conversion and typesetting: Dr. Rainer Ostermann, München Printing: Hubert & Co. GmbH & Co. KG, Göttingen ∞ Printed on acid-free paper Printed in Germany www.degruyter.com
Table of Contents Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
XI
RUNE FREDERIKSEN AND ECKART MARCHAND Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1
Antiquity RUNE FREDERIKSEN Plaster Casts in Antiquity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
CHRISTA LANDWEHR The Baiae Casts and the Uniqueness of Roman Copies . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35
The Renaissance ECKART MARCHAND Plaster and Plaster Casts in Renaissance Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
WALTER CUPPERI “Giving away the moulds will cause no damage to his Majesty’s casts” – New Documents on the Vienna Jüngling and the Sixteenth-Century Dissemination of Casts after the Antique in the Holy Roman Empire . . . . .
81
MARTIN BIDDLE “Makinge of moldes for the walles” – The Stuccoes of Nonsuch: materials, methods and origins . . . . . . . . . . . .
99
Making and Distribution from the Eighteenth to the Twentieth Century CHARLOTTE SCHREITER “Moulded from the best originals of Rome” – Eighteenth-Century Production and Trade of Plaster Casts after Antique Sculpture in Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 JAN ZAHLE Laocoön in Scandinavia – Uses and Workshops 1587 onwards . . . . . . . . 143
VI
Table of Contents
PETER MALONE How the Smiths Made a Living . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Artists’ Academies TOMAS MACSOTAY Plaster Casts and Memory Technique: Nicolas Vleughels’ display of cast collections after the antique in the French Academy in Rome (1725–1793) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 CLAUDIA SEDLARZ Incorporating Antiquity – The Berlin Academy of Arts’ Plaster Cast Collection from 1786 until 1815: acquisition, use and interpretation . . . . 197 ELIZABETH FUENTES ROJAS Art and Pedagogy in the Plaster Cast Collection of the Academia de San Carlos in Mexico City . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Artists’ Workshops LÉON E. LOCK Picturing the Use, Collecting and Display of Plaster Casts in Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-Century Artists’ Studios in Antwerp and Brussels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 JOHANNES MYSSOK Modern Sculpture in the Making: Antonio Canova and plaster casts . . . . 269 MATTHEW GREG SULLIVAN Chantrey and the Original Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 JEAN-FRANÇOIS CORPATAUX Live Body Moulding and Maternal Devotion in Marcello’s Studio . . . . . 307 SHARON HECKER Shattering the Mould: Medardo Rosso and the poetics of plaster . . . . . . . 319 MARIA ELENA VERSARI “Impressionism Solidified” – Umberto Boccioni’s Works in Plaster and the Definition of Modernity in Sculpture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331 SUE MALVERN Outside In: the after-life of the plaster cast in contemporary culture. . . . . 351
Table of Contents
VII
JANE MCADAM FREUD Inside Out: a process for production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
Conservation DANIELA ARNOLD, TORSTEN ARNOLD AND ELISABETH RÜBER-SCHÜTTE The Plaster Decoration of the Choir Screens in the Church of Our Lady in Halberstadt: a current conservation project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369 ÁNGELES SOLÍS PARRA, JUDIT GASCA MIRAMÓN, SILVIA VIANA SÁNCHEZ AND JOSÉ MARÍA LUZÓN NOGUÉ The Restoration of Two Plaster Casts Acquired by Velázquez in the Seventeenth Century: the Hercules and Flora Farnese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385 MARIA KLIAFA AND MICHAEL DOULGERIDIS The Contribution of Plaster Sculptures and Casts to Successful Conservation Interventions at the National Gallery of Greece, Athens . . . 403
Architectural Models and Collections after Gems VALENTIN KOCKEL Plaster Models and Plaster Casts of Classical Architecture and its Decoration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419 DANIEL GRAEPLER A Dactyliotheca by James Tassie and Other Collections of Gem Impressions at the University of Göttingen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435 CLAUDIA WAGNER AND GERTRUD SEIDMANN A Munificent Gift: cast collections of gem impressions from the Sir Henry Wellcome Trust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
Casting Nations: The National Museum DIANE BILBEY AND MARJORIE TRUSTED “The Question of Casts” – Collecting and Later Reassessment of the Cast Collections at South Kensington . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465 MALCOLM BAKER The Reproductive Continuum: plaster casts, paper mosaics and photographs as complementary modes of reproduction in the nineteenth-century museum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
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AXEL GAMPP Plaster Casts and Postcards: the postcard edition of the Musée de Sculpture Comparée at Paris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501 DANA STEHLIKOVÁ More Valuable than Originals? The Plaster Cast Collection in the National Museum of Prague (1818–2008): its history and predecessors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519 TOBIAS BURG Building a Small Albertinum in Moscow: the correspondence between Georg Treu and Ivan Tsvetaev . . . . . . . . . . 539 STEPHEN L. DYSON Cast Collecting in the United States. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557 IAN COOKE Colonial Contexts: the changing meanings of the cast collection of the Auckland War Memorial Museum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
Display and the Future of Plaster Casts HELEN DOREY Sir John Soane’s Casts as Part of his Academy of Architecture at 13 Lincoln’s Inn Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597 ALESSANDRA MENEGAZZI The Museum as a Manifesto of Taste and Ideology: the twentieth-century plaster cast collection of archaeology and art at the University of Padua . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611 JAMES PERKINS Living with Plaster Casts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627 BERNARD VAN DEN DRIESSCHE Le jardin des plâtres: un autre regard sur les collections de moulages The Garden of Plaster Casts: a different view on cast collections . . . . . . . 635
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List of Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651 List of Figures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659 List of Colour Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 685 Colour Plates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691 Index of Names and Places . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 727 Subject index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 745
Preface The present volume originates from the conference of the same name, held in Oxford on 23 to 27 September 2007. The idea of a major international conference on plaster casts arose after a small but enthusiastically received study day Plaster Casts: Making Collecting and Display organized by Eckart Marchand at the University of Reading in October 2005. At Oxford, the team of organizers consisted of Prof. Donna C. Kurtz, Director of the Beazley Archive at the University of Oxford and the present editors. The overwhelming response to a call for papers enabled us to bring together a strong and coherent programme. Speakers, chairs and delegates represented a wide community of scholars, curators, conservators and artists with interests in the material and technique from twelve countries across Europe and the Americas. This volume presents revised versions of the contributions, largely in the sequence in which they were presented at the event. A strong promoter of casts at Oxford, Donna Kurtz contributed decisively to the planning and conception of the conference, and we would like to thank her for those efforts. In addition, the facilities and resources of the Beazley Archive that she directs were of great help for the organization of the event, not the least Nicole Harris, the secretary of the Archive. We should also like to thank R. R. R. Smith, Lincoln Professor of Classical Archaeology at Oxford, and Curator of the Cast Gallery of the Ashmolean Museum, for being a great support at all stages of the conference. Speakers and delegates were housed in Worcester College, Oxford, and welcomed at a reception by its Provost, Mr Richard Smethurst. We would like to thank him and the College for their interest in and support of the conference. Additional events included an excursion to and generous reception at the house of James Perkins at Aynhoe Park, and visits to the Sir John Soane’s Museum and the Royal Academy of Arts’ plaster cast collection at Burlington House in London, where groups were guided by Helen Dorey and Helen Valentine respectively. All three excursions provided privileged inside views into exciting collections and we are deeply indebted to our hosts. An important aim of the conference was to act as a forum for the members of various disciplines and professional groups to exchange ideas and opinions through formal and informal discussions. If the accompanying programme supported the informal exchanges, the sessions provided ample time for structured plenary debates. The chairs contributed greatly to the success of the
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conference through their knowledgeable and inspiring steering of sessions and discussion periods. We should like to express our thanks to all of them – David Bone, Christoph Frank, Valentin Kockel, Donna Kurz, Greg Sullivan, Marjorie Trusted, Timothy Wilson, Jonathan Wood and Jan Zahle. We should also like to thank those speakers whose contributions for various reasons did not enter the present volume: Christoph Frank, Martha Gyllenhaal, John Kenworthy Brown, Donna Kurtz, Michael Neilson, Stephan Schmid, R.R.R. Smith and Marina Sokhan. We are grateful to Sabine Vogt and Manfred Link of De Gruyter and to Rainer Ostermann for all their work towards the production of this book. For her extensive contributions during all stages of the editing process we should like to thank Alison Wright, and we are grateful to Bob Cook for scientific advice and to Lena Hoff for help with the compilation of the indexes. The conference could not have been realized without the generous financial support of the Elizabeth Cayzer Charitable Trust and various benefactors and institutions of the University of Oxford, including the Craven Committee, the Fell Fund, the Classics Faculty, the History Faculty and the Mortimer and Teresa Sackler Fund of Worcester College. The publication of this volume was generously supported by the Henry Moore Foundation, Leeds, and, again, Worcester College’s Sackler Fund and the Craven Committee. Finally, we should like to express our gratitude to the authors of this volume, for their exciting contributions, constructive collaboration and for their patience during the long process of editing. Rune Frederiksen and Eckart Marchand Athens and London 2009
Introduction RUNE FREDERIKSEN AND ECKART MARCHAND
On 28 February 2006 at Sotheby’s, New York, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, sold the remains of a plaster cast collection that was once the Museum’s pride. In the history of plaster casts the sale may be seen as the grand finale of a century of decline and rejection, during which individual casts and entire cast collections were silently moved into storage (first temporary, then permanent), left to their own devices (and discarded when finally deemed irreparable), violently attacked, or simply professionally removed and destroyed. The reasons for this development are many and they are interrelated, including the rejection of a western canon of art that these casts had come to represent and re-enforce, the twentieth-century veneration of the original and the consequent rejection of casts as worthless copies. Interest in the original’s material qualities accompanied rejection of the casts’ dull appearance, the increased availability of the originals through cheap mass travel and photography, as well as a more general decline in interest in sculpture and competition for storage space. The fate of the reproductive cast was often shared by collections of cast by individual artists, quite unjustly, as here the status of the cast was often a very different one.1 Yet, the recent sale in New York also coincided with a renewed interest in plaster casts and cast collections that has built up over the last three decades. To some extent the faithful promoters of the plaster cast as a teaching tool and means of full-scale representation of absent works have learned to make their case more forcefully, but new interests in the history of reception, the history of collecting, artists’ training and working methods, as well as a wider recognition of the appeal of these objects when dramatically staged, all contributed to the present revival of the plaster cast. The parameters have changed. Many cast collections now have different functions to those they had when originally set up and the production of new casts competes with modern reproduction technologies and meets, among other obstacles, with curatorial concern
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See in the present volume the discussion, by Greg Sullivan, of the Chantrey Collection at Oxford.
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about the surfaces of originals, for example with regard to traces of polychromy on ancient sculpture that could be eradicated when making casts from them. When it comes to the reproductive plaster cast, that still dominates the perception of what plaster casts are, the emphasis of the present revival lies in questions of use, display, conservation and research into existing and lost works rather than the building up of new collections. The last decades have seen the re-opening and/or cataloguing of cast collections of different character, including private collections in stately homes, research and teaching collections that belong to university departments and those that relate to individual artists’ workshops. The Beazley Archive in Oxford was a pioneer in publishing basic information on plaster casts on-line from 1998, in its case relative to the Ashmolean Museum’s Cast Collection. Today many more collections have their own websites, a growing number of them with complete illustrated on-line catalogues.2 In the French speaking world, the Association Internationale pour la Conservation et la Promotion des Moulages has since the 1980s convened a series of mainly francophone conferences on plaster casts, published their acts and built up a website that lists an ever-expanding number of plaster cast collections whilst offering itself as a forum for plaster cast research.3 More recently, the Fondazione Canova at Possagno initiated a series of conferences on plaster cast collections and published the proceedings of the first of these.4 The present volume is conceived as a contributor and catalyst in this development. As the edited papers of a conference that drew on a widely publicized call for papers, it is representative of the richness and range of present research interests in this area. In some cases the editors complemented this, not least through their own contributions, but generally they did not commission papers. The present intro-
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3
4
Only to mention a few: The Cast Collection at the Danish National Gallery (for the images) [accessed 1 November 2009], and the homepage of the Friends of the collection (for the catalogue information) [accessed 1 November 2009]; Georg-August-Universität Göttingen [accessed 1 November 2009]; Ashmolean Museum/University of Oxford [accessed 1 November 2009]. For a complete list of on-line cast catalogues, of which many are in the process of being re-launched with updated information and new photographs, see the website of the ‘Association’ [accessed 20 October 2009]. Le moulage. Actes du colloque international, Paris 1987 (Paris, 1990); website of the Association: [accessed 20 October 2009]. Further conference publications associated with the ‘Association Internationale’ are: C. Llinas (ed.), Moulages. Actes des rencontres internationales sur les moulages. Montpellier 14-17 février 1997 (Montpellier, 1999); H. Lavagne and F. Queyrel (eds), Les moulages de sculptures antiques et l’histoire de l’archéologie. Actes du colloque international, Paris, 24 octobre 1997 (Geneva, 2000). M. Guderzo (ed.), Gipsoteche. Realtà e Storia. Atti del convegno internazionale di studi. Possagno,19-20 maggio 2006 (Possagno, 2008).
Introduction
3
duction aims to sketch the wider picture, to point to areas and relevant research that have not been covered in the present volume and to position the presented articles in a wider historical and research context. Collections of reproductive plaster casts that consist of objects made to substitute absent originals have dominated and conditioned the perception of plaster casts at least for the last hundred years. These collections are, by and large, an invention of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The making of plaster casts and the use of the material for artistic and architectural ends in general, though, go back to Egyptian antiquity and beyond and have remained diverse and versatile practises throughout the history of the material. Ancient plaster casts are studied in the present volume by Rune Frederiksen and Christa Landwehr who discuss functions of the medium in the workshop, including that of life masks, and as an aid for copying of models, the latter discussed by Landwehr in relation to finds from a Roman sculpture workshop in Baiae in Italy. Frederiksen also discusses casts after sculptures that were apparently displayed in their own right in private contexts. Casting and moulding techniques in plaster and related materials were also extensively used in antiquity as decoration for built interiors, with the coffered dome of the Pantheon, cast in concrete, and the stucco decorations of the vaults of the Domus Aurea in Rome being two very prominent examples. These traditions continued in the Eastern Roman Empire and it was apparently through Byzantine craftsman that a tradition of stucco sculpture continued in Italy, France and the Holy Roman Empire throughout the Middle Ages. A particular tradition developed in lower Saxony with monuments in Hildesheim, Gernrode and Halberstadt. The article by Daniela and Torsten Arnold and Elisabeth Rüber-Schütte in the present volume introduces this group and focuses on the Choir Screens at Halberstadt (c. 1200), illuminating their technique and present conservation. During the Renaissance, in and increasingly beyond Italy, casts were made after the famous works of ancient Rome, in plaster and other, more durable and more valued media. Primaticcio’s casts made for the King of France are a particularly famous case. Their copying and distribution outside Italy is discussed by Walter Cupperi in the present book, while Eckart Marchand’s article addresses the wider artistic and architectural practices that employed the materials and techniques related to casting in plaster during the late Middle Ages and Renaissance in Italy, providing sixteenth-century artists with the skills to produce casts after the antique. Marchand also maps the spread of Renaissance stucco decorations, developed in Rome on the model of the Domus Aurea, a type of decoration that was exported from Italy by Primaticcio together with his casts to Fontainebleau. Nicholas of Modena, one of the artists working in Fontainebleau was in charge of the decoration of the court-
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yard at Nonsuch, one of the residences of Henry VIII. The remains of this palace were excavated in 1959 by Martin Biddle who presents and interprets this decoration in his article. In the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, plaster casts entered the collections of artists, humanists, the rich and the noble. The Paduan Mantova Benavides Collection, built up in the middle of the sixteenth century, contained plaster casts of limbs that may have belonged to earlier artists’ collections, casts after works of art, ancient and contemporary, and casts after artists’ models. Some of these may have been displayed as heads of Famous Men, in a tradition that was to extend into the nineteenth century when, for example in Germany, the production of plaster cast busts of Famous Men such as Goethe and Beethoven would develop industrial dimensions. The operations of a London cast maker, Charles Smith, in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries is discussed here by Peter Malone. The wide range of different types of objects found in the Mantova Benavides Collection was typical for the Renaissance and Baroque Wunderkammer (the Bavarian Wunderkammer, for example, contained a plaster cast of the crippled hands of a peasant5), but in the seventeenth and eighteenth century the collecting of casts after ancient statuary would become increasingly a trade in its own right. As Ángeles Solís Parra, Judit Gasca Miramón, Silvia Viana Sánchez and José María Luzón Nogué discuss in this volume, in the seventeenth century the Spanish King sent his court artist, Diego Velázquez, to Rome to acquire casts of the highest quality after some of the most important Roman statues. The demands regarding the quality of these casts as indicated by the surviving contracts demonstrate the power, financial means and technical knowledge of the royal envoy. The Grand Tourists who came to Rome in the following two centuries were generally less well informed and had to rely on a network of cast makers, local and foreign artists, dealers and traders who would obtain, package and send casts to destinations overseas.6 The present contributions by Helen Dorey and Valentin Kockel refer to such collections by members of the professional classes in Britain. The situation in Germany was quite different. The majority of its tiny principalities were land-locked and comparably poor, and the transport of goods across the German territories prohibitively expensive because of con-
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6
J. B. Fickler, Das Inventar der Münchner herzoglichen Kunstkammer von 1598, in P. Diemer, with E. Bujok and D. Diemer (eds), Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften, PhilosophischHistorische Klasse Abhandlungen, NF, Heft 125, 2004, p. 130. On the collecting of copies, including plaster casts, in the context of the Grand Tour see the most recent publication of V. Coltman, Fabricating the Antique: Neoclassicism in Britain, 1760– 1800 (Chicago and London, 2006), chapter 5 ‘“Familiar objects in an unfamiliar world” The Cachet of the Copy’, pp. 123-64.
Introduction
5
stant demands for duties. The mechanisms of trade in this situation are discussed by Charlotte Schreiter who looks particularly at two protagonists, the local trader and cast maker Carl Christian Heinrich Rost and the Italian travelling firm, the Ferrari brothers. Germany was of course central for the study of classical antiquity and archaeology, shaping the scholarly use of plaster cast collections in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Plaster casts played a role in the milieu of Johann Joachim Winckelmann, as is evidenced, for example, by his own comments on the medium as well as the collection of his close friend, the artist Anton Raphael Mengs. This early collection survives and has recently received a thorough examination by Moritz Kiderlen.7 The University of Göttingen with the first Chair of Archaeology anywhere in Europe and its founding professor, Christian Gottlob Heyne, are referenced in the present volume by Schreiter, Daniel Graepler and Jan Zahle, as is the collection of the Berlin Academy of Art in the article by Claudia Sedlarz. The history of the Göttingen cast collection goes back to the later 1760s. The collection has been catalogued and its history documented by Klaus Fittschen in 1990.8 Graepler’s contribution in this volume focuses particularly on the University’s casts after ancient and modern gems, the so-called Dactyliothecae. Another early German university collection, founded in 1820, is that of the University of Bonn. Still, the scholarly study of sculpture through casts was for the most part of the nineteenth century facilitated by the collections of artists’ academies and museums. Thus, outside Germany, the model of the University collection as a laboratory that facilitates the study of Classical Archaeology was not immediately emulated. This happened finally in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries as a consequence of the installation of Chairs in Archaeology in European countries such as England, France and Italy. The teaching collection of the Department of Archaeology at the University of Padua is comparatively small and late, it is discussed here in the context of its early twentieth-century display. Alessandra Menegazzi’s article grants insights not only into the 1920s mis-en-scène of this collection with its strong classical references, but also makes tangible the political connotations of the collection and its staging at that time. Finally, Claudia Wagner and Gertrud Seidmann’s contribution addresses a contemporary university collection, the above mentioned Beazley Archive at Oxford, with particular focus on its extensive holdings of dactyliothecae.
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M. Kiderlen, Die Sammlung der Gipsabgüsse von Anton Raphael Mengs in Dresden (Munich, 2006). K. Fittschen (ed.), Verzeichnis der Gipsabgüsse des Archäologischen Instituts der GeorgAugust-Universität Göttingen (Göttingen, 1990), pp. 9-20.
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Plaster cast collections in artists’ academies preceded even the earliest of these scholarly collections. The Florentine Academia del Disegno, founded in 1564 as the first institution of this type, met in its early years in and below the New Sacristy of San Lorenzo. The study and emulation of Michelangelo’s tombs of the Medici Dukes in this ensemble was characteristic for the work of the Florentine Academicians9 and plaster casts of its allegorical sculptures were soon distributed among artists in Italy. Two full-scale casts of Michelangelo’s Dawn and Dusk were made in 1570 by Egnazio Danti, brother of the Florentine sculptor Vincenzo Danti, and must have been obtained by the Academy in Perugia shortly after its foundation in 1573.10 But plaster cast collections were not necessarily a feature of the academies that sprang up all over Europe and its colonies. Claudia Sedlarz illuminates the humble beginnings of the collection of the Academy in Berlin and Tomas Macsotay’s contribution reveals surprisingly that at the French Academy in Rome the casts had a much more important teaching function than at the Royal Academy in Paris. The Royal Academy in London was a late comer among the European Academies. The hesitant acquisition history of its early years resembles that of the Berlin collection. In the context of the conference the Royal Academy collection was informally discussed in front of its material remains by Helen Valentine who has also published on this subject.11 The academies in Stockholm and Copenhagen, following the European eighteenth-century academy trend, possessed casts from the time of their foundations (1754 and 1768 respectively) as Jan Zahle describes in his article tracing casts of the Laocoön in Scandinavia. In the nineteenth century, the Academy in Madrid was able to provide casts for academic collections in the Spanish colonies, such as the Academia de San Carlo in Mexico City, as Elisabeth Fuentes Rojas mentions in the present volume. Beyond the academies, artists had long used plaster casts as objects of study and in the different stages of the design process including the final work. While Leon Lock’s analysis of images of Netherlandish sculptors’ workshops from the seventeenth- and eighteenth centuries questions their documentary value, there is certainly plenty of more secure evidence that plaster casts played an important role in artists’ workshops from the fifteenth
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Z. WaĨbiĔski, L’accademia medicea del disegno a Firenz nel cinquecento: Idea e istituzione, 2 vols (Florence, 1987), I, pp. 75-110, esp. 76-80. 10 D. Zikos in C. Davis and B. Paolozzi Strozzi (eds), I grandi bronzi del battistero. L’arte di Vincenzo Danti, discepolo di Michelangelo, exh. cat. Florence (Florence, 2008), pp. 324-5. 11 H. Valentine, From Reynolds to Lawrence: the first sixty years of the Royal Academy of Arts and its collections : a short catalogue of the paintings, sculptures and plaster casts shown in the private rooms and the new sculpture gallery at Burlington House, (London, 1991).
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century onward, in Italy and increasingly beyond. The section in this volume devoted to casts in artist’s workshops and artists’ practice cannot claim to be representative, but it puts a due focus on eighteenth-century neo-classicism, late nineteenth and early twentieth century French and Italian art and the diverse uses of plaster and casting techniques by modern and contemporary artists. Johannes Myssok presents the various stages of the design processes in which Antonio Canova employed plaster, traces developments in his career and relates Canova’s use of casts to wider issues such as the truthfulness to material. Greg Sullivan in his article on the slightly later British sculptor Sir Francis Chantrey, argues that Chantrey’s plaster models had the status of originals. The neo-classical aesthetic and art production had a formative impact on the use and perception of reproductive plaster casts in museums to the present day. It was in the second half of the nineteenth century that artists, mainly French and Italian, explored the unconventional qualities of the material. A major figure in this context was Rodin;12 in the present volume, Jean François Corpataux and Sharon Hecker discuss the works of his contemporaries Marcello and Medardo Rosso. Marcello’s Pythia, including a life cast of the artist’s own shoulders, provides an exciting case through which to examine the conceptual implications of the artistic process with regard to nineteenthcentury artistic stereotypes of creativity and gender. Addressing the still too little studied work of Medardo Rosso, Sharon Hecker analyses how the sculptor broke with the neo-classical uses of plaster, drawing conceptually on the material’s association with cheapness and fragility. The modernity of plaster cast as a material is further evaluated in the Futurist context by Maria Elena Versari’s contribution on Boccioni’s use of plaster. The final rejection of the plaster cast as a teaching tool after the Second World War is the starting point of Sue Malvern’s discussion of the use of plaster casts in the work of late twentieth-century and contemporary artists such as Antony Gormley and Rachel Whiteread. A contribution by a practicing artist, Jane McAdam Freud, whose work frequently employs plaster casts, closes this section. As part of her presentation, McAdam Freud made a conference medal that was displayed at the event. With the rise of nationalism throughout Europe in the nineteenth century, national museums were instituted to present, conserve and construct the notion of a national heritage, as in the case of the National Museum in Prague, discussed here by Dana Stehlikova, and to improve citizens, and/or national
___________ 12 A. Le Normand-Romain, ‘Rodin e il gesso: storia di un deposito di atelier’, in M. Guderzo (ed.), Gipsoteche. Realtà e Storia. Atti del convegno internazionale di studi. Possagno, 19-20 maggio 2006 (Possagno, 2008), p. 75-82.
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art production, as in the case of the Victoria and Albert Museum. Both museums, in Prague and London, as well as the National Gallery in Athens hold reproductive casts as well as artists’s models and final works in plaster. Reproductive casts in these museums have fulfilled a variety of functions. They preserved the appearance of endangered works (see the article by Maria Kliafa and Michael Doulgerides in relation to the National Gallery in Athens), represented the narrative of a national style in one place, as in the cases of the Museum in Prague, and filled gaps in a wider art historical narrative, as for example the Royal Cast Collection as part of the National Gallery of Denmark, and the Museum of Fine Art in Boston, mentioned by Stephen Dyson in his account of American plaster cast collections. They also, of course, represented works that were seen as canonical, as in the case of London’s Victoria and Albert Museum, discussed by Diane Bilbey and Marjorie Trusted and by Malcolm Baker. In many cases they were integrated into the Museum display alongside originals, in other instances they were given their own museum, like the Musée de Sculpture Comparé in Paris, here discussed in terms of its intellectual conception by Axel Gampp, the Museum of Fine Arts in Moscow, discussed by Tobias Burg, and many American collections, such as the Slater Museum in Norwich, Connecticut, referred to by Dyson. With Ian Cooke’s article on the Auckland War Memorial Museum the volume provides insight into the installation, motivations for and reception of a cast collection in a colonial context. Here as in the case of the Mexican academy referred to earlier, art objects by local cultures would play an important counter part in the collections, in Mexico through their influence on the academy’s training, in Auckland in terms of the display and space allocation in the museum. The papers by Malcolm Baker and Axel Gampp address a particular nineteenth-century phenomenon, aptly described by Baker as “the reproductive continuum”. Plaster casts in the Victoria and Albert Museum, we find, were displayed in concert with other reproductive media, including fictile ivories, paper mosaics and photography; Gampp directs our attention to the vast collections of postcards of plaster casts issued by the Musée de Sculpture Comparé. Issues of display are addressed in Helen Dorey’s paper on the Sir John Soane’s Museum and Alessandra Menegazzi’s contribution regarding the Museo di Scienze Archeologiche e d’Arte at the University of Padua. Both are specific cases where original architectural designs and historical displays have been meticulously reconstructed. In the case of the Paduan collection the early twentieth-century display had to be adapted to accommodate modern teaching functions of the collection, while the Sir John Soane’s Museum has to keep the requirement to function as a modern museum in mind. Entirely different, but still striking the same historical and topographical keys as the Sir John
Introduction
9
Soane’s Museum, James Perkin’s private display of plaster casts at Aynhoe Park represents a revival of the Country House tradition of displaying casts. The recent rise in popularity of casts is reflected in a number of recent rearrangements of museum displays to include these objects. Occasionally, old ideas are taken up, albeit in revised form, such as the chronological display of casts in teaching collections, or the display of casts alongside originals. In these, as in most other cases, casts are displayed according to the same principles as originals. A different principle, developed in the late 1980s and early 1990s and applied to the display of a cast collection, is that of the Royal Cast Collection in Copenhagen. The collection, spanning western sculpture uninterruptedly from Ancient Egypt to the Baroque, is arranged according to the same principal display contexts as the various periods themselves. Exhibition areas in the Copenhagen collection today, like the ‘Greek Sanctuary’, ‘Roman Villa’ or ‘Italian Gallery’, not only offer a rough chronological frame to the visitor, but also a sense of authentic visual context for the various sculptural forms. Statues and reliefs are seen together as they might have been experienced at the time the originals were made, but also sometimes as they were used later on throughout history. A number of recent exhibitions have realized another potential of the plaster cast. Thus, painted plaster casts have been used to illustrate the effects of polychromy, for educational purposes both in permanent displays, for example the polychromatic cast of the Igel Column in the Landesmuseum in Trier,13 and temporary exhibitions, principally the exhibition Gods in Colour (2003–8), that toured numerous museums all over the western world.14 Three articles address issues of conservation. The choir screens in Halberstadt (c. 1200), discussed by Daniela and Torsten Arnold and Elisabeth Rüber-Schütte, and the casts in the collections of the Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando in Madrid and the National Gallery in Athens, discussed by Solís Parra et al., and Kliafa and Doulgerides, respectively, are very different object types that require specific treatments. The authors address issues raised by the in situ restoration and preservation of polychrome stucco work, and heavily over-painted and stained historical plasters as well as problems encountered during the structural reconstruction of casts that had been exposed to the elements; the list could be extended. Beyond this the three papers demonstrate different approaches and schools of conservation. The
___________ 13 For the polychromy of the cast of the Igel column see H. Cüppers, ‘Die Kopie der “lgeler Säule” in neuem Gewand. An der Nachbildung des Secundinier Grabmals ist die einstige Bemalung rekonstruiert worden.’ Antike Welt 1994, Heft 1, pp. 89-94. 14 The catalogue of the first exhibition: V. Brinkmann et al., Bunte Götter. Die Farbigkeit antiker Skulptur (Munich, 2003).
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fragility of plaster in general, and in particular the necessity of periodic cleaning and/or surface treatment of plaster casts mean that any institution holding plaster casts must have a developed and on-going conservation programme in place to ensure appropriate care of these objects. More than with some other types of artwork the appearance of casts is dramatically affected by conservation work and practical handling. This requires close collaboration between conservators and museum curators. Our volume ends with an article by Bernard van den Driesche, Vice Chairman of the Association Internationale pour la Conservation et la Promotion des Moulages and in charge of the Association’s website. Van den Driesche develops the notion of a grand jardin du plâtre, his vision of a global garden of plaster casts and cast collections, possibly best achieved through websites and the internet, that brings together all types of plaster cast collection, including not only those that serve artistic ends, but also ethnological, medical and other requirements. Such an encyclopaedic approach represents the richness of the material. The present volume deliberately focuses on plaster casts for artistic ends. Its aim is to highlight what is specific to individual casts, types of casts and cast collections, and thus to emphasise difference and complexity in a medium that in the past has often suffered from being perceived as familiar and onedimensional. The inclusion in papers by Marchand, Biddle, Hecker and others of plaster sculpture that involves modelling techniques also serves this purpose, reminding us that the ‘pure’ cast is a rarity. It is the editors’ hope that rather than answering all our questions in the field, the present volume will raise new ones, stimulate debate and facilitate future research on plaster and plaster casts.
Antiquity
Plaster Casts in Antiquity1 RUNE FREDERIKSEN The present article discusses the use of plaster casts in antiquity through the evaluation of surviving objects as well as literary evidence.2 Many articles in this volume refer to plaster casts as a medium that is closely associated with the revival of antiquity from the early Renaissance onwards. The aim of my contribution, together with that by Christa Landwehr, is to demonstrate that artists’ use of plaster casts goes back to classical antiquity itself, and to evaluate our knowledge of the medium in this period. To analyse the functions of plaster casts in antiquity is important as it enables us to understand the uses and concepts of art in the ancient world which can then form the basis of comparisons with later periods. I wish to argue that plaster casts were of great significance in the ancient world, also beyond their basic technical functions in the production and copying of works of art.
Plaster as Material3 The materials of plastic art production and reproduction in antiquity were stone, clay, terracotta, faience, wood, metals, and various minerals.4 Plaster, or calcium sulphate, belongs to the last group; its technical properties make it
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3
4
I would like to thank the following friends and colleagues for having read and improved this article at various stages of completion: Mogens Jørgensen (Copenhagen), Eckart Marchand (London), Bert Smith (Oxford) and Jan Zahle (Copenhagen). In addition I would like to thank Eckart for his very thorough and patient editing. For earlier discussions of ancient plaster casts as evidenced from physical remains and written sources, see D’Alessandro and Persegati, Scultura e calchi in gesso, 15-24; Barone, Sabratha; Landwehr, Die antiken Gipsabgüsse; see also articles in Neue Pauly and New Pauly referred to below. D’Alessandro and Persegati, Scultura e calchi in gesso, 69-73 Der Neue Pauly. Enzyklopädie der Antike, 12 vols (Stuttgart, 2001–2007), IV, s.v. ‘Gips’ (C. Hünemörder). For presentation of ancient sources about plaster and critical commentary, see Barone, Sabratha, pp. 3-8. See also this volume Arnold et al., pp. 373-76, and Solis et al. 387-88. For a sixth-century BC example of sculpture cast in melilite: A. Baltres et al., ‘Two Archaic Casts from Histria: Mineralogy, Paint Composition and Storage Products’, Ancient West & East, 3.1 (2004), pp. 87-99, fig. 1.
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particularly suitable for copying three-dimensional art-works with great accuracy; it is easily produced, easy to handle when wet, and when poured into a mould it flows easily into all corners and hardens quickly. In addition, the material seems to have been fairly easily available and hence cheap to use. This is implied in ancient comments on the sources of plaster, and can be deduced from the large quantities of the material used, for example, as wall plaster in ancient Egypt5 and for stucco decorations in the Greek and Roman periods.6 A number of details about the provenances, properties and uses of plaster can be learned from Theophrastos, writing at the turn from the fourth to the third century BC.7 His treatise On Stones has a section on ȖȥȠȢ (64-9)8, from which we learn that gypsos existed in large quantities in Cyprus, and that in Phoenicia and Syria it was made from burning stone, for example marble. Theophrastos informs us how gypsos behaves when pulverized and mixed with water, and it is clear that what he describes is the mineral gypsum, and the process by which it can be turned into what we would call plaster and often Plaster of Paris.9 Plaster behaves as Theophrastos describes, and gypsum is indeed still found in many places around the Mediterranean, for example in Cyprus, on Melos and in Egypt.10 The ancient Greek term gypsos does, however, cover more than our plaster, or plaster of Paris, even within the writings of Theophrastos himself, so we cannot point to all ancient attestations of the term and automatically take them to mean only plaster of Paris. We are, however, able to demonstrate, that in some instances the term gypsos, or its Latin equivalent gypsum, are used to denote specifically a cast in that material. A wonderful example is a third to second-century BC cast, now in Princeton, of an earlier Hellenistic horse’s nose-piece (probably of bronze) which bears an inscription, incised into the plaster while it was still wet: ıȚįઆȡȠȣ | IJઁ ȖȥȚȞȠȞ (“the plaster [...] of Isidoros”).11
___________ 5 6
A. Lucas, Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries, 3rd edn (London, 1948), pp. 96-8. Enciclopedia dell’arte antica, classica e orientale, 12 vols (Rome, 1958–1984), VII, 524-9 s.v. ‘Stucco’ (S. De Marinis); Op. cit. suppl., V, 458-61, s.v. ‘Stucco’ (R. J. Ling); Penny, Materials, pp. 191-2. 7 For a detailed treatment of the main evidence for the ancient view and knowledge of the technical aspects of plaster see A. Orlandos, Les matériaux de construction et la technique architecturale des anciens grecs (Paris, 1966), pp. 146-8. 8 Caley and Richards, Theophrastus. See also Barone, Sabratha, pp. 3-4. 9 The name derives from a large gypsum deposit at Montmartre in Paris, W. Morris (ed.), American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 4th edn (Boston, Mass., 2000). 10 Caley and Richards, Theophrastus, p. 213, p. 217; Penny, Materials, p. 194. 11 Inscription (and cast) probably from the 3rd-2nd centuries BC, see no. 22.
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Plaster and Sculptural Artworks in Antiquity Judging by the earliest surviving evidence of sculpture production, plaster appears to have been one of the primary materials. The Neolithic seventhmillennium BC statues from Aïn Ghazal near Amman in Jordan, frequently referred to as the “oldest statues of the world”, were made of modelled plaster over a framework of woven reed.12 The Egyptians used plaster as a primary sculptural medium as well, often in combination with other materials.13 Stone sculpture was sometimes modified with plaster modelled onto the stone and then painted. Well-known examples are the busts of the Egyptian fourthDynasty prince Ankhhaf (2520-2494 BC), found in his tomb at Giza14 (Fig. 1. 1), and now in Boston, and the eighteenth-Dynasty Nefertiti (c. 1351–1334 BC) from Thutmose’s workshop in Amarna, now in Berlin.15 The sculptural properties of plaster were thus known, and the sculptural appearance of the modelled plaster surface appreciated, from a very early point in history. This use of plaster for sculpture, modelled or cast, in combination with other materials, continued into the Greek and Roman periods.16 Plaster Casts Ancient plaster casts can be divided into three categories. Firstly, casts were used at various stages of the production of sculpture in other, arguably more durable, materials such as marble or bronze. Secondly, they were used as copies for the purpose of transferring three-dimensional images from one place to another. Finally they also served as artworks in their own right. Examples of the first category surfaced in Egypt in 1912 during the excavation of the workshop of the sculptor Thutmose at Amarna, dating to the end of the eighteenth Dynasty, between 1351 and 1334 BC.17 The find included twenty-seven objects in plaster, mostly casts of heads or faces, some of which are clearly portraits of Egyptian Royalty, for example the faces of Pharaoh
___________ 12 See e.g. C. A. Grissom, ‘Neolithic Statues from ‘Ain Ghazal: Construction and Form’, American Journal of Archaeology, 104 (2000), pp. 25-45. 13 For a recent general treatment of the use of plaster in Egyptian sculpture, see Tomoum, Sculptors’ Models, pp. 173-7. 14 Boston, Museum of Fine Arts, 27.442. L. Berman et al., Arts of Ancient Egypt (Boston, 2003), pp. 78-9 (with fig.). 15 R. Anthes, Die Büste der Königin Nofretete (Berlin, 1973); C. Wedel, Nofretete und das Geheimnis von Amarna (Mainz am Rhein, 2005), with bibliography. 16 See for example V. M. Strocka, ‘Stucco additions to marble sculpture from Ptolemaic and Roman Egypt’, Jahrbuch des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, 82 (1967), pp. 118-36. 17 D. Arnold, ‘The Workshop of the Sculptor Thutmose’, in Arnold, Royal Women, pp. 41-51, with bibliography.
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Fig. 1. 1: Bust of Ankhhaf. Mid third millenium BC. Stone with painted plaster, h: 50.5 cm. From Giza in Egypt. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.
Akhenaten (no. 1a18, Fig. 1. 2) and his wife or consort Nefertiti (no. 1b, Fig. 1. 3) and the images of an old woman and a man, of unknown and uncertain identity (no. 1c-d, Figs 1. 4-5). Most of the Amarna casts are faces and were therefore quite simple to cast, in open one-piece moulds. The heads were mostly only cast in two separate parts, which were joined after the casting, as can be deduced, for example, from the vertical line on the neck of the Head of Nefertiti that results from the joining of the two pieces (not visible in Fig. 1. 3, but very clear in D’Alessandro and Persegati, Scultura e calchi in gesso, fig. 1). The Amarna casts seem all to have been taken from clay or wax models and served as models for final works in stone: further, they seem to be partial casts of sculptures, not of whole works, and some preserve details that show that the works they were cast from were unfinished. The casts may have been made to be sent to the commissioners, so that further progress could be discussed without them having to make their way to the workshop. Afterwards work would have continued on the clay or wax models, and, when considered finished, these were eventually carved in stone. Thus, the casts’ function differed from what in modern sculpture would be called original models in that they were not taken of models in their final stage to represent a visual idea that could later be executed in a third and more durable material.19
___________ 18 A provisional list of casts in museums and collections around the world is provided at the end of this article (pp. 26-32). 19 The term can be traced at least back to the sixteenth century. In Britain original models in this sense, used for exhibition in order to find a patron, have been in use at least since the second
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Fig. 1. 2: Head of Akhenaten. Mid fourteenth century BC. Plaster, h: 21 cm. From Amarna in Egypt. Ägyptisches Museum, Berlin.
Fig. 1. 3: Head of Nefertiti. Mid fourteenth century BC. Plaster, h: 25.6 cm. From Amarna in Egypt. Ägyptisches Museum, Berlin.
Fig. 1. 4: Head of an old woman. Mid fourteenth century BC. Plaster, h: 26.7 cm. From Amarna in Egypt. Ägyptisches Museum, Berlin.
Fig. 1. 5: Head of a man. Mid fourteenth century BC. Plaster, h: 27 cm. From Amarna in Egypt. Ägyptisches Museum, Berlin.
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Greece and Rome Death masks played a significant role in Egyptian art, at least since the time of the Old Kingdom,20 and continued to do so in the Greek and Roman periods. The face of a bust of the Roman period in the museum in Alexandria (no. 3a, Fig. 1. 6) is a remodelled death-mask, whereas the skull and bust are cast in two separate pieces each. A layer of plaster was added onto these five components after they had been assembled, and modelled, while the plaster was still wet. This bust, then, can be classified as partly cast and partly modelled. The tell tale signs of a death mask can be seen in a similar plaster head, in the same museum (Fig. 1. 7). The cheeks are hollow and the flesh around the neck seems to have lost its tension. Unmodified death masks, taken directly of a dead person’s face to preserve facial features, have also been found, as, for example, that from Tuna el-Gebel (no. 10b, Fig. 1. 8), in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo, dating from around the birth of Christ. A plaster bust of a man from Rome (no. 24) is made in the same way as the Alexandria one (no. 3a), but is even more interesting and important because it was found, alonside fragments of two additional busts, in a tomb at Via Prenestina, and thus links plaster and plaster casts to the great Roman tradition of imagines maiorum (‘images of ancestors’).21 These seem often to have been of wax – plaster is not explicitly mentioned as a material in connection with them – and they were carried around in funerary processions and exhibited in homes and tombs. With the Via Prenestina heads, we have examples of such plaster portraits of deceased ancestors. The role of plaster casts in ancient Greek and Roman sculpture production was absolutely central. For Greek sculpture this is mainly a sound assumption, whereas for the Roman period the material and circumstantial evidence is strong. The single most important find of ancient Roman casts was made in 1954 at the Roman town of Baiae, in the bay of Naples.22 This consisted of more than 400 casts of parts of at least thirty different statues23 including some
___________ 20 21
22 23
half of the seventeenth century, J. S. Symmons, Flaxman and Europe. The Outline Illustrations and their Influence (New York and London, 1984), pp. 57-8. D’Alessandro and Persegati, Scultura e calchi in gesso, pp. 47-9; Tomoum, Sculptor’s Models, p. 215 no. 42, pl. 31a-c. For the Roman ancestor cult see Pliny, Naturalis Historia, 35.6-7; Polybios, Historiae, 6.53; D’Alessandro and Persegati, Scultura e calchi in gesso, appendix; D. E. E. Kleiner, Roman Sculpture (New Haven, Conn., and London, 1992), pp. 36-8 (basic introduction). The Roman period heads and busts from Egypt, discussed above, may derive from such Roman period tombs in Egypt. The Baiae find is published by C. Landwehr (Die antiken Gipsabgüsse) and also treated by the same author in this volume, pp. 35-46. The sides of the casts show cuts rather than fractures so the pieces are parts of casts of statues, not random fragments from smashed casts.
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Fig. 1. 6: Bust of a man. Roman first to second century AD. Plaster, h: 29 cm. Museum for Greek and Roman Art, Alexandria.
Fig. 1. 7: Portrait head of a man. Roman. Plaster, h: 29.5 cm. Museum for Greek and Roman Art, Alexandria.
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Fig. 1. 8: Death mask. Hellenistic-Roman, first century BC to first century AD. Plaster. Archaeological Museum, Cairo.
of the most well-known Classical and Hellenistic Greek works. But the Baiae find has not only deepened our knowledge of these particular masterpieces (Fig. 2. 5). The casts also constitute interesting evidence for the reconstruction of the process by which some or perhaps most of the thousands of Roman marble copies of Greek life size free-standing sculpture were actually made.24 This process, crucial for the understanding of the relationship between Greek originals and Roman copies was previously only known through written sources and the visual evidence of the Roman marbles themselves.25 The Baiae find is interpreted as a dump from a sculptor’s workshop, parts of what was once a collection of casts assembled by a workshop, serving as a library of form, from which whole figures or details could be copied to produce tailormade marble sculptures according to demand.26 It seems logical to assume that a number of such workshop collections of casts existed throughout the Roman world, and that, at least sometimes, Roman marble statues were copied from such casts rather than from other copies made in marble. Casts would have been much easier to transport than marble statues, and – provided they were
___________ 24 The first scholar to make this observation in relation to ancient cast finds was Gisela Richter. Richter knew about the important Baiae find from 1955, but only got to see parts of it in 1963. See G. M. A. Richter, ‘How Were the Roman Copies of Greek Portraits Made?’, Römische Mitteilungen, 69 (1962), pp. 52-8, pls 22-6, and ‘An Aristogeiton from Baiae’, American Journal of Archaeology, 74 (1970), pp. 296-7. 25 The first groundbreaking study identifying a number of Greek works through Roman copies was A. Furtwängler, Meisterwerke der griechischen Plastik: Kunstgeschichtliche Untersuchungen (Leipzig, 1893) English trans. by E. S. Strong, Masterpieces of Greek Sculpture (Chicago, Ill., 1895). A good general introduction with selected bibliography is provided by A. Stewart, Greek Sculpture. An Exploration (New Haven, Conn., and London, 1990). 26 Landwehr, Die antiken Gipsabgüsse; C. Gasparri, ‘L’officina dei calchi di Baia’, Römische Mitteilungen, 102 (1995), pp. 173-87; Barone, Sabratha, 9.
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casts of a form taken of the original – they were more accurate copies than those of marble made by measuring points. Loukianos, writing in the second century AD, describes in passing in his Iuppiter tragoedus (33), how a statue of Hermes in the market-place of Athens was covered, on a daily basis, in pitch or resin by sculptors making moulds of it. This is an extremely interesting attestation of the practice of copying,27 in fact of mass making of moulds that would then – we may assume – have been used to make numerous copies in plaster for artists’ studios in different regions of the Roman Empire.28 According to Pliny the Elder (Naturalis historia, 35.153) copying of statues by taking casts of them was invented already in the Greek period by Lysistratos of Sikyon, brother of the famous sculptor Lysippos, who was active in the fourth century BC.29 Pliny also says that Lysistratos was the first to cast life masks. He describes how Lysistratos would cast from the face of a living person, pour wax into the plaster negative, and rework the wax afterwards. Pliny does not say what was then done to the wax; it was probably cast back into a positive in bronze via a clay or plaster negative mould. Even without the Egyptian finds that take the practice of plaster cast making at least a millennium further back in time it would be difficult to believe Pliny’s account of its ‘invention’. Considering how advanced Greek sculpture and particularly free standing bronze sculpture was at this time, the plaster casting technique must have been widely practised in the Greek world much earlier than the fourth century. It is indeed hardly surprising that, for example, research on bronze sculpture has led to the suggestion that (plaster) casting from life was practised already in the fifth century BC.30 The earliest mentioned incident of the copying of a statue, possibly by means of a plaster cast, dates from the third century BC. Plutarch, writing in the second century AD, relates how envoys
___________ 27 Examples of plaster moulds have been found, for example, in Paphos in Cyprus in a firstcentury BC bronze foundry. This mould is an instructive example in that it is part of a full size statue, i.e. the back of a male torso. Since it was found in a bronze foundry, however, it is likely to have been a cast made for a different purpose than the moulds described by Loukianos, K. Nicolaou, ‘Archaeological News from Cyprus, 1970’, American Journal of Archaeology, 76 (1972), pp. 315-16, fig. 38. 28 Richter (‘An Aristogeiton from Baiae’, American Journal of Archaeology, 74 (1970), p. 296) believed that moulds were sent from Greece more often than actual casts. Moulds do travel better, since they are less fragile, but have the disadvantage that, if damaged, (proper) repair can only happen with consultation of the original. Sculptors around the Empire could probably order moulds as well as casts from plaster cast makers employed in Athens and other centres of original Greek art. For further discussion, see Barone, Sabratha, p. 16. 29 Cf. e.g. Penny, Materials, p. 196. 30 The artist Nigel Konstam suggested after close observation of the Riacce Bronzes, particularly of the feet, that they were largely made from life casts, rather than having been modelled, N. Konstam and H. Hoffmann, ‘Casting the Riace bronzes (2): a sculptor’s discovery’, Oxford Journal of Archaeology, 23.4 (2004), pp. 397-402, figs 1-3.
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of Ptolemy I of Egypt, when visiting Sinope on the Black Sea coast, took away a statue of Pluto and left behind one of Persephone after having copied it.31 It is not explicitly stated that this copy was a cast, but it is likely that it was. Attested in much greater abundance are ancient plaster casts of Greek crafts objects, in particular of relief-decorated metal tableware. The most important finds have been made in Begram in Afghanistan, Kara-Tobe in north-west Crimea and at Memphis in Egypt. In addition to these finds, a number of similar casts exist in museums and other collections across the world (e.g. nos 3b, 19, 25). 1. 9: Relief-bust (cast from mould) of PtoThe Begram find (no. 8) consist Fig. lemy I Soter. Hellenistic, early third century of twenty casts of Greek works of a BC. Plaster, h: 8.3 cm. Roemer- und Pelizaeuswide chronological range, cast in Museum, Hildesheim. Roman times, apparently to serve as models for artisans. This function can be more securely established for the Memphis find (no. 12), that was made in a workshop context. Here more than seventy casts similar to those from Begram were found. One example is the small image of a male bust (Fig. 1. 9), believed to be a portrait of the Hellenistic King Ptolemy I, dating from the early third century BC – the same Ptolemy who sent envoys to copy the statue of Persephone mentioned above. The egg-and-dart decorative band framing the image may mean that the relief was conceived of and appreciated as a finished work of art in itself, rather than just as an intermediary model for an artisan who wanted to transfer an image from one durable medium to the other. Clay and plaster moulds found in a workshop at Chersonesos in the Crimea, and in the market place (agora) of Athens,32 shed light on how these many plaster positives of ancient metal tableware were made. Impressions of clay, or alternatively, plaster33 were taken from the decoration on the metal
___________ 31 Plutarch, Moralia, 984b. 32 Both ancient moulds and casts were found, see appendix below no. 6. 33 For the Begram moulds in particular, see Menninger, Untersuchungen, pp. 93-4; see also Penny, Materials, p. 195.
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object, the clay impression was then fired, and plaster poured into the mould. The plaster positives themselves would then have been used by artists or craftsmen as examples for commissioners, who apparently desired metal ware with decorative motifs in the proper Greek style. It is quite telling that plaster casts of metal ware, and evidence for their production, have come to light from the periphery of the Classical world, like the Crimea and Afghanistan, as these were areas of artistic adoption rather than centres of original artistic production, at least with regard to the typical media and styles of the classical world. The finds of ancient Greek and Roman plaster casts from Egypt are probably to be seen in the same way, and their greater numbers probably to be explained by the preservation conditions of the dry plaster-friendly desert. One more find of plaster casts needs to be mentioned. Whereas the casts from Baiae document part of the copying process of well-known ancient Greek works of art, the finds from Sabratha in Libya (no. 26) consisted of hundreds of fragments of plaster casts and plaster moulds of reliefs, statuettes and statues. These objects show the role of plaster in a more run-of-the-mill category of ancient art. They stem from different private and public contexts, and workshops for mass production of minor arts are also identified. We have already seen how plaster was used in Egyptian sculpture in combination with other materials, and how death masks played an interesting role from an early point. A vast amount of circumstantial evidence for the use of plaster casts could also be put forward: large numbers of scenes and individual figures in Roman reliefs, sarcophagi, gems and other media, show striking similarities to the designs of those of ancient cast finds.34 This suggests, again, that casts played a role in transmitting images from one place to the other, retaining in great detail the formal qualities of the original works. Were architectural details copied in the same way as sculpture? It seems very likely that copies of mouldings, floral motifs and other types of architectural decoration were circulating between workshops or building sites of the ancient world, to be copied accurately back into stone at various times and places. So far though, we do not have any evidence for this and concrete suggestions as to where such copying might have occurred have been disproved.35 Finally, I ought to turn to the question of whether plaster casts in antiquity were occasionally appreciated as artworks in their own right, or at least dis-
___________ 34 Richter, ‘Ancient Plaster Casts of Greek Metalware’, gives a number of examples. 35 It has been suggested, for example, that the (column) capitals used in the Forum Augustum in Rome were made from casts of capitals from the fifth century BC Erechtheion temple on the Athenian Acropolis. Valentin Kockel has argued that dissimilarities between these capitals make this rather unlikely. See V. Kockel, ‘Antike Gipsabgüsse von Baugliedern’, Archäologischer Anzeiger (1991), pp. 281-5, figs 1-3.
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played as substitutes for originals, as has been the case from the Renaissance and up to our time. Juvenal criticises, in one of his satires (2.4-5) from about 100 AD, some contemporaries for trying to appear learned simply by stuffing their houses with plaster busts of the Greek stoic philosopher Chrysippos.36 The word used is gypsum, and there is no doubt that he refers to plaster casts, just as the German ‘Gips’ and the Italian ‘gesso’ can mean both ‘plaster’ as well as a ‘plaster cast of a sculpture’. The alternative reading would be that Juvenal refers to a number of individually created plaster portraits of Chrysippos in the homes of Romans, but this reading does not make sense, because we would then suddenly have original artworks that neither fit the slating remarks of Juvenal, nor what we know of what Romans exhibited in their homes.37 We know from numerous finds and references in the Roman literature that marble copies of certain original Greek portraits of Greek men of letters were standard equipment in Roman villa-libraries;38 for those to whom these marble copies were unavailable, plaster casts may have been an economically viable alternative. Plaster sculpture on display in private homes existed also in Roman Greece, as for example a statue of Dionysos seen by the Roman traveller Pausanias, writing in the second century AD (9.32.1): “Creusis, the Harbour of Thespiai, has nothing to show publicly, but at the home of a private person I found an image of Dionysos made of Gypsum and adorned with painting”.39 Given the fragility of plaster and its sensitivity towards water, we should not be surprised that hardly any such plaster casts from private Roman contexts have survived. However, at least one cast, probably of a statue of an athlete (no. 23, Fig. 1. 10), survives from such a context in Seleuceia Pieria in Turkey. The head is quite weathered, but is still an attractive find, since it may be archaeological evidence for an important phenomenon better known from the written sources. Arguably, Juvenal’s passage may be read as an implicit criticism of plaster casts. The material was cheap, and a great number of almost identical copies could be produced from the same mould, making the fabrication process inexpensive as well. Remembering that Juvenal is a single source attesting to this use of casts, and an attitude towards it, we may safely say that at least in Juvenal’s lifetime, around the middle of the second century AD, casts were
___________ 36 Brill’s New Pauly. Encyclopaedia of the Ancient World. Classical Tradition, 5 vols (Leiden, 2006–), I, s.v. ‘Cast; Cast Collections B, I’ (I. Kader). 37 The original plasters Romans could have exhibited in their homes, alongside those of wax and other materials, were unique images of their forefathers, based on death (or life) masks, as the one discussed above p. 18 and listed in the appendix, no. 24. 38 R. Neudecker, Die Skulpturenausstattung römischer Villen in Italien (Mainz am Rhein, 1988). 39 Pausanias, Description of Greece, books 1-10, translated from the Greek, W. H. S. Jones, 5 vols (Cambridge Mass., 1918–).
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Fig. 1. 10: Head from a statue of an athlete (?). Late Hellenistic-early Roman. Plaster, h: 24.9 cm. University Art Museum, Princeton.
used in this way in the city of Rome. It is tempting to develop further from the testimony of Juvenal, but while I would believe that the practice he described existed not only in Rome but elsewhere in the Empire, evidence to support this does not exist at present. Of course one could argue that since plaster as a material and casts in that material were cheap, they were, like so many other banalities of daily life, less likely to have been mentioned in our sources. And further, the material is perhaps only described by Theophrastos and Pliny precisely because these authors are dealing specifically with materials, of which gypsos-gypsum-plaster is one among many and of course had to be treated. Along the same lines, Juvenal mentioned plaster casts because, in a specific context, he could frame an attitude held by his audience, that casts were the exhibits of the ambitious middle class as opposed to the old aristocracy and upper class that owned and displayed the ‘genuine article’, namely the more frequently spoken of statues of stone and precious metals. To sum up: plaster casts were used in Antiquity both for the transmission of three-dimensional images within the artistic working process and as objects of display in their own right. In fact, all the major functions of the material plaster in plastic art as we know them from post-antique periods existed, in one form or another, already in antiquity, apart from one: the ancient world did apparently not know of cast collections in non-workshop contexts.
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Whereas it is difficult to say anything about the extent to which plaster casts were used as substitutes for originals in the ancient world, their role as transmitters of form, from Greek original artworks – reliefs, statues and architectural decoration – into Roman copies of the same categories must have been tremendous.40 There would have been no massive spread of Greek art into the Roman world without casts.
Appendix Provisional list of known surviving plaster casts from antiquity. Numbers occasionally refer to groups of related finds in the same collection, not always to individual pieces. Place names in italics indicate the original location of the find, those in regular font their present location. Egyptian No. 1 a-d. Amarna. Ägyptisches Museum, Berlin. Twenty seven heads and fragments of sculpture in plaster, Egyptian, mid fourteenth century BC. Mentioned in this article are the following heads: Akhenaten (a) inv. 21 355; Nefertiti (b) inv. 21 349; an (unknown) male (c) inv. 21 228; and an (unknown) old female (d) inv. 21 261. Arnold, Royal Women, pp. 46-51. No. 2. British Museum, London. From private collection in France. Face of a man, Egyptian fourteenth century BC (?). Cast from death or life (?), reworked, h: 13.5 cm, inv. 60.65656. I. E. S. Edwards, ‘An Egyptian Plaster Cast’, British Museum Quarterly, 22 (1960), pp. 27-9, pl. 6. Greek and Roman No. 3. Alexandria. Museum for Greek and Roman Art. a. Plaster bust, cast and modelled, Roman, first to second century AD, h: 29 cm (35 cm as restored), inv. 19120.
___________ 40 Contra: R. Neudecker, Brill’s New Pauly. Encyclopaedia of the Ancient World, 15 vols (Leiden, 2002–2009), VI, 6, at ‘Copies B’.
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L. Bacchielli, ‘Un ritratto cirenaico in gesso nel Museo greco-romano di Alessandria’, Quaderni di archeologia della Libia, 9 (1977), pp. 97-110, figs 1-3, 6. b. Ten fragments of casts of relief-decorated tableware: Inv. 22501, 22510, 24344, 24346-7, 25102, 25106-9. Reinsberg, Studien zur hellenistischen Toreutik, pp. 10-11; for 24344 and 24347 see also G. Barone, ‘Due modelli di gesso del Museo Greco-Romano di Alessandria’, in Bonacasa and Di Vita (eds), Alessandria e il mondo ellenisticoromano, pp. 329-33, pl. 58.1-3. No. 4. Memphis. Museum for Greek and Roman Art, Alexandria. Ilioupersis scene with Triptolemos seated and the killing of a Trojan captive (?), Roman. H. Froning, ‘Die ikonographische Tradition der kaiserzeitlichen mythologischen Sarkophagreliefs’, Jahrbuch des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, 95 (1980), pp. 336-41, fig. 16. No. 5. Allard Pierson Museum, Amsterdam. a. Relief cast from a statuette of a standing Zeus, Roman, h: 9.6 cm, inv. 7082. Bought in Egypt before 1921. From Memphis (?). R. L. Scheurleer, ‘A Note on Two Casts in the Allard Pierson Museum Amsterdam’, in Bonacasa and Di Vita (eds), Alessandria e il mondo ellenisticoromano, pp. 359-62, pl. 62.4, 6. b. Relief cast from a relief of a standing Athena, Hellenistic, late third century BC, h: 11.5 cm, inv. 7085. Bought in Egypt before 1921. From Memphis (?). R. L. Scheurleer, ‘A Note on Two Casts in the Allard Pierson Museum Amsterdam’, in Bonacasa and Di Vita (eds), Alessandria e il mondo ellenisticoromano, pp. 359-62 pl. 62.3, 5. No. 6. Athens, Agora. Various fragments of casts and moulds. Example: Fragment of a relief cast in mould. Lower body, upper thighs and right arm of a standing draped figure. Classical Greek (?). E. D. Reeder Williams, ‘Ancient Clay Impressions From Greek Metalwork’, Hesperia. The Journal of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens, 45 (1976), pp. 41-66, pl. 7 no. 9. No. 7. Athens, Kerameikos (at Hagia Triada). National Museum (now lost ?). ‘Face of a dead man’ (death mask ?) and right arm of a male figure. C. Curtius, ‘Der attische Friedhof vor dem Dipylon’, Archäologische Zeitung, 1872, pp. 12-35, at p. 35 (mentions left male arm of plaster with bone as well as moulds for tools (?)); L. von Sybel, Katalog der Sculpturen zu Athen (Mar-
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burg, 1881), p. 208 no. 2921 (mentions the arm but also a death-mask with ref. to Martinelli no. 216); N. F. Martinelli, Catalogue of Casts in Gypsum Taken Direct from the Masterpieces of Greek Sculpture (Athens, 1881), p. 37 no. 216 (mentions death-mask with ref. to Curtius and Sybel (?)). No. 8. Begram. Archaeological Museum, Kabul. Dozens of relief-decorated objects, mostly medallions, largely with mythological scenes and figures. Hellenistic. G. Gullini et al., L’Afghanistan. Dalla preistoria all’islam. Capolavori del museo di Kabul (Turin, 1961), pp. 95-101, pls 1-9; Reinsberg, Studien zur hellenistischen Toreutik, p. 11; Menninger, Untersuchungen, pp. 93ff. Example: Begram Symplegma. The Siren and Silenos symplegma, Lexicon iconographicum mytologiae classicae (Zurich and Munich, 1974–) 8.1 (suppl.): Seirenes no. 89b (E. Hofstetter). No. 9. Ägyptisches Museum, Berlin. Cup from Athribis with Isis, Harpokrates and sacrificial scene. Hellenistic. T. Schreiber, ‘Die Alexandrinische Toreutik. Untersuchungen über die Griechische Goldschmiedekunst im Ptolemaeerreiche’, Abhandlungen der Sächsischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Leipzig. Philologisch-historische Klasse, 14.5 (1894), pp. 470-9, pl. 5; Reinsberg, Studien zur hellenistischen Toreutik, p. 11; Thompson, ‘Quae saga; quis magus’, p. 315, pl. 56.8. No. 10. Archaeological Museum, Cairo. a. 24 sculptural objects in plaster of various periods and provenance in Egypt. C. C. Edgar, Catalogue générale des antiquités égyptiennes du musée du Caire (Cairo, 1906), pp. x-xii, pp. 80-6, pls 42-3. Reinsberg, Studien zur hellenistischen Toreutik, p. 11 ; Tomoum, The Sculptor’s Models, nos 40, 46, 48, 90, 98, 115, 122, 157-8, 161, 166 (98, 122, 157, 161 and 166 also published in Edgar). b. Death mask, Tuna el-Gebel, inv. JdE. 46.593. Egypt, first century BC to first century AD. G. Lefebvre, Le tombeau di Petosiris (Paris, 1924), I, p. 28; A. Adriani, ‘Ritratti dell’Egitto greco-romano’, Römische Mitteilungen, 77 (1970), pp. 72109, at p. 108, pl. 35.1-2. G. Grimm, Die Römischen Mumienmasken aus Ägypten (Wiesbaden, 1974), pp. 122-3, believes that the mask was made in a mould (which was not taken from the face of a person). No. 11. Kestner-Museum, Hanover. Head from a small statue or bust of a king, h: 11.1 cm, inv. 1951.109. Hellenistic, early third century BC. Tomoum, Sculptor’s Models, p. 214 no. 39, pl. 30a, b.
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No. 12. Roemer- und Pelizaeus Museum, Hildesheim. Find from Memphis, Egypt, of more than seventy casts. Example: relief with portrait of Ptolemy I Soter, h: 8.3 cm, inv. 1120. Hellenistic, early third century BC Bianchi, Cleopatra’s Egypt, p. 146 no. 51 (ill.); Reinsberg, Studien zur hellenistischen Toreutik, p. 311 cat. no. 36, figs 49-50. No. 13. Museum of Antiquities of North-Western Crimea, Kara-Tobe. Four fragments of casts of silver vessels, first century BC – first century AD. S. Y. Vnukov, S. A. Kovalenko, M. Y. Treister, ‘Plaster casts from KaraTobe’ (Russian with English abstract), Vestnik drevnej istorii, 1990.2, pp. 100-119 (figs, pls). No. 14. University of London. a. Maenad, from Egypt (?), h: 10.3 cm. Richter, ‘Ancient Plaster Casts of Greek Metalware’, p. 373, pl. 92 fig. 21; Reinsberg, Studien zur hellenistischen Toreutik, p. 11. b. Dionysos and Satyr, from Egypt (?), h: 10.3 cm. Richter, ‘Ancient Plaster Casts of Greek Metalware’, p. 373, pl. 93 fig. 24. No. 15. Antikensammlung, Munich. a. Rhytonfragment with Hermes and Dionysos, h: 11 cm. J. Sieveking, ‘Erwerbungen des Antiken-Sammlungen Münchens 1914’, Archäologischer Anzeiger, 1916, pp. 66-9, fig. 25a. Reinsberg, Studien zur hellenistischen Toreutik, p. 12. b. Plate fragment with birds, sfinxes and ornaments, h: 10.5 cm. J. Sieveking, ‘Erwerbungen des Antiken-Sammlungen Münchens 1914’, Archäologischer Anzeiger, 1916, pp. 66-9, fig. 25b. Reinsberg, Studien zur hellenistischen Toreutik, p. 11. No. 16. Museum für Kleinkunst, Munich. From the Dattari collection, orig. from Memphis (?). a. Relief bust of a maenad with wreath in her hair, h: 12 cm, inv. 13006. Richter, ‘Ancient Plaster Casts of Greek Metalware’, p. 373, pl. 92 fig. 22; J. Sieveking, ‘Erwerbungen der Antiken-Sammlungen Münchens 1914’, Archäologischer Anzeiger, 1916, pp. 66-9, fig. 25c. b. Relief, sacrificial scene, h: 8.5 cm, inv. 13007. Richter, ‘Ancient Plaster Casts of Greek Metalware’, p. 374, pl. 94 fig. 29.
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No. 17. Staatliches Museum Ägyptischer Kunst, Munich. a. Face-fragment of a head from a statue of a king: Nectanebo I, Ptolemy IX or X, h: 28 cm, inv. ÄS 5339. Tomoum, Sculptor’s Models, p. 215 no. 42, pl. 31a-c. b. Face-fragment of a head from a statue of a king, h: 20 cm, inv. ÄS 7093. Tomoum, Sculptor’s Models, p. 215 no. 43, pl. 32a. No. 18. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. a. Relief from a mirror cover with upper part of a woman, from Egypt (?), h: 7 cm, inv. 31.11.16. Richter, ‘Ancient Plaster Casts of Greek Metalware’, p. 373, pl. 93 fig. 25. b. Relief with lower part of seated woman, from Egypt (?), h: 7 cm, inv. 31.11.17. Richter, ‘Ancient Plaster Casts of Greek Metalware’, p. 373, pl. 93 fig. 26. c. Medallion with three figures, from Egypt (?), d: 11 cm, inv. 31.11.15. Richter, Handbook of the Greek Collection, p. 129, pl. 109h. No. 19. Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Cup-fragment with festive scene in front of a tree and walled city (Handley and Thompson (‘Quae saga; quis magus’) for different interpretation), h: 11 cm, inv. 1968.777. Bought in Cairo, probably from Memphis. D. B. Thompson, ‘ȆǹȃȃȊȋǿȈ’, Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, 50 (1964), pp. 147-63, pl. 15; E. W. Handley, ‘The Poet Inspired?’, Journal of Hellenic Studies, 93 (1973), pp. 104-8, pl. 1a; Thompson, ‘Quae saga; quis magus’, p. 315, pl. 56.5. No. 20. Louvre, Paris. a. Relief with Ajax and Kassandra, from Egypt (?), h: 9 cm, inv. MND 195. Richter, ‘Ancient Plaster Casts of Greek Metalware’, p. 372, pl. 91 fig. 17; Burkhalter, ‘Moulages en plâtre antiques et toreutique alexandrine’, pp. 33447, pl. 60.3-4. b. Relief with Herakles and the Nemean Lion, from Egypt (?), h: 13 cm, inv. MND 2049. Richter, ‘Ancient Plaster Casts of Greek Metalware’, p. 372, pl. 92 fig. 19. c. Relief with Aphrodite and Eros, from Egypt (?), d: 6 cm, inv. MND 273. Richter, ‘Ancient Plaster Casts of Greek Metalware’, p. 373, pl. 93 fig. 23; Burkhalter, ‘Moulages en plâtre antiques et toreutique alexandrine’, pp. 33447, pl. 60.3-4.
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No. 21. Musée Guimet, Paris. a. Inv. 193. From Begram. Relief medallion, Meleager (?) standing next to the boar, d: 18 cm. Burkhalter, ‘Moulages en plâtre antiques et toreutique alexandrine’, pp. 33447, pl. 61.3-4. b. Inv. 194. Relief medallion, Zeus (?) standing next to an altar holding a phiale, d: 14.6 cm. Burkhalter, ‘Moulages en plâtre antiques et toreutique alexandrine’, pp. 33447, pl. 61.5-6. c. Inv. 199. From Begram. Cast of an impression of a relief decorated skyphos (?) with standing and seated figure, d: 7.2 cm. Burkhalter, ‘Moulages en plâtre antiques et toreutique alexandrine’, pp. 33447, pl. 61.1-2. No. 22. Art Museum of the University, Princeton. A horse’s nose-piece with relief of warrior on pile of armour, Hellenistic, third to second century BC, h: 16.6 cm, acc. no. 48.52. From Egypt (?). G. M. A. Richter, ‘A Plaster Cast of a Horse’s Nose-Piece’, in Records of the Art Museum Princeton University, 18 (1959), pp. 53-9, (with fig.), with ‘A Note on the Inscription on the Plaster Cast’, by A. E. Raubitschek p. 90. No. 23. Art Museum of the University, Princeton. Head from a statue of an athlete (?), late Hellenistic – early Roman, h: 24.9 cm, no. 2000–120. From Seleuceia in Pieria, Turkey, sector 19-k, excavation 2, around the ‘Painted Floor’. J. M. Padgett, Roman Sculpture in the Art Museum, Princeton University (Princeton, 2001), pp. 211-12 (with fig.). No. 24. Rome, Antiquarium Communale. Head of balding beardless man, third century AD. Inv. 16.347. From tomb at Via Prenestina, Rome, found with two other fragmentary heads of plaster. This head is cast in three pieces. D’Alessandro and Persegati, Scultura e calchi in gesso, pp. 50-3, figs 6-7. No. 25. Library, Vatican (Rome). Relief, Amazonomachia. Richter, ‘Ancient Plaster Casts of Greek Metalware’, pp. 374-5, pl. 94 fig. 34, pl. 95 figs 35-7; Reinsberg, Studien zur hellenistischen Toreutik, p. 12.
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No. 26. Sabratha, Libya. Museum of Sabratha. Hundreds of fragments of statues, statuettes, reliefs, plaster moulds and architectural decoration. Roman Imperial period. Barone, Sabratha. No. 27. From Egypt (?), private collection. Left side of a face (profile), fourth to second century BC, h: 25.4 cm. Bianchi, Cleopatra’s Egypt, p. 129 no. 34 (with fig.). No. 28. From Egypt (?), private collection. Face-part of a portrait head of Ptolemy X (?), c. 107-88 BC, h: 27 cm. J. A. Josephson, Egyptian Royal Sculpture of the late Period 400-246 B.C. (Mainz am Rhein, 1997), pl. 5. No. 29. From Egypt (?), private collection, USA. Plaster relief (Roman?) from a mould of a Hellenistic metal vessel, h: 5 cm. D. B. Thompson, ‘ȆǹȃȃȊȋǿȈ’, Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, 50 (1964), pp. 147-63, pl. 15; Reinsberg, Studien zur hellenistischen Toreutik, p. 13. No. 30. Purchased in Alexandria, private collection. Plaster relief with head of Serapis and snake, second century AD, h: 8 cm. P. M. Fraser, ‘A Plaster Anguiform Sarapis’, in Bonacasa and Di Vita (eds), Alessandria e il mondo ellenistico-romano, pp. 348-50, pl. 62.1.
Frequently cited literature L. D’Alessandro and F. Persegati, Scultura e calchi in gesso: storia, tecnica e conservazione (Rome, 1987) D. Arnold, The Royal Women of Amarna (New York, 1996) G. Barone, Gessi del Museo di Sabratha (Rome, 1994) R. S. Bianchi, Cleopatra’s Egypt (New York, 1988) N. Bonacasa and A. Di Vita (eds), Alessandria e il mondo ellenistico-romano. Studi in onore di Achille Adriani, 3 vols (Rome, 1984) F. Burkhalter, ‘Moulages en plâtre antiques et toreutique alexandrine’, in N. Bonacasa and A. Di Vita (eds), Alessandria e il mondo ellenisticoromano. Studi in onore di Achille Adriani (Rome, 1984), II, 334-47 E. R. Caley and J. F. C. Richards, Theophrastus on Stones. Introduction, Greek Text, English Translation, and Commentary (Columbus, Ohio, 1956)
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C. Landwehr, Die antiken Gipsabgüsse aus Baiae: griechische Bronzestatuen in Abgüssen römischer Zeit (Berlin, 1985) M. Menninger, Untersuchungen zu den Gläsern und Gipsabgüssen aus dem Fund von Begram/Afghanistan (Würzburg, 1996) N. Penny, The Materials of Sculpture (New Haven, Conn., and London, 1993) C. Reinsberg, Studien zur hellenistischen Toreutik (Hildesheim, 1980) G. M. A. Richter, Handbook of the Greek Collection (Cambridge, Mass., 1953) G. M. A. Richter, ‘Ancient Plaster Casts of Greek Metalware’, American Journal of Archaeology, 62 (1958), pp. 369-77, (with pls) D. B. Thompson, ‘Quae saga; quis magus?’, in N. Bonacasa and A. Di Vita (eds), Alessandria e il mondo ellenistico-romano: studi in onore di Achille Adriani, 3 vols (Rome, 1984), II, pp. 309-17 N. S. Tomoum, The Sculptors’ Models of the Late and Ptolemaic Periods (Cairo, 2005)
The Baiae Casts and the Uniqueness of Roman Copies CHRISTA LANDWEHR
In 1954 some curious artefacts came to light during excavations in a complex of ruins which were once the luxurious baths of Baiae.1 Located on the Gulf of Naples a short distance from Puteoli, the modern town of Pozzuoli, Baiae was a flourishing resort from the first century BC. The numerous irregular and badly battered pieces of plaster evidently belonging to life-size plaster casts were found in a mass of debris used to fill a cellar room.2 Legs and hands showed signs of having been deliberately hacked apart. The reason for this may have been the lead wire and iron dowels used to reinforce the plaster;3 at some point the value of the small amounts of these materials may have exceeded that of the large statues made of plaster. According to our calculations the 400 odd fragments originate from at least twenty-four and at most thirty-three statues.4 Gisela Richter examined the fragments in the 1960s and noticed the face of Aristogeiton, which she subsequently published.5 I was able to identify fragments of eleven other statues, among them Harmodios, the Sciarra, Mattei and Sosikles Amazons, the Athena Velletri, the Aphrodite Borghese, and Eirene carrying Ploutos.6 The identifications prove beyond doubt that the Baiae plaster fragments are the remnants of casts of famous Greek bronze masterpieces of the fifth and fourth centuries BC. It is safe to assume that the casts belonged to an important atelier and that they were used to create true-to-scale marble copies. In order to provide compelling visual evidence for the identification of the Baiae fragments, I chose to have new plaster casts made from them and to have these introduced into plaster casts taken from Roman copies: the part corresponding to the Baiae fragment is simply chiseled away and the replica
___________ 1 2 3 4 5 6
Landwehr, Gipsabgüsse Baiae, pp. 5-6 and pl. 1 a. Landwehr, Gipsabgüsse Baiae, p. 6 and pl. 1 b and c. Landwehr, Gipsabgüsse Baiae, pp. 19–22. Landwehr, Gipsabgüsse Baiae, pp. 177-80. G. M. A. Richter, ‘An Aristogeiton from Baiae’, American Journal of Archeology, 74 (1970), pp. 296-7, pl. 74, figs 1–3. Landwehr, Gipsabgüsse Baiae, pp. 27–111, cat. nos 1–67.
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Fig. 2. 1: Sciarra Amazon. Right: the Copenhagen copy. Second half of the first century AD. Marble, h (shoulder): 1.56 m. Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen. Cast with replicas of Baiae casts inserted; upper left: close-up of inserted arm fragment; lower left: close-up of inserted breast fragment.
Fig. 2. 2: Mattei Amazon. Right: the Vatican copy. Second half of the first century AD. Marble, h (shoulder): 1.59 m. Vatican Museums, Rome. Cast with replicas of the Baiae casts inserted. Upper left: close-up of an inserted fragment with a segment of the strap of the quiver; lower left: close-up of an inserted fragment with folds of the chiton.
of the latter is then inserted. This project, carried out by the sculptor und restorer Silvano Bertolin, demonstrates the astonishing precision of the ancient copying technology. Reconstructions of this sort were carried out, for instance, on a cast of the Copenhagen copy of the Sciarra Amazon (Fig. 2. 1, right panel),7 into which replicas of the Baiae casts, for example parts of the right arm and right breast (Fig. 2. 1, left panels),8 were inserted. A cast of the Vatican copy of the Mattei Amazon was combined with a cast of the right arm of the Tivoli copy (Fig. 2. 2, right panel),9 into which
___________ 7 8 9
Landwehr, Gipsabgüsse Baiae, pp. 60-4, cat. nos 29-33 and pls 26–31. Landwehr, Gipsabgüsse Baiae, cat. nos 29 and 30, pl. 26 a and c and pl. 28 c. Landwehr, Gipsabgüsse Baiae, pp. 64-70, at p. 65: Vatican = ‘Kopie B’; Tivoli = ‘Kopie C’; pl. 32 a.
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replicas of the Baiae casts,10 for example, two fragments of drapery (Fig. 2. 2, left panels),11 were introduced. Numerous observations made on the Baiae casts reveal the meticulous care that went into the making of the cast itself. Silvano Bertolin, who is not only a restorer but also a sculptor with training in traditional copying techniques, was kind enough to calculate the labour (in man-hours) required to make a cast of a full-sized statue such as the Sciarra Amazon. Since elastic materials such as silicon for making moulds were unknown in antiquity, this was a time-consuming process. Plaster casts of small zones of the surface of the original statue were made one by one. These fit together like a threedimensional puzzle and for the casting process they were held together by removable plaster caps.12 The casting was done in sections: the head, the arms and the column were all cast separately. The torso was cast in two parts.13 For the Amazon about 195 form pieces and thirty-eight caps would be required. About 400 man-hours would be needed for the job. Subsequently, another 100 odd hours would be required to work over the partial casts. For sculpting a true-to-scale marble copy based on the plaster replica an experienced sculptor must work about 2200 hours. In addition to the costs of the labour of two different specialized craftsmen, the expense of transportation of the plaster cast to an overseas workshop must be taken into account. On the other hand, to sculpt ‘free hand’ a marble statue of the size and shape of the Sciarra Amazon, an artist must work approximately 1400 hours. The point I want to make here is that the Roman copy, often maligned by modern art historians as an inferior product of mechanical replication, must have had a different value in the eyes of sophisticated Roman connoisseurs. The two time-consuming and laborious processes, the production of the fullsize plaster cast of the bronze original and the creation of a full-scale copy in marble via the pointing technique, made the marble copy a costly work of art, much more costly than a statue executed without the constraint of fidelity to an original. The full-size plaster casts of the bronze statues, which must have been the work of skilled specialists, were probably quite rare. The atelier in Baiae was, based on the number of casts on hand, well equipped for producing marble copies. The copies found in the vicinity of Baiae seem to reflect the activity of
___________ 10 Landwehr, Gipsabgüsse Baiae, pp. 64-70, cat. nos 34-9, pls 32-40. 11 Landwehr, Gipsabgüsse Baiae, cat. nos 34-5, pl. 32 a-b and pl. 34 b. 12 Landwehr, Griechische Meisterwerke in römischen Abgüssen, pp. 16-17, fig. 13; Landwehr, Gipsabgüsse Baiae, pp. 16-17. 13 Landwehr, Griechische Meisterwerke in römischen Abgüssen, p. 18, figs 14-15; Landwehr, Gipsabgüsse Baiae, pp. 20-3.
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Fig. 2. 3: Aphrodite Borghese. Marble statues from Baiae. Left: By Aphrodisios Athenaios, first quarter of the first century AD, h: 1.95 m. Museo Nazionale, Naples; Right: third quarter of the first century AD, h: 1.68 m. Museo Nazionale, Naples.
our atelier: a large torso of Eirene was found in Cumae,14 a head of the Sosikles Amazon in Baiae itself.15 The Aphrodite Borghese must have been very popular: two statues were found in Baiae (Fig. 2. 3),16 a large torso in Misenum,17 a smaller one in Pozzuoli.18 A fifth copy survives in Portici.19 It makes of course economic sense to use a plaster cast over and over again to create copies: the more copies that are made from a plaster cast, the better the return on the initial investment. The Aphrodite was without a doubt a hit because it could be combined with portrait heads of noble ladies.20 More intriguing is the question of who, among the wealthy owners of the
___________ 14 Naples, Museo Nazionale. E. La Rocca, ‘Eirene e Ploutos’, Jahrbuch des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts 89 (1974), pp. 112-36, at p. 113, no. 2, figs 1–3; B. Vierneisel-Schlörb, Glyptothek München. Katalog der Skulpturen, II (Munich, 1979), cat. no. 25, p. 261, note 4: List of replicas, no. 2; Landwehr, Gipsabgüsse Baiae, pp. 103-4; Landwehr, Skulpturen, I: Idealplastik. Weibliche Figuren. Benannt (Berlin, 1993), pp. 61-2. 15 Naples, Museo Nazionale, inv. 150 401. M. Weber, ‘Die Amazonen von Ephesos’, Jahrbuch des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, 91 (1976), pp. 28–96, at p. 47, no. 16, figs 15-16 (photographs of a plaster cast in Basel). 16 Statue ‘Baiae I’ (Fig. 3, left panel): Naples, Museo Nazionale, inv. 150 383. Sculptor’s signature: Aphrodisios Athenaios. Landwehr, Gipsabgüsse Baiae, pp. 88-94, at p. 89 (‘Kopie A’), pl. 54 a, c; Valeri, Marmora Phlegraea, pp. 98-102, fig. 99; Statue ‘Baiae II’ (Fig. 3, right panel): Naples, Museo Nazionale, inv. 150 384. A cornucopia has been added to the left arm. Sculptor’s signature: Karos Puteanos Landwehr, Gipsabgüsse Baiae, pp. 88-94, at p. 89 (‘Kopie B’), pl. 54 b, d; Valeri, Marmora Phlegraea, fig. 100. 17 Baia, Museo dei Campi Flegrei. Landwehr, Gipsabgüsse Baiae, pp. 88-94, at p. 89 (‘Kopie C’), pl. 55 b; Valeri, Marmora Phlegraea, fig. 101. 18 Baia, Museo dei Campi Flegrei, inv. 292866. Valeri, Marmora Phlegraea, pp. 98-102, figs 97-8. 19 Portici, Villa Reale. P. Zancani Montuoro, ‘Repliche romane di una statua fidiaca’, Bolletino Communale, 61 (1933), pp. 25-58, no. 2, figs 4-6, pl. I; Landwehr, Gipsabgüsse Baiae, pp. 8894, at p. 89, note 422 (‘Kopie H’); Valeri, Marmora Phlegraea, p. 102. 20 The right arm of the statue ‘Baiae II’ (Fig. 3, right panel; see above, note 15) held a cornucopia. The latter is not only an attribute of Aphrodite, but rather is – in many cases – carried by female mem-
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opulent villas on the Gulf of Naples, commissioned a copy of the Tyrant Slayers (Harmodios and Aristogeiton). Outside Rome and Campania full-scale copies have only been found in a few places. One of those places is the ancient city of Caesarea Mauretaniae, the present-day Cherchel in Algeria. The city was founded in 25 BC by Juba II, the newly proclaimed King.21 The Numidian prince, who had been raised and educated at the imperial court in Rome, was installed by Augustus as King of Mauretania. Augustus had also arranged the wedding of Juba II and Cleopatra Selene.22 The numerous sculptural works of exquisite quality document the keen interest of the royal couple in art, and show that they had the means to bring first-rate sculptors to Caesarea. They adorned the town and their palace with fine statuary comparable in quality to the best masterpieces of Rome and Campania. Among these works are the twin female figures referred to as ‘Demeter’.23 The workmanship of the figures is so precise that it is hard to tell the statues apart (Fig. 2. 4). The lesson to be learned here is simple: if in Juba’s time duplication had been considered inferior, he would never have commissioned this pair of statues, let alone displayed them together in his palace. The ability to create exact replicas must, on the contrary, have been considered to be a consummate artistic skill. The juxtaposition of the Baiae casts and their cognate Roman copies makes us very aware of another aspect that is equally important. In spite of the mechanical replication of the dimensions of the original, each copy is unique due to the individual treatment of details. A glance at the Roman copies of Aristogeiton is enough to convince anyone of this.24
___________
21
22
23
24
bers of the imperial family. The fact that the statue ‘Baiae I’ (Fig. 3, left panel) has a concave surface prepared for inserting a separately sculpted head is a good indicator that this was a portrait figure. M. R.-Alföldi, ‘Die Geschichte des numidischen Königreiches und seiner Nachfolger’, in H. G. Horn and C. Rüger (eds), Die Numider (Bonn, 1979), pp. 43-74; D. W. Roller, The world of Juba II and Kleopatra Selene (New York, 2003); C. Landwehr, ‘Les Portraits de Juba II, Roi de Maurétanie, et de Ptolémée, son fils et successeur’, Revue Archéologique, 43 (2007), pp. 65– 110; Landwehr, Skulpturen, IV: Porträtplastik. Fr
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1953-07-30T00:00:00
|
Süßer Reis: Directed by Mario Mattoli. With Walter Chiari, Silvana Pampanini, Isa Barzizza, Carlo Campanini. Two twin brothers grew up and never met (due to the fact that the father with the couple would have had 13 children and therefore for superstition he closed one in an orphanage), the one goalkeeper of Juventus and the other employee at the state lottery.
|
en
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IMDb
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https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0042594/
|
Two twin brothers grew up and never met (due to the fact that the father with the couple would have had 13 children and therefore for superstition he closed one in an orphanage), the one goa... Read allTwo twin brothers grew up and never met (due to the fact that the father with the couple would have had 13 children and therefore for superstition he closed one in an orphanage), the one goalkeeper of Juventus and the other employee at the state lottery.Two twin brothers grew up and never met (due to the fact that the father with the couple would have had 13 children and therefore for superstition he closed one in an orphanage), the one goalkeeper of Juventus and the other employee at the state lottery.
|
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https://www.filmaffinity.com/en/film934689.html
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L'inafferrabile 12 (1950)
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L'inafferrabile 12 is a film directed by Mario Mattoli with Walter Chiari, Silvana Pampanini, Isa Barzizza, Carlo Campanini .... Year: 1950. Original title: L'inafferrabile 12. Synopsis:You can watch L'inafferrabile 12 through on the platforms:
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/favicon.png
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FilmAffinity
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https://www.filmaffinity.com/us/film934689.html
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L'inafferrabile 12
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Cineuropa - the best of european cinema
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apple-touch-icon.png?v=190924
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Cineuropa - the best of european cinema
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https://cineuropa.org/en/film/414243/
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Copyright Disclaimer
The images used on this website have been provided by journalists and are believed to be free of rights. However, if you are the owner of an image used on this website and believe that its use infringes on your copyright, please contact us immediately. We will remove the image in question as soon as possible. We have made reasonable efforts to ensure that all images used on this website are used legally and in accordance with copyright laws.
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https://www.royalbooks.com/pages/books/152153/mario-mattoli-steno-marion-monicelli-carlo-campanini-walter-chiari-silvana-pampanini-director/linafferrabile-12-original-photograph-from-the-1950-film
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Mario Mattoli, Steno Marion Monicelli, Carlo Campanini Walter
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Italy: Industrie Cinematografiche Sociali ICS , 1950. Vintage keybook photograph of actress Silvana Pampanini from the 1950 Italian comedy. Twin brothers discover each other as adults after being separated at birth due to them being the twelfth and unlucky thirteenth children born into a family. 8 x 10 inches. Three-hole punch to the top edge as called for. Very Good plus, with light curling and a short diagonal crease to the bottom
|
en
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https://www.royalbooks.com/favicon.ico
|
Royal Books
|
https://www.royalbooks.com/pages/books/152153/mario-mattoli-steno-marion-monicelli-carlo-campanini-walter-chiari-silvana-pampanini-director/linafferrabile-12-original-photograph-from-the-1950-film
|
L'inafferrabile 12
Mario Mattoli (director)
Marion Monicelli, Steno (screenwriters)
Walter Chiari, Carlo Campanini, Silvana Pampanini (starring)
Italy: Industrie Cinematografiche Sociali (ICS), 1950. Vintage keybook photograph of actress Silvana Pampanini from the 1950 Italian comedy.
Twin brothers discover each other as adults after being separated at birth due to them being the twelfth and unlucky thirteenth children born into a family.
8 x 10 inches. Three-hole punch to the top edge as called for. Very Good plus, with light curling and a short diagonal crease to the bottom left corner.
[Book #152153]
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https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3819271
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L'inafferrabile 12
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1950 film by Mario Mattoli
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https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3819271
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1950 film by Mario Mattoli
Inafferrabile 12
edit
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https://worldwidescience.org/topicpages/i/interpretazione%2Bclinica%2Bdescrizione.html
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interpretazione clinica descrizione: Topics by WorldWideScience.org
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Termodinamica
CERN Document Server
Grilli, Mario
1985-01-01
Descrizione macroscopica di un sistema termodinamico ; descrizione microscopio : statistica di un sistema termodinamico ; calore e lavoro ; il calore dal punto di vista miscroscopico ; il secondo principio della termodinamica : entropia ; interpretazione miscroscopica-statistica della entropia : postulato di Nernst-Planck ; fenomeni di trasporto.
ANOMALIE RESUDUE E DERIVATE SECONDE NELLA INTERPRETAZIONE DEI DATI GRAMIMETRICI
Directory of Open Access Journals (Sweden)
G. TRIBALTO
1956-06-01
Full Text Available L'eliminazione dell'effetto del campo gravimetrico regionale dall'anomalia
di Bouguer è uno dei problemi più discussi nell'interpretazione
dei rilevamenti geofisici.
Esso consiste nel decomporre l'anomalia di Bouguer nelle sue due
parti componenti, anomalia residua ed anomalia regionale, allo scopo
di individuare le strutture locali.
L'anomalia regionale è dovuta all'effetto delle strutture profonde
e di grande estensione; le curve isoanomale relative a tale campo hanno
generalmente un andamento regolare e quindi un gradiente non
variabile rapidamente.
Pier Diego Siccardi (1880-1917) and the "Clinica del Lavoro" in the trench warfare.
Science.gov (United States)
Riva, Michele Augusto; Caramella, Michela; Turato, Massimo; Cesana, Giancarlo
2017-12-14
The year 2017 marks the centenary of the death of the Italian scientist Pier Diego Siccardi (1880-1917), one of Luigi Devoto's assistants at the "Clinica del Lavoro" in Milan. To commemorate Siccardi and to describe the activities of the physicians of the "Clinica del Lavoro" during World War I. A comprehensive analysis was conducted on scientific papers written by Pier Diego Siccardi and by other physicians belonging to the Clinica del Lavoro, in the period 1915-1918. During the Great War, the Clinica del Lavoro became a military hospital, even though it indirectly maintained a role in Occupational Health, assisting women who had started to work to replace the men sent to the front. Devoto and his assistants were drafted as Army doctors, but continued their research activities while at the front; focusing on the diseases that affected the soldiers, mainly infections. Bleeding fevers and jaundice were endemic among Italian troops, but their etiology was unknown. Pier Diego Siccardi identified this syndrome as an infection caused by a spirochete, and was the first one to isolate the infectious agent. Siccardi prematurely died of the same disease as a consequence of a laboratory accident, which provided further confirmation for his research. The heroic life of Siccardi and his tragic death testify the important activities of the scientists of the "Clinica del Lavoro" in the years of the Great War.
Wolfgang Iser, Lo spettro dell'interpretazione Wolfgang Iser, Lo spettro dell'interpretazione Wolfgang Iser, The Range of Interpretation
Directory of Open Access Journals (Sweden)
Laura Lucia Rossi
2009-06-01
Full Text Available Proponiamo la traduzione di due capitoli di The Range of Interpretation di Wolfgang Iser, in cui il teorico tedesco svolge un'analisi dell'interpretazione con particolare attenzione alle tre modalità operative paradigmatiche del circolo ermeneutico, del loop ricorsivo e del traveling differential, in un'ottica volta a sottolineare il valore di dispositivo antropologico dell'interpretazione, attraverso una sempre più pregnante istanza costruttivista che conduce, infine, ad una serie di conclusioni etiche.ÐÑ Ð¿Ñедлагаем пеÑевод двÑÑ Ð³Ð»Ð°Ð² из The Range of Interpretation ÐолÑÑганга ÐзеÑа, в коÑоÑÑÑ Ð½ÐµÐ¼ÐµÑкий ÑеоÑеÑик пÑÐ¾Ð²Ð¾Ð´Ð¸Ñ Ð°Ð½Ð°Ð»Ð¸Ð· инÑеÑпÑеÑаÑии, Ñ Ð¾ÑобÑм вниманием на ÑÑи опеÑаÑивнÑе меÑодики: геÑменевÑиÑеÑкий кÑÑг, повÑоÑÑÑÑийÑÑ loop и traveling differential, Ñ Ð½Ð°Ð¼ÐµÑением подÑеÑкнÑÑÑ Ð·Ð½Ð°Ñение инÑеÑпÑеÑаÑии как анÑÑопологиÑеÑкой ÑÑÑановки Ñ Ð¿Ð¾Ð¼Ð¾ÑÑÑ Ð²Ñе более знаÑимого и наÑÑоÑÑелÑного конÑÑÑÑкÑивизма, коÑоÑÑй пÑÐ¸Ð²Ð¾Ð´Ð¸Ñ Ð½Ð°ÐºÐ¾Ð½ÐµÑ Ðº некоÑоÑÑм ÑÑиÑеÑким заклÑÑениÑм.We propose here the translation of two chapters from The Range of Interpretation by Wolfgang Iser, in which the German theorist provides an analysis of interpretation, with specific attention to the three operational modes of the hermeneutic circle, of the recursive loop and of the traveling differential in a perspective meant to highlight the role of interpretation as anthropological device, through an increasingly pregnant constructivist disposition leading to, in the end, to a series of ethical conclusions.
La filosofia clinica di Wittgenstein
Directory of Open Access Journals (Sweden)
Lorenzo Ghirelli
2017-01-01
Full Text Available Intento del presente saggio è quello di tracciare le linee principali della filosofia di Wittgenstein definendone lâorizzonte operativo e la strategia dâazione. Seguiremo inizialmente i cambiamenti nella concezione del linguaggio e del significato del filosofo austriaco utilizzandoli come traccia per registrare le corrispondenti revisioni degli obiettivi, delle tecniche e delle forme del far filosofia da lui proposte. Cercheremo poi di analizzare la pratica filosofica prospettata dal Wittgenstein maturo evidenziandone alcuni aspetti che ci consentiranno di qualificarla come clinica.
Book review. Semeiologia Clinica Veterinaria. (a cura di Paolo Ciaramella
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Manuel Graziani
2014-09-01
Full Text Available Il grado di specializzazione raggiunto nel settore clinico veterinario non è dissimile da quello presente in campo umano, soprattutto se si pensa agli animali d'affezione che sono oramai considerati parte integrante di una società moderna e civile in cui anche il fattore benessere animale ha acquisito importanza non secondaria, in particolare nell'allevamento degli animali da reddito. In questo contesto è sempre più richiesta la figura di uno specialista competente e aggiornato, in grado di risolvere in modo adeguato le problematiche che gli vengono proposte, in un mercato in concorrenza che non contempla imperizia, inesperienza e ignoranza professionale. Lo studio della semeiologia clinica è uno dei primi passi di questo lungo e affascinate cammino che permette di apprendere un metodo di analisi sistematico, affidabile, efficiente e accurato per educare il futuro medico veterinario verso le procedure della buona pratica clinica. La semeiotica insegna ad allenare i propri sensi: a guardare attraverso l'osservazione diretta e indiretta, a sentire ascoltando suoni o rumori, a percepire sensazioni tattili e, non da ultimo, a saper discernere con cognizione e competenza quando ricorrere alle indagini strumentali e di laboratorio; sempre e comunque nella consapevolezza che non possono in nessun modo sostituire l'esame fisico diretto del paziente. Paolo Ciaramella, professore ordinario di Clinica Medica Veterinaria all'Università Federico II di Napoli, presenta così il volume che ha curato: "L'idea di questo libro ha preso forma durante un simposio di medicina interna tenutosi a Torino nel 2008. Con alcuni colleghi presenti si pensò alla possibilità di elaborare un nuovo testo di Semeiotica Medica che potesse ampliare e aggiornare il glorioso Messieri e Moretti, non tanto perché esso avesse perduto il suo valore intrinseco, quanto piuttosto perché nel corso degli anni sono cambiate la patologia animale e con essa la semeiotica e la clinica
OC ToGo: bed site image integration into OpenClinica with mobile devices
Science.gov (United States)
Haak, Daniel; Gehlen, Johan; Jonas, Stephan; Deserno, Thomas M.
2014-03-01
Imaging and image-based measurements nowadays play an essential role in controlled clinical trials, but electronic data capture (EDC) systems insufficiently support integration of captured images by mobile devices (e.g. smartphones and tablets). The web application OpenClinica has established as one of the world's leading EDC systems and is used to collect, manage and store data of clinical trials in electronic case report forms (eCRFs). In this paper, we present a mobile application for instantaneous integration of images into OpenClinica directly during examination on patient's bed site. The communication between the Android application and OpenClinica is based on the simple object access protocol (SOAP) and representational state transfer (REST) web services for metadata, and secure file transfer protocol (SFTP) for image transfer, respectively. OpenClinica's web services are used to query context information (e.g. existing studies, events and subjects) and to import data into the eCRF, as well as export of eCRF metadata and structural information. A stable image transfer is ensured and progress information (e.g. remaining time) visualized to the user. The workflow is demonstrated for a European multi-center registry, where patients with calciphylaxis disease are included. Our approach improves the EDC workflow, saves time, and reduces costs. Furthermore, data privacy is enhanced, since storage of private health data on the imaging devices becomes obsolete.
[Analysis of utilization of information in the journal Medicina Clinica].
Science.gov (United States)
Aleixandre, R; Giménez Sánchez, J V; Terrada, M L; López Piñero, J M
1994-09-10
Scientific communication knowledge is specifically based in the analysis of the bibliographic references inside the publications. Pattern and laws determining the information consumption in the items of the journal Medicina Clinica are investigated in the present study as its own aim. An analysis was performed on the 13,286 references downloaded from 618 papers published by the journal in 1990. With dBASE IV was generated a database for the management of the information; data was distributed in several tables through criteria of age, documentary types, countries, journals and Bradford zones. The analysed references belong to 1,241 different journals, 110 from Spain. Being two thirds of the total sum, the publications from United States and United Kingdom have received more citations than those from Spain. The publications from european countries, like France, Germany and Italy, are scarcely present. Bradford core is constituted by the journals Medicina Clinica and The Lancet. The analysis of the bibliographic references available from the articles in this journal is able to produce knowledge on the information consumption by the practitioners; its usefulness as a complementary utility to the Indice de Citas e Indicadores Bibliométricos de Revistas Españolas de Medicina Interna y sus especialidades 1990 must be considered.
Il perturbante eÌ lâidentitaÌ divisa Unâinterpretazione di Der Sandmann
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Giovanni Bottiroli
2015-07-01
Full Text Available Il saggio di Freud sul perturbante ha offerto molti stimoli agli studi letterari e a quelli sul cinema: eÌ stato commentato e discusso molte volte. Nella maggior parte dei casi, tuttavia, sembra essere stato letto frettolosamente: ci si eÌ soffermati sulla tesi piuÌ evidente, che stabilisce un nesso tra perturbante e angoscia di castrazione, e sono state trascurate le affermazioni relative al problema dellâidentitaÌ. Eppure, proprio in relazione a Der Sandmann Freud offre riflessioni di straordinaria importanza. Questo articolo si propone anzitutto di restituire al saggio di Freud la sua complessitaÌ: vengono messi in luce, ad esempio, i fraintendimenti e le forzature della critica femminista (Sarah Kof- man. E, soprattutto, propone una nuova interpretazione del racconto di Hoffmann, a partire dal concetto di âidentitaÌ divisaâ. LâidentitaÌ si dice in due modi fondamentali, la coincidenza e la non-coincidenza con se stessi. Ogni soggetto sperimenta il conflitto tra questi due modi. Nel racconto di Hoffmann, il prota- gonista (Nathaniel viene trascinato al di laÌ di se stesso, verso la fatale coincidenza con das Ding. EÌ questa la fonte essenziale della sua angoscia. Der Sandmann eÌ la storia di unâattrazione inesora- bile, rallentata da entitaÌ che svolgono una funzione-schermo: nel rapporto con la bambola Olimpia emergono tutti i paradossi che determinano la fragile identitaÌ di Nathaniel. PoicheÌ il perturbante appartiene al campo dellâangoscia, non sarebbe stato possibile ignorare il Seminario X di Lacan, cosiÌ come le riflessioni di Heidegger. Questâarticolo propone una revisione della concezione di Lacan: lâangoscia piuÌ devastante non deriva tanto da un eccesso di presenza (cioÌ che Lacan chiama «la mancanza della mancanza» quanto dallo svanire della non- coincidenza. Perturbante eÌ la sensazione di un collasso logico-ontologico, a causa del quale il soggetto viene come incellofanato in se stesso
Know your audience: analysis of chief complaints at clinica esperanza, a student-run free clinic in memphis, tennessee.
Science.gov (United States)
Cesari, Whitney A; Vaikunth, Sumeet S; Lewis, Jim B; Panda, Mukta
2012-10-01
To identify the chief complaints and demographics at Clinica Esperanza, a student-run free clinic for an underserved Hispanic population. A retrospective chart review of patient files from 2005 through 2010 was undertaken, as approved by the University of Tennessee Health Science Center's Institutional Review Board. From 2005 through 2010, Clinica Esperanza fielded 2551 patient visits, consisting of 951 unique patients, 609 females and 342 males. Mean age was 34 years, and 60% of patients presented once, while 13% followed up for 1 year, 9% for 2 years, 6% for 3, 6% for 4, and 4% for 5. "Pap smear," "abdominal pain," and "follow-up lab results" ranked, in order, as the 3 top chief complaints. Resulting data have led to several improvements. The clinic has remained open weekly to improve patient continuity. With the top 10 chief complaints identified, they are better addressed. More funding is allocated for speculums and proper training of Pap smear technique. Systematic reporting of lab results is being implemented. Physical therapists and pharmacists now participate to address musculoskeletal and medication-based needs, respectively. A volunteer gastroenterologist has been recruited to provide specialized care for abdominal pain. An electrocardiogram machine is now used to evaluate chest pain. To improve student-patient communication, online language learning modules have been created. Based on these data, improvements in health care services have been made, including better continuity, emphasis on top chief complaints, and provider education in medical Spanish. Future plans include on-site pharmacy, smoother referrals, and similar clinics on the University of Tennessee Health Science Center's other campuses.
Evaluation of skin entry kerma in radiological examinations at the Hospital de Clinicas, Parana, Brazil; Avaliacao de kerma de entrada na pele em exames radiologicos no Hospital de Clinicas do Parana, Brasil
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Porto, Lorena E.; Schelin, Hugo R.; Santos, Amanda C. dos; Bunick, Ana Paula; Paschuk, Sergei; Denyak, Valeriy [Universidade Tecnologica Federal do Parana (UTFPR), Curitiba, PR (Brazil); Tilly Junior, Joao G. [Universidade Federal do Parana (UFPR), Curitiba, PR (Brazil). Hospital de Clinicas; Khoury, Helen J., E-mail: khoury@ufpe.b [Universidade Federal de Pernambuco (UFPE/DEN), Recife, PE (Brazil). Dept. de Energia Nuclear
2011-10-26
This paper evaluates the skin entry dose of pediatric and adults patients when submitted to radiological examinations at the Hospital de Clinicas do Parana, Brazil, as part integrate of the data assessment of International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) for Latin America. It was performed measurements of dose for evaluation of skin entry kerma in pediatric patients in thorax AP/PA examinations, adults of thorax in AP/PA, cranio caudal mammography and median lateral and patients of computerized tomography in examination of head, thorax and abdomen. The obtained data demonstrate the necessity of verification of diagnostic analysis standards. The great value amplitudes demonstrate the incompatibility of examination executions with those recommended by the literature. The dose values presented partially inside the range recommended and the other over the expected for the due examination when compared with the literature
Implementation of radioactive wastes management system in nuclear medicine service of Hospital das Clinicas of Universidade de Campinas - UNICAMP, in Sao Paulo State, Brazil
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Rinaldi Neto, A.; Coelho, R.F.; Brunetto, S.Q.
2001-01-01
This work reports the experience acquired at the Servico de Medicina Nuclear of the Hospital de Clinicas/UNICAMP (SMN/HC) in planning and implementing the management system of radioactive waste. This system respects the Comissao Nacional de Energia Nuclear' (CNEN) standards and has been of relatively easy and simple performance, without disturbing the SMN/HC's routine. It has also proof to keep its quality along the time. (author)
Evaluation of skin entry kerma in radiological examinations at the Hospital de Clinicas, Parana, Brazil
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Porto, Lorena E.; Schelin, Hugo R.; Santos, Amanda C. dos; Bunick, Ana Paula; Paschuk, Sergei; Denyak, Valeriy; Tilly Junior, Joao G.; Khoury, Helen J.
2011-01-01
This paper evaluates the skin entry dose of pediatric and adults patients when submitted to radiological examinations at the Hospital de Clinicas do Parana, Brazil, as part integrate of the data assessment of International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) for Latin America. It was performed measurements of dose for evaluation of skin entry kerma in pediatric patients in thorax AP/PA examinations, adults of thorax in AP/PA, cranio caudal mammography and median lateral and patients of computerized tomography in examination of head, thorax and abdomen. The obtained data demonstrate the necessity of verification of diagnostic analysis standards. The great value amplitudes demonstrate the incompatibility of examination executions with those recommended by the literature. The dose values presented partially inside the range recommended and the other over the expected for the due examination when compared with the literature
Profundization of acetabular cup uncemented in total substitution of hip in-patient with acetabular dysplasia - Experience university hospital - Clinica San Rafael
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Dimian Mayorga, Omar David; Sandoval Daza, Alejandro; Vargas Turriago, Marcela; Perez Torres, Javier
2005-01-01
14 patients with acetabular dysplasia were treated at Hospital Universitario Clinica San Rafael with total hip arthroplasty with uncemented cup internization. According to Crowe classification, one was type 1, eight were type 2 and five were type 3. The average follow up was twenty-four months. The Harris hip score was used for the clinical evaluation with a pre operative average of 35 points and 37 points post operative. The average cup internization was four millimeters, with an average cup protrutio of 47% and an average of cup coverage of 81%. The average internization of the femoral head's center was 26mm. screws for cup fixation were used in 3 patients. We did not have complications nor implant revision at the time of follow up
Oncology patients hospitalized in the Clinicas Hospital Dr. Manuel Quintela
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Arostegui, M.; Borba, M.; Caldarelli, D.; Eguiia, A.; Fernandez, E.; Peleteiro, M.; Pereira, C.; Vico, M.
2004-01-01
This work was carried out by a nursery licensed group in the Clinicas Hospital - Dr. Manuel Quintela.The nature and functioning of Services and the allocation of resources, are essential for the analysis of the Survey of the hospitalized oncology patients in the Institution. To develop a model of care that constitutes a health care as well as teaching and research in the country regarding the quality of care was defined the following topics: lower risks for the patient, safer care, personal trained and specialized to promote relationship between the offering and the person receiving the service. The assessment and management performance of the services involved in the operation are the result of the degree of user satisfaction. Objective: To determine the human and material necessary for the care of cancer resources users, considering their number, treatment, complications and nursing care derived from each pathology and stage of disease. Methodology: A comparative descriptive study of the same population was conducted in two transverse sections in relation to two different times which are based on the design of a form that allowed hospitalized to collect information on users 6/12/03 and 6/16/04. Other instruments used were the clinical history and the daily census staff Patients and Nursing Division. Results and conclusions: A comparative descriptive analysis already mentioned are: increased internships and cancer patients; between 50 and 64 is the highest number of patients; diagnoses Face and Neck and maintain the Digestive System more cases; the number of patients doubles and Hematology Neurological from one to another period. Chemotherapy is the treatment choice and there is a decrease in the surgical and medical; more patients in the study; in the origin, Montevideo has the largest number of patients followed by Canelones. Line of nursing intervention will be carried out in short, medium and long term
System precision assessment ExacTrac 6D® BrainLab of the Hospital das Clinicas da Faculdade de Medicina da USP; Avaliacao da precisao do sistema Exactrac 6D® BrainLab do Hospital das Clinicas da Faculdade de Medicina da USP
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Maistro, Carlos E.B., E-mail: carloseduardo.bravinmaistro@gmail.com [Programa de Residencia Multiprofissional em Fisica Medica, Faculdade de Medicina de Sao Paulo, SP (Brazil); Nakandakari, Marcos V.N.; Ribeiro, Victor A.B.; Sales, Camila P. de; Rodrigues, Laura N. [Universidade de Sao Paulo (USP), SP (Brazil). Instituto de Radiologia. Servico de Radioterapia. Hospital das Clinicas
2015-08-15
The goal of this study was to evaluate the precision of ExacTrac 6D® Brainlab system, installed at Hospital das Clinicas da Faculdade de Medicina da USP, in frameless radiosurgery treatments. Four sets of tests were performed for different purposes in order to assess the following parameters: the accuracy of location through infrared system; evaluation of the reproducibility of fusion algorithm; evaluation of the X-ray system; and the end-to-end test with the goal of assess the overall accuracy of the system. It was found that the infrared system showed a maximum deviation of 0.5 mm in terms of positioning and the X-ray system showed a precision of 0.15 mm and 0.6°. The reproducibility of fusion algorithms provided a maximum deviation in position which was less than 0.5 mm and 0.5° and the quantitative analysis of the results for end-to-end test showed an overall accuracy of the system better than 0.8 mm. (author)
[Mobbing and its effects on health. the experience of the "Clinica del Lavoro Luigi Devoto" in Milan].
Science.gov (United States)
Punzi, Silvia; Cassitto, Maria Grazia; Castellini, Giovanna; Costa, G; Gilioli, R
2007-01-01
There is increasing interest in research, prevention and management of mobbing in the field of occupational psychosocial risks. To describe mobbing and its health effects by analysis of the cases examined from 1997 to 2003 at the Department of Occupational Health "Clinica del Lavoro Luigi Devoto" in Milan. A total of 226 clinical records of patients who reported a mobbing situation when undergoing medical examination were selected out of 2455 patients examined for stress-related disorders. The percentage of women was higher (53.1%) than in men (46.9%) with a prevalent age range of 35-54 years. There was a great variety of jobs, especially white-collars and workers in large service companies. In one third of the cases, mobbing occurred within 4 years from beginning of employment and mostly after company reorganization and management changes. The most frequent negative acts included social isolation and demotion. The most frequent symptoms were exhaustion, sleep, mood and sexual disorders. The number of symptoms was not related to the duration of mobbing but to the number and frequency of negative actions. 61.1% of the subjects took psychotropic drugs. Occupational health physicians play an essential role in primary prevention (information on occupational risks) and in early diagnosis and rehabilitation and could act as mediators between workers and enterprises.
Analisi qualitativa, analisi comprendente e analisi semiotica: quale collegamento?
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Martine Arino
2002-12-01
Full Text Available L'origine del postulato dell'interpretazione soggettiva nelle scienze sociali la ritroviamo in questa espressione, "io non posso comprendere un oggetto culturale senza riferirmi all'attività umana che lo ha prodotto. Schutz ha avviato un percorso esplorativo della fenomenologia verso l'etnometodologia. L'etnometodologia è d'altronde qualificata come "sociologia interpretativa" e questo la paragona istantaneamente alla semiotica di Charles Sanders Peirce, poiché la semiotica si indirizza verso colui che interpreta, l'interpretazione.
Virtual-reality-based attention assessment of ADHD: ClinicaVR: Classroom-CPT versus a traditional continuous performance test.
Science.gov (United States)
NeguÈ, Alexandra; Jurma, Anda Maria; David, Daniel
2017-08-01
Virtual-reality-based assessment may be a good alternative to classical or computerized neuropsychological assessment due to increased ecological validity. ClinicaVR: Classroom-CPT (VC) is a neuropsychological test embedded in virtual reality that is designed to assess attention deficits in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) or other conditions associated with impaired attention. The present study aimed to (1) investigate the diagnostic validity of VC in comparison to a traditional continuous performance test (CPT), (2) explore the task difficulty of VC, (3) address the effect of distractors on the performance of ADHD participants and typically-developing (TD) controls, and (4) compare the two measures on cognitive absorption. A total of 33 children diagnosed with ADHD and 42 TD children, aged between 7 and 13Â years, participated in the study and were tested with a traditional CPT or with VC, along with several cognitive measures and an adapted version of the Cognitive Absorption Scale. A mixed multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) revealed that the children with ADHD performed worse on correct responses had more commissions and omissions errors than the TD children, as well as slower target reaction times . The results showed significant differences between performance in the virtual environment and the traditional computerized one, with longer reaction times in virtual reality. The data analysis highlighted the negative influence of auditory distractors on attention performance in the case of the children with ADHD, but not for the TD children. Finally, the two measures did not differ on the cognitive absorption perceived by the children.
Effect of cognitive stimulation in patients with mild congenital deterioration, in the reduction of progression to dementia, in the Clinica de la Memoria, Hospital Nacional de Geriatria y Gerontologia, during the period from September 2008 to September 2013
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Giangiulio Lobo, Andrea
2014-01-01
The efficacy of cognitive stimulation in the progression to dementia is verified in patients with mild cognitive impairment, from the Clinica de Memoria of the Hospital Nacional de Geriatria y Gerontologia, between September 2008 and September 2013. A sample of 190 patients of the Metropolitan Area, the majority of female, complete primary, with self-care, aged 70 to 79 years are selected. The investigated group has had a history of hypertension, diabetes mellitus to a lesser extent and some degree of associated sensory deficit. The evolution time of memory loss presented is 2.6 years at the time of the medical evaluation. The most common cognitive impairment in the study has been the multiple dominion amnesia, followed by the non-amnesic dominion multiple. The etiology has leaded the degenerative, followed by vascular and thirdly the deficit of vitamin B12. Patients with mild cognitive impairment almost half of the cases have had neuro-behavioral disorder, being the depression most frequent, followed by anxiety and apathy. Patients have been partial independent in ABVD and dependent on AIVD. Absenteeism to dating has existed both in Clinica de Memoria; but mainly to the appointment with psychology. During the study it is determined that the deterioration was developed without progress to dementia, relatives have reported cognitive stability in more than half of the cases, only 18 patients have progressed to dementia. In the process only 29 patients have concluded and were reevaluated; without being able to demonstrate that the cognitive stimulation delays the cognitive deterioration to the dementia, but nevertheless; this result is given without unduly discrediting cognitive stimulation as a non-pharmacological measure for the prevention and delaying of dementia. (author) [es
[The scientific progress of the "Clinica del Lavoro Luigi Devoto" as seen through the contents of the journal "La Medicina del Lavoro". ].
Science.gov (United States)
Foà , V; Camerino, Donatella
2003-01-01
On occasion of the Centenary of the "Clinica del Lavoro Luigi Devoto", its researchers suggested that awareness of its historical identity and scientific development should constitute the basis for the future of the Institution. The directors of the Institute who have succeeded one to the other over the years have left a vivid report of the vast amount of work developed in several research fields and also of the original results achieved with significant impact on the scientific community and on society. Content analysis of "La Medicina del Lavoro" allowed us to shed light on strong bonds existing between manufacturing techniques, work organization and health, in the different political and social periods in which they developed. Many actions have been defined and several research subjects have been renewed (according to current demands and new methodological possibilities) between the past and the present, nevertheless many new approaches need to be taken in the fields of epidemiology, indoor air quality, ergophthalmology, muskuloskeletal disorders, environmental and molecular toxicology, and further research will be undertaken thanks to the potential of this discipline for the future. The aim of this report is also to express our thanks to all the medical and non-medical staff who have made their contribution over 100 years of engagement.
Vitalij L. Machlin, Dopo l'interpretazione
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Margherita De Michiel
2010-12-01
Full Text Available Una riflessione insieme lucida e accorata sulla contemporaneità umanistico-scientifica oggi, in Russia come in occidente, in unâepoca che si confronta con lâesperienza del «dopo» a molteplici livelli del «mondo della storia» e del «mondo della vita». Approcci a unâ«epistemologia umanistica» come «filosofia della seconda coscienza», ermeneutica dialogica che è insieme filosofia del linguaggio e ontologia sociale. La postulazione di una nuova «filologizzazione della filosofia» che riproponga il genere discorsivo del «commento» nella sua duplice anima della «comprensione» e della «spiegazione». Nella nostra epoca «postbarbarica», la ripresa di un discorso interrotto per una nuova disputa tra «antichi» e «moderni». La parola di un filosofo, e il suo appello a un ritorno alla valenza etica dellâinsegnamento.
Architettura e/è Geometria: dalla forma architettonica alla costruzione geometrica
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Mariateresa Galizia
2012-06-01
Full Text Available Lâavvento delle tecnologie digitali di acquisizione dati 3D ha proiettato gli studiosi dellâarchitettura in una dimensione del tutto inaspettata. Milioni di punti hanno travolto ricercatori e professionisti ancora culturalmente impreparati ad affrontare la rivoluzione digitale nel campo del Rilievo. Le nuvole di punti acquisite documentano e allo stesso tempo rappresentano la spazialità degli oggetti reali, tuttavia, nulla rivelano su forma e geometria, architettura e materia se non attraverso una successiva interpretazione. Il contributo vuole soffermarsi sulle implicazioni teoriche e applicative del processo di interpretazione dei dati acquisiti per la comprensione della geometria e sulla funzione euristica della modellazione digitale, nel passaggio dal ânoto allâignotoâ, nella âri-scopertaâ della forma e quindi dellâidea progettuale.
Clinical manifestations of peripheral nervous system involvement in human chronic chagas disease Manifestaciones clinicas de compromiso del sistema nervioso periférico en el estádio crônico de la enfermedad de Chagas
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Osvaldo Genovese
1996-06-01
Full Text Available We conducted a clinical and electromyographical study in patients with Chagas' disease in the indeterminate or chronic stages of the illness. Altogether 841 patients were examined. Only 511 were admitted within the protocol; the remainder patients were rejected because they showed other causes able to damage the nervous system. Fifty two (10.17% out of the 511 patients showed signs and symptoms of peripheral nervous system involvement in the form of sensory impairment and diminished tendon jerks suggesting the presence of neuropathy. Forty five of them were submitted to a conventional electromyographical examination. Fifteen of mem showed normal results, while the remainder 30 disclosed a reduced interference pattern, being most of the remaining motor unit potentials fragmented or poliphasic, reduced sensory and motor conduction velocities and diminished amplitude of the sensory action potential. The findings suggest that some chagasic patients in the indeterminate or chronic stages of the disease may develop a clinical mild sensory-motor peripheral neuropathy.El estúdio presente fue diseftado con ei objeto de pesquizar Ia existência de manifestaciones clinicas en pacientes afectados por enfermedad de Chagas, en estádio indeterminado o crônico, que tuviesen, ai menos, 2 reacciones serologicas positivas. En total fueron examinados 841 enfermos. De ellos solo 511 fueron admitidos en ei protocolo; los restantes fueron rechazados por mostrar Ia presencia de otras causas que hubiesen podido danar su sistema nervioso. Dentro de los 511 pacientes admitidos, 52 (10.17% evidenciaron alteraciones objetivas y subjetivas de Ia sensibilidad y disminucion de los reflejos osteotendinosos. Estos signos y sintomas, que sugieren la presencia de neuropatia, podian combinarse de diferente manera. Como complemento dei examen clinico, se efectuo estúdio electromiografico convencional en 45 de estos pacientes. En 15 los hallazgos fueron normales, en tanto que en
Clinical utility from the determination of serico galactomannan in the diagnosis of invasive aspergillosis in hematological patients of the Hospital San Juan de Dios, between January 2009 and December 2012; Utilidad clinica de la determinacion de galactomanano serico en el diagnostico de aspergilosis invasiva en pacientes hematologicos del Hospital San Juan de Dios, entre enero 2009 y diciembre 2012
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Li Sandi, Silvia
2014-07-01
Nosocomial infections have become more important to the health system by the high costs of these, but are little data available about them in recent years. The clinical utility of the determination of serum galactomannan (GMS) in patients with high risk of contracting the infection by Aspergillus spp, was assessed, between January 2009 and December 2012 at the Hospital San Juan de Dios. Several existing studies in the scientific literature have already evaluated the clinical usefulness, specific data have been inexistent for Costa Rica or for Central America and the Caribbean; so it is important to have known whether the conduct of the test has been similar to the other populations or have specific variations [Spanish] Las enfermedades nosocomiales han cobrado mayor importancia para el sistema de salud por el gasto elevado que han representado, pero son pocos los datos disponibles respecto a ellas en los ultimos anos. La utilidad clinica de la determinacion de galactomanano serico (GMS) en pacientes con alto riesgo a contraer la infeccion por Aspergillus spp, fue evaluada, entre enero del 2009 y diciembre del 2012 en el Hospital San Juan de Dios. Varios estudios existentes en la literatura cientifica ya han evaluado esta utilidad clinica, datos especificos han sido inexistentes para Costa Rica, o para la region Centroamericana y el Caribe, por lo que es importante haber conocido si el comportamiento de la prueba ha sido similar a las otras poblaciones o tiene variaciones.
La componente estetica nella comunicazione didattica
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Valeria Biasi
2004-01-01
Full Text Available Descrizione di una serie di indagini sulle relazioni tra impiego di filmati nella didattica psicologica, emozioni attivate, apprendimento e altri effetti nel discente, con particolare riferimento al ruolo delle componenti estetiche del processo di fruizione.
Cooperation-Induced Topological Complexity: A Promising Road to Fault Tolerance and Hebbian Learning
Science.gov (United States)
2012-03-16
Information Science Directorate, United States Army Research Office, Durham, NC, USA 4 Istituto di Fisiologia Clinica del Consiglio Nazionale delle...Vadim Uritsky, Catholic University of America at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, USA *Correspondence: Paolo Allegrini , Istituto di Fisiologia Clinica
Learning curve of sentinel lymph nodes in early breast cancer at the Teaching Hospital 'Hospital das Clinicas' in Belo Horizonte, MG
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Homma, L.A.H.; Campos, T.P.R.; Silva, S.Z.C.; Siqueira, C.F.; Lima, C.F.
2007-01-01
The research of the sentinel lymph node in early breast cancer, an already worldwide established method, was standardized at the teaching hospital 'Hospital das Clinicas' in Belo Horizonte (MG, Brazil). This standardization was carried out from December 2000 through December 2002, in which 39 patients were included in a learning curve and method validation. The applied methodology is based on the combination of a lymphoscintillography and the blue stain. A periareolar colloid 99m Tc injection was given 24 hours before the surgery. The blue dye was injected in the peritumoral region during the surgery. The sentinel lymph node was identified by the blue color pattern of the lymph node and by the use of a portable gamma probe detector. Radioactive contamination was evaluated before, during and after the surgery. The measurement of the radioactivity of the breast area was taken by using a GM detector and an ionization chamber on a humid piece of gauze (passed on the breast area), from which the radioactivity was recorded as well as the gloves used during the surgery, and the gauzes with contaminated blood. The sentinel lymph node identification rate was found to be 95%, there was a false negative rate of 4,8% and a predictive negative value (PNV) of 94%. The identification figures, the predictive negative value and the false negative rate were similar to the figures found in technical literature. The technique of the biopsy of the sentinel lymph node (BSL) is the method chosen for staging patients with invasive breast cancer and with clinically negative results for the armpit. The combined method using radio-colloid and the stain is the most indicated. There is a minimum radio isotopic contamination and there is scarcely any danger for the patient or the medical staff involved in the procedure. (author)
Comunicazione e cooperazione a distanza per l'autonomia didattica
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Giampaolo Chiappini
1998-01-01
Full Text Available Descrizione di un approccio alla formazione in servizio degli insegnanti che fa riferimento a modelli di formazione collaborativa in gruppi di lavoro e di apprendimento contestualizzato. La metodologia e gli strumenti sviluppati sono oggetto di sperimentazione all'interno del progetto Copernico.
Het werkwoord lasciare en de polysemie
NARCIS (Netherlands)
Boer, M.G. de
2009-01-01
SAMENVATTING Dit hoofdstuk is een beschrijving van de betekenis van het Italiaanse werkwoord lasciare op grond van een corpus van 282 voorbeeldzinnen. Voor de analyse is gebruik gemaakt van een vroege versie van de semantische theorie van Jackendoff. RIASSUNTO Questo capitolo è una descrizione
Innovazione nel mobile learning
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Immaculada Arnedillo-SÃ nchez
2008-01-01
Full Text Available Descrizione, da una prospettiva europea, dellâinnovazione nel settore del mobile learning e lâutilizzabilitaâ del mobile learning in contesti educativi. Vengono illustrate i principali progetti europei di m-learning e si esamina le prospettive pedagogiche e teoriche relative al campo.
DULP: complessità , organicità , liquiditÃ
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Carlo Giovannella
2009-10-01
Full Text Available Un intervento che, senza pretese di universalità  ontologica, intende contribuire alla costruzione di una visione condivisa sulla natura di un sistema complesso, nella speranza che essa possa fungere da quadro di riferimento, flessibile, entro il quale ragionare del DULP.A partire dalla descrizione di alcuni comportamenti identificativi della natura complessa di un sistema, si procederà  nella descrizione di alcuni ingredienti e di alcuni tratti caratterizzanti la complessità  sistemica con l'obiettivo di identificare i 'motori' delle 'emergenze' e le corrispondenze tra sistemi complessi e organici. La presa d'atto della rilevanza del contesto ci condurrà ai concetti di coevoluzione e liquidità  sistemica. La mappatura di tale quadro al mondo dell'apprendimento e l'assunto della centralità della persona ci condurranno alla valorizzazione degli approcci ai processi 'design inspired' e a discutere alcune delle caratteristiche di quello che potremmo definire una sorta di lento crossover verso l'affermarsi di un nuovo paradigma.
Workshop Euratom Directive 97/43. New trends in radiation protection in clinical practice, in research and in regulation; Giornata di studio La Direttiva Europea 97/43: nuovi orientamenti per la radioprotezione nella pratica clinica, nella ricerca e nel quadro normativo
Energy Technology Data Exchange (ETDEWEB)
Mazzei, F [ed.; Istituto Superiore di Sanita' , Rome (Italy). Lab. di Fisica
1999-07-01
The Euratom Directive 97/43 on health protection of individuals against the dangers of ionizing radiation in relation to medical exposure is presented. In particular the following topics are focused, with a multidisciplinary approach, on: diagnostic reference levels in radiodiagnostics and nuclear medicine; radiation protection in paediatrics, in interventional radiology and in computer tomography; radiation protection radiotherapy, radiation protection in medical research; radiation protection in prenatal and neonatal exposure; radiation protection in medical-legal exposures. [Italian] Il rapporto raccoglie una presentazione della Direttiva Euratom 97/43 riguardante la protezione sanitaria delle persone contro i pericoli delle radiazioni ionizzanti connessi a esposizioni mediche. In particolare sono affrontati in modo interdisciplinare i seguenti argomenti: livelli diagnostici di riferimento in radiodiagnostica e in medicina nucleare; radioprotezione nelle esposizioni in eta' pediatrica, in radiologica interventistica e in tomografia computerizzata; radioprotezione in radioterapia; radioprotezione nella ricerca scientifica clinica; radioprotezione nell'esposizione in eta' prenatale e neonatale; esposizioni potenziali e radioprotezione nelle esposizioni medico-legali.
Workshop Euratom Directive 97/43. New trends in radiation protection in clinical practice, in research and in regulation; Giornata di studio La Direttiva Europea 97/43: nuovi orientamenti per la radioprotezione nella pratica clinica, nella ricerca e nel quadro normativo
Energy Technology Data Exchange (ETDEWEB)
Mazzei, F. [ed.] [Istituto Superiore di Sanita' , Rome (Italy). Lab. di Fisica
1999-07-01
The Euratom Directive 97/43 on health protection of individuals against the dangers of ionizing radiation in relation to medical exposure is presented. In particular the following topics are focused, with a multidisciplinary approach, on: diagnostic reference levels in radiodiagnostics and nuclear medicine; radiation protection in paediatrics, in interventional radiology and in computer tomography; radiation protection radiotherapy, radiation protection in medical research; radiation protection in prenatal and neonatal exposure; radiation protection in medical-legal exposures. [Italian] Il rapporto raccoglie una presentazione della Direttiva Euratom 97/43 riguardante la protezione sanitaria delle persone contro i pericoli delle radiazioni ionizzanti connessi a esposizioni mediche. In particolare sono affrontati in modo interdisciplinare i seguenti argomenti: livelli diagnostici di riferimento in radiodiagnostica e in medicina nucleare; radioprotezione nelle esposizioni in eta' pediatrica, in radiologica interventistica e in tomografia computerizzata; radioprotezione in radioterapia; radioprotezione nella ricerca scientifica clinica; radioprotezione nell'esposizione in eta' prenatale e neonatale; esposizioni potenziali e radioprotezione nelle esposizioni medico-legali.
WITTGENSTEIN AND PHILOSOPHICAL SPIRITUALITY IN THE LIGHT OF THE LECTURE ON ETHICS
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Tommaso Manzon
2016-03-01
Full Text Available Lo scopo di questo paper è quello di sviluppare una lettura e unâinterpretazione di uno degli scritti âminoriâ di Ludwig Wittgenstein, la Conferenza sullâEtica. La mia comprensione della Conferenza è inspirata principalmente dallâinterpretazione della filosofia di Wittgenstein sviluppata da Pierre Hadot e, di conseguenza, la mia tesi consisterà nel dimostrare che seguendo Hadot la Conferenza sullâEtica può essere vista come un âEsercizio Spiritualeâ. Pertanto sostengo che la finalità principale di questo scritto va vista nel tentativo di cambiare la nostra attitudine verso il mondo, e dunque la nostra disposizione etica verso di esso. Ritengo inoltre che questo non sia solo lo scopo di ogni Esercizio Spirituale, bensì in generale quello dellâattività del filosofo austriaco, ossia, la volontà di coinvolgere i propri destinatari provocando in loro una riflessione e possibilmente un cambiamento in merito al proprio modo di vivere, e a tutta la sfera che va sotto il nome di âEticaâ.
Lâimmaginazione personale e teologica di Pha. m Công Tac
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Janet Hoskins
2013-10-01
Full Text Available Uno dei testi canonici degli studi post-coloniali, âSigns Taken for Wondersâ di Homi Bhabha, inizia con una lunga descrizione di un missionario indiano, degli effetti causati dalla distribuzione gratuita di alcune copie della Bibbia in hindi nel 1817 sotto un albero alla periferia di Delhi..
Peste equina: descrizione di focolai di malattia in Namibia
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Massimo Scacchia
2009-06-01
Full Text Available La peste equina è una malattia virale degli equidi trasmessa da vettori. Scopo di questo lavoro è di riferire su casi di malattia verificatisi in Namibia nel corso degli anni 2006-2008, osservati dal personale dell'Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell'Abruzzo e del Molise âG. Caporaleâ e del Central Veterinary Laboratory di Windhoek, Namibia e confermati dagli esami di laboratorio. Il lavoro è stato possibile anche grazie alla fattiva collaborazione stabilitasi con i veterinari pubblici, privati e allevatori Namibiani.
Book review, Principi di video-otoendoscopia nel cane e nel gatto, Giovanni Ghibaudo
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Manuel Graziani
2011-12-01
Full Text Available Per il veterinario libero professionista le malattie auricolari dei cani e dei gatti sono il pane quotidiano, ciò nonostante il loro studio è progredito lentamente anche perché molti veterinari trovavano difficoltà nellâeffettuare lâotoscopia e nel riconoscere la patologia otologica. Lâavvento del video-otoscopio ha permesso di rilevare le malattie e i cambiamenti dellâorecchio. L'autore ha pertanto sentito la necessità di sviluppare i principi di video-otoendoscopia nel cane e nel gatto e inserirli in unâopera, unica in Italia nel suo genere, basandosi sulla propria esperienza clinica e sul materiale iconografico presente in letteratura. Nellâagile libro ci sono 94 figure video-otoscopiche che fanno comprendere visivamente la normale anatomia e le malattie dellâorecchio. Sono presentati 68 casi in cui è visibile lâimmagine dellâorecchio esterno, sempre accompagnata da visioni video-otoscopiche di ciò che sta succedendo nel canale uditivo più in profondità . Nella prima parte del volume viene descritta lâanatomia dellâorecchio esterno e medio, sono fornite le informazioni essenziali per un corretto approccio e per la gestione delle otiti, per la preparazione del paziente e, infine, vengono indicati strumenti e metodiche di video-otoendoscopia. La seconda parte, attraverso immagini endoscopiche, illustra lâaspetto dellâorecchio normale del cane e del gatto. Successivamente, immagini endoscopiche chiare ed esemplificative accompagnano la descrizione delle lesioni presenti in corso di otiti acute, croniche e neoplastiche. Lo stesso schema è stato seguito nellâillustrare lâaspetto normale e alterato della membrana timpanica e dellâorecchio medio. Per ogni causa di otite sono state affiancate, a un testo essenziale dâimmediata comprensione, immagini endoscopiche per una collezione iconografica il più possibile completa. Inoltre, Giovanni Ghibaudo fornisce utili consigli per esempio sullâutilizzo di spugne
Il Servizio Intercultura dellâIstituto di Terapia Familiare di Firenze
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Giancarlo Francini
2013-12-01
Full Text Available Nel corso del presente articolo vengono descritte le premesse epistemologiche e le metodologie adottate dagli operatori del Servizio Intercultura dellâIstituto di Terapia Familiare di Firenze (ITFF nel lavoro con la popolazione migrante ed elencati gli interventi fatti nel territorio. Il Servizio Intercultura dellâITFF si è interrogato in questi anni sul valore della cultura come porta dâingresso nel rapporto con il migrante; nel chiedere loro di narrare aspetti della loro cultura condividiamo aspetti della nostra cultura. Lâincontro con il malinteso, che come dice Jankelevitch «(⦠è un quasi niente» (Jankelevitch, 1987, p. 233, perché se fosse stato qualcosa di più ce ne saremmo accorti e se fosse qualcosa di meno non sarebbe significativo, ci permette di aprirci a un rapporto che cambia entrambi, operatore e migrante, nella relazione. à nella relazione e attraverso il racconto dellâevento migrazione e del ciclo di vita che si costruisce e si cerca un linguaggio comune per la descrizione e lâespressione del disagio. Il lavoro con i migranti deve fare i conti con le difficoltà legate allâimpiego, alla casa, al permesso di soggiorno e non ultimo alla brevità di alcuni incontri, perché per alcuni la nostra città è solo una tappa di un percorso che continua alla ricerca di una sistemazione migliore. Nel territorio di Firenze sono stati messi a punto una serie di servizi: oltre alla clinica e a uno sportello di consulenza, ci si dedica alla formazione degli operatori che lavorano con i migranti. Esempi di queste attività sono: un progetto di peer tutoring in alcune scuole superiori, uno di formazione per le assistenti sociali al fine di proporre un protocollo più efficace di presa in carico dei migranti, una serie di focus group con dipendenti Asl allâinterno del progetto âMamma segretaâ della regione Toscana; inoltre, la collaborazione con le associazioni presenti sul territorio ha permesso un contatto
SUI CODICI UNIDIREZIONALI
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Luca Tallini
1992-04-01
Full Text Available Oltre ad una breve descrizione della problematica sui codici Unidirezionali è qui data la dimostrazione di una congettura di S. Al-Bassan e B. Bose che interviene nella teoria dei suddetti autori, sulla costruzione di codici ottimali nella classe dei codici bilanciati che si ottengono con il metodo della complementazione di Knuth.
Implementation of a radiology information system in an University Hospital
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Marques, Paulo Mazzoncini de Azevedo; Santos, Antonio Carlos; Elias Junior, Jorge; Trad, Clovis Simao; Goes, Wilson Moraes; Castro, Carlos Roberto de
2000-01-01
This paper describes a radiology information system (RIS) developed and in the process of implementation in an University Hospital (Hospital das Clinicas da Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirao Preto - Universidade de Sao Paulo) which integrates a plan for a 'filmless' radiology facility. (author)
Control of Chaos: New Perspectives in Experimental and Theoretical Science. International Journal of Bifurcation and Chaos in Applied Sciences and Engineering. Theme Issue. Part 2, Volume 8, Number 9, September 1998.
Science.gov (United States)
1998-09-01
GARBO*, R. BALOCCHIt and S. CHILLEMI* *Istituto di Biofisica CNR, Via S. Lorenzo 26, 56127 Pisa, Italy tIstituto di Fisiologia Clinica CNR, Via...Publishing Company DIFFUSION PARAMETER CONTROL OF SPATIOTEMPORAL CHAOS RAUL MONTAGNE* Instituto de Fisica, Facultad de Ciencias & Facultad de Ingenieria
Vector competence of Culicoides sonorensis (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) to epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus serotype 7
Science.gov (United States)
Background: Culicoides sonorensis (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) is a vector of epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus (EHDV) serotypes 1 and 2 in North America, where these viruses are well-known pathogens of white-tailed deer (WTD) and other wild ruminants. Although historically rare, reports of clinica...
From Self-Organized to Extended Criticality
Science.gov (United States)
2012-04-26
Texas, Denton, TX, USA 2 Centro EXTREME, Scuola Superiore SantâAnna, Pisa, Italy 3 Istituto di Fisiologia Clinica-CNR, Pisa, Italy 4 Department of Physics...Netherlands Klaus Linkenkaer-Hansen, Center for Neurogenomics and Cognitive Research, Netherlands *Correspondence: Paolo Allegrini , Istituto di Fisiologia
Browse Title Index
African Journals Online (AJOL)
Items 551 - 600 of 643 ... Samuel Adetunji Onasanwo, Gideon Nimedia Aitokhuehi, Opeyemi Temitayo Ajayi, Samuel Oluwaseun Faborode. Vol 4, No 3 (2001), the assessment of fasciola gigantica infection in the rabbit(Oryctolagus cuniculus) as a laboratory model parasite development - Clinica symptoms and liver pathology ...
LâIgea delle Terme Milano: il contesto di rinvenimento
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Pietro Mecozzi
2012-01-01
Full Text Available Lʹarticolo prende in esame il contesto di rinvenimento della testa marmorea di Igea recentemente scoperta a Gortina. In particolare intende fornire un quadro generale delle diverse fasi evolutive delle cosiddette Terme Milano e dellâarea da esse occupata, dal punto di vista stratigrafico e cronologico. Lâattenzione è volta per lo più alle ultime campagne di scavo, che hanno interessato lâarea orientale delle Terme. Lâarticolo presenta inoltre una descrizione specifica del muro allâinterno del quale è stata rinvenuta la scultura ed i confronti con altre strutture simili e coeve rinvenute nel sito di Gortina, con particolare attenzione alla comune tecnica costruttiva.
SARDULUS SACERENSIS CASALE & MARCIA, NUOVA SPECIE IPOGEA DI COLEOTTERI ISTERIDI DELLA SARDEGNA NORD-OCCIDENTALE E SUA MORFOLOGIA LARVALE (Coleoptera, Histeridae
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A. Casale
2006-10-01
Full Text Available Sardulus sacerensis Casale & Marcia, nuova specie di Histeridae ipogei della Grotta di Lu Gardu (Sassari, Sardegna nord-occidentale è descritta e comparata con le due specie note in precedenza della Sardegna centro-orientale, S. spelaeus Patrizi, 1955, e S. incrassatus Magrini & Fancello, 2005. Le caratteristiche morfologiche esternee i genitali maschili delle tre specie sono raffigurati. Inoltre, è fornita per la prima volta la descrizione della morfologia larvale di una specie di questo genere. S. spelaeus, specie nota fino ad ora di due grotte in territorio di Dorgali, è segnalata di una terza località : la Grotta di Istirzili o Stirzili, nel territorio di Baunei.
Processi di visualizzazione poetica: descrizione e immaginazione nella critica di danza del XIX secolo
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Christina Thurner
2014-12-01
Full Text Available This essay addresses the interest in the discourse of dance criticism within the French feuilleton of the 19th Century. It explores poetical techniques of writing with regard to and on examination of the perception of romantic ballet. The author of the essay argues that critics as Théophile Gautier and Jules Janin created and cultivated an emphatic style of criticism, which can be described as a transposition of the subjective view / imagination of the observer into poetic language. These discoursive practices became significant and paradigmatic â also in relation to the perception of dance till this day.
TYPHLOREICHEIA DELLA SARDEGNA: DESCRIZIONE DI TRE NUOVI TAXA E DATI GEONEMICI INEDITI (COLEOPTERA, CARABIDAE
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Paolo Magrini
2007-10-01
Full Text Available Nella presente nota vengono descritti tre nuovi taxa di Typhloreicheia Holdhaus, 1924 del Sud della Sardegna e riportati nuovi dati geonemici relativi a Typhloreicheia degiovannii Magrini, 2003 e Typhloreicheia raymondi (Putzeys, 1869. T. petriolii n. sp. di Monte Idda (San Priamo, Muravera, Cagliari, appartenente al âgruppo occultaâ, sensu Magrini & Bulirsch 2002, diversa da tutte le altre specie del gruppo per lâedeago meno incurvato ventralmente, lâapice meno inflesso, la lamella copulatrice piuÌ corta e ristretta apicalmente anzicheÌ dilatata. T. abbazzii n. sp. di Arbus (San Gavino Monreale, Medio Campidano, caratterizzata da un edeago con apice fortemente ricurvo ventralmente e lamella copulatrice costituita da grosse spine evanescenti posizionate lungo il margine inferiore dellâapice dellâedeago, caratteri che pongono la nuova specie in posizione isolata nellâambito del genere. T. leoi pilosa n. ssp. del Parco di Monte Marganai, loc. Mamenga (Carbonia-Iglesias, appartenente al âgruppo angelaeâ, sensu Magrini 2003. La nuova razza si differenzia dalla forma tipica essenzialmente per la morfologia esterna: presenza di setole discali elitrali su tutte le interstrie (dalla due alla sette, solo nelle interstrie 3-5-7 nella forma tipica e per lâhabitus nettamente piuÌ dilatato, specialmente a livello delle elitre, come indicano le misure riportate nel testo.
Assai più che eutanasia. Prelegomeni a ogni futura interpretazione filosofica del tradimento
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Vincenzo Cicero
2015-12-01
Full Text Available At the very central point of the first episode in the Matrix Trilogy (1999-2003 is the cornerstone of the filmâs narrative: the scene of Cypherâs betrayal, also known as the restaurant scene, which immediately received special attention from scholars. As regards the tone of interpretations, so far it has been almost a competition to issue the more sophisticated and persuasive verdict of guilty, and all of them agree, even the not incriminating ones, in believing Cypher as an incurable selfish hedonist. Their hermeneutical common limits are basically three: a they treat the Cypher case only by analyzing the verbal level, that is the script, and then by abstracting from the fact that itâs a story in a filmic text; b they isolate and crystallize the character in Chapter 19 of Matrix (the dialogue between Neo and Cypher and the restaurant scene, as though he appeared only in this specific context and not already at the beginning of the film; c they apply from above and extrinsically the theoretical formulas of some philosophers (no matter if Kant, Mill, Nietzsche, Nozick etc. dealt with as if taken from a handbook. The suggested interpretation sounds like a completely different register. We do not refer to any philosopher, instead we refer to the verse from a book of VT, Judges 16.30, in which a very similar impulse to the one moving Cypher is found. And of this character, who has an extraordinary tragic depth, the simulational and cryptogramatic structural shape is shown.
Il paesaggio di Matera nell'interpretazione cinematografica / Matera landscape in the cinematographic interpretation
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Angelo Bencivenga
2016-05-01
Full Text Available Una definizione classica inquadra il paesaggio come natura percepita attraverso una cultura. Sulla "storicità " del paesaggio, alcuni autori hanno sottolineato la capacità del cinema di registrare le trasformazioni del territorio e allo stesso tempo di orientare lo sguardo su di esso. La Basilicata, a partire dal secondo dopoguerra, è stata terra di cinema; più di quaranta produzioni cinematografiche sono state realizzate sul suolo lucano. Una tendenza dominante, da Il Vangelo secondo Matteo di Pier Paolo Pasolini a Cristo si è fermato a Eboli di Francesco Rosi, ha messo in luce la condizione di miseria e arretratezza della Basilicata, influenzata da autori come Carlo Levi ed Ernesto De Martino. Interessante è il caso di Matera che, da espressione cinematografica di tale tendenza interpretativa, è diventata teatro di opere filmiche - come The Passion di Mel Gibson - che hanno contribuito a formare l'immagine di una città quasi mistica e culturalmente attiva. A classical definition of landscape is "nature perceived through a culture". On the "historicity" of the landscape, some authors have underlined the cinemaâs capacity to register the transformations of the territory and, at the same time, to direct the gaze on it. Since the end of the Second World War, the Basilicata region has been a film location; more than forty full length movies have been shot in Basilicata. Most of them, from The gospel according to St. Matthew by Pier Paolo Pasolini to Christ stopped at Eboli by Francesco Rosi, have shown the misery and the backwardness of Basilicata, inspired by the works of some authors as Carlo Levi and Ernesto De Martino. Matera is an interesting case study: from expression of this cinematic representation, in the last years it has become the location of some movies - like The Passion by Mel Gibson - that have had an important role in building the image of Matera as an almost mystic and culturally dynamic city.
Book review. Manuale di ematologia veterinaria e medicina trasfusionale. (a cura di Magda Gerou-Ferriani
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Manuel Graziani
2013-09-01
Full Text Available Il volume curato dalla dott.ssa Magda Gerou-Ferriani dell'Ospedale veterinario "Portoni Rossi" di Bologna e dell'Università di Liverpool viene presentato come il primo manuale di ematologia veterinaria italiano. Un volume realizzato per essere utilizzato dagli studenti e dai veterinari nella pratica quotidiana. Da qui deriva la scelta della sua struttura organizzata per capitoli autonomi in modo che il lettore possa consultare le tematiche di proprio interesse indipendentemente dal resto. I primi due capitoli del manuale sono dedicati alle nozioni di base e forniscono informazioni concrete per ciò che riguarda i prelievi del sangue nella pratica veterinaria, l'allestimento e la corretta lettura del vetrino e tutto quanto è necessario sapere sulle trasfusioni. Nel terzo capitolo viene illustrata nel dettaglio l'interpretazione dell'eritrogramma, del leucogramma e del siderogramma. A seguire, nei capitoli 4 e 5, vengono trattate le patologie più spesso riscontrate dei globuli rossi, dei globuli bianchi e delle piastrine. Il sesto capitolo è dedicato alla coagulazione, un argomento spesso difficile da comprendere e da applicare, vengono illustrati i vari test, quando e come eseguirli ed interpretarli. Il manuale si conclude con un capitolo dedicato all'interpretazione dell'esame del midollo e con l'ultimo capitolo che contiene esempi pratici di casi clinici. Manuale di ematologia veterinaria e medicina trasfusionale è un testo pratico, di facile consultazione, ben curato sia sotto l'aspetto della presentazione dei contenuti che sotto l'aspetto editoriale: dal grande formato A4, alla copertina rigida. Alla curatrice Magda Gerou-Ferriani sono affiancati come autori Erika Carli, Stefano Comazzi, Silvia Tasca e Andrea Zoia, tutti medici veterinari.
Spanish Navy Up to Date Data in DCS
Science.gov (United States)
2001-06-01
therapeutic measures. Final results are similar to another world navies diving centres Bibliography: 1.- Pujante, A.; Inoriza, J; Viqueira, A. Estudio de 121... casos de enfermedad descompresiva Medicina Clinica, vol . 94, n` 7, 1990 2.- Rivera, J.C. Decompression sickness among divers: An analysis of 935
[The physiotherapic aspect of omeral epicondilitis (author's transl)].
Science.gov (United States)
Marenghi, P; Tella, G C
1976-01-01
The Authors describe history, etiopatogenesis, clinic, therapy of omeral epicondilitis, very frequent affection. Physiotherapic aspects are studied by different methods. The indications are different compared to clinical aspect, pain modality, relapse eventuality. They conclude with personal considerations based on what observed in Orthopedic Clinica of Parma University.
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) seropositivity and hepatitis B ...
African Journals Online (AJOL)
Method: A total of 130 donors comprising 120 commercial donors and 10 voluntary donors were tested for antibodies to human immunodeficiency virus and hepatitis B surface antigen in Benin city using Immunocomb HIV - 1 and 2 Biospot kit and Quimica Clinica Aplicada direct latex agglutination method respectively.
Sindrome de Lennox-Gastaut com inicio tardio: I - frequencia de casos com inicio anterior e ulterior aos 6 anos de idade, fatores etiologicos e nivel intelectual
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Amilton Antunes Barreira
1980-12-01
Full Text Available De um grupo de 66 pacientes com sindrome de Lennox Gastaut, 15 apresentaram as primeiras manifestações clinicas após os 6 anos de idade. Desses, 12 foram acompanhados durante o perÃodo médio de 2 anos e 6 meses, com avaliações neurológicas a intervalos de cerca de 2 meses. A revisão das publicações pertinentes permitiu estabelecer que em 20% das casuisticas apreciadas a sindrome de Lennox-Gastaut se inicia após o 6° ano de vida. As avaliações clinicas permitiram verificar que nosos pacientes apresentaram incidência de lesões neurológicas graves precedendo a instalação da sÃndrome por vários anos. As avaliações psicométricas evidenciaram intenso comprometimento do nÃvel intelectual em contraste com os dados da literatura sobre a sÃndrome de Lennox-Gastaut de inÃcio tardio.
Electronic Patient Reported Outcomes in Paediatric Oncology - Applying Mobile and Near Field Communication Technology.
Science.gov (United States)
Duregger, Katharina; Hayn, Dieter; Nitzlnader, Michael; Kropf, Martin; Falgenhauer, Markus; Ladenstein, Ruth; Schreier, Günter
2016-01-01
Electronic Patient Reported Outcomes (ePRO) gathered using telemonitoring solutions might be a valuable source of information in rare cancer research. The objective of this paper was to develop a concept and implement a prototype for introducing ePRO into the existing neuroblastoma research network by applying Near Field Communication and mobile technology. For physicians, an application was developed for registering patients within the research network and providing patients with an ID card and a PIN for authentication when transmitting telemonitoring data to the Electronic Data Capture system OpenClinica. For patients, a previously developed telemonitoring system was extended by a Simple Object Access Protocol (SOAP) interface for transmitting nine different health parameters and toxicities. The concept was fully implemented on the front-end side. The developed application for physicians was prototypically implemented and the mobile application of the telemonitoring system was successfully connected to OpenClinica. Future work will focus on the implementation of the back-end features.
Farmacos orales para el control quimico de las biopeliculas dentales (placa bacteriana
Directory of Open Access Journals (Sweden)
Rodrigo Abello Moreno
2013-12-01
Full Text Available La placa dentobacteriana o biopelicula es la responsable de patologias clinicas como la caries dental, gingivitis y enfermedad periodontal, por lo tanto productos con agentes germicidas actuan en la prevencion de la biopelicula dental cuando las medidas de higiene oral no son las mas apropiadas.
Influence of Progressive Central Hypovolemia on Multifractal Dimension of Cardiac Interbeat Intervals
Science.gov (United States)
2010-05-07
and 5 Istituto Fisiologia Clinica, CNR-Area Ricerca San Cataldo, Via Moruzzi 1, 56124-Pisa (Dated: May 7, 2010) Abstract We analyzed the heartbeat time...the research group of prof. B Ghe- larducci, Dipartimento di Fisiologia e Biochimica, UniversitaÌ di Pisa, and Dr. M. Varanini, Institute of Clinical
Psychological changes in alcohol-dependent patients during a residential rehabilitation program
Directory of Open Access Journals (Sweden)
Giorgi I
2015-12-01
Full Text Available Ines Giorgi,1 Marcella Ottonello,2,3 Giovanni Vittadini,4 Giorgio Bertolotti5 1Psychology Unit, Salvatore Maugeri Foundation, Clinica del Lavoro e della Riabilitazione, IRCCS, Pavia, 2Department of Physical & Rehabilitation Medicine, Salvatore Maugeri Foundation, Clinica del Lavoro e della Riabilitazione, IRCCS, Genoa, 3Department of Medicine, PhD Program in Advanced Sciences and Technologies in Rehabilitation Medicine and Sport, Università di Tor Vergata, Rome, 4Alcohol Rehabilitation Unit, Salvatore Maugeri Foundation, Clinica del Lavoro e della Riabilitazione, IRCCS, Pavia, 5Psychology Unit, Salvatore Maugeri Foundation, Clinica del Lavoro e della Riabilitazione, IRCCS, Tradate, Italy Background: Alcohol-dependent patients usually experience negative affects under the influence of alcohol, and these affective symptoms have been shown to decrease as a result of alcohol-withdrawal treatment. A recent cognitiveâaffective model suggests an interaction between drug motivation and affective symptoms. The aim of this multicenter study was to evaluate the psychological changes in subjects undergoing a residential rehabilitation program specifically designed for alcohol addiction, and to identify at discharge patients with greater affective symptoms and therefore more at risk of relapse.Materials and methods: The sample included 560 subjects (mean age 46.91±10.2 years who completed 28-day rehabilitation programs for alcohol addiction, following a tailored routine characterized by short duration and high intensity of medical and psychotherapeutic treatment. The psychological clinical profiles of anxiety, depression, psychological distress, psychological well-being, and self-perception of a positive change were assessed using the Cognitive Behavioral Assessment â Outcome Evaluation questionnaire at the beginning and at the end of the program. The changes in the psychological variables of the questionnaire were identified and considered as outcome
Studio di prevalenza delle polmoniti in un'Azienda opsedaliera di Bologna
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E. Leoni
2003-05-01
Full Text Available
Obiettivi: nellâambito di un progetto di sorveglianza attiva dei casi di polmonite da legionella, è stata studiata la prevalenza di tutti i casi di polmonite ricoverati in un ospedale di Bologna, allo scopo di definirne la distribuzione per origine (comunitaria o nosocomiale, eziologia, caratteristiche individuali e di confrontarle con le polmoniti da legionella.
Metodi: per ogni caso con diagnosi clinica e/o radiologica di polmonite è stato compilato un questionario, raccogliendo le informazioni dalle cartelle cliniche. Tutti i casi di polmonite non specificata sono stati inoltre sottoposti al test per la ricerca dellâantigene di legionella nelle urine.
Echocardiography in the adult's congenital cardiopaties
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Escobar Q, Carlos I; Jaramillo U, Mario; Tenorio, Luis F; Molina V, Claudia; Saldarriaga A, Marcela; Arango, Angela M
2003-01-01
The number of adults with congenital heart disease is steadily increasing in the course of time. We ignore the prevalence and the most frequent diagnoses in our environment. A descriptive prospective study is presented. Between November 1 1999 and July 31 2001, 8871 Tran-thoracic and Tran-esophageal echocardiographies were performed in the Clinica Cardiovascular Santa Maria's echocardiography service. We found 143 congenital cardiopathies (1.6%) in 74 men and 69 women with a mean age of 37.7 +/- 18.4 years. the most frequent diagnoses were bicuspid aortic valve, atrial septal defect, ventricular septal defect, patent ductus arteriosus and Ebstein's anomaly. these findings agree with world wide data
Estudo das vias biliares extrahepáticas em pacientes portadores de "megas" chagásieos
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Donald Huggins
1972-06-01
Full Text Available Em 22 pacientes internados no Hospital das Clinicas da F. M. U. F. Pe e portadores de "megas" chagásicos. cuja etiologia foi comprovada através de pesquisas epidemiológicas, clÃnicas e laboratoriais, realizamos a colecisto-colangiografia intravenosa. Verificamos em 21 enfermos a vesÃcula e o colédoco com topografia, morfologia e dmãmica normais. Em apenas um doente encontramos a vesÃcula bastante aumentada de volume e o coledoco de calibre dilatado, sem imagem de cálculo no seu interior. O tempo de esvaziamento colédoco-duodeno muito prolongado, sugeriu alterações motoras.
A importância da 1ª refeição do dia
OpenAIRE
Antunes, Cláudia de Jesus Pontes
2013-01-01
Trabalho final de mestrado integrado em Medicina área cientÃfica de Nutrição Clinica, apresentado á Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de Coimbra Introdução: o pequeno-almoço tem sido sinónimo de uma alimentação saudável, sendo comummente aceite como a refeição mais importante, pois dele depende o equilÃbrio alimentar do dia, constituindo um fator relevante a nÃvel da performance cognitiva, da redução do risco de doenças crónicas, entre as quais se destacam a obesidade, diabetes e doenç...
Isolation of Pseudomonas aeruginosa strains from dental office environments and units in Barretos, state of São Paulo, Brazil, and analysis of their susceptibility to antimicrobial drugs Isolamento de cepas de Pseudomonas aeruginosa provenientes do meio ambiente e de equipos dentarios em clinicas dentarias em Barretos, São Paulo, Brasil; analises da susceptibilidade das cepas a drogas antimicrobianas
Directory of Open Access Journals (Sweden)
Ana Claudia de Oliveira
2008-09-01
Full Text Available A wide variety of opportunistic pathogens has been detected in the tubing supplying water to odontological equipment, in special in the biofilm lining of these tubes. Among these pathogens, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, one of the leading causes of nosocomial infections, is frequently found in water lines supplying dental units. In the present work, 160 samples of water, and 200 fomite samples from forty dental units were collected in the city of Barretos, State of São Paulo, Brazil and evaluated between January and July, 2005. Seventy-six P. aeruginosa strains, isolated from the dental environment (5 strains and water system (71 strains, were tested for susceptibility to six antimicrobial drugs most frequently used against P. aeruginosa infections. Susceptibility to ciprofloxacin, followed by meropenem was the predominant profile. The need for effective means of reducing the microbial burden within dental unit water lines is emphasized, and the risk of exposure and cross-infection in dental practice, in special when caused by opportunistic pathogens like P. aeruginosa, are highlighted.Uma ampla variedade de patógenos oportunistas tem sido detectadas nos tubos de alimentação de água dos equipos odontológicos, particularmente no biofilme formado na superfÃcie do tubo. Entre os patógenos oportunistas encontrados nos tubos de água, Pseudomonas aeruginosa é reconhecida como uma das principais causadoras de infecções nosocomiais. Foram coletadas 160 amostras de água e 200 amostras de fomites em quarenta clinicas odontológicas na cidade de Barretos, São Paulo, Brasil, durante o perÃodo de Janeiro a Julho de 2005. Setenta e seis cepas de P. aeruginosa, isoladas a partir dos fomites (5 cepas e das amostras de água (71 cepas, foram analisadas quanto à susceptibilidade à seis drogas antimicrobianas freqüentemente utilizadas para o tratamento de infecções provocadas por P. aeruginosa. As principais suscetibilidades observadas foram para a
Surgical extrusion: A reliable technique for saving compromised teeth. A 5-years follow-up case report
Directory of Open Access Journals (Sweden)
Jenner Argueta
2018-06-01
Full Text Available Aim: To present a long term follow up clinical case in which a compromised anterior tooth was saved by a surgical extrusion procedure. Summary: Although different techniques have been suggested for clinical crown lengthening in the anterior zone, some of them have limitations in terms of aesthetics and procedural requirements. The current case report demonstrates how a simplified surgical extrusion procedure was successfully performed for saving a severely damaged anterior tooth; furthermore, it is possible to apply the technique described in this case using minimum and simple armamentarium like a scalpel, elevators, forceps and splinting flexible cord. Key-learning points: Saving severely compromised anterior teeth is possible by applying surgical extrusion techniques when crown-root ratio allows it. Risk of root resorption or ankylosis is minimum. Riassunto: Obiettivo: Presentare un caso clinico con controllo a 5 anni in cui un dente anteriore compromesso è stato recuperato con una procedura di estrusione chirurgica. Riassunto: Sebbene siano state suggerite diverse tecniche per lâallungamento della corona clinica nella zona anteriore, alcune di esse presentano limitazioni in termini di estetica e competenza nelle procedure. Il presente case report dimostra come una procedura di estrusione chirurgica semplificata sia stata eseguita con successo per salvare un dente anteriore gravemente danneggiato. Va sottolineato che la tecnica descritta in questo caso può essere portata a termine utilizzando un armamentario minimo e molto semplice come un bisturi, leve, pinze e uno splintaggio flessibile. Key learning points: Eâ possibile salvare elementi dentari gravemente compromessi applicando tecniche di estrusione chirurgica quando il rapporto corona-radice lo consente. Il rischio di riassorbimento della radice o anchilosi è minimo. Keywords: Crown fracture, Crown lengthening, Surgical extrusion, Surgical repositioning, Biologic width, Parole
Meningiomas of pineal region in children Meningiomas da região da pineal em crianças
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Hamilton Matushita
2007-12-01
Full Text Available Meningiomas are uncommon tumors in children and either more rarely encountered in the pineal region. We report two cases of meningioma of the pineal region in children. One of these cases was a five years-old girl and the other a one year-old boy. No specific clinical presentation or tomographic examinations findings was identified before treatment, suggestive of a diagnosis of menigioma. The clinical and laboratory features were very similar to the most common tumors of the pineal region. Prior to the surgery, the histology of these tumors was not suspected. Both patients underwent direct surgery and complete removal was achieved by a suboccipital transtentorial approach. The tumors originated from velum interpositum in both cases. At the follow up, one case presented with recurrence six years later, and she underwent a reoperation with total resection without morbidity. Long-term follow up presented no other recurrences.Meningiomas são tumores poucos frequentes em crianças, e mais raramente encontrados na região da pineal. Relatamos dois casos de meningioma da região da pineal em crianças, uma menina de cinco anos e um menino de um ano de idade. Não foi identificada nenhuma forma de apresentação clinica ou caracteristica tomográfica, antes do tratamento, que sugerisse o diagnóstico de meningioma. As caracterÃsticas clinicas e laboratoriais encontradas foram similares à s de tumores mais frequentes da região da pineal. Ambos os pacientes foram submetidos ao tratamento cirúrgico e a remoção completa foi obtida por abordagem suboccipital transtentorial. Durante o seguimento, um dos pacientes foi reoperado por recorrencia do tumor seis anos após o tratamento inicial. Atualmente, os pacientes encontram-se livres de recorrência tumoral.
The Albanian Cultural Heritage on the Internet
Directory of Open Access Journals (Sweden)
Nicola Maiellaro
2014-07-01
Full Text Available EnThe paper discusses the production of an interactive map (both for desktop and for mobile aiming to support the promotion of the cultural heritage, using an authoring system. At present, the tools feature 13 heritage sites across the County of Tirana, which are supported by text and photographs supplied by IMK - Instituti i Monumenteve te Kultures âGani Strazimiriâ (Institute for Cultural Monuments within the project âS.O.S. â Squiperia Open Sourceâ, funded by the Apulia Region. We include experience of developing the tools as a possible benefit to other developers in the cultural sector.ItL'articolo illustra la produzione di una mappa interattiva (per sistemi 'desktop' e 'mobile' finalizzata a dare supporto alla promozione del patrimonio culturale, realizzata mediante un sistema autore. Attualmente il sistema gestisce 13 siti di interesse culturale collocati nel distretto di Tirana in Albania, con testi e fotografie fornite da IMK - Instituti i Monumenteve te Kultures 'Gani Strazimiri' (Istituto per i Monumenti della Cultura nell'ambito del progetto 'S.O.S. - Squiperia Open Source', finanziato dalla Regione Puglia. La descrizione del sistema può essere utile agli sviluppatori che operano nel settore culturale.Â
Online Pornography. The panopticon and its pleasures
Directory of Open Access Journals (Sweden)
Walter Stefano Baroni
2015-05-01
Full Text Available Lâarticolo affronta la questione della pornografia online, concentrandosi su alcuni dei suoi grandi hub presenti sulla rete, come xnxx.com, youporn.com e worldsex.com, cercando di ottenere una comprensione più ampia dellâesperienza che offrono ai loro fruitori. A partire da una prospettiva foucaultiana e dalle nozioni di panopticon e disciplina, il saggio cerca di proporre una descrizione thick dellâhardcore digitale. Seguendo le indicazioni di Geertz, per cui i testi culturali possono essere intesi solo a partire da unâattenta lettura del contesto semiotico in cui sono inseriti, i materiali pornografici online sono analizzati non solo nelle loro dimensioni testuali, ma anche in quelle paratestuali. In questo modo, gli hub del porno cambiano aspetto. Non più semplici canali di distribuzione di sesso da guardare, ma spettacoli disciplinari, nei quali i corpi sono sottoposti a una disciplina anarchica di estrazione del piacere. Le pratiche disciplinari in questione si svolgono in un mondo privo di uno spazio e di un tempo preciso, dando così forma alla rappresentazione di una società utopica, il cui centro è il corpo della vittima come superficie infinitamente lacerabile.
[The whole world in a cup of coffee. Case reports].
Science.gov (United States)
De Fiore, Luca
2009-01-01
There is a rising interest for clinical cases in medicine. Actually, they don't necessarily conflict with the evidence-based medicine approach; rather, as several authors made clear, EBM-oriented case reports and clinical trials could be complementary. Cases and case series could even represent the first line of evidence and they are extremely valuable in discovering new pathologies and monitoring unexpected drug effects. They also play a relevant role in continuing medical education. The new section of Recenti Progressi in Medicina is edited by a prominent Italian research Institute (Istituto di Fisiologia Clinica, CNR). It focuses on a single case, guiding the physicians' decision-making from differential diagnosis to the treatment options.
[Prevention of psychosocial issues and drug addiction in workers employed in building great infrastructures: first outcomes of an experience in the Florence area].
Science.gov (United States)
Carpentiero, L; Costa, G; De Luca, G; Piovanelli, S; Venè, D; Righini, S; Marini, M; Baldanzi, S; Selvi, A; Scalas, S; Cassitto, M G; Sartori, S; Lacangellera, D; Bosco, A
2009-01-01
The research on stress, mobbing, and substance dependence in workers employed in the building of the great infrastructures is part of the project Euridice-Ten. The 75% of the workers employed took part in the research through an anonymous and structured questionnaire. The Clinica del Lavoro of the University of Milan elaborated the data. They point out a high risk of stress, a low level of control, a marked risk of mobbing, a high chronic fatigue in the most exhausting jobs, sleep disorders, problems in the social life as well as at home, in nourishment and at work. Many workers drink too much alcohol and the 9% of the workers know workers who use cocaine.
Implantation of total body irradiation in radiotherapy
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Habitzreuter, Angela Beatriz
2010-01-01
Before implementing a treatment technique, the characteristics of the beam under irradiation conditions must be well acknowledged and studied. Each one of the parameters used to calculate the dose has to be measured and validated before its utilization in clinical practice. This is particularly necessary when dealing with special techniques. In this work, all necessary parameters and measurements are described for the total body irradiation implementation in facilities designed for conventional treatments that make use of unconventional geometries to generate desired enlarged field sizes. Furthermore, this work presents commissioning data of this modality at Hospital das Clinicas of Sao Paulo using comparison of three detectors types for measurements of entrance dose during total body irradiation treatment. (author)
Translation, adaptation, and validation of the Stanford Hypnotic Clinical Scale in Puerto Rico.
Science.gov (United States)
Deynes-Exclusa, Yazmin; Sayers-Montalvo, Sean K; Martinez-Taboas, Alfonso
2011-04-01
The only hypnotizability scale that has been translated and validated for the Puerto Rican population is the Barber Suggestibility Scale (BSS). In this article, the Stanford Hypnotic Clinical Scale (SHCS) was translated and validated for this population. The translated SHCS ("Escala Stanford de Hipnosis Clinica" [ESHC]) was administered individually to 100 Puerto Rican college students. There were no significant differences found between the norms of the original SHCS samples and the Spanish version of the SHCS. Both samples showed similar distributions. The Spanish version's internal reliability as well as the item discrimination index were adequate. The authors conclude that the ESHC is an adequate instrument to measure hypnotizability in the Puerto Rican population.
Il senso del lavoro e il suo contesto. Una rilettura di Bartleby lo scrivano di Herman Melville
Directory of Open Access Journals (Sweden)
Giuseppe Ruvolo
2015-09-01
Full Text Available Attraverso una rilettura critica del noto racconto di Herman Melville Bartleby lo scrivano, viene proposta una chiave di comprensione psico-antropologica delle condotte lavorative, delle relazioni nei contesti lavorativi e delle loro ricadute psicopatologiche. In particolare viene avanzata una lettura che connette i comportamenti e le relazioni lavorative quali esiti della difficoltà dei singoli nella mentalizzazione dei modelli ideologico-culturali che li determinano in un dato momento storico. Viene criticata una lettura, tendenzialmente presente in psicologia clinica e in psicologia del lavoro, in chiave riduttivamente individualistica, la quale attribuisce al singolo presunti deficit psichici ricercando le cause, e gli antecedenti delle condotte disadattive delle formazioni psicopatologiche, nella sola storia personale e individuale dei soggetti.
The equivalent Histograms in clinical practice; Los histogramas equivalentes en la practica clinica
Energy Technology Data Exchange (ETDEWEB)
Pizarro Trigo, F.; Teijeira Garcia, M.; Zaballos Carrera, S.
2013-07-01
Is frequently abused of The tolerances established for organ at risk [1] in diagrams of standard fractionation (2Gy/session, 5 sessions per week) when applied to Dose-Volume histograms non-standard schema. The purpose of this work is to establish when this abuse may be more important and realize a transformation of fractionation non-standard of histograms dosis-volumen. Is exposed a case that can be useful to make clinical decisions. (Author)
Cardiovascular risk assessment: audit findings from a nurse clinic--a quality improvement initiative.
Science.gov (United States)
Waldron, Sarah; Horsburgh, Margaret
2009-09-01
Evidence has shown the effectiveness of risk factor management in reducing mortality and morbidity from cardiovascular disease (CVD). An audit of a nurse CVD risk assessment programme undertaken between November 2005 and December 2008 in a Northland general practice. A retrospective audit of CVD risk assessment with data for the first entry of 621 patients collected exclusively from PREDICT-CVDTM, along with subsequent data collected from 320 of these patients who had a subsequent assessment recorded at an interval ranging from six months to three years (18 month average). Of the eligible population (71%) with an initial CVD risk assessment, 430 (69.2%) had afive-year absolute risk less than 15%, with 84 (13.5%) having a risk greater than 15% and having not had a cardiovascular event. Of the patients with a follow-up CVD risk assessment, 34 showed improvement. Medication prescribing for patients with absolute CVD risk greater than 15% increased from 71% to 86% for anti-platelet medication and for lipid lowering medication from 65% to 72% in the audit period. The recently available 'heart health' trajectory tool will help patients become more aware of risks that are modifiable, together with community support to engage more patients in the nurse CVD prevention programme. Further medication audits to monitor prescribing trends. Patients who showed an improvement in CVD risk had an improvement in one or more modifiable risk factors and became actively involved in making changes to their health.
Fracture liaison service in a non-regional orthopaedic clinic--a cost-effective service.
LENUS (Irish Health Repository)
Ahmed, M
2012-01-01
Fracture liaison services (FLS) aim to provide cost-effective targeting of secondary fracture prevention. It is proposed that a dedicated FLS be available in any hospital to which a patient presents with a fracture. An existing orthopaedic clinic nurse was retrained to deliver a FLS. Proformas were used so that different nurses could assume the fracture liaison nurse (FLN) role, as required. Screening consisted of fracture risk estimation, phlebotomy and DXA scanning. 124 (11%) of all patients attending the orthopaedic fracture clinic were reviewed in the FLS. Upper limb fractures accounted for the majority of fragility fractures screened n=69 (55.6%). Two-thirds of patients (n=69) had reduced bone mineral density (BMD). An evidence based approach to both non-pharmacological and pharmacotherapy was used and most patients (76.6%) receiving pharmacotherapy received an oral bisphosphonate (n=46). The FLS has proven to be an effective way of delivering secondary prevention for osteoporotic fracture in a non-regional fracture clinic, without increasing staff costs.
Dispositivi formativi e forme di vita
Directory of Open Access Journals (Sweden)
Francesco Cappa
2016-02-01
Full Text Available Il dibattito pedagogico che ha caratterizzato gli ultimi anni ha spesso insistito sullâimportanza del nesso tra sviluppo tecnologico e modelli formativi. Questa relazione, però, troppo spesso non valorizza i modi in cui lâesperienza educativa e formativa dovrebbe essere sempre più accuratamente pensata, progettata e predisposta se vista dalla prospettiva delle buone pratiche tecnologiche. Tale valorizzazione dellâistanza formativa deve prendere avvio da una riflessione critica e approfondita sui modelli impliciti ed espliciti che caratterizzano le pratiche educative e formative, valorizzando lâuso e lâinterpretazione che i soggetti rendono attuali.Per consentire tale riflessione è necessario pensare un dispositivo pedagogico che non perda di vista la complessità delle dimensioni che agiscono nellâaccadere educativo, capace di creare nuovi percorsi di sperimentazione delle conoscenze e nuove ipotesi di formazione di sé e degli altri. La formazione interpretata alla luce dei dispositivi pedagogici può offrire un valido strumento teorico e pratico per immaginare, progettare e valutare gli effetti che ogni azione formativa produce legati alla trasformazione dei saperi, alla vita delle forme e alle forme di vita contemporanee.
Minimally invasive aesthetic procedures in young adults
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Wollina U
2011-03-01
Full Text Available Uwe Wollina1, Alberto Goldman21Department of Dermatology and Allergology, Academic Teaching Hospital Dresden-Friedrichstadt, Dresden, Germany; 2Clinica Goldman, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande du Sul, BrazilAbstract: Age is a significant factor in modifying specific needs when it comes to medical aesthetic procedures. In this review we will focus on young adults in their third decade of life and review minimally invasive aesthetic procedures other than cosmetics and cosmeceuticals. Correction of asymmetries, correction after body modifying procedures, and facial sculpturing are important issues for young adults. The implication of aesthetic medicine as part of preventive medicine is a major ethical challenge that differentiates aesthetic medicine from fashion.Keywords: acne scars, ice pick scars, boxcar scars, fillersÂ
External auditory canal atresia of probable congenital origin in a dog.
Science.gov (United States)
Schmidt, K; Piaia, T; Bertolini, G; De Lorenzi, D
2007-04-01
A nine-month-old Labrador retriever was referred to the Clinica Veterinaria Privata San Marco because of frequent headshaking and downward turning of the right ear. Clinical examination revealed that there was no external acoustic meatus in the right ear. Computed tomography confirmed that the vertical part of the right auditory canal ended blindly, providing a diagnosis of external auditory canal atresia. Cytological examination and culture of fluid from the canal and the bulla revealed only aseptic cerumen; for this reason, it was assumed that the dog was probably affected by a congenital developmental deformity of the external auditory canal. Reconstructive surgery was performed using a "pull-through" technique. Four months after surgery the cosmetic and functional results were satisfactory.
Evaluation of the thermoluminescent detector answers of CaSO{sub 4}:Dy, LiF:Mg,Ti and micro LiF:Mg,Ti in photon clinical beams dosimetry using water simulator; Avaliacao da resposta de detectores termoluminescentes de CaSO4:Dy, LiF:Mg,Ti e microLiF:Mg,Ti na dosimetria de feixes clinicos de fotons utilizando simulador de agua
Energy Technology Data Exchange (ETDEWEB)
Matsushima, Luciana C.; Veneziani, Glauco R.; Campos, Leticia L., E-mail: lmatsushima@usp.b, E-mail: veneziani@ipen.b, E-mail: lcrodri@ipen.b [Instituto de Pesquisas Energeticas e Nucleares (GMR/IPEN/CNEN-SP), Sao Paulo, SP (Brazil). Gerencia de Metrologia das Radiacoes; Sakuraba, Roberto K.; Cruz, Jose C. da, E-mail: rsakuraba@einstein.b, E-mail: jccruz@einstein.b [Sociedade Beneficente Israelita Brasileira, Sao Paulo, SP (Brazil). Hospital Albert Einstein (HAE)
2011-10-26
This paper perform the comparative study of thermoluminescent answer of calcium sulfate dosemeter doped with dysprosium (DaSO{sub 4}:Dy) produced by the IPEN, Sao Paulo, with answer of lithium fluoride dosemeters doped with magnesium and titanium (LiF:Mg, Ti) in the dosimetry of clinical beams of photons (6 and 15 MV) by using water simulator object. Dose-answer curves were obtained for gamma radiation of cobalt-60 in the air and in conditions of electronic equilibrium (plate of PMMA), and clinical photons of CLINAC model 2100C accelerators of the two evaluated hospitals: Hospital das Clinicas of the Faculty of Medicine of Sao Paulo university and Hospital Albert Einstein. It was also evaluated the sensitivity and reproduction of the three dosemeters
Estudo piloto sobre esquistossomose mansoni em área rural do MunicÃpio de Itanhomi, Vale do Rio Doce, Minas Gerais
Directory of Open Access Journals (Sweden)
Maria José Conceição
1978-12-01
Full Text Available Neste trabalho os autores apresentam dados relativos à prevalência e formas clinicas da esquistossomose mansoni, hospedeiro intermediário e determinação do seu Ãndice de infecção em Santa Luzia do Carneiro, área rural do MunicÃpio de Itanhomi, Vale do Rio Doce, Minas Gerais. O estudo seccional da população revelou 42,1% de positividade para ovos de S.mansoni em um exame de fezes peto método de Lutz (Hoffmann, Ponz, Janer e um percentual de 6,8% de pacientes com hepato-esplenomegalia. O hospedeiro intermediário encontrado foi a B.glabrata com um Ãndice de infecção de 3,2%.
Evaluation of the thermoluminescent detector answers of CaSO4:Dy, LiF:Mg,Ti and micro LiF:Mg,Ti in photon clinical beams dosimetry using water simulator
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
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https://www.royalbooks.com/pages/books/152153/mario-mattoli-steno-marion-monicelli-carlo-campanini-walter-chiari-silvana-pampanini-director/linafferrabile-12-original-photograph-from-the-1950-film
|
en
|
Mario Mattoli, Steno Marion Monicelli, Carlo Campanini Walter
|
[
"https://royalbooks.cdn.bibliopolis.com/pictures/152153.jpg?width=768&height=1000&fit=bounds&auto=webp&v=1706260445"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[
"www.bibliopolis.com"
] | null |
Italy: Industrie Cinematografiche Sociali ICS , 1950. Vintage keybook photograph of actress Silvana Pampanini from the 1950 Italian comedy. Twin brothers discover each other as adults after being separated at birth due to them being the twelfth and unlucky thirteenth children born into a family. 8 x 10 inches. Three-hole punch to the top edge as called for. Very Good plus, with light curling and a short diagonal crease to the bottom
|
en
|
https://www.royalbooks.com/favicon.ico
|
Royal Books
|
https://www.royalbooks.com/pages/books/152153/mario-mattoli-steno-marion-monicelli-carlo-campanini-walter-chiari-silvana-pampanini-director/linafferrabile-12-original-photograph-from-the-1950-film
|
L'inafferrabile 12
Mario Mattoli (director)
Marion Monicelli, Steno (screenwriters)
Walter Chiari, Carlo Campanini, Silvana Pampanini (starring)
Italy: Industrie Cinematografiche Sociali (ICS), 1950. Vintage keybook photograph of actress Silvana Pampanini from the 1950 Italian comedy.
Twin brothers discover each other as adults after being separated at birth due to them being the twelfth and unlucky thirteenth children born into a family.
8 x 10 inches. Three-hole punch to the top edge as called for. Very Good plus, with light curling and a short diagonal crease to the bottom left corner.
[Book #152153]
|
||||
6088
|
dbpedia
|
2
| 2
|
https://www.themoviedb.org/movie/409391-l-inafferrabile-12%3Flanguage%3Den-US
|
en
|
L'inafferrabile 12
|
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[
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"Reviews",
"API",
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"Actresses",
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] | null |
[] | null |
Two twin brothers grew up and never met (due to the fact that the father with the couple would have had 13 children and therefore for superstition he closed one in an orphanage), the one goalkeeper of Juventus and the other employee at the state lottery.
|
de
|
/assets/2/apple-touch-icon-57ed4b3b0450fd5e9a0c20f34e814b82adaa1085c79bdde2f00ca8787b63d2c4.png
|
The Movie Database
|
https://www.themoviedb.org/movie/409391-l-inafferrabile-12
|
Two twin brothers grew up and never met (due to the fact that the father with the couple would have had 13 children and therefore for superstition he closed one in an orphanage), the one goalkeeper of Juventus and the other employee at the state lottery.
|
||||
6088
|
dbpedia
|
0
| 11
|
https://www.academia.edu/36013691/Book_Review_Vilma_De_Gasperin_Loss_and_the_Other_in_the_Visionary_Work_of_Anna_Maria_Ortese
|
en
|
Book Review: Vilma De Gasperin, Loss and the Other in the Visionary Work of Anna Maria Ortese
|
http://a.academia-assets.com/images/open-graph-icons/fb-paper.gif
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http://a.academia-assets.com/images/open-graph-icons/fb-paper.gif
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[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[
"Stefano Bellin",
"warwick.academia.edu"
] |
2018-02-25T00:00:00
|
Book Review: Vilma De Gasperin, Loss and the Other in the Visionary Work of Anna Maria Ortese
|
https://www.academia.edu/36013691/Book_Review_Vilma_De_Gasperin_Loss_and_the_Other_in_the_Visionary_Work_of_Anna_Maria_Ortese
|
The Italian historiography of the State of Milan in the early modern period has shown a deep transformation during the last three decades, modifying significantly the traditional paradigms of decadence and Spanish domination. This change was notably promoted from the Economic History that conceived a new vision on the study of the seventeenth century. In conjunction with that revision, the new winds in the Spanish historiography brought a number of scholarly works about the extra-peninsular territories of the Spanish monarchy that contributed to the renewal of the modern history of the State of Milan. In an attempt to contribute to the historiographical reflection, this paper aims to raise a debate about how the research about the Reason of State has influenced or could influence in the way the historiography looks at the State of Milan within the Spanish monarchy. Could Reason of State be approached as common factor in both historiographies, Spanish and Italian?. Or, just the opposite, should we talk about different "Reasons" of State ? To enrich the discussion we will look at three political texts published around 1626, year in which the Peace of Monzón, treatise between Spain and France within the Valtellina´s context, was signed off. These reference writings are ‘Discorso politico intorno della conservazione della pace dell’Italia’ by Ottavio Sammarco (1626), ‘Discurso en que se representa cuánto conviene a la Monarchía española la conservación del estado de Milán’, by Carlos Coloma (1626) and ‘Della ragion di stato’ by Ludovico Settala (1627).
In this paper, I intend to show that the interdisciplinary study of chronicles can tell us much not just about the texts themselves, but also about their possible purpose, intended audience, and reception. In order to do this, I use the chronicle written by the civic notary Giovanni Codagnello of Piacenza (d.1235) as case study. In particular, I focus on the annals and on some of the myths and fabulous histories there included, as these have not received much attention. Through a philological analysis of these myths, I argue that Codagnello consciously re-elaborated works by authors such as Isidore of Seville, Paul the Deacon, Dares Phrygius, and others, fitting them to his own purpose: to convince his fellow citizens that the civil war which broke out in his city in the 1220s and 30s was not only disruptive, but also went against a tradition of civic unity and alliance with the city of Milan which originated in times unmemorable. Indeed, a consequence of the civil war was the interruption of the century-long alliance with ‘anti-imperial’ Milan and the passage to the enemy front, led by the ‘pro-imperial’ Cremona, a former arch-enemy of Piacenza. Thus, together with re-assessing these myths (which with few exceptions, have been largely overlooked or misunderstood by historians of communal-age literature and history) and placing them within a precise historical context, I argue that in communal-age Italy chronicles and fabulous histories could have a high political importance. Indeed, through the analysis of contemporary literature, archival documents, and meta-textual mentions to orality present in the chronicle, I argue that historical texts such as these could be read in civic assemblies – the core of political life in contemporary communes – or anyway incorporated into political orations, thus playing an important role when it came to take decisions of political nature. Finally, I analyse the manuscript itself, arguing that this was commissioned by the civic government of Piacenza in around 1250, and that therefore, even after the death of its author, this chronicle was intended to continue to serve important public political functions.
|
|||||
6088
|
dbpedia
|
1
| 9
|
https://www.allmovie.com/movie/linafferrabile-12-am412992
|
en
|
Music Search, Recommendations, Videos and Reviews
|
[
"https://cf.allmusic.com/images/logo_tower_whiteonblack.svg",
"https://b.scorecardresearch.com/p?c1=2&c2=6685975&cv=2.0&cj=1"
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[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[] | null |
AllMusic provides comprehensive music info including reviews and biographies. Get recommendations for new music to listen to, stream or own.
|
en
|
AllMusic
|
https://www.allmusic.com/updated
| ||||||
6088
|
dbpedia
|
1
| 5
|
https://www.themoviedb.org/movie/409391-l-inafferrabile-12%3Flanguage%3Den-US
|
en
|
L'inafferrabile 12
|
[
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[] |
[] |
[
"Movies",
"TV Shows",
"Streaming",
"Reviews",
"API",
"Actors",
"Actresses",
"Photos",
"User Ratings",
"Synopsis",
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"Teasers",
"Credits",
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] | null |
[] | null |
Two twin brothers grew up and never met (due to the fact that the father with the couple would have had 13 children and therefore for superstition he closed one in an orphanage), the one goalkeeper of Juventus and the other employee at the state lottery.
|
de
|
/assets/2/apple-touch-icon-57ed4b3b0450fd5e9a0c20f34e814b82adaa1085c79bdde2f00ca8787b63d2c4.png
|
The Movie Database
|
https://www.themoviedb.org/movie/409391-l-inafferrabile-12
|
Two twin brothers grew up and never met (due to the fact that the father with the couple would have had 13 children and therefore for superstition he closed one in an orphanage), the one goalkeeper of Juventus and the other employee at the state lottery.
|
||||
6088
|
dbpedia
|
1
| 10
|
https://letterboxd.com/director/mario-mattoli/
|
en
|
Films directed by Mario Mattoli
|
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[
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[] | null |
Films directed by Mario Mattoli
|
en
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https://letterboxd.com/director/mario-mattoli/
|
Letterboxd is an independent service created by a small team, and we rely mostly on the support of our members to maintain our site and apps. Please consider upgrading to a Pro account—for less than a couple bucks a month, you’ll get cool additional features like all-time and annual stats pages (example), the ability to select (and filter by) your favorite streaming services, and no ads!
|
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6088
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dbpedia
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3
| 7
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https://m.imdb.com/title/tt0042594/mediaindex
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en
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Süßer Reis (1950)
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[] | null |
Süßer Reis: Directed by Mario Mattoli. With Walter Chiari, Silvana Pampanini, Isa Barzizza, Carlo Campanini. Two twin brothers grew up and never met (due to the fact that the father with the couple would have had 13 children and therefore for superstition he closed one in an orphanage), the one goalkeeper of Juventus and the other employee at the state lottery.
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en
|
IMDb
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https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0042594/mediaindex/
| ||||||
6088
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dbpedia
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1
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|
https://www.allmovie.com/movie/linafferrabile-12-am412992/related
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en
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Music Search, Recommendations, Videos and Reviews
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[
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AllMusic provides comprehensive music info including reviews and biographies. Get recommendations for new music to listen to, stream or own.
|
en
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AllMusic
|
https://www.allmusic.com/updated
| ||||||
6088
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dbpedia
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0
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https://www.academia.edu/71582602/Characterising_the_Anthropocene_Ecological_Degradation_in_Italian_Twenty_First_Century_Literary_Writing
|
en
|
Characterising the Anthropocene: Ecological Degradation in Italian Twenty-First Century Literary Writing
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[
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] | null |
[
"Alessandro Macilenti",
"independent.academia.edu"
] |
2022-02-15T00:00:00
|
The twenty-first century has witnessed the exacerbation of ecological issues that began to manifest themselves in the mid-twentieth century. It has become increasingly clear that the current environmental crisis poses an unprecedented existential
|
https://www.academia.edu/71582602/Characterising_the_Anthropocene_Ecological_Degradation_in_Italian_Twenty_First_Century_Literary_Writing
|
The twenty-first century has witnessed the exacerbation of ecological issues that began to manifest themselves in the mid-twentieth century. It is increasingly clear that the current environmental crisis poses an unprecedented existential threat to civilization as well as to Homo sapiens itself. Whereas the physical and social sciences have been defining the now inevitable transition to a very different (and more inhospitable) Earth, the humanities have yet to assert their role as a transformative force in the current environmental criticalities. My thesis shows how Italian literature draws from the treasure-trove of the emotive to exert powerful psychological effects on the reader, therefore representing an invaluable tool to introduce the Italian public to the discomforting truths of a rapidly degrading global ecosystem while avoiding the polarising effect which haunts impersonal science communication.
This volume explores Italian science fiction from the nineteenth century to the twenty-first, covering literary texts, films, music, and visual works by figures as diverse as Maria Rosa Cutrufelli, Peter Kolosimo, Primo Levi, Antonio Margheriti, Gilda Musa, and Roberto Vacca. It broadens the horizons of both Italian studies and the environmental humanities by addressing a long-neglected genre, and expands understanding of relations between the ecological, the imaginary, and the sociopolitical. The chapters draw on a variety of methodological frameworks, including animal studies, ecocriticism, ecofeminism, eco-media studies, energy humanities, and posthumanism. There is a wealth of insights regarding topics such as anthropocentrism/speciesism, ecomodernist thought, environmental justice struggles at the planetary and regional level, non-human and new materialist ontologies, utopian/dystopian philosophies, and prospects for transitioning beyond the crisis of petromodernity through the construction of post-depletion futures.
It is difficult to define what belongs exclusively to Environmental History (EH), and even more what belongs to Italian Environmental History (IEH). This discipline often includes research concerned with different chronological periods, issues, approaches, and methods. This plurality of perspectives reflects the varied and often contrasting labels attached to those studies. This plurality of paths and experiences should not be considered a problem, but an opportunity to overcome the limitations of the current hyperspecialized structuring of research. For this reason, we have chosen to refer to the multidisciplinary area of the environmental humanities as the common ground. On the other hand, we have chosen a new way to present IEH to an international public: the interview and, especially in the last part, the multidisciplinary and hybrid dialogue
Barron, Patrick and Anna Re, eds. Italian Environmental Literature: An Anthology. New York: Italica Press, 2003. --------------------- Italian Environmental Literature An Anthology Edited by Patrick Barron and Anna Re Foreword by John Elder Preface by Rebecca West ITALY has always presented itself in the modern Anglophone mind as the quintessential urban society: art, style and high culture; ancient, medieval and Renaissance cities; modern urban blight, crime and immigration. Yet Italy has perhaps the longest and most continuous tradition of environmental thinking and writing, stretching from the bucolic ideal of the ancient Romans, through the religious stewardship of creation enshrined by Benedict of Nursia in the sixth century in the monastic movement, to the nature mysticism of the high Middle Ages symbolized by Francis of Assisi. IN THE MODERN ERA Italy took its place very early on alongside the American conservation movement, and by the later 20th century it boasted a fully aware — and politically active — environmental movement. THIS VOLUME brings together, for the first time — in Italy or for an English-speaking audience — a collection of over 40 authors from this deep and broad tradition of Italian environmental writing. Poetry and prose, the essay, the political and economic tract, and the new arts are all represented in this collection. THE AUTHORS include: Corrado Alvaro Daria Menicanti Mariella Bettarini Eugenio Montale Virginio Bettini Giuseppe Moretti Giuseppe Bonaviri Giorgio Nebbia Italo Calvino Luciana Notari Dino Campana Anna Maria Ortese Carlo Cassola Giovanni Pascoli Antonio Cederna Pier Paolo Pasolini Gianni Celati Fulco Pratesi Gabriele D’Annunzio Salvatore Quasimodo Laura Conti Nuto Revelli Giuseppe Dessì Monica Sarsini Danilo Dolci Massimo Scalia Corrado Govoni Carlo Sgorlon Tonino Guerra Ignazio Silone Jolanda Insana Mario Rigoni Stern Carlo Levi Studio Azzurro Nicola Licciardello Alfredo Todisco Loredana Lucarini Giuseppe Ungaretti Gianna Manzini Andrea Zanzotto. Gianni Mattioli
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6088
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https://cineuropa.org/en/film/414243/
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L'inafferrabile 12
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[
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[] | null |
Cineuropa - the best of european cinema
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en
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apple-touch-icon.png?v=190924
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Cineuropa - the best of european cinema
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https://cineuropa.org/en/film/414243/
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Copyright Disclaimer
The images used on this website have been provided by journalists and are believed to be free of rights. However, if you are the owner of an image used on this website and believe that its use infringes on your copyright, please contact us immediately. We will remove the image in question as soon as possible. We have made reasonable efforts to ensure that all images used on this website are used legally and in accordance with copyright laws.
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Süßer Reis: Directed by Mario Mattoli. With Walter Chiari, Silvana Pampanini, Isa Barzizza, Carlo Campanini. Two twin brothers grew up and never met (due to the fact that the father with the couple would have had 13 children and therefore for superstition he closed one in an orphanage), the one goalkeeper of Juventus and the other employee at the state lottery.
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Two twin brothers grew up and never met (due to the fact that the father with the couple would have had 13 children and therefore for superstition he closed one in an orphanage), the one goa... Read allTwo twin brothers grew up and never met (due to the fact that the father with the couple would have had 13 children and therefore for superstition he closed one in an orphanage), the one goalkeeper of Juventus and the other employee at the state lottery.Two twin brothers grew up and never met (due to the fact that the father with the couple would have had 13 children and therefore for superstition he closed one in an orphanage), the one goalkeeper of Juventus and the other employee at the state lottery.
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Plaster Casts: Making, Collecting and Displaying from Classical Antiquity to the Present 9783110216875, 9783110208566
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This volume originates from an international conference (Oxford University, 2007). Texts address plaster casts and relat...
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Citation preview
Plaster Casts
Transformationen der Antike
Herausgegeben von Hartmut Böhme, Horst Bredekamp, Johannes Helmrath, Christoph Markschies, Ernst Osterkamp, Dominik Perler, Ulrich Schmitzer
Wissenschaftlicher Beirat: Frank Fehrenbach, Niklaus Largier, Martin Mulsow, Wolfgang Proß, Ernst A. Schmidt, Jürgen Paul Schwindt
Band 18
De Gruyter
Plaster Casts Making, Collecting and Displaying from Classical Antiquity to the Present
Edited by
Rune Frederiksen and Eckart Marchand
De Gruyter
The publication of this volume was made possible through the generous support of the Henry Moore Foundation, Leeds, the Mortimer and Teresa Sackler Fund of Worcester College, Oxford, the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (using funds provided to the Collaborative Research Centre 644 „Transformations of Antiquity“), the Elizabeth Cayzer Charitable Trust, and the following benefactors and institutions of the University of Oxford: the Craven Committee, the Fell Fund, the Classics Faculty and the History Faculty.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Plaster casts : making, collecting, and displaying from classical antiquity to the present / edited by Rune Frederiksen and Eckart Marchand. p. cm. -- (Transformationen der Antike, ISSN 1864-5208 ; Bd. 18) Papers originating from an international conference of the same name, held at Oxford University, Sept. 23-27, 2007. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-3-11-020856-6 (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. Antiquities--Collection and preservation--Congresses. 2. Cultural property--Protection--Congresses. 3. Plaster casts--Congresses. 4. Sculpture, Ancient--Conservation and restoration--Congresses. 5. Art, Ancient--Conservation and restoration--Congresses. 6. Archaeology-Methodology--Congresses. I. Frederiksen, Rune. II. Marchand, Eckart. CC135.P595 2010 363.6'9--dc22 2010010470
ISBN 978-3-11-020856-6 e-ISBN 978-3-11-021687-5 ISSN 1864-5208 Bibliographic Information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliographie; detailed bibliographic data are available in the Internet at http://dnb.d-nb.de
© Copyright 2010 by Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. KG, D-10785 Berlin / New York. Cover Design: Martin Zech, Bremen Logo „Transformation der Antike“: Karsten Asshauer – SEQUENZ Data conversion and typesetting: Dr. Rainer Ostermann, München Printing: Hubert & Co. GmbH & Co. KG, Göttingen ∞ Printed on acid-free paper Printed in Germany www.degruyter.com
Table of Contents Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
XI
RUNE FREDERIKSEN AND ECKART MARCHAND Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1
Antiquity RUNE FREDERIKSEN Plaster Casts in Antiquity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
CHRISTA LANDWEHR The Baiae Casts and the Uniqueness of Roman Copies . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35
The Renaissance ECKART MARCHAND Plaster and Plaster Casts in Renaissance Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
WALTER CUPPERI “Giving away the moulds will cause no damage to his Majesty’s casts” – New Documents on the Vienna Jüngling and the Sixteenth-Century Dissemination of Casts after the Antique in the Holy Roman Empire . . . . .
81
MARTIN BIDDLE “Makinge of moldes for the walles” – The Stuccoes of Nonsuch: materials, methods and origins . . . . . . . . . . . .
99
Making and Distribution from the Eighteenth to the Twentieth Century CHARLOTTE SCHREITER “Moulded from the best originals of Rome” – Eighteenth-Century Production and Trade of Plaster Casts after Antique Sculpture in Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 JAN ZAHLE Laocoön in Scandinavia – Uses and Workshops 1587 onwards . . . . . . . . 143
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PETER MALONE How the Smiths Made a Living . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Artists’ Academies TOMAS MACSOTAY Plaster Casts and Memory Technique: Nicolas Vleughels’ display of cast collections after the antique in the French Academy in Rome (1725–1793) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 CLAUDIA SEDLARZ Incorporating Antiquity – The Berlin Academy of Arts’ Plaster Cast Collection from 1786 until 1815: acquisition, use and interpretation . . . . 197 ELIZABETH FUENTES ROJAS Art and Pedagogy in the Plaster Cast Collection of the Academia de San Carlos in Mexico City . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Artists’ Workshops LÉON E. LOCK Picturing the Use, Collecting and Display of Plaster Casts in Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-Century Artists’ Studios in Antwerp and Brussels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 JOHANNES MYSSOK Modern Sculpture in the Making: Antonio Canova and plaster casts . . . . 269 MATTHEW GREG SULLIVAN Chantrey and the Original Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 JEAN-FRANÇOIS CORPATAUX Live Body Moulding and Maternal Devotion in Marcello’s Studio . . . . . 307 SHARON HECKER Shattering the Mould: Medardo Rosso and the poetics of plaster . . . . . . . 319 MARIA ELENA VERSARI “Impressionism Solidified” – Umberto Boccioni’s Works in Plaster and the Definition of Modernity in Sculpture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331 SUE MALVERN Outside In: the after-life of the plaster cast in contemporary culture. . . . . 351
Table of Contents
VII
JANE MCADAM FREUD Inside Out: a process for production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
Conservation DANIELA ARNOLD, TORSTEN ARNOLD AND ELISABETH RÜBER-SCHÜTTE The Plaster Decoration of the Choir Screens in the Church of Our Lady in Halberstadt: a current conservation project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369 ÁNGELES SOLÍS PARRA, JUDIT GASCA MIRAMÓN, SILVIA VIANA SÁNCHEZ AND JOSÉ MARÍA LUZÓN NOGUÉ The Restoration of Two Plaster Casts Acquired by Velázquez in the Seventeenth Century: the Hercules and Flora Farnese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385 MARIA KLIAFA AND MICHAEL DOULGERIDIS The Contribution of Plaster Sculptures and Casts to Successful Conservation Interventions at the National Gallery of Greece, Athens . . . 403
Architectural Models and Collections after Gems VALENTIN KOCKEL Plaster Models and Plaster Casts of Classical Architecture and its Decoration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419 DANIEL GRAEPLER A Dactyliotheca by James Tassie and Other Collections of Gem Impressions at the University of Göttingen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435 CLAUDIA WAGNER AND GERTRUD SEIDMANN A Munificent Gift: cast collections of gem impressions from the Sir Henry Wellcome Trust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
Casting Nations: The National Museum DIANE BILBEY AND MARJORIE TRUSTED “The Question of Casts” – Collecting and Later Reassessment of the Cast Collections at South Kensington . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465 MALCOLM BAKER The Reproductive Continuum: plaster casts, paper mosaics and photographs as complementary modes of reproduction in the nineteenth-century museum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
VIII
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AXEL GAMPP Plaster Casts and Postcards: the postcard edition of the Musée de Sculpture Comparée at Paris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501 DANA STEHLIKOVÁ More Valuable than Originals? The Plaster Cast Collection in the National Museum of Prague (1818–2008): its history and predecessors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519 TOBIAS BURG Building a Small Albertinum in Moscow: the correspondence between Georg Treu and Ivan Tsvetaev . . . . . . . . . . 539 STEPHEN L. DYSON Cast Collecting in the United States. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557 IAN COOKE Colonial Contexts: the changing meanings of the cast collection of the Auckland War Memorial Museum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
Display and the Future of Plaster Casts HELEN DOREY Sir John Soane’s Casts as Part of his Academy of Architecture at 13 Lincoln’s Inn Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597 ALESSANDRA MENEGAZZI The Museum as a Manifesto of Taste and Ideology: the twentieth-century plaster cast collection of archaeology and art at the University of Padua . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611 JAMES PERKINS Living with Plaster Casts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627 BERNARD VAN DEN DRIESSCHE Le jardin des plâtres: un autre regard sur les collections de moulages The Garden of Plaster Casts: a different view on cast collections . . . . . . . 635
Table of Contents
IX
List of Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651 List of Figures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659 List of Colour Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 685 Colour Plates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691 Index of Names and Places . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 727 Subject index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 745
Preface The present volume originates from the conference of the same name, held in Oxford on 23 to 27 September 2007. The idea of a major international conference on plaster casts arose after a small but enthusiastically received study day Plaster Casts: Making Collecting and Display organized by Eckart Marchand at the University of Reading in October 2005. At Oxford, the team of organizers consisted of Prof. Donna C. Kurtz, Director of the Beazley Archive at the University of Oxford and the present editors. The overwhelming response to a call for papers enabled us to bring together a strong and coherent programme. Speakers, chairs and delegates represented a wide community of scholars, curators, conservators and artists with interests in the material and technique from twelve countries across Europe and the Americas. This volume presents revised versions of the contributions, largely in the sequence in which they were presented at the event. A strong promoter of casts at Oxford, Donna Kurtz contributed decisively to the planning and conception of the conference, and we would like to thank her for those efforts. In addition, the facilities and resources of the Beazley Archive that she directs were of great help for the organization of the event, not the least Nicole Harris, the secretary of the Archive. We should also like to thank R. R. R. Smith, Lincoln Professor of Classical Archaeology at Oxford, and Curator of the Cast Gallery of the Ashmolean Museum, for being a great support at all stages of the conference. Speakers and delegates were housed in Worcester College, Oxford, and welcomed at a reception by its Provost, Mr Richard Smethurst. We would like to thank him and the College for their interest in and support of the conference. Additional events included an excursion to and generous reception at the house of James Perkins at Aynhoe Park, and visits to the Sir John Soane’s Museum and the Royal Academy of Arts’ plaster cast collection at Burlington House in London, where groups were guided by Helen Dorey and Helen Valentine respectively. All three excursions provided privileged inside views into exciting collections and we are deeply indebted to our hosts. An important aim of the conference was to act as a forum for the members of various disciplines and professional groups to exchange ideas and opinions through formal and informal discussions. If the accompanying programme supported the informal exchanges, the sessions provided ample time for structured plenary debates. The chairs contributed greatly to the success of the
XII
Preface
conference through their knowledgeable and inspiring steering of sessions and discussion periods. We should like to express our thanks to all of them – David Bone, Christoph Frank, Valentin Kockel, Donna Kurz, Greg Sullivan, Marjorie Trusted, Timothy Wilson, Jonathan Wood and Jan Zahle. We should also like to thank those speakers whose contributions for various reasons did not enter the present volume: Christoph Frank, Martha Gyllenhaal, John Kenworthy Brown, Donna Kurtz, Michael Neilson, Stephan Schmid, R.R.R. Smith and Marina Sokhan. We are grateful to Sabine Vogt and Manfred Link of De Gruyter and to Rainer Ostermann for all their work towards the production of this book. For her extensive contributions during all stages of the editing process we should like to thank Alison Wright, and we are grateful to Bob Cook for scientific advice and to Lena Hoff for help with the compilation of the indexes. The conference could not have been realized without the generous financial support of the Elizabeth Cayzer Charitable Trust and various benefactors and institutions of the University of Oxford, including the Craven Committee, the Fell Fund, the Classics Faculty, the History Faculty and the Mortimer and Teresa Sackler Fund of Worcester College. The publication of this volume was generously supported by the Henry Moore Foundation, Leeds, and, again, Worcester College’s Sackler Fund and the Craven Committee. Finally, we should like to express our gratitude to the authors of this volume, for their exciting contributions, constructive collaboration and for their patience during the long process of editing. Rune Frederiksen and Eckart Marchand Athens and London 2009
Introduction RUNE FREDERIKSEN AND ECKART MARCHAND
On 28 February 2006 at Sotheby’s, New York, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, sold the remains of a plaster cast collection that was once the Museum’s pride. In the history of plaster casts the sale may be seen as the grand finale of a century of decline and rejection, during which individual casts and entire cast collections were silently moved into storage (first temporary, then permanent), left to their own devices (and discarded when finally deemed irreparable), violently attacked, or simply professionally removed and destroyed. The reasons for this development are many and they are interrelated, including the rejection of a western canon of art that these casts had come to represent and re-enforce, the twentieth-century veneration of the original and the consequent rejection of casts as worthless copies. Interest in the original’s material qualities accompanied rejection of the casts’ dull appearance, the increased availability of the originals through cheap mass travel and photography, as well as a more general decline in interest in sculpture and competition for storage space. The fate of the reproductive cast was often shared by collections of cast by individual artists, quite unjustly, as here the status of the cast was often a very different one.1 Yet, the recent sale in New York also coincided with a renewed interest in plaster casts and cast collections that has built up over the last three decades. To some extent the faithful promoters of the plaster cast as a teaching tool and means of full-scale representation of absent works have learned to make their case more forcefully, but new interests in the history of reception, the history of collecting, artists’ training and working methods, as well as a wider recognition of the appeal of these objects when dramatically staged, all contributed to the present revival of the plaster cast. The parameters have changed. Many cast collections now have different functions to those they had when originally set up and the production of new casts competes with modern reproduction technologies and meets, among other obstacles, with curatorial concern
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See in the present volume the discussion, by Greg Sullivan, of the Chantrey Collection at Oxford.
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about the surfaces of originals, for example with regard to traces of polychromy on ancient sculpture that could be eradicated when making casts from them. When it comes to the reproductive plaster cast, that still dominates the perception of what plaster casts are, the emphasis of the present revival lies in questions of use, display, conservation and research into existing and lost works rather than the building up of new collections. The last decades have seen the re-opening and/or cataloguing of cast collections of different character, including private collections in stately homes, research and teaching collections that belong to university departments and those that relate to individual artists’ workshops. The Beazley Archive in Oxford was a pioneer in publishing basic information on plaster casts on-line from 1998, in its case relative to the Ashmolean Museum’s Cast Collection. Today many more collections have their own websites, a growing number of them with complete illustrated on-line catalogues.2 In the French speaking world, the Association Internationale pour la Conservation et la Promotion des Moulages has since the 1980s convened a series of mainly francophone conferences on plaster casts, published their acts and built up a website that lists an ever-expanding number of plaster cast collections whilst offering itself as a forum for plaster cast research.3 More recently, the Fondazione Canova at Possagno initiated a series of conferences on plaster cast collections and published the proceedings of the first of these.4 The present volume is conceived as a contributor and catalyst in this development. As the edited papers of a conference that drew on a widely publicized call for papers, it is representative of the richness and range of present research interests in this area. In some cases the editors complemented this, not least through their own contributions, but generally they did not commission papers. The present intro-
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3
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Only to mention a few: The Cast Collection at the Danish National Gallery (for the images) [accessed 1 November 2009], and the homepage of the Friends of the collection (for the catalogue information) [accessed 1 November 2009]; Georg-August-Universität Göttingen [accessed 1 November 2009]; Ashmolean Museum/University of Oxford [accessed 1 November 2009]. For a complete list of on-line cast catalogues, of which many are in the process of being re-launched with updated information and new photographs, see the website of the ‘Association’ [accessed 20 October 2009]. Le moulage. Actes du colloque international, Paris 1987 (Paris, 1990); website of the Association: [accessed 20 October 2009]. Further conference publications associated with the ‘Association Internationale’ are: C. Llinas (ed.), Moulages. Actes des rencontres internationales sur les moulages. Montpellier 14-17 février 1997 (Montpellier, 1999); H. Lavagne and F. Queyrel (eds), Les moulages de sculptures antiques et l’histoire de l’archéologie. Actes du colloque international, Paris, 24 octobre 1997 (Geneva, 2000). M. Guderzo (ed.), Gipsoteche. Realtà e Storia. Atti del convegno internazionale di studi. Possagno,19-20 maggio 2006 (Possagno, 2008).
Introduction
3
duction aims to sketch the wider picture, to point to areas and relevant research that have not been covered in the present volume and to position the presented articles in a wider historical and research context. Collections of reproductive plaster casts that consist of objects made to substitute absent originals have dominated and conditioned the perception of plaster casts at least for the last hundred years. These collections are, by and large, an invention of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The making of plaster casts and the use of the material for artistic and architectural ends in general, though, go back to Egyptian antiquity and beyond and have remained diverse and versatile practises throughout the history of the material. Ancient plaster casts are studied in the present volume by Rune Frederiksen and Christa Landwehr who discuss functions of the medium in the workshop, including that of life masks, and as an aid for copying of models, the latter discussed by Landwehr in relation to finds from a Roman sculpture workshop in Baiae in Italy. Frederiksen also discusses casts after sculptures that were apparently displayed in their own right in private contexts. Casting and moulding techniques in plaster and related materials were also extensively used in antiquity as decoration for built interiors, with the coffered dome of the Pantheon, cast in concrete, and the stucco decorations of the vaults of the Domus Aurea in Rome being two very prominent examples. These traditions continued in the Eastern Roman Empire and it was apparently through Byzantine craftsman that a tradition of stucco sculpture continued in Italy, France and the Holy Roman Empire throughout the Middle Ages. A particular tradition developed in lower Saxony with monuments in Hildesheim, Gernrode and Halberstadt. The article by Daniela and Torsten Arnold and Elisabeth Rüber-Schütte in the present volume introduces this group and focuses on the Choir Screens at Halberstadt (c. 1200), illuminating their technique and present conservation. During the Renaissance, in and increasingly beyond Italy, casts were made after the famous works of ancient Rome, in plaster and other, more durable and more valued media. Primaticcio’s casts made for the King of France are a particularly famous case. Their copying and distribution outside Italy is discussed by Walter Cupperi in the present book, while Eckart Marchand’s article addresses the wider artistic and architectural practices that employed the materials and techniques related to casting in plaster during the late Middle Ages and Renaissance in Italy, providing sixteenth-century artists with the skills to produce casts after the antique. Marchand also maps the spread of Renaissance stucco decorations, developed in Rome on the model of the Domus Aurea, a type of decoration that was exported from Italy by Primaticcio together with his casts to Fontainebleau. Nicholas of Modena, one of the artists working in Fontainebleau was in charge of the decoration of the court-
4
Rune Frederiksen and Eckart Marchand
yard at Nonsuch, one of the residences of Henry VIII. The remains of this palace were excavated in 1959 by Martin Biddle who presents and interprets this decoration in his article. In the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, plaster casts entered the collections of artists, humanists, the rich and the noble. The Paduan Mantova Benavides Collection, built up in the middle of the sixteenth century, contained plaster casts of limbs that may have belonged to earlier artists’ collections, casts after works of art, ancient and contemporary, and casts after artists’ models. Some of these may have been displayed as heads of Famous Men, in a tradition that was to extend into the nineteenth century when, for example in Germany, the production of plaster cast busts of Famous Men such as Goethe and Beethoven would develop industrial dimensions. The operations of a London cast maker, Charles Smith, in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries is discussed here by Peter Malone. The wide range of different types of objects found in the Mantova Benavides Collection was typical for the Renaissance and Baroque Wunderkammer (the Bavarian Wunderkammer, for example, contained a plaster cast of the crippled hands of a peasant5), but in the seventeenth and eighteenth century the collecting of casts after ancient statuary would become increasingly a trade in its own right. As Ángeles Solís Parra, Judit Gasca Miramón, Silvia Viana Sánchez and José María Luzón Nogué discuss in this volume, in the seventeenth century the Spanish King sent his court artist, Diego Velázquez, to Rome to acquire casts of the highest quality after some of the most important Roman statues. The demands regarding the quality of these casts as indicated by the surviving contracts demonstrate the power, financial means and technical knowledge of the royal envoy. The Grand Tourists who came to Rome in the following two centuries were generally less well informed and had to rely on a network of cast makers, local and foreign artists, dealers and traders who would obtain, package and send casts to destinations overseas.6 The present contributions by Helen Dorey and Valentin Kockel refer to such collections by members of the professional classes in Britain. The situation in Germany was quite different. The majority of its tiny principalities were land-locked and comparably poor, and the transport of goods across the German territories prohibitively expensive because of con-
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6
J. B. Fickler, Das Inventar der Münchner herzoglichen Kunstkammer von 1598, in P. Diemer, with E. Bujok and D. Diemer (eds), Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften, PhilosophischHistorische Klasse Abhandlungen, NF, Heft 125, 2004, p. 130. On the collecting of copies, including plaster casts, in the context of the Grand Tour see the most recent publication of V. Coltman, Fabricating the Antique: Neoclassicism in Britain, 1760– 1800 (Chicago and London, 2006), chapter 5 ‘“Familiar objects in an unfamiliar world” The Cachet of the Copy’, pp. 123-64.
Introduction
5
stant demands for duties. The mechanisms of trade in this situation are discussed by Charlotte Schreiter who looks particularly at two protagonists, the local trader and cast maker Carl Christian Heinrich Rost and the Italian travelling firm, the Ferrari brothers. Germany was of course central for the study of classical antiquity and archaeology, shaping the scholarly use of plaster cast collections in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Plaster casts played a role in the milieu of Johann Joachim Winckelmann, as is evidenced, for example, by his own comments on the medium as well as the collection of his close friend, the artist Anton Raphael Mengs. This early collection survives and has recently received a thorough examination by Moritz Kiderlen.7 The University of Göttingen with the first Chair of Archaeology anywhere in Europe and its founding professor, Christian Gottlob Heyne, are referenced in the present volume by Schreiter, Daniel Graepler and Jan Zahle, as is the collection of the Berlin Academy of Art in the article by Claudia Sedlarz. The history of the Göttingen cast collection goes back to the later 1760s. The collection has been catalogued and its history documented by Klaus Fittschen in 1990.8 Graepler’s contribution in this volume focuses particularly on the University’s casts after ancient and modern gems, the so-called Dactyliothecae. Another early German university collection, founded in 1820, is that of the University of Bonn. Still, the scholarly study of sculpture through casts was for the most part of the nineteenth century facilitated by the collections of artists’ academies and museums. Thus, outside Germany, the model of the University collection as a laboratory that facilitates the study of Classical Archaeology was not immediately emulated. This happened finally in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries as a consequence of the installation of Chairs in Archaeology in European countries such as England, France and Italy. The teaching collection of the Department of Archaeology at the University of Padua is comparatively small and late, it is discussed here in the context of its early twentieth-century display. Alessandra Menegazzi’s article grants insights not only into the 1920s mis-en-scène of this collection with its strong classical references, but also makes tangible the political connotations of the collection and its staging at that time. Finally, Claudia Wagner and Gertrud Seidmann’s contribution addresses a contemporary university collection, the above mentioned Beazley Archive at Oxford, with particular focus on its extensive holdings of dactyliothecae.
___________ 7 8
M. Kiderlen, Die Sammlung der Gipsabgüsse von Anton Raphael Mengs in Dresden (Munich, 2006). K. Fittschen (ed.), Verzeichnis der Gipsabgüsse des Archäologischen Instituts der GeorgAugust-Universität Göttingen (Göttingen, 1990), pp. 9-20.
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Plaster cast collections in artists’ academies preceded even the earliest of these scholarly collections. The Florentine Academia del Disegno, founded in 1564 as the first institution of this type, met in its early years in and below the New Sacristy of San Lorenzo. The study and emulation of Michelangelo’s tombs of the Medici Dukes in this ensemble was characteristic for the work of the Florentine Academicians9 and plaster casts of its allegorical sculptures were soon distributed among artists in Italy. Two full-scale casts of Michelangelo’s Dawn and Dusk were made in 1570 by Egnazio Danti, brother of the Florentine sculptor Vincenzo Danti, and must have been obtained by the Academy in Perugia shortly after its foundation in 1573.10 But plaster cast collections were not necessarily a feature of the academies that sprang up all over Europe and its colonies. Claudia Sedlarz illuminates the humble beginnings of the collection of the Academy in Berlin and Tomas Macsotay’s contribution reveals surprisingly that at the French Academy in Rome the casts had a much more important teaching function than at the Royal Academy in Paris. The Royal Academy in London was a late comer among the European Academies. The hesitant acquisition history of its early years resembles that of the Berlin collection. In the context of the conference the Royal Academy collection was informally discussed in front of its material remains by Helen Valentine who has also published on this subject.11 The academies in Stockholm and Copenhagen, following the European eighteenth-century academy trend, possessed casts from the time of their foundations (1754 and 1768 respectively) as Jan Zahle describes in his article tracing casts of the Laocoön in Scandinavia. In the nineteenth century, the Academy in Madrid was able to provide casts for academic collections in the Spanish colonies, such as the Academia de San Carlo in Mexico City, as Elisabeth Fuentes Rojas mentions in the present volume. Beyond the academies, artists had long used plaster casts as objects of study and in the different stages of the design process including the final work. While Leon Lock’s analysis of images of Netherlandish sculptors’ workshops from the seventeenth- and eighteenth centuries questions their documentary value, there is certainly plenty of more secure evidence that plaster casts played an important role in artists’ workshops from the fifteenth
___________ 9
Z. WaĨbiĔski, L’accademia medicea del disegno a Firenz nel cinquecento: Idea e istituzione, 2 vols (Florence, 1987), I, pp. 75-110, esp. 76-80. 10 D. Zikos in C. Davis and B. Paolozzi Strozzi (eds), I grandi bronzi del battistero. L’arte di Vincenzo Danti, discepolo di Michelangelo, exh. cat. Florence (Florence, 2008), pp. 324-5. 11 H. Valentine, From Reynolds to Lawrence: the first sixty years of the Royal Academy of Arts and its collections : a short catalogue of the paintings, sculptures and plaster casts shown in the private rooms and the new sculpture gallery at Burlington House, (London, 1991).
Introduction
7
century onward, in Italy and increasingly beyond. The section in this volume devoted to casts in artist’s workshops and artists’ practice cannot claim to be representative, but it puts a due focus on eighteenth-century neo-classicism, late nineteenth and early twentieth century French and Italian art and the diverse uses of plaster and casting techniques by modern and contemporary artists. Johannes Myssok presents the various stages of the design processes in which Antonio Canova employed plaster, traces developments in his career and relates Canova’s use of casts to wider issues such as the truthfulness to material. Greg Sullivan in his article on the slightly later British sculptor Sir Francis Chantrey, argues that Chantrey’s plaster models had the status of originals. The neo-classical aesthetic and art production had a formative impact on the use and perception of reproductive plaster casts in museums to the present day. It was in the second half of the nineteenth century that artists, mainly French and Italian, explored the unconventional qualities of the material. A major figure in this context was Rodin;12 in the present volume, Jean François Corpataux and Sharon Hecker discuss the works of his contemporaries Marcello and Medardo Rosso. Marcello’s Pythia, including a life cast of the artist’s own shoulders, provides an exciting case through which to examine the conceptual implications of the artistic process with regard to nineteenthcentury artistic stereotypes of creativity and gender. Addressing the still too little studied work of Medardo Rosso, Sharon Hecker analyses how the sculptor broke with the neo-classical uses of plaster, drawing conceptually on the material’s association with cheapness and fragility. The modernity of plaster cast as a material is further evaluated in the Futurist context by Maria Elena Versari’s contribution on Boccioni’s use of plaster. The final rejection of the plaster cast as a teaching tool after the Second World War is the starting point of Sue Malvern’s discussion of the use of plaster casts in the work of late twentieth-century and contemporary artists such as Antony Gormley and Rachel Whiteread. A contribution by a practicing artist, Jane McAdam Freud, whose work frequently employs plaster casts, closes this section. As part of her presentation, McAdam Freud made a conference medal that was displayed at the event. With the rise of nationalism throughout Europe in the nineteenth century, national museums were instituted to present, conserve and construct the notion of a national heritage, as in the case of the National Museum in Prague, discussed here by Dana Stehlikova, and to improve citizens, and/or national
___________ 12 A. Le Normand-Romain, ‘Rodin e il gesso: storia di un deposito di atelier’, in M. Guderzo (ed.), Gipsoteche. Realtà e Storia. Atti del convegno internazionale di studi. Possagno, 19-20 maggio 2006 (Possagno, 2008), p. 75-82.
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art production, as in the case of the Victoria and Albert Museum. Both museums, in Prague and London, as well as the National Gallery in Athens hold reproductive casts as well as artists’s models and final works in plaster. Reproductive casts in these museums have fulfilled a variety of functions. They preserved the appearance of endangered works (see the article by Maria Kliafa and Michael Doulgerides in relation to the National Gallery in Athens), represented the narrative of a national style in one place, as in the cases of the Museum in Prague, and filled gaps in a wider art historical narrative, as for example the Royal Cast Collection as part of the National Gallery of Denmark, and the Museum of Fine Art in Boston, mentioned by Stephen Dyson in his account of American plaster cast collections. They also, of course, represented works that were seen as canonical, as in the case of London’s Victoria and Albert Museum, discussed by Diane Bilbey and Marjorie Trusted and by Malcolm Baker. In many cases they were integrated into the Museum display alongside originals, in other instances they were given their own museum, like the Musée de Sculpture Comparé in Paris, here discussed in terms of its intellectual conception by Axel Gampp, the Museum of Fine Arts in Moscow, discussed by Tobias Burg, and many American collections, such as the Slater Museum in Norwich, Connecticut, referred to by Dyson. With Ian Cooke’s article on the Auckland War Memorial Museum the volume provides insight into the installation, motivations for and reception of a cast collection in a colonial context. Here as in the case of the Mexican academy referred to earlier, art objects by local cultures would play an important counter part in the collections, in Mexico through their influence on the academy’s training, in Auckland in terms of the display and space allocation in the museum. The papers by Malcolm Baker and Axel Gampp address a particular nineteenth-century phenomenon, aptly described by Baker as “the reproductive continuum”. Plaster casts in the Victoria and Albert Museum, we find, were displayed in concert with other reproductive media, including fictile ivories, paper mosaics and photography; Gampp directs our attention to the vast collections of postcards of plaster casts issued by the Musée de Sculpture Comparé. Issues of display are addressed in Helen Dorey’s paper on the Sir John Soane’s Museum and Alessandra Menegazzi’s contribution regarding the Museo di Scienze Archeologiche e d’Arte at the University of Padua. Both are specific cases where original architectural designs and historical displays have been meticulously reconstructed. In the case of the Paduan collection the early twentieth-century display had to be adapted to accommodate modern teaching functions of the collection, while the Sir John Soane’s Museum has to keep the requirement to function as a modern museum in mind. Entirely different, but still striking the same historical and topographical keys as the Sir John
Introduction
9
Soane’s Museum, James Perkin’s private display of plaster casts at Aynhoe Park represents a revival of the Country House tradition of displaying casts. The recent rise in popularity of casts is reflected in a number of recent rearrangements of museum displays to include these objects. Occasionally, old ideas are taken up, albeit in revised form, such as the chronological display of casts in teaching collections, or the display of casts alongside originals. In these, as in most other cases, casts are displayed according to the same principles as originals. A different principle, developed in the late 1980s and early 1990s and applied to the display of a cast collection, is that of the Royal Cast Collection in Copenhagen. The collection, spanning western sculpture uninterruptedly from Ancient Egypt to the Baroque, is arranged according to the same principal display contexts as the various periods themselves. Exhibition areas in the Copenhagen collection today, like the ‘Greek Sanctuary’, ‘Roman Villa’ or ‘Italian Gallery’, not only offer a rough chronological frame to the visitor, but also a sense of authentic visual context for the various sculptural forms. Statues and reliefs are seen together as they might have been experienced at the time the originals were made, but also sometimes as they were used later on throughout history. A number of recent exhibitions have realized another potential of the plaster cast. Thus, painted plaster casts have been used to illustrate the effects of polychromy, for educational purposes both in permanent displays, for example the polychromatic cast of the Igel Column in the Landesmuseum in Trier,13 and temporary exhibitions, principally the exhibition Gods in Colour (2003–8), that toured numerous museums all over the western world.14 Three articles address issues of conservation. The choir screens in Halberstadt (c. 1200), discussed by Daniela and Torsten Arnold and Elisabeth Rüber-Schütte, and the casts in the collections of the Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando in Madrid and the National Gallery in Athens, discussed by Solís Parra et al., and Kliafa and Doulgerides, respectively, are very different object types that require specific treatments. The authors address issues raised by the in situ restoration and preservation of polychrome stucco work, and heavily over-painted and stained historical plasters as well as problems encountered during the structural reconstruction of casts that had been exposed to the elements; the list could be extended. Beyond this the three papers demonstrate different approaches and schools of conservation. The
___________ 13 For the polychromy of the cast of the Igel column see H. Cüppers, ‘Die Kopie der “lgeler Säule” in neuem Gewand. An der Nachbildung des Secundinier Grabmals ist die einstige Bemalung rekonstruiert worden.’ Antike Welt 1994, Heft 1, pp. 89-94. 14 The catalogue of the first exhibition: V. Brinkmann et al., Bunte Götter. Die Farbigkeit antiker Skulptur (Munich, 2003).
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fragility of plaster in general, and in particular the necessity of periodic cleaning and/or surface treatment of plaster casts mean that any institution holding plaster casts must have a developed and on-going conservation programme in place to ensure appropriate care of these objects. More than with some other types of artwork the appearance of casts is dramatically affected by conservation work and practical handling. This requires close collaboration between conservators and museum curators. Our volume ends with an article by Bernard van den Driesche, Vice Chairman of the Association Internationale pour la Conservation et la Promotion des Moulages and in charge of the Association’s website. Van den Driesche develops the notion of a grand jardin du plâtre, his vision of a global garden of plaster casts and cast collections, possibly best achieved through websites and the internet, that brings together all types of plaster cast collection, including not only those that serve artistic ends, but also ethnological, medical and other requirements. Such an encyclopaedic approach represents the richness of the material. The present volume deliberately focuses on plaster casts for artistic ends. Its aim is to highlight what is specific to individual casts, types of casts and cast collections, and thus to emphasise difference and complexity in a medium that in the past has often suffered from being perceived as familiar and onedimensional. The inclusion in papers by Marchand, Biddle, Hecker and others of plaster sculpture that involves modelling techniques also serves this purpose, reminding us that the ‘pure’ cast is a rarity. It is the editors’ hope that rather than answering all our questions in the field, the present volume will raise new ones, stimulate debate and facilitate future research on plaster and plaster casts.
Antiquity
Plaster Casts in Antiquity1 RUNE FREDERIKSEN The present article discusses the use of plaster casts in antiquity through the evaluation of surviving objects as well as literary evidence.2 Many articles in this volume refer to plaster casts as a medium that is closely associated with the revival of antiquity from the early Renaissance onwards. The aim of my contribution, together with that by Christa Landwehr, is to demonstrate that artists’ use of plaster casts goes back to classical antiquity itself, and to evaluate our knowledge of the medium in this period. To analyse the functions of plaster casts in antiquity is important as it enables us to understand the uses and concepts of art in the ancient world which can then form the basis of comparisons with later periods. I wish to argue that plaster casts were of great significance in the ancient world, also beyond their basic technical functions in the production and copying of works of art.
Plaster as Material3 The materials of plastic art production and reproduction in antiquity were stone, clay, terracotta, faience, wood, metals, and various minerals.4 Plaster, or calcium sulphate, belongs to the last group; its technical properties make it
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2
3
4
I would like to thank the following friends and colleagues for having read and improved this article at various stages of completion: Mogens Jørgensen (Copenhagen), Eckart Marchand (London), Bert Smith (Oxford) and Jan Zahle (Copenhagen). In addition I would like to thank Eckart for his very thorough and patient editing. For earlier discussions of ancient plaster casts as evidenced from physical remains and written sources, see D’Alessandro and Persegati, Scultura e calchi in gesso, 15-24; Barone, Sabratha; Landwehr, Die antiken Gipsabgüsse; see also articles in Neue Pauly and New Pauly referred to below. D’Alessandro and Persegati, Scultura e calchi in gesso, 69-73 Der Neue Pauly. Enzyklopädie der Antike, 12 vols (Stuttgart, 2001–2007), IV, s.v. ‘Gips’ (C. Hünemörder). For presentation of ancient sources about plaster and critical commentary, see Barone, Sabratha, pp. 3-8. See also this volume Arnold et al., pp. 373-76, and Solis et al. 387-88. For a sixth-century BC example of sculpture cast in melilite: A. Baltres et al., ‘Two Archaic Casts from Histria: Mineralogy, Paint Composition and Storage Products’, Ancient West & East, 3.1 (2004), pp. 87-99, fig. 1.
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particularly suitable for copying three-dimensional art-works with great accuracy; it is easily produced, easy to handle when wet, and when poured into a mould it flows easily into all corners and hardens quickly. In addition, the material seems to have been fairly easily available and hence cheap to use. This is implied in ancient comments on the sources of plaster, and can be deduced from the large quantities of the material used, for example, as wall plaster in ancient Egypt5 and for stucco decorations in the Greek and Roman periods.6 A number of details about the provenances, properties and uses of plaster can be learned from Theophrastos, writing at the turn from the fourth to the third century BC.7 His treatise On Stones has a section on ȖȥȠȢ (64-9)8, from which we learn that gypsos existed in large quantities in Cyprus, and that in Phoenicia and Syria it was made from burning stone, for example marble. Theophrastos informs us how gypsos behaves when pulverized and mixed with water, and it is clear that what he describes is the mineral gypsum, and the process by which it can be turned into what we would call plaster and often Plaster of Paris.9 Plaster behaves as Theophrastos describes, and gypsum is indeed still found in many places around the Mediterranean, for example in Cyprus, on Melos and in Egypt.10 The ancient Greek term gypsos does, however, cover more than our plaster, or plaster of Paris, even within the writings of Theophrastos himself, so we cannot point to all ancient attestations of the term and automatically take them to mean only plaster of Paris. We are, however, able to demonstrate, that in some instances the term gypsos, or its Latin equivalent gypsum, are used to denote specifically a cast in that material. A wonderful example is a third to second-century BC cast, now in Princeton, of an earlier Hellenistic horse’s nose-piece (probably of bronze) which bears an inscription, incised into the plaster while it was still wet: ıȚįઆȡȠȣ | IJઁ ȖȥȚȞȠȞ (“the plaster [...] of Isidoros”).11
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A. Lucas, Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries, 3rd edn (London, 1948), pp. 96-8. Enciclopedia dell’arte antica, classica e orientale, 12 vols (Rome, 1958–1984), VII, 524-9 s.v. ‘Stucco’ (S. De Marinis); Op. cit. suppl., V, 458-61, s.v. ‘Stucco’ (R. J. Ling); Penny, Materials, pp. 191-2. 7 For a detailed treatment of the main evidence for the ancient view and knowledge of the technical aspects of plaster see A. Orlandos, Les matériaux de construction et la technique architecturale des anciens grecs (Paris, 1966), pp. 146-8. 8 Caley and Richards, Theophrastus. See also Barone, Sabratha, pp. 3-4. 9 The name derives from a large gypsum deposit at Montmartre in Paris, W. Morris (ed.), American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 4th edn (Boston, Mass., 2000). 10 Caley and Richards, Theophrastus, p. 213, p. 217; Penny, Materials, p. 194. 11 Inscription (and cast) probably from the 3rd-2nd centuries BC, see no. 22.
Plaster Casts in Antiquity
15
Plaster and Sculptural Artworks in Antiquity Judging by the earliest surviving evidence of sculpture production, plaster appears to have been one of the primary materials. The Neolithic seventhmillennium BC statues from Aïn Ghazal near Amman in Jordan, frequently referred to as the “oldest statues of the world”, were made of modelled plaster over a framework of woven reed.12 The Egyptians used plaster as a primary sculptural medium as well, often in combination with other materials.13 Stone sculpture was sometimes modified with plaster modelled onto the stone and then painted. Well-known examples are the busts of the Egyptian fourthDynasty prince Ankhhaf (2520-2494 BC), found in his tomb at Giza14 (Fig. 1. 1), and now in Boston, and the eighteenth-Dynasty Nefertiti (c. 1351–1334 BC) from Thutmose’s workshop in Amarna, now in Berlin.15 The sculptural properties of plaster were thus known, and the sculptural appearance of the modelled plaster surface appreciated, from a very early point in history. This use of plaster for sculpture, modelled or cast, in combination with other materials, continued into the Greek and Roman periods.16 Plaster Casts Ancient plaster casts can be divided into three categories. Firstly, casts were used at various stages of the production of sculpture in other, arguably more durable, materials such as marble or bronze. Secondly, they were used as copies for the purpose of transferring three-dimensional images from one place to another. Finally they also served as artworks in their own right. Examples of the first category surfaced in Egypt in 1912 during the excavation of the workshop of the sculptor Thutmose at Amarna, dating to the end of the eighteenth Dynasty, between 1351 and 1334 BC.17 The find included twenty-seven objects in plaster, mostly casts of heads or faces, some of which are clearly portraits of Egyptian Royalty, for example the faces of Pharaoh
___________ 12 See e.g. C. A. Grissom, ‘Neolithic Statues from ‘Ain Ghazal: Construction and Form’, American Journal of Archaeology, 104 (2000), pp. 25-45. 13 For a recent general treatment of the use of plaster in Egyptian sculpture, see Tomoum, Sculptors’ Models, pp. 173-7. 14 Boston, Museum of Fine Arts, 27.442. L. Berman et al., Arts of Ancient Egypt (Boston, 2003), pp. 78-9 (with fig.). 15 R. Anthes, Die Büste der Königin Nofretete (Berlin, 1973); C. Wedel, Nofretete und das Geheimnis von Amarna (Mainz am Rhein, 2005), with bibliography. 16 See for example V. M. Strocka, ‘Stucco additions to marble sculpture from Ptolemaic and Roman Egypt’, Jahrbuch des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, 82 (1967), pp. 118-36. 17 D. Arnold, ‘The Workshop of the Sculptor Thutmose’, in Arnold, Royal Women, pp. 41-51, with bibliography.
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Fig. 1. 1: Bust of Ankhhaf. Mid third millenium BC. Stone with painted plaster, h: 50.5 cm. From Giza in Egypt. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.
Akhenaten (no. 1a18, Fig. 1. 2) and his wife or consort Nefertiti (no. 1b, Fig. 1. 3) and the images of an old woman and a man, of unknown and uncertain identity (no. 1c-d, Figs 1. 4-5). Most of the Amarna casts are faces and were therefore quite simple to cast, in open one-piece moulds. The heads were mostly only cast in two separate parts, which were joined after the casting, as can be deduced, for example, from the vertical line on the neck of the Head of Nefertiti that results from the joining of the two pieces (not visible in Fig. 1. 3, but very clear in D’Alessandro and Persegati, Scultura e calchi in gesso, fig. 1). The Amarna casts seem all to have been taken from clay or wax models and served as models for final works in stone: further, they seem to be partial casts of sculptures, not of whole works, and some preserve details that show that the works they were cast from were unfinished. The casts may have been made to be sent to the commissioners, so that further progress could be discussed without them having to make their way to the workshop. Afterwards work would have continued on the clay or wax models, and, when considered finished, these were eventually carved in stone. Thus, the casts’ function differed from what in modern sculpture would be called original models in that they were not taken of models in their final stage to represent a visual idea that could later be executed in a third and more durable material.19
___________ 18 A provisional list of casts in museums and collections around the world is provided at the end of this article (pp. 26-32). 19 The term can be traced at least back to the sixteenth century. In Britain original models in this sense, used for exhibition in order to find a patron, have been in use at least since the second
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17
Fig. 1. 2: Head of Akhenaten. Mid fourteenth century BC. Plaster, h: 21 cm. From Amarna in Egypt. Ägyptisches Museum, Berlin.
Fig. 1. 3: Head of Nefertiti. Mid fourteenth century BC. Plaster, h: 25.6 cm. From Amarna in Egypt. Ägyptisches Museum, Berlin.
Fig. 1. 4: Head of an old woman. Mid fourteenth century BC. Plaster, h: 26.7 cm. From Amarna in Egypt. Ägyptisches Museum, Berlin.
Fig. 1. 5: Head of a man. Mid fourteenth century BC. Plaster, h: 27 cm. From Amarna in Egypt. Ägyptisches Museum, Berlin.
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Greece and Rome Death masks played a significant role in Egyptian art, at least since the time of the Old Kingdom,20 and continued to do so in the Greek and Roman periods. The face of a bust of the Roman period in the museum in Alexandria (no. 3a, Fig. 1. 6) is a remodelled death-mask, whereas the skull and bust are cast in two separate pieces each. A layer of plaster was added onto these five components after they had been assembled, and modelled, while the plaster was still wet. This bust, then, can be classified as partly cast and partly modelled. The tell tale signs of a death mask can be seen in a similar plaster head, in the same museum (Fig. 1. 7). The cheeks are hollow and the flesh around the neck seems to have lost its tension. Unmodified death masks, taken directly of a dead person’s face to preserve facial features, have also been found, as, for example, that from Tuna el-Gebel (no. 10b, Fig. 1. 8), in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo, dating from around the birth of Christ. A plaster bust of a man from Rome (no. 24) is made in the same way as the Alexandria one (no. 3a), but is even more interesting and important because it was found, alonside fragments of two additional busts, in a tomb at Via Prenestina, and thus links plaster and plaster casts to the great Roman tradition of imagines maiorum (‘images of ancestors’).21 These seem often to have been of wax – plaster is not explicitly mentioned as a material in connection with them – and they were carried around in funerary processions and exhibited in homes and tombs. With the Via Prenestina heads, we have examples of such plaster portraits of deceased ancestors. The role of plaster casts in ancient Greek and Roman sculpture production was absolutely central. For Greek sculpture this is mainly a sound assumption, whereas for the Roman period the material and circumstantial evidence is strong. The single most important find of ancient Roman casts was made in 1954 at the Roman town of Baiae, in the bay of Naples.22 This consisted of more than 400 casts of parts of at least thirty different statues23 including some
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22 23
half of the seventeenth century, J. S. Symmons, Flaxman and Europe. The Outline Illustrations and their Influence (New York and London, 1984), pp. 57-8. D’Alessandro and Persegati, Scultura e calchi in gesso, pp. 47-9; Tomoum, Sculptor’s Models, p. 215 no. 42, pl. 31a-c. For the Roman ancestor cult see Pliny, Naturalis Historia, 35.6-7; Polybios, Historiae, 6.53; D’Alessandro and Persegati, Scultura e calchi in gesso, appendix; D. E. E. Kleiner, Roman Sculpture (New Haven, Conn., and London, 1992), pp. 36-8 (basic introduction). The Roman period heads and busts from Egypt, discussed above, may derive from such Roman period tombs in Egypt. The Baiae find is published by C. Landwehr (Die antiken Gipsabgüsse) and also treated by the same author in this volume, pp. 35-46. The sides of the casts show cuts rather than fractures so the pieces are parts of casts of statues, not random fragments from smashed casts.
Plaster Casts in Antiquity
19
Fig. 1. 6: Bust of a man. Roman first to second century AD. Plaster, h: 29 cm. Museum for Greek and Roman Art, Alexandria.
Fig. 1. 7: Portrait head of a man. Roman. Plaster, h: 29.5 cm. Museum for Greek and Roman Art, Alexandria.
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Fig. 1. 8: Death mask. Hellenistic-Roman, first century BC to first century AD. Plaster. Archaeological Museum, Cairo.
of the most well-known Classical and Hellenistic Greek works. But the Baiae find has not only deepened our knowledge of these particular masterpieces (Fig. 2. 5). The casts also constitute interesting evidence for the reconstruction of the process by which some or perhaps most of the thousands of Roman marble copies of Greek life size free-standing sculpture were actually made.24 This process, crucial for the understanding of the relationship between Greek originals and Roman copies was previously only known through written sources and the visual evidence of the Roman marbles themselves.25 The Baiae find is interpreted as a dump from a sculptor’s workshop, parts of what was once a collection of casts assembled by a workshop, serving as a library of form, from which whole figures or details could be copied to produce tailormade marble sculptures according to demand.26 It seems logical to assume that a number of such workshop collections of casts existed throughout the Roman world, and that, at least sometimes, Roman marble statues were copied from such casts rather than from other copies made in marble. Casts would have been much easier to transport than marble statues, and – provided they were
___________ 24 The first scholar to make this observation in relation to ancient cast finds was Gisela Richter. Richter knew about the important Baiae find from 1955, but only got to see parts of it in 1963. See G. M. A. Richter, ‘How Were the Roman Copies of Greek Portraits Made?’, Römische Mitteilungen, 69 (1962), pp. 52-8, pls 22-6, and ‘An Aristogeiton from Baiae’, American Journal of Archaeology, 74 (1970), pp. 296-7. 25 The first groundbreaking study identifying a number of Greek works through Roman copies was A. Furtwängler, Meisterwerke der griechischen Plastik: Kunstgeschichtliche Untersuchungen (Leipzig, 1893) English trans. by E. S. Strong, Masterpieces of Greek Sculpture (Chicago, Ill., 1895). A good general introduction with selected bibliography is provided by A. Stewart, Greek Sculpture. An Exploration (New Haven, Conn., and London, 1990). 26 Landwehr, Die antiken Gipsabgüsse; C. Gasparri, ‘L’officina dei calchi di Baia’, Römische Mitteilungen, 102 (1995), pp. 173-87; Barone, Sabratha, 9.
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casts of a form taken of the original – they were more accurate copies than those of marble made by measuring points. Loukianos, writing in the second century AD, describes in passing in his Iuppiter tragoedus (33), how a statue of Hermes in the market-place of Athens was covered, on a daily basis, in pitch or resin by sculptors making moulds of it. This is an extremely interesting attestation of the practice of copying,27 in fact of mass making of moulds that would then – we may assume – have been used to make numerous copies in plaster for artists’ studios in different regions of the Roman Empire.28 According to Pliny the Elder (Naturalis historia, 35.153) copying of statues by taking casts of them was invented already in the Greek period by Lysistratos of Sikyon, brother of the famous sculptor Lysippos, who was active in the fourth century BC.29 Pliny also says that Lysistratos was the first to cast life masks. He describes how Lysistratos would cast from the face of a living person, pour wax into the plaster negative, and rework the wax afterwards. Pliny does not say what was then done to the wax; it was probably cast back into a positive in bronze via a clay or plaster negative mould. Even without the Egyptian finds that take the practice of plaster cast making at least a millennium further back in time it would be difficult to believe Pliny’s account of its ‘invention’. Considering how advanced Greek sculpture and particularly free standing bronze sculpture was at this time, the plaster casting technique must have been widely practised in the Greek world much earlier than the fourth century. It is indeed hardly surprising that, for example, research on bronze sculpture has led to the suggestion that (plaster) casting from life was practised already in the fifth century BC.30 The earliest mentioned incident of the copying of a statue, possibly by means of a plaster cast, dates from the third century BC. Plutarch, writing in the second century AD, relates how envoys
___________ 27 Examples of plaster moulds have been found, for example, in Paphos in Cyprus in a firstcentury BC bronze foundry. This mould is an instructive example in that it is part of a full size statue, i.e. the back of a male torso. Since it was found in a bronze foundry, however, it is likely to have been a cast made for a different purpose than the moulds described by Loukianos, K. Nicolaou, ‘Archaeological News from Cyprus, 1970’, American Journal of Archaeology, 76 (1972), pp. 315-16, fig. 38. 28 Richter (‘An Aristogeiton from Baiae’, American Journal of Archaeology, 74 (1970), p. 296) believed that moulds were sent from Greece more often than actual casts. Moulds do travel better, since they are less fragile, but have the disadvantage that, if damaged, (proper) repair can only happen with consultation of the original. Sculptors around the Empire could probably order moulds as well as casts from plaster cast makers employed in Athens and other centres of original Greek art. For further discussion, see Barone, Sabratha, p. 16. 29 Cf. e.g. Penny, Materials, p. 196. 30 The artist Nigel Konstam suggested after close observation of the Riacce Bronzes, particularly of the feet, that they were largely made from life casts, rather than having been modelled, N. Konstam and H. Hoffmann, ‘Casting the Riace bronzes (2): a sculptor’s discovery’, Oxford Journal of Archaeology, 23.4 (2004), pp. 397-402, figs 1-3.
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of Ptolemy I of Egypt, when visiting Sinope on the Black Sea coast, took away a statue of Pluto and left behind one of Persephone after having copied it.31 It is not explicitly stated that this copy was a cast, but it is likely that it was. Attested in much greater abundance are ancient plaster casts of Greek crafts objects, in particular of relief-decorated metal tableware. The most important finds have been made in Begram in Afghanistan, Kara-Tobe in north-west Crimea and at Memphis in Egypt. In addition to these finds, a number of similar casts exist in museums and other collections across the world (e.g. nos 3b, 19, 25). 1. 9: Relief-bust (cast from mould) of PtoThe Begram find (no. 8) consist Fig. lemy I Soter. Hellenistic, early third century of twenty casts of Greek works of a BC. Plaster, h: 8.3 cm. Roemer- und Pelizaeuswide chronological range, cast in Museum, Hildesheim. Roman times, apparently to serve as models for artisans. This function can be more securely established for the Memphis find (no. 12), that was made in a workshop context. Here more than seventy casts similar to those from Begram were found. One example is the small image of a male bust (Fig. 1. 9), believed to be a portrait of the Hellenistic King Ptolemy I, dating from the early third century BC – the same Ptolemy who sent envoys to copy the statue of Persephone mentioned above. The egg-and-dart decorative band framing the image may mean that the relief was conceived of and appreciated as a finished work of art in itself, rather than just as an intermediary model for an artisan who wanted to transfer an image from one durable medium to the other. Clay and plaster moulds found in a workshop at Chersonesos in the Crimea, and in the market place (agora) of Athens,32 shed light on how these many plaster positives of ancient metal tableware were made. Impressions of clay, or alternatively, plaster33 were taken from the decoration on the metal
___________ 31 Plutarch, Moralia, 984b. 32 Both ancient moulds and casts were found, see appendix below no. 6. 33 For the Begram moulds in particular, see Menninger, Untersuchungen, pp. 93-4; see also Penny, Materials, p. 195.
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object, the clay impression was then fired, and plaster poured into the mould. The plaster positives themselves would then have been used by artists or craftsmen as examples for commissioners, who apparently desired metal ware with decorative motifs in the proper Greek style. It is quite telling that plaster casts of metal ware, and evidence for their production, have come to light from the periphery of the Classical world, like the Crimea and Afghanistan, as these were areas of artistic adoption rather than centres of original artistic production, at least with regard to the typical media and styles of the classical world. The finds of ancient Greek and Roman plaster casts from Egypt are probably to be seen in the same way, and their greater numbers probably to be explained by the preservation conditions of the dry plaster-friendly desert. One more find of plaster casts needs to be mentioned. Whereas the casts from Baiae document part of the copying process of well-known ancient Greek works of art, the finds from Sabratha in Libya (no. 26) consisted of hundreds of fragments of plaster casts and plaster moulds of reliefs, statuettes and statues. These objects show the role of plaster in a more run-of-the-mill category of ancient art. They stem from different private and public contexts, and workshops for mass production of minor arts are also identified. We have already seen how plaster was used in Egyptian sculpture in combination with other materials, and how death masks played an interesting role from an early point. A vast amount of circumstantial evidence for the use of plaster casts could also be put forward: large numbers of scenes and individual figures in Roman reliefs, sarcophagi, gems and other media, show striking similarities to the designs of those of ancient cast finds.34 This suggests, again, that casts played a role in transmitting images from one place to the other, retaining in great detail the formal qualities of the original works. Were architectural details copied in the same way as sculpture? It seems very likely that copies of mouldings, floral motifs and other types of architectural decoration were circulating between workshops or building sites of the ancient world, to be copied accurately back into stone at various times and places. So far though, we do not have any evidence for this and concrete suggestions as to where such copying might have occurred have been disproved.35 Finally, I ought to turn to the question of whether plaster casts in antiquity were occasionally appreciated as artworks in their own right, or at least dis-
___________ 34 Richter, ‘Ancient Plaster Casts of Greek Metalware’, gives a number of examples. 35 It has been suggested, for example, that the (column) capitals used in the Forum Augustum in Rome were made from casts of capitals from the fifth century BC Erechtheion temple on the Athenian Acropolis. Valentin Kockel has argued that dissimilarities between these capitals make this rather unlikely. See V. Kockel, ‘Antike Gipsabgüsse von Baugliedern’, Archäologischer Anzeiger (1991), pp. 281-5, figs 1-3.
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played as substitutes for originals, as has been the case from the Renaissance and up to our time. Juvenal criticises, in one of his satires (2.4-5) from about 100 AD, some contemporaries for trying to appear learned simply by stuffing their houses with plaster busts of the Greek stoic philosopher Chrysippos.36 The word used is gypsum, and there is no doubt that he refers to plaster casts, just as the German ‘Gips’ and the Italian ‘gesso’ can mean both ‘plaster’ as well as a ‘plaster cast of a sculpture’. The alternative reading would be that Juvenal refers to a number of individually created plaster portraits of Chrysippos in the homes of Romans, but this reading does not make sense, because we would then suddenly have original artworks that neither fit the slating remarks of Juvenal, nor what we know of what Romans exhibited in their homes.37 We know from numerous finds and references in the Roman literature that marble copies of certain original Greek portraits of Greek men of letters were standard equipment in Roman villa-libraries;38 for those to whom these marble copies were unavailable, plaster casts may have been an economically viable alternative. Plaster sculpture on display in private homes existed also in Roman Greece, as for example a statue of Dionysos seen by the Roman traveller Pausanias, writing in the second century AD (9.32.1): “Creusis, the Harbour of Thespiai, has nothing to show publicly, but at the home of a private person I found an image of Dionysos made of Gypsum and adorned with painting”.39 Given the fragility of plaster and its sensitivity towards water, we should not be surprised that hardly any such plaster casts from private Roman contexts have survived. However, at least one cast, probably of a statue of an athlete (no. 23, Fig. 1. 10), survives from such a context in Seleuceia Pieria in Turkey. The head is quite weathered, but is still an attractive find, since it may be archaeological evidence for an important phenomenon better known from the written sources. Arguably, Juvenal’s passage may be read as an implicit criticism of plaster casts. The material was cheap, and a great number of almost identical copies could be produced from the same mould, making the fabrication process inexpensive as well. Remembering that Juvenal is a single source attesting to this use of casts, and an attitude towards it, we may safely say that at least in Juvenal’s lifetime, around the middle of the second century AD, casts were
___________ 36 Brill’s New Pauly. Encyclopaedia of the Ancient World. Classical Tradition, 5 vols (Leiden, 2006–), I, s.v. ‘Cast; Cast Collections B, I’ (I. Kader). 37 The original plasters Romans could have exhibited in their homes, alongside those of wax and other materials, were unique images of their forefathers, based on death (or life) masks, as the one discussed above p. 18 and listed in the appendix, no. 24. 38 R. Neudecker, Die Skulpturenausstattung römischer Villen in Italien (Mainz am Rhein, 1988). 39 Pausanias, Description of Greece, books 1-10, translated from the Greek, W. H. S. Jones, 5 vols (Cambridge Mass., 1918–).
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Fig. 1. 10: Head from a statue of an athlete (?). Late Hellenistic-early Roman. Plaster, h: 24.9 cm. University Art Museum, Princeton.
used in this way in the city of Rome. It is tempting to develop further from the testimony of Juvenal, but while I would believe that the practice he described existed not only in Rome but elsewhere in the Empire, evidence to support this does not exist at present. Of course one could argue that since plaster as a material and casts in that material were cheap, they were, like so many other banalities of daily life, less likely to have been mentioned in our sources. And further, the material is perhaps only described by Theophrastos and Pliny precisely because these authors are dealing specifically with materials, of which gypsos-gypsum-plaster is one among many and of course had to be treated. Along the same lines, Juvenal mentioned plaster casts because, in a specific context, he could frame an attitude held by his audience, that casts were the exhibits of the ambitious middle class as opposed to the old aristocracy and upper class that owned and displayed the ‘genuine article’, namely the more frequently spoken of statues of stone and precious metals. To sum up: plaster casts were used in Antiquity both for the transmission of three-dimensional images within the artistic working process and as objects of display in their own right. In fact, all the major functions of the material plaster in plastic art as we know them from post-antique periods existed, in one form or another, already in antiquity, apart from one: the ancient world did apparently not know of cast collections in non-workshop contexts.
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Whereas it is difficult to say anything about the extent to which plaster casts were used as substitutes for originals in the ancient world, their role as transmitters of form, from Greek original artworks – reliefs, statues and architectural decoration – into Roman copies of the same categories must have been tremendous.40 There would have been no massive spread of Greek art into the Roman world without casts.
Appendix Provisional list of known surviving plaster casts from antiquity. Numbers occasionally refer to groups of related finds in the same collection, not always to individual pieces. Place names in italics indicate the original location of the find, those in regular font their present location. Egyptian No. 1 a-d. Amarna. Ägyptisches Museum, Berlin. Twenty seven heads and fragments of sculpture in plaster, Egyptian, mid fourteenth century BC. Mentioned in this article are the following heads: Akhenaten (a) inv. 21 355; Nefertiti (b) inv. 21 349; an (unknown) male (c) inv. 21 228; and an (unknown) old female (d) inv. 21 261. Arnold, Royal Women, pp. 46-51. No. 2. British Museum, London. From private collection in France. Face of a man, Egyptian fourteenth century BC (?). Cast from death or life (?), reworked, h: 13.5 cm, inv. 60.65656. I. E. S. Edwards, ‘An Egyptian Plaster Cast’, British Museum Quarterly, 22 (1960), pp. 27-9, pl. 6. Greek and Roman No. 3. Alexandria. Museum for Greek and Roman Art. a. Plaster bust, cast and modelled, Roman, first to second century AD, h: 29 cm (35 cm as restored), inv. 19120.
___________ 40 Contra: R. Neudecker, Brill’s New Pauly. Encyclopaedia of the Ancient World, 15 vols (Leiden, 2002–2009), VI, 6, at ‘Copies B’.
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L. Bacchielli, ‘Un ritratto cirenaico in gesso nel Museo greco-romano di Alessandria’, Quaderni di archeologia della Libia, 9 (1977), pp. 97-110, figs 1-3, 6. b. Ten fragments of casts of relief-decorated tableware: Inv. 22501, 22510, 24344, 24346-7, 25102, 25106-9. Reinsberg, Studien zur hellenistischen Toreutik, pp. 10-11; for 24344 and 24347 see also G. Barone, ‘Due modelli di gesso del Museo Greco-Romano di Alessandria’, in Bonacasa and Di Vita (eds), Alessandria e il mondo ellenisticoromano, pp. 329-33, pl. 58.1-3. No. 4. Memphis. Museum for Greek and Roman Art, Alexandria. Ilioupersis scene with Triptolemos seated and the killing of a Trojan captive (?), Roman. H. Froning, ‘Die ikonographische Tradition der kaiserzeitlichen mythologischen Sarkophagreliefs’, Jahrbuch des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, 95 (1980), pp. 336-41, fig. 16. No. 5. Allard Pierson Museum, Amsterdam. a. Relief cast from a statuette of a standing Zeus, Roman, h: 9.6 cm, inv. 7082. Bought in Egypt before 1921. From Memphis (?). R. L. Scheurleer, ‘A Note on Two Casts in the Allard Pierson Museum Amsterdam’, in Bonacasa and Di Vita (eds), Alessandria e il mondo ellenisticoromano, pp. 359-62, pl. 62.4, 6. b. Relief cast from a relief of a standing Athena, Hellenistic, late third century BC, h: 11.5 cm, inv. 7085. Bought in Egypt before 1921. From Memphis (?). R. L. Scheurleer, ‘A Note on Two Casts in the Allard Pierson Museum Amsterdam’, in Bonacasa and Di Vita (eds), Alessandria e il mondo ellenisticoromano, pp. 359-62 pl. 62.3, 5. No. 6. Athens, Agora. Various fragments of casts and moulds. Example: Fragment of a relief cast in mould. Lower body, upper thighs and right arm of a standing draped figure. Classical Greek (?). E. D. Reeder Williams, ‘Ancient Clay Impressions From Greek Metalwork’, Hesperia. The Journal of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens, 45 (1976), pp. 41-66, pl. 7 no. 9. No. 7. Athens, Kerameikos (at Hagia Triada). National Museum (now lost ?). ‘Face of a dead man’ (death mask ?) and right arm of a male figure. C. Curtius, ‘Der attische Friedhof vor dem Dipylon’, Archäologische Zeitung, 1872, pp. 12-35, at p. 35 (mentions left male arm of plaster with bone as well as moulds for tools (?)); L. von Sybel, Katalog der Sculpturen zu Athen (Mar-
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burg, 1881), p. 208 no. 2921 (mentions the arm but also a death-mask with ref. to Martinelli no. 216); N. F. Martinelli, Catalogue of Casts in Gypsum Taken Direct from the Masterpieces of Greek Sculpture (Athens, 1881), p. 37 no. 216 (mentions death-mask with ref. to Curtius and Sybel (?)). No. 8. Begram. Archaeological Museum, Kabul. Dozens of relief-decorated objects, mostly medallions, largely with mythological scenes and figures. Hellenistic. G. Gullini et al., L’Afghanistan. Dalla preistoria all’islam. Capolavori del museo di Kabul (Turin, 1961), pp. 95-101, pls 1-9; Reinsberg, Studien zur hellenistischen Toreutik, p. 11; Menninger, Untersuchungen, pp. 93ff. Example: Begram Symplegma. The Siren and Silenos symplegma, Lexicon iconographicum mytologiae classicae (Zurich and Munich, 1974–) 8.1 (suppl.): Seirenes no. 89b (E. Hofstetter). No. 9. Ägyptisches Museum, Berlin. Cup from Athribis with Isis, Harpokrates and sacrificial scene. Hellenistic. T. Schreiber, ‘Die Alexandrinische Toreutik. Untersuchungen über die Griechische Goldschmiedekunst im Ptolemaeerreiche’, Abhandlungen der Sächsischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Leipzig. Philologisch-historische Klasse, 14.5 (1894), pp. 470-9, pl. 5; Reinsberg, Studien zur hellenistischen Toreutik, p. 11; Thompson, ‘Quae saga; quis magus’, p. 315, pl. 56.8. No. 10. Archaeological Museum, Cairo. a. 24 sculptural objects in plaster of various periods and provenance in Egypt. C. C. Edgar, Catalogue générale des antiquités égyptiennes du musée du Caire (Cairo, 1906), pp. x-xii, pp. 80-6, pls 42-3. Reinsberg, Studien zur hellenistischen Toreutik, p. 11 ; Tomoum, The Sculptor’s Models, nos 40, 46, 48, 90, 98, 115, 122, 157-8, 161, 166 (98, 122, 157, 161 and 166 also published in Edgar). b. Death mask, Tuna el-Gebel, inv. JdE. 46.593. Egypt, first century BC to first century AD. G. Lefebvre, Le tombeau di Petosiris (Paris, 1924), I, p. 28; A. Adriani, ‘Ritratti dell’Egitto greco-romano’, Römische Mitteilungen, 77 (1970), pp. 72109, at p. 108, pl. 35.1-2. G. Grimm, Die Römischen Mumienmasken aus Ägypten (Wiesbaden, 1974), pp. 122-3, believes that the mask was made in a mould (which was not taken from the face of a person). No. 11. Kestner-Museum, Hanover. Head from a small statue or bust of a king, h: 11.1 cm, inv. 1951.109. Hellenistic, early third century BC. Tomoum, Sculptor’s Models, p. 214 no. 39, pl. 30a, b.
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No. 12. Roemer- und Pelizaeus Museum, Hildesheim. Find from Memphis, Egypt, of more than seventy casts. Example: relief with portrait of Ptolemy I Soter, h: 8.3 cm, inv. 1120. Hellenistic, early third century BC Bianchi, Cleopatra’s Egypt, p. 146 no. 51 (ill.); Reinsberg, Studien zur hellenistischen Toreutik, p. 311 cat. no. 36, figs 49-50. No. 13. Museum of Antiquities of North-Western Crimea, Kara-Tobe. Four fragments of casts of silver vessels, first century BC – first century AD. S. Y. Vnukov, S. A. Kovalenko, M. Y. Treister, ‘Plaster casts from KaraTobe’ (Russian with English abstract), Vestnik drevnej istorii, 1990.2, pp. 100-119 (figs, pls). No. 14. University of London. a. Maenad, from Egypt (?), h: 10.3 cm. Richter, ‘Ancient Plaster Casts of Greek Metalware’, p. 373, pl. 92 fig. 21; Reinsberg, Studien zur hellenistischen Toreutik, p. 11. b. Dionysos and Satyr, from Egypt (?), h: 10.3 cm. Richter, ‘Ancient Plaster Casts of Greek Metalware’, p. 373, pl. 93 fig. 24. No. 15. Antikensammlung, Munich. a. Rhytonfragment with Hermes and Dionysos, h: 11 cm. J. Sieveking, ‘Erwerbungen des Antiken-Sammlungen Münchens 1914’, Archäologischer Anzeiger, 1916, pp. 66-9, fig. 25a. Reinsberg, Studien zur hellenistischen Toreutik, p. 12. b. Plate fragment with birds, sfinxes and ornaments, h: 10.5 cm. J. Sieveking, ‘Erwerbungen des Antiken-Sammlungen Münchens 1914’, Archäologischer Anzeiger, 1916, pp. 66-9, fig. 25b. Reinsberg, Studien zur hellenistischen Toreutik, p. 11. No. 16. Museum für Kleinkunst, Munich. From the Dattari collection, orig. from Memphis (?). a. Relief bust of a maenad with wreath in her hair, h: 12 cm, inv. 13006. Richter, ‘Ancient Plaster Casts of Greek Metalware’, p. 373, pl. 92 fig. 22; J. Sieveking, ‘Erwerbungen der Antiken-Sammlungen Münchens 1914’, Archäologischer Anzeiger, 1916, pp. 66-9, fig. 25c. b. Relief, sacrificial scene, h: 8.5 cm, inv. 13007. Richter, ‘Ancient Plaster Casts of Greek Metalware’, p. 374, pl. 94 fig. 29.
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No. 17. Staatliches Museum Ägyptischer Kunst, Munich. a. Face-fragment of a head from a statue of a king: Nectanebo I, Ptolemy IX or X, h: 28 cm, inv. ÄS 5339. Tomoum, Sculptor’s Models, p. 215 no. 42, pl. 31a-c. b. Face-fragment of a head from a statue of a king, h: 20 cm, inv. ÄS 7093. Tomoum, Sculptor’s Models, p. 215 no. 43, pl. 32a. No. 18. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. a. Relief from a mirror cover with upper part of a woman, from Egypt (?), h: 7 cm, inv. 31.11.16. Richter, ‘Ancient Plaster Casts of Greek Metalware’, p. 373, pl. 93 fig. 25. b. Relief with lower part of seated woman, from Egypt (?), h: 7 cm, inv. 31.11.17. Richter, ‘Ancient Plaster Casts of Greek Metalware’, p. 373, pl. 93 fig. 26. c. Medallion with three figures, from Egypt (?), d: 11 cm, inv. 31.11.15. Richter, Handbook of the Greek Collection, p. 129, pl. 109h. No. 19. Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Cup-fragment with festive scene in front of a tree and walled city (Handley and Thompson (‘Quae saga; quis magus’) for different interpretation), h: 11 cm, inv. 1968.777. Bought in Cairo, probably from Memphis. D. B. Thompson, ‘ȆǹȃȃȊȋǿȈ’, Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, 50 (1964), pp. 147-63, pl. 15; E. W. Handley, ‘The Poet Inspired?’, Journal of Hellenic Studies, 93 (1973), pp. 104-8, pl. 1a; Thompson, ‘Quae saga; quis magus’, p. 315, pl. 56.5. No. 20. Louvre, Paris. a. Relief with Ajax and Kassandra, from Egypt (?), h: 9 cm, inv. MND 195. Richter, ‘Ancient Plaster Casts of Greek Metalware’, p. 372, pl. 91 fig. 17; Burkhalter, ‘Moulages en plâtre antiques et toreutique alexandrine’, pp. 33447, pl. 60.3-4. b. Relief with Herakles and the Nemean Lion, from Egypt (?), h: 13 cm, inv. MND 2049. Richter, ‘Ancient Plaster Casts of Greek Metalware’, p. 372, pl. 92 fig. 19. c. Relief with Aphrodite and Eros, from Egypt (?), d: 6 cm, inv. MND 273. Richter, ‘Ancient Plaster Casts of Greek Metalware’, p. 373, pl. 93 fig. 23; Burkhalter, ‘Moulages en plâtre antiques et toreutique alexandrine’, pp. 33447, pl. 60.3-4.
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No. 21. Musée Guimet, Paris. a. Inv. 193. From Begram. Relief medallion, Meleager (?) standing next to the boar, d: 18 cm. Burkhalter, ‘Moulages en plâtre antiques et toreutique alexandrine’, pp. 33447, pl. 61.3-4. b. Inv. 194. Relief medallion, Zeus (?) standing next to an altar holding a phiale, d: 14.6 cm. Burkhalter, ‘Moulages en plâtre antiques et toreutique alexandrine’, pp. 33447, pl. 61.5-6. c. Inv. 199. From Begram. Cast of an impression of a relief decorated skyphos (?) with standing and seated figure, d: 7.2 cm. Burkhalter, ‘Moulages en plâtre antiques et toreutique alexandrine’, pp. 33447, pl. 61.1-2. No. 22. Art Museum of the University, Princeton. A horse’s nose-piece with relief of warrior on pile of armour, Hellenistic, third to second century BC, h: 16.6 cm, acc. no. 48.52. From Egypt (?). G. M. A. Richter, ‘A Plaster Cast of a Horse’s Nose-Piece’, in Records of the Art Museum Princeton University, 18 (1959), pp. 53-9, (with fig.), with ‘A Note on the Inscription on the Plaster Cast’, by A. E. Raubitschek p. 90. No. 23. Art Museum of the University, Princeton. Head from a statue of an athlete (?), late Hellenistic – early Roman, h: 24.9 cm, no. 2000–120. From Seleuceia in Pieria, Turkey, sector 19-k, excavation 2, around the ‘Painted Floor’. J. M. Padgett, Roman Sculpture in the Art Museum, Princeton University (Princeton, 2001), pp. 211-12 (with fig.). No. 24. Rome, Antiquarium Communale. Head of balding beardless man, third century AD. Inv. 16.347. From tomb at Via Prenestina, Rome, found with two other fragmentary heads of plaster. This head is cast in three pieces. D’Alessandro and Persegati, Scultura e calchi in gesso, pp. 50-3, figs 6-7. No. 25. Library, Vatican (Rome). Relief, Amazonomachia. Richter, ‘Ancient Plaster Casts of Greek Metalware’, pp. 374-5, pl. 94 fig. 34, pl. 95 figs 35-7; Reinsberg, Studien zur hellenistischen Toreutik, p. 12.
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No. 26. Sabratha, Libya. Museum of Sabratha. Hundreds of fragments of statues, statuettes, reliefs, plaster moulds and architectural decoration. Roman Imperial period. Barone, Sabratha. No. 27. From Egypt (?), private collection. Left side of a face (profile), fourth to second century BC, h: 25.4 cm. Bianchi, Cleopatra’s Egypt, p. 129 no. 34 (with fig.). No. 28. From Egypt (?), private collection. Face-part of a portrait head of Ptolemy X (?), c. 107-88 BC, h: 27 cm. J. A. Josephson, Egyptian Royal Sculpture of the late Period 400-246 B.C. (Mainz am Rhein, 1997), pl. 5. No. 29. From Egypt (?), private collection, USA. Plaster relief (Roman?) from a mould of a Hellenistic metal vessel, h: 5 cm. D. B. Thompson, ‘ȆǹȃȃȊȋǿȈ’, Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, 50 (1964), pp. 147-63, pl. 15; Reinsberg, Studien zur hellenistischen Toreutik, p. 13. No. 30. Purchased in Alexandria, private collection. Plaster relief with head of Serapis and snake, second century AD, h: 8 cm. P. M. Fraser, ‘A Plaster Anguiform Sarapis’, in Bonacasa and Di Vita (eds), Alessandria e il mondo ellenistico-romano, pp. 348-50, pl. 62.1.
Frequently cited literature L. D’Alessandro and F. Persegati, Scultura e calchi in gesso: storia, tecnica e conservazione (Rome, 1987) D. Arnold, The Royal Women of Amarna (New York, 1996) G. Barone, Gessi del Museo di Sabratha (Rome, 1994) R. S. Bianchi, Cleopatra’s Egypt (New York, 1988) N. Bonacasa and A. Di Vita (eds), Alessandria e il mondo ellenistico-romano. Studi in onore di Achille Adriani, 3 vols (Rome, 1984) F. Burkhalter, ‘Moulages en plâtre antiques et toreutique alexandrine’, in N. Bonacasa and A. Di Vita (eds), Alessandria e il mondo ellenisticoromano. Studi in onore di Achille Adriani (Rome, 1984), II, 334-47 E. R. Caley and J. F. C. Richards, Theophrastus on Stones. Introduction, Greek Text, English Translation, and Commentary (Columbus, Ohio, 1956)
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C. Landwehr, Die antiken Gipsabgüsse aus Baiae: griechische Bronzestatuen in Abgüssen römischer Zeit (Berlin, 1985) M. Menninger, Untersuchungen zu den Gläsern und Gipsabgüssen aus dem Fund von Begram/Afghanistan (Würzburg, 1996) N. Penny, The Materials of Sculpture (New Haven, Conn., and London, 1993) C. Reinsberg, Studien zur hellenistischen Toreutik (Hildesheim, 1980) G. M. A. Richter, Handbook of the Greek Collection (Cambridge, Mass., 1953) G. M. A. Richter, ‘Ancient Plaster Casts of Greek Metalware’, American Journal of Archaeology, 62 (1958), pp. 369-77, (with pls) D. B. Thompson, ‘Quae saga; quis magus?’, in N. Bonacasa and A. Di Vita (eds), Alessandria e il mondo ellenistico-romano: studi in onore di Achille Adriani, 3 vols (Rome, 1984), II, pp. 309-17 N. S. Tomoum, The Sculptors’ Models of the Late and Ptolemaic Periods (Cairo, 2005)
The Baiae Casts and the Uniqueness of Roman Copies CHRISTA LANDWEHR
In 1954 some curious artefacts came to light during excavations in a complex of ruins which were once the luxurious baths of Baiae.1 Located on the Gulf of Naples a short distance from Puteoli, the modern town of Pozzuoli, Baiae was a flourishing resort from the first century BC. The numerous irregular and badly battered pieces of plaster evidently belonging to life-size plaster casts were found in a mass of debris used to fill a cellar room.2 Legs and hands showed signs of having been deliberately hacked apart. The reason for this may have been the lead wire and iron dowels used to reinforce the plaster;3 at some point the value of the small amounts of these materials may have exceeded that of the large statues made of plaster. According to our calculations the 400 odd fragments originate from at least twenty-four and at most thirty-three statues.4 Gisela Richter examined the fragments in the 1960s and noticed the face of Aristogeiton, which she subsequently published.5 I was able to identify fragments of eleven other statues, among them Harmodios, the Sciarra, Mattei and Sosikles Amazons, the Athena Velletri, the Aphrodite Borghese, and Eirene carrying Ploutos.6 The identifications prove beyond doubt that the Baiae plaster fragments are the remnants of casts of famous Greek bronze masterpieces of the fifth and fourth centuries BC. It is safe to assume that the casts belonged to an important atelier and that they were used to create true-to-scale marble copies. In order to provide compelling visual evidence for the identification of the Baiae fragments, I chose to have new plaster casts made from them and to have these introduced into plaster casts taken from Roman copies: the part corresponding to the Baiae fragment is simply chiseled away and the replica
___________ 1 2 3 4 5 6
Landwehr, Gipsabgüsse Baiae, pp. 5-6 and pl. 1 a. Landwehr, Gipsabgüsse Baiae, p. 6 and pl. 1 b and c. Landwehr, Gipsabgüsse Baiae, pp. 19–22. Landwehr, Gipsabgüsse Baiae, pp. 177-80. G. M. A. Richter, ‘An Aristogeiton from Baiae’, American Journal of Archeology, 74 (1970), pp. 296-7, pl. 74, figs 1–3. Landwehr, Gipsabgüsse Baiae, pp. 27–111, cat. nos 1–67.
36
Christa Landwehr
Fig. 2. 1: Sciarra Amazon. Right: the Copenhagen copy. Second half of the first century AD. Marble, h (shoulder): 1.56 m. Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen. Cast with replicas of Baiae casts inserted; upper left: close-up of inserted arm fragment; lower left: close-up of inserted breast fragment.
Fig. 2. 2: Mattei Amazon. Right: the Vatican copy. Second half of the first century AD. Marble, h (shoulder): 1.59 m. Vatican Museums, Rome. Cast with replicas of the Baiae casts inserted. Upper left: close-up of an inserted fragment with a segment of the strap of the quiver; lower left: close-up of an inserted fragment with folds of the chiton.
of the latter is then inserted. This project, carried out by the sculptor und restorer Silvano Bertolin, demonstrates the astonishing precision of the ancient copying technology. Reconstructions of this sort were carried out, for instance, on a cast of the Copenhagen copy of the Sciarra Amazon (Fig. 2. 1, right panel),7 into which replicas of the Baiae casts, for example parts of the right arm and right breast (Fig. 2. 1, left panels),8 were inserted. A cast of the Vatican copy of the Mattei Amazon was combined with a cast of the right arm of the Tivoli copy (Fig. 2. 2, right panel),9 into which
___________ 7 8 9
Landwehr, Gipsabgüsse Baiae, pp. 60-4, cat. nos 29-33 and pls 26–31. Landwehr, Gipsabgüsse Baiae, cat. nos 29 and 30, pl. 26 a and c and pl. 28 c. Landwehr, Gipsabgüsse Baiae, pp. 64-70, at p. 65: Vatican = ‘Kopie B’; Tivoli = ‘Kopie C’; pl. 32 a.
The Baiae Casts and the Uniqueness of Roman Copies
37
replicas of the Baiae casts,10 for example, two fragments of drapery (Fig. 2. 2, left panels),11 were introduced. Numerous observations made on the Baiae casts reveal the meticulous care that went into the making of the cast itself. Silvano Bertolin, who is not only a restorer but also a sculptor with training in traditional copying techniques, was kind enough to calculate the labour (in man-hours) required to make a cast of a full-sized statue such as the Sciarra Amazon. Since elastic materials such as silicon for making moulds were unknown in antiquity, this was a time-consuming process. Plaster casts of small zones of the surface of the original statue were made one by one. These fit together like a threedimensional puzzle and for the casting process they were held together by removable plaster caps.12 The casting was done in sections: the head, the arms and the column were all cast separately. The torso was cast in two parts.13 For the Amazon about 195 form pieces and thirty-eight caps would be required. About 400 man-hours would be needed for the job. Subsequently, another 100 odd hours would be required to work over the partial casts. For sculpting a true-to-scale marble copy based on the plaster replica an experienced sculptor must work about 2200 hours. In addition to the costs of the labour of two different specialized craftsmen, the expense of transportation of the plaster cast to an overseas workshop must be taken into account. On the other hand, to sculpt ‘free hand’ a marble statue of the size and shape of the Sciarra Amazon, an artist must work approximately 1400 hours. The point I want to make here is that the Roman copy, often maligned by modern art historians as an inferior product of mechanical replication, must have had a different value in the eyes of sophisticated Roman connoisseurs. The two time-consuming and laborious processes, the production of the fullsize plaster cast of the bronze original and the creation of a full-scale copy in marble via the pointing technique, made the marble copy a costly work of art, much more costly than a statue executed without the constraint of fidelity to an original. The full-size plaster casts of the bronze statues, which must have been the work of skilled specialists, were probably quite rare. The atelier in Baiae was, based on the number of casts on hand, well equipped for producing marble copies. The copies found in the vicinity of Baiae seem to reflect the activity of
___________ 10 Landwehr, Gipsabgüsse Baiae, pp. 64-70, cat. nos 34-9, pls 32-40. 11 Landwehr, Gipsabgüsse Baiae, cat. nos 34-5, pl. 32 a-b and pl. 34 b. 12 Landwehr, Griechische Meisterwerke in römischen Abgüssen, pp. 16-17, fig. 13; Landwehr, Gipsabgüsse Baiae, pp. 16-17. 13 Landwehr, Griechische Meisterwerke in römischen Abgüssen, p. 18, figs 14-15; Landwehr, Gipsabgüsse Baiae, pp. 20-3.
38
Christa Landwehr
Fig. 2. 3: Aphrodite Borghese. Marble statues from Baiae. Left: By Aphrodisios Athenaios, first quarter of the first century AD, h: 1.95 m. Museo Nazionale, Naples; Right: third quarter of the first century AD, h: 1.68 m. Museo Nazionale, Naples.
our atelier: a large torso of Eirene was found in Cumae,14 a head of the Sosikles Amazon in Baiae itself.15 The Aphrodite Borghese must have been very popular: two statues were found in Baiae (Fig. 2. 3),16 a large torso in Misenum,17 a smaller one in Pozzuoli.18 A fifth copy survives in Portici.19 It makes of course economic sense to use a plaster cast over and over again to create copies: the more copies that are made from a plaster cast, the better the return on the initial investment. The Aphrodite was without a doubt a hit because it could be combined with portrait heads of noble ladies.20 More intriguing is the question of who, among the wealthy owners of the
___________ 14 Naples, Museo Nazionale. E. La Rocca, ‘Eirene e Ploutos’, Jahrbuch des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts 89 (1974), pp. 112-36, at p. 113, no. 2, figs 1–3; B. Vierneisel-Schlörb, Glyptothek München. Katalog der Skulpturen, II (Munich, 1979), cat. no. 25, p. 261, note 4: List of replicas, no. 2; Landwehr, Gipsabgüsse Baiae, pp. 103-4; Landwehr, Skulpturen, I: Idealplastik. Weibliche Figuren. Benannt (Berlin, 1993), pp. 61-2. 15 Naples, Museo Nazionale, inv. 150 401. M. Weber, ‘Die Amazonen von Ephesos’, Jahrbuch des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, 91 (1976), pp. 28–96, at p. 47, no. 16, figs 15-16 (photographs of a plaster cast in Basel). 16 Statue ‘Baiae I’ (Fig. 3, left panel): Naples, Museo Nazionale, inv. 150 383. Sculptor’s signature: Aphrodisios Athenaios. Landwehr, Gipsabgüsse Baiae, pp. 88-94, at p. 89 (‘Kopie A’), pl. 54 a, c; Valeri, Marmora Phlegraea, pp. 98-102, fig. 99; Statue ‘Baiae II’ (Fig. 3, right panel): Naples, Museo Nazionale, inv. 150 384. A cornucopia has been added to the left arm. Sculptor’s signature: Karos Puteanos Landwehr, Gipsabgüsse Baiae, pp. 88-94, at p. 89 (‘Kopie B’), pl. 54 b, d; Valeri, Marmora Phlegraea, fig. 100. 17 Baia, Museo dei Campi Flegrei. Landwehr, Gipsabgüsse Baiae, pp. 88-94, at p. 89 (‘Kopie C’), pl. 55 b; Valeri, Marmora Phlegraea, fig. 101. 18 Baia, Museo dei Campi Flegrei, inv. 292866. Valeri, Marmora Phlegraea, pp. 98-102, figs 97-8. 19 Portici, Villa Reale. P. Zancani Montuoro, ‘Repliche romane di una statua fidiaca’, Bolletino Communale, 61 (1933), pp. 25-58, no. 2, figs 4-6, pl. I; Landwehr, Gipsabgüsse Baiae, pp. 8894, at p. 89, note 422 (‘Kopie H’); Valeri, Marmora Phlegraea, p. 102. 20 The right arm of the statue ‘Baiae II’ (Fig. 3, right panel; see above, note 15) held a cornucopia. The latter is not only an attribute of Aphrodite, but rather is – in many cases – carried by female mem-
The Baiae Casts and the Uniqueness of Roman Copies
39
opulent villas on the Gulf of Naples, commissioned a copy of the Tyrant Slayers (Harmodios and Aristogeiton). Outside Rome and Campania full-scale copies have only been found in a few places. One of those places is the ancient city of Caesarea Mauretaniae, the present-day Cherchel in Algeria. The city was founded in 25 BC by Juba II, the newly proclaimed King.21 The Numidian prince, who had been raised and educated at the imperial court in Rome, was installed by Augustus as King of Mauretania. Augustus had also arranged the wedding of Juba II and Cleopatra Selene.22 The numerous sculptural works of exquisite quality document the keen interest of the royal couple in art, and show that they had the means to bring first-rate sculptors to Caesarea. They adorned the town and their palace with fine statuary comparable in quality to the best masterpieces of Rome and Campania. Among these works are the twin female figures referred to as ‘Demeter’.23 The workmanship of the figures is so precise that it is hard to tell the statues apart (Fig. 2. 4). The lesson to be learned here is simple: if in Juba’s time duplication had been considered inferior, he would never have commissioned this pair of statues, let alone displayed them together in his palace. The ability to create exact replicas must, on the contrary, have been considered to be a consummate artistic skill. The juxtaposition of the Baiae casts and their cognate Roman copies makes us very aware of another aspect that is equally important. In spite of the mechanical replication of the dimensions of the original, each copy is unique due to the individual treatment of details. A glance at the Roman copies of Aristogeiton is enough to convince anyone of this.24
___________
21
22
23
24
bers of the imperial family. The fact that the statue ‘Baiae I’ (Fig. 3, left panel) has a concave surface prepared for inserting a separately sculpted head is a good indicator that this was a portrait figure. M. R.-Alföldi, ‘Die Geschichte des numidischen Königreiches und seiner Nachfolger’, in H. G. Horn and C. Rüger (eds), Die Numider (Bonn, 1979), pp. 43-74; D. W. Roller, The world of Juba II and Kleopatra Selene (New York, 2003); C. Landwehr, ‘Les Portraits de Juba II, Roi de Maurétanie, et de Ptolémée, son fils et successeur’, Revue Archéologique, 43 (2007), pp. 65– 110; Landwehr, Skulpturen, IV: Porträtplastik. Fr
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L'inafferrabile 12
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Cineuropa - the best of european cinema
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L'inafferrabile 12 (Original photograph from the 1950 film) by Silvana Pampanini (starring) Carlo Campanini
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"Mario Mattoli (director); Marion Monicelli, Steno (screenwriters); Walter Chiari, Carlo Campanini, Silvana Pampanini (starring)",
"Steno (screenwriters); Walter Chiari",
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"Silvana Pampanini (starring)"
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1950-08-16T00:00:00
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Italy: Industrie Cinematografiche Sociali (ICS), 1950. Vintage keybook photograph of actress Silvana Pampanini from the 1950 Italian comedy. Twin brothers discover each other as adults after being separated at birth due to them being the twelfth…
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https://m.famousfix.com/list/films-directed-by-mario-mattoli
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Films directed by Mario Mattoli
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FamousFix.com
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https://www.famousfix.com/list/films-directed-by-mario-mattoli
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Overview: Two Nights with Cleopatra (Italian: Due notti con Cleopatra) is a 1954 Italian comedy film directed by Mario Mattoli and starring Sophia Loren.
Genre: Comedy
Director: Mario Mattoli
Sophia Loren plays a dual role, as both the sultry Queen of the Nile with a "man-a-night" appetite and a beautiful slave girl who takes her place ...
Overview: 5 marines per 100 ragazze is a 1961 Italian comedy film directed by Mario Mattoli and starring Virna Lisi.
Release date: 10 August 1961
Genre: Musical, Comedy
Director: Mario Mattoli
Five GIs end up in a female college during their military manouvers. They are very welcome by the girls...
Overview: Obiettivo ragazze is a 1963 Italian comedy film directed by Mario Mattoli and starring the comic duo Franco Franchi and Ciccio Ingrassia.
Release date: 5 August 1963
Genre: Comedy
Director: Mario Mattoli
Four former soldiers meet and reminisce about the time they were in active service: a parachutist mistaking his sergeants house for a brothel, a hypnotized ...
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https://www.yumpu.com/en/document/view/7110801/minerva-pictures
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en
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MINERVA PICTURES
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Elusive_Twelve
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en
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The Elusive Twelve
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Elusive_Twelve
|
1950 film
The Elusive TwelveDirected byMario MattoliWritten byAlberto Alberti
Franco Bezzi
Mario Monicelli
Stefano VanzinaProduced byNiccolò TheodoliStarringWalter Chiari
Silvana Pampanini
Isa BarzizzaCinematographyMario Albertelli
Aldo TontiEdited byGiuliana AttenniMusic byPippo Barzizza
Production
company
Industrie Cinematografiche Sociali
Distributed byTitanus
Release date
Running time
95 minutesCountryItalyLanguageItalian
The Elusive Twelve (Italian: L'inafferrabile 12) is a 1950 Italian comedy film directed by Mario Mattoli and starring Walter Chiari, Silvana Pampanini and Isa Barzizza.[1] It was shot at the Farnesina Studios of Titanus in Rome. The film's sets were designed by the art director Piero Filippone. It earned 400 million lira at the domestic box office.[2]
Plot
[edit]
When his wife gives birth to twin boys, her husband sends one to the orphanage as they already have eleven children and thirteen would be unlucky. The two boys grow up completely apart, one becoming a professional footballer for Juventus and the other an employee of the state lottery. Without meeting, the two now keep accidentally crossing paths. The second man is mistaken for the first man by his girlfriend, and ends up playing in a football match in place of his twin.
Cast
[edit]
Walter Chiari as Carletto Esposito\Brandoletti
Silvana Pampanini as Clara
Isa Barzizza as Teresa
Carlo Campanini as Beppe
Aroldo Tieri as Il dottor Giechi
Marilyn Buferd as L'assistente del dott. Giechi
Laura Gore as Carletta
Enzo Biliotti as Cav. Federico Pallino
Agnese Dubbini as La levatrice
Luigi Pavese as Umberto
Pina Gallini as La direttrice
Yvonne Sanson as Herself
References
[edit]
Bibliography
[edit]
Chiti, Roberto & Poppi, Roberto. Dizionario del cinema italiano: Dal 1945 al 1959. Gremese Editore, 1991.
Gundle, Stephen. Fame Amid the Ruins: Italian Film Stardom in the Age of Neorealism. Berghahn Books, 2019.
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https://www.scribd.com/document/587172534/Poggi-In-Defiance-of-Painting
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Poggi - in Defiance of Painting
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Poggi - In Defiance of Painting - Free ebook download as PDF File (.pdf), Text File (.txt) or read book online for free.
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https://s-f.scribdassets.com/scribd.ico?cf964f635?v=5
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Scribd
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https://www.scribd.com/document/587172534/Poggi-In-Defiance-of-Painting
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| 20
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https://www.giffonifilmfestival.it/en/guests-1984/item/2445-mario-monicelli.html
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en
|
MARIO MONICELLI
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Mario Monicelli (Rome, 16 May 1915) is an Italian director and screenwriter and one of the masters of the Commedia all'Italiana (Comedy Italian style)...
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https://www.giffonifilmfestival.it/en/guests-1984/item/2445-mario-monicelli.html
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Mario Monicelli (Rome, 16 May 1915) is an Italian director and screenwriter and one of the masters of the Commedia all'Italiana (Comedy Italian style). Monicelli was born in Rome and was the youngest son of journalist Tommaso Monicelli. His older brother, Giorgio, worked as writer and translator. Another older brother, Franco, was a journalist. He attended studies in the local lyceum, and entered the film world through his friendship with Giacomo Forzano, son of playwright Giovacchino Forzano, who had been put in charge of the founding of cinema studios in Tirrenia by Benito Mussolini. Monicelli lived a carefree youth, and many of the cinematic jokes he later shot in "My Friends" were inspired by his own experience.
Monicelli made his first short in 1934, in collaboration with his friend Alberto Mondadori. He followed up this work with the silent film "The Paul Street Boys" (an adaptation of the novel), which was an award-winner in the Venice Film Festival. His first feature length work was made in 1937 ("Summer Rain"). From 1939–42, he produced up to 40 numerous screenplays, and worked as an assistant director. Monicelli made his official debut as a director in 1949, with "Totò Looks For a House", along with Steno. From the very beginning of his career Monicelli's cinematic style had a remarkable flow to it. The duo produced eight successful movies in four years, including "Cops and Robbers" (1951) and "Toto in Color" (1952). From 1953 onwards Monicelli worked alone, without leaving his role as a writer of screenplays.
Monicelli's career includes some of the masterpieces of Italian cinema. In "Big Deal on Madonna Street" (1958), featuring the ubiquitous comedian Totò in a side role, he discovered the comical talent of Vittorio Gassman and Marcello Mastroianni and probably started the new genre of the modern 'commedia all'italiana'. While better known in the English-speaking world under the title "Big Deal on Madonna Street", the actual translation from the Italian is "the usual unknown perpetrators" (closely resembling the famous line from Casablanca: "Round up the usual suspects"). The film was nominated for the Best Foreign Language Film at the 31st Academy Awards.
"The Great War", with Vittorio Gassman, Alberto Sordi and Silvana Mangano released one year later, is generally regarded as one of his most successful works, which rewarded Monicelli with a Leone d'Oro in the Venice Film Festival, and an Academy Award nomination for the Best Foreign Film. The film, featuring Gassman and the other superstar of Italian comedy, Alberto Sordi, excelled in the absence of rhetorical accents (the tragedy of World War I was still very present in Italians' minds in these years) and for its sharp, tragicomical sense of history. Monicelli received two more Academy Award nominations with "The Organizer" (1963) and "The Girl with the Pistol" (1968).
"For Love and Gold" (1966) is another masterpiece of Italian cinema. The film tells the tragicomic tale of a Middle Ages Italian knight, with uncertain nobility and few means but high ideals, self-confidence and pomposity (Vittorio Gassman). The bizarre Macaronic Latin-Italian dialogues were devised by Age & Scarpelli, the most renowned writers of Italian comedies, and represent a whole linguistic invention which was followed by "Brancaleone at the Crusades" in 1970, and less successfully in "Bertoldo, Bertoldino e Cascacenno".
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https://letterboxd.com/film/the-formula/
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en
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The Formula (1980)
|
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While investigating the death of a friend and fellow cop, Los Angeles police officer Barney Caine stumbles across evidence that Nazis created a synthetic alternative to gasoline during World War II. This revelation has the potential to end the established global oil industry, making the formula a very valuable and dangerous piece of information. Eventually, Caine must contend with oil tycoon Adam Steiffel, who clearly has his own agenda regarding the formula.
|
en
|
https://letterboxd.com/film/the-formula/
|
1980 In Review - December
While investigating the death of a friend and fellow cop, Los Angeles police officer Barney Caine (George C. Scott) stumbles across evidence that Nazis created a synthetic alternative to gasoline during World War II. This revelation has the potential to end the established global oil industry, making the formula a very valuable and dangerous piece of information. Eventually, Caine must contend with oil tycoon Adam Steiffel (Marlon Brando), who clearly has his own agenda regarding the formula.
A really interesting film involving the discovery of a synthetic fuel that obviously big oil companies would want to suppress. Unfortunately I think this wastes that idea on a long and meandering murder mystery that ends up a…
I'm checking in on THE FORMULA as I try to embrace the cinema of both George C. Scott and John G Avildsen. Avildsen doesn't give us the gritty Frank Capra "Feel good about humanity or self" messaging that I feel we get from him at times. However, this works as an engaging procedural. A function of 1970s cop films, to be certain. And on paper, it probably had some marketing and awards appeal--although I don't think it really succeeded in either regard. Brando gives an interesting supporting performance while George C Scott leads the audience through an international mystery that cuts through local police noise AND international story threads whose tentacles stretch into modern oil-price fixing AND back into the…
SPRING CLEANING - FILM #52
George C. Scott is an LA detective tasked with unravelling the murder of an old friend. He stumbles onto a conspiracy involving a synthetic fuel formula that dates back to Nazi Germany.
The entire film is made of up scenes where Scott interviews a witness/suspect, leaves, and then that witness/suspect is assassinated. This happens at least 4 times. It becomes pretty tedious because the mystery is far from mysterious. Just waiting for it to end. The ending, by the way, does feature some good dialogue that hits the movie's theme nicely.
Brando is in his lazy, don't-give-a-fuck period with a very distracting set of false teeth that look fake and fuck up his already garbled…
This doesn’t look good, but it’s part of this Marlon Brando box set, so I’m gonna watch it.
⏰ Two hours later…
I didn’t expect Nazis, elephants, and alligators.
Honestly, I don’t think the plot is interesting enough to warrant the talents of George C. Scott and Marlon Brando. The idea of big oil suppressing alternative forms of fuel is compelling in real life, or as a documentary, but it’s not very cinematic. Maybe that’s why they needed to add Nazis, elephants, and alligators.
That said, our two stars do make it worth watching. George C. Scott walking around talking to people can never be boring! Plus, it was a great time for mainstream movies in general. It’s that 1970s…
Lt. Caine (George C. Scott) begins to investigate the murder of his friend and this leads him to Germany where there seems to have been a special formula for synthetic fuel that the Nazis were working on.
As the new decade kicked off you'd think that THE FORMULA would be a certain hit. After all, both Scott and Brando had won Oscars in the previous decade and director John G. Avildsen also picked up an Oscar. So three Oscar-winners and a story involving a cover-up with the Nazi party and yet, somehow, this film turned out to be a major dud, which is really too bad.
There are all sorts of problems with this film but I think the biggest…
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http://www.dvdjournal.com/quickreviews/f/formula.q.shtml
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Reviews: The Formula
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Click here to read The DVD Journal's review of The Formula.
| null |
The Formula
The Marlon Brando Collection
The Formula
Julius Caesar
Mutiny on the Bounty
Reflections in a Golden Eye
The Teahouse of the August Moon
Marlon Brando had such a reputation for difficulty that it is both a surprise and a delight to hear director John G. Avildsen and writer-producer Steve Shagan in their audio commentary track speak highly of the actor and their dealings with him on the set of The Formula, the 1980 film (based on Shagan's novel) about the roots of the oil crisis. No, it was co-star George C. Scott who proved to be a pain in their collective asses. Avildsen originally wanted Gene Hackman for the role of the Los Angeles cop who stumbles onto an international conspiracy that stretches back to the Nazis and the secrets they hid at the end of World War II. Instead he got Scott, whose politics were far to the right of Avildsen and Shagan. According to their commentary, he was a grumpy alcoholic with a tendency toward bar brawling whose only redeeming feature was his concern for Brando and his desire that the actor return to the stage. Avildsen also wanted Dominique Sanda as the femme fatale but ended up with Marthe Keller, who had played this kind of role before, that of the minx manipulating the men around her. With their verbal jabs at the current political scene, it is clear that the two men would have more sympathy with Brando, who lent his prestige to numerous liberal causes over the years. Coincidentally, for different reasons both Brando and Scott shunned the Oscar ceremony in which their Best Actor awards were bestowed. Brando only worked 12 days on this film and was paid in cash at the start of each workday. However, he did contribute an extra day for free, and Shagan wrote a whole new scene for him (and for G. D. Spradlin, who co-stared with Brando in Apocalypse Now, though not in the same scenes). It is unclear from the commentary whether this scene is restored to the film on this DVD or if it was always present in the film; both interpretations are possible. Brando plays the head of an oil company whose goal is to suppress knowledge of a synthetic fuel that would put the oil barons out of business. The Formula is one of those big, sprawling stories in which a lone man tries to puzzle out a mystery, one suspect and international setting after another, with each new clue-laying interogatee usually assassinated within minutes of their interview. Scene by scene, the picture is rather hard to follow, but the point of the whole thing is clear, and it ends with a terrific visual gag. Brando refused to learn his lines and fed himself his dialogue through the ruse of his character's hearing aid. In fact the first scene between Brando and Scott evokes a similar moment about deafness between Brando and Louis Calhern way back in Julius Caesar. Warner Home Video's edition of The Formula is about as good as it can be. The widescreen image (1.85:1, enhanced) is good, although the movie is photographed like a TV show, while audio is a pedestrian DD mono (in French and English). Aside from the quartet of trailers for other films in "The Marlon Brando Collection," there is the Shagan-Avildsen commentary, which is entertaining in its recklessness. At one point they speculate that an attractive actor (Robin Clarke) had his career blighted by cocaine, when in fact he remained active in movies for years after The Formula, and they tell stories out of school about the disturbed studio executive David Begelman. The static musical menu offers 31-chapter scene selection. Slimcase in the box-set.
D.K. Holm
Back to Quick Reviews Index: [A-F] [G-L] [M-R] [S-Z]
Back to Main Page
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https://moviesanywhere.com/movie/the-formula-1980
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The Formula | Full Movie | Movies Anywhere
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1980-08-18T00:00:00
|
Purchase The Formula on digital and stream instantly or download offline. What happens when the oil runs out? Two men know. They both want... The Formula. Academy Award winners Marlon Brando, George C. Scott and Sir John Gielgud star in this thriller about a police detective who inadvertently unravels an ongoing plot by global oil companies to keep a Nazi formula for synthetic fuel secret. Los Angeles. Police detective Barney Caine (Scott--Patton) investigates the murder of his longtime friend, Tom Neely (Robin Clarke), who had been trying to live the good life by dealing drugs to a well-heeled clientele. But as Caine's investigation leads to a string of murders, he realizes that the stakes are much higher than the death of his friend. And when he discovers that Neely had been the officer in charge of transporting a Nazi formula for synthetic fuel, Caine knows he stands alone against a global network of oil companies that will do anything to keep the secret of The Formula.
|
en
|
/apple-touch-icon.png
|
https://moviesanywhere.com/movie/the-formula-1980
|
plays like a tedious checklist of murders without a score card.
June 21, 2017
Only Marlon Brando in a small role as a daffy oil tycoon gives the film some spark.
May 2, 2021
its completely muddled plot is a disaster: There can be no joy in unraveling a plot that is a mystery even to itself.
August 16, 2017
The murder scene is littered with so many red herrings it might as well be a delicatessen.
June 21, 2017
The Formula is an intriguing thriller that raises many questions about business ethics and the moral bankruptcy of the very rich.
June 17, 2017
|
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7966
|
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0
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https://variety.com/1979/film/reviews/the-formula-1200424621/
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The Formula
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1980-01-01T07:00:00+00:00
|
M-G-M refused to let director John Avildsen take his name off this picture. According to Avildsen, it was not his original cut, nor producer-writer Steve Shagan's cut, but sort of a combination of the two, plus a few snips and patches by M-G-M president David Begelman.
|
en
|
Variety
|
https://variety.com/1979/film/reviews/the-formula-1200424621/
|
M-G-M refused to let director John Avildsen take his name off this picture. According to Avildsen, it was not his original cut, nor producer-writer Steve Shagan’s cut, but sort of a combination of the two, plus a few snips and patches by M-G-M president David Begelman.
Given the combined efforts of 14 Oscar nominees and a solid bestseller [by Shagan] to start from, it’s truly amazing that The Formula is such a clump of sludge, impossible to understand for at least an hour before it grinds to a halt.
Initial sequences solidly establish the closing hours of World War II when a German general (Richard Lynch) is entrusted with top secret documents to take to Switzerland in hopes the Nazis can use them to bargain for amnesty. But Lynch is captured by a US major (Robin Clarke) who recognizes what the secrets will be worth in the postwar world of commerce.
Cut forward 35 years and Clarke is a fresh corpse, murdered in his bed. George C. Scott is called in to investigate the murder of his old friend and before long establishes Clarke had some mysterious dealings with oil supertycoon Marlon Brando.
Appearing grotesquely fat and ridiculous, Brando apparently thinks he’s making some visual comment on the nature of his character.
1980: Nomination: Best Cinematography
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Formula_(1980_film)
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The Formula (1980 film)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Formula_(1980_film)
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1980 American-West German mystery film by John G. Avildsen
The FormulaDirected byJohn G. AvildsenScreenplay bySteve ShaganBased onThe Formula
1979 novel
by Steve ShaganProduced bySteve ShaganStarringCinematographyJames CrabeEdited byJohn CarterMusic byBill Conti
Production
companies
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer
CIP Filmproduktion
Distributed byUnited Artists (North America)
Cinema International Corporation (international)
Release date
Running time
117 minutesCountriesWest Germany
United StatesLanguageEnglishBudget$13.2 million[1]Box office$8.9 million[2]
The Formula is a 1980 mystery film directed by John G. Avildsen. It was produced and written by Steve Shagan, who adapted his own 1979 novel The Formula. It stars Marlon Brando, George C. Scott, Marthe Keller, John Gielgud, G. D. Spradlin, and Beatrice Straight.
The film follows the attempts by different groups who wish to either secure or destroy a synthetic fuel formula invented by the Nazis at the end of World War II which would end reliance on the supply of oil.
In the final days of World War II, Soviet forces close in on the outskirts of Berlin. Panzer Korps General Helmut Kladen is dispatched to the Swiss frontier with secret documents to be used as a bargaining chip with the Allies to save Germany from the Soviets. He is subsequently intercepted by the U.S. Army and turned over to Army Intelligence.
In contemporary Los Angeles, Lt. Barney Caine is assigned to solve the murder of his former boss and friend Tom Neeley, which presumably occurred during a drug deal gone wrong. However, Neeley has written "Gene" on a newspaper in his own blood, and Caine finds a map of Germany with the name "Obermann" on it. Caine eventually learns that Neeley provided drugs at parties hosted by the tycoon Adam Steiffel. While interviewing Neeley's ex-wife, he catches her in several lies. Returning to interview her a second time, he finds her shot dead in her hot tub.
Steiffel reveals in his interview that Neeley was working for him as a bagman. Neeley was sent overseas by the company to deliver money to business partners. Caine decides he must be in Germany to solve Neeley's murder and convinces his Chief to allow him to go there to continue the investigation. Later, the Chief phones one of Steiffel's cronies to say that Caine has taken the bait.
Caine meets Paul Obermann at the Berlin Zoo. Obermann explains operation "Genesis" - a synthetic fuel formula that the Nazis had produced - could wreck the current oil-economy. Neeley was killed over Genesis. Obermann is then murdered outside the zoo. At his apartment, his niece Lisa shows up to be interviewed by the police. At Obermann's memorial service, Caine asks Lisa to accompany him to act as his interpreter. Lisa agrees and they follow up on a lead that Obermann gave him regarding Professor Siebold who worked on the formula.
During their interview with Siebold, he reveals that the inventor of the formula, Dr. Abraham Esau, is still alive. After they leave his apartment, Siebold is shot in the head through a window. They meet up with Esau, who writes down the formula for Caine after making him promise to make it public. Lisa and Caine make photocopies and send them to the LAPD and a Swiss energy company. Caine also hides two copies from Lisa, depositing them in the hotel's safe. Subsequently, he reveals that he has deduced that she is not Obermann's niece at all, but a spy sent to keep tabs on him. Lisa admits it, but claims she did not sleep with him because of her orders.
At the border with East Berlin, Caine confronts Tadesco who relates how he knew Neeley, and what transpired after his capture by the Americans. As Tadesco walks towards his car, Lisa kills Tadesco, then walks towards East Berlin. At the airport before flying home to Los Angeles, Caine realizes the two copies of the formula in the hotel safe were replaced with fakes by Lisa, and that the only real copies are with the LAPD and the Swiss.
After landing in Los Angeles, he heads straight to Steiffel's office. Steiffel has kidnapped Yosuta, Caine's partner, and is holding him to exchange for the copy of the formula.
After exchanging the formula for Yosuta's release, Caine demands answers from Steiffel. Steiffel then outlines the cartel's plan since the end of the war, to keep the formula secret. They had managed to keep it secret until Swiss businessman, Tauber, began searching for the members of the original Genesis team, hoping to recreate the formula. Tauber's actions made the members of the Genesis team a liability to the cartel, so Steiffel had pulled strings to get Caine sent on a trip to Germany, which would serve as a cover for the cartel's plot to eliminate the remaining members.
Before leaving, Caine reveals that he sent the formula to Tauber. After their meeting, Steiffel calls Tauber, asking him to keep the formula secret for another ten years in exchange for a 25% share of his anthracite holdings. They negotiate, and Tauber agrees to not use the formula for ten years.
Marlon Brando as Adam Steiffel
George C. Scott as Lt. Barney Caine
Marthe Keller as Lisa Spangler
John Gielgud as Dr. Abraham Esau
G. D. Spradlin as Arthur Clements
Beatrice Straight as Kay Neeley
Richard Lynch as Gen. Helmut Kladen/Frank Tedesco
John van Dreelen as Hans Lehman
Robin Clarke as Maj. Tom Neeley
Ike Eisenmann as Tony
Marshall Thompson as Geologist #1
Dieter Schidor as Assassin
Werner Kreindl as Schellenberg
Jan Niklas as Gestapo Captain
Wolfgang Preiss as Franz Tauber
David Byrd as Paul Obermann
Ferdy Mayne as Prof. Siebold
Alan North as Chief John Nolan
Calvin Jung as Sgt. Louis Yosuta
Louis Basile as Sgt. Vince Rizzo
Gerry Murphy as Herbert Glenn, Clements' Chauffeur
Craig T. Nelson as Geologist #2
Herb Voland as Geologist #3
Stephanie Edwards as Reporter
Albert Carrier as Butler
Ric Mancini as Printman
The Formula was partly filmed at the Spandau Studios in Berlin, with location shooting in St. Moritz and Hamburg. The remainder of the film was shot at the Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer studios in Culver City, California.
On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds a 30% rating based on 10 reviews.[3] TV Guide says- "Dull, contrived, and ploddingly directed by John G. Avildsen, this film is a never-ending series of repetitive interviews in which Barney asks questions of a recalcitrant informant. Ultimately, the trail leads back to Brando's corpulent oil magnate. Brando, who appears in only three scenes and walked off with $3 million for his performance, is the only spark of life in the entire film, albeit a highly bizarre one".[4]
Award Category Nominees Result Academy Awards Best Cinematography James Crabe Nominated Razzie Awards Worst Picture Steve Shagan Nominated Worst Director John G. Avildsen Nominated Worst Supporting Actor Marlon Brando Nominated Worst Screenplay Steve Shagan Nominated Stinkers Bad Movie Awards Worst Supporting Actor Marlon Brando Nominated Most Annoying Fake Accent: Male Nominated
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https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0080754/reviews
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Die Formel (1980)
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Rotten Tomatoes
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1980-12-19T00:00:00
|
While investigating the death of a friend and fellow cop, Los Angeles police officer Barney Caine (George C. Scott) stumbles across evidence that Nazis created a synthetic alternative to gasoline during World War II. This revelation has the potential to end the established global oil industry, making the formula a very valuable and dangerous piece of information. Eventually, Caine must contend with oil tycoon Adam Steiffel (Marlon Brando), who clearly has his own agenda regarding the formula.
|
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https://www.rottentomatoes.com/assets/pizza-pie/images/favicon.ico
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Rotten Tomatoes
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https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/formula
|
Let's keep in touch!
>
Sign up for the Rotten Tomatoes newsletter to get weekly updates on:
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|
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7966
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https://cuttingroommusic.com/2021/04/20/which-movie-genres-earned-the-most-at-the-box-office-between-1980-and-2020/
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Which Movie Genres Earned the Most At the Box Office Between 1980 and 2020?
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2021-04-20T00:00:00
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Check out how the popularity of certain movie genres changed over the course of several decades, and how this affected box office numbers.
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Cutting Room Music
|
https://cuttingroommusic.com/2021/04/20/which-movie-genres-earned-the-most-at-the-box-office-between-1980-and-2020/
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Key Takeaways:
This interactive timeline shows exactly how audience preference and box office revenue changed throughout the years
The 80s and 90s: the golden days of Comedy and Drama
Between 2010 and 2020, Action and Adventure movies earned over $300 billion, combined
Technology pushes boundaries when it comes to Sci-Fi, Fantasy, and Animation
Our obsession with true crime opened new doors for the Thriller, Crime, and Horror genres
Not everyone is a cinephile, but it’s safe to say that most people enjoy a good movie now and then, whether it’s something deep, action-packed, or just a casual feel-good popcorn flick. Nowadays, highly talented people around the world are involved in film making, but by far the most influential and popular place for this business is Hollywood.
Directors, writers, composers, and sound and light engineers are the creative part of the industry, while machines like Hollywood are all about the business and making sure movies turn a profit. When it comes to huge blockbuster titles and big-budget films, studios have to make sure the movie they produce will be successful, however, the audience’s taste also plays a huge role in the overall schematic – and this taste can change dramatically, as we’re about to learn.
This interactive timeline shows exactly how audience preference and box office revenue changed throughout the years
It’s no secret that the Hollywood formula has changed many times over the years, but so has the audience’s preference. Here at Cutting Room Music, we were curious to see just how drastically the popularity of certain movie genres changed over the course of several decades, so we hopped on BoxOfficeMojo and did our research. We came across some really interesting results, and we managed to create an interactive chart that showcases how much money each genre has made worldwide from 1980 to 2020.
Take a look at the video below. It explores the evolution of all the movie genres and how much they made at the box office, in a span of 40 years.
The 80s and 90s: the golden days of Comedy and Drama
Up until the early 2000s, comedy and drama flicks ruled the box office. In the 80s, for example, comedies earned a total of $20 billion at the box office. Then, during the 90s, comedy flicks earned $32 billion, while during the 2000s, they made a total of $73 billion. During this time, movies like Ghostbusters, Beverly Hills Cop, The Big Lebowski, The Truman Show and Groundhog Day packed cinemas worldwide and made millions of people laugh, while also making millions of dollars at the box office.
Dramas, on the other hand, made around $16 billion in the 80s, $42 billion in the 90s, and $75 billion in the 2000s. Movies like Titanic, The Breakfast Club, Dead Poets Society, Dirty Dancing, Forrest Gump, or Good Will Hunting were massive hits during the 80s, 90s and 2000s, and are still considered classics to this day.
It’s also worth pointing out that romance movies, although highly popular in the 80’s, gradually lost their appeal to audiences, and by 2020, the genre was among the least popular.
Between 2010 and 2020, Action and Adventure movies earned over $300 billion, combined
Before 2000, people mostly enjoyed comedies and dramas, as we’ve already seen, but action and adventure movies were also very popular before the turn of the century. Titles like Indiana Jones, Die Hard, Top Gun and The Terminator paved the way for what was to come after the mid-2000s. The new James Bond movies, the Mission Impossible series, the Bourne series, as well as the Fast & Furious series made these two movie genres more and more popular.
As technology evolved, the 2000s also marked the start of many action-packed superhero movies. In 2000, 20th Century Fox released the first X-Men movie, and the series went on to span across a total of 13 movies until 2020. Sony also found huge success with Spider-Man flicks for many years, while Marvel Studios and Disney created an incredible cinematic universe with the MCU, releasing 23 movies in just 11 years. DC Comics and Warner Brothers Studios also kept busy with Christopher Nolan’s Batman Trilogy and Zack Snyder’s Watchmen, as well as with the DC Extended Universe movies.
As a result, adventure and action movies made around $26 billion and $29 billion, respectively, during the 90s, and by the end of 2010, these genres were miles ahead of the competition. Action movies grossed $149 billion from 2010 to 2020, while adventure movies earned $164 billion in the same time span. The two genres combined earned over $300 billion between 2010 and 2020.
Technology pushes boundaries when it comes to Sci-Fi, Fantasy, and Animation
As technology continued to evolve, CGI and special effects in movies became increasingly better between 2010 and 2020. Inception, Interstellar, Ad Astra and Blade Runner 2049 are just a few sci-fi marvels released in the past decade that did incredibly well at the box office. Studios like Pixar, Dreamworks Animation and Walt Disney Studios pioneered when it came to unique animated movies, and pushed the genre forward. The fantasy genre, however, outshined both sci-fi and animations during the 2000s, due to the immense success of the Lord of the Rings movie series and Harry Potter series.
During the 2000s, sci-fi, fantasy and animation movies grossed $29 billion, $49 billion and $24 billion, respectively. From 2010 to 2020, sci-fi films earned $90 billion at the box office, fantasy movies grossed $87 billion, and animation movies $51 billion worldwide.
Our obsession with true crime opened new doors for the Thriller, Crime, and Horror genres
David Fincher, Stanley Kubrick, David Lynch, Darren Aronofsky, Guy Ritchie, James Wan, Guillermo del Toro and many, many others blended and pushed the horror, thriller and crime genres forward in the past decades. Their incredible, and sometimes twisted, work continues to impress and leave audiences in awe, shock, and disbelief after finishing their movies.
In the past decade, thriller movies grossed $73 billion at the box office, while crime and horror films earned $33 billion and $18 billion, respectively. The three genres gradually grew at the box office each decade, and their influence on pop culture is undeniable. We also have Netflix to thank for fueling our true crime obsessions with documentary series like Making a Murderer, Tiger King, Killer Inside: the Mind of Aaron Hernandez, and many, many more.
Methodology
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https://www.nordicposters.com/movieposter/The-Formula-posters
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The Formula movie poster 1980 Marlon Brando John G Avildsen
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The Formula Movie poster 70x100cm 1980 Marlon Brando George C Scott Marthe Keller John G Avildsen frame on your wall!
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en
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https://www.nordicposters.com/movieposter/The-Formula-posters
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The Formula (1980)
Den hemliga formeln
Movie poster 70x100cm nice condition FN original
Director:
John G Avildsen
Actors:
Marlon Brando George C Scott Marthe Keller
Printed in:
1980Try it framed!
€11
1 for sale
1
Buy!
4.0 / 5 from 16 ratings
Vintage poster from a movie theater 1980. Rare, only a few were saved. Great quality in paper and colors, nice to frame on your wall. We sell original posters and movie photos since 1999 from the archives of a Swedish film distributor. A nice gift!
Other posters you may like:
Rocky V (1990)
Movie poster 68x102cm USA advance new condition NM original
Rocky (1976)
Movie poster 32x70cm as new/rolled RO original 1977
Apocalypse Now (1979)
Movie poster 70x100cm used condition GD yellowish paper original
Herbie Goes Bananas (1980)
Movie poster 70x100cm nice condition FN original
N E W €17
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https://www.statesman.com/story/entertainment/movies/2023/10/19/brad-pitt-f1-movie-sag-strike-actors-apex-damson-idris-javier-bardem-lewis-hamilton-f1-film/71241685007/
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What we know about Brad Pitt's F1 movie
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2023-10-19T00:00:00
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Brad Pitt was in Austin for the US Grand Prix last year. Here's what we know about his F1 movie now.
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en
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Austin American-Statesman
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https://www.statesman.com/story/entertainment/movies/2023/10/19/brad-pitt-f1-movie-sag-strike-actors-apex-damson-idris-javier-bardem-lewis-hamilton-f1-film/71241685007/
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It's been a year since Brad Pitt was seen watching some racing at COTA just days ahead of the US Grand Prix. The Oscar-winning actor was in Austin as early reports about him taking on a role in an upcoming Formula One movie began to emerge.
At the time, Pitt was an onlooker and just taking in the scene at the F1 event, but since then, he's done training for the role of a race car driver and filmed portions of the movie.
Here's what we know about the project now.
Brad Pitt's F1 movie filmed in part at 2023 British Grand Prix
In early July, Pitt was at the British Grand Prix to film part of the movie, with the atmosphere and props of an F1 race being best to utilize from a real event as opposed to building from scratch or via computer generated-imagery (CGI).
The Athletic reported that the film allowed for eight time slots to allow the crew “filming activity (high speed)” for the movie. This gave them about 20 minutes per slot to film sequences likely to be in the movie. None of these sequences including cars racing one another.
Behind these sequences is director Joe Kosinski, who recently directed "Top Gun: Maverick," which put the audience right in the cockpit of fighter jets.
“I spent time with Joe trying to make sure that we got the best camera positions, and the frame rate is different,” he told The Athletic. “It’s going to look fast.”
More: Glen Powell is one of the best parts of 'Top Gun: Maverick.' First, Austin helped him soar
Is this new F1 movie called 'Apex'? Brad Pitt seen wearing 'APXGP' racing suit
As of this writing, the film's IMDB page calls the project "Untitled Formula One Racing Movie," but noted below it's also known as "Apex." A science fiction film of the same name was released in 2021.
Apple has not announced the film's name, but while filming at the British Grand Prix, Pitt was seen wearing an "APXGP" racing suit. Those letters appear to symbolize the name of the fictional team featured in the movie.
An F2 car carrying that logo was also seen that weekend.
What's the plot of this Brad Pitt F1 movie? What role will Lewis Hamilton, Damson Idris and Javier Bardem play?
The film's IMDB page identifies Brad Pitt's character as "Sonny Hayes." At the British Grand Prix, Pitt told Sky Sports' Martin Brundle his character suffers a crash and returns to the track years later. He does so at the behest of a team owner played by Javier Bardem, whose character's name hasn't been released.
Racing on that team is Damson Idris, who plays the character of Joshua Pearse. The British actor portrayed Franklin Saint on the TV series "Snowfall" over six seasons.
The Athletic notes that stunt drivers will be driving the F1 cars, but that Pitt and Idris underwent private training in preparation "for the cars' physical demands."
The IMDB page lists Lewis Hamilton in the cast, but doesn't include the F1 driver's role. As noted, Hamilton is a producer on the film with his production company, Jerry Bruckheimer Films and Plan B Entertainment involved, too.
Tobias Menzies ("The Crown") and Kerry Condon ("The Banshees of Inisherin") are also among the cast, but their roles have yet to be disclosed.
SAG strike put brakes on Brad Pitt F1 movie
Just days after the British Grand Prix, the SAG-AFTRA strike began, putting a halt to several Hollywood projects. The F1 movie was filming at the Hungarian Grand Prix at the time and took a "two-month hiatus" shortly after the strike started.
With the strike ongoing, it's unclear when the movie will resume production.
The Hollywood Reporter outlined that financial shares would be split between Apple, the studio behind the film, and the filmmakers in a 50-50 split. Citing unnamed sources, the outlet said the big bet on the movie could land Pitt $40 to $50 million in revenue.
We don't have know a release date for Brad Pitt's F1 movie by Apple
Before the strike, Yahoo UK forecast the film would come to theaters in late 2024 or early 2025.
With the strike stretching over three months and counting, it's unclear what changes to the filming schedule let alone what the movie's approximate release date will be.
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https://www.themoviedb.org/movie/31603-the-formula%3Flanguage%3Den-US
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Ein Detektiv entdeckt eine Formel zur Herstellung von Öl aus Kohle, die im „Dritten Reich“ entwickelt wurde. Eine große Ölfirma findet es heraus und versucht, die Formel und jeden, der von ihr weiß, zu zerstören.
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https://www.themoviedb.org/movie/31603-the-formula
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https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0080754/
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Die Formel (1980)
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[
"Reviews",
"Showtimes",
"DVDs",
"Photos",
"User Ratings",
"Synopsis",
"Trailers",
"Credits"
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[] |
1980-12-19T00:00:00
|
Die Formel: Directed by John G. Avildsen. With George C. Scott, Marlon Brando, Marthe Keller, John Gielgud. The synthetic fuel production formula, invented by the Nazis at the end of World War II, is sought after by some who aim to sell it, and by others who wish to destroy it.
|
en
|
IMDb
|
https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0080754/
|
Exciting story about a cop involved into an international intrigue referred to high-finance, it begins from the end WWII to the present. This thriller concerns about a veteran Inspector (George C Scott), Lt. Caine LAPD, he has to investigate two murders , it leads an insidious scheme to get a formula about a secret for synthetic fuel called Genesis and he will not stop at nothing . Caine is drawn into a criminal whirlpool. He becomes unwittingly involved to Nazi plots, along with a beautiful model (Marthe Keller). Hard-noised Caine is only helped by an agent, his oriental sidekick against a mysterious organization ruled by a mean billionaire (Marlon Brando). Meanwhile suspicious start to be killed one by one. Later on, Caine gets the formula that is hidden into a safety box and is aware which the nasties know whether or no it is safe to go to pick it up.
This intriguing movie packs action, suspense ,thrills,a love story, treason, and is quite entertaining. This intense thriller holds your interest throughout, however it contains some flaws and confusion. Certainly is worth watch seeing for George C Scott's brilliant, credible performance as obstinate cop. Good secondary cast as John Gielgud , G.D. Spradlin,Marshall Thomson,Wolfgang Preiss,Richard Lynch , among others. Interesting movie but with some holes and gaps and ridiculous scenes .
The film contains adequate and atmospheric cinematography by James Crabe. Suspesnseful and long-standing score by Bill Conti, director's usual . The picture is regularly directed by John G Avildsen. He is a nice director who has mixed more karate Kid and Rocky films with such feel-good message films as ¨Power of one, or ¨ Lean on me¨. Rating : passable and acceptable, 5,5.
|
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7966
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dbpedia
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0
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https://www.justwatch.com/us/movie/the-formula-1980
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en
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The Formula streaming: where to watch movie online?
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[
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"The Formula 1980",
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] | null |
[] |
1980-12-19T00:00:00
|
Where is The Formula streaming? Find out where to watch online amongst 200+ services including Netflix, Hulu, Prime Video.
|
en
|
/appassets/favicon.ico
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JustWatch
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https://www.justwatch.com/us/movie/the-formula-1980
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Didn't find what you were looking for?
Let us notify you once it becomes available on more services.
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7966
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dbpedia
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0
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https://www.kodak.com/en/motion/page/chronology-of-film/
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en
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History of Film
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[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[] |
2020-07-06T14:48:06-04:00
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A leading global manufacturer focused on commercial print and advanced materials & chemicals. We believe in the power of technology and science to enhanceâ¦
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en
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https://assets.kodak.com/favicon.ico
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Kodak
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https://www.kodak.com/en/motion/page/chronology-of-film/
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History of Film from 1889 to present
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7966
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dbpedia
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0
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https://www.britannica.com/topic/The-Formula
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en
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The Formula | film by Avildsen [1980]
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[] |
[] |
[
"The Formula",
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Other articles where The Formula is discussed: John G. Avildsen: …the Big City (1978) and The Formula (1980), a conspiracy thriller with Marlon Brando and George C. Scott, illustrated Avildsen’s unfortunate tendency to follow victory with defeat. His adaptation of Thomas Berger’s novel Neighbors (1981), starring John Belushi and Dan Aykroyd, was also a critical and commercial disappointment, as was…
|
en
|
/favicon.png
|
Encyclopedia Britannica
|
https://www.britannica.com/topic/The-Formula
|
In John G. Avildsen
…the Big City (1978) and The Formula (1980), a conspiracy thriller with Marlon Brando and George C. Scott, illustrated Avildsen’s unfortunate tendency to follow victory with defeat. His adaptation of Thomas Berger’s novel Neighbors (1981), starring John Belushi and Dan Aykroyd, was also a critical and commercial disappointment, as was…
Read More
|
||||
7966
|
dbpedia
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2
| 6
|
https://www.statesman.com/story/entertainment/movies/2023/10/19/brad-pitt-f1-movie-sag-strike-actors-apex-damson-idris-javier-bardem-lewis-hamilton-f1-film/71241685007/
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en
|
What we know about Brad Pitt's F1 movie
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[] |
[
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] | null |
[
"Austin American-Statesman",
"Nate Chute"
] |
2023-10-19T00:00:00
|
Brad Pitt was in Austin for the US Grand Prix last year. Here's what we know about his F1 movie now.
|
en
|
Austin American-Statesman
|
https://www.statesman.com/story/entertainment/movies/2023/10/19/brad-pitt-f1-movie-sag-strike-actors-apex-damson-idris-javier-bardem-lewis-hamilton-f1-film/71241685007/
|
It's been a year since Brad Pitt was seen watching some racing at COTA just days ahead of the US Grand Prix. The Oscar-winning actor was in Austin as early reports about him taking on a role in an upcoming Formula One movie began to emerge.
At the time, Pitt was an onlooker and just taking in the scene at the F1 event, but since then, he's done training for the role of a race car driver and filmed portions of the movie.
Here's what we know about the project now.
Brad Pitt's F1 movie filmed in part at 2023 British Grand Prix
In early July, Pitt was at the British Grand Prix to film part of the movie, with the atmosphere and props of an F1 race being best to utilize from a real event as opposed to building from scratch or via computer generated-imagery (CGI).
The Athletic reported that the film allowed for eight time slots to allow the crew “filming activity (high speed)” for the movie. This gave them about 20 minutes per slot to film sequences likely to be in the movie. None of these sequences including cars racing one another.
Behind these sequences is director Joe Kosinski, who recently directed "Top Gun: Maverick," which put the audience right in the cockpit of fighter jets.
“I spent time with Joe trying to make sure that we got the best camera positions, and the frame rate is different,” he told The Athletic. “It’s going to look fast.”
More: Glen Powell is one of the best parts of 'Top Gun: Maverick.' First, Austin helped him soar
Is this new F1 movie called 'Apex'? Brad Pitt seen wearing 'APXGP' racing suit
As of this writing, the film's IMDB page calls the project "Untitled Formula One Racing Movie," but noted below it's also known as "Apex." A science fiction film of the same name was released in 2021.
Apple has not announced the film's name, but while filming at the British Grand Prix, Pitt was seen wearing an "APXGP" racing suit. Those letters appear to symbolize the name of the fictional team featured in the movie.
An F2 car carrying that logo was also seen that weekend.
What's the plot of this Brad Pitt F1 movie? What role will Lewis Hamilton, Damson Idris and Javier Bardem play?
The film's IMDB page identifies Brad Pitt's character as "Sonny Hayes." At the British Grand Prix, Pitt told Sky Sports' Martin Brundle his character suffers a crash and returns to the track years later. He does so at the behest of a team owner played by Javier Bardem, whose character's name hasn't been released.
Racing on that team is Damson Idris, who plays the character of Joshua Pearse. The British actor portrayed Franklin Saint on the TV series "Snowfall" over six seasons.
The Athletic notes that stunt drivers will be driving the F1 cars, but that Pitt and Idris underwent private training in preparation "for the cars' physical demands."
The IMDB page lists Lewis Hamilton in the cast, but doesn't include the F1 driver's role. As noted, Hamilton is a producer on the film with his production company, Jerry Bruckheimer Films and Plan B Entertainment involved, too.
Tobias Menzies ("The Crown") and Kerry Condon ("The Banshees of Inisherin") are also among the cast, but their roles have yet to be disclosed.
SAG strike put brakes on Brad Pitt F1 movie
Just days after the British Grand Prix, the SAG-AFTRA strike began, putting a halt to several Hollywood projects. The F1 movie was filming at the Hungarian Grand Prix at the time and took a "two-month hiatus" shortly after the strike started.
With the strike ongoing, it's unclear when the movie will resume production.
The Hollywood Reporter outlined that financial shares would be split between Apple, the studio behind the film, and the filmmakers in a 50-50 split. Citing unnamed sources, the outlet said the big bet on the movie could land Pitt $40 to $50 million in revenue.
We don't have know a release date for Brad Pitt's F1 movie by Apple
Before the strike, Yahoo UK forecast the film would come to theaters in late 2024 or early 2025.
With the strike stretching over three months and counting, it's unclear what changes to the filming schedule let alone what the movie's approximate release date will be.
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7966
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dbpedia
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0
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https://televisionstats.com/m/the-formula/cast
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The Formula (Movie) Cast
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[
""
] | null |
[] |
2024-08-17T00:00:00
|
Cast members details for The Formula. Get actor roles, casting info, images and more. Explore the cast of characters, their bios and filmography.
|
en
|
https://i.televisionstats.com/i/favicon.ico
|
Television Stats
|
https://televisionstats.com/m/the-formula/cast
|
George C. Scott
as Barney Caine
George C. Scott plays Barney Caine, a character caught in a complex web of intrigue and deception.
Marlon Brando
as Adam Steiffel
Marlon Brando portrays Adam Steiffel, a key figure entangled in the mysterious formula at the center of the plot.
Marthe Keller
as Lisa
Marthe Keller takes on the role of Lisa, a character whose involvement adds layers to the unfolding drama.
#2
Most popular actor on The Formula
217 Wikipedia views yesterday
John Gielgud
as Dr. Abraham Esau
John Gielgud embodies Dr. Abraham Esau, a pivotal character whose actions shape the course of events in the film.
G. D. Spradlin
as Arthur Clements
G. D. Spradlin plays Arthur Clements, a character with connections that prove crucial to the narrative.
Beatrice Straight
as Kay Neeley
Beatrice Straight portrays Kay Neeley, a character who brings a unique perspective to the unfolding drama.
Richard Lynch
as General Helmut Kladen / Frank Tedesco
Richard Lynch takes on the dual roles of General Helmut Kladen and Frank Tedesco, adding complexity to the storyline.
#3
Most popular actor on The Formula
211 Wikipedia views yesterday
John van Dreelen
as Hans Lehman
John van Dreelen embodies Hans Lehman, a character whose motives become increasingly significant as the plot unfolds.
Robin Clarke
as Major Tom Neeley
Robin Clarke portrays Major Tom Neeley, a character whose actions have far-reaching consequences in the movie.
Ike Eisenmann
as Tony
Ike Eisenmann appears as Tony, a character whose presence adds tension to the unfolding events.
Marshall Thompson
as Geologist #1
Marshall Thompson is seen as Geologist #1, a character who provides critical insights into the central mystery.
|
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| 6
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https://www.statesman.com/story/entertainment/movies/2023/10/19/brad-pitt-f1-movie-sag-strike-actors-apex-damson-idris-javier-bardem-lewis-hamilton-f1-film/71241685007/
|
en
|
What we know about Brad Pitt's F1 movie
|
[
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[] |
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[
""
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[
"Austin American-Statesman",
"Nate Chute"
] |
2023-10-19T00:00:00
|
Brad Pitt was in Austin for the US Grand Prix last year. Here's what we know about his F1 movie now.
|
en
|
Austin American-Statesman
|
https://www.statesman.com/story/entertainment/movies/2023/10/19/brad-pitt-f1-movie-sag-strike-actors-apex-damson-idris-javier-bardem-lewis-hamilton-f1-film/71241685007/
|
It's been a year since Brad Pitt was seen watching some racing at COTA just days ahead of the US Grand Prix. The Oscar-winning actor was in Austin as early reports about him taking on a role in an upcoming Formula One movie began to emerge.
At the time, Pitt was an onlooker and just taking in the scene at the F1 event, but since then, he's done training for the role of a race car driver and filmed portions of the movie.
Here's what we know about the project now.
Brad Pitt's F1 movie filmed in part at 2023 British Grand Prix
In early July, Pitt was at the British Grand Prix to film part of the movie, with the atmosphere and props of an F1 race being best to utilize from a real event as opposed to building from scratch or via computer generated-imagery (CGI).
The Athletic reported that the film allowed for eight time slots to allow the crew “filming activity (high speed)” for the movie. This gave them about 20 minutes per slot to film sequences likely to be in the movie. None of these sequences including cars racing one another.
Behind these sequences is director Joe Kosinski, who recently directed "Top Gun: Maverick," which put the audience right in the cockpit of fighter jets.
“I spent time with Joe trying to make sure that we got the best camera positions, and the frame rate is different,” he told The Athletic. “It’s going to look fast.”
More: Glen Powell is one of the best parts of 'Top Gun: Maverick.' First, Austin helped him soar
Is this new F1 movie called 'Apex'? Brad Pitt seen wearing 'APXGP' racing suit
As of this writing, the film's IMDB page calls the project "Untitled Formula One Racing Movie," but noted below it's also known as "Apex." A science fiction film of the same name was released in 2021.
Apple has not announced the film's name, but while filming at the British Grand Prix, Pitt was seen wearing an "APXGP" racing suit. Those letters appear to symbolize the name of the fictional team featured in the movie.
An F2 car carrying that logo was also seen that weekend.
What's the plot of this Brad Pitt F1 movie? What role will Lewis Hamilton, Damson Idris and Javier Bardem play?
The film's IMDB page identifies Brad Pitt's character as "Sonny Hayes." At the British Grand Prix, Pitt told Sky Sports' Martin Brundle his character suffers a crash and returns to the track years later. He does so at the behest of a team owner played by Javier Bardem, whose character's name hasn't been released.
Racing on that team is Damson Idris, who plays the character of Joshua Pearse. The British actor portrayed Franklin Saint on the TV series "Snowfall" over six seasons.
The Athletic notes that stunt drivers will be driving the F1 cars, but that Pitt and Idris underwent private training in preparation "for the cars' physical demands."
The IMDB page lists Lewis Hamilton in the cast, but doesn't include the F1 driver's role. As noted, Hamilton is a producer on the film with his production company, Jerry Bruckheimer Films and Plan B Entertainment involved, too.
Tobias Menzies ("The Crown") and Kerry Condon ("The Banshees of Inisherin") are also among the cast, but their roles have yet to be disclosed.
SAG strike put brakes on Brad Pitt F1 movie
Just days after the British Grand Prix, the SAG-AFTRA strike began, putting a halt to several Hollywood projects. The F1 movie was filming at the Hungarian Grand Prix at the time and took a "two-month hiatus" shortly after the strike started.
With the strike ongoing, it's unclear when the movie will resume production.
The Hollywood Reporter outlined that financial shares would be split between Apple, the studio behind the film, and the filmmakers in a 50-50 split. Citing unnamed sources, the outlet said the big bet on the movie could land Pitt $40 to $50 million in revenue.
We don't have know a release date for Brad Pitt's F1 movie by Apple
Before the strike, Yahoo UK forecast the film would come to theaters in late 2024 or early 2025.
With the strike stretching over three months and counting, it's unclear what changes to the filming schedule let alone what the movie's approximate release date will be.
|
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7966
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0
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https://movierob.wordpress.com/2022/02/02/the-formula-1980/
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The Formula (1980)
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2022-02-02T00:00:00
|
"You see, professor, I'm a little tired of being lied to and shot at. And your phony nostalgia about the good old days doesn't impress me." - Barney Caine Number of Times Seen – Twice (16 Dec 2004 and 1 Feb 2022) Brief Synopsis – a detective is assigned a murder case that leads to…
|
en
|
https://secure.gravatar.com/blavatar/f225d486c1223076fb8a3c06cc4e42331cdfd3861becfdcea23620c52f68c330?s=32
|
MovieRob
|
https://movierob.wordpress.com/2022/02/02/the-formula-1980/
|
“You see, professor, I’m a little tired of being lied to and shot at. And your phony nostalgia about the good old days doesn’t impress me.” – Barney Caine
Number of Times Seen – Twice (16 Dec 2004 and 1 Feb 2022)
Brief Synopsis – a detective is assigned a murder case that leads to a secret formula that was created by the Nazi’s during World War II.
My Take on it – This is a film that I saw years ago, yet didn’t remember anything about it.
The cast is great and George C. Scott does a wonderful job as the lead investigator in this case.
The story is filled with some great twists and turns that hint at how much the past can come back to revisit people when they least expect it.
The clues are planned out quite well and that helps keep the mystery engaging and enjoyable as things are slowly revealed.
Marlon Brando has a small yet integral role in the story and shows the kind of influence people can have in many facets of the world if they so choose.
This movie is based on a novel and as good as the story is here, this is the kind of plot that is better suited as a movel because they have the ability to give so much more exposition and epxlanation of things on a much deeper level.
Despite this, they still do a nice job here with this plot in keeping it constantly moving.
Recommended!
MovieRob’s Favorite Trivia – Faithful to his reputation of not learning his lines before coming to the set, Marlon Brando did not use his usual prompt boards on this movie. The hearing aid he wore as part of his costume helped him deliver his dialogue as it was prompted by an assistant directly into his ear. (From IMDB)
Rating – Globe Worthy (7/10)
_______________________________________
Check out my *updated* movie stats here
To see my reviews of Oscar Winning Performances check out this link
To see my reviews of all Oscar Best Picture Winners click here (now complete)
|
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7966
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0
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https://www.filmaffinity.com/en/film983327.html
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en
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The Formula (1980)
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The Formula is a film directed by John G. Avildsen with George C. Scott, Marthe Keller, Marlon Brando, John Gielgud .... Year: 1980. Original title: The Formula. Synopsis: A formula for synthetic fuel had been developed by the Nazis during WW II. In the intervening 35 years since the war's end, the formula has disappeared and several people connected with it have died ...You can watch The Formula through Rent,buy on the platforms: Google Play Movies,Amazon Video,Apple TV,YouTube,Fandango At Home
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FilmAffinity
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https://www.filmaffinity.com/us/film983327.html
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https://www.rogerebert.com/reviews/the-formula-1980
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The Formula movie review & film summary (1980)
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"Roger Ebert"
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One of the ironies of "The Formula" is that if it had only been made from an old Hollywood formula-any formula-we might have been able to understand it better. As it stands, it's so thoroughly baffling that the audience finds itself asking, not only who-did-it, but what they did, and who they were. The movie is no help.
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/assets/fav/apple-touch-icon-57x57-9e12b6d6d15bfb3e86f09c3fc7d58a6f8a2d808cb856df9c1ada23480cda1dae.png
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https://www.rogerebert.com/
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https://www.rogerebert.com/reviews/the-formula-1980
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One of the ironies of "The Formula" is that if it had only been made from an old Hollywood formula-any formula-we might have been able to understand it better. As it stands, it's so thoroughly baffling that the audience finds itself asking, not only who-did-it, but what they did, and who they were. The movie is no help.
Since "The Formula" is intended as a thriller, its completely muddled plot is a disaster: There can be no joy in unraveling a plot that is a mystery even to itself.
The movie's based on Steve Shagan's best-selling novel of a few years ago, which began with the premise that the Nazis discovered a cheap formula for synthetic fuel 35 years ago, and that the giant oil corporations have been suppressing it ever since.
In the movie, the oil companies are represented by Marlon Brando, who appears in three fascinating scenes and leaves us wishing for more. The good guys are boiled down into the person of George C. Scott, as a Los Angeles detective who starts out investigating the murder of a friend and stumbles onto a trail that leads him to Europe and the possessors of the secret formula.
Of that much I'm sure. Various other questions remain unanswered. For example, In Europe Scott takes up with a young lady who seems to be on the same side he's on. She's played by Marthe Keller as the same sort of beautiful international enigma she has played before.
But what's she really up to? In interviews, Steve Shagan explains that she's from the Palestine Liberation Organization. In the movie, we learn she has guilt feelings because her Nazi father murdered Jews. Then why would she be in the PLO? It hardly matters, since her affiliation, if any, is never made clear in the movie.
There are other puzzles. As Scott tracks down the formula, everyone he talks to is killed almost immediately after he talks to them. Why? Because he's being led on a wild goose chase and each character is eliminated after serving his function? Because the killers are trying to discourage Scott-and just can't seem to kill him too? It's a mystery.
I must also admit that at the movie's end, I still did not know for sure who was doing the shooting, I assumed it was a conspiracy by Brando's oil company, but I couldn't be sure.
"The Formula" apparently is a mess because of a post-production fight between Shagan, as writer-producer, and John Avildsen, as director; they exchanged acrimonious letters in the Los Angeles Times recently, and Avildsen failed in an attempt to have his name removed from the picture. The way they tell it, Avildsen wanted the movie to make more sense as a thriller, while Shagan was more concerned with his "message."
Well. One of the problems with his message is that it is not based on fact; it's a fantasy. Even though it may be true that the multinational oil companies try to manipulate the energy market, it is apparently not true that a formula exists that could turn coal into cheap synthetic fuel. Yet the movie's publicity calls the existence of a secret Nazi formula a "proven fact."
I have here an article from the November, 1980, issue of Science magazine, noting that the "synthesis used by the Germans are more in the nature of textbook processes than Mobil secrets" and that the film, "as history, is bunkum."
If the film cannot be taken seriously as an expose, and it is hopelessly confused as a thriller, what's left? Two marvelous performances. Scott, as the detective, is a harried, tired, deeply cynical man who fills the crevices of his role with actor's details that make the cop a human being.
Brando, who modeled his makeup to resemble Occidental Oil's Armand Hammer, has a great speech at the end of the film and several other classic lines ranging from "You're missing the point-we are the Arabs," to the succinct offer "Milk Dud?"
What happens during "The Formula" is that we eventually give up trying to make any sense out of the movie and content ourselves with regarding these performances. They are subtle and lovingly crafted, and it is just too bad there's no substance surrounding them.
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https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0080754/plotsummary/
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Die Formel (1980)
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[
"Movie Plot",
"Plot Summary",
"Plot Synopsis"
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Die Formel (1980) - Plot summary, synopsis, and more...
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en
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IMDb
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https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0080754/plotsummary/
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The synthetic fuel production formula, invented by the Nazis at the end of World War II, is sought after by some who aim to sell it, and by others who wish to destroy it.
A detective uncovers a formula that was devised by the Germans in World War II to make fuel from synthetic products, thereby eliminating the necessity for oil, and oil companies. A major oil company finds out about it and tries to destroy the formula, and anyone who knows about it.
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http://every70smovie.blogspot.com/2014/10/the-formula-1980.html
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en
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Every 70s Movie: 1980 Week: The Formula
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[
""
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[
"Peter Hanson",
"View my complete profile"
] | null |
While it would be exaggerating to describe this conspiracy thriller as a massive waste of talent, it’s fair to say t...
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en
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http://every70smovie.blogspot.com/favicon.ico
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http://every70smovie.blogspot.com/2014/10/the-formula-1980.html
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