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4519	dbpedia	0	96	https://stackoverflow.com/questions/59911141/how-do-i-use-the-test-instruction-to-see-if-two-bits-are-set	en	How do I use the TEST instruction to see if two bits are set?	https://cdn.sstatic.net/…g?v=73d79a89bded	https://cdn.sstatic.net/…g?v=73d79a89bded	[ "https://i.sstatic.net/Jori9.jpg?s=64", "https://www.gravatar.com/avatar/7ac8fa292707d21768f9ebe17de4b523?s=64&d=identicon&r=PG", "https://i.sstatic.net/Vdomp.png?s=64", "https://stackoverflow.com/posts/59911141/ivc/3938?prg=7155d3e5-3a79-4632-8680-4ca472820a3e" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	2020-01-25T16:22:45	How could you use the TEST instruction (or a sequence of TEST instructions) to see if bits zero and four in the AL register are both set to one? How would the TEST instruction be used to see if eit...	en	https://cdn.sstatic.net/Sites/stackoverflow/Img/favicon.ico?v=ec617d715196	Stack Overflow	https://stackoverflow.com/questions/59911141/how-do-i-use-the-test-instruction-to-see-if-two-bits-are-set	(See my answer to a similar question.) Using TEST, you can mask against 17 (= 0b10001, i.e. bits zero and four are set). TEST AL, 17 Then: ZF will be 0 if at least one bit (either bit zero or bit four) was set PF will be 1 if either two or zero bits are set So after TEST: not ZF and PF - both bits set not ZF but not PF - one bit set ZF - neither bit set Here is a full example: TEST AL, 17 JZ none_set JPE both_set one_set: ... none_set: ... both_set: ... Please note that this only happens to work in the case of checking for 2 bits, and specifically in the least significant byte of the masked result. Testing for 3 or more bits would best be done with x & mask == mask using AND and CMP. (That would be efficient for the 2-bit case as well, letting you use only one branch after a couple other instructions, instead of maybe 2 branches after one TEST). How could you use the TEST instruction (or a sequence of TEST instructions) to see if bits zero and four in the AL register are both set to one? You can use the Parity Flag trick as in the answer by Aurel Bílý -- though as noted that only works if both bits are in the low 8 bits. Here's a simple way with multiple test instructions: test al, 16 jz not_both_set test al, 1 jz not_both_set both_set: ... not_both_set: Equivalently, the last conditional branch may be inverted: test al, 16 jz not_both_set test al, 1 jnz both_set not_both_set: ... both_set: Here's another way that does not use test but instead uses a temporary register, and does an and then a cmp on that: mov ah, al and ah, 17 cmp ah, 17 jne not_both_set both_set: ... not_both_set: How would the TEST instruction be used to see if either bit is set? Just provide the mask with both bits set to the test instruction, Zero Flag clear (Non-Zero) means at least one of the bits is set. How could the TEST instruction be used to see if neither bit is set? Again use the mask of both bits, Zero Flag set means neither bit is set.
4519	dbpedia	0	79	https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/bitwise-operators-in-c-cpp/	en	Bitwise Operators in C	https://media.geeksforge…_200x200-min.png	https://media.geeksforge…_200x200-min.png	[ "https://media.geeksforgeeks.org/gfg-gg-logo.svg", "https://media.geeksforgeeks.org/auth-dashboard-uploads/Google-news.svg", "https://media.geeksforgeeks.org/wp-content/cdn-uploads/Operators-In-C.png", "https://media.geeksforgeeks.org/wp-content/uploads/20200717172614/authPreLogo.png", "https://media.geeksforgeeks.org/auth-dashboard-uploads/Google-news.svg", "https://media.geeksforgeeks.org/auth-dashboard-uploads/new-premium-rbanner-us.png", "https://media.geeksforgeeks.org/auth-dashboard-uploads/gfgFooterLogo.png", "https://media.geeksforgeeks.org/auth-dashboard-uploads/googleplay.png", "https://media.geeksforgeeks.org/auth-dashboard-uploads/appstore.png", "https://media.geeksforgeeks.org/auth-dashboard-uploads/suggestChangeIcon.png", "https://media.geeksforgeeks.org/auth-dashboard-uploads/createImprovementIcon.png" ]	[ "https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/videos/bitwise-operator-in-c-and-or-and-xor/" ]	[]	[ "Data Structures", "Algorithms", "Python", "Java", "C", "C++", "JavaScript", "Android Development", "SQL", "Data Science", "Machine Learning", "PHP", "Web Development", "System Design", "Tutorial", "Technical Blogs", "Interview Experience", "Interview Preparation", "Programming", "Competitive Programming", "Jobs", "Coding Contests", "GATE CSE", "HTML", "CSS", "React", "NodeJS", "Placement", "Aptitude", "Quiz", "Computer Science", "Programming Examples", "GeeksforGeeks Courses", "Puzzles", "SSC", "Banking", "UPSC", "Commerce", "Finance", "CBSE", "School", "k12", "General Knowledge", "News", "Mathematics", "Exams" ]	null	[ "GeeksforGeeks" ]	2014-02-21T07:35:45	A Computer Science portal for geeks. It contains well written, well thought and well explained computer science and programming articles, quizzes and practice/competitive programming/company interview Questions.	en	https://media.geeksforge…/gfg_favicon.png	GeeksforGeeks	https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/bitwise-operators-in-c-cpp/	In C, the following 6 operators are bitwise operators (also known as bit operators as they work at the bit-level). They are used to perform bitwise operations in C. The & (bitwise AND) in C takes two numbers as operands and does AND on every bit of two numbers. The result of AND is 1 only if both bits are 1. The \| (bitwise OR) in C takes two numbers as operands and does OR on every bit of two numbers. The result of OR is 1 if any of the two bits is 1. The ^ (bitwise XOR) in C takes two numbers as operands and does XOR on every bit of two numbers. The result of XOR is 1 if the two bits are different. The << (left shift) in C takes two numbers, the left shifts the bits of the first operand, and the second operand decides the number of places to shift. The >> (right shift) in C takes two numbers, right shifts the bits of the first operand, and the second operand decides the number of places to shift. The ~ (bitwise NOT) in C takes one number and inverts all bits of it. Let’s look at the truth table of the bitwise operators. X Y X & Y X \| Y X ^ Y 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 Example of Bitwise Operators in C The following program uses bitwise operators to perform bit operations in C. C // C Program to demonstrate use of bitwise operators #include<stdio.h> intmain() { // a = 5 (00000101 in 8-bit binary), b = 9 (00001001 in // 8-bit binary) unsignedinta=5,b=9; // The result is 00000001 printf("a = %u, b = %u\n",a,b); printf("a&b = %u\n",a&b); // The result is 00001101 printf("a\|b = %u\n",a\|b); // The result is 00001100 printf("a^b = %u\n",a^b); // The result is 11111111111111111111111111111010 // (assuming 32-bit unsigned int) printf("~a = %u\n",a=~a); // The result is 00010010 printf("b<<1 = %u\n",b<<1); // The result is 00000100 printf("b>>1 = %u\n",b>>1); return0; } Output a = 5, b = 9 a&b = 1 a\|b = 13 a^b = 12 ~a = 4294967290 b<<1 = 18 b>>1 = 4 Time Complexity: O(1) Auxiliary Space: O(1) Interesting Facts About Bitwise Operators 1. The left-shift and right-shift operators should not be used for negative numbers. If the second operand(which decides the number of shifts) is a negative number, it results in undefined behavior in C. For example, results of both 1 <<- 1 and 1 >> -1 are undefined. Also, if the number is shifted more than the size of the integer, the behavior is undefined. For example, 1 << 33 is undefined if integers are stored using 32 bits. Another thing is NO shift operation is performed if the additive expression (operand that decides no of shifts) is 0. See this for more details. 2. The bitwise OR of two numbers is simply the sum of those two numbers if there is no carry involved; otherwise, you add their bitwise AND. Let’s say, we have a=5(101) and b=2(010), since there is no carry involved, their sum is just a\|b. Now, if we change ‘b’ to 6 which is 110 in binary, their sum would change to a\|b + a&b since there is a carry involved. 3. The bitwise XOR operator is the most useful operator from a technical interview perspective. It is used in many problems. A simple example could be “Given a set of numbers where all elements occur an even number of times except one number, find the odd occurring number” This problem can be efficiently solved by doing XOR to all numbers. Example Below program demonstrates the use XOR operator to find odd occcuring elements in an array. C // C program to find odd occcuring elements in an array #include<stdio.h> // Function to return the only odd // occurring element intfindOdd(intarr[],intn) { intres=0,i; for(i=0;i<n;i++) res^=arr[i]; returnres; } intmain(void) { intarr[]={12,12,14,90,14,14,14}; intn=sizeof(arr)/sizeof(arr[0]); printf("The odd occurring element is %d ", findOdd(arr,n)); return0; } Output The odd occurring element is 90 Time Complexity: O(n) Auxiliary Space: O(1) The following are many other interesting problems using the XOR operator. Find the Missing Number Swap two numbers without using a temporary variable A Memory-Efficient Doubly Linked List Find the two non-repeating elements Find the two numbers with odd occurrences in an unsorted array Add two numbers without using arithmetic operators. Swap bits in a given number Count the number of bits to be flipped to convert a to b Find the element that appears once Detect if two integers have opposite signs 4. The Bitwise operators should not be used in place of logical operators. The result of logical operators (&&, \|\| and !) is either 0 or 1, but bitwise operators return an integer value. Also, the logical operators consider any non-zero operand as 1. For example, consider the following program, the results of & & && are different for the same operands. Example The below program demonstrates the difference between & and && operators. C // C program to Demonstrate the difference between & and && // operator #include<stdio.h> intmain() { intx=2,y=5; (x&y)?printf("True "):printf("False "); (x&&y)?printf("True "):printf("False "); return0; } Output False True Time Complexity: O(1) Auxiliary Space: O(1) 5. The left-shift and right-shift operators are equivalent to multiplication and division by 2 respectively. As mentioned in point 1, it works only if numbers are positive. Example: The below example demonstrates the use of left-shift and right-shift operators. C // program to demonstrate the use of left-shift and // right-shift operators. #include<stdio.h> intmain() { intx=19; printf("x << 1 = %d\n",x<<1); printf("x >> 1 = %d\n",x>>1); return0; } Output x << 1 = 38 x >> 1 = 9 Time Complexity: O(1) Auxiliary Space: O(1) 6. The & operator can be used to quickly check if a number is odd or even. The value of the expression (x & 1) would be non-zero only if x is odd, otherwise, the value would be zero. Example The below example demonstrates the use bitwise & operator to find if the given number is even or odd. C #include<stdio.h> intmain() { intx=19; (x&1)?printf("Odd"):printf("Even"); return0; } Output Odd Time Complexity: O(1) Auxiliary Space: O(1) 7. The ~ operator should be used carefully. The result of the ~ operator on a small number can be a big number if the result is stored in an unsigned variable. The result may be a negative number if the result is stored in a signed variable (assuming that the negative numbers are stored in 2’s complement form where the leftmost bit is the sign bit). Example The below example demonstrates the use of bitwise NOT operator. C // C program to demonstrate the use of bitwise NOT operator. #include<stdio.h> intmain() { unsignedintx=1; printf("Signed Result %d \n",~x); printf("Unsigned Result %u \n",~x); return0; } Output Signed Result -2 Unsigned Result 4294967294 Time Complexity: O(1) Auxiliary Space: O(1) Note The output of the above program is compiler dependent Related Articles Bits manipulation (Important tactics) Bitwise Hacks for Competitive Programming Bit Tricks for Competitive Programming
4519	dbpedia	2	21	https://learningcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/learning-a-second-language/	en	Learning Languages – Learning Center	https://creativecommons.…somerights20.png	https://creativecommons.…somerights20.png	[ "https://learningcenter.unc.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/330/2018/09/learningcenterlogo-oneline.png", "https://learningcenter.unc.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/330/2018/09/learningcenterlogo-oneline.png", "https://creativecommons.org/images/public/somerights20.png", "https://writingcenter.unc.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/346/2024/01/wcinsta.png", "https://writingcenter.unc.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/346/2024/01/wctwitter.png", "https://writingcenter.unc.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/346/2024/01/wcfacebook.png", "https://writingcenter.unc.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/346/2015/12/youtube-icon.png", "https://learningcenter.unc.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/330/2015/12/logo-cssac-292x300.png", "https://learningcenter.unc.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/330/2022/04/HC_Badge_Partner_B_Light-150x150.png", "https://writingcenter.unc.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/346/2024/01/wcinsta.png", "https://writingcenter.unc.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/346/2024/01/wcfacebook.png", "https://writingcenter.unc.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/346/2015/12/youtube-icon.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	2015-05-22T14:05:34+00:00	Learning a language is a complex, time-intensive task that requires dedication, persistence, and hard work. If you’re reading this, then you probably already know that. What you might not know is that there are strategies that can help you study … Read more	en	https://learningcenter.u…8/07/favicon.png	Learning Center	https://learningcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/learning-a-second-language/	Learning Languages Learning a language is a complex, time-intensive task that requires dedication, persistence, and hard work. If you’re reading this, then you probably already know that. What you might not know is that there are strategies that can help you study more effectively, so that you make the most of your time and energy. This handout first explains some of the key principles that guide effective language learning, and then describes activities that can help you put these principles into practice. Use these tools to create a strategic study plan that helps your language skills grow. Key principles of language learning The Basics: First, let’s talk about the basics. Research in this area (called “second language acquisition” in academia) suggests that there are three key elements to learning a new language. The first is comprehensible input, which is a fancy way of saying being exposed to (hearing or reading) something in the new language and learning to understand it. Comprehensible output is the second element, and unsurprisingly it means learning to produce (speak or write) something in the new language. The third element is review or feedback, which basically means identifying errors and making changes in response.[1] Fancy terms aside, these are actually pretty straightforward ideas. These three elements are the building blocks of your language practice, and an effective study plan will maximize all three. The more you listen and read (input), the more you speak and write (output), the more you go back over what you’ve done and learn from your errors (review & feedback), the more your language skills will grow. DO: Create a study plan that maximizes the three dimensions of language learning: understanding (input), producing (output), and identifying and correcting errors (review/feedback). Seek balance Learning a new language involves listening, speaking, reading, writing, sometimes even a new alphabet and writing format. If you focus exclusively on just one activity, the others fall behind. This is actually a common pitfall for language learners. For example, it’s easy to focus on reading comprehension when studying, in part because written language is often readily accessible—for one thing, you have a whole textbook full of it. This is also true of the three key elements: it’s comparatively easy to find input sources (like your textbook) and practice understanding them. But neglecting the other two key principles (output and feedback/review) can slow down language growth. Instead, what you need is a balanced study plan: a mix of study activities that target both spoken and written language, and gives attention to all three key principles. DO: Focus on balance: practice both spoken and written language, and make sure to include all of the three key principles—input, output, and feedback/review. Errors are important Sometimes, the biggest challenge to language learning is overcoming our own fears: fear of making a mistake, of saying the wrong thing, of embarrassing yourself, of not being able to find the right word, and so on. This is all perfectly rational: anyone learning a language is going to make mistakes, and sometimes those mistakes will be very public. The thing is, you NEED to make those mistakes. One of the key principles of language learning is all about making errors and then learning from them: this is what review & feedback means. Plus, if you’re not willing to make errors, then the amount of language you produce (your output) goes way down. In other words, being afraid of making a mistake negatively affects two of the three key principles of language learning! So what do you do? In part, you may need to push yourself to get comfortable with making errors. However, you should also look for ways to get low-stakes practice: create situations in which you feel more comfortable trying out your new language and making those inevitable mistakes. For example, consider finding a study partner who is at your level of language skill. This is often more comfortable than practicing with an advanced student or a native speaker, and they’re usually easier to find—you’ve got a whole class full of potential partners! DO: Learn to appreciate mistakes, and push yourself to become more comfortable with making errors. DO: Create opportunities for ‘low-stakes’ practice, where you’ll feel comfortable practicing and making mistakes. Spread it out Studying a new language involves learning a LOT of material, so you’ll want to use your study time as effectively as possible. According to research in educational and cognitive psychology, one of the most effective learning strategies is distributed practice. This concept has two main components: spacing, which is breaking study time up into multiple small sessions, and separation, which means spreading those sessions out over time.[2] For example, let’s imagine you have a list of vocabulary words to learn. Today is Sunday, and the vocab quiz is on Friday. If you can only spend a total of 30 minutes studying this vocab, which study plan will be the most effective? (A) Study for 30 minutes on Thursday. (B) Study for 10 minutes at a time on Tuesday, Wednesday, and Thursday. (C) Study for 10 minutes at a time on Sunday, Tuesday, and Thursday. (D) Study for 30 minutes on Sunday. If you look at the total time spent studying, all four options are exactly the same. But research suggests that option C is the most effective way to manage your time: instead of studying the vocabulary all at once, you’ve spread out the time into several shorter sessions, and you’ve also increased the amount of time between study sessions. (And yes, this is also why “cramming” isn’t a good study plan!) DO: Break up your study time into shorter chunks and spread those sessions out over time. Bump up your memory Memory is a critical part of any kind of studying, and effective memorization is strongly correlated with success in foreign language classes.[3] But if you’re not “good at” memorizing things, don’t despair! Although people often think of memory as a fixed quality, it’s actually a skill that you can improve through deliberate practice. There’s a considerable amount of research on how memory works, as well as a wide range of strategies for improving memory. For example, scientific experiments show that our short-term memory can only hold about 7 pieces of new information at once. So if you’re working on a long list of new vocabulary words, start by breaking it up into smaller chunks, and study one shorter section at a time. Additionally, research also suggests that recall-based study methods are most effective. This means that actively trying to recall information is more effective than simply reviewing information; essentially, self-testing will help you more than re-reading your notes will.[4] The best way to start working on your memory is to build on the techniques that you already know work for you. For example, if associating a word with a picture is effective for you, then you should incorporate images into your vocabulary practice. However, if you’re not sure where to start, here’s a “beginner” formula for memorizing a new word: use the word at least five times the first day that you learn it, then multiple times over the week, at least once every day. If you’re interested in more tips for improving your memory, check out our resource on memorization strategies. In addition to figuring out which memorization techniques work best for you, it’s also important to actively protect your memory. For example, experiencing a strong emotion has been shown to sharply decrease the ability to memorize unrelated content. (So if you’ve just watched a horror movie, it’s probably not a great time for vocabulary review!) To get the most out of your study time, here’s a list of common “memory killers” to avoid: Stress and anxiety: Just like other strong emotions, stress and anxiety drastically reduce your ability to make new memories and recall information. Information overload: Studying for hours at a time might seem like a great idea, but it’s actually a really ineffective use of time. In fact, taking a short break every 30 minutes helps improve focus, and after 2 hours you should consider switching topics. Fatigue: The more tired you are, the less effective your memory is. Chronic sleep deprivation is particularly detrimental, so those late-night study sessions might actually do more harm than good! Multitasking: As you may have noticed, all of these “memory killers” are also things that disrupt focus. Multi-tasking is probably the most common source of distraction. In fact, here’s a great rule of thumb for protecting your memory: if you’re not supposed to do it while driving, then you shouldn’t do it while studying. (Yes, that means drinking, texting, and watching Netflix “in the background” are all NOs.) DO: Increase memorization by breaking information into small chunks and studying the chunks one at a time, and by using recall-based strategies like self-testing. DO: Focus on protecting and improving your memorization skills, and build the memory techniques that work best for you into your study plan. Vocab is king Want to know a secret? Vocabulary is more important than grammar. DISCLAIMER: This does NOT mean that grammar is unimportant. Without grammar, you won’t know how to use your vocabulary, since grammar tells you how to combine words into sentences. And obviously, if you’re in a foreign language class, you’re going to need to study ALL the material to do well, and that will definitely include grammar. The more vocabulary you know, the more quickly you can grow your language skills. The reason is simple: understanding more words directly translates into more input, producing more words means more output, and more output means more opportunity for feedback. Additionally, when you’re interacting with native speakers, vocabulary is more beneficial to communication than grammar is. Being able to produce words will help get your meaning across, even if what you say is not perfectly grammatical.[5] Of course, in order to become fully fluent in your new language, eventually you will need strong grammar skills. But once again, this is something that having a strong, well-developed vocabulary will help with. Since grammar dictates relationships between words and phrases, understanding those smaller components (aka vocabulary) will help improve your understanding of how those grammatical relationships work. DO: Design a study plan that emphasizes vocabulary. Activities Now that we’ve talked about the general principles that you should incorporate in your language study, let’s focus on activities: practical suggestions to help you find new ways to grow your language skills! Find real-life sources Since one of the main 3 components of language learning is input, look for ways to expose yourself to as much of the language you’re learning as possible. But this doesn’t mean reading more textbooks (unless your textbook is a fascinating read that you’re excited about). Instead, look for “authentic” examples of the language, things you’ll actually enjoy and look forward to practicing with, even if you don’t understand every word! Here are some examples to get you started: Newspaper articles, magazines, & blogs: Many of these are freely available online, and once you’ve tried reading them a few times, it’s easy to translate the key parts to check your understanding. Look for a topic you’re already interested in and follow it with a news reader app! Books: Children’s picture books and books you’ve read before in your native language are easy options for intermediate/advanced beginners. The library often has great options available for free! TV shows and movies: Try watching them without subtitles the first time, starting in ~15 minute segments. Another great option is to watch first without any subtitles, then with subtitles in the language you’re learning, and then finally with subtitles in your native language if you need them. Soap operas are also great options (especially if you like lots of drama!), since the plot lines are often explained multiple times. Songs: Music, especially popular songs, can be especially well suited to language practice, since you’re likely to memorize the ones you enjoy. Ask a teacher or native speaker for recommendations if you’re struggling to find good examples. Children’s songs can also be fun practice tools. Podcasts and audio books: There are a lot of options for all sorts of languages, and as a bonus you’ll often get exposure to local news and cultural topics. To get you started, we recommend this site, which has a great list of podcasts for many different languages. Also, consider tweaking some of your media settings to “bump up” your casual language exposure. For example, changing your Facebook and LinkedIn location and language preferences will force you to interact with the language you’re learning, even when you’re (mostly) wasting time. Pro tips Improve the effectiveness of this activity by using the following suggestions! Slow it down: If you’re listening to a podcast or audio book, try slowing down the speed just a bit: 0.75x is a common option, and the slowed-down audio still doesn’t sound too strange. Also, make sure to take breaks frequently to help you process what you’ve just heard. Combine your senses: In many cases, you can combine types of input to help create a more learning environment: reading and listening to a text at the same time can help you improve your comprehension. For example, for TV shows and movies, turn on subtitles in the same language. Other options include: Radio news stories often have both audio and transcripts available online, especially for pieces that are a few days old. Amazon’s Kindle offers an “immersive reading” option that syncs audio books with text. TED talks come in many different languages, and often include an interactive transcript. If you’re an ESL student, the ESL Bits website has some great resources that link reading and listening, and it also has adjustable audio speeds! Get hooked: To make this strategy as effective as possible, find a source that you really enjoy, and commit to experiencing it only in the language you’re learning. Having a go-to program that you love will help keep you motivated. For example, if you love podcast/radio story programs like “Radiolab” and are learning Spanish, check out “Radio Ambulante.” Hold shadow conversations A key part of learning a new language involves training your ear. Unlike written language, spoken language doesn’t have the same context clues that help you decipher and separate out words. Plus, in addition to using slang and idioms, native speakers tend to “smoosh” words together, which is even more confusing for language learners![6] In part, this is why listening to real-life sources can be so helpful (see the previous activity). However, even beginning language learners can benefit from something called conversational shadowing. Basically, this means repeating a conversation word-for-word, even when you don’t know what all of the words mean. This helps you get used to the rhythm and patterns of the language, as well as learn to identify individual words and phrases from longer chunks of spoken language. Another great strategy involves holding practice conversations, where you create imaginary conversations and rehearse them multiple times. Both of these strategies are great ways to help you learn and retain new vocabulary, and they also increase your language output in a low-stakes practice setting! Example: If you’ve got a homework exercise that involves reviewing an audio or video clip, take a few extra steps to get the most benefit: After you’ve listened to the clip once, shadow the conversation in short sections (think ~20-30 seconds). Focus on reproducing the words as accurately as possible, paying close attention to rhythm, intonation, and pacing. Once you can accurately shadow the entire clip, then focus on understanding the meaning of the material, and answer any homework questions related to the clip. Now, use the same vocabulary to create a new conversation: think of what you would want to say in a real-life situation like this one, and practice it until you can respond confidently to any side of the exchange. Become a collector Since expanding your vocabulary is so important, identifying new words is a big priority. This is especially true when you’re in an immersion environment (studying abroad, etc), but it’s also something that you can do on a regular basis even when you’re at home. Basically, you need to collect words: any time you encounter a new word, you want to capture it by recording it in some way. The easiest way to do this is in a small pocket notebook, but you could also put a note in your phone, send a text or email to yourself, or even record yourself saying it. The key point is to capture the word as quickly and easily as possible. Also, don’t worry too much about spelling or definitions in the moment: you’ll deal with those later. Whatever your recording system is (notebook, phone, voice memo, etc), it’s only the first part of the collection process. Next, you’ll need to review each of the words you’ve recorded. This is something you’ll do on a regular basis, so that you can actually use the words you’ve recorded. Depending on how many new words you’re collecting, it might be every day, every few days, or once a week. This is the time when you find the correct spelling, write down the definition, maybe find an example, and so on. To make this process as effective as possible, you also want to have some sort of system that helps you record and organize your word collection. If you like paper-based methods, then flashcards can be easily organized in index card boxes, though you might want to include some alphabetical divider tabs to help yourself stay organized. However, digital tools are particularly helpful with this kind of information, and there are tons of apps that can help you organize a large vocabulary collection. But you don’t need a fancy app or program: a simple spreadsheet also works great for most cases. Finally, you also want to make sure to use your word collection! Not only do you need to learn new words once you add them, you’ll also need regular review of old words to maintain your vocabulary. This is another place where digital tools shine, since it’s easy to access the entire collection at any time, making it easier to study and review on a regular basis. In any case, make sure that you incorporate review along with learning new words. The 4 basic steps of word collection Capture new words. Listen for them in class, seek them out in conversations, find them in your “authentic sources,” etc. Record them in the moment, without worrying too much about spelling and definitions. Review your new words. Establish a routine so that you regularly “empty out” your recording tool and add the new words to your collection. Record and organize your collection. Create an organized system for your collection; common tools include digital flashcard apps, spreadsheets, and traditional index cards. Use your words! Make sure you’re learning new additions and also periodically reviewing older words. Pro tips If you’re struggling to find new words to collect—or if you feel overwhelmed by the number of words you could collect—then try working “backwards.” Instead of looking for new words in the language you’re learning, think about the gaps in your vocabulary. For example, think about the topics you frequently discuss in your native language. Do you know how to talk about those things in the language you’re learning? Hobbies and other classes are often great places to start. If you’re in a foreign language class, you can use the same word collection system to help you learn and review assigned vocabulary. Consider color-coding or tagging words that are class-related if you want to give those words extra attention. If you’re using a digital flashcard app, you might consider creating different card “sets” to help you organize them. Flashcard zen Flashcards are one of the most common tools that language learners use. There is a good reason for this: they’re easily portable, they’re excellent for learning short pieces of information (like new words), and used correctly they’re a great recall-based study strategy. However, flashcards are not without problems. For example, it’s far too easy to devote excessive time to making elaborately detailed flashcards, and then spend comparatively little time actually using them! The following tips describe ways to use flashcards in a strategic and effective manner. Less is more The more time you spend making flashcards, the less time you spend using them…but if you don’t make flashcards, then you don’t have any to use. The point behind this paradox is that you want to minimize the time and effort you put into the flashcard set-up process. This is a situation where perfectionism can really harm you: if you focus on making absolutely “perfect” flashcards, then you’re really just wasting time. Similarly, you also want to minimize the volume of information you put on each flashcard. Flashcards should not be pages of notes in a smaller format, especially when using them for vocabulary. Instead, each card should have just enough information on it to test your memory. Instead of containing many details, a good flashcard will serve as a “cue” that triggers your memory. This way, you’re forcing your brain to work to produce the information, which helps build and maintain strong memories. Mix it up Another common flashcard issue is that they promote rote memorization, so that information is divorced from context. But in real life, you’ll be using your vocabulary in a wide range of contexts. Only practicing vocabulary in rote drills may end up slowing you down when you need to actually use the words.[7] One example of this is the “translation” phenomenon: instead of learning to associate new words with their meanings, they become associated with the word in your native language. If you’re always translating word-for-word in your head, then it takes much longer to understand and interact. A great way to reduce this issue is to change the type of cues used on your flashcard: instead of written words, you might represent the meaning of new words with a picture—or for digital flashcards, you could even use audio files. Example: Imagine a beginning student (and native English speaker) learns that the Arabic word for door is “bab” (باب). She could make several different flashcards for this word: Traditional flashcard: the written word in Arabic on one side, and in English on the other Audio flashcard (digital): the spoken Arabic word on one side, and the spoken word in English on the other Pictoral flashcard: a picture of a door on one side, and the word written in Arabic on the other You can also combine these types to make different hybrid-style flashcards. Once again, don’t try to make elaborate, perfect flashcards—just something that will push you to associate words with meanings, instead of just their translations. Not all of your flashcards have to use non-written cues, but it’s a great way to add variety and prevent “translation” memory. Additionally, make sure to practice using both sides of the flashcards as cues. In other words, if you’ve already gone through a set of cards starting with the English side, flip the stack over the next time you use it, so that you’re getting prompted by the language you’re learning. You can also avoid the pitfalls of rote memorization by making sure to practice using the words in context. For example, in addition to testing yourself with each card, follow that up by using the word in a sentence. This is particularly good for words you’ve already learned and are now reviewing. You can also turn this into a game, where you make up “mad-lib” style sentences by randomly drawing cards and combining them. If you’re working with a partner or study group, you can also use flashcards to play games like charades or Pictionary. Make it a habit Ultimately, flashcards are just a tool, albeit one that is ideally suited to vocabulary practice. And as with any kind of practice, the more time you put in, better your results will be: flashcards work best when used frequently and consistently. If you want to get the most out of your flashcards, turn using them into a regular habit. Here are some tips to keep in mind: Small sets, many reps: To improve memorization when practicing new words, create sets of 7 flashcards or less and practice each set several times before moving on to the next one. Also, make sure to space out your flashcard sessions, and once you’ve reviewed a set of words, put it aside for a day or two before reviewing it again. Increase portability: Make sure you take full advantage of the portable nature of flashcards. If you’re using paper, then consider using a binder ring and hole punch to keep small sets together. You might also use smaller cards: since you’ll be making simple cards (minimalism!), you could probably cut a regular 3”x5” index card into halves (or even quarters) and still have more than enough room! Even if you use full-sized paper cards, you increase portability by being selective in the number you take with you. Remember, you want to space out your sets and reps, so it isn’t necessary to carry all your cards with you all the time. If you’re using digital tools, look for apps that can sync to all your devices—phone, tablet, computer, web, etc. Wasted’ time: Since flashcards are so portable, they’re a great way to turn “wasted” time into useful time. How much time do you spend riding the bus? How about stuck in line at the grocery store, or waiting for an appointment at Campus Health? Instead of checking your Twitter feed or hopping on Facebook, open up your flashcard app (or pull out your flashcard stack) and do a quick vocab review. If you’re doing small sets it won’t take very long to go through one, and you’ve just bumped up your number of reps for the day! Create a routine: Habits are powerful. Once you’ve established a behavior pattern, you find yourself doing it without thinking about it. So think about how you can create a daily routine for using your flashcards. Finding and using “wasted” time is a good start, especially if you have a daily bus commute. What about taking 5 minutes every morning to do vocabulary review while you drink your coffee? Or making it your first “after-dinner to do” once you’ve finished eating? Once you find ways to make vocabulary flashcards part of your daily routine, you can use the power of habit to help grow your vocabulary. Periodic review: Once you’ve learned new words, you’re not done with those flashcards—instead, use them to keep your vocabulary strong. Each week, randomly select a few words to review. You might do a review set once each day, or the review words can be mixed in with your current learning sets (this is a great way to keep your word collection going strong!). Make it fun Learning a new language is a lot of work, but that’s not what motivated you to start studying it in the first place, right? Instead, you probably want to travel or work abroad, or be able to talk with people from other countries, maybe even study literature or history… Whatever got you interested in this language in the first place, it’s probably a lot more fun than all this studying is. Here’s the thing: whenever you can do something that connects you back with the reasons that motivate you to study your new language, or you find something new and exciting about the language you’re studying or the cultures that use it, use your excitement to boost your motivation. It’s what will keep you going—and that kind of persistence is a key factor in language learning success.[8] But in addition to staying focused on what you enjoy, you can also deliberately create fun social activities that also help you grow your language skills. For example, try hosting a dinner and movie “theme” night with friends who are studying the same language. Create a “mini-immersion” environment: watch movies in the language you’re learning, cook some authentic cuisine, and try to speak only in your new (shared!) language. It’s a great way to get some authentic, low-stakes practice. (Plus, it’s a great excuse for a party!) Parting advice In addition to this handout, there are lots of resources to help you with your language learning goals. If you’re in a language class, your professor, TA, and/or other instructors often have great advice for study strategies—in addition to their teaching experience, at one point they were learning a new language, just like you are! Check out what the language department offers: perhaps there is a peer tutoring program, or conversation tables (aka “language coffee hours”), or cultural events that can be great authentic sources for practice (and fun motivation boosters). Language departments often have online resources as well, so be sure to check out their websites. Look for other campus organizations that offer language learning resources, such as global studies and student groups. UNC language departments, programs, and curricula Department of Asian Studies Department of African, African American, and Diaspora Studies Department of Romance Studies Department of German and Slavic Languages and Literatures Curriculum in Global studies Works consulted Murphey, T. (1998). Language hungry!: An introduction to language learning fun and self-esteem. Japan: MacMillan Language house. Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K. A., Marsh, E. J., Nathan, M. J., & Willingham, D. T. (2013). Improving students’ learning with effective learning techniques promising directions from cognitive and educational psychology. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 14(1), 4-58. Brown, H. D., & Gonzo, S. T. (1995). Readings on second language acquisition. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Regents. O’Malley, J. M., Chamot, A. U., & Küpper, L. (1995). Listening comprehension strategies in second language acquisition. Readings on second language acquisition, 138-160. Oxford, R., & Crookall, D. (1989). Research on language learning strategies: Methods, findings, and instructional issues. The Modern Language Journal,73(4), 404-419. Nunan, David. Second Language Teaching & Learning. Heinle & Heinle Publishers, 7625 Empire Dr., Florence, KY 41042-2978, 1999. Son, L. K., & Simon, D. A. (2012). Distributed learning: Data, metacognition, and educational implications. Educational Psychology Review, 24(3), 379-399. [1] Brown & Gonzo, 1995; Ellis, 1997; Nunan, 1999 [2] Dunlosky et al, 2013; Son & Simon, 2012 [3] Oxford, R., & Crookall, D. (1989). Research on language learning strategies: Methods, findings, and instructional issues. The Modern Language Journal,73(4), 404-419. [4] Dunlosky et al, 2013 [5] Murphey, T. (1998). Language hungry!: An introduction to language learning fun and self-esteem. Japan: MacMillan Languagehouse. [6] Nunn, 1999; Murphey, 1998 [7] Nunan, 1999; Oxford & Crookall, 1989 [8] Nunan, 1999; Oxford & Crookall, 1989, Brown & Gonzo, 1995. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 4.0 License. You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Learning Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill If you enjoy using our handouts, we appreciate contributions of acknowledgement.
4519	dbpedia	0	80	https://www.answers.com/english-language-arts/Why_is_the_decoding_process_in_English_sometimes_a_bit	en	Why is the decoding process in English sometimes a bit?	https://st.answers.com/h…nswers_Blue.jpeg	https://st.answers.com/h…nswers_Blue.jpeg	[ "https://www.answers.com/icons/hamburgerMenuIcon.svg", "https://www.answers.com/icons/searchGlassWhiteIcon.svg", "https://www.answers.com/images/logos/answers-logo-white-updated.svg", "https://www.answers.com/icons/searchIcon.svg", "https://www.answers.com/icons/searchGlassWhiteIcon.svg", "https://www.answers.com/icons/notificationBellIcon.svg", "https://www.answers.com/icons/coinIcon.svg", "https://www.answers.com/images/avatars/default.png", "https://www.answers.com/icons/copyTextIcon.svg", "https://www.answers.com/images/avatars/default.png", "https://www.answers.com/images/avatars/default.png", "https://www.answers.com/icons/sendIcon.svg", "https://www.answers.com/icons/coinIcon.svg", "https://www.answers.com/icons/searchIcon.svg", "https://st.answers.com/html_test_assets/imp_-_pixel.png?campaign=1106", "https://www.answers.com/icons/searchIcon.svg", "https://st.answers.com/html_test_assets/imp_-_pixel.png?campaign=1083", "https://st.answers.com/logos/logo-answers-white.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	. Each letter represents several different sounds.	en	/favicon.ico	Answers	https://www.answers.com/english-language-arts/Why_is_the_decoding_process_in_English_sometimes_a_bit	. Each letter represents several different sounds. Why is the decoding in English sometimes a bit tricky? . Each letter represents several different sounds. Can sergio Ramos speak English? Yes he can speak English a little bit What is the English of suplado? a guy who is a bit snobish.
4519	dbpedia	1	0	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_English	en	History of English	https://en.wikipedia.org/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico	https://en.wikipedia.org/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico	[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png", "https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg", "https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/2022_11_13_-_Map_West_Germanic_%E2%80%93_cc._476_CE_-_final.png/300px-2022_11_13_-_Map_West_Germanic_%E2%80%93_cc._476_CE_-_final.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Beowulf_Cotton_MS_Vitellius_A_XV_f._132r.jpg/220px-Beowulf_Cotton_MS_Vitellius_A_XV_f._132r.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Old_norse%2C_ca_900.svg/250px-Old_norse%2C_ca_900.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Wife-of-Bath-ms.jpg/220px-Wife-of-Bath-ms.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Origins_of_English_PieChart.svg/200px-Origins_of_English_PieChart.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/JohnsonDictionary.png/220px-JohnsonDictionary.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Great_Vowel_Shift.svg/700px-Great_Vowel_Shift.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Old_English_Dialects.png/220px-Old_English_Dialects.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Middle_English_Dialects.png/220px-Middle_English_Dialects.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Globe_of_letters.svg/28px-Globe_of_letters.svg.png", "https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1", "https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg", "https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/footer/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Contributors to Wikimedia projects" ]	2003-10-18T19:09:35+00:00		en	/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png		https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_English	This article is about the history and evolution of the English language. For the history of the English people, see English people. For the history of the English culture, see Culture of England. For the pedagogical field, see History of the English language (education). English is a West Germanic language that originated from Ingvaeonic languages brought to Britain in the mid-5th to 7th centuries AD by Anglo-Saxon migrants from what is now northwest Germany, southern Denmark and the Netherlands. The Anglo-Saxons settled in the British Isles from the mid-5th century and came to dominate the bulk of southern Great Britain. Their language originated as a group of Ingvaeonic languages which were spoken by the settlers in England and southern and eastern Scotland in the early Middle Ages, displacing the Celtic languages, and, possibly, British Latin, that had previously been dominant. Old English reflected the varied origins of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms established in different parts of Britain. The Late West Saxon dialect eventually became dominant. A significant subsequent influence upon the shaping of Old English came from contact with the North Germanic languages spoken by the Scandinavian Vikings who conquered and colonized parts of Britain during the 8th and 9th centuries, which led to much lexical borrowing and grammatical simplification. The Anglian dialects had a greater influence on Middle English. After the Norman conquest in 1066, Old English was replaced, for a time, by Anglo-Norman, also known as Anglo-Norman French, as the language of the upper classes. This is regarded as marking the end of the Old English or Anglo-Saxon era, as during this period the English language was heavily influenced by Anglo-Norman, developing into a phase known now as Middle English. The conquering Normans spoke a Romance langue d'oïl called Old Norman, which in Britain developed into Anglo-Norman. Many Norman and French loanwords entered the local language in this period, especially in vocabulary related to the church, the court system and the government. As Normans are descendants of Vikings who invaded France, Norman French was influenced by Old Norse, and many Norse loanwords in English came directly from French. Middle English was spoken to the late 15th century. The system of orthography that was established during the Middle English period is largely still in use today. Later changes in pronunciation, combined with the adoption of various foreign spellings, mean that the spelling of modern English words appears highly irregular. Early Modern English – the language used by William Shakespeare – is dated from around 1500. It incorporated many Renaissance-era loans from Latin and Ancient Greek, as well as borrowings from other European languages, including French, German and Dutch. Significant pronunciation changes in this period included the Great Vowel Shift, which affected the qualities of most long vowels. Modern English proper, similar in most respects to that spoken today,[citation needed] was in place by the late 17th century. English as we know it today was exported to other parts of the world through British colonisation, and is now the dominant language in Britain and Ireland, the United States and Canada, Australia, New Zealand and many smaller former colonies, as well as being widely spoken in India, parts of Africa, and elsewhere. Partially due to influence of the United States and its globalized efforts of commerce and technology, English took on the status of a global lingua franca in the second half of the 20th century. This is especially true in Europe, where English has largely taken over the former roles of French and, much earlier, Latin as a common language used to conduct business and diplomacy, share scientific and technological information, and otherwise communicate across national boundaries. The efforts of English-speaking Christian missionaries have resulted in English becoming a second language for many other groups.[1][2] Global variation among different English dialects and accents remains significant today. Proto-English [edit] English has its roots in the languages of the Germanic peoples of northern Europe. During the Roman Empire, most of the Germanic-inhabited area, Germania, remained independent from Rome, although some southwestern parts were within the empire. Some Germanics served in the Roman military, and troops from Germanic tribes such as the Tungri, Batavi, Menapii and Frisii served in Britain (Britannia) under Roman command. Germanic settlement and power expanded during the Migration Period, which saw the fall of the Western Roman Empire. A Germanic settlement of Britain took place from the 5th to the 7th century, following the end of Roman rule on the island.[4] The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle relates that around the year 449 Vortigern, king of the Britons, invited the "Angle kin", Angles allegedly led by the Germanic brothers Hengist and Horsa, to help repel invading Picts, in return for lands in the southeast of Britain. This led to waves of settlers who eventually established seven kingdoms, known as the heptarchy. The Chronicle was not a contemporaneous work, however, and cannot be regarded as an accurate record of such early events.[5] Bede, who wrote his Ecclesiastical History in AD 731, writes of invasion by Angles, Saxons and Jutes, although the precise nature of the invasion and settlement and the contributions made by these particular groups are the subject of much dispute among historians.[6] The languages spoken by the Germanic peoples who initially settled in Britain were part of the West Germanic branch of the Germanic language family. They consisted of dialects from the Ingvaeonic grouping, spoken mainly around the North Sea coast, in regions that lie within modern Denmark, north-west Germany and the Netherlands. Due to specific similarities between early English and Old Frisian, an Anglo-Frisian grouping is also identified, although it does not necessarily represent a node in the family tree.[7] These dialects had most of the typical West Germanic features, including a significant amount of grammatical inflection. Vocabulary came largely from the core Germanic stock, although due to the Germanic peoples' extensive contacts with the Roman world, the settlers' languages already included a number of loanwords from Latin.[8] For instance, the predecessor of Modern English wine had been borrowed into early Germanic from the Latin vinum. Old English [edit] Main article: Old English The Germanic settlers in the British Isles initially spoke a number of different dialects, which developed into a language that came to be called Anglo-Saxon. It displaced the indigenous Brittonic Celtic, and the Latin of the former Roman rulers, in parts of the areas of Britain that later formed the Kingdom of England. Celtic languages remained in most of Scotland, Wales and Cornwall, and many compound Celtic-Germanic place names survive, hinting at early language mixing.[9] Old English continued to exhibit local variation, the remnants of which continue to be found in dialects of Modern English.[10] The four main dialects were Mercian, Northumbrian, Kentish and West Saxon. West Saxon formed the basis for the literary standard of the later Old English period. The dominant forms of Middle and Modern English developed mainly from Mercian. Old English was first written using a runic script called the futhorc. This was replaced by a version of the Latin alphabet introduced by Irish missionaries in the 8th century. Most literary output was in either the Early West Saxon of Alfred the Great's time, or the Late West Saxon, regarded as the "classical" form of Old English, of the Winchester school, inspired by Bishop Æthelwold of Winchester, and followed by such writers as the prolific Ælfric of Eynsham, "the Grammarian". The most famous surviving work from the Old English period is the epic poem Beowulf, composed by an unknown poet. The introduction of Christianity from around the year 600 encouraged the addition of over 400 Latin loan words into Old English, such as the predecessors of the modern priest, paper, and school, and a smaller number of Greek loan words.[11] The speech of eastern and northern parts of England was also subject to strong Old Norse influence due to Scandinavian rule and settlement beginning in the 9th century (see below). Most native English speakers today find Old English unintelligible, even though about half of the most commonly used words in Modern English have Old English roots.[12] The grammar of Old English was much more inflected than modern English, combined with freer word order, and was grammatically quite similar in some respects to modern German. The language had demonstrative pronouns, equivalent to this and that, but did not have the definite article the. The Old English period is considered to have evolved into the Middle English period some time after the Norman conquest of 1066, when the language came to be influenced significantly by the new ruling class's language, Old Norman.[13][14] Scandinavian influence [edit] Vikings from modern-day Norway and Denmark began to raid parts of Britain from the late 8th century onward. In 865, a major invasion was launched by what the Anglo-Saxons called the Great Heathen Army, which eventually brought large parts of northern and eastern England, the Danelaw, under Scandinavian control. Most of these areas were retaken by the English under Edward the Elder in the early 10th century, although York and Northumbria were not permanently regained until the death of Eric Bloodaxe in 954. Scandinavian raids resumed in the late 10th century during the reign of Æthelred the Unready. Sweyn Forkbeard was briefly declared king of England in 1013, followed by the longer reign of his son Cnut from 1016 to 1035, and Cnut's sons Harold Harefoot and Harthacnut, until 1042. The Scandinavians, or Norsemen, spoke dialects of a North Germanic language known as Old Norse. The Anglo-Saxons and the Scandinavians thus spoke related languages from different branches (West and North) of the Germanic family. Many of their lexical roots were the same or similar, although their grammatical systems were more divergent. It is likely that significant numbers of Norse speakers settled in the Danelaw during the period of Scandinavian control. Many place-names in those areas are of Scandinavian provenance, those ending in -by, for example. It is believed that the settlers often established new communities in places that had not previously been developed by the Anglo-Saxons. The extensive contact between Old English and Old Norse speakers, including the possibility of intermarriage that resulted from the acceptance of Christianity by the Danes in 878,[15] undoubtedly influenced the varieties of those languages spoken in the areas of contact. During the rule of Cnut and other Danish kings in the first half of the 11th century, a kind of diglossia may have come about, with the West Saxon literary language existing alongside the Norse-influenced Midland dialect of English, which could have served as a koine or spoken lingua franca. When Danish rule ended, and particularly after the Norman Conquest, the status of the minority Norse language presumably declined relative to that of English, and its remaining speakers assimilated to English in a process involving language shift and language death. The widespread bilingualism that must have existed during the process possibly contributed to the rate of borrowings from Norse into English.[16] Only about 100 or 150 Norse words, mainly connected with government and administration, are found in Old English writing. The borrowing of words of this type was stimulated by Scandinavian rule in the Danelaw and during the later reign of Cnut. Most surviving Old English texts are based on the West Saxon standard that developed outside the Danelaw. It is not clear to what extent Norse influenced the forms of the language spoken in eastern and northern England at that time. Later texts from the Middle English era, now based on an eastern Midland rather than a Wessex standard, reflect the significant impact that Norse had on the language. In all, English borrowed about 2,000 words from Old Norse, several hundred surviving in Modern English.[16] Norse borrowings include many very common words, such as anger, bag, both, hit, law, leg, same, skill, sky, take, window, and even the pronoun they. Norse influence is also believed to have reinforced the adoption of the plural copular verb form are rather, than alternative Old English forms like sind. It is considered to have stimulated and accelerated the morphological simplification found in Middle English, such as the loss of grammatical gender and explicitly marked case, except in pronouns.[17] That is possibly confirmed by observations that simplification of the case endings occurred earliest in the north, and latest in the southwest. The spread of phrasal verbs in English is another grammatical development to which Norse may have contributed, although here a possible Celtic influence is also noted.[16] Some scholars have claimed that Old English died out entirely and was replaced by Norse towards the end of the Old English period and as part of the transition to Middle English, by virtue of the Middle English syntax being much more akin to Norse than Old English.[18] Other scholars reject this claim.[19] Middle English [edit] Middle English is the form of English spoken roughly from the time of the Norman Conquest in 1066 until the end of the 15th century. For centuries after the Conquest, the Norman kings and high-ranking nobles in England and to some extent elsewhere in the British Isles spoke Anglo-Norman, a variety of Old Norman, originating from a northern langue d'oïl dialect. Merchants and lower-ranked nobles were often bilingual in Anglo-Norman and English, whilst English continued to be the language of the common people. Middle English was influenced by both Anglo-Norman, and later Anglo-French. See characteristics of the Anglo-Norman language. Until the 14th century, Anglo-Norman and then French were the language of the courts and government. Even after the decline of Norman, standard French retained the status of a formal or prestige language. About 10,000 French and Norman loan words entered Middle English, particularly terms associated with government, church, law, the military, fashion, and food.[20] See English language word origins and List of English words of French origin. Although English is a Germanic language, it has a deep connection to Romance languages. The roots of this connection trace back to the Conquest of England by the Normans in 1066. The Normans spoke a dialect of Old French, and the comingling of Norman French and Old English resulted in Middle English, a language that reflects aspects of both Germanic and Romance languages and evolved into the English we speak today, where nearly 60% of the words are loanworded from Latin & romance languages like French. The strong influence of Old Norse on English becomes apparent during this period. The impact of the native British Celtic languages that English continued to displace is generally held to be very small, although a few scholars have attributed some grammatical forms, such as periphrastic "do", to Celtic influence.[21][22] These theories have been criticized by a number of other linguists.[23][24][25] Some scholars have also put forward hypotheses that Middle English was a kind of creole language resulting from contact between Old English and either Old Norse or Anglo-Norman. English literature began to reappear after 1200, when a changing political climate and the decline in Anglo-Norman made it more respectable. The Provisions of Oxford, released in 1258, was the first English government document to be published in the English language after the Norman Conquest. In 1362, Edward III became the first king to address Parliament in English. The Pleading in English Act 1362 made English the only language in which court proceedings could be held, though the official record remained in Latin.[26] By the end of the century, the royal court had switched to English. Anglo-Norman remained in use in limited circles somewhat longer, but it had ceased to be a living language. Official documents began to be produced regularly in English during the 15th century. Geoffrey Chaucer, who lived in the late 14th century, is the most famous writer from the Middle English period, and The Canterbury Tales is his best-known work. The English language changed enormously during the Middle English period, in vocabulary, in pronunciation, and in grammar. While Old English is a heavily inflected language (synthetic), the use of grammatical endings diminished in Middle English (analytic). Grammar distinctions were lost as many noun and adjective endings were levelled to -e. The older plural noun marker -en, retained in a few cases such as children and oxen, largely gave way to -s. Grammatical gender was discarded. Definite article þe appears around 1200, later spelled as the, first appearing in East and North England as a substitute for Old English se and seo, nominative forms of "that."[27] English spelling was also influenced by Norman in this period, with the /θ/ and /ð/ sounds being spelled th, rather than with the Old English letters þ (thorn) and ð (eth), which did not exist in Norman. These letters remain in the modern Icelandic and Faroese alphabets, having been borrowed from Old English via Old West Norse. Early Modern English [edit] Main article: Early Modern English English underwent extensive sound changes during the 15th century, while its spelling conventions remained largely constant. Modern English is often dated from the Great Vowel Shift, which took place mainly during the 15th century. The language was further transformed by the spread of a standardized London-based dialect in government and administration and by the standardizing effect of printing, which also tended to regularize capitalization. As a result, the language acquired self-conscious terms such as "accent" and "dialect".[28] As most early presses came from continental Europe, a few native English letters such as þ and ð died out. For some time þe (modern "the") was written as ye. By the time of William Shakespeare (mid 16th - early 17th century),[29] the language had become clearly recognizable as Modern English. In 1604, the first English dictionary was published, A Table Alphabeticall. Increased literacy and travel facilitated the adoption of many foreign words, especially borrowings from Latin and Greek, often terms for abstract concepts not available in English.[30] In the 17th century, Latin words were often used with their original inflections, but these eventually disappeared. As there are many words from different languages and English spelling is variable, the risk of mispronunciation is high, but remnants of the older forms remain in a few regional dialects, most notably in the West Country. During the period, loan words were borrowed from Italian, German, and Yiddish. British acceptance of and resistance to Americanisms began during this period.[31] Modern English [edit] Main article: Modern English The first authoritative and full-featured English dictionary, the Dictionary of the English Language, was published by Samuel Johnson in 1755. To a high degree, the dictionary standardized both English spelling and word usage. Meanwhile, grammar texts by Lowth, Murray, Priestly, and others attempted to prescribe standard usage even further. Early Modern English and Late Modern English, also called Present-Day English (PDE), differ essentially in vocabulary. Late Modern English has many more words, arising from the Industrial Revolution and technologies that created a need for new words, as well as international development of the language. The British Empire at its height covered one quarter of the Earth's land surface, and the English language adopted foreign words from many countries. British English and North American English, the two major varieties of the language, are together spoken by 400 million people. The total number of English speakers worldwide may exceed one billion.[32] There have been attempts to predict future English evolution, though they have been met with skepticism.[33] Phonological changes [edit] Main article: Phonological history of English Introduction [edit] Over the last 1,200 years or so, English has undergone extensive changes in its vowel system, but many fewer changes to its consonants. In the Old English period, a number of umlaut processes affected vowels in complex ways. Unstressed vowels were gradually eroded, eventually leading to a loss of grammatical case and grammatical gender in the Early Middle English period. The most important umlaut process was *i-mutation, c. 500 CE, which led to pervasive alternations of all sorts, many of which survive in the modern language: e.g. in noun paradigms (foot vs. feet, mouse vs. mice, brother vs. brethren); in verb paradigms (sold vs. sell); nominal derivatives from adjectives ("strong" vs. "strength", broad vs. breadth, foul vs. filth) and from other nouns (fox vs. "vixen"); verbal derivatives ("food" vs. "to feed"); and comparative adjectives ("old" vs. "elder"). Consonants were more stable, although velar consonants were significantly modified by palatalization, which produced alternations such as speak vs. speech, drink vs. drench, wake vs. watch, bake vs. batch. The Middle English period saw further vowel changes. Most significant was the Great Vowel Shift, c. 1500 CE, which transformed the pronunciation of all long vowels. This occurred after the spelling system was fixed, and accounts for the drastic differences in pronunciation between "short" mat, met, bit, cot vs. "long" mate, mete/meet, bite, coat. Other changes that left echoes in the modern language were homorganic lengthening before ld, mb, nd, which accounts for the long vowels in child, mind, climb, etc.; pre-cluster shortening, which resulted in the vowel alternations in child vs. children, keep vs. kept, meet vs. met; and trisyllabic laxing, which is responsible for alternations such as grateful vs. gratitude, divine vs. divinity, sole vs. solitary. Among the more significant recent changes to the language have been the development of rhotic and non-rhotic accents (i.e. "r-dropping") and the trap-bath split in many dialects of British English. Vowel changes [edit] The following table shows the principal developments in the stressed vowels, from Old English through Modern English. C indicates any consonant: Old English (c. 900 AD) Middle English (c. 1400 AD) Early Modern English (c. 1600 AD) Modern English Modern spelling Examples ɑː ɔː oː oʊ əʊ (UK) oa, oCe oak, boat, whole, stone æː, æːɑ ɛː eː iː ea heal, beat, cheap eː, eːo eː iː ee, -e feed, deep, me, be iː, yː iː əi or ɛi aɪ iCe ride, time, mice oː oː uː uː oo, -o moon, food, do uː uː əu or ɔu aʊ ou mouse, out, loud ɑ, æ, æɑ a æ æ a man, sat, wax aː ɛː eɪ aCe name, bake, raven e, eo e ɛ ɛ e help, tell, seven ɛː eː iː ea, eCe speak, meat, mete i, y ɪ ɪ ɪ i written, sit, kiss o o ɔ ɒ ɑ (US) o god, top, beyond ɔː oː oʊ əʊ (UK) oa, oCe foal, nose, over u ʊ ɤ ʌ u, o buck, up, love, wonder ʊ ʊ full, bull The following chart shows the primary developments of English vowels in the last 600 years, in more detail, since Late Middle English of Chaucer's time. The Great Vowel Shift can be seen in the dramatic developments from c. 1400 to 1600. Neither of the above tables covers the history of Middle English diphthongs, the changes before /r/, or various special cases and exceptions. For details, see phonological history of English as well as the articles on Old English phonology and Middle English phonology. Examples [edit] The vowel changes over time can be seen in the following example words, showing the changes in their form over the last 2,000 years: one two three four five six seven mother heart hear Proto-Germanic, c. AD 1 ainaz twai θriːz feðwoːr fimf sehs seβun moːðeːr hertoːː hauzijanã West Germanic, c. AD 400 ain θriju fewwur moːdar herta haurijan Late Old English, c. AD 900 aːn twaː θreo feowor fiːf siks sĕŏvon moːdor hĕŏrte heːran, hyːran (Late Old English spelling) (ān) (twā) (þrēo) (fēowor) (fīf) (six) (seofon) (mōdor) (heorte) (hēran, hȳran) Late Middle English, c. 1350 ɔːn twoː θreː fowər fiːvə siks sevən moːðər hertə hɛːrə(n) (Late Middle English spelling) (oon) (two) (three) (fower) (five) (six) (seven) (mother) (herte) (heere(n)) Early Modern English, c. 1600 oːn >! wʊn twuː > tuː θriː foːr fəiv siks sevən mʊðər hert heːr Modern English, c. 2000 wʌn tuː fɔː(r) faiv sɪks mʌðə(r) hɑrt/hɑːt hiːr/hiə one two three four five six seven mother heart hear Grammatical changes [edit] The English language once had an extensive declension system similar to Latin, Greek, modern German and Icelandic. Old English distinguished among the nominative, accusative, dative, and genitive cases, and for strongly declined adjectives and some pronouns also a separate instrumental case (which otherwise and later completely coincided with the dative). The dual number was distinguished from the singular and plural.[34] Declension was greatly simplified during the Middle English period, when the accusative and dative cases of the pronouns merged into a single oblique case, that also replaced the genitive case after prepositions. Nouns in Modern English no longer decline for case, except for the genitive. Evolution of English pronouns [edit] Pronouns such as whom and him, contrasted with who and he, are a conflation of the old accusative and dative cases, as well as of the genitive case after prepositions, while her also includes the genitive case. This conflated form is called the oblique case or the object (objective) case, because it is used for objects of verbs (direct, indirect, or oblique) as well as for objects of prepositions. See object pronoun. The information formerly conveyed by distinct case forms is now mostly provided by prepositions and word order. In Old English as well as modern German and Icelandic as further examples, these cases had distinct forms. Although some grammarians continue to use the traditional terms "accusative" and "dative", these are functions rather than morphological cases in Modern English. That is, the form whom may play accusative or dative roles, as well as instrumental or prepositional roles, but it is a single morphological form, contrasting with nominative who and genitive whose. Many grammarians use the labels "subjective", "objective", and "possessive" for nominative, oblique, and genitive pronouns. Modern English nouns exhibit only one inflection of the reference form: the possessive case, which some linguists argue is not a case at all, but a clitic. See the entry for genitive case for more information. Interrogative pronouns [edit] Case Old English Middle English Modern English Masculine, feminine (person) Nominative hwā who who Accusative hwone, hwæne whom whom, who1 Dative hwām, hwǣm Instrumental Genitive hwæs whos whose Neuter (thing) Nominative hwæt what what Accusative hwæt what, whom Dative hwām, hwǣm Instrumental hwȳ, hwon why why2 Genitive hwæs whos whose3 1 - In some dialects "who" is used where formal English only allows "whom", though variation among dialects must be taken into account. 2 - An explanation may be found in the last paragraph of this section of Instrumental case. 3 - Usually replaced by of what (postpositioned). First person personal pronouns [edit] Case Old English Middle English Modern English Singular Nominative iċ I, ich, ik I Accusative mē, meċ me me Dative mē Genitive mīn min, mi my, mine Plural Nominative wē we we1 Accusative ūs, ūsiċ us us Dative ūs Genitive ūser, ūre ure, our our, ours 1 - Old English also had a separate dual, wit ("we two") etcetera; however, no later forms derive from it. Second person personal pronouns [edit] Old and Middle English singular to the Modern English archaic informal Case Old English Middle English Modern English Singular Nominative þū þu, thou thou (you) Accusative þē, þeċ þé, thee thee (you) Dative þē Genitive þīn þi, þīn, þīne, thy; thin, thine thy, thine (your, yours) Plural Nominative ġē ye, ȝe, you you1 Accusative ēow, ēowiċ you, ya Dative ēow Genitive ēower your your, yours 1 - Note that the ye/you distinction still existed, at least optionally, in Early Modern English: "Ye shall know the truth and the truth shall make you free" from the King James Bible. Here the letter þ (interchangeable with ð in manuscripts) corresponds to th. For ȝ, see Yogh. Formal and informal forms of the second person singular and plural Old English Middle English Modern English Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Case Formal Informal Formal Informal Formal Informal Formal Informal Formal Informal Formal Informal Nominative þū ġē1 you thou you ye you Accusative þē, þeċ ēow, ēowiċ thee you Dative þē ēow Genitive þīn ēower your, yours thy, thine your, yours your, yours 1 - (Old English also had a separate dual, ġit ("ye two") etcetera; however, no later forms derive from it.) Third person personal pronouns [edit] Case Old English Middle English Modern English Masculine singular Nominative hē he he Accusative hine him him Dative him Genitive his his his Feminine singular Nominative hēo heo, sche, ho, he, ȝho she Accusative hīe hire, hure, her, heore her Dative hire Genitive hir, hire, heore, her, here her, hers Neuter singular Nominative hit hit, it it, they Accusative hit, it, him it, them Dative him Genitive his his its, their Plural1 Nominative hīe he, hi, ho, hie, þai, þei they Accusative hem, ham, heom, þaim, þem, þam them Dative him Genitive hira here, heore, hore, þair, þar their, theirs 1 - The origin of the modern forms is generally thought to have been a borrowing from Old Norse forms þæir, þæim, þæira. The two different roots co-existed for some time, although currently the only common remnant is the shortened form 'em. Cf. also the demonstrative pronouns. Examples [edit] Beowulf [edit] Beowulf is an Old English epic poem in alliterative verse. It is dated from the 8th to the early 11th centuries. These are the first 11 lines: ! Wē in , , . Oft , , , . , hē , under , , him , . Þæt wæs ! Which, as translated by Francis Barton Gummere, reads: Lo, praise of the prowess of people-kings of spear-armed Danes, in days long sped, we have heard, and what honor the athelings won! Oft Scyld the Scefing from squadroned foes, from many a tribe, the mead-bench tore, awing the earls. Since erst he lay friendless, a foundling, fate repaid him: for he waxed under welkin, in wealth he throve, till before him the folk, both far and near, who house by the whale-path, heard his mandate, gave him gifts: a good king he! Voyages of Ohthere and Wulfstan [edit] This is the beginning of The Voyages of Ohthere and Wulfstan, a prose text in Old English dated to the late 9th century. The full text can be found at Wikisource. Ayenbite of Inwyt [edit] From Ayenbite of Inwyt ("the prick of conscience"), a translation of a French confessional prose work into the Kentish dialect of Middle English, completed in 1340:[36] Nou wille þet ye hou is þet þis boc is Engliss of Kent. Þis boc is vor men Vor vader and vor moder and vor oþer vor to vram alle manyere þet ine ne no voul . ' ase god' in his name , Þet þis boc made god him þet bread, Of angles of hevene, and þerto his , And his þet he is . Amen. The Canterbury Tales [edit] The beginning of The Canterbury Tales, a collection of stories in poetry and prose written in the London dialect of Middle English by Geoffrey Chaucer, at the end of the 14th century:[37] Whan that Aprill with his shoures The droghte of March hath perced to the roote, And bathed every veyne in Of which vertu engendred is the ; Whan Zephirus with his sweete breeth Inspired hath in every and heeth The tendre croppes, and the yonge sonne Hath in the his half cours , And smale maken melodye, That slepen al the nyght with open (So in ), Thanne longen folk to goon on pilgrimages, And palmeres for to seken straunge , To , in sondry londes; And specially from every shires ende Of Engelond to Caunterbury they , The hooly blisful martir for to seke, That whan that they were . Paradise Lost [edit] The beginning of Paradise Lost, an epic poem in unrhymed iambic pentameter written in Early Modern English by John Milton, first published in 1667: Of Mans First Disobedience, and the Fruit Of that Forbidden Tree, whose mortal tast Brought Death into the World, and all our woe, With loss of Eden, till one greater Man Restore us, and regain the blissful Seat, Sing Heav'nly Muse, that on the secret top Of Oreb, or of Sinai, didst inspire That Shepherd, who first taught the chosen Seed, In the Beginning how the Heav'ns and Earth Rose out of Chaos: Or if Sion Hill Delight thee more, and Siloa's Brook that flow'd Fast by the Oracle of God; I thence Invoke thy aid to my adventrous Song, That with no middle flight intends to soar Above th' Aonian Mount, while it pursues Things unattempted yet in Prose or Rhime. Oliver Twist [edit] A selection from the novel Oliver Twist, written by Charles Dickens in Modern English and published in 1838: The evening arrived: the boys took their places; the master in his cook's uniform stationed himself at the copper; his pauper assistants ranged themselves behind him; the gruel was served out, and a long grace was said over the short commons. The gruel disappeared, the boys whispered each other and winked at Oliver, while his next neighbours nudged him. Child as he was, he was desperate with hunger and reckless with misery. He rose from the table, and advancing, basin and spoon in hand, to the master, said, somewhat alarmed at his own temerity— "Please, sir, I want some more." The master was a fat, healthy man, but he turned very pale. He gazed in stupefied astonishment on the small rebel for some seconds, and then clung for support to the copper. The assistants were paralysed with wonder, and the boys with fear. "What!" said the master at length, in a faint voice. "Please, sir," replied Oliver, "I want some more." The master aimed a blow at Oliver's head with the ladle, pinioned him in his arms, and shrieked aloud for the beadle. See also [edit] Language portal Influence of French on English Phonological history of English Comparison of American and British English English phonology English studies Inkhorn debate Languages in the United Kingdom Middle English declension History of the Scots language Changes to Old English vocabulary Lists: List of dialects of the English language List of Germanic and Latinate equivalents Lists of English words of international origin Notes [edit] References [edit] Cercignani, Fausto, Shakespeare's Works and Elizabethan Pronunciation, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1981. Mallory, J. P (2005). In Search of the Indo-Europeans. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-27616-1 Ringe, Donald R. and Taylor, Ann (2014). The Development of Old English - A Linguistic History of English, vol. II, 632p. ISBN 978-0199207848. Oxford. Simek, Rudolf (2007) translated by Angela Hall. Dictionary of Northern Mythology. D.S. Brewer. ISBN 0-85991-513-1 Further reading [edit] Bill Bryson (1990). The Mother Tongue - English And How It Got That Way. William Morrow Paperbacks. ISBN 978-0380715435. David Crystal (2013). The Story of English in 100 Words. Picador. ISBN 978-1250024206. David Crystal (2015). Wordsmiths and Warriors: The English-Language Tourist's Guide to Britain. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0198729136. John McWhorter (2017). Words on the Move: Why English Won't - and Can't - Sit Still (Like, Literally). Picador. ISBN 978-1250143785. Hejná, Míša & Walkden, George. 2022. A history of English. (Textbooks in Language Sciences 9). Berlin: Language Science Press. DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6560337 . A history of English. Open Access.
4519	dbpedia	1	15	https://www.unr.edu/writing-speaking-center/writing-speaking-resources/british-american-english	en	British vs. American English \| University Writing & Speaking Center	https://www.unr.edu/glob…mpusImage-FB.jpg	https://www.unr.edu/glob…mpusImage-FB.jpg	[ "https://www.unr.edu/Assets/Icons/logos/university-logo.svg", "https://www.unr.edu/Assets/Icons/logos/university-logo.svg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	What's the deal with the difference between British and American English? Learn what's different with grammar, spelling and punctuation.	en	/Assets/Icons/other/apple-touch-icon.png	University of Nevada, Reno	https://www.unr.edu/writing-speaking-center/writing-speaking-resources/british-american-english	There are many differences between British and American punctuation, spelling, and grammar. Neither version is more correct than the other; which version you should use just depends on who your primary audience is. Here are some of the most common differences between British and American academic English. Punctuation Single vs. Double Quotation Marks British English uses single quotation marks to indicate quotations or dialogue. The UWSC says, 'This is how British people do it.' When there is a quotation inside the quotation, British English uses double quotation marks for the nested quotation. The UWSC says, 'This is how British people, as they say, "do it".' American English flips that method, and uses double quotation marks to indicate quotations or dialogue, and single quotation marks for nested quotations. The UWSC says, "This is how American people, as they say, 'do it.'" Commas and Periods Within Quotation Marks British English puts commas and periods (full stops) outside the quotation marks unless the quotation is also a complete sentence or the punctuation is part of the quotation. The UWSC says that British people write it "this way". American English puts commas and periods inside the quotation marks. The UWSC says that American people write it "this way." When it comes to other punctuation, both versions write it similarly. Colons and semicolons go outside quotation marks, and exclamation points and question marks depend on whether they're part of the quote or the sentence as a whole. Dates British English writes dates in DD/MM/YY format. 10/1/2019 means January 10, 2019. American English writes dates in MM/DD/YY format. 10/1/2019 means October 1, 2019. Abbreviations British English typically does not put a period after an abbreviation. Dr, Mr, Mrs, Ms, and vs are all written without periods after them. American English puts periods after abbreviations. Dr., Mr., Mrs., Ms., and vs. all have periods after them. Spelling There are certain patterns of words that British and American English tend to spell differently. Grammar Collective Nouns Collective nouns are singular nouns that refer to a group of people, like "group" or "team." British English tends to default to using the plural verb forms for collective nouns. UNR's faculty are here to help you. American English uses the singular verb form for collective nouns. UNR's faculty is here to help you. Past Tense Forms British and American English have some differences in how they might spell the past tense forms of some verbs. British English might use '-t' to end the past tense forms of verbs ending in 'l,' 'm,' or 'n.' Burnt, dreamt, learnt, spilt, spoilt American English will use '-ed' for the past tense of pretty much all regular verbs. Burned, dreamed, learned, spilled, spoiled There are other differences between British and American English, but these are some of the common ones that come up in academic writing. Oxford International Education Group. (n.d.). The main differences in British and American spelling. Retrieved from https://www.oxfordinternationalenglish.com/differences-in-british-and-american-spelling/
4519	dbpedia	0	9	https://www.dictionary.com/browse/two-bits	en	TWO BITS Definition & Meaning	https://www.dictionary.c…_social_logo.png	https://www.dictionary.c…_social_logo.png	[ "https://pixel.carambo.la/Pixel/dctn68/112845/2/1/0", "https://www.dictionary.com/ab34ff65bbd3138890c7.svg", "https://www.dictionary.com/e8d8d7d566d7f7f23acd.svg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	Two bits definition: twenty-five cents.. See examples of TWO BITS used in a sentence.	en	/94e56a525da4e9fe0cda.png	Dictionary.com	https://www.dictionary.com/browse/two-bits	Two bits is an old slang term for 25 cents. It’s based on the sense of the word bit that refers to one eighth of a U.S. dollar, or 12 ½ cents. However, monetary amounts counted in bits were only ever given in multiples of two, as in two bits and six bits. Two bits became an informal way of referring to the value of the 25-cent coin known as the quarter. It then came to be used in a general way meaning a small amount. It’s still sometimes used this way, especially in negative statements, as in That piece of junk isn’t worth two bits or That job is like a vacation—I’d do it for two bits. It is also the basis of the informal adjective two-bit, meaning inferior, cheap, worthless, or insignificant. Two-bit is always used before the noun it describes. It’s perhaps most commonly used to negatively describe a person considered to be a small-time hack—someone who’s not good at what they do due to having a very low level of talent or skill. It’s especially used as an insult applied to people who have a high opinion of themselves to call them out as being far inferior in reality. Describing something as two-bit means it’s low-quality. This is especially applied to products. Example: My dad likes to tell me stories about how he used to be able to buy a whole lunch for two bits—and get change!
4519	dbpedia	0	75	https://www.spanishdict.com/answers/116586/how-come-almost-every-word-in-spanish-is-the-same-as-english	en	How come almost every word in Spanish is the same as English	https://d1q4kshf6f0axi.c…quare-medium.png	https://d1q4kshf6f0axi.c…quare-medium.png	[ "https://pixel.quantserve.com/pixel/p-J6UREPaB79qHH.gif", "http://c.sdswift.com//images/smileys/question.gif", "http://c.sdswift.com//images/smileys/smile.gif", "http://c.sdswift.com//images/smileys/lol.gif", "https://d1q4kshf6f0axi.cloudfront.net/img/svgs/ixl-learning.svg", "https://d1q4kshf6f0axi.cloudfront.net/img/svgs/rosetta-stone.svg", "https://d1q4kshf6f0axi.cloudfront.net/img/svgs/tpt-logo.svg", "https://d1q4kshf6f0axi.cloudfront.net/img/svgs/emmersion.svg", "https://d1q4kshf6f0axi.cloudfront.net/img/svgs/abcya.svg", "https://d1q4kshf6f0axi.cloudfront.net/img/svgs/ixl-logo-2.svg", "https://d1q4kshf6f0axi.cloudfront.net/img/svgs/wyzant.svg", "https://d1q4kshf6f0axi.cloudfront.net/img/svgs/education-com.svg", "https://d1q4kshf6f0axi.cloudfront.net/img/svgs/vocabulary-com.svg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	acampar camp familia family ect.... \| SpanishDictionary.com Answers	en	https://d1q4kshf6f0axi.c…n-production.png	SpanishDictionary.com	https://www.spanishdict.com/answers/116586/how-come-almost-every-word-in-spanish-is-the-same-as-english	Let me bore y'all with my two bits. English is a Germanic based language in which 60% of its vocabulary ir Romance in origin. (Latin by way of French). If you like etymology and language studies it's an interesting thing. When the Normans "conquered" England in 1066 it was simply a replacement of the ruling class of Anglo-Saxon descended people with French speaking Normans. (Who were originally of Norse Viking stock.) The new royal court spoke French for I think up to 100 years before they started speaking English like their subjects. An interesting phenomenon is the two-layered speech that developed in England. A "cow" (Germanic source) was out in the field. When it was slaughtered and prepared for the lord's table it bacame "beef" (boeuf, a French term). A "house" (Germanic "haus") was where the people lived while the "mansion" (maison) was where the ruling class lived. You get the idea. Elizabethian English of the 1500's was closer to French construction than what English is now. That's why Appalachian "hillbilly" speech actually harks back to the old French constructions. That's why Jethro Bodine saying, "We commenced to shootin'" is actually a direct link to the French "commencer a" (begin to). Another example would be "I heard tell" comming from the French construction "J'ai entendu dire" meaning the same thing. So, as discussed a week or so ago on this site, French and Spanish are two of the Romance languages of Southern Europe descended from Latin, with Spanish having the advantage of acquiring an added richness from 700 years of Arab rule. English in turn (in my opinion as a French Canadian descendant) has the added richness of French infusion by the Norseman. (Figure that one out!) Sorry to prattle on but it's not often I get to communicate with folks like you all who enjoy languages.
4519	dbpedia	3	20	https://langdev.stackexchange.com/questions/3484/why-is-almost-every-programming-language-made-in-english	en	Why is almost every programming language made in English?	https://cdn.sstatic.net/…g?v=9f1dac205d5e	https://cdn.sstatic.net/…g?v=9f1dac205d5e	[ "https://i.sstatic.net/0pja9.png?s=64", "https://i.sstatic.net/Z4JqVg1m.png?s=64", "https://i.sstatic.net/MBRE7.jpg?s=64", "https://www.gravatar.com/avatar/46ac2ffdab439207d4a590f00da53096?s=64&d=identicon&r=PG", "https://i.sstatic.net/tB5AG.png?s=64", "https://www.gravatar.com/avatar/098e1ec0fd1f2c04a679bba9e2985647?s=64&d=identicon&r=PG&f=y&so-version=2", "https://www.gravatar.com/avatar/fd3e95077628f62ea424c232605c7768?s=64&d=identicon&r=PG&f=y&so-version=2", "https://www.gravatar.com/avatar/135a97c4150691234931a93f3a27a52f?s=64&d=identicon&r=PG", "https://www.gravatar.com/avatar/f74df4a6e7f7502e0f99a8d966612cb3?s=64&d=identicon&r=PG", "https://i.sstatic.net/ulVTa.png?s=64", "https://langdev.stackexchange.com/posts/3484/ivc/3938?prg=a845173d-0b07-4ad3-a8a7-ff53681c5414" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	2024-01-28T03:01:13	Every programming language I know (Java, C++, C#, Python, etc.) are all made in English. That is, you can't, for example, type imprimir("hola") instead of print("hi"). You have ...	en	https://cdn.sstatic.net/Sites/langdev/Img/favicon.ico?v=9c9246580b4a	Programming Language Design and Implementation Stack Exchange	https://langdev.stackexchange.com/questions/3484/why-is-almost-every-programming-language-made-in-english	I think the primary reason for this is the same that motivates any other lingua franca: the desire to exchange ideas across different groups. We can group the places where natural language is used in programming into a few different categories: Keywords - terms baked into the syntax of the language ("if", "return", "while", etc). These are what linguists would call a "closed word class"; they may be reserved from use as identifiers, or marked out with stropping. Built-in identifiers - names of functions, namespaces, classes, etc, which are part of the "standard library" of the language. These are generally an "open class", in the sense that new items are added reasonably regularly, and can move somewhat freely between this and the next category. User-defined identifiers - this is the much largest list, and also the one over which languages designers have least direct influence. The main limitation placed is the available character set - if identifiers can only use the Latin letters in ASCII, some languages will be harder to use (though not impossible). Error messages and other output. This generally depends not on the design of the language, but its implementation. These may be the same thing (e.g. PHP has only one widely used implementation), or entirely separate and widely varied (e.g. C compilers). Documentation. On the face of it, this is the easiest to translate, and for example the PHP manual is currently "fully" translated into 9 languages. Of these, the vast majority of code that looks like language is user-defined identifiers. These can be, and regularly are, written in the user's first language - except when they're shared. If a new online service wants to publish an SDK on a package repository such as CPAN, NPM, Packagist, Nuget, etc, they need to define a public API for that package, and that involves choosing identifiers. If the majority of packages on that repository use identifiers in the same language, that is a lingua franca in exactly the same way as the trade languages of the ancient Mediterranean, or the Latin of Renaissance scientists. This then leads back to the choice of built-in identifiers. The language designer could, in principle, provide multiple aliases for every built in function, giving the user a choice of languages. However, this becomes a wasted effort if the user community picks one as the lingua franca for sharing code samples and libraries. As we get deeper into the core of the language, and particularly with keywords, we get a similar effect between languages: if you want new users to pick up your language, there is an advantage to them recognising parts of it. This leads to certain terms becoming somewhat standardised in their meaning - the lingua franca is based on a particular natural language, but becomes its own thing. For instance, the "return" keyword originated from the intransitive English verb meaning "go back", but has acquired programming-specific meanings: "returned value", "return type", and so on. To circle back to error messages and documentation, like private identifiers these can be and often are translated; but they will still have to incorporate large parts of the lingua franca, to mention keywords and identifiers which are not translated. All of that leaves us with a few situations where not using the lingua franca would be reasonable: Where the language has no "open word class". For instance, Microsoft Excel has localized names for all its built-in formula functions. Where the language isn't intended for writing code to share. The biggest example of this is educational languages: the main aim is to make it easy for users to write their own programs, to learn programming concepts. Where the audience for the language is limited to a particular community. The macro language of an internal tool might exclusively use the local language of its developers, although the draw of the lingua franca will still be there from exposure to other languages. Throughout this, I've deliberately talked about the lingua franca in the abstract, because the fact that it is based on English is largely historical accident: English was the language in the UK and USA where major early computer science work happened; and it's also a lingua franca in other contexts, meaning it is accessible to a lot of users as a second language. For English I assume it means a global language. For why English has become a global language, I think it's more of a question about history, instead of PLDI. Here I answer why a programming language would choose keywords from a global language. Firstly, as Seggan commented, there are a lot of programming languages using other natural languages. But it is much less likely someone would get to know a programming language not in either English or their first language. If you use English, you have a much broader user base, that could potentially get your language much more popular. If someone wants a broader user base, they would also choose English. So, in the end, the most popular programming languages you have known are in English. I think there are only two alternatives for this purpose. One is to make it multilingual. There were some animation makers and game designers that had a way to make easy programs using a GUI list of commands, and the commands tend to be translated. It's easy because the translation doesn't change how the code is stored, but only how they are displayed. But users switch to the traditional way quickly, because the graphical way usually only support a restricted set of features, and the editor isn't very easy to use. Better examples on this direction would be Scratch-like languages. I don't know Scratch much, but I think it's much more powerful than the GUI lists, but still not as powerful as modern advanced languages. The obvious problem of supporting multiple languages in traditional text programs, is the identifier names could easily conflict with keywords or system libraries in a language that the programmer doesn't know, or not even existed before the program has created. It might be better if the programmer chooses the language. But there is another problem, that translations tends to be slower than the original release, and if it's not the original developer making all the decisions, sometimes translations are bad and are subject to change, which would be very undesirable to use in a programming language. The programmers could use English before the translations are stable, but they would still have to learn the English version, adding more difficulty to just use English, and they would need an automatic translator to change the language afterwards. A potentially better way would be like the GUI lists, that only translate the words in the editor. In either case, I think they are not considered reliable operations for program source code, especially with eval and homonyms in consideration. But I don't think these difficulties are absolutely unsolvable. Maybe someone could come up with some clever ideas. And they could start from languages that least likely conflict with English. I think the real problem is, keywords are not the only thing in a programming language. Documentation and libraries matter more. A translated programming language is of no use, if there are not documentations at all. And not many language designers had the resources to maintain documentations in that many languages. Library writers usually had less resources. That also answers why there had to be a popular programming language, instead of everyone using their own programming language in their own country: Actually there is not much reason for a programming language. You could do it if you had enough funds. But the reason is strong for libraries, and languages don't affect that much without libraries. A possible middle ground is, make everyone use their own language internally in a project, and export the symbols in English, to make a library popular, cost-effective, and non-English. But it might be difficult for us to know it is the case. TL; DR: The majority of libraries would support only one language, and you'll not know it if it is not English. Programming languages doesn't contribute much to the whole picture, but have extra difficulties, that may not worth it. Another way is to use symbols, like APL. But that only applies for a small set of builtins. They still have to use words in natural languages if there are a lot of libraries. Also note that while programming languages borrow words from natural languages, they are not the same. Some words like "for" "yield" are too generic but have gained much more specific meaning. But they may not affect translation. Survey about the documentation languages in some programming language's homepage Python has English, Spanish, French, Japanese, Korean, Brazilian Portuguese, Turkish, Simplified Chinese, Traditional Chinese, 8 or 9 languages PHP has English, Brazilian Portuguese, Chinese (Simplified), French, German, Japanese, Russian, Spanish, Turkish, 9 languages Rust has English (en-US), Español (es), Français (fr), Italiano (it), 日本語 (ja), Português (pt-BR), Русский (ru), Türkçe (tr), 简体中文 (zh-CN), 正體中文 (zh-TW), 9 or 10 languages Ruby has Български, Deutsch, English, Español, Français, Bahasa Indonesia, Italiano, 日本語, 한국어, polski, Português, Русский, Türkçe, Tiếng Việt, 简体中文, 繁體中文, 15 or 16 languages C# has Bahasa Indonesia, Bahasa Melayu, Bosanski, Català, Čeština, Dansk, Deutsch (Österreich), Deutsch (Schweiz), Deutsch, Eesti, English (Australia), English (Canada), English (India), English (Ireland), English (Malaysia), English (New Zealand), English (Singapore), English (South Africa), English (United Kingdom), English (United States), Español (México), Español, Euskara, Filipino, Français (Belgique), Français (Canada), Français (Suisse), Français, Gaeilge, Galego, ქართული, Hrvatski, Íslenska, Italiano (Svizzera), Italiano, Latviešu, Lëtzebuergesch, Lietuvių, Magyar, Malti, Nederlands (België), Nederlands, Norsk Bokmål, Polski, Português (Brasil), Português (Portugal), Română, Slovenčina, Slovenski, Srbija - Srpski, Suomi, Svenska, TiếngViệt, Türkçe, Ελληνικά, Български, қазақ тілі, Русский, Српски, Українська, עברית‏,‎ العربية, हिंदी, ไทย, 한국어, 中文 (简体), 中文 (繁體), 中文 (繁體香港特別行政區), 日本語, 48 or 69 languages Scratch (user languages) has Аҧсшәа, Afrikaans, العربية, አማርኛ, Aragonés, Asturianu, Azeri, Bahasa Indonesia, বাংলা, Беларуская, Български, Català, Česky, Cymraeg, Dansk, Deutsch, Eesti, Ελληνικά, English, Español (España), Español Latinoamericano, Esperanto, Euskara, فارسی, Filipino, Français, Frysk, Gaeilge, Gàidhlig, Galego, 한국어, Hausa, Հայերեն, עִבְרִית, हिंदी, Hrvatski, isiXhosa, isiZulu, Íslenska, Italiano, ქართული ენა, қазақша, Kichwa, Kiswahili, Kreyòl ayisyen, Kurdî, کوردیی ناوەندی, Latviešu, Lietuvių, Magyar, Māori, Монгол хэл, Nederlands, 日本語, にほんご, Norsk Bokmål, Norsk Nynorsk, Occitan, ଓଡ଼ିଆ, Oʻzbekcha, ไทย, ភាសាខ្មែរ, Polski, Português, Português Brasileiro, Rapa Nui, Română, Русский, Sepedi, Setswana, Slovenčina, Slovenščina, Српски, Suomi, Svenska, Tiếng Việt, Türkçe, Українська, 简体中文, 繁體中文, 76 or 80 languages The basic explanation is firstly that English is a widely spoken language around the world, and secondly that most computer technology has originated and continues to originate from America, where they speak English. Moreover, post-WW2 America became a centre in the world for scientific research of all kinds, so that the technology doesn't just originate in America but so do a lot of the ideas, terminology, and standards, and the academic institutions that gestate them. Scale is important too. Not only does America itself speak English, but so do a number of its major allies and trading partners who have equally advanced economies with demand for computerisation. This means that a large mass of English-speaking professional workers, and technical artefacts and tooling in English, have already been accumulated, completely dwarfing what was ever available in any other language. So if a company wants development done today, the biggest pool of resources are in English. Even if you hire developers who speak a local language, they are likely to have to also speak English to access the existing resources just to learn their trade in the first place, let alone continue to practise it commercially. Since the internet, there is also a huge "hive mind" of practitioners worldwide who can be consulted on difficult problems. These practitioners are either native English, or speak English as a lingua franca. This means practitioners have to carry on speaking proficient English regularly in order to consult with this hive mind. Once all that investment is sunk in English-centric learning and speaking, there's usually very little to be gained, commercially, from diverting things back to the local language. Only nation states with a political policy on language, and with an enormous commitment of economic resources, could really hope to challenge this dominance of English, but none yet have seen fit to do so.
4519	dbpedia	0	62	https://www.cnczone.com/forums/aspire/322742-using-two-bits-carve-one-job-new-post.html	en	Newbie Using two bits to carve one job			[ "https://www.facebook.com/tr?id=676686062444441&ev=PixelInitialized", "https://www.cnczone.com/images/header/cnczone-small.png", "https://www.cnczone.com/images/header/industryarena-small.png", "https://maxcdn.cnczone.com/images/misc/navbit-home.png", "https://maxcdn.cnczone.com/images/statusicon/custom//user-offline.png", "https://maxcdn.cnczone.com/images/reputation/reputation_pos.png", "https://maxcdn.cnczone.com//images/icons/icon1.png", "https://maxcdn.cnczone.com/images/misc/progress.gif", "https://www.cnczone.com/forums/clear.gif", "https://maxcdn.cnczone.com/images/statusicon/custom//user-offline.png", "https://maxcdn.cnczone.com/images/reputation/reputation_pos.png", "https://maxcdn.cnczone.com//images/icons/icon1.png", "https://maxcdn.cnczone.com/images/misc/progress.gif", "https://www.cnczone.com/forums/clear.gif", "https://maxcdn.cnczone.com/images/misc/navbit-home.png", "https://maxcdn.cnczone.com/images/misc/11x11progress.gif", "https://maxcdn.cnczone.com/images/buttons/collapse_40b.png", "https://www.industryarena.com/images/cncarena/footer2l_logo.jpg", "https://www.cnczone.com/forums/images/cnczone.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "bit", "bull", "carve", "rest", "shape" ]	null	[]	null	I'm very new to Aspire and new to CNC-carving in general, but I'm hoping that my question has a very easy answer. I'd like to carve out the following s	en	https://www.cnczone.com/forums/favicon.ico		https://www.cnczone.com/forums/aspire/322742-using-two-bits-carve-one-job.html
4519	dbpedia	3	60	https://www.justice.gov/crt/language-minority-citizens	en	Language Minority Citizens	https://www.justice.gov/…/doj-seal-fb.jpg	https://www.justice.gov/…/doj-seal-fb.jpg	[ "https://www.justice.gov/themes/custom/usdoj_uswds/assets/img/us_flag_small.png", "https://www.justice.gov/themes/custom/usdoj_uswds/assets/img/icon-dot-gov.svg", "https://www.justice.gov/themes/custom/usdoj_uswds/assets/img/icon-https.svg", "https://www.justice.gov/themes/custom/usdoj_uswds/images/doj-icon-hamburger-menu.svg", "https://www.justice.gov/themes/custom/usdoj_uswds/images/doj-icon-hamburger-close.svg", "https://www.justice.gov/themes/custom/usdoj_uswds/images/doj-main-seal-logo.svg", "https://www.justice.gov/d9/2023-03/doj-logo-crt.svg", "https://www.justice.gov/themes/custom/usdoj_uswds/images/doj-icon-header-search.svg", "https://www.justice.gov/themes/custom/usdoj_uswds/images/doj-icon-hamburger-menu.svg", "https://www.justice.gov/themes/custom/usdoj_uswds/images/doj-icon-hamburger-close.svg", "https://www.justice.gov/themes/custom/usdoj_uswds/images/doj-main-seal-logo.svg", "https://www.justice.gov/themes/custom/usdoj_uswds/images/expand_more-rounded--white.svg", "https://www.justice.gov/themes/custom/usdoj_uswds/images/expand_less-rounded--white.svg", "https://www.justice.gov/themes/custom/usdoj_uswds/images/doj-icon-header-search.svg", "https://www.justice.gov/themes/custom/usdoj_uswds/assets/img/angle-arrow-right-white.svg", "https://www.justice.gov/themes/custom/usdoj_uswds/images/doj-header-footer-icons/doj-icon-footer-mail.svg", "https://www.justice.gov/themes/custom/usdoj_uswds/images/doj-header-footer-icons/doj-icon-footer-phone.svg", "https://www.justice.gov/themes/custom/usdoj_uswds/images/doj-header-footer-icons/doj-icon-footer-smartphone.svg", "https://www.justice.gov/themes/custom/usdoj_uswds/images/doj-header-footer-icons/doj-icon-footer-twitter.svg", "https://www.justice.gov/themes/custom/usdoj_uswds/images/doj-main-header-logo.svg", "https://www.justice.gov/themes/custom/usdoj_uswds/images/doj-icon-back-top-arrow-up.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "", "" ]	null	[]	2015-08-06T09:30:07-04:00		en	https://www.justice.gov/…osed-114x114.png		https://www.justice.gov/crt/language-minority-citizens	SECTION 203 OF THE VOTING RIGHTS ACT The United States is a diverse land with a government selected by the votes of its citizens. Federal law recognizes that many Americans rely heavily on languages other than English, and that they require information in minority languages in order to be informed voters and participate effectively in our representative democracy. Many provisions of federal law protect the voting rights of language minority Americans. Section 203 of the Voting Rights Act is the keystone. Congress has mandated language minority ballots in some jurisdictions since 1975, with the most recent changes in the method of determining which jurisdictions must provide language minority materials and information becoming law in 1992 Section 203 of the Voting Rights Act When Congress amended the Voting Rights Act in 1975 by adding Section 203, it found that "through the use of various practices and procedures, citizens of language minorities have been effectively excluded from participation in the electoral process....The Congress declares that, in order to enforce the guarantees of the fourteenth and fifteenth amendments to the United States Constitution, it is necessary to eliminate such discrimination by prohibiting these practices." Section 203 provides: "Whenever any State or political subdivision [covered by the section] provides registration or voting notices, forms, instructions, assistance, or other materials or information relating to the electoral process, including ballots, it shall provide them in the language of the applicable minority group as well as in the English language." What jurisdictions are covered under Section 203? The law covers those localities where there are more than 10,000 or over 5 percent of the total voting age citizens in a single political subdivision (usually a county, but a township or municipality in some states) who are members of a single language minority group, have depressed literacy rates, and do not speak English very well. Political subdivisions also may be covered through a separate determination for Indian Reservations. Determinations are based on data from the most recent Census, and the determinations are made by the Director of the Census. The list of jurisdictions covered under Section 203 can be found at the web site of the Voting Section of the Justice Department's Civil Rights Division. What languages are covered under Section 203? Section 203 targets those language minorities that have suffered a history of exclusion from the political process: Spanish, Asian, Native American, and Alaskan Native. The Census Bureau identifies specific language groups for specific jurisdictions. In some jurisdictions, two or more language minority groups are present in numbers sufficient to trigger the Section 203 requirements. What elections are covered? Section 203 requirements apply to all elections conducted within the bounds of the jurisdiction identified as covered by Section 203 by the Census Bureau. The law applies to primary and general elections, bond elections and referenda, and to elections of each municipality, school district or special purpose district within the designated jurisdiction. What information must be provided in the minority language? All information that is provided in English also must be provided in the minority language as well. This covers not only the ballot, but all election information - voter registration, candidate qualifying, polling place notices, sample ballots, instructional forms, voter information pamphlets, and absentee and regular ballots - from details about voter registration through the actual casting of the ballot, and the questions that regularly come up in the polling place. Written materials must be translated accurately, of course. Assistance also must be provided orally. Most Native American languages historically are unwritten, so that all information must be transmitted orally. Oral communications are especially important in any situation where literacy is depressed. Bilingual poll workers will be essential in at least some precincts on election day, and there should be trained personnel in the courthouse or city hall who can answer questions in the minority language, just as they do for English-speaking voters. What are the keys to a successful program? 1. Outreach The cornerstone of every successful program is a vigorous outreach program to identify the needs and communication channels of the minority community. Citizens who do not speak English very well, often rely on communication channels that differ from those used by English-speakers. Each community is different. The best-informed sources of information are people who are in the minority community and those who work with it regularly. Election officials should talk to them. Minority leaders are an important starting point, but election officials should not stop there. By talking to a broad range of people in the minority community - educators, business groups, labor groups, ESL programs, parent-teacher organizations, senior citizen groups, church groups, social and fraternal organizations, veterans groups, and the like - election officials will be able to identify the most effective and most efficient program possible: where to post notices, what media to use, where to have bilingual poll officials. These same persons can help identify and recruit bilingual poll officials and some of them may be able to provide important feedback on proposed translations. Minority community members and those who work with them can play a significant role in developing and maintaining an effective bilingual election program and need not wait to be contacted by election officials. Language minority citizens should promptly respond to requests for advice and feedback from local election officials, who often are faced with severe time constraints. They also should reach out to city and county election officials to make suggestions on the program, offer to serve as poll officials, and otherwise participate actively in the language minority program that is adopted. They should report any compliance problems to local election officials and, should those officials fail to adequately address the problems, they should notify the Justice Department. Contact information is included at the end of this brochure. 2. Bilingual election personnel Voters ask questions at the polls on election day. They have trouble with the voting machines. They are not sure of their precinct. They may not be able to read the ballot. Failure to employ bilingual poll officials at all precincts where they are needed can deprive citizens of their right to vote. New poll workers - and indeed many veteran poll officials - need effective training in matters beyond the operation of the polls, including the broader election process so that they can answer questions accurately. Experienced poll officials at times need training on the rights of language minority voters. 3. Accurately Translated and Effectively Distributed Materials Materials for all stages of the election process must be translated. Care should be taken to provide an accurate translation that meets the needs of the minority community. Poor translations can be misleading for voters and embarrassing for local officials. Beyond quality control, there can be significant differences in dialect within a given language group, and it is the responsibility of local officials to provide a translation that local voters actually can use. Local officials should reach out to the local minority community to help produce or check translations. 4. Timing Time before the next election is limited - extremely limited for some jurisdictions - and there is much to do to adjust something as complex as an election process. Outreach to the minority community should begin immediately to help establish an effective and efficient language minority election program, so that priorities can be set for the many tasks that must be completed. 5. Contingency Planning Things go wrong. Poll officials get sick and don't show up. Materials wind up at the wrong place, or get lost completely. Language minority voters appear in unexpected polling places. An effective language minority program includes plans for addressing problems, such as training for poll officials in how to deal with surprise situations, back-up communication between the polling places and the central election office, and extra material and bilingual personnel to plug gaps. Again, close communication with the minority community will help minimize the fallout from those inevitable problems that will occur. 6. Assess, Analyze and Improve An effective language minority program is an ongoing exercise. Language minority citizens will move into some new areas and create a need for new communications and new bilingual poll officials. The need in other areas may disappear with time. Such changes are reflected in a number of ways, such as changes in school enrollment. Like a business enterprise, an elections office must meet the needs of a changing clientele. Continuing consultation with minority leaders and groups will remain a part of an effective program. It also can help to make a record of consultations and other outreach activities. This helps identify both successes and gaps, and builds institutional memory. THE ROLE OF THE JUSTICE DEPARTMENT - Inform - The Department of Justice notifies each jurisdiction that it is covered under Section 203, and also reaches out to minority communities to make them aware of the law. - Assist - We provide information to jurisdictions and answer questions about compliance plans. - Enforce - We investigate and pursue allegations of violations of federal law, and take appropriate enforcement action. Where do I go for more information? Information about Section 203, including its text, a list of covered jurisdictions, and the Attorney General's Language Minority Guidelines, is on the Voting Section web site here. You also may contact Voting Section Civil Rights Division 4 Constitution Square Room 8.923 150 M Street, NE Washington, DC 20530 PHONE - 202-307-2767; 1-800-253-3931 FAX - 202-307-3961
4519	dbpedia	3	3	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_used_on_the_Internet	en	Languages used on the Internet	https://en.wikipedia.org/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico	https://en.wikipedia.org/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico	[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png", "https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg", "https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Most_popular_edition_of_Wikipedia_by_country.svg/220px-Most_popular_edition_of_Wikipedia_by_country.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Wikipedia_page_views_by_language_over_time.png/220px-Wikipedia_page_views_by_language_over_time.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Wikipedia_editors_by_language_over_time.png/220px-Wikipedia_editors_by_language_over_time.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Noun-linguistics.svg/25px-Noun-linguistics.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Crystal_Clear_app_linneighborhood.svg/28px-Crystal_Clear_app_linneighborhood.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/100px-Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Globe_of_letters.svg/19px-Globe_of_letters.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Crystal_Clear_app_linneighborhood.svg/19px-Crystal_Clear_app_linneighborhood.svg.png", "https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1", "https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg", "https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/footer/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Contributors to Wikimedia projects" ]	2005-10-13T00:12:49+00:00		en	/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png		https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_used_on_the_Internet	Slightly over half of the homepages of the most visited websites on the World Wide Web are in English, with varying amounts of information available in many other languages.[1][2] Other top languages are Chinese, Spanish, Russian, Persian, French, German and Japanese.[1] Of the more than 7,000 existing languages, only a few hundred are recognized as being in use for Web pages on the World Wide Web.[3] Languages used [edit] There is debate over the most-used languages on the Internet. A 2009 UNESCO report monitoring the languages of websites for 12 years, from 1996 to 2008, found a steady year-on-year decline in the percentage of webpages in English, from 75 percent in 1998 to 45 percent in 2005.[2] The authors found that English remained at 45 percent of content for 2005 to the end of the study but believe this was due to the bias of search engines indexing more English-language content rather than a true stabilization of the percentage of content in English on the World Wide Web.[2] The number of non-English web pages is rapidly expanding. The use of English online increased by around 281 percent from 2001 to 2011, a lower rate of growth than that of Spanish (743 percent), Chinese (1,277 percent), Russian (1,826 percent) or Arabic (2,501 percent) over the same period.[4] According to a 2000 study, the international auxiliary language Esperanto ranked 40 out of all languages in search engine queries, also ranking 27 out of all languages that rely on the Latin script.[5] Usage statistics of content languages for websites [edit] W3Techs estimated percentages of the top 10 million websites on the World Wide Web using various content languages as of 13 July 2024:[1] Rank Language 16 May 2023 13 July 2024 1 English 55.5% 49.7% 2 Spanish 5.0% 5.9% 3 Russian 4.9% 4.1% 4 German 4.3% 5.4% 5 French 4.4% 4.3% 6 Japanese 3.7% 4.9% 7 Portuguese 2.4% 3.7% 8 Turkish 2.3% 1.9% 9 Italian 1.9% 2.6% 10 Persian 1.8% 1.3% 11 Dutch 1.5% 2.1% 12 Polish 1.4% 1.8% 13 Chinese 1.4% 1.2% 14 Vietnamese 1.3% 1.1% 15 Indonesian 0.7% 1.1% 16 Czech 0.7% 0.9% 17 Korean 0.7% 0.8% 18 Ukrainian 0.6% 0.6% 19 Arabic 0.7% 0.5% 20 Greek 0.5% 0.5% 21 Hebrew 0.5% 0.4% 22 Swedish 0.5% 0.5% 23 Romanian 0.4% 0.5% 24 Hungarian 0.4% 0.6% 25 Thai 0.4% 0.4% 26 Danish 0.3% 0.4% 27 Slovak 0.3% 0.4% 28 Finnish 0.3% 0.4% 30 Serbian 0.3% 0.2% 31 Norwegian 0.1% 0.1% 29 Bulgarian 0.2% 0.3% 32 Lithuanian 0.1% 0.2% 33 Slovenian 0.1% 0.1% 34 Catalan 0.1% 0.1% 35 Estonian 0.1% 0.1% 36 Latvian 0.1% 0.1% 37 Bokmål 0.1% 0.2% 38 Croatian 0.2% 0.2% All other languages are used in less than 0.1% of websites. Even including all languages, percentages may not sum to 100% because some websites contain multiple content languages. The figures from the W3Techs study are based on the one million most visited websites (i.e., approximately 0.27 percent of all websites according to December 2011 figures) as ranked by Alexa.com, and language is identified using only the home page of the sites in most cases (e.g., all of Wikipedia is based on the language detection of http://www.wikipedia.org).[6] As a consequence, the figures show a significantly higher percentage for many languages (especially for English) as compared to the figures for all websites.[7] For all websites, estimates are between 20 and 50% for English.[8][2][9][10] Most Used Scripts On The Internet [edit] # Script % 1 Latin 84.7% 2 Cyrillic 5.1% 3 Kana/Kanji 4.9% 4 Arabic 1.9% 5 Hanzi 1.3% 6 Hangul 0.8% 7 Greek 0.5% 8 Hebrew 0.4% 9 Thai 0.4% Content languages on YouTube [edit] Of the top 250 YouTube channels, 66% of the content is in English, 15% in Spanish, 7% in Portuguese, 5% in Hindi, 2% in Korean, while other languages make up 5%,[11] although other sources point to different percentages.[12][better source needed] YouTube is available in over 80 languages with more than a hundred different local versions.[13] Of those popular YouTube channels that posted a video in the first week of 2019, just over half contained some content in a language other than English.[14] Internet users by language [edit] InternetWorldStats estimates of the number of Internet users by language as of March 31, 2020:[15][16][17][18][19][20][21] Rank Language Internet users Percentage 1 English 1,186,451,052 25.9% 2 Chinese 888,453,068 19.4% 3 Spanish 363,684,593 7.9% 4 Arabic 237,418,349 5.2% 5 Indonesian 198,029,815 4.3% 6 Portuguese 171,750,818 3.7% 7 French 144,695,288 3.3 % 8 Japanese 118,626,672 2.6% 9 Russian 116,353,942 2.5% 10 German 92,525,427 2.0% 1–10 Top 10 languages 3,525,027,347 76.9% – Others 1,060,551,371 23.1% Total 4,585,578,718 100% Wikipedia page views by language [edit] Wikimedia Statistics gives the number of page views of each edition of Wikipedia by language.[22] Rank Language Daily page views (average during the last year with "Agent"="User" on 4 January 2021) 1 English 257,705,129 2 Japanese 37,286,466 3 Spanish 37,018,505 4 German 30,844,175 5 Russian 26,358,126 6 French 24,392,611 7 Italian 18,622,198 8 Chinese 13,371,571 9 Portuguese 11,506,680 10 Polish 8,810,420 11 Arabic 7,333,102 12 Persian 5,672,829 13 Indonesian 5,385,401 14 Dutch 4,935,611 15 Turkish 3,382,454 See also [edit] Linguistics portal Internet portal References [edit]
4519	dbpedia	0	23	https://forum.wordreference.com/threads/two-bit-culture.1783901/	en	two-bit culture	https://forum.wordrefere…icon_200x200.png	https://forum.wordrefere…icon_200x200.png	[ "https://cdnawsf.wordreference.net/WR/WR52x32.png", "https://cdnawsf.wordreference.net/WR/WR52x32.png", "https://cdnawsf.wordreference.net/data/avatars/m/22/22367.jpg?1431197378", "https://forum.wordreference.com/WR/smilies/emoji_u1f44d_thumbs_up_32.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	2010-04-27T11:58:11+02:00	There's a book, Two-Bit Culture, but I can't find what it's about. I'm actually looking for a phrase to mean "worthless culture," something that didn't...	en	https://cdnawsf.wordrefe…rome-192x192.png	WordReference Forums	https://forum.wordreference.com/threads/two-bit-culture.1783901/	There's a book, Two-Bit Culture, but I can't find what it's about. I'm actually looking for a phrase to mean "worthless culture," something that didn't take years and effort and interest to build, but was made up from quick references gathered from the Internet, and so forth. In Romanian we have this "2-coin [something]" phrase which says the above. Are there any similar phrases in English? Also, what would be some other phrases which would mean "this person possesses worthless culture" (I know it doesn't sound right in English). Thanks! Once upon a time, Spanish dollars, the forerunner of American dollars, were cut into eight pieces. These pieces were called "bits" Two bits = 25c. Two-bit is a common US expression meaning cheap, insignificant, mediocre, inferior. A two-bit thief, a two-bit cigar, a two-bit whore, two-bit culture. You will occasionally see four-bit and six-bit in old texts. There was a song years ago which mentioned a "four-bit room" = a room costing 50c.
4519	dbpedia	3	21	https://medium.com/bits-and-behavior/wordplay-accessible-language-inclusive-interactive-typography-e4b9027eaf10	en	Wordplay: an accessible, language-inclusive programming language for all	https://miro.medium.com/…x2iktw_ZN56A.png	https://miro.medium.com/…x2iktw_ZN56A.png	[ "https://miro.medium.com/v2/resize:fill:64:64/1dmbNkD5D-u45r44go_cf0g.png", "https://miro.medium.com/v2/resize:fill:88:88/1SA5nKbPKoA3K3RZcBVhmLg.jpeg", "https://miro.medium.com/v2/resize:fill:48:48/1lPa-dvYP2R56ICg0mdeHfw.png", "https://miro.medium.com/v2/resize:fill:144:144/1SA5nKbPKoA3K3RZcBVhmLg.jpeg", "https://miro.medium.com/v2/resize:fill:64:64/1*lPa-dvYP2R56ICg0mdeHfw.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Amy J. Ko", "amyjko.medium.com" ]	2023-10-31T14:57:51.745000+00:00	TLDR: I’m proud to announce public beta of Wordplay, a new educational programming language for making plaful interactive typography (and many other things!) with code and data. We made it for the…	en	https://miro.medium.com/v2/5d8de952517e8160e40ef9841c781cdc14a5db313057fa3c3de41c6f5b494b19	Medium	https://medium.com/bits-and-behavior/wordplay-accessible-language-inclusive-interactive-typography-e4b9027eaf10	I’ve always had trouble claiming the identity “computer scientist”. There are of course the linguistic issues with the phrase; most computer scientists don’t really do science, they do engineering. And most of them aren’t really concerned with computers in the material sense, but the abstract sense. The German computer science “informatik” is also kind of strange, because most computer scientists don’t really care that much about information itself, but rather, processing it with algorithms, and storing it with data structures. And yet, most of what has captivated me since I was an adolescent was the same stuff most computer scientists are captivated by. I have always been fascinated by the ability to give a machine instructions, and then have it do them, reliably, quickly, and sometimes, magically. I know the feeling of finally getting a program right, and in particular, knowing why it’s right, especially after hours, days, weeks, or months of struggle. If a computer scientist is a person that chases that particular kind of logical triumph, than I am a computer scientist. But not all of that struggle is necessary, or good. And that’s generally where I part with the culture of computer science. So much of computer science as a discipline and a community glamorizes extraneous complexity — the “power” of having to spend hundreds of hours troubleshooting a Linux kernel to check your email reliably, the “hardcore” of memorizing hundreds of vi or emacs commands for that extra bit of editing speed, that “unifying” abstraction that explains everything, while also making everything unexplainable. The joys that some find in the “wizardry” of CS I generally find tedious. I’m here for what we make and what it means, not how we make it. That simplicity aesthetic is was what drove me to human-computer interaction research, and what led to much of my work over the past 25 years to try to strip away all of the inessential work in programming. With many students and collaborators, I’ve invented a debugger that can be asked why questions, editors that were more than text, compilers that are nice to you, programming tutors that slowed down to explain things, curricula that slowed down to teach reading, ways of writing problem solving plans. Each of these ideas was fundamentally about taking the parts of programming languages, tools, and skills, and reducing them down to their core difficulties, and then building them back up with better scaffolding. While I gave my attention to tools and thought, however, I blithely ignored some of the most significant parts of human experience: culture and bodies. In culture, I overlooked language, meaning, and purpose. My English-speaking, western-minded, capitalist upbringing hid the world’s diversity from me. I learned what is obvious to the non-U.S. world: that 85% of the world does read English, that this dominant group speaks thousands of different languages, and have countless reasons for trying to learn to code, or for never having heard of it. It took me traveling the world as a researcher for two decades for me to realize the obviously rich cultural tapestry on our planet, and how much it is ignored and erased in the design of programming languages, tools, documentation, and communities. In bodies, I overlooked ability, disability, perception, movement, and how our relationship to the world through our bodies can shape our experiences and interests, with code and everything else. Over the past two decades, I learned ~15% of the world is disabled in some way, and that I will likely be disabled some day (and very much am when I take my extreme prescription glasses off). And I learned that this diversity in our abilities are also ignored and erased in programming languages, tools, documentation, and communities, creating a world of computing that is often nearly or completely inaccessible. In hindsight, I wondered how such a small, privileged group of Western, mostly white people managed to shape so much of computing, and through computing, so much of our modern world. And then I realized, thanks to the wonderfully rich community of social scientists in my Information School, that this was no accident. These are the intents of settler colonialism: power, domination, replacement. The white, Western, non-disabled world saw how computing might be a tool for capture, and built it up in its image, erecting walls that most could not climb. And they were rewarded immensely for doing so, at the expense of non-English speakers, people with disabilities, and their many intersections. As I approached my 2022–23 sabbatical, I did not want to be part of this project any longer. But I struggled with what to do, if not colonize. I am not a white, straight, cis, Western man; but I do hold privilege, as a sometimes white-passing Western woman. I am not a capitalist; but I am a powerful tenured professor at one of the world’s great universities, with knowledge and opportunity. I am not disabled, nor an English learner; but as a trans and mixed race person whose childhood and ethnicities were victims of colonialism. And so while I did not come to these culture and ability gaps in programming as a savior, I did come as someone trying to imagine a different world, one in which all of our differences might be supported, celebrated, and empowered in computing. I wanted to know what that world might look like, and decided to spend my sabbatical making one version of it. Of course, many have been engaged in this work already. My wonderful colleague Andy Stefik (UNLV), for example, has been exploring accessible programming language design with Quorum, understanding what makes code and tools more or less screen readable. The excellent Felienne Hermans (Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam) has been exploring multilingual programming language design with Hedy, understanding the entangled relationship between programming language and natural language syntax. And many before them, in and out of academic research, have explored more accessible editors, more lucid debuggers, more localized teaching. I am late to this party. But I wanted to help, particularly at the intersection of language and ability, where most have not tread. And with my training in human-computer interaction and experience in education research, I knew that the right way to help would be to engage with people who live the intersection of language and ability exclusion every day, and co-design something with them. I pondered how to start, and a phrase kept ringing in my mind, “nothing about us without us”, with its origins in early democracy in Poland, and then disability activism in South Africa, and then the disability rights movement in the United States. But I was not in a good place emotionally to do community work last year. I had just spent a grueling 6 years of tenure-track life doing administrative work and education reform advocacy, much of it during the heights of the global pandemic. I had just taken a much needed break from social media. And with a sabbatical starting, I examined what I needed most, and I knew in my heart that it was art, and not people. I needed time and space to rekindle my creative spirit, to make, and to do so freely, to follow my aesthetic and my values. And I knew that after doing that, I would revert back from artist to activist, grow a community of people who live at the intersection of language and ability exclusion, and collaborate with them to reinvision everything I got wrong. And so Wordplay was born as art. I wanted it to be an expression of my love of words, of puns, of programming, and irreverence. I wanted to work within the creative constraints of mundane standards like WCAG 2.1 accessibility standards, Unicode, and the new Noto font, to see what kind of beauty might be wrought out of them and their global, universal values. And I wanted it to be an opportunity to work through all of the ideas about programming that I had bouncing around in my head since the early 2000’s, but never really got to play with, distracted by publishing, PhDs, and promotions. And so I envisioned Wordplay not as something inherently new, but rather a pastiche of my aesthetics and others’. I wanted to synthesize many of the things that I’ve seen and learned over the past 25 years of scholarship about programming, accessibility, and natural language into something that was real and usable, but also embody some of the best ideas of decolonial visions of programming, but also some of the best ideas of programming language research as well. Here are some of the ideas on my palette: Symbols have the meanings we give them, but also the meaning we carry with us, and this is the seed of ambiguity Accessible editors require many modalities, and giving primacy to one always has inequitable consequences Understanding code ultimately requires manipulating time, but we usually forgo that in service of the Holy Scripture of Speed Learning is easier when feedback is immediate and teachers are encouraging, which is why conventional programming languages are so hard to learn As useful as it is, mutable state is source of most debugging difficulties; if only there were a way to make immutability easy Input over time is what makes programs interesting, but we rarely get to reason about either directly The question was how to weave those ideas together into a coherent whole, and do so in a way that was global and accessible. Here’s what I ended up with: A strongly typed pure functional programming language with type inference and two types of values: immutable ones and those that are reactive, representing streams of external inputs such as time, frequencies, amplitudes, gravity, mouse clicks, keyboard presses, pointer movements, text/speech input, and more. When reactive values change, programs change, and voila, interactivity. A syntax that is natural language free and global, with support for the world’s numerals, text delimiters, and every glyph in Unicode, including composite emojis, all correctly screen read in our editor (yet alas, not localized, because Unicode’s glyph descriptions are English only). Immutable data types such as Booleans, text, numbers, lists, sets, and maps, but also tables to support learning about tables and queries. And spins on primitives, such as 1) text that allow them to have multiple language tagged translations for selection at runtime, 2) rich text to support markup in comments but also rich text output, 3) and unit semantics on numbers, to allow for more precise type checking and integrations with the sciences. An hybrid code editor that can be used as blocks or text simultaneously, edited with a keyboard, a menu, drag and drop, and eventually speech and other inputs. Instantaneous time travel debugging to any pointing a program’s past or future evaluations, enabled by immutability and reactive values, which capture all of the inputs necessary for low-overhead replay. Bidirectional editing through a palette metaphor that allows for static manipulation of dynamic output, enabled by the replay afforded by time travel. An eclectic cast of characters, each a reserved symbol in the programming language with its own personality that conveys its semantics. A 20,000 word play about the co-dependent relationship between function ƒ, function evaluation (), and humanity, which teaches the core language concepts dramatically, with a healthy does of puns. This and the documentation constitute a kind of lore about the typographic characters in the world, their diverse personalities, and the language semantics associated with those personalities. Infrastructure for localizing the entire IDE, all the APIs, and all of its documentation, and programs written in the language into arbitrary languages, locales, and scripts. A new interactive typographic output paradigm consisting of a stage, groups, and phrases, supporting single styled poses, and sequences of styled poses, enabling animations and transitions. Everything above aims to be WCAG 2.1 compliant, enabling all functionality to be accessed via modern screen readers. Everything in a tidy zero-install web application package that works on screens big and small. All of this sounds as if it might be a big mess of ideas. And so I approached it with a particular context in mind, to keep me focused: the classrooms of culture and ability diverse young adolescents that I have often taught in summers as part of Upward Bound. I wanted to make something that these wonderful 13-15 year olds — who come from all over the world as immigrants, refugees, or gentrification outcasts, speak all kinds of languages, have all kinds of ability and neurodiversity, and have all kinds of interests — that they would make fun of and fun with. Dancing poop emojis, uncivil interactive poetry, silly mashups of lyrics and inside jokes, unwinnable games. I want the computing in Wordplay to be so visible, but also so lucid, that youth could begin to see computation not as something to fear, but as a magic dust sprinkled atop their expressions to bring it life. But I also made Wordplay for these students’ teachers: the secondary/middle learning facilitators who see computing like writing, a medium in which to learn and explore other ideas, in language arts, social studies, and perhaps science and mathematics. And computer science, if such classrooms can ever escape from their capitalist treadmill rhetoric. I want it to eventually be a platform in which teachers can orchestrate culturally responsive learning through language and expression. And I’m excited about collaborating with teachers to build it out to meet their orchestration needs. Because neither of those groups are likely to be my core readers of this blog, here’s a bit of why you might want to check Wordplay out anyway. If you’re a programming language researcher, see it as an exercise in functional reactive programming language and tool design (what would make OCaml this kind of fun?) If you’re an human-computer interaction researcher, see it as an exercise in interactive anthropomorphized medium for typographic expression (what can be said that couldn’t be said before?). If you’re a computing education researcher, see it as platform that strips away all of the extraneous cognitive load of the popular languages we reluctantly teach (what parts of programming are left that are intrinsically hard?). And if you’re a multilingual and/or disabled programmer, see it as a glimpse of what other more mainstream programming languages could be someday. (And share what’s still broken, and maybe help us localize in your language, if you are able). If you are a learner or teacher, there are many places you can start. The tutorial is a playful community allegory about a codependent relationship between functions and evaluations. You can look at our growing collection of examples in our galleries, which contain many examples curated by my growing local open source community, Wordplaypen. Or you could just go make a project and learn by doing with the integrated documentation. At some point, all three will probably be helpful. We have a Discord where you can post questions, offer feedback, and share your creations. You can find me there with my undergraduates answering questions. Finally, this is a beta. Did I mention that this is a beta? Because it’s a beta. That means that it definitely has bugs, localizations aren’t complete, and the design of the programming language and platform is not necessarily final. We might lose your data, and the language might change, breaking your projects. I’ve spent the past month growing a community of more than 60 undergraduate open source contributors who are helping design, build, verify, curate, localize, manage, and more, and so we’re eager to hear and work on your feedback, and work towards a stable 1.0. And if you have any of these skills, join us a contributor. And if you don’t, but believe in our mission, consider donating. We’ll use the money you give to compensate all of the undergraduates currently contributing their volunteer labor for course credit, particularly those with disabilities, who are so often excluded in computing. And what comes next? Community. It’s time to return to the commit I made before, and shift this from a personal art project to something not only informed by multilingual learners with disabilities, but led by them. I’m actively fundraising to support this work, and hope to explore all kinds of new power structures that place multimarginalized learners at the center of the project’s strategic plans and design goals. It’s time we figured out how to decolonize not only programming languages themselves, but how we manage their design and evolution over time. On the other end of this 16 month art project, I’ve been pondering whether what this project means. I know what it means to me: it’s been cathartic to make something primarily as art, and as an expression of what computer science means to me. But now, as I give this art to the world as a starting point for greater things, I want to know what it means to others, and help it grow into something that is theirs. I hope you’ll join us in growing a platform that makes space in computing for everyone!
4519	dbpedia	1	14	https://www.uopeople.edu/blog/why-is-language-important/	en	Why Is Language Important? Your Guide To The Spoken Word	https://www.uopeople.edu…-Spoken-Word.jpg	https://www.uopeople.edu…-Spoken-Word.jpg	[ "https://www.uopeople.edu/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/logo-uop.webp", "https://www.uopeople.edu/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/uop-icon-purple.webp", "https://www.uopeople.edu/wp-content/uploads/bb-plugin/cache/Why-Is-Language-Important-Your-Guide-To-The-Spoken-Word-landscape-4570e05817443f13c1256f56c13e3e23-n5mwvo4a7kez.jpg", "https://www.uopeople.edu/wp-content/plugins/bb-plugin/img/pixel.png", "https://www.uopeople.edu/wp-content/plugins/bb-plugin/img/pixel.png", "https://www.uopeople.edu/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/adult-1822449_1920-1-e1591694249651.jpg", "https://www.uopeople.edu/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/adult-1822449_1920-1-e1591694249651.jpg", "https://www.uopeople.edu/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/read-1710011_1920-1-e1591694278137.jpg", "https://www.uopeople.edu/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/read-1710011_1920-1-e1591694278137.jpg", "https://www.uopeople.edu/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/uop-icon-purple.webp", "https://www.uopeople.edu/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/Soft-vs-hard-computing-article-1-550x385.jpg", "https://www.uopeople.edu/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/Soft-vs-hard-computing-article-1-550x385.jpg", "https://www.uopeople.edu/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/How-to-Network-on-Social-Media-Even-if-Youre-Still-a-Student-big-550x385.jpg", "https://www.uopeople.edu/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/How-to-Network-on-Social-Media-Even-if-Youre-Still-a-Student-big-550x385.jpg", "https://www.uopeople.edu/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/How-These-5-Incredibly-Successful-Women-550x385.jpg", "https://www.uopeople.edu/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/How-These-5-Incredibly-Successful-Women-550x385.jpg", "https://www.uopeople.edu/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/desktop-shape-cta-left-1.svg", "https://www.uopeople.edu/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/desktop-shape-cta-left-1.svg", "https://www.uopeople.edu/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/desktop-shape-cta-right-1.svg", "https://www.uopeople.edu/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/desktop-shape-cta-right-1.svg", "https://www.uopeople.edu/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/mobile-shape-cta-left-top-1.svg", "https://www.uopeople.edu/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/mobile-shape-cta-left-top-1.svg", "https://www.uopeople.edu/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/mobile-shape-cta-right-bottom-1-1.svg", "https://www.uopeople.edu/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/mobile-shape-cta-right-bottom-1-1.svg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Writers of UoPeople", "www.facebook.com" ]	2020-06-09T09:18:42+00:00	Understand the importance of language in human connection. Effective communication builds bridges, breaks barriers, and shapes our world.	en	https://www.uopeople.edu…con-150x150.webp	University of the People	https://www.uopeople.edu/blog/why-is-language-important/	Language is a vital part of human connection. Although all species have their ways of communicating, humans are the only ones that have mastered cognitive language communication. Language allows us to share our ideas, thoughts, and feelings with others. It has the power to build societies, but also tear them down. It may seem obvious, but if you’re asking yourself, why is language important? You’ll have to break it down to truly understand why. How Does Language Affect Different Aspects of our Lives? Language is what makes us human. It is how people communicate. By learning a language, it means you have mastered a complex system of words, structure, and grammar to effectively communicate with others. To most people, language comes naturally. We learn how to communicate even before we can talk and as we grow older, we find ways to manipulate language to truly convey what we want to say with words and complex sentences. Of course, not all communication is through language, but mastering a language certainly helps speed up the process. This is one of the many reasons why language is important. Language Is Important To Culture And Society Language helps us express our feelings and thoughts — this is unique to our species because it is a way to express unique ideas and customs within different cultures and societies. By learning a foreign language, you can understand ideas and thoughts that may be different from your own culture. You can learn customs and how people interact in a given society. Language helps preserve cultures, but it also allows us to learn about others and spread ideas quickly. Language Is Important To Business The importance of language in business is unmatched. Without language here, we can’t share ideas and grow them into something more. Whether this means learning a foreign language so you can share ideas with people who come from a different country, or simply learning how to use language to master an interview, demand presence in a room, or network with others, language is vital. Language Is Important For Individuals And Development Humans all learn to talk at slightly different times, and observing when a child starts to use language can be indicative of how well they are developing. But this does not just apply to babies. It also applies to young children learning a second language in school that’s different than the language they speak at home, adults learning a second language, or even those who may have lost language due to some type of accident, and are working on regaining it. Language Is Important For Personal Communication Though much of human communication is non-verbal (we can demonstrate our thoughts, feelings and ideas by our gestures, expressions, tones, and emotions) language is important for personal communication. Whether it’s being able to talk to your friends, your partner, or your family, having a shared language is necessary for these types of interactions. Image by Sasin Tipchai from Pixabay The Basic Functions Of Language The main function of language is the use of language. It gives us the ability to communicate thoughts, ideas, and feelings with others as quickly as possible. But, within that, we can understand language more by looking at its basic functions. 1. Informative Function The informative function of language is when we use language to communicate any information. Essentially, its function is to inform others by being able to state facts clearly. 2. Expressive Function Another basic function of language is the expressive function. As it sounds, it is used to express oneself by giving us ways to convey our feelings, emotions, and attitudes to another person (or ourselves). 3. Directive Function The directive function of language is a basic function that helps us to direct or command. For example, it gives us the ability to tell ourselves or someone else what to do in any given situation. Different Types Of Language Language comes in various forms, each playing a role in how we communicate. Oral Vs. Written Language In general, oral communication is spoken language meant for conversing with others. Written language is about expressing ideas through writing words down. Oral communication is usually more informal and faster, while written language is more formal and slow. Denotative Meaning Vs. Connotative Meaning Words have a lot of meaning to them, and the meaning depends on the context surrounding the word. This is why there is denotative meaning and connotative meaning. Denotative meaning is the literal definition/intention of the word, whereas connotative meaning is when words carry positive or negative meanings/connotations. An example of this could be “home” versus “house.” “House” is denotative, being the literal term for this type of structure where someone may live, whereas “home” is connotative and represents a shelter, family, security, etc. Understanding the difference can help you understand the intention of language. Six Elements Of Language There are six elements of language: Clarity: Using language in a way that ensures the intended audience fully understands your ideas; that your ideas are clear. Economy: Being ‘economic’ about how you speak by avoiding any unnecessary language. This means using only the necessary and appropriate words to express yourself while avoiding using language your audience won’t understand. Essentially, this means avoiding fluff or complicated vocabulary. Obscenity: This refers to ‘indecent language’, including, but not limited to, curse words and hateful remarks. Obscure Language/Jargon: This is very specific language that your audience will not understand because they are not familiar with what you are talking about. This could be when your car mechanic explains to you what’s wrong with your car, but you are not a car mechanic, so you are unclear of what they’re talking about. Power: This is when someone uses language to exert power over someone to manipulate them, command them, or to get them to do something they want. It could also be to demonstrate yourself as an authority in the room. Variety: This is a speaker’s ability to use a combination of all the different types of language aforementioned to successfully and creatively get ideas across. Image by Aline Dassel from Pixabay Different Language Styles Within language, there are many different styles to fit what the speaker wants to communicate. While some are unique to a person’s personality, some speakers may adapt certain styles depending on the situation, even if it’s different from how they normally speak. 1. Direct And Indirect Styles Direct is a way to use language to indicate to a person exactly what you want to say and/or how you’re feeling. Indirect language means using other words or types of communication to demonstrate you may be feeling a certain way, but without directly saying why or what, in other words, being indirect. If you’ve ever been in an argument with a significant other, you probably have experienced both of these language styles. 2. Personal And Contextual Styles These two language styles are a bit more complex. In general, personal style refers to an individual’s personal way of speaking, is informal, and focuses on that individual. Contextual styles means changing language depending on the context of a situation. For instance, a professor may use their personal style of speaking with friends and colleagues, and a contextual style when lecturing their students. 3. Untranslatable Words Untranslatable words are words or phrases that we have to adapt from other languages because we do not have a word that means the same thing in our own language. A good example is how we say “Bon Appetit!”, because we don’t have a good translation. Using Language Effectively Language has so many benefits to humans, but it can also be problematic if language is used ineffectively. This is why it’s important to be mindful of how you are using language in any situation. 1. Use Appropriate Language Using appropriate language does not just mean avoiding obscene language (there may be times when that is actually appropriate for the situation!). It means using language that’s appropriate for your audience, that they can understand, relate to, and engage with. 2. Use Vivid Language To use vivid language is to use imagery in your language, to describe something as vividly as possible. It may mean using more adjectives or onomatopoeia to illustrate what you’re saying. 3. Use Inclusive Language Inclusive language means using language that does not exclude any person. For instance, instead of using “he or she” to address an audience, the correct term is “they” to include people who may not identify with a particular gender. It also means avoiding any language that is racist, sexist, misogynist, hateful, presumptuous, prejudiced, etc. Conclusion Language connects us and helps us express ourselves. It influences culture, society, business, and personal growth. The six main elements of language each play a role in communication. Body language and listening skills are also key to effective interaction. As society evolves, so does language, reflecting new ways of thinking and interacting. Keep learning and adapting to stay connected and communicate effectively.
4519	dbpedia	0	19	https://idioms.thefreedictionary.com/two%2Bbits	en	two+bits	http://img.tfd.com/TFDlogo1200x1200.png	http://img.tfd.com/TFDlogo1200x1200.png	[]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	Definition of two+bits in the Idioms Dictionary. two+bits phrase. What does two+bits expression mean? Definitions by the largest Idiom Dictionary.		https://img.tfd.com/favicon.ico	TheFreeDictionary.com	null
4519	dbpedia	2	77	https://ellevationeducation.com/blog/teaching-comprehensible-input-definition-examples	en	Teaching with Comprehensible Input: Definition & Examples	https://ellevationeducat…ible_Input_1.png	https://ellevationeducat…ible_Input_1.png	[ "https://ellevationeducation.com/sites/all/themes/ellevation_zen/logo-2022.png", "https://ellevationeducation.com/sites/default/files/styles/teaser-image/public/photo/blog/Highest%20Aspirations%20Season%208%20%2817%29.png?itok=DHaAJngO", "https://ellevationeducation.com/sites/default/files/styles/teaser-image/public/photo/blog/HA%20Season%2010%20TwitterBlog%20%2819%29.png?itok=_6kJ_xi3", "https://ellevationeducation.com/sites/default/files/styles/teaser-image/public/photo/blog/What%20is%20a%20formative%20assessment%20%281%29.png?itok=RRTuGUsU", "https://ellevationeducation.com/sites/default/files/styles/teaser-image/public/photo/blog/PD%20that%20increases%20engagement%20and%20improves%20outcomes%20for%20ELs.png?itok=g6tDoAae" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	2015-06-24T12:52:00-04:00	See how you can increase progress of English Language Learners (ELLs) with comprehensible input. Complete with background and classroom techniques.	en	https://ellevationeducation.com/sites/all/themes/ellevation_zen/favicon.ico	Ellevation: ML Program Management Tools for K-12	https://ellevationeducation.com/blog/teaching-comprehensible-input-definition-examples	The term comprehensible input can seem a bit complex and even intimidating, but a working knowledge of the concept can be transformative for educators working with English language learners (ELLs). What is comprehensible input? Comprehensible input is an instructional technique in which teachers provide input that allows EL students to understand most, but not necessarily all, of the language. The concept comes from American linguist, education researcher, and activist Dr. Stephen Krashen. In his Theory of Second Language Acquisition, he states that students are able to acquire new language when instruction is delivered in language just beyond students’ current level of proficiency. Comprehensible input is simply an instructional shift when teachers provide input where students understand most, but not all, of the language. Think of Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development - you want to make sure you’re not teaching in language that may be out of reach, but rather using language that’s just beyond current understandings. In order to make this instructional shift, with this strategy you must first understand your students’ current proficiency levels. (WIDA’s Can-Do Descriptors are an invaluable tool for understanding what students can do and express in English.) Then you need to understand the proficiency levels your students are working toward. Delivering comprehensible input is a lot like scaffolding except you aren’t just focusing on content knowledge, but also language proficiency in the domains of reading, writing, speaking and listening. There are some unique considerations for language learners to ensure content and language input is comprehensible. Let’s go back to understanding current levels of language proficiency. If you are an Ellevation district using Strategies, you will be able access your students’ most recent language proficiency scores along with successive descriptors that indicate when they have advanced to the next proficiency level. If you are not using Strategies, you can ask your ESL/ELL specialist for that information and use the WIDA Can Do charts to think about supporting students to the next level. Now let’s dig a little deeper on the areas of language you can modify during instruction Adapted Speech - Use less complex vocabulary whenever possible, limit your use of idioms and avoid run on sentences. Enunciating your words and slowing down your rate of speech will help the language learners, and probably other students, in your class tremendously. Visual and Graphic Supports - Any time you are able to show a photo, video clip, or use a graphic organizer, you should! Using only the listening domain to receive content is not only cognitively demanding, but it’s also less effective. Visual support will increase comprehension and overall learning. Objective-Driven and Chunked Instruction - Like anything in life, it’s easy to follow along if you know where you are going. Make use of this practice by posting a content and learning objective before the lesson, and referring to it often during instruction. You will also increase your students’ ability to digest the language and content if you give them time. If you break your ‘direct instruction’ or ‘lecturing’ time to no more than 10 minutes for older students and 5 minutes for younger students, you maximize their learning.
4519	dbpedia	1	22	https://mycll.org/for-parents-and-teachers/language/	en	Center for Development and Learning	https://www.cdl.org/wp-c…ons_19_v4-02.png	https://www.cdl.org/wp-c…ons_19_v4-02.png	[ "https://www.facebook.com/tr?id= 491044287948765&ev=PageView&noscript=1", "https://mycll.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/cropped-CLL-Logo-RGB-for-Web-FINAL.png", "https://www.cdl.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/cdl_website_icons_19_v4-02.png", "https://www.cdl.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/Language-1024x682.jpg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	2019-11-14T22:29:13+00:00	Language is a cognitive process by which we communicate our thoughts and feelings to others. Read more about our language resources here.	en	https://mycll.org/wp-con…80x180-32x32.jpg	The Center for Literacy & Learning	https://mycll.org/for-parents-and-teachers/language/	Overview Language is a cognitive process by which we communicate our thoughts and feelings to others. When we think of language and school, most of us think about reading. But language skills encompass more than reading. We talk, we listen, we read, and we write with words. Language skills, then, include reading, writing, listening, and speaking. Reading, writing, speaking and listening play crucial roles in school, and all four are interrelated and affect one another. There is a fundamental and reciprocal relationship among oral language (listening and speaking), written language, and reading. Initially, reading and writing are dependent on oral language skills. Eventually, reading and writing extend oral language. Young children use oral language skills to learn how to read. Older children use reading to broaden their learning. Reading. Of the four language skills, reading has the greatest impact on school success. Substantial research in reading development and reading instruction has been funded by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) within the National Institutes of Health. Since 1965, well over 45,000 children and adults from all walks of life have participated in the research (Birsh, 2005). NICHD funded researchers have now defined how children learn to read, why some children have difficulties learning to read, how we can remediate reading difficulties, and how we can prevent reading difficulties. In 1997, in response to a congressional charge, the National Reading Panel (NRP) was created under the direction of the NICHD. The purpose of the NRP was to conduct an evidence-based assessment of the scientific research on reading and its implications for reading instruction. The panel examined over 100,000 research studies completed since 1966. The panel’s report, issued in 2000, stated that, in order to read, children must be taught alphabetics (phonemic awareness and phonics), reading fluency (speed, accuracy, expression, and ease), and reading comprehension. The findings of the NRP report on the five components of reading instruction are summarized as follows: Phoneme awareness –the ability to attend to, think about and work with the individual sounds in words Phonics – the relationship between the sounds and written symbols of language or phoneme-grapheme correspondence Fluency – the ability to read text quickly and accurately Vocabulary – the ability to understand the meanings of the words we use to communicate Comprehension – the ability to derive meaning from what is read, which is the reason for reading Poor instruction in phonemic awareness and phonics is the most common reason why students exhibit reading problems. The most common cause of reading problems other than poor instruction is dyslexia. While learning to read may be more difficult for children with dyslexia, students with dyslexia can learn to read when they are taught in a direct, sequential and cumulative fashion. Reading problems may also be caused by breakdowns in other components such as fluency, vocabulary, and/or text comprehension. Deficits in vocabulary and text comprehension are very often associated with oral language difficulties. Poor comprehension of text may be due to challenges with attention and/or memory. Because reading problems have various causes at their root, and because these various causes are treated in different ways, it is critical to specifically identify and address all of the underlying causes. Writing is the expressive mode of written language and involves using written symbols of language to communicate. Writing not only includes the ability to accurately represent the graphic form of speech (letters and words) but also the ability to develop and express one’s thoughts in a cohesive, structured manner. The skills required for effective writing include knowledge of spelling, capitalization, punctuation, and grammar, an understanding of how word order in sentences affects meaning, and the ability to distinguish main ideas from supporting ideas or details. Listening involves understanding what we hear. To listen effectively, one must be able to retain “chunks” of language in short-term and working memory, recognize and understand vocabulary, recognize the stress and rhythm patterns of speech and glean meaning from context. Speaking skills include the correct pronunciation of words, the appropriate use of vocabulary and grammar and the ability to recall words from long-term memory. The goal of speaking is to make our ideas and explanations clear and understandable to others. Effective speaking also involves the ability to use language within the social context. Children who struggle with language often perform poorly in school because they have trouble understanding what is said to them, what they read, and expressing their thoughts to others. Students with language processing problems should receive instruction or therapy by a qualified professional, as well as receiving accommodations and modifications in the school setting, if necessary, to assure school success.
4519	dbpedia	2	36	https://www.sevencorners.com/blog/travel-destinations/10-non-english-speaking-countries-where-locals-speaks-english	en	Non-English-Speaking Countries Where Locals Speak English	https://cdn.buttercms.com/oyEng7cASBeIZsl5Radu	https://cdn.buttercms.com/oyEng7cASBeIZsl5Radu	[]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	Even countries that don’t speak English often have locals eager to speak with you when you travel. Here are the best places to travel if you only speak English.	en	https://cdn.buttercms.com/2vb08ONKSjyZ22hJGnpM		https://www.sevencorners.com/blog/travel-destinations/10-non-english-speaking-countries-where-locals-speaks-english
4519	dbpedia	0	97	https://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/language/bit_field	en	cppreference.com			[ "https://en.cppreference.com/mwiki/skins/common/images/poweredby_mediawiki_88x31.png", "https://upload.cppreference.com/mwiki/images/2/2b/powered_by_geshi_88x31.png", "https://upload.cppreference.com/mwiki/images/9/94/powered_by_tigertech_88x31.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null		en	/favicon.ico		null	Declares a class data member with explicit size, in bits. Adjacent bit-field members may (or may not) be packed to share and straddle the individual bytes. A bit-field declaration is a class data member declaration which uses the following declarator: identifier (optional) attr (optional) : size (1) identifier (optional) attr (optional) : size brace-or-equal-initializer (2) (since C++20) The type of the bit-field is introduced by the decl-specifier-seq of the declaration syntax. attr - (since C++11) sequence of any number of attributes identifier - the name of the bit-field that is being declared. The name is optional: unnamed bit-fields introduce the specified number of padding bits. size - an integral constant expression with a value greater or equal to zero. When greater than zero, this is the number of bits that this bit-field will occupy. The value zero is only allowed for nameless bit-fields and has special meaning. brace-or-equal-initializer - default member initializer to be used with this bit-field Contents 1 Explanation 2 Notes 3 Defect reports 4 References 5 See also [edit] Explanation The type of a bit-field can only be integral or (possibly cv-qualified) enumeration type, an unnamed bit-field cannot be declared with a cv-qualified type. A bit-field cannot be a static data member. There are no bit-field prvalues: lvalue-to-rvalue conversion always produces an object of the underlying type of the bit-field. The number of bits in a bit-field sets the limit to the range of values it can hold: Multiple adjacent bit-fields are usually packed together (although this behavior is implementation-defined): The special unnamed bit-field of size zero can be forced to break up padding. It specifies that the next bit-field begins at the beginning of its allocation unit: If the specified size of the bit-field is greater than the size of its type, the value is limited by the type: a std::uint8_t b : 1000; would still hold values between 0 and 255. the extra bits are padding bits. Because bit-fields do not necessarily begin at the beginning of a byte, address of a bit-field cannot be taken. Pointers and non-const references to bit-fields are not possible. When initializing a const reference from a bit-field, a temporary is created (its type is the type of the bit-field), copy initialized with the value of the bit-field, and the reference is bound to that temporary. [edit] Notes The following properties of bit-fields are implementation-defined: The value that results from assigning or initializing a signed bit-field with a value out of range, or from incrementing a signed bit-field past its range. Everything about the actual allocation details of bit-fields within the class object. For example, on some platforms, bit-fields don't straddle bytes, on others they do. Also, on some platforms, bit-fields are packed left-to-right, on others right-to-left. In the C programming language, the width of a bit-field cannot exceed the width of the underlying type, and whether int bit-fields that are not explicitly signed or unsigned are signed or unsigned is implementation-defined. For example, int b:3; may have the range of values 0..7 or -4..3 in C, but only the latter choice is allowed in C++. [edit] Defect reports The following behavior-changing defect reports were applied retroactively to previously published C++ standards. DR Applied to Behavior as published Correct behavior CWG 324 C++98 it was unspecified whether the return value of an assignment to a bit-field is a bit-field added bit-field specifications for operators which may return lvalues CWG 739 C++98 signedness of bit-fields that are neither declared signed nor unsigned were implementation-defined consistent with underlying types CWG 2229 C++98 unnamed bit-fields could be declared with a cv-qualified type prohibited CWG 2511 C++98 cv-qualifications were not allowed in bit-field types bit-fields can have cv-qualified enumeration types [edit] References [edit] See also
4519	dbpedia	0	4	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bit_(money)	en	Bit (money)	https://en.wikipedia.org/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico	https://en.wikipedia.org/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico	[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png", "https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg", "https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Banco_de_alabama.jpg/220px-Banco_de_alabama.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Stamp_Danish_West_Indies_1905_20b.jpg/220px-Stamp_Danish_West_Indies_1905_20b.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/GeorgeVI_Sixpence_1946.jpg/250px-GeorgeVI_Sixpence_1946.jpg", "https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1", "https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg", "https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/footer/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Contributors to Wikimedia projects" ]	2004-03-05T18:28:25+00:00		en	/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png		https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bit_(money)	Former currency unit This article is about the slang term for certain coins. For the digital currency, see Bitcoin. For other uses of the term "Two bits", see Two bits. The word bit is a colloquial expression referring to specific coins in various coinages throughout the world. In the US, the bit is equal to 12+1⁄2¢, a designation which dates from the colonial period, when the most common unit of currency used was the Spanish dollar, also known as "piece of eight", which was worth 8 Spanish silver reales. $1⁄8 or 1 silver real was 1 "bit". With the adoption of the decimal U.S. currency in 1794, there was no longer a U.S. coin worth $1⁄8, but "two bits" remained in the language with the meaning of $1⁄4. Because there was no 1-bit coin, a dime (10¢) was sometimes called a short bit and 15¢ a long bit. (The picayune, which was originally 1⁄2 real or 1⁄2 bit ( 6+1⁄4¢), was similarly transferred to the US nickel.) In addition, Spanish coinage, like other foreign coins, continued to be widely used[1] and allowed as legal tender by Chapter XXII of the Act of April 10, 1806[2] until the Coinage Act of 1857 discontinued the practice. Robert Louis Stevenson describes his experience with bits in Across the Plains, (1892) p. 144:[3] In the Pacific States they have made a bolder push for complexity, and settle their affairs by a coin that no longer exists – the bit, or old Mexican real. The supposed value of the bit is twelve and a half cents, eight to the dollar. When it comes to two bits, the quarter-dollar stands for the required amount. But how about an odd bit? The nearest coin to it is a dime, which is, short by a fifth. That, then, is called a short bit. If you have one, you lay it triumphantly down, and save two and a half cents. But if you have not, and lay down a quarter, the bar-keeper or shopman calmly tenders you a dime by way of change; and thus you have paid what is called a long bit, and lost two and a half cents, or even, by comparison with a short bit, five cents. "Two bits" or "two bit" continues in general use as a colloquial expression, for 25¢, or a quarter dollar as in song and catchphrase "Shave and a Haircut, two bits." As an adjective, "two-bit" describes something cheap or unworthy. Roger Miller's song "King of the Road" features the lines: Ah, but two hours of pushin' broom buys an / Eight by twelve four-bit room referring to signs stating "Rooms to let, 50¢." In the early 1930s, Crown Records was a US record label which sold records for only 25¢. The company advertised on their sleeves, "2 Hits for 2 Bits." Another example of this use of "bit" can be found in the poem "Six-Bits Blues" by Langston Hughes, which includes the following couplet: Gimme six bits' worth o'ticket / On a train that runs somewhere.… The expression also survives in the sports cheer "Two bits, four bits, six bits, a dollar … all for (player's name), stand up and holler!" The New York Stock Exchange continued to list stock prices in $1⁄8 until June 24, 1997, at which time it started listing in $1⁄16. It did not fully implement decimal listing until January 29, 2001. From 1905 to 1917, the Danish West Indies used the bit as part of its currency system. In 1904, two new currency denominations were introduced: the bit and francs which were overlaid on the old cent and daler denominations. The four units were related as 5 bits = 1 cent, 100 bits = 20 cents = 1 franc, 100 cents = 5 francs = 1 daler.[4] Coins were issued each denominated in two units, bits and cents, francs and cents, or francs and daler. Postage stamps were denominated in bits and francs; the lowest value was five bits. In Britain, Ireland and parts of the former British Empire, where before decimalisation a British-style currency of "pounds, shillings and pence" was in use, the word "bit" was applied colloquially to any of a range of low-denomination coins.[5] Thus a threepence coin or "threepenny piece" was referred to as a "threepenny bit", usually pronounced "thrupny bit". The term was used only for coins with a value of several named units (e.g., three pence), and never applied to a penny, shilling, or half crown coin. Although earlier there had been other values in circulation such as the "fourpenny bit" or "groat", the "bit" coins still in use in the United Kingdom up to decimalisation in 1971 were the two-shilling bit (or "florin") (often "two-bob bit"), the sixpenny bit (or "tanner"), and the threepenny bit. In the UK, use of the term "bit" had already disappeared with the exception of the 'thruppeny bit', by the time British currency moved to decimal coinage and the consequential loss of the coin denominations to which it had applied. Thus a ten pence piece is referred to merely as "ten pence", or even "ten pee", not as a "tenpenny bit". The term 'pee' refers to the change in abbreviation of the British penny from 'd' to 'p' which denoted the 'New Penny'. The historic American adjective "two-bit" (to describe something worthless or insignificant) has a British equivalent in "tuppenny-ha'penny" – literally, worth two and a half (old) pence.
4519	dbpedia	0	78	https://nique.net/entertainment/2008/02/29/two-bits-4/	en	Technique	https://nique.net/wp-con…ed-128-32x32.png	https://nique.net/wp-con…ed-128-32x32.png	[ "https://nique.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/techniqueLogo-02-1.svg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Technique Staff" ]	2008-02-29T00:00:00	The best opportunities at Tech are those that involve getting at least a thousand miles away from campus dining halls. There are numerous possibilities to...	en	https://nique.net/wp-con…ed-128-32x32.png	Technique	https://nique.net/entertainment/2008/02/29/two-bits-4/	The best opportunities at Tech are those that involve getting at least a thousand miles away from campus dining halls. There are numerous possibilities to go work or study abroad for a semester. For instance, a friend of mine recently got an internship in Kazakhstan. I didn’t even know Kazakhstan was a real country; I thought it was just made up for the Borat movie. After working for one week, he is now the Vice President of Kazakhstan. He will be staying there for the next six months (or until the government disbands, whichever comes first). In addition to better food and exposure to a different culture, going abroad allows you to meet more women; and foreign chicks will believe anything you tell them. If anyone from France asks, I am the archduke of Wyoming. The only downside to going abroad is the overseas flight needed to get there. On a recent trip to Europe, I found out that travel conditions haven’t improved since my great-great-grandfather first crossed the Atlantic in steerage. To start off, on a plane filled with Nordic goddesses for stewardesses, my section was served by the only male attendant on the flight. My flight attendant gave me my first exposure to a foreign language when he addressed me in German instead of English. After that, I was too afraid to ask him for anything the entire flight because even the most effeminate gay male sounds threatening when speaking in German. At least he gave me three hot towels—that’s two more than normal, which shows you that it always pays to flirt with the flight attendant, no matter the gender. Though I never understood why airlines give out hot towels in the first place, or why they serve them with tongs. Are we supposed to eat the towels? On long flights you’re not supposed to sit still the entire time. Doctors advise you to get up and walk down the aisles to prevent deep vein thrombosis, which leads to all sorts of nasty complications like heart attacks, strokes and the desire to jabber nonstop about your wedding plans to your friend despite the fact that I’m trying to get some sleep. I use the doctors’ orders as an excuse to walk up to the first class section and release any gases I’m holding in my intestines. During previous flights, I have never gotten stuck next to obnoxious small children, nor placed by an attractive female trying to get her mile high club membership, so I considered this a draw in terms of seating arrangements. My flight to Europe wasn’t so lucky. I now know for a fact that there is a devil because his three children sat in the row behind me. They amused themselves by playing games like “who can kick the seat ahead of him the hardest” and “how long can I scream before the passenger in front of me turns around and shoves a hot towel in my mouth.” It’s moments like this that you realize how regrettable it is that human beings are not a species that eat their young. When they started screaming, no parents on the flight claimed them. The little monsters were probably dropped off at the airport and put on a one-way flight to Lithuania. Europeans don’t hate American because of our foreign policy; it’s because they have to put up with our children on international fights home. I saw a woman crate a puppy for the flight; why can’t we do the same to human toddlers? Okay, maybe my frustration has broken my sense of rationality, and I’m starting to take things too far; we can just chuck ’em out once we hit cruising altitude. A century ago, people would have been ecstatic to be able to soar above the clouds, but I’m so used to airplane travel that I don’t care about the miracle of flight anymore. I just want to spend my time watching year-old movies and sleeping, which is why I always ask the guy in the window seat to pull down the blind. I don’t care if volcanoes are erupting through a rainbow illuminated by the northern lights. Close the window shade. You’re letting light in, and I’m trying to watch Shrek 3. On my flight back from Europe I was trapped next to a foreigner who refused to put the window blind down so I turned to him and said, “It doesn’t matter if you’re a refugee fleeing to the United States and trying to get the last glimpse of your homeland you’ll ever see, if you don’t pull down the shade right now I’ll have you locked up in Abu Ghraib. Yes, I do have that authority; I’m the archduke of Wyoming.”
4519	dbpedia	1	34	https://www.languagetesting.com/language-testing-and-assessment	en	What is a Language Proficiency Test & How to Get Certified	https://www.languagetest…ault/favicon.gif	https://www.languagetest…ault/favicon.gif	[ "https://www.languagetesting.com/static/version1721534592/frontend/LTI/LanguageTesting/en_US/Lti_LtiCore/images/language-testing-international-logo.webp", "https://www.languagetesting.com/static/version1721534592/frontend/LTI/LanguageTesting/en_US/Lti_LtiCore/images/AAPPL_Logo_2020.webp", "https://www.languagetesting.com/static/version1721534592/frontend/LTI/LanguageTesting/en_US/Lti_LtiCore/images/AAPPL_Logo_2020.webp", "https://www.languagetesting.com/pub/media/wysiwyg/Commercial_Mantle.jpg", "https://www.languagetesting.com/pub/media/wysiwyg/graphic-link-infographic3.png", "https://www.languagetesting.com/pub/media/wysiwyg/01-Forms-of-Language-Assessment.png", "https://www.languagetesting.com/pub/media/wysiwyg/02-Forms-of-Language-Testing.png", "https://www.languagetesting.com/pub/media/wysiwyg/03-Types-of-Language-Skills.png", "https://www.languagetesting.com/pub/media/wysiwyg/04-Language-Proficiency-Tests.png", "https://www.languagetesting.com/pub/media/wysiwyg/Why_offering_multilingual_services_makes_sense.jpg", "https://www.languagetesting.com/pub/media/wysiwyg/05-Contact-Language-Testing-International.png", "https://www.languagetesting.com/pub/media/wysiwyg/LTi-facebook-white.png", "https://www.languagetesting.com/pub/media/wysiwyg/LTi-linked-in-white.png", "https://www.languagetesting.com/pub/media/wysiwyg/LTi-twitter-white.png", "https://www.languagetesting.com/pub/media/wysiwyg/LTi-rss-white.png", "https://www.languagetesting.com/static/version1721534592/frontend/LTI/LanguageTesting/en_US/Lti_LtiCore/images/loader-1.gif" ]	[]	[]	[ "Magento", "Varien", "E-commerce" ]	null	[]	null	As the exclusive test producer for ACTFL, LTI has been producing tests that maintain stringent levels of rigor and validity required for over two decades.	en	https://www.languagetest…ault/favicon.gif		null	Forms of Language Assessment Measuring language proficiency is a complex process that necessitates the use of valid and reliable language testing tools. Language assessments take various forms depending on the skill or proficiency level being tested. In this post, we'll describe and define different types of language testing so you can better understand the ways you, your students, or your employees can accurately measure their language proficiency. What Is Language Testing? Language testing is a broad category of testing that assesses aspects of a person's ability to understand or communicate in a particular language. Language testing is used for a variety of purposes. In academic settings, language testing can assess a student's current abilities or progress for the purposes of academic placement. In professional settings, language testing can determine whether a candidate has the language skills needed for a job. Whatever the context, language assessments can effectively measure a person's language abilities. Forms of Language Testing There are five main types of language assessments — aptitude, diagnostic, placement, achievement, and proficiency tests. 1. Aptitude Tests Aptitude refers to a person's capacity for learning something. Language aptitude tests assess a person's ability to acquire new language skills. Because of the nature of these tests, they are more general than most other language tests and don't focus on a particular language. Instead, they assess how quickly and effectively a person is able to learn new language skills. An employer might use an aptitude test to select the best employees to take language courses so they can aid in the setup of a new international branch or provide bilingual customer service. 2. Diagnostic Tests Diagnostic tests are aimed at diagnosing the state of a person's abilities in a certain area — in this case, their language abilities. In contrast to achievement and proficiency tests, diagnostic tests are typically given at the start of a language learning course or program. On a diagnostic test, most test-takers encounter questions or tasks that are outside the scope of their abilities and the material they're familiar with. The results of the test reveal the strengths and weaknesses in one's language abilities. Having a student's diagnostic test results can help teachers formulate lesson plans that fill the gaps in the student's current capabilities. Students can also use diagnostic tests to determine which areas they need to work on in order to reach a higher level of proficiency. 3. Placement Tests Placement tests share some similarities with diagnostic tests. They are used for educational purposes and are administered before a course or program of study begins. In this case, the application is a bit different. Educators and administrators use placement tests to group language learners into classes or study groups according to their ability levels. A university may give a placement test to determine whether a new French major needs to take introductory French courses or skip over some courses and begin with more advanced classes. Placement tests are also an important type of test in English language teaching at the university level, since international students typically come in with different English-learning backgrounds and proficiency levels. 4. Achievement Tests An achievement test evaluates a student's language knowledge to show how their learning has progressed. Unlike diagnostic, aptitude, and placement tests, achievement tests only cover information the student should have been exposed to in their studies thus far. Achievement tests are typically given after a class completes a certain chapter or unit or at the conclusion of the course. A language teacher may give a final exam at the end of the semester to see how well a student has retained the information they were taught over the course of the semester. Achievement tests are typically graded and are meant to reflect how well the language tester is performing in their language learning studies. 5. Proficiency Tests Proficiency refers to a person's competency in using a particular skill. Language proficiency tests assess a person's practical language skills. Proficiency tests share some similarities with achievement tests, but rather than focusing on knowledge, proficiency tests focus on the practical application of that knowledge. Proficiency tests measure a language user’s comprehension and production against a rating scale such as the ACTFL, ILR, and CEFR scales. Whereas most of the tests we've looked at are primarily associated with academic contexts, proficiency tests are useful in a variety of settings. Anyone can take a language proficiency test, regardless of how they learned the language and where they believe they are in their level of competency. Proficiency tests accurately measure the candidate's ability to use a language in real-life contexts. Types of Language Skills Another way to understand language testing is in terms of language skills. Though you may ask someone whether they "know" a certain language, that general term consists of several distinct skills. The four skills involved in language proficiency are listening, speaking, reading, and writing. These skills can be categorized by their direction and method of communication. Listening and reading are both ways of receiving language input, whereas speaking and writing are both ways of producing language output. These pairs differ from each other when it comes to the direction of communication. The items within each pair, however, differ by their method of communication. Listening and speaking both involve oral communication while reading and writing involve written communication. Let's take a closer look at each of the four language skills. 1. Listening Listening skills in a particular language involve understanding oral communication. When people acquire their first language as babies, listening to their parents and others speaking around them is the initial step toward comprehension and listening ability. Some people also acquire a second language through immersion, with their listening skills developing earliest. 2. Speaking People often refer to speaking a language in a general way that encompasses multiple ways of using a language. For example, they may say they speak a certain language when a more accurate statement would be that they are able to communicate in it using all four of the communicative skills. Speaking is a specific skill, however, which, along with listening, is required to negotiate meaning in a conversation. Speaking requires communication in real time and may be one of the most challenging to develop yet most valuable of the four skills. 3. Reading Comprehension of oral language and written language are two very different skills. The reading skill involves understanding the meaning of written language. A person may be able to speak a language with a high level of proficiency but be completely unable to read it, while other may find it easier to read than speak since they can consume and process the language at their own pace. The degree of difficulty in learning to read in a second language partly depends on how similar or dissimilar the writing system is from that of a person's first language. For example, most European languages use the Latin alphabet, the world's most widely used alphabetic writing system, making letters appear similar on the page. Therefore, a native English speaker may be able to learn to read in Spanish relatively easily. However, a knowledge of the Latin alphabet won't help you understand Arabic script or Chinese characters. Reading tests can help you determine your proficiency in reading a language 4. Writing Writing comes with the same challenges involved in reading since writing systems vary across languages. Learning to write in a second language that uses a completely different system from the one you're familiar with can be especially challenging. Writing doesn't come as naturally as speech, even in acquiring our first language, so it can be a challenging skill for language learners. This is why students often take writing courses in their first language throughout their educational careers. Language Proficiency Tests ACTFL’s language proficiency tests are designed to assess a person's abilities in the four skills explained above. Some of the most well-respected tests for assessing the above skills include: Listening Proficiency Test: The Listening Proficiency Test (LPT) is an internet-based test that measures a person's ability to spontaneously understand spoken language in one of 11 languages available. The test-taker listens to recordings and must answer multiple-choice questions about what they hear. The results report the test-taker's level of proficiency in listening. Oral Proficiency Interview: The Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI) evaluates a person's speaking skill in a particular language. An ACTFL-Certified Tester speaks with the test-taker over the phone and gauges their proficiency level against the criteria outlined in one of the proficiency scales. The interview is a useful assessment tool because, though it follows a structure and protocol, it reflects a real-life conversation. Oral Proficiency Interview-computer: The Oral Proficiency Interview-computer (OPIc) evaluates a person's speaking skill in a particular language. The goal of the OPIc is the same as the OPI: to obtain a ratable sample of speech which a rater can evaluate and compare to the criteria outlined in one of the proficiency scales. The internet-delivered assessment emulates the "live" OPI, but delivery of questions is through a carefully designed program and via a virtual avatar, allowing the test to be taken on demand and at a time convenient to the candidate and proctor. Reading Proficiency Test: The Reading Proficiency Test (RPT) is an internet-based test during which the candidate reads passages in one of 12 languages and answers multiple-choice questions to demonstrate their reading comprehension in that language. Because of the format of the test, it is machine scored, so results are available immediately upon completion. Writing Proficiency Test: The Writing Proficiency Test (WPT) is another internet-based test. Rather than answering multiple-choice questions, the test-taker responds in detail to open ended writing prompts. ACTFL-Certified raters assess the candidate's written responses as compared to the guidelines established by one of the proficiency scales. This test is available in a variety of languages. Through each test, the candidate's results are reported according to one of the following scales to objectively measure proficiency: The ACTFL scale The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) scale The Interagency Language Roundtable (ILR) scale The Value of Language Testing Language testing is a valuable tool both in language-learning contexts and in professional ones. Language tests can define where a student is in their current knowledge and reveal the path forward to greater proficiency. Professionals can use language testing to determine whether their skill set meets the criteria of a job or whether they need further training. At the same time, employers can certify their employees’ and new hires’ levels of language proficiency and ensure that they are able to successfully complete the tasks required of them without creating risk for the organization. Language is complex and assessing it can be a complicated endeavor. Thankfully, experts have created tests that effectively assess a person's language skills. As an instructor, employer, student, or professional, all you have to do is take advantage of these tests to get a useful measure of language proficiency. Accredited ACTFL Language Assessments From Language Testing International (LTI) Since 1967, ACTFL has been a leader in language proficiency testing. ACTFL assessments are used in over 60 countries and test language ability in more than 120 languages. Language Testing International (LTI) is the exclusive licensee of ACTFL for the delivery of language assessments. Only ACTFL-certified testers and raters score the tests in order to ensure the reliability of test results. Because of LTI and ACTFL's shared reputation for quality testing and accurate results, many government agencies, academic institutions and major corporations recognize the ACTFL certifications obtainable through ACTFL testing as valid credentials for their students and professionals.
4519	dbpedia	3	56	https://childmind.org/article/should-i-teach-my-child-a-second-language-or-will-it-delay-her-language-development/	en	Should I teach my child a second language or will it delay her language development?	https://childmind.org/wp…mage-Final-2.jpg	https://childmind.org/wp…mage-Final-2.jpg	[ "https://childmind.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/Back-to-School-Fundraising-Campaign-CTA-400x400.jpg", "https://childmind.org/wp-content/uploads/Cortese_Raquel_424x424.jpg", "https://childmind.org/wp-content/uploads/HelpingToddlersExpandLanguageSkills-100x100.jpg", "https://childmind.org/wp-content/uploads/ELLRemoteLearning-100x100.jpg", "https://childmind.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/newsletter-4.png", "https://childmind.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/2024-Platinum-Transparency-Candid.jpg", "https://childmind.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/Four-Star-Rating-Badge-e1704216880143.png", "https://childmind.org/wp-content/uploads/GreatNonprofits.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Jessica Wakeman", "Rachel Cortese, MS, CCC-SLP" ]	2016-02-05T11:20:27+00:00	Yes, you should teach your child a second language if you can. Research overwhelmingly supports teaching second languages early, because as we know it's harder to learn a second language as we get older.	en	https://childmind.org/wp…2023-4-32x32.png	Child Mind Institute	https://childmind.org/article/should-i-teach-my-child-a-second-language-or-will-it-delay-her-language-development/	This is a great question that I get all the time from parents. Yes, you should teach your child a second language if you can. Research overwhelmingly supports teaching second languages early, because as we know it’s harder to learn a second language as we get older. But when kids are very young — from birth to about three years old — they are very ripe for receiving new information. Of course you can always learn a second language later, but it takes more time and becomes more challenging. It is true that kids might be confused a little bit at the beginning, when there are two different labels for things, or they need to use different languages to talk to different people. It can be normal for children learning more than one language to experience what’s known as “interference” — when the grammar and structure of one language influences the grammar of the other language they are learning, which leads to grammatical errors. This is not a language disorder, but a normal part of learning two languages. Children may also go through a silent period when acquiring a second language, which happens as they focus on listening to and comprehending the new language. This can last anywhere from a few weeks to a year, depending on the age of the child. These things sort themselves out. It can take five to seven years for a child to master academic language, even if they are proficient users of the second language in social situations and conversation. However, an advantage of knowing two languages is that bilingual kids are able to think a little more flexibly because they can switch between one language and the other — something called “code switching.” Finally, it is important for you to use the language you are most comfortable using when speaking to and interacting with your young child. If you are better at speaking Spanish or another language other than English, don’t be afraid to use it! When you communicate in the language you are most familiar with, you are giving your child the clearest and most salient language models to follow — you are providing your child with the linguistic framework and the concepts that will follow her in every language she speaks.
4519	dbpedia	1	18	https://www.oxford-royale.com/articles/learning-english-hard/	en	Why Is English So Hard to Learn?	https://www.oxford-royal…0/12/Postbox.jpg	https://www.oxford-royal…0/12/Postbox.jpg	[ "https://www.oxford-royale.com/cdn-cgi/image/width=14,height=14,fit=crop,quality=88,gravity=auto,sharpen=0.85,metadata=none,format=auto,onerror=redirect/wp-content/themes/ora2021/static/images/flags/gb.png", "https://www.oxford-royale.com/cdn-cgi/image/width=16,height=16,fit=crop,quality=88,gravity=auto,sharpen=0.85,metadata=none,format=auto,onerror=redirect/wp-content/themes/ora2021/static/images/flags/cn.png", "https://www.oxford-royale.com/cdn-cgi/image/width=16,height=16,fit=crop,quality=88,gravity=auto,sharpen=0.85,metadata=none,format=auto,onerror=redirect/wp-content/themes/ora2021/static/images/flags/cz.png", 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"https://www.oxford-royale.com/cdn-cgi/image/width=32,height=32,fit=crop,quality=88,gravity=auto,sharpen=0.85,metadata=none,format=auto,onerror=redirect/wp-content/themes/ora2021/static/images/social/youtube.svg", "https://www.oxford-royale.com/cdn-cgi/image/width=32,height=32,fit=crop,quality=88,gravity=auto,sharpen=0.85,metadata=none,format=auto,onerror=redirect/wp-content/themes/ora2021/static/images/social/linkedin.svg", "https://www.oxford-royale.com/cdn-cgi/image/width=16,height=16,fit=crop,quality=88,gravity=auto,sharpen=0.85,metadata=none,format=auto,onerror=redirect/wp-content/themes/ora2021/static/images/ui/icon-user-w.svg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Oxford Royale" ]	2020-09-11T00:00:00+00:00	%	en	https://www.oxford-royal…e-touch-icon.png	Oxford Royale	https://www.oxford-royale.com/articles/learning-english-hard/	It’s often said that English is one of the hardest languages to learn. Given the fact that many of the words we use in English stem from Latin and Ancient Greek words – in common with many other European languages – what is it about English that has attracted this reputation for being so fearsomely difficult? And is it really even that difficult when so many other countries adopt it as their second language and speak it a lot more fluently than we Brits speak other languages? We’ll leave you to make your own mind up… If you want to take your English to the next level, join us at Oxford Royale’s Learn English Programme on campus at our Oxford Summer School or Berkeley Summer School for a summer of turbocharging your English skills. It just makes no sense! One of the reasons why English is known for being difficult is because it’s full of contradictions. There are innumerable examples of conundrums such as: There is no ham in hamburger. Neither is there any apple nor pine in pineapple. If teachers taught, why didn’t preachers praught? If a vegetarian eats vegetables, what does a humanitarian eat? “Overlook” and “oversee” have opposite meanings, while “look” and “see” mean the same thing. As native speakers, we rarely stop to think how illogical many of the things we say really are – we’re just used to them. Unless you’ve been brought up speaking English, how can you possibly begin to learn all these oddities? It’s little wonder that people trying to learn English end up feeling confused. But it gets worse. Exceptions to rules One of the hardest things about English is that although there are rules, there are lots of exceptions to those rules – so just when you think you’ve got to grips with a rule, something comes along to shatter what you thought you knew by contradicting it. A good example is the rule for remembering whether a word is spelt “ie” or “ei”: “I before E except after C”. Thus “believe” and “receipt”. But this is English – it’s not as simple as that. What about “science”? Or “weird”? Or “seize”? There are loads of irregular verbs, too, such as “fought”, which is the past tense of “fight”, while the past tense of “light” is “lit”. So learning English isn’t just a question of learning the rules – it’s about learning the many exceptions to the rules. The numerous exceptions make it difficult to apply existing knowledge and use the same principle with a new word, so it’s harder to make quick progress. The order of the words Native English-speakers intuitively know what order to put words in, but this is hard to teach to those learning the language. The difference between the right and wrong order is so subtle that it’s hard to explain beyond simply saying that it “just sounds right”. For example, we often use more than one adjective to describe a noun, but which order should they go in? We would say “an interesting little book” not “a little interesting book”. Both are technically grammatically correct, but the first “just sounds right”. It’s a bit of a nightmare for those who are trying to learn, and it may prove one nuance too much. (In fact, there is some method to this particular English madness – but it’s quite involved, and beyond the scope of this article to explain it.) Pronunciation As if the spelling wasn’t hard enough, English pronunciation is the cause of much confusion among those trying to learn English. Some words are very low on vowels, such as the word “strengths”, which is hard to say when you’re not accustomed to English pronunciation. What’s more, words that end in the same combination of letters aren’t necessarily pronounced in the same way. Why is “trough” pronounced “troff”, “rough” pronounced “ruff”, “bough” pronounced “bow” (to rhyme with cow) and “through” pronounced “throo”? There are silent letters at the start of words, too. Why are there so many words that begin with a silent “K”, such as “knife”? Or even a silent “G”, such as “gnome”? If it’s not pronounced, what’s the point of including that letter in the first place, if it only adds to the confusion of both native speakers and learners? And don’t get us started on the number of hapless tourists who don’t know where to begin with pronouncing a town name such as “Worcester”. Sadly, many English learners have to learn the hard way when it comes to our confusing pronunciation; if you pronounce something incorrectly, most Brits will demonstrate the correct way to you – but not without a little chuckle at your expense. Emphasis To make matters even more complex, the way in which you emphasise certain words in a sentence can subtly change its meaning. For example, consider the different ways of emphasising the sentence below: – I sent him a letter – a plain statement. – I sent him a letter – used to imply that you sent him the letter – someone else didn’t send it (or “you didn’t send it, I did”). – I sent him a letter – this could imply “I sent him a letter, but I’m not sure he received it”. – I sent him a letter – used to imply that you sent him the letter – you didn’t send it to someone else (perhaps even “you weren’t meant to read it”). – I sent him a letter – you sent him a letter, not anything else. When you’re not used to speaking English, these may all sound the same to you. It’s only by constantly being exposed to English that you start to pick up on these subtleties. Homophones Confused yet? If not, you will be after this next point. English is absolutely full of homophones – words that sound the same but have different meanings or spellings. We’ve already dedicated an article to homophones, but if you don’t have time to read that, here are a few examples… A bandage is wound around a wound (“wound”, pronounced “wowned” is the past tense of “wind”, as well as an injury when pronounced “woond”). The door was too close to the table to close (the first “close” is pronounced with a soft “S” and means “near”, while the second is pronounced with a hard “S” and means “shut”). I decided to desert my dessert in the desert (the first “desert” means “abandon” and has the emphasis placed on the second syllable; “dessert” is pronounced the same but means a pudding; and the second “desert” means the dry, sandy environment with camels, and is pronounced with the emphasis on the first syllable). Homophones exist in the English language that has no fewer than seven different meanings – namely words that sound like ‘course’ and ‘raise’. Most have only two or three meanings – such as “there”, “their” and “they’re” – but that’s still enough to add an extra level or two of complexity for those trying to master the English language. Synonyms aren’t necessarily interchangeable Flick through a thesaurus and you’ll see countless groups of words that supposedly mean the same thing. You’d think that this would mean that they were interchangeable – but you’d be wrong. Even words whose definitions are seemingly in the same ballpark differ subtly – or apply to something completely different, because English words can have multiple meanings. You can’t always swap words with the same meaning, and this means that it’s easy to end up using a word in completely the wrong way. For example, you “watch” television, and you can either “watch a film” or “see a film” – but you don’t “see television”. But you’re not a “watcher” when you’re doing this – you’re a “viewer”, even though you don’t “view television” or “view a movie”. To take another example, I could talk about a swan’s elegant neck, but I couldn’t swap the word “elegant” for the word “classic” or “chic” (both suggestions I found in the thesaurus when I looked up “elegant”) because these are words that apply to fashion, not birds! If you were learning English, though, you wouldn’t necessarily know that. Idioms English is a very old language, and over the course of many centuries, interesting sayings have been incorporated into everyday language that make little sense if you haven’t grown up with them. “Barking up the wrong tree”, “the straw that broke the camel’s back” and “raining cats and dogs” are all examples of idioms that add colour to the English language. If you find yourself starting to use idioms when you speak English, well done: you’ve mastered it! Traces of archaic English Though English does ‘move with the times’, there are still plenty of archaic words floating around that you may well encounter (and they may not be in your English dictionary). “Alas” (an expression of grief or pity) is one of the more common ones, but language of the sort traditionally used in the Bible is also still commonly understood, such as “Thou shalt not kill” in the Ten Commandments. This means “You will not kill” in modern lingo, but the Ten Commandments usually retain this old language. Old-fashioned words such as “apothecary” (someone who prepares medicine) and “shilling” (an old form of English currency) will crop up in historical dramas that you watch on television. You’ll also see old literary and poetic references cropping up in popular culture, such as Shakespeare’s “To be or not to be” or Burns’ “My love is like a red, red rose”. Regional dialects We’d imagine that all languages have regional dialects, but when you add the bizarre pronunciations and unique additional vocabularies of the UK’s many regional dialects, they don’t exactly help the poor folk trying to learn English. It’s bad enough for us southerners to understand people from Glasgow, or even for people from Edinburgh to understand people from Glasgow. There’s a broad north/south divide in the pronunciation of certain words, a good example being “bath”, which is pronounced with a short “A” by those “up north” and a long “A” (“barth”) by those “down south”. Of course, every English-speaking country also has its own way of speaking the language; the USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa all have their own distinctive way of pronouncing words. Which you end up using when your native language isn’t English probably depends on whereabouts your English teacher is from, or whereabouts in the country you’re learning. Is it really the hardest language? As we’ve seen, then, English is pretty challenging. But it’s not the only contender for the World’s Most Difficult Language. Other notoriously tricky languages include Finnish, Russian, Japanese and Mandarin. Mandarin’s tone system, for instance, is famously tricky (but when you look at the ‘Emphasis’ section above, you’ll see that English can be just as bad!). Finnish is held to be difficult because of its numerous cases; Arabic because, among other things, its script has four different variations for each letter depending on where in the word it sits. Written Japanese differs from spoken Japanese, and there are three different writing systems – including 2,000 to 3,000 kanji characters that must be learned by heart. It makes English sound easy in comparison! Ultimately, though, it’s down to the individual whether or not a particular language is difficult to learn. Some people have a natural aptitude for languages and pick them up quickly; children, of course, absorb new languages much more easily than adults. The difficulty of a language also depends on its similarity to your own language. You’ll probably find it easier to pick up French if you’re Italian, because these languages use many of the same roots, and the same alphabet. If you’re used to the Roman alphabet then you may struggle to learn oriental languages that rely on symbols, such as Japanese. English isn’t so bad once you get used to it, and it’s probably only commonly talked about as being hard because so many people are trying to learn it.
4519	dbpedia	0	42	http://web.stanford.edu/class/cs101/bits-bytes.html	en	Bits and Bytes			[ "http://web.stanford.edu/class/cs101/hardware-letter-byte.jpg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null					null	At the smallest scale in the computer, information is stored as bits and bytes. In this section, we'll learn how bits and bytes encode information. Bit a "bit" is atomic: the smallest unit of storage A bit stores just a 0 or 1 "In the computer it's all 0's and 1's" ... bits Anything with two separate states can store 1 bit In a chip: electric charge = 0/1 In a hard drive: spots of North/South magnetism = 0/1 A bit is too small to be much use Group 8 bits together to make 1 byte Everything in a computer is 0's and 1's. The bit stores just a 0 or 1: it's the smallest building block of storage. Byte One byte = collection of 8 bits e.g. 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 One byte can store one character, e.g. 'A' or 'x' or '$' How Many Patterns With N Bits? (demo) How many different patterns can be made with 1, 2, or 3 bits? Number of bits Different Patterns 1 0 1 2 00 01 10 11 3 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111 3 bits vs. 2 bits Consider just the leftmost bit It can only be 0 or 1 Leftmost bit is 0, then append 2-bit patterns Leftmost bit is 1, then append 2-bit patterns again 3-bits has twice as many patterns as 2-bits Number of bits Different Patterns 1 0 1 2 00 01 10 11 3 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111 In general: add 1 bit, double the number of patterns 1 bit - 2 patterns 2 bits - 4 3 bits - 8 4 bits - 16 5 bits - 32 6 bits - 64 7 bits - 128 8 bits - 256 - one byte Mathematically: n bits yields 2n patterns (2 to the nth power) One Byte - 256 Patterns (demo) 1 byte is group of 8 bits 8 bits can make 256 different patterns How to use the 256 patterns? How to store a number in a byte? Start with 0, go up, one pattern per number, until run out of patterns 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ... 254, 255 One byte can hold a number between 0 and 255 i.e. with 256 different patterns, we can store a number in the range 0..255 Really good for storing characters/letters. Bytes "Byte" - unit of information storage A document, an image, a movie .. how many bytes? 1 byte is enough to hold about 1 typed character, e.g. 'b' or 'X' or '$' All storage is measured in bytes, despite being very different hardware Kilobyte, KB, about 1 thousand bytes Megabyte, MB, about 1 million bytes Gigabyte, GB, about 1 billion bytes Terabyte, TB, about 1 trillion bytes (rare) Bytes and Characters - ASCII Code ASCII is an encoding representing each typed character by a number Each number is stored in one byte (so the number is in 0..255) A is 65 B is 66 a is 96 space is 32 "Unicode" is an encoding for mandarin, greek, arabic, etc. languages, typically 2-bytes per "character" Typing, Bytes, and You Each letter is stored in a byte, as below 100 typed letters takes up 100 bytes When you send, say, a text message, the numbers are sent Text is quite compact, using few bytes, compared to images etc. Numbers in Computers
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If you know one of the Scandinavian languages, do you know them all? Let’s have a closer look!	en	/favicon.ico	Babbel Magazine	https://www.babbel.com/en/magazine/the-scandinavian-languages-three-for-the-price-of-one	Illustration by Victoria Fernandez. Ah, Scandinavia! Vast, untouched nature. Dried, pickled fish everywhere you turn. Was that a blonde mermaid riding by on a moose? It’s hard to see with all the Alexander Skarsgård-lookalikes walking around and speaking such a characteristically melodic language. But what is this language or, rather, languages? What, exactly, is the difference between Swedish, Danish and Norwegian? If you know one of the Scandinavian languages, will speakers of the other two be able to understand you? Let’s have a closer look at Scandinavia and the so-called North Germanic languages. So, Which Languages Are We Talking About? It’s true that the three Scandinavian languages have so much in common that they could almost be seen as dialects. Those who speak one of them are able to understand speakers of the other two, at least to some extent. All of them evolved from Old Norse, better known to non-Scandinavians as “the Viking language.” They make up the North-Eastern branch of the Germanic language tree, where the North-Western branch consists of Icelandic and Faroese. (Finnish, in case you were wondering, is related to Hungarian, Sami and Estonian, and is not even an Indo-European language.) Swedish boasts the biggest language community of the three, with 10 million speakers. The other two have about 5 million speakers each. Know One, Know ’Em All? Danish and Norwegian are very similar, or indeed almost identical when it comes to vocabulary, but they sound very different from one another. Norwegian and Swedish are closer in terms of pronunciation, but the words differ. Let’s imagine the Scandinavian languages as three sisters. Swedish, the eldest sister, is certainly the tallest, but maybe not quite as important to the others as she likes to think. Norwegian, the middle child, understands both her siblings and plays the role of mediator. Danish, the young rebel, smokes indoors and no one “gets” her. This metaphor is not that far away from reality. A study by Delsing and Åkesson from 2005 has shown that Danes have the most difficulty understanding their neighbors — and their neighbors also have the most difficulty understanding them. Conversations between Swedes and Danes in particular take a lot of concentration and are known to be a bit awkward. Pronunciation Differences Danish: The Misunderstood Little Sister The clichés are many: “They sound like they’re drunk all the time!”, “It’s as if they had a potato in their throat!”, “Raging drunk Norwegians speak perfect Danish!” or “Why don’t they articulate?” Yes, Scandinavians like to tease each other, but these sayings are actually quite ignorant. Danish, for example, isn’t a sloppy or particularly inarticulate language — it’s supposed to sound like that! Let us clarify. Danish stands out from the other two Scandinavian languages mainly because it has a large discrepancy between written and spoken language. The words are shortened, the consonants softened and the endings almost swallowed. To complicate things further, many words contain characteristic stød, Danish’s answer to the glottal stop. To people speaking Swedish and Norwegian, a lot of Danish pronunciation patterns seem completely random. Swedes would say, “Hej, vad heter du?” (Hello, what’s your name?), and a Dane would ask “Hej, hvad hedder du?” Not so different. But what Swedes hear is something best transcribed as “Hai, vel he-ugh du?” Of course, basic questions like this one are easy to understand, but it gets even trickier when the conversation turns to feelings, politics or astrophysics. A lot of the time, conversations default to English as a common lingua franca. In the end, it’s all a matter of getting used to and understanding differences in pronunciation. Swedes aren’t usually familiar with the basic rules of Danish pronunciation, and if you don’t know the rules, of course it’ll seem like Danes are all somehow just winging it. Here’s How Each Would Say “The Color” Danish: en farve Swedish: en färg Norwegian: en farge Vocabulary Differences: Beware Of False Friends! Besides pronunciation, there are also some false friends to watch out for. If a Swede and a Norwegian agree to do something roligt together, the Swede will be expecting to have a lot of fun, but the Norwegian will be preparing for something more calm and relaxing. If a Dane thinks a Norwegian is nice or cute, they call them rar. The Norwegian, however, might be quite offended, as rar means “strange.” And if a Norwegian says he’s going to button his kneppe (shirt), well… we won’t even tell you what the Dane might think! Orthography: Could You Write That Down For Me? Despite some differences in vocabulary, written Danish and written Norwegian are almost identical. This is because Norway belonged to Denmark between the 14th and 19th centuries. With the kingdom’s royal, intellectual and administrative power centered in Copenhagen, everything official had to be written in Danish. Danish never really found its way into the spoken language, however — the geographical proximity to Sweden played a larger role here. So a modern-day conversation between a Norwegian and a Dane is often accompanied by a lot of “hva?” If they would just pick up their phones and text each other instead, the communication would flow perfectly well. Does This Mean That Swedes, Norwegians And Danes Shouldn’t Speak To Each Other? No, of course not! They will only have to put a little effort into communicating. You can only understand a language if you get a lot of input, most importantly spoken input. That is true also for one-way communication, where you’re not required to reproduce the other language, but still have to decode what your conversation partner is saying. These conversations fall under the category of semi-communication, a term coined by the American linguist, Einar Haugen. To be able to “semi-communicate,” you simply need to get used to a language. If Swedes were to never hear any Danish, they wouldn’t understand much at all, regardless of the many linguistic similarities. Luckily, Danes are great at producing TV shows that everybody wants to watch, so it’s actually quite fun to hear spoken Danish! The Award For Best Semi-Communicator Goes To: As it turns out, the middle child (as in many families) is actually the most understanding one of the Scandinavian languages. Norwegians are the clear winners when it comes to understanding their neighbors. There are three main reasons for this. First, Norwegian is quite simply the “middle child” — it’s written like Danish, but sounds like Swedish. Second, Norwegians are used to hearing Swedish and Danish in public media. Third, Norway has a very wide range of dialects, so Norwegians have to understand people who speak differently — otherwise they wouldn’t be able to travel within their own country! This means that you should choose to learn Norwegian if you want to have an easy time understanding the other two Scandinavian languages. But if you prefer Swedish or Danish — go for it! Families stick together, after all. With a little patience and open-mindedness (and your hands and feet, if all else fails), you should be able to communicate anywhere in Scandinavia, no matter which of the three languages you speak.
4519	dbpedia	1	6	https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/two-bits	en	two bits	https://dictionary.cambr…ges/og-image.png	https://dictionary.cambr…ges/og-image.png	[ "https://dictionary.cambridge.org/external/images/logo-lrg-small.png?version=6.0.31", "https://dictionary.cambridge.org/external/images/quiz/hook/{{randomImageQuizHook.filename}}?version=6.0.31", "https://dictionary.cambridge.org/external/images/games/{{randomImageQuizHook.filename}}?version=6.0.31", "https://dictionary.cambridge.org/rss/images/GettyImages-520295685.jpg", "https://dictionary.cambridge.org/rss/images/quishing.jpg", "https://www.facebook.com/tr?id=3409493515968429&ev=PageView&noscript=1", "https://dictionary.cambridge.org/external/images/logo-lrg-small.png?version=6.0.31", "https://dictionary.cambridge.org/external/images/logo-pos.png?version=6.0.31" ]	[]	[]	[ "two bits definition", "dictionary", "english", "british", "american", "business", "british english", "thesaurus", "define two bits", "two bits meaning", "what is two bits", "spelling", "conjugation", "audio pronunciation", "free", "online", "english." ]	null	[]	2024-08-14T00:00:00	TWO BITS definition: 1. 25 cents 2. 25 cents. Learn more.	en	https://dictionary.cambridge.org/external/images/favicon.ico?version=6.0.31		https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/two-bits	noun [ plural ] US informal uk Your browser doesn't support HTML5 audio /ˌtuː ˈbɪts/ us Your browser doesn't support HTML5 audio /ˌtuː ˈbɪts/ (Definition of two bits from the Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary & Thesaurus © Cambridge University Press) Examples of two bits two bits For example, a computer with two bits can encode information in only one of four possible combinations: 00, 01, 10, or 11. Lass, there be two bits in it for you if me jar always be foamy.? We have two bits of feedback from listeners that sort of show the enormous range of roles that hashtags can play. My two bits: it will improve health care and education, especially for those who can least afford it, and make the world a more humanitarian place. Amid all the bad news about that (scientists report a massive gap between what we're planning and what needs to be done) there are two bits of good news. The next three bits stand for a temporal resolution, while the last two bits represent a quality level. Two bits are changed in this example. Only a quarter—25 cents—two bits—to see the big show! The senior officer of the vessel took from his pocket the cross, with its two bits of chain still dangling from it. He thought that two bits a day might do very well, but that was as much as could be afforded. Surround them with mold, and then tying together the two bits of wood, plant the whole in a pot filled with earth, properly prepared. If either of you men were hurt by one of my family, my life wouldn't be worth two bits. You gave the waiter a tip of fifteen cents or "two bits" as you felt liberal, and he was satisfied. You see he lacked "two bits" of getting cost for the bird. I reckon any of them would cut a throat or down a man for two bits in lead money. These examples are from corpora and from sources on the web. Any opinions in the examples do not represent the opinion of the Cambridge Dictionary editors or of Cambridge University Press or its licensors. Translations of two bits in Chinese (Traditional) 25美分… in Chinese (Simplified) 25美分… Need a translator? Get a quick, free translation! {{#randomImageQuizHook.filename}} {{#randomImageQuizHook.isQuiz}} Test your vocabulary with our fun image quizzes Try a quiz now {{/randomImageQuizHook.isQuiz}} {{^randomImageQuizHook.isQuiz}} {{/randomImageQuizHook.isQuiz}} {{/randomImageQuizHook.filename}} Word of the Day left-click UK Your browser doesn't support HTML5 audio /ˈleftˌklɪk/ US Your browser doesn't support HTML5 audio /ˈleftˌklɪk/ to press the button on the left of a computer mouse in order to make the computer do something About this Blog Simply the best! (Ways to describe the best) August 14, 2024 New Words quishing August 12, 2024 More new words
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"https://nautil.us/wp-content/themes/nautilus-block-theme/images/icons/twitter-icon.svg", "https://nautil.us/wp-content/themes/nautilus-block-theme/images/icons/instagram-icon.svg", "https://nautil.us/wp-content/themes/nautilus-block-theme/images/icons/close-icon.svg", "https://assets.nautil.us/sites/3/nautilus/szdBs2Dz-2257253_ScienceNewsletter_1_1080x1080_0423241.png?auto=compress&fm=png&ixlib=php-3.3.1", "https://www.facebook.com/tr?id=361539494488717&ev=PageView&noscript=1" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "David Adger" ]	2019-09-17T22:39:53+00:00	Language builds meaning through self-similarity.	en	https://nautil.us/wp-con…ages/favicon.png	Nautilus	https://nautil.us/this-simple-structure-unites-all-human-languages-237546/	Take a deep breath. As you breathe in, your lungs fill with air. The air is carried through every part of your lungs by tubes. These tubes are organized in a particular way. They branch off, one into the left lung, one into the right. The tubes fill our lungs by branching, branching, and branching again, into tinier and tinier tubes. Each branching point is similar to the previous one. Your breath, your very life, depends on this structure. It is a structure organized by the principle of self-similarity. Self-similarity is everywhere in nature. Look at a fern: Each fern leaf is composed of smaller replicas of itself, which are composed of yet smaller replicas. Or think of vast deltas, where huge rivers branch out into smaller and smaller streams and rivulets until they vanish into the earth or oceans. Each branching of a river is similar to a previous branching that created that river. If you make up a sentence of any complexity, and search for that exact sentence on the Internet, it’s almost never there. The Internet has, without anyone overseeing it, evolved into a self-similar pattern, with huge hubs connecting to smaller ones, these themselves connecting, in just the same way, to smaller hubs all the way down to phones and laptops. Self-similarity is everywhere because it is efficient. If a tube, developing into a lung, or frond into a fern, does the same thing each time it grows, then the genes don’t need to specify the details of the growth. The same thing happens at the larger scale, and at the smaller. It makes no difference whether a river is the Amazon or a tiny stream, it branches in the same way. Self-similarity is at the heart of language, too. Sentences and phrases of human languages, all human languages, have an inaudible and invisible hierarchical structure. When we are children, we impose this structure on the sequences of sounds that we hear. Our minds can’t understand continuous streams of sound directly as meaningful language. Instead, we subconsciously chop them up into discrete bits—sounds and words—and organize these into larger units. This means that sentences have a hierarchical structure. Other animals, even extremely intelligent close evolutionary relatives like bonobos and chimpanzees, treat sequences of words as sequences, not as hierarchies. The same is true for modern artificial intelligences based on deep learning. Humans, however, don’t seem to be able to do this. When we encounter language, the hierarchical structure of phrases and sentences is something our minds can’t escape from. We hear sounds or see signs, but our minds think syntax. The most basic units of language, words and word-parts, are limited to the tens of thousands. We can create new ones on the fly if we need to, but we don’t have a distinct word for every aspect of our existence. The number of words speakers know is a finite store. We can add words to that store, and we can forget words. But the sentences we can say, or understand, are unlimited in number. They create meanings where there were none before. Human language is amazingly creative. If you make up a sentence of any complexity, and search for that exact sentence on the Internet, it’s almost never there. Virtually everything we say is novel. Yet at the heart of this capacity of ours lies an incredibly simple piece of mental technology: Merge. Merge takes two bits of language, say two words, and creates out of them another bit of language. It builds the hierarchical structures of language. Merge was proposed by Noam Chomsky in the early 1990s. He argued that this single piece of mental technology, plus language specific constraints that children could learn from their linguistic experiences, was enough to capture the syntax of all human languages. Let’s take two words, drink and wine. Merge says that we can take these two bits of language and from these create a new bit of language. We don’t do this by putting the two words in a sequence, like an artificial intelligence or a bonobo would do. Instead we build a new hierarchical unit. This unit puts together the verb drink with the noun wine to create the phrase drink wine, with wine being the grammatical object of drink. Let’s visualize how Merge works on a verb and its object by putting things in boxes. Each box is a bit of language. If you’re not in a box, you’re not a bit of language. The things inside boxes aren’t in a sequence; they don’t have an order. The only information the box adds is that the bits inside it are grouped together. The words drink and wine are bits of language, and Merge says that a grouping of these can also be a bit of language. We can represent this with boxes like this: Merge has created a self-similar structure: a larger bit of language containing two smaller bits of language. Boxes within boxes. An invisible hierarchy. Now, in spoken or written language, we have to put one word after the other. That’s just the way these channels of language work. We can’t say two words at the same time. Speaking, and to a lesser extent signing, flattens the hierarchy that Merge builds into a sequence, and that sequence has an order. This means that this structure, which is just one structure as far as Merge is concerned, can be pronounced in two ways. We either pronounce it as wine drink, or as drink wine. The grammatical object either appears before the verb, or after it. Those are the only two logical possibilities. The first is the order we’d find in a language like Japanese, where we’d say waino nomu, literally wine drink. The second is, of course, English. Linguists usually write the outcome of Merge using little tree diagrams. These tree diagrams give us the information that comes from Merge (what words group together), plus information about order. The diagrams for English and Japanese look like this: These trees are the same in terms of Merge, but distinct in the order of their parts. We’ve translated the pure hierarchy that Merge gives us into an order that we can pronounce. Let’s assume that I drink wine. To express this thought as a sentence, we want to add a grammatical subject to the bit of language we’ve just created. Since Merge says we can take two bits of language and create a new one, we can apply Merge to the word I and the linguistic unit we’ve just built: Now we have nested boxes. One big unit containing two smaller units, one of which is the result of a previous process of Merge. The Japanese word that best translates the English word I is watashiwa, so we can write our two trees like this: English is a subject-verb-object language, while Japanese is a subject-object-verb language. But both are identical as far as Merge is concerned. There are also languages that mix up these orders. Malagasy, for example, has the English order for drink wine, but puts the subject after that unit: misotro divay aho drink wine I The Merge structure for Malagasy is just the same as that for English or Japanese, but while those languages put the subject first, Malagasy puts it last. The last logical possibility is where we say the equivalent of wine drink I to mean I drink wine. This is pretty exotic in the world’s languages. In fact, for many years, linguists were unable to find a language where that was the natural order to express this thought. However, during the 1960s and early ’70s, the late Desmond Derbyshire lived in the Amazonian village of Kasawa in Brazil. There he worked on learning and analyzing the language of a local tribe, the Hixkaryana. As Derbyshire worked on the language, he discovered that it had a basic order exactly the reverse of English. To express The boy caught a fish, the Hixkaryana said the equivalent of A fish caught the boy: kana yanimno biryekomo fish he-caught-it boy Since Derbyshire’s work, a number of other languages with this order, the object-verb-subject order, have come to light. Even these rare languages can be thought of as having the same structure, given by Merge: Hixkaryana has the Japanese order for the most deeply embedded unit, giving kana yanimno (literally fish caught). But it has the Malagasy order for the subject biryekomo, “boy.” The whole sentence can be given a tree diagram that looks like this: Merge isn’t very complex, but it does a lot of what linguists need it to do. It applies to discrete units of language (words or their parts). It combines these, not sequentially, but hierarchically. It doesn’t state what order the words have to be pronounced in, so it allows variation across languages. The hierarchical structure is the same in all four types of language we just looked at, but the order of the corresponding words is different. Self-similarity is everywhere because it is efficient. The fact that the hierarchical structure is the same but the word order is different allows us to express an important idea. The way that languages build up meaning is through Merge. Each Merge comes along with an effect on the meaning of the sentence, and that effect is generally both stable and systematic. That’s why it makes sense to say that the Japanese and English sentences mean the same. They have different orders, but there is a deep commonality. Merge builds both structure and meaning in the same basic way in both kinds of language. Languages are deeply similar, not deeply different. Merge is also open-ended. As we just saw, it can reuse something it has already created. Because Merge reuses its own output, it is a recursive process. Recursive processes are well known in mathematics, and form the foundation of modern theories of computing. Merge is a quite specific recursive process—it uses exactly two units and it creates structures that are linguistic. If our human sense of linguistic structure is guided by Merge, that will explain why all human languages are hierarchical and none are sequential. It also explains why human language is so unbounded, why sentences don’t have a natural upper limit. Merge both creates, and limits, the infinite potential of language. I said that the four types of languages we’ve just seen were the four logical possibilities given Merge. But there’s an apparent problem. There are other kinds of word order: two important ones are verb-subject-object, and object-subject-verb languages. In fact, verb-subject-object is fairly common. It’s the order found in Celtic languages like Scottish Gaelic, Mayan languages like Chol, and some Polynesian languages like Hawaiian. Let’s look at Gaelic. In this language, to say “A boy caught a fish,” we say: Ghlac balach iasg caught boy fish We can’t get this order from Merge by just switching round the order of object and verb, or the order of the subject with the rest of the sentence. As we’ve seen, there are only four possibilities when we do that: Merge doesn’t look powerful enough to get us all the orders we want. Was Chomsky wrong to suggest Merge was sufficient as the single way that all syntax is constructed? It seems he wasn’t wrong. Remember that Merge takes two bits of language and creates a new bit of language. So far, we have just used Merge to take independent bits of language and put them together. That’s how we got to the structure we’ve so far used for English, Japanese, Malagasy, and Hixkaryana. But Merge is recursive. It can go back and reuse something it’s already used. This means we can merge the bit of language containing the verb caught (that is, the box with caught inside it) with the bit of language containing everything else (that is, the large outside box). What we create is a new bit of language that contains the box with the verb in it, and the box containing that: The verb caught here is both inside the box containing caught fish and inside a larger box that contains caught and a box containing everything else. It’s in two places at once. We’ve created a kind of loop in the structure. We didn’t have to extend Merge to do this. Merge has the consequence that we can reuse bits of language that have already been used. This gives us a way of understanding verb-subject-object languages like Gaelic: they involve this kind of loop. If I write the boxes as a tree diagram, putting things in the right order, we can begin to see the solution to our dilemma: The subject here, balach, is “boy” and the object iasg is “fish.” The verb ghlac, “caught,” merges with its object and gives the meaning associated with catching fish. Then the result of that merges with the subject. This can be ordered as subject-verb-object, boy caught fish. Finally, Merge applies to a bit of language it has already used (the verb ghlac, “caught”) and merges that with the subject-verb-object unit. We can now pronounce this tree like this: Ghlac balach ghlac iasg caught boy caught fish Oops! This isn’t quite what we want, since the verb (ghlac), “caught,” appears twice. That verb is just one bit of language, but it appears in two places, because we’ve reused it. Common sense, though, might suggest that if you have one bit of language, you pronounce it just once. In Gaelic, when we reuse the verb, we pronounce it in its reused position. This is why in Gaelic we say Ghlac balach iasg, which is Caught boy fish. Word order is, of course, far more complex than I’ve shown here. There are languages with very free word order, and even within languages there are many intriguing complexities. However, this idea, that Merge can both combine bits of language, and reuse them, gives us a unified understanding of how the grammar of human languages works. Because Merge recursively builds hierarchies, with each application connecting to both meaning and sound, there is no end to the complexity of the meaningful structures it builds. Merge gives us the ability to build the new worlds of ideas that have been so central to the successes and disappointments of our species. It makes language unlimited. David Adger is the author of Language Unlimited: The Science Behind Our Most Creative Power, which this article is adapted from. He is a professor of linguistics at Queen Mary University of London and the president of the Linguistics Association of Great Britain. Read our interview with David Adger here.
4519	dbpedia	2	11	https://www.berlitz.com/blog/easiest-languages-to-learn-for-english-speakers	en	17 of the Easiest Languages for English Speakers to Learn	https://images.contentst…p=1200:630,smart	https://images.contentst…p=1200:630,smart	[ "https://images.contentstack.io/v3/assets/bltacc1a01c4d280f24/blt00a58a84c54765cf/61092095ae8b1139431ded8a/iStock-994003640.jpeg?auto=webp&format=pjpg&quality=80&width=900&height=500&fit=crop", "https://images.contentstack.io/v3/assets/bltacc1a01c4d280f24/bltb15557f536d3cc88/6290754ad5f9386926e65990/thumbnail_Headshot1_Marianne_Stenger.jpeg?auto=webp&format=pjpg&quality=80&width=96&height=96&fit=crop&crop=96:96,smart", "https://images.contentstack.io/v3/assets/bltacc1a01c4d280f24/blt9af09d6aeaa3d991/61776d1077dfa05a8cad062e/Amsterdam_Netherlands_building_Dutch.jpg?auto=webp&format=pjpg&quality=80&", "https://images.contentstack.io/v3/assets/bltacc1a01c4d280f24/blt0acd7bc5da400ec4/6131acdf8f8f7644bdf4ea0e/Child_in_Mexico_who_can_speak_Spanish.jpg?auto=webp&format=pjpg&quality=80&", "https://images.contentstack.io/v3/assets/bltacc1a01c4d280f24/bltdd9bca89a03a68b2/6164f1ca56faa61e63fdda11/Colosseum_in_Rome_and_Italy.jpg?auto=webp&format=pjpg&quality=80&", "https://images.contentstack.io/v3/assets/bltacc1a01c4d280f24/blt9707ac93075fd7f8/61776e5377dfa05a8cad0632/Swedish_flag.jpg?auto=webp&format=pjpg&quality=80&", "https://images.contentstack.io/v3/assets/bltacc1a01c4d280f24/blt13c71d09681896c7/61776eaa77dfa05a8cad0636/Nyhavn_Denmark.jpg?auto=webp&format=pjpg&quality=80&", "https://images.contentstack.io/v3/assets/bltacc1a01c4d280f24/blt4d3eafd2c8ff95af/61776ef877dfa05a8cad063e/Boy_holding_a_sparkler_in_Marga_Indonesia.jpg?auto=webp&format=pjpg&quality=80&", "https://images.contentstack.io/v3/assets/bltacc1a01c4d280f24/bltee27e66a37a93353/61776f78f13b7e5c89d400da/Two_ladies_in_Tanzania_outside.jpg?auto=webp&format=pjpg&quality=80&", "https://images.contentstack.io/v3/assets/bltacc1a01c4d280f24/bltdf67f0674aa9543b/610bc00e93c9a33d7352f77f/India_iStock-509646957.jpeg?auto=webp&format=pjpg&quality=80&width=800&height=800&fit=crop&crop=800:600,smart", "https://images.contentstack.io/v3/assets/bltacc1a01c4d280f24/blt0fb0aad3895247f1/618b5385d6ef6a585adf393b/Playing_Scrabble.jpg?auto=webp&format=pjpg&quality=80&width=800&height=800&fit=crop&crop=800:600,smart", "https://images.contentstack.io/v3/assets/bltacc1a01c4d280f24/blt90627b004b9eab31/6164024d08d87b1e69ad5aed/Getting_married_in_France_Eiffel_Tower_background.jpg?auto=webp&format=pjpg&quality=80&width=800&height=800&fit=crop&crop=800:600,smart", "https://images.contentstack.io/v3/assets/bltacc1a01c4d280f24/bltbd61f3f557b93286/6643a7bf66b81df9ac33e5e6/AccreditedbyACCETlogo_lightblue_200p.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Marianne Stenger" ]	2024-07-01T00:00:00+00:00	What languages do you have the best chance of mastering quickly? We've used data to rank the top 17 easiest languages to learn if you're fluent in English.	en	/favicon-32x32.png?v=32787f3e93fa4493cd296c28e4bda513	Berlitz	https://www.berlitz.com/blog/easiest-languages-to-learn-for-english-speakers	Learning a new language can open up a whole world of exciting new experiences and opportunities, from connecting with a variety of people and cultures to advancing your career to studying and working abroad. But with so many different languages to choose from, how do you decide which one to spend your time mastering? Although every foreign language comes with its own unique set of challenges, the reality is that some languages will simply be easier for fluent English speakers to become proficient in. Why? Languages that are more closely related to English share certain qualities and characteristics that make them easier for English speakers to pick up. This includes things like sentence structure, vocabulary, tones and sounds, and writing system. So, how easy or difficult a language might be for you to learn will depend not only on the language itself, but also on which languages youâre already fluent in, or at least familiar with. Remember, how long it will take you to learn a language is influenced by many different factors. Want to know which languages you have the best chance of mastering quickly? Here are 17 of the easiest languages for English speakers to learn. However, you can use this as a general guide. Weâve used data from the Foreign Service Institute (FSI) to rank them from the easier to the somewhat more challenging. 1. Frisian Frisian is thought to be one of the languages most closely related to English, and therefore also the easiest for English-speakers to pick up. Frisian was once the primary language of what during the Middle Ages was known as Frisia. Although Frisia no longer exists, Frisian, which actually consists of three main dialects, is still in use in parts of the Netherlands and Germany. English and Frisian share many similarities in terms of sentence structure and vocabulary. For instance, âGood morning,â translates to âGoeie moarnâ in the West Frisian dialect. Unfortunately, since Frisian is only spoken and understood by about 500,000 people, thereâs little reason to learn it, unless you intend to relocate to the Dutch province of Friesland or Germanyâs Saterland or North Frisia regions. 2. Dutch Dutch, like Frisian, is closely related to English. It shares many similarities with English, especially when it comes to vocabulary. For instance, words like âplastic,â âwaterâ and âlampâ are identical in both Dutch and English. The most challenging aspect of this language for English speakers will likely be the pronunciation. In Belgium, Flemish, which is the dialect spoken in the Flanders region, is actually identical to Dutch. Although there are differences when it comes to pronunciation, vocabulary and idioms, Dutch speakers can quite easily understand Flemish, and vice-versa. Dutch is spoken by around 24 million people worldwide, and is worth learning if you have plans to live and work in the Netherlands, or one of the other countries where itâs an official language, such as Suriname, Aruba or the Dutch Antilles. 3. Norwegian Like English, Norwegian or âNorskâ is a Germanic language, which makes it easier for English-speakers to learn. It shares quite a bit of vocabulary with English, and unlike some Germanic languages, the pronunciation of most Norwegian words is fairly straightforward. For the most part, the sentence structure is also quite comparable to English, although not identical. For instance, âHe comes from Norwayâ translates to âHan kommer fra Norge.â Norwegian is spoken by around 5 million people, primarily in Norway. With its roots in Old Norse, it can be a fascinating language to study, and fluency in Norwegian will give you greater access to the countryâs rich literary culture and mythology. 4. Spanish Although Spanish is a Romance language rather than a Germanic language, itâs fairly easy for English speakers to learn because many English words stem from Latin. Spanish also uses the same alphabet as English, and many of the words are pronounced just as they are spelled. Another benefit of Spanish for English speakers is that the sentence structure is not only similar to English, but itâs also not as strict as it is in English, which means there are often multiple ways a sentence can be put together. If youâre looking to learn a language that will enhance your travel experiences and boost your employability, learning Spanish online is a great choice. Itâs one of the most widely spoken languages in the world and the second most spoken language in America, with around 534 million speakers scattered all around the globe. Download our free Spanish essentials eBook to help you get started. 5. Portuguese Portuguese is spoken by around 234 million people around the world. Itâs the official language of both Portugal and Brazil, as well as six African countries, including Angola, Cape Verde and Mozambique, making it an extremely useful second language to have under your belt. Like Spanish, Portuguese stems from Latin and uses the same alphabet as the English language, which gives English speakers a slight advantage when learning it. One thing to keep in mind is that there are some distinct differences between European Portuguese and Brazilian Portuguese. In fact, everything from the pronunciation to the vocabulary may vary, depending on which type of Portuguese you are learning. Which one you should focus on, of course, depends on where and how you intend to use it. 6. Italian Italian is another Romance language that English-speakers can pick up without too much difficulty. In fact, Italian vocabulary is widely used in English, and youâre probably already familiar with more Italian words than you may realise, from those relating to food, such as âgelatoâ and âpaniniâ to others like âdiva,â âsolo,â âfinaleâ or âfiasco.â Italian and English use a similar sentence structure in most cases, and fortunately, the pronunciation is quite logical. This means youâll be able to read and pronounce most words correctly once you have learned a few ground rules. Download our easy, visual Italian essentials eBook and get a head start. Italian is the primary language for around 64 million people, and although itâs not as widely used as Spanish or Portuguese, itâs still spoken in many countries outside of Italy, including in Switzerland, Croatia, Slovenia, and even Argentina. 7. French French is one of the most widely spoken languages in the world, with around 77 million first-language speakers and 203 million second-language speakers. Itâs also an official language of 29 countries, including Switzerland, Luxembourg, Seychelles and Rwanda. Due to its somewhat tricky pronunciation, French can be slightly more challenging to learn than other Romance languages like Spanish and Italian. For instance, âEt tois?â (And you?) is pronounced as âAy twahâ and âPouvez-vous?â (Can you?) is pronounced as âPoo vay vooâ. Even so, French does share many similarities with English, especially when it comes to the vocabulary. This means that once English speakers have had a chance to learn some basic rules, theyâre usually able to pick it up quite quickly. Download our free French essentials eBook to accompany your studies. 8. Swedish Swedish is spoken by somewhere around 10 million people, and while most of them live in Sweden, a small minority can be found in Finland, where Swedish is also a national language. Swedish is on the easier side for English speakers to learn, because again, itâs a Germanic language. Although the pronunciation may take some time to master, Swedish grammar rules and sentence structure are not overly complicated. There are, of course, a few trickier aspects to learning this Scandinavian language, such as getting used to its three extra vowels. Youâll also need to familiarise yourself with unfamiliar compound words like âjordnÃ¶tter,â which means peanuts, but translates to âdirt nuts,â or âkofÃ¥ngare,â which means bumper, but translates to âcow catcher.â 9. Romanian Romanian is a language you might not have expected to see on this list. But although the country is surrounded by Slavic-speaking countries, Romanian is actually a Romance language and uses much of the same vocabulary as Italian, Spanish and French. For example,âLa revedere,â which is used for saying goodbye, is similar to the Italian âArrividerci,â and the apology âScuzÄ-mÄâ is similar to the French âExcusez-moi.â Itâs also a phonetic language, which means most words are spelled the same way they are pronounced. Of course, there are a few trickier aspects to this language, including grammatical differences and letters with âdiacritics.â But, overall, Romanian, which is spoken by around 30 million people, primarily in Romania and Moldova, is a surprisingly easy language to learn. 10. Danish Danish is a Germanic language spoken by around 6 million people, most of whom live in Denmark. Like Norwegian and Swedish, it has fairly straightforward grammar rules and a lot of vocabulary that will be familiar to English speakers. For example, âGode tidendeâ sounds a lot like âGood tidings,â and the word âdyre,â which means âexpensive,â is similar to the word âdear,â which is used in English when something is considered too pricey. Because of its more challenging pronunciation, however, Danish isnât the easiest Scandinavian language to learn. Even so, if you plan to stay in Denmark for a longer period of time, learning the local language is simply the best way to fully immerse yourself in the countryâs unique culture and form deeper connections. 11. German German is, as the name suggests, a Germanic language. It shares many similarities with English, including a common alphabet, comparable sentence structure and familiar vocabulary. For example, everyday German words like âWasser,â (water) âApfel,â (apple) and âFischâ (fish) are very similar to their English equivalents. Download our free German essentials eBook to see the similarities. One aspect of German that English-speakers do tend to struggle with is the pronunciation, especially when it comes to longer compound words like âFremdschÃ¤menâ (cringe) or ââVerschlimmbessernâ (to worsen or exacerbate). But while German might not be quite as easy for English-speakers to grasp as Dutch or Norwegian, it is an extremely useful language to learn, as itâs spoken by more than 100 million people throughout Central Europe, including in Austria, Switzerland and Luxembourg. 12. Indonesian Indonesian is one of the most widely spoken languages in the world, with over 40 million native speakers and more than 150 million non-native speakers. As an Austronesian language, Indonesian does differ quite a bit from the Germanic and Romance languages on this list, but itâs actually surprisingly straightforward for English-speakers to learn. This is partly down to the fact that Indonesian is a phonetic language, which means words are spelled as they sound. Indonesian sentence structure is also similar to English and its grammatical rules are fairly simple. For instance, to change a singular word to plural, all you have to do is repeat the word or add an extra one. So âchildâ is âanakâ and âchildrenâ is âanak-anak.â Easy right? 13. Malay Malay is spoken by more than 200 million people throughout Southeast Asia. Like Indonesian, itâs an Austronesian language. In fact, it shares many similarities with Indonesian due to the fact that a similar variety of the language is used in Indonesia, Brunei and Singapore. But, although Malay and Indonesian speakers can generally understand each other, there are some differences in terms of spelling, pronunciation, and vocabulary, with Malay based more on loanwords from English, and Indonesian having more loanwords from Dutch. Malay is widely considered to be one of the easiest Asian languages to learn, because its grammatical rules are simple and itâs easy to pronounce. Of course, as with any language, there will be lots of new vocabulary to learn, but if you need to spend any amount of time in Southeast Asia, itâs an excellent second language to have under your belt. 14. Swahili Swahili is a Bantu language and another very useful second language to have, as itâs widely used in East Africa, including in Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda and Tanzania. Although estimates vary greatly, Swahili is thought to be spoken as a native language by around 16 million people, and as a second language by up to 80 million people. In fact, if youâve watched the Disney classic âThe Lion Kingâ youâll already be familiar with a number of Swahili words such as ârafikiâ (friend) and âsimbaâ (lion). âThe pronunciation of most Swahili words is fairly easy, and many are very similar to their English equivalent. For instance, âpolisiâ is âpoliceâ and âbaiskeliâ is âbicycle.â There are also some key differences, of course, but if youâre looking to gain fluency in one or more African languages, Swahili is an excellent one to start with. 15. Filipino Tagalog Filipino Tagalog is one of the official languages of the Philippines and another Austronesian language. On one hand, itâs not an overly complicated language to learn, as the pronunciation isnât difficult, and much of its vocabulary is borrowed from other languages, including English, Spanish and Malay. On the other hand, the sentence structure and verb focus of Tagalog is quite different to that of English, which makes it the most challenging language on this list. But, as with many foreign languages, itâs often simply a matter of getting some practice in. With Tagalog spoken as a native language by around 45 million people, learning it or at least some of the basics, will make your stay in the Philippines a lot easier. So there you have it, the 17 easiest languages for English speakers to learn. If youâre thinking of investing some time into learning a new language, why not take a look at some of the language courses offered by Berlitz? 16. Afrikaans Afrikaans is relatively easy for English speakers because itâs packed with familiar words and straightforward grammar. Its vocabulary draws heavily from Dutch â also in this ranking of the easiest languages to learn for English speakers â which shares many common roots with English. This means that many words are instantly recognizable. Besides, Afrikaans is very logical, without complex verb conjugations nor gendered nouns. Its syntax is simple and intuitive, much like English, making sentence construction a breeze. With a phonetic spelling system, what you see is what you get, so pronunciation is easier too. Itâs a perfect language for diving in and picking up quickly. Learning Afrikaans is not just easy, but also incredibly interesting and useful. It opens doors to understanding South African culture, complex history, and its diverse people. Whether you're traveling, doing business, or simply exploring new linguistic horizons, Afrikaans offers a unique glimpse into a vibrant part of the world. 17. Esperanto Esperanto is a constructed language, born from a wonderful initiative aimed at facilitating international communication. Check out our article on How to create a language here! Itâs easy to learn for English speakers, because it was designed with simplicity in mind. Its grammar is straightforward and regular â no exceptions to memorize (right, French language?), and verbs always conjugate the same way. The vocabulary is a blend of words from various European languages, many of which will look and sound familiar to you. With phonetic spelling, pronunciation is intuitive and easy to master. Learning Esperanto is not just simple; itâs also intriguing and practical. This con language serves as a bridge to a global network of speakers who value cultural exchange and international friendship. Whether you're interested in travel, meeting new people, or exploring new cultures, Esperanto provides a unique and enriching experience. By learning Esperanto, you can engage in vibrant communities, attend international meetups, and even access literature and media in the language. If youâre willing to give it a try, you'll be part of a worldwide conversation in no time! Worth citing, maybe in honorable mentions like for the hardest languages to learn?: Haitian Creole, Welsh, Russian Too easy for you and looking for something more challenging? Don't worry, we've got you covered with our top 17 hardest languages to learn for English speakers. Expand your knowledge of languages Â
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Alexander" ]	2023-10-22T10:59:01+00:00	South Africa has 11 official languages, and a multilingual population. IsiZulu and isiXhosa are the largest languages. English is spoken at home by 10% of the population.	en	https://southafrica-info…ca-svg-32x32.png	South Africa Gateway	https://southafrica-info.com/arts-culture/11-languages-south-africa/	South Africa has 11 official languages and a multilingual population fluent in at least two. IsiZulu and isiXhosa are the largest languages, while English is spoken at home by only one in 10 people – most of them not white. South Africa’s constitution recognises 11 official languages: Sepedi (also known as Sesotho sa Leboa), Sesotho, Setswana, siSwati, Tshivenda, Xitsonga, Afrikaans, English, isiNdebele, isiXhosa and isiZulu. For centuries South Africa’s official languages were European – Dutch, English, Afrikaans. African languages, spoken by at least 80% of the people, were ignored. In 1996 South Africa’s new constitution gave official protection to all of the country’s major languages. South Africa has about 34 historically established languages. Thirty are living languages, and four extinct Khoesan languages. Jump to: Overview of South Africa’s languages IsiZulu is South Africa’s biggest language, spoken by almost a quarter (23%) of the population. Our other official languages are isiXhosa (spoken by 16%), Afrikaans (13.5%), English (10%), Sesotho sa Leboa (9%), Setswana and Sesotho (both 8%), Xitsonga (4.5%), siSwati and Tshivenda (both 2.5%), and isiNdebele (2%). English is an urban language of public life, widely used in the media, business and government. Out of the 4.9-million South Africans who speak English as a first language, a third (33%) are white, a quarter (24%) are black, 22% are Indian and 19% are coloured South Africans. English is widely used as a second language and common language of communication, mainly in the cities. Afrikaans is a version of Dutch that evolved out of a South Holland dialect brought here in the 1600s. Over the centuries it has picked up many influences from African languages, as well as from European colonial languages such as English, French and German. More than half (50.2%) of Afrikaans speakers are coloured, 40% are white, 9% black and just 1% Indian. South Africa’s nine African official languages all fall into the Southern Bantu-Makua subfamily, part of the broad and branching Niger-Congo family of languages. The languages arrived here during the great expansion of Bantu-speaking people from West Africa eastwards and southwards into the rest of the continent. The expansion began in around 3000 BCE and was largely complete by 1000 CE. Like all languages in the Niger-Congo family they are tonal languages, in which either a high or low tone gives a word a different meaning. The nine African languages can be broadly divided in two: Nguni-Tsonga languages: isiNdebele, isiXhosa, isiZulu, siSwati, Xitsonga Sotho-Makua-Venda languages: Sesotho, Sesotho sa Leboa, Setswana, Tshivenda Within the first group Xitsonga alone falls into the Tswa-Ronga subfamily, while isiZulu, isiXhosa, isNdebele and siSwati are Nguni languages. Similarly, Sesotho, Sesotho sa Leboa and Setswana are closely related Sotho languages, and Tshivenda something of a standalone in the Sotho-Makua-Venda subfamily. Multilingual South Africa South Africans are more than bilingual. A rough estimate based on Census 2001 first-language data and a 2002 study of second-languages speakers is that the average South African – man, woman and child – uses 2.84 languages. Obviously, many people are limited to one, and many others able to speak three, four or more languages. English- and Afrikaans-speaking people (mostly coloured, Indian and white South Africans) tend not to have much ability in African languages, but are fairly fluent in each other’s language. Multilingualism is common among black South Africans. For this reason, South African censuses ask people which two languages they speak. The question in the 2011 Census was: Which two languages does (member of household) speak most often in this household? Thirteen options were given: South Africa’s 11 official languages, plus Sign Language, and “Other”. If a person did not speak a second language, that too was recorded. The contrast between first language and second language is shown in the maps at right. While the geographical pattern of dominant first languages neatly conforms to the facts of history and urbanisation, the picture of second languages is more complicated, more of a mess. The second map reveals a couple of things. The first is how few South Africans speak just one language. The second is that while English is the dominant first language only in the cities – Johannesburg, Cape Town, Durban – it is widely used as a second language across the country. English is spread by the media and used as a common language of communication. But many South Africans are compelled to learn English, and often Afrikaans as well, simply to get a job and to work. These are often poorer people denied an adequate education. Elsewhere in the world the ability to speak many languages is a sign of sophistication. In South Africa, multilingualism – a complex undertaking, especially in languages from very different families – is a common achievement of the poor. Code-switching South Africa Language is fluid, especially in South Africa. Our languages are and have been for centuries in a constant swirl, mixed by work, migration, education, urbanisation, the places we live, friendship and marriage. Because of this, South Africans are a code-switching people. “Code switching” simply means using more than one language in a single conversation. Every adult South African does this at some time, even if they aren’t aware of it. Here’s an example overheard at a football match. IsiZulu is in regular type, Afrikaans in bold and English in italics: “I-Chiefs isidle nge-referee’s ngabe ihambe sleg. Maar why benga stopi this system ye-injury time?” A rough translation: “Chiefs [the football club] have won because the referee favoured them. Otherwise, they would have lost. But why is this system of injury time not stopped?” Influenced by the other languages spoken around them, all of South Africa’s languages change and grow all the time. Who speaks what? Watch: South Africa’s most recent census was in 2011. The following table gives a breakdown of first-language speakers, as recorded by the census. South Africa’s 11 official languages Language Subfamily 1st language share 1st language users 2nd language users All users Afrikaans Low Franconian 13.5% 6.9 million 10.3 million 17.2 million English West Germanic 9.6% 4.9 million 11.0 million 15.9 million isiNdebele Nguni 2.1% 1.1 million 1.4 million 2.5 million isiXhosa Nguni 16% 8.1 million 11.0 million 19.1 million isiZulu Nguni 22.7% 11.6 million 15.7 million 27.3 million Sesotho Sotho-Tswana 7.6% 3.8 million 7.9 million 11.8 million Sesotho sa Leboa (Sepedi) Sotho-Tswana 9.1% 4.6 million 9.1 million 13.8 million Setswana Sotho-Tswana 8% 4.1 million 7.7 million 11.8 million siSwati Nguni 2.5% 1.3 million 2.4 million 3.7 million Tshivenda Sotho-Makua-Venda 2.4% 1.2 million 1.7 million 2.9 million Xitsonga Tswa-Ronga 4.5% 2.3 million 3.4-million 5.7 million Source: Constitution Source: Glottolog Source: Census 2011 Source: Census 2011 Source: Webb 2002 Estimate The languages of the provinces The languages you hear in South Africa depend on where you are in the country. In the Eastern Cape isiXhosa is spoken by 80% of the population. IsiZulu is the largest language in both KwaZulu-Natal, where 78% speak it, and Gauteng, where it makes up 20% of languages. Sesotho is the language of the Free State, spoken by 64% people there. And so on … Watch: The main languages of each province are: Eastern Cape – isiXhosa (78.8%), Afrikaans (10.6%) Free State – Sesotho (64.2%), Afrikaans (12.7%) Gauteng – isiZulu (19.8%), English (13.3%), Afrikaans (12.4%), Sesotho (11.6%) KwaZulu-Natal – isiZulu (77.8%), English (13.2%) Limpopo – Sesotho sa Leboa (52.9%), Xitsonga (17%), Tshivenda (16.7%) Mpumalanga – siSwati (27.7%), isiZulu (24.1%), Xitsonga (10.4%), isiNdebele (10.1%) Northern Cape – Afrikaans (53.8%), Setswana (33.1%) North West – Setswana (63.4%), Afrikaans (9%) Western Cape – Afrikaans (49.7%), isiXhosa (24.7%), English (20.3%) The languages Unless otherwise indicated, all figures below are from Census 2011 and refer only to first language – the language spoken at home. Afrikaans Also known as: isiBhuru (isiNdebele), isiBhulu (isiXhosa), isiBhunu (isiZulu), siBhunu (siSwati), Seburu (Sesotho sa Leboa), Xibunu (Xitsonga) First-language users: 6,855,082 (13.5% of South Africans) Second-language users: 10,300,000 (2002 estimate) All users: 17,155,082 (estimate) Afrikaans evolved out of a 17th-century Dutch dialect introduced to South Africa in 1652 when the Dutch first colonised the Cape of Good Hope. Today it is the majority language of the Northern Cape. Afrikaans became an official language in South Africa with the Official Languages of the Union Act of 1925, which retroactively dated the language’s official status to 1910. The 6,855,082 South Africans who speak Afrikaans as a first language make up 13.5% of the country’s total population. More than half (50.2%) of these Afrikaans speakers are coloured, 39.5% white, 8.8% black, 0.9% Indian or Asian, and 0.6% other. More than three-quarters (75.8%) of coloured South Africans speak Afrikaans, as do almost two-thirds (60.8%) of whites. It is the home language of 4.6% of Indian or Asian people, and of 1.5% of black South Africans. Afrikaans and South Africa’s population groups Black Coloured Indian or Asian White Other All Total population 41,000,938 4,615,401 1,286,930 4,586,838 280,454 51,770,560 Afrikaans speakers 602,166 3,442,164 58,700 2,710,461 41,591 6,855,082 Share of population 1.5% 75.8% 4.6% 60.8% 15.2% 13.5% Most Afrikaans speakers (41%) live in the Western Cape, and 21% in Gauteng. Ten percent of all Afrikaans speakers live in the Eastern Cape, 8.8% in the Northern Cape, and 5% in the Free State. Within the provinces, Afrikaans is the majority language in the Northern Cape (53.8%) and the Western Cape (49.7%). It makes up 12.7% of languages spoken in the Free State, 12.4% of Gauteng’s languages, 10.6% of languages in the Eastern Cape, 9% in North West, 7.2% in Mpumalanga, 2.6% in Limpopo and 1.6% in KwaZulu-Natal. English Also known as: Engels (Afrikaans), isiNgisi (isiNdebele and isiZulu), isiNgesi (isiXhosa), Senyesemane (Sesotho), Seisemane (Sesotho sa Leboa), siNgisi (siSwati), Xinghezi (Xitsonga) First-language users: 4,892,623 (9.6% of South Africans) Second-language users: 11,000,000 (2002 estimate) All users: 15,892,623 (estimate) English is a prominent language in South African public life, widely used in government, business and the media. As a first language it is mainly confined to the cities. In 1910 English and Dutch were declared the official languages of the new Union of South Africa. English has retained this official status ever since. The 4,892,623 South Africans who speak English as a first language make up 9.6% of the country’s total population. Among first-language English speakers, 32.8% are white, 23.9% black, 22.4% Indian and 19.3% coloured. The majority (86.1%) of Indian South Africans speak English as their home language, as do over a third (35.9%) of whites. It is the first language of 20.8% of coloured people, and of 2.9% of black South Africans. English and South Africa’s population groups Black Coloured Indian or Asian White Other All Total population 40,413,408 4,541,358 1,271,158 4,461,409 274,111 50,961,443 English speakers 1,167,913 945,847 1,094,317 1,603,575 80,971 4,892,623 Share of population 2.9% 20.8% 86.1% 35.9% 29.5% 9.6% The largest number of English speakers are in Gauteng – 1.6-million people, or a third (32.8%) of all English-speaking South Africans. Over a quarter (27.3%) live in KwaZulu-Natal, 23.5% in the Western Cape, and 7.4% in the Eastern Cape. English is a minority language within all nine provinces. It is the second-largest language in both the Western Cape (after Afrikaans) and Gauteng (after isiZulu). In the Western Cape it is spoken by 20.2% of the population, and in Gauteng by 13.3%. English is minimally spoken in the other provinces. Read more: The online dictionary of South African English isiNdebele Also known as: Ndebele, Southern Ndebele, Ndzundza, isiKhethu First-language users: 1,090,233 (2.1% of South Africans) Second-language users: 1,400,000 (2002 estimate) All users: 2,490,233 (estimate) IsiNdebele is the least spoken of South Africa’s 11 official languages, and confined mainly to Mpumalanga and Gauteng. It is an Nguni language, like isiZulu, isiXhosa and siSwati. Also called Southern Ndebele, it is not to be confused with Northern Ndebele, more commonly known as Matabele, which is closer to isiZulu and an official language of Zimbabwe. The 1,090,223 South Africans who speak isiNdebele as a first language make up just 2.1% of the country’s total population. Among first-language isiNdebele speakers, 97% are black, 0.9% Indian or Asian, 0.8% coloured, 0.8% white and 0.5% other. IsiNdebele is spoken by 2.6% of black South Africans – fewer than the 2.9% who speak English at home. It is barely spoken by other population groups, being the home language of 0.2% of both the coloured and white population, and 0.8% of Indian or Asian people. It is also spoken by 2.1% of people who describe themselves as “other”. IsiNdebele and South Africa’s population groups Black Coloured Indian or Asian White Other All Total population 40,413,408 4,541,358 1,271,158 4,461,409 274,111 50,961,443 IsiNdebele speakers 1,057,781 8,225 9,815 8,611 5,791 1,090,223 Share of population 2.6% 0.2% 0.8% 0.2% 2.1% 2.1% Most isiNdebele speakers (37%) live in Mpumalanga, followed by Gauteng (34.9%), KwaZulu-Natal (10.2%), Limpopo (9.6%) and North West (4%). IsiNdebele is a minority language in all the provinces. It is spoken by 10.1% of the population of Mpumalanga and 3.2% of Gautengers. isiXhosa Also known as: Xhosa First-language users: 8,154,258 Second-language users: 11,000,000 (2002 estimate) All users: 19,154,258 (estimate) The dominant language of the Eastern Cape, isiXhosa is also the second-largest language in South Africa after isiZulu. It is an Nguni language, like isiNdebele, isiZulu and siSwati, but also shows some influence from the Khoekhoe languages. The 8,154,258 South Africans who speak isiXhosa as a first language make up 16% of the country’s total population. Among first-language isiXhosa speakers, 99.4% are black, 0.3% coloured, 0.2% white and 0.1% Indian or Asian. Among the population groups, isiXhosa is spoken by 20.1% of black South Africans, the second-largest share after isiZulu. It is the home language of 0.6% of coloured people, 0.4% of Indians, 0.3% of whites and 1.9% of people who describe themselves as “other”. IsiXhosa and South Africa’s population groups Black Coloured Indian or Asian White Other All Total population 40,413,408 4,541,358 1,271,158 4,461,409 274,111 50,961,443 IsiXhosa speakers 8,104,752 25,340 5,342 13,641 5,182 8,154,258 Share of population 20.1% 0.6% 0.4% 0.3% 1.9% 16% Close to two-thirds (62.4%) of first-language isiXhosa speakers live in the Eastern Cape, and 17.2% in the Western Cape. About a tenth (9.8%) of all isiXhosa speakers live in Gauteng. Within the provinces, isiXhosa is the majority language in the Eastern Cape, where its 5,092,152 first-language users make up 78.8% of the population. In the Western Cape a quarter (24.7%) of the population speaks isiXhosa. IsiXhosa is spoken by 7.5% of people in the Free State, 6.6% in Gauteng, 5.5% in North West, and 5.3% in the Northern Cape. isiZulu Also known as: Zulu First-language users: 11,587,374 (22.7% of the population) Second-language users: 15,700,000 (2002 estimate) All users: 27,300,000 (estimate) IsiZulu is the most widely spoken language in South Africa, the first language of close to a quarter of the population. It is the dominant language of KwaZulu-Natal. Like isiNdebele, isiXhosa and siSwati, isiZulu is an Nguni language. The 11,587,374 South Africans who speak isiZulu as their home language make up 22.7% of the country’s total population. A full 99.4% of first-language isiZulu speakers are black, 0.2% coloured, 0.1% white and 0.1% Indian or Asian. IsiZulu is spoken by 28.5% of black South Africans, more than any other language. It is the home language of 1.3% of Indian or Asian people, 0.5% of coloureds, 0.4% of whites and 4.1% of people who describe themselves as “other”. IsiZulu and South Africa’s population groups Black Coloured Indian or Asian White Other All Total population 40,413,408 4,541,358 1,271,158 4,461,409 274,111 50,961,443 IsiZulu speakers 11,519,234 23,797 16,699 16,458 11,186 11,587,374 Share of population 28.5% 0.5% 1.3% 0.4% 4.1% 22.7% Over two-thirds (68.2%) of isiZulu-speaking South Africans live in KwaZulu-Natal, and more than a fifth (20.6% in Gauteng). Some 8.3% of all isiZulu speakers live in Mpumalanga, which borders KwaZulu-Natal to the northwest. The rest are thinly spread across the other provinces. Within the provinces, isiZulu is spoken by over three-quarters (77.8%) of the population of KwaZulu-Natal, and nearly a quarter (24.1%) of the people of Mpumalanga. Almost a fifth (19.8%) of Gautengers speak isiZulu. It is a small minority language in the rest of the provinces. Sesotho Also known as: Southern Sotho First-language users: 3,798,915 (7.6% of the population) Second-language users: 7,900,000 (2002 estimate) All users: 11,698,915 (estimate) Sesotho is the language of the Free State, and the first language of 3,798,915 South Africans, or 7.6% of the total population. It is one of the three Sotho languages, with Sesotho sa Leboa and Setswana. A full 98.7% of first-language Sesotho speakers are black, 0.6% coloured, 0.5% white and 0.1% Indian or Asian. Sesotho is spoken by just under a tenth (9.4%) of black South Africans. It is the home language of 0.5% of coloured people, of 0.4% of both white and Indian/Asian people, and of 1.7% of the people who describe themselves as “other”. Sesotho and South Africa’s population groups Black Coloured Indian or Asian White Other All South Africa’s population 40,413,408 4,541,358 1,271,158 4,461,409 274,111 50,961,443 Sesotho speakers 3,798,915 23,230 5,269 17,491 4,657 3,849,563 Share of population 9.4% 0.5% 0.4% 0.4% 1.7% 7.6% Most (44.6%) Sesotho speakers live in the Free State. The inner curve of this bean-shaped province fits around the northwest border of Lesotho, a country where Sesotho and English are the official languages. Over a third (36.2%) of all Sesotho-speaking South Africans live in Gauteng. Some 5.2% live in North West. Within the provinces, Sesotho is spoken by close to two-thirds (64.2%) of the population of the Free State, over a tenth (11.6%) of Gauteng, and by 5.8% of people living in North West. Sesotho sa Leboa (Sepedi) Also known as: Northern Sotho First-language users: 4,618,576 (9.1% of the population) Second-language users: 9,100,000 (2002 estimate) All users: 13,518,576 (estimate) Sesotho sa Leboa or Sepedi? The 1993 interim Constitution named the language Sesotho sa Leboa. It was then changed to Sepedi in the final Constitution of 1996. Debate on the right name continues. Most language experts, as well as speakers of the language, consider Sesotho sa Leboa to be the correct name, and Sepedi to be a dialect. In a study of the language policy of six South African universities, five used Sesotho sa Leboa and one Sepedi. But both the Department of Basic Education and Statistics South Africa use Sepedi as the language’s name. Sesotho sa Leboa is South Africa’s third-largest African language (after isiZulu and isiXhosa), and mainly spoken in Limpopo. Like Sesotho and Setswana, it is a Sotho language. Sesotho sa Leboa is the first language of 4,618,576 people, or 9.1% of the total population. A full 99.7% of first-language Sesotho sa Leboa speakers are black, 0.1% coloured, 0.1% white and 0.1% Indian or Asian. Sesotho sa Leboa is spoken by 11.4% of black South Africans. It is the home language of just 0.2% of Indians, 0.1% of coloureds, 0.1% of whites and 0.6% of people who describe themselves as “other”. Sesotho sa Leboa and South Africa’s population groups Black Coloured Indian or Asian White Other All Total population 40,413,408 4,541,358 1,271,158 4,461,409 274,111 50,961,443 Sesotho sa Leboa speakers 4,602,459 5,642 2,943 5,917 1,616 4,618,576 Share of population 11.4% 0.1% 0.2% 0.1% 0.6% 9.1% Nearly two-thirds of (61.2%) of all Sesotho sa Leboa speakers live in Limpopo, over a quarter (27.8%) in Gauteng and 8.1% in Mpumalanga. The rest of the language’s speakers are scattered around the country. Within the provinces, Sesotho sa Leboa is spoken by more than half (52.9%) the people of Limpopo, 10.6% of those in Gauteng, and 9.3% of Mpumalanga’s population. Setswana Also known as: Tswana, Sechuana, Chuana First-language users: 4,067,248 (8% of the population) Second-language users: 7,700,000 (2002 estimate) All users: 11,767,248 (estimate) The language of North West and its neighbouring country of Botswana, Setswana is the Tswanaic language in the Sotho-Tswana subfamily, which it shares with Sesotho and Sesotho sa Leboa. Its 3,996,951 speakers make up 8% of South Africa’s population. Some 98.3% of Setswana speakers are black, 1% coloured, 0.1% Indian or Asian and 0.1% white. Setswana is spoken by 9.9% of black South Africans, making it the third-largest language in the population group. It is the first language of 0.9% of coloured people, 0.4% of both Indians and whites, and 2.4% of people who describe themselves as “other”. Setswana and South Africa’s population groups Black Coloured Indian or Asian White Other All Total population 40,413,408 4,541,358 1,271,158 4,461,409 274,111 50,961,443 Setswana speakers 3,996,951 40,351 4,917 18,358 6,671 4,067,248 Share of population 9.9% 0.9% 0.4% 0.4% 2.4% 8.0% Over a half (52.9%) of Setswana speakers live in North West, a quarter (26.9%) in Gauteng, and close on a tenth (9.2%) in the Northern Cape. Both North West and the Northern Cape lie on the border of Botswana, where 79% of the population speak Setswana. Within the provinces, Setswana is spoken by nearly two-thirds (63.4%) of the population of North West, a third (33.1%) of the Northern Cape’s people, by 9.1% of Gauteng’s population and 5.2% of the Free State’s. siSwati Also known as: Swati, Swazi First-language users: 1,297,046 (2.5% of the population) Second-language users: 2,400,000 (2002 estimate) All users: 3,697,046 (estimate) SiSwati is mostly spoken in Mpumalanga, which along its curved eastern border almost encircles the country of Swaziland. SiSwati is an Nguni language, like isiNdebele, isiXhosa and isiZulu. The 1,297,046 people who speak siSwati are just 2.5% of South Africa’s population, making it the country’s third-smallest language. Among first-language siSwati speakers, 99.3% are black, 0.3% coloured, 0.2% white and 0.1% Indian or Asian. In the population as a whole, siSwati is spoken by 3.2% of black South Africans, by around 0.1% of the other population groups, and by 0.5% of people who describe themselves as “other”. SiSwati and South Africa’s population groups Black Coloured Indian or Asian White Other All Total population 40,413,408 4,541,358 1,271,158 4,461,409 274,111 50,961,443 SiSwati speakers 1,288,156 4,056 1,217 2,299 1,320 234,655 Share of population 3.2% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 0.5% 2.5% Most siSwati speakers live in Mpumalanga – 85.3% of its total users and the highest provincial concentration of any language. Another tenth (10.5%) live in Gauteng, and the rest are scattered mainly over the northern parts of the country. Within the provinces, sisSwati is spoken by 27.7% of the total population of Mpumalanga, and just 1.1% of Gautengers. Tshivenda Also known as: Venda, Chivenda First-language users: 1,209,388 (2.4% of the population) Second-language users: 1,700,000 (2002 estimate) All users: 2,909,388 (estimate) Tshivenda is something of a standalone among South Africa’s major African languages, falling into the broader Sotho-Makua-Venda subfamily but not part of the Sotho group. It is mostly spoken in the far northeast of Limpopo. The 1,209,388 South Africans who speak Tshivenda are just 2.4% of the country’s population, making it the second-smallest language after isiNdebele. A full 99.4% of first-language Tshivenda speakers are black, 0.2% coloured, 0.2% white and 0.1% Indian or Asian. Tshivenda is spoken by 3% of black South Africans, by just 0.1% of the other population groups, and by 0.5% of people who describe themselves as “other”. Tshivenda and South Africa’s population groups Black Coloured Indian or Asian White Other All Total population 40,413,408 4,541,358 1,271,158 4,461,409 274,111 50,961,443 Tshivenda speakers 1,201,588 2,847 810 2,889 1,254 1,297,046 Share of population 3.0% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 0.5% 2.4 Three quarters (73.8%) of Tshivenda speakers live in Limpopo, giving the language the second-highest provincial concentration after siSwati. A further 22.5% of Tshivenda speakers live in Gauteng. Within the provinces, Tshivenda is spoken by 16.7% of the population of Limpopo, and 2.3% of the population of Gauteng. Xitsonga Also known as: Tsonga, Shangaan, Shangana, Vatsonga First-language users: 2,277,148 (4.5% of the population) Second-language users: 3,400,000 (2002 estimate) All users: 5,677,148 (estimate) Xitsonga is a minority language concentrated along South Africa’s northeast border with the country of Mozambique, where it is also spoken. Within the broader Nguni-Tsonga language subfamily which it shares with isiNdebele, isiXhosa, isiZulu and siSwati, it alone falls into the Tswa-Ronga group, while the other languages are Nguni. The 2,277,148 South Africans who speak Xitsonga as their home language make up 4.5% of the country’s total population. A full 99.1% of first-language Xitsonga speakers are black, 0.2% white, 0.1% coloured and 0.1% Indian or Asian. Xitsonga is spoken by 5.6% of black South Africans, 0.2% of Indians, 0.1% of whites, 0.05% of coloureds and 3.9% of people who describe themselves as “other”. Xitsonga and South Africa’s population groups Black Coloured Indian or Asian White Other All Total population 40,413,408 4,541,358 1,271,158 4,461,409 274,111 50,961,443 Xitsonga speakers 2,257,771 2,268 2,506 3,987 10,616 1,209,388 Share of population 5.6% 0.05% 0.2% 0.09% 3.9% 4.5% Nearly two-fifths (39.8%) of Xitsonga-speaking South Africans live in Limpopo, over a third (35%) in Gauteng, 18.3% in Mpumalanga and 5.6% in North West. Within the provinces, Xitsonga is spoken by 17% of the population of Limpopo, 10.4% of Mpumalanga and 6.6% of the people in Gauteng. Sources and notes Glottolog – Comprehensive reference information for the world’s languages, especially the lesser known languages. Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 Statistics South Africa Census 2011 Adrian Frith: Census 2011 Ethnologue: Languages of South Africa, 20th edition data (2017) Pharos South African Multilingual Dictionary (2014) ISBN 9781868901975 Language in South Africa: The role of language in national transformation, reconstruction and development (2002) by Victor Webb. ISBN 9789027297631 “The twelve modern Khoisan languages” (2013) by Matthias Bretzinger. In Khoisan languages and linguistics, Proceedings of the 3rd international symposium. ISBN 9783896458735 Researched, written and designed by Mary Alexander. Updated 22 October 2023. Comments? Email mary1alexander@gmail.com The graphics on this page are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Licence. Share this:
4519	dbpedia	0	73	https://www.codequoi.com/en/binary-010-uses-of-bit-shifting-and-bitwise-operations/	en	Binary 010: The Uses of Bit Shifting and Bitwise Operations	https://www.codequoi.com…binary_cover.png	https://www.codequoi.com…binary_cover.png	[ "https://www.codequoi.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/codequoi-logo-200x71-1.png", "https://www.codequoi.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/codequoi-logo-200x71-1.png", "https://www.codequoi.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/codequoi-logo-200x71-1.png", "https://www.codequoi.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/binary_bits_printed.png", "https://www.codequoi.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/binary_bits_printed.png", "https://www.codequoi.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/bit_shift_bits_printed.png", "https://www.codequoi.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/bitwise_NOT_bits_printed.png", "https://www.codequoi.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/bitwise_NOT_bits_printed.png", "https://www.codequoi.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/bitwise_AND_bits_printed.png", "https://www.codequoi.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/bitwise_AND_bits_printed.png", "https://www.codequoi.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/bitwise_OR_bits_printed-1.png", "https://www.codequoi.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/bitwise_OR_bits_printed-1.png", "https://www.codequoi.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/bitwise_XOR_bits_printed-1.png", "https://www.codequoi.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/bitwise_XOR_bits_printed-1.png", "https://i.creativecommons.org/l/by-nc-sa/4.0/88x31.png", "https://i.creativecommons.org/l/by-nc-sa/4.0/88x31.png", "https://www.codequoi.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/codequoi-logo-200x71-1.png", "https://www.codequoi.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/codequoi-logo-200x71-1.png", "https://www.codequoi.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/codequoi-logo-200x71-1.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Mia Combeau" ]	2022-05-07T17:52:29+00:00	Manipulating bits with bitwise and bit shifting operations grants insight into the workings of a computer. Let's see why and how to use them.	en	https://www.codequoi.com…x512-1-32x32.png	codequoi	https://www.codequoi.com/en/binary-010-uses-of-bit-shifting-and-bitwise-operations/	Computers only know one language: binary. Our many programming languages allow us to give instructions in a human-readable format, which are then translated into long sequences of 0s and 1s. Although this level of abstraction is essential to us humans, it can be useful and even much more efficient to manipulate bits directly, thanks to bit shifting and bitwise operations. We previously had the opportunity to examine how binary works and how computers do basic calculations. Here, we will discover the operators that allow us to manipulate bits and why we might want to use them. Bit Manipulation Operators In programming languages that allow low-level bit manipulation, such as C, the operators are as follows: In order to take a closer look at each of these operators, let’s create a small C program. It will print out the 32 bits of an unsigned integer with spaces for readability. Sadly, printf does not offer any specification to print an integer in base 2. Which means we need to write our own function to format our binary number correctly. We will have two files, bitwise.c which we will modify over the course of this article to test each bitwise operator, and ft_unsigned_itoa_base.c for formatting. Here is the source code : Output : With this little program, we will be able to easily observe the effects of bitwise and bit shifting operators on an unsigned integer. Let’s start with bit shifting. Bit Shifting Bit shifting is a simple operation during which all the bits in a field are shifted a certain number of positions to the right or left. Let’s try to see this effect with out program. First, we will move all the bits of our unsigned integer one step to the right, and then 10 steps to the left: char ft_unsigned_itoa_base(unsigned n, unsigned base); int main(void) { unsigned int nb; unsigned int nb_mod; char nb_str; nb = 242; nb_str = ft_unsigned_itoa_base(nb, 2); printf("Binary number:\t\t%s (Decimal: %010u)\n", nb_str, nb); free(nb_str); nb_mod = nb >> 1; nb_str = ft_unsigned_itoa_base(nb_mod, 2); printf("Bitshift 1 right:\t%s (Decimal: %010u)\n", nb_str, nb_mod); free(nb_str); nb_mod = nb << 10; nb_str = ft_unsigned_itoa_base(nb_mod, 2); printf("Bitshift 10 left:\t%s (Decimal: %010u)\n", nb_str, nb_mod); free(nb_str); return (0); } Code language: C++ (cpp) In this result, we can see that the bits were indeed shifted one step to the right, and then 10 steps to the left. We can also see that zeros come to replace the shifted bits, which changes the value of our number drastically, albeit predictably. As a matter of fact, shifting bits towards the right amounts to dividing our value by 2 to the power of the number of steps the bits were shifted. Shifting them to the left is the same as multiplying the value by 2 to the power of the number of steps shifted. Our original value was 242, when we moved the bits 10 steps to the left, our value was multiplied by 2 power of 10 (1024) : 242 x 210 = 247,808. However, if we wish to use bit shifting for multiplication, we can’t forget that if the number is large, there is a good chance we might loose the most significant bit, which would distort the result. In addition, the examples we are using in this article are unsigned integers, but if the number is negative and negative numbers are represented with two’s complement, the sign bit might be altered during a bit shift to the left. For example, if our data type is 8 bits maximum (a char): Unsigned binary integer: 1011 0111 (183) Left shift by 1: 0110 1110 (110) But 183 * 2 = 366, not 110... We have lost the most significant bit to the left because of the overflow! Signed binary integer: 1011 0111 (-73) Left shift by 1: 0110 1110 (+110) But (-73) * 2 = -146, not 110... Here, we lost the most significant bit that indicated the sign!Code language: plaintext (plaintext) Binary Logical Operations The other operations we can do on a binary number are logical ones. These operators are identical to the logic gates of an electronic circuit: they take one or two inputs and produce an output. They are the AND, OR, XOR, and NOT operators, which are the very foundations of computer processing. Every computer calculation is inextricably linked to this physical logic. Let’s see how each of these operators work. Bitwise NOT Operator (~) Unlike the operators shown below, the bitwise NOT operator works with a single input. Simply put, it outputs the exact opposite of a bit field. That is, if the bit is at 0, the NOT operator returns 1, if the bit is at 1, it returns 0. A tilde, ~, represents this NOT operator. Let’s test it out: char ft_unsigned_itoa_base(unsigned n, unsigned base); int main(void) { unsigned int nb; unsigned int nb_mod; char nb_str; nb = 2423; nb_str = ft_unsigned_itoa_base(nb, 2); printf("Binary number:\t\t%s (Decimal: %010u)\n", nb_str, nb); free(nb_str); nb_mod = ~nb; nb_str = ft_unsigned_itoa_base(nb_mod, 2); printf("Bitwise NOT:\t\t%s (Decimal: %010u)\n", nb_str, nb_mod); free(nb_str); return (0); } Code language: C++ (cpp) As we can see, all the bits are inverted as a result of the NOT operation. This is what is known as a one’s complement. Bitwise AND Operator (&) The logical AND operator compares two bits and returns true (1) only if both bits have a value of 1. If one or the other or both have the value 0, the result of the operation will be false (0). We can sum this up in a small truth table: To represent this AND operator in a bitwise operation, we use a special character, the ampersand: &. Let’s modify our code a little bit with two numbers: char ft_unsigned_itoa_base(unsigned n, unsigned base); int main(void) { unsigned int nb1; unsigned int nb2; unsigned int res; char nb_str; nb1 = 2423; nb2 = 10002; nb_str = ft_unsigned_itoa_base(nb1, 2); printf("Binary number 1:\t%s (Decimal: %010u)\n", nb_str, nb1); free(nb_str); nb_str = ft_unsigned_itoa_base(nb2, 2); printf("Binary number 2:\t%s (Decimal: %010u)\n", nb_str, nb2); free(nb_str); res = nb1 & nb2; nb_str = ft_unsigned_itoa_base(res, 2); printf("Bitwise AND:\t\t%s (Decimal: %010u)\n", nb_str, res); free(nb_str); return (0); } Code language: C++ (cpp) And indeed, we can see here that only the bits set to 1 at the same position in both numbers were copied to the result of the bitwise & operation, the rest is set to 0. To do the exact opposite of the AND operation, NAND, all we need to do is invert all the bits in our result with ~(nb1 & nb2) ! Bitwise OR operator (\|) Unlike the AND operator, the OR operator returns true (1) if one of the two bits is set to 1. It is only when both are set to 0 that it also returns 0 (false): The character we use to represent this bitwise OR operator is the vertical bar: \|. Let’s modify our program again to demonstrate: char ft_unsigned_itoa_base(unsigned n, unsigned base); int main(void) { unsigned int nb1; unsigned int nb2; unsigned int res; char nb_str; nb1 = 2423; nb2 = 10002; nb_str = ft_unsigned_itoa_base(nb1, 2); printf("Binary number 1:\t%s (Decimal: %010u)\n", nb_str, nb1); free(nb_str); nb_str = ft_unsigned_itoa_base(nb2, 2); printf("Binary number 2:\t%s (Decimal: %010u)\n", nb_str, nb2); free(nb_str); res = nb1 \| nb2; nb_str = ft_unsigned_itoa_base(res, 2); printf("Bitwise OR:\t\t%s (Decimal: %010u)\n", nb_str, res); free(nb_str); return (0); } Code language: C++ (cpp) With precisely the same values as the previous bitwise AND operator example, we find ourselves with a totally different result. Here, as long as there is a 1 at a position in either binary number, it is copied to the result. Just like the previous operation, we can do the opposite operation to this one, NOR, with a one’s complement of the result: ~(nb1 \| nb2). Bitwise XOR Operator (^) The logical XOR operator (also known as “exclusive OR”) has one major difference from its counterpart OR. It returns true (1), only if one of the two bits is set to 1. Otherwise, if both are at 1 or both are at 0, it returns false (0). We can represent this bitwise operator with a caret: ^ . Let’s take a look at the differences with the previous example: char ft_unsigned_itoa_base(unsigned n, unsigned base); int main(void) { unsigned int nb1; unsigned int nb2; unsigned int res; char nb_str; nb1 = 2423; nb2 = 10002; nb_str = ft_unsigned_itoa_base(nb1, 2); printf("Binary number 1:\t%s (Decimal: %010u)\n", nb_str, nb1); free(nb_str); nb_str = ft_unsigned_itoa_base(nb2, 2); printf("Binary number 2:\t%s (Decimal: %010u)\n", nb_str, nb2); free(nb_str); res = nb1 ^ nb2; nb_str = ft_unsigned_itoa_base(res, 2); printf("Bitwise XOR:\t\t%s (Decimal: %010u)\n", nb_str, res); free(nb_str); return (0); } Code language: C++ (cpp) Once more, without changing the values of our binary numbers, we get a very different result because only the bits with a value of 1 in one number but not the other are added to the result. And of course, the opposite operation, XNOR can be done with ~(nb1 ^ nb2). Why Use Bit Shifting and Bitwise Operations? The usefulness of bit shifting and bitwise operations may seem pretty limited at first glance. The vast majority of programming languages take care of these behind the scenes, during compilation, for example. But beyond the intellectual satisfaction that these operators provide by allowing us to come closer to the internal operations of a computer, they are also very efficient. These bit manipulation operations are undeniably primitive, trivial actions to a CPU. They only take one cycle to perform. For many processors, that is much faster than a multiplication or a division. Even with the technological advances that allow modern processors to do arithmetic and logical operations almost as fast as bitwise and bit shifting operations, the latter still consume less energy and fewer resources. Bit manipulation is particularly useful for programming in low resource environments, where we must optimize the speed and memory use of our code as much as possible. Practical Examples of Bit Shifting and Bitwise Operations There are multitudes of interesting applications for bit shifting and bitwise operations, whether it be to optimize a mathematical operation or to store the terrain map of a 2D video game. The four following examples are only a few common practices. Checking if a Number is Odd or Even It goes without saying that if a binary number is even, the least significant bit will be 0, if it is odd, it will be 1. Therefore, we can check any number with the & operation, like this: int main(void) { int x; x = 108; if (x & 1) printf("%d is an odd number.\n", x); if (!(x & 1)) printf("%d is an even number.\n", x); return (0); } Code language: C++ (cpp) Since the bitwise & operator compares two bits and gets 1 if both are set to 1 but 0 otherwise, we can explain the logic like this: 108 = 1101100 1 = 0000001 & = 0000000 -> false (0), the number is even. 107 = 1101011 1 = 0000001 & = 0000001 -> true (1), the number is odd.Code language: plaintext (plaintext) Checking if a Number is a Power of Two The method to determine if a number is a power of two requires us to divide that number by two repeatedly until we can’t anymore. If there is a remainder, it isn’t a power of two, but if we get to 1 without any remainder, we know it is a power of two. There is a much simpler and more efficient way to check this with bitwise operations: int main(void) { int x; x = 1024; if (x != 0 && (x & (x - 1)) == 0) printf("%d is a power of 2.\n", x); else printf("%d is not a power of 2.\n", x); x = 512; if (x != 0 && (x & (x - 1)) == 0) printf("%d is a power of 2.\n", x); else printf("%d is not a power of 2.\n", x); x = 800; if (x != 0 && (x & (x - 1)) == 0) printf("%d is a power of 2.\n", x); else printf("%d is not a power of 2.\n", x); return (0); } Code language: C++ (cpp) This expression works because we know that a number that is a power of two will have a special notation in binary. Each power of 2 is a number that contains only one bit with set to 1, all other bits will be 0: x = 0100 0000 (64) x - 1 = 0011 1111 (63) & = 0000 0000 The condition (x & (x -1)) == 0 returns true (1). Number 64 is a power of 2.Code language: plaintext (plaintext) However, a binary number that isn’t a power of 2 will have bits set to 1 in several different places: x = 0010 1010 (42) x - 1 = 0010 1001 (41) & = 0010 1000 The condition (x & (x -1)) == 0 returns false (0) ! Number 42 is not a power of 2.Code language: plaintext (plaintext) Swapping Two Values Without a Temporary Variable A temporary variable, even a very short-lived one, takes up memory space. We can swap the values of two variables without any temporary variables thanks to the bitwise ^ operator. Keeping in mind that the XOR operator only sets a 1 where one or the other number has a 1, let’s study the following example: int main(void) { int a; int b; a = 3; b = 2; printf("Before swap: a = %d, b = %d\n", a, b); a ^= b; b ^= a; a ^= b; printf("After swap: a = %d, b = %d\n", a, b); return (0); } Code language: C++ (cpp) Storing Multiple Boolean Flags A boolean is a simple type of variable that can represent two possible states: true or false. A boolean is always stored in memory on 1 byte, which is at least 8 bits. But all we need is 1 bit to represent these two statues: 1 for true, 0 for false… If we are dealing with multiple flags, it is much more cost-efficient in terms of memory space to store them all in the same variable. For example, three flags declared in their own boolean variable would each take up 1 byte, so that’s 3 bytes total. Thanks to bitwise operations, we could instead store these three flags in a char, which would be 1 byte for all three. This principle is, by the way, how Unix error codes are handled. int main(void) { char flags; flags = 0; flags \|= FLAG_2; flags \|= FLAG_1; if (flags & FLAG_1) printf("Flag 1 is true.\n"); else printf("Flag 1 is false.\n"); if (flags & FLAG_2) printf("Flag 2 is true.\n"); else printf("Flag 2 is false.\n"); if (flags & FLAG_3) printf("Flag 3 is true.\n"); else printf("Flag 3 is false\n"); flags ^= FLAG_2; if (flags & FLAG_2) printf("Oops, flag 2 is still true.\n"); else printf("Flag 2 is now false.\n"); return (0); } Code language: C++ (cpp) The useful thing is that if we ever need to store more than 8 flags, we can simply go to a larger capacity variable type. A short int would allow us to store up to 16 flags, and an int, up to 32! Bit Twiddling Low-level bit manipulation is called “bit twiddling” or “bit bashing”, particularly when the solutions are ingenious or non-obvious. Sometimes, these terms can be used in a pejorative manner, for superfluous manipulations that make the source code hard to read for very negligible performance optimizations. We should take care to use these manipulations appropriately, when the need for optimization arises. Sean Anderson’s collection of Bit Twiddling Hacks [stanford.edu] is rich with examples of useful bit manipulations. Sources and Further Reading
4519	dbpedia	3	26	https://news.mit.edu/2014/essays-english-yield-information-about-other-languages-0723	en	Essays in English yield information about other languages	https://news.mit.edu/sit…gLanguage_A1.jpg	https://news.mit.edu/sit…gLanguage_A1.jpg	[ "https://news.mit.edu/sites/default/files/styles/news_article__download/public/download/201407/MITnews_ComputingLanguage_01.jpg?itok=jnm1bTbE", "https://news.mit.edu/sites/default/files/styles/news_article__download/public/download/201407/MITnews_ComputingLanguage_02.jpg?itok=UqtBwXSd", "https://news.mit.edu/themes/mit/src/img/placeholder/placeholder--news-article--image-gallery.jpg", "https://news.mit.edu/themes/mit/src/img/placeholder/placeholder--news-article--image-gallery.jpg", "https://news.mit.edu/themes/mit/src/img/placeholder/placeholder--frontpage--featured-news.jpg", "https://news.mit.edu/themes/mit/src/img/placeholder/placeholder--frontpage--featured-news.jpg", "https://news.mit.edu/themes/mit/src/img/placeholder/placeholder--frontpage--featured-news.jpg", "https://news.mit.edu/themes/mit/src/img/placeholder/placeholder--frontpage--featured-news.jpg", "https://news.mit.edu/themes/mit/src/img/placeholder/placeholder--frontpage--featured-news.jpg", "https://news.mit.edu/themes/mit/src/img/placeholder/placeholder--frontpage--featured-news.jpg", "https://news.mit.edu/themes/mit/src/img/placeholder/placeholder--frontpage--featured-news.jpg", "https://news.mit.edu/themes/mit/src/img/placeholder/placeholder--frontpage--featured-news.jpg", "https://news.mit.edu/themes/mit/src/img/placeholder/placeholder--frontpage--featured-news.jpg", "https://news.mit.edu/themes/mit/src/img/placeholder/placeholder--frontpage--featured-news.jpg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Larry Hardesty", "MIT News Office" ]	2014-07-23T13:45:00+00:00	Grammatical habits in written English reveal linguistic features of non-native speakers’ languages.	en	/themes/mit/assets/img/favicon/favicon.ico	MIT News \| Massachusetts Institute of Technology	https://news.mit.edu/2014/essays-english-yield-information-about-other-languages-0723	Computer scientists at MIT and Israel’s Technion have discovered an unexpected source of information about the world’s languages: the habits of native speakers of those languages when writing in English. The work could enable computers chewing through relatively accessible documents to approximate data that might take trained linguists months in the field to collect. But that data could in turn lead to better computational tools. “These [linguistic] features that our system is learning are of course, on one hand, of nice theoretical interest for linguists,” says Boris Katz, a principal research scientist at MIT’s Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory and one of the leaders of the new work. “But on the other, they’re beginning to be used more and more often in applications. Everybody’s very interested in building computational tools for world languages, but in order to build them, you need these features. So we may be able to do much more than just learn linguistic features. … These features could be extremely valuable for creating better parsers, better speech-recognizers, better natural-language translators, and so forth.” In fact, Katz explains, the researchers’ theoretical discovery resulted from their work on a practical application: About a year ago, Katz proposed to one of his students, Yevgeni Berzak, that he try to write an algorithm that could automatically determine the native language of someone writing in English. The hope was to develop grammar-correcting software that could be tailored to a user’s specific linguistic background. Family resemblance With help from Katz and from Roi Reichart, an engineering professor at the Technion who was a postdoc at MIT, Berzak built a system that combed through more than 1,000 English-language essays written by native speakers of 14 different languages. First, it analyzed the parts of speech of the words in every sentence of every essay and the relationships between them. Then it looked for patterns in those relationships that correlated with the writers’ native languages. Like most machine-learning classification algorithms, Berzak’s assigned probabilities to its inferences. It might conclude, for instance, that a particular essay had a 51 percent chance of having been written by a native Russian speaker, a 33 percent chance of having been written by a native Polish speaker, and only a 16 percent chance of having been written by a native Japanese speaker. In analyzing the results of their experiments, Berzak, Katz, and Reichart noticed a remarkable thing: The algorithm’s probability estimates provided a quantitative measure of how closely related any two languages were; Russian speakers’ syntactic patterns, for instance, were more similar to those of Polish speakers than to those of Japanese speakers. When they used that measure to create a family tree of the 14 languages in their data set, it was almost identical to a family tree generated from data amassed by linguists. The nine languages that are in the Indo-European family, for instance, were clearly distinct from the five that aren’t, and the Romance languages and the Slavic languages were more similar to each other than they were to the other Indo-European languages. What’s your type? “The striking thing about this tree is that our system inferred it without having seen a single word in any of these languages,” Berzak says. “We essentially get the similarity structure for free. Now we can take it one step further and use this tree to predict typological features of a language for which we have no linguistic knowledge.” By “typological features,” Berzak means the types of syntactic patterns that linguists use to characterize languages — things like the typical order of subject, object, and verb; how negations are formed; or whether nouns take articles. A widely used online linguistic database called the World Atlas of Language Structures (WALS) identifies nearly 200 such features and includes data on more than 2,000 languages. But, Berzak says, for some of those languages, WALS includes only a handful of typological features; the others just haven’t been determined yet. Even widely studied European languages may have dozens of missing entries in the WALS database. At the time of his study, Berzak points out, only 14 percent of the entries in WALS had been filled in. The new system could help fill in the gaps. In work presented last month at the Conference on Computational Natural Language Learning, Berzak, Katz, and Reichart ran a series of experiments that examined each of the 14 languages of the essays they’d analyzed, trying to predict its typological features from those of the other 13 languages, based solely on the similarity scores produced by the system. On average, those predictions were about 72 percent accurate. Branching out The 14 languages of the researchers’ initial experiments were the ones for which an adequate number of essays — an average of 88 each — were publicly available. But Katz is confident that given enough training data, the system would perform just as well on other languages. Berzak points out that the African language Tswana, which has only five entries in WALS, nonetheless has 6 million speakers worldwide. It shouldn’t be too difficult, Berzak argues, to track down more English-language essays by native Tswana speakers. “There are folks who have been debating to what degree, when you learn a second language, you’re just starting over and learning the structure of the language,” says Robert Frank, chair of Yale University’s linguistics department. “Another hypothesis is that you think of the new language as a modified version of your language. Some researchers think that such modifications take place at a fairly superficial level. But others think they operate over bits of abstract grammar." The MIT researchers’ technique could help sharpen that debate, Frank says. The ability to predict features of speakers’ native languages from the syntax of their written English, he says, shows that “there is clearly a reflection of the grammar of the original language. So it’s not that they just start over from scratch.” In French, for instance, objects follow verbs — unless they’re pronouns, in which case they precede the verbs. In Yiddish, both pronouns and definite objects precede the verb, but other objects do not. So are French and Yiddish verb-object languages or object-verb languages? Frank would like to see how well the MIT researchers’ technique predicts classifications under other, more fine-grained and abstract typological systems. “What are the underlying features that would determine, ‘Oh, it’s just the pronoun, or it’s only objects that have particular kinds of properties?’” Frank says. “Cautiously, I’m optimistic. I’m excited about the possibility that even more abstract properties are going to be reflected in the English production.”
4519	dbpedia	1	87	https://www.britannica.com/topic/language	en	Language \| Definition, Types, Characteristics, Development, & Facts	https://cdn.britannica.c…ends-talking.jpg	https://cdn.britannica.c…ends-talking.jpg	[ "https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel/eb-logo/MendelNewThistleLogo.png", "https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel/eb-logo/MendelNewThistleLogo.png", "https://cdn.britannica.com/90/216090-004-A75F61DC/friends-talking.jpg", "https://cdn.britannica.com/60/6160-004-24AC81CF/Tower-of-Babel-oil-painting-Pieter-Brueghel.jpg", "https://cdn.britannica.com/06/152506-004-6E7C0A7C/people-American-Sign-Language.jpg", "https://cdn.britannica.com/47/4347-004-8850AC7D/Diagram-human-vocal-organs-location-places-speech.jpg", "https://cdn.britannica.com/48/4348-004-49FC3FB9/Diagram-tongue-position-vowel-words-language-head.jpg", "https://cdn.britannica.com/64/180164-138-AE845BB7/brain-language.jpg?w=400&h=225&c=crop", "https://cdn.britannica.com/11/198711-004-D24BFB08/Noam-Chomsky-2010.jpg", "https://cdn.britannica.com/17/17017-004-7E588EE6/Map-use-language-English-countries-world.jpg", "https://cdn.britannica.com/96/179996-138-705BFDD1/interpreters.jpg?w=400&h=225&c=crop", "https://cdn.britannica.com/28/42728-004-E09A8461/Tablet-script-Linear-B-Palace-of-Minos.jpg", "https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-124/images/shared/default3.png?v=3.124.12", "https://cdn.britannica.com/52/233852-131-8770BC17/YOLO-You-Only-Live-Once-repeated-on-purple-background.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop", "https://cdn.britannica.com/97/242697-131-C26D8D43/fiery-heart-concrete-wall-background.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop", "https://cdn.britannica.com/13/246613-131-8995FC9C/two-chicks-with-egg.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop", "https://cdn.britannica.com/88/247488-131-B0D1A4CD/guinea-pig-glasses-book.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop", "https://cdn.britannica.com/49/256449-131-11D6C36C/misspelled-words.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop", "https://cdn.britannica.com/72/195572-131-75DF4873/flying-pig.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop", "https://cdn.britannica.com/63/133063-131-B83DD391/Aleppo-Codex-Portion-language-ce-Hebrew-Bible.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop", "https://cdn.britannica.com/52/220252-131-120630CC/Chinese-pictograph-calligraphy-Huang-Tingjian.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop", "https://cdn.britannica.com/59/195959-131-01E0E29B/ginger-cat-bed-focus-floor-carpet.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop", "https://cdn.britannica.com/24/129624-131-37C4C022/flags-soccer-balls-Futbol-football-arts-blog-2009.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop", "https://cdn.britannica.com/94/159994-131-8E828D22/Battle-of-New-Orleans-oil-painting-E-1910.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop", "https://cdn.britannica.com/36/162636-131-E4AA93A0/Colosseum-Rome-Italy.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop", "https://cdn.britannica.com/90/202690-131-1D29B008/colorful-winter-sunset.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop", "https://cdn.britannica.com/70/191970-131-A85628DA/Color-wheel-light-color-spectrum.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop", "https://cdn.britannica.com/51/190751-131-B431C216/soccer-ball-goal.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop", "https://cdn.britannica.com/71/196471-131-8FEA8DDD/Daily-Police-Bulletin-Elizabeth-Short-Black-Dahlia-January-1947.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop", "https://cdn.britannica.com/90/216090-050-3F9A63DB/friends-talking.jpg?w=400&h=300&c=crop", "https://cdn.britannica.com/49/256449-131-11D6C36C/misspelled-words.jpg" ]	[]	[]	[ "language", "encyclopedia", "encyclopeadia", "britannica", "article" ]	null	[ "David Crystal", "Robert Henry Robins" ]	1999-07-26T00:00:00+00:00	Language, a system of conventional spoken, manual (signed), or written symbols by means of which human beings express themselves. The functions of language include communication, the expression of identity, play, imaginative expression, and emotional release.	en	/favicon.png	Encyclopedia Britannica	https://www.britannica.com/topic/language	Definitions of language Many definitions of language have been proposed. Henry Sweet, an English phonetician and language scholar, stated: “Language is the expression of ideas by means of speech-sounds combined into words. Words are combined into sentences, this combination answering to that of ideas into thoughts.” The American linguists Bernard Bloch and George L. Trager formulated the following definition: “A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group cooperates.” Any succinct definition of language makes a number of presuppositions and begs a number of questions. The first, for example, puts excessive weight on “thought,” and the second uses “arbitrary” in a specialized, though legitimate, way. A number of considerations (marked in italics below) enter into a proper understanding of language as a subject: Every physiologically and mentally typical person acquires in childhood the ability to make use, as both sender and receiver, of a system of communication that comprises a circumscribed set of symbols (e.g., sounds, gestures, or written or typed characters). In spoken language, this symbol set consists of noises resulting from movements of certain organs within the throat and mouth. In signed languages, these symbols may be hand or body movements, gestures, or facial expressions. By means of these symbols, people are able to impart information, to express feelings and emotions, to influence the activities of others, and to comport themselves with varying degrees of friendliness or hostility toward persons who make use of substantially the same set of symbols. Britannica Quiz Commonly Misspelled Words Vol. 2 Quiz Different systems of communication constitute different languages; the degree of difference needed to establish a different language cannot be stated exactly. No two people speak exactly alike; hence, one is able to recognize the voices of friends over the telephone and to keep distinct a number of unseen speakers in a radio broadcast. Yet, clearly, no one would say that they speak different languages. Generally, systems of communication are recognized as different languages if they cannot be understood without specific learning by both parties, though the precise limits of mutual intelligibility are hard to draw and belong on a scale rather than on either side of a definite dividing line. Substantially different systems of communication that may impede but do not prevent mutual comprehension are called dialects of a language. In order to describe in detail the actual different language patterns of individuals, the term idiolect, meaning the habits of expression of a single person, has been coined. Typically, people acquire a single language initially—their first language, or native tongue, the language used by those with whom, or by whom, they are brought up from infancy. Subsequent “second” languages are learned to different degrees of competence under various conditions. Complete mastery of two languages is designated as bilingualism; in many cases—such as upbringing by parents using different languages at home or being raised within a multilingual community—children grow up as bilinguals. In traditionally monolingual cultures, the learning, to any extent, of a second or other language is an activity superimposed on the prior mastery of one’s first language and is a different process intellectually. Language, as described above, is species-specific to human beings. Other members of the animal kingdom have the ability to communicate, through vocal noises or by other means, but the most important single feature characterizing human language (that is, every individual language), against every known mode of animal communication, is its infinite productivity and creativity. Human beings are unrestricted in what they can communicate; no area of experience is accepted as necessarily incommunicable, though it may be necessary to adapt one’s language in order to cope with new discoveries or new modes of thought. Animal communication systems are by contrast very tightly circumscribed in what may be communicated. Indeed, displaced reference, the ability to communicate about things outside immediate temporal and spatial contiguity, which is fundamental to speech, is found elsewhere only in the so-called language of bees. Bees are able, by carrying out various conventionalized movements (referred to as bee dances) in or near the hive, to indicate to others the locations and strengths of food sources. But food sources are the only known theme of this communication system. Surprisingly, however, this system, nearest to human language in function, belongs to a species remote from humanity in the animal kingdom. On the other hand, the animal performance superficially most like human speech, the mimicry of parrots and of some other birds that have been kept in the company of humans, is wholly derivative and serves no independent communicative function. Humankind’s nearest relatives among the primates, though possessing a vocal physiology similar to that of humans, have not developed anything like a spoken language. Attempts to teach sign language to chimpanzees and other apes through imitation have achieved limited success, though the interpretation of the significance of ape signing ability remains controversial. In most accounts, the primary purpose of language is to facilitate communication, in the sense of transmission of information from one person to another. However, sociolinguistic and psycholinguistic studies have drawn attention to a range of other functions for language. Among these is the use of language to express a national or local identity (a common source of conflict in situations of multiethnicity around the world, such as in Belgium, India, and Quebec). Also important are the “ludic” (playful) function of language—encountered in such phenomena as puns, riddles, and crossword puzzles—and the range of functions seen in imaginative or symbolic contexts, such as poetry, drama, and religious expression. Language interacts with every aspect of human life in society, and it can be understood only if it is considered in relation to society. This article attempts to survey language in this light and to consider its various functions and the purposes it can and has been made to serve. Because each language is both a working system of communication in the period and in the community wherein it is used and also the product of its history and the source of its future development, any account of language must consider it from both these points of view.
4519	dbpedia	3	4	https://blog.duolingo.com/words-shared-in-all-languages/	en	Dear Duolingo: Are any words the same in all languages?	https://blog.duolingo.co…ilbox_pink-1.png	https://blog.duolingo.co…ilbox_pink-1.png	[ "https://blog.duolingo.com/content/images/2024/07/cover_enDDmailbox_pink-1.png", "https://blog.duolingo.com/content/images/2023/09/tea.png", "https://blog.duolingo.com/content/images/2023/09/pineapple.png", "https://blog.duolingo.com/content/images/2023/09/orange.png", "https://blog.duolingo.com/content/images/2023/09/exp_taxi_is_yellow.png", "https://blog.duolingo.com/content/images/2023/09/tomato--1-.png", "https://blog.duolingo.com/content/images/2023/09/coffee.png", "https://blog.duolingo.com/content/images/2023/09/chocolate.png", "https://blog.duolingo.com/content/images/2021/04/pingboard_cindyBlanco.jpg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Cindy Blanco" ]	2023-09-05T15:40:36+00:00	Languages can be so different from each other—but there are a few words nearly all languages have in common! Can you guess which ones?	en	https://blog.duolingo.co…ouch-icon2-1.png	Duolingo Blog	https://blog.duolingo.com/words-shared-in-all-languages/	Welcome to another week of Dear Duolingo, an advice column just for learners. Catch up on past installments here. Hi, learners! This week's question had me busy doing a lot of research, including consulting Dr. Emilie Zuniga, a hyperpolyglot. Let's take a look! Our question this week: Dear Duolingo, I love Dear Duolingo and reading about how different languages can be! My question is: Are there any words that all languages have in common? Thanks, One-hit wonder If you're learning a new language, you already know that grammar can be wildly different, new sounds can be incredibly hard to learn, and of course each word is different! Even cognates—words that look and mean the same in different languages—can sometimes be misleading. Cognates get borrowed from one language to another, or they get passed down from an older language (like Latin) to the languages that evolve from it (like Spanish, French, and Italian). But cognates are often limited to languages spoken in the same region, or are shared across languages that have been in contact with each other. Are there any words that made it outside their region to all languages? For this post, I wasn't able to research all 7000+ languages (unfortunately!). But I did look at a lot of them, and I found a surprising answer: YES!!* Or, well… it seems like 2 words have come close. 😬 Let's take a look! Honorable mentions: 3 words that made it pretty far Before we get to the (possible) winners, there are a few words to mention that really tried their hardest to make it around the globe. For these words, there are just a few options worldwide: 🫖 Words for tea Whether you take milk or sugar or prefer black or green, you probably call this drink either "tea" or "chai"—and both words originated from a single word used in east Asia long ago! Which one your language uses reflects the history of this beverage and how it traveled the world. Over the centuries that single word underwent many small changes to its pronunciation in different parts of China… leading to 2 distinct words today! Which word your language uses depends on which region of China speakers of your language were trading with. Exceptions: For reader-crowdsourced exceptions, be sure to read our new post! 🍍 Words for pineapple For this tropical fruit, there are basically 3 options around the world: words that sound like ananas, words that sound like abacaxi, and words having something to do with pine cones. Ananas and abacaxi both come from words used by the Tupi, an indigenous community in South America, where this fruit comes from. Today, you'll find a form of ananas in Hindi, Arabic, Swahili, and most European languages. Interestingly, both Tupi-origin words are used in Portuguese: Ananás is the word in Portugal, abacaxi is the word in Brazil, and the Portuguese-speaking Azores use both, for different kinds of pineapples! Long ago, English used a form of ananas as well, but it was soon replaced by the word pineapple… which originally meant "pinecone"! In Germanic languages like English, apple was a generic word for any fruit, so a pineapple was the "fruit" of the pine tree. In the 17th century, 2 important things happened to change this: A new word pinecone came onto the scene for the pine tree fruits, and people started talking about an incredible new-to-them fruit that sort of looked like that pine tree fruit. Pineapple was repurposed for the new fruit! Many languages that use pineapple-like words borrowed their word from English, although Spanish piña (like pino, "pine tree") evolved separately for the same reasons! Exceptions: Mandarin Chinese uses a different word for pineapple. 🍊 Words for orange This citrus fruit has a similar story: A bitter orange fruit that originated in Asia was popularized and traded by merchants who used a variant of the Sanskrit word naranga-s (orange tree). But some centuries later, a new, sweeter orange made its way into markets worldwide, and it ended up being named after the Portuguese merchants who bought and sold it. So some languages use a naranga-s word (which was adopted into Persian, then Arabic, and then to European languages), and others use a word that sounds like portugal! Those 2 words cover most languages, but there's a third word in the mix: appelsin, and words like it. These variants are found in languages of northern Europe and in Russian and Ukrainian. This is another version of apple showing up with that general "fruit" meaning, and the suffix -sin comes from the Latin word for China (an appelsin is a "Chinese fruit" or "Chinese apple"). Exceptions: Hindi, Mandarin Chinese, and Swahili use something besides these 3 options for "orange." It's also worth noting that some languages have different words for the fruit and the color, so one might be like the options here and the other could be something else! Runners up: 2 words that nearly* made it 🚕 Words for taxi On this list, taxi is the newest, having only been coined in the early 20th century! Its swift adoption in languages worldwide reflects the growth of English, car culture, and this sort of car service that charges a fee (like a tax!). Exceptions: Mandarin Chinese and Icelandic use their own words instead of taxi: 出租车 (chūzūchē) in Mandarin and leigubíl in Icelandic. Modern Standard Arabic uses سيارة أجرة. In all 3, the word is based on the words for "rent" and "car"! (Note that Arabic dialects typically use a word like "taxi.") 🍅 Words for tomato Now back to foods: tomato is another word and food that has spread across the globe. It comes from the Nahuatl word tómatl, and so many communities first encountered the food from the Spanish who called it a tomate. Exceptions: Italian uses pomodoro, and some other languages use a word similar to the Italian one. Mandarin Chinese is another exception! Our champions: 2 words that are the same worldwide This pair pushed through borders when our runners up lost steam: You can use both words in basically any country and it has the same meaning everywhere. They might be pronounced slightly differently, or have an extra ending or prefix, but the core words have made it around the world—this time, even to Chinese. Ready? 🥁🥁🥁 ☕️ COFFEE Like the other food words on this list, there was a time when coffee was unknown in much of the world. 😳 As it was traded and adopted in communities worldwide, the Arabic word قهوة qahwah was adopted along with it—and in the variants of qahwah you can see how languages tweak the sounds of a word to make it their own! The Arabic "q" sounds is produced at the back of the throat, so other languages used whatever sound they had at the very back of the mouth (typically a "k" sound like in English coffee). The "w" in the Arabic word was also often replaced (not all languages have a "w" sound!)—the Turkish word kahve uses the "v" sound which is also made at the lips. It's the Turkish word that was borrowed into many European languages, and so you can see an additional change from "v" to another lip sound: the "f" you know from English coffee, Spanish café, Italian caffè, etc. Are there any exceptions? 🤔 Probably… but we don't know them! (Tell us!) 🍫 CHOCOLATE And alongside that hot cup of joe is the word for chocolate: It's the same everywhere around the world! If a language has a word for this confection, then it's based on a Nahuatl word or phrase for a drink made of ceiba and cocoa. The Spanish version of this word (probably quite a bit different from the original Nahuatl word) has been borrowed by communities worldwide. When other communities and languages adopted this new food, they slightly altered the pronunciation and spelling to match their language. For example, German and Russian replaced the "ch" sound with "sh," and Japanese added "o" to the end of the English word since Japanese words can't end with "t" sounds. Just like with the other semi-global words in this post, chocolate gets this honor because the food and idea of chocolate itself originated in one region and was unknown elsewhere—so when people first learned about the food, they learned the Nahuatl word for it at the same time, too. They went hand in hand! And as the product spread around the world, that single word was carried along for the ride. So the world over, some variation of coffee and chocolate will get you exactly what you're hoping for! All for one, and one for all! It's fun to see what kinds of words many unrelated languages do share! And now you can be proud that you probably know 2 words in (nearly) every spoken language on earth. 😉
4519	dbpedia	1	91	https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/commas/	en	Commas – The Writing Center • University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill	https://writingcenter.un…707942712586.png	https://writingcenter.un…707942712586.png	[ "https://writingcenter.unc.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/346/2018/08/writingcenterlogo-oneline.png", "https://writingcenter.unc.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/346/2018/08/writingcenterlogo-oneline.png", "https://writingcenter.unc.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/346/2011/12/example1.gif", "https://writingcenter.unc.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/346/2011/12/example2.gif", "https://mirrors.creativecommons.org/presskit/icons/cc.svg?ref=chooser-v1", "https://mirrors.creativecommons.org/presskit/icons/by.svg?ref=chooser-v1", "https://mirrors.creativecommons.org/presskit/icons/nc.svg?ref=chooser-v1", "https://mirrors.creativecommons.org/presskit/icons/nd.svg?ref=chooser-v1", "https://writingcenter.unc.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/346/2024/01/wcinsta.png", "https://writingcenter.unc.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/346/2024/01/wctwitter.png", "https://writingcenter.unc.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/346/2024/01/wcfacebook.png", "https://writingcenter.unc.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/346/2015/12/youtube-icon.png", "https://writingcenter.unc.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/346/2015/12/logo-cssac-292x300.png", "https://learningcenter.unc.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/330/2022/04/HC_Badge_Partner_B_Light-150x150.png", "https://writingcenter.unc.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/346/2024/01/wcinsta.png", "https://writingcenter.unc.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/346/2024/01/wcfacebook.png", "https://writingcenter.unc.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/346/2015/12/youtube-icon.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	2011-12-28T21:01:25+00:00	What this handout is about In English, commas are used to separate parts of sentences. Use a comma to separate elements of a list, distinguish groups of words that go together, mark conjunctions between complete thoughts, and more. This handout … Read more	en	https://writingcenter.un…8/07/favicon.png	The Writing Center • University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill	https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/commas/	Commas What this handout is about In English, commas are used to separate parts of sentences. Use a comma to separate elements of a list, distinguish groups of words that go together, mark conjunctions between complete thoughts, and more. This handout offers seven easy steps to deciding when to use a comma. Commas, commas, and more commas Commas help your reader figure out which words go together in a sentence and which parts of your sentences are most important. Using commas incorrectly may confuse the reader, signal ignorance of writing rules, or indicate carelessness. Although using commas correctly may seem mysterious, it can be easy if you follow a few guidelines. Beware of popular myths of comma usage: MYTH: Long sentences need a comma. A really long sentence may be perfectly correct without commas. The length of a sentence does not determine whether you need a comma. MYTH: You should add a comma wherever you pause. Where you pause or breathe in a sentence does not reliably indicate where a comma belongs. Different readers pause or breathe in different places. MYTH: Commas are so mysterious that it’s impossible to figure out where they belong! Some rules are flexible, but most of the time, commas belong in very predictable places. You can learn to identify many of those places using the tips in this handout. You probably already know at least one of the following guidelines and just have to practice the others. These guidelines are basically all you need to know; if you learn them once, you’re set for most situations. 1. Introductory bits (small-medium-large) Setting off introductory words, phrases, or clauses with a comma lets the reader know that the main subject and main verb of the sentence come later. There are basically three kinds of introductory bits: small, medium, and large ones. No matter what size they are, an introductory bit cannot stand alone as a complete thought. It simply introduces the main subject and verb. There are small (just one word) introductory bits: Generally, extraterrestrials are friendly and helpful. Moreover, some will knit booties for you if you ask nicely. There are medium introductory bits. Often these are two- to four-word prepositional phrases or brief -ing and -ed phrases: In fact, Godzilla is just a misunderstood teen lizard of giant proportions. Throughout his early life, he felt a strong affinity with a playful dolphin named Flipper. Frankly speaking, Godzilla wanted to play the same kinds of roles that Flipper was given. Dissatisfied with destruction, he was hoping to frolick in the waves with his Hollywood friends. There are large introductory bits (more than 4 words). You can often spot these by looking for key words/groups such as although, if, as, in order to, and when: If you discover that you feel nauseated, then you know you’ve tried my Clam Surprise. As far as I am concerned, it is the best dish for dispatching unwanted guests. 2. FANBOYS FANBOYS is a handy mnemonic device for remembering the coordinating conjunctions: For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So. These words function as connectors. They can connect words, phrases, and clauses, like this: Words: I am almost dressed and ready. Phrases: My socks are in the living room or under my bed. Clauses: They smell really bad, so they will be easy to find. Notice the comma in the final example. You should always have a comma before FANBOYS that join two independent clauses (two subjects and two verbs that make up two complete thoughts). Look carefully at the next two sentences to see two independent clauses separated by comma + FANBOYS. If you do not have two subjects and two verbs separated by the FANBOYS, you do not need to insert the comma before the FANBOYS. In other words, if the second grouping of words isn’t a complete thought, don’t use a comma. Try reading the words after FANBOYS all by themselves. Do they make a complete thought? You can read your own writing in the same way. Read what comes after FANBOYS all by itself. If it’s a complete thought, you need a comma. If not, you don’t. 3. The dreaded comma splice If you don’t have FANBOYS between the two complete and separate thoughts, using a comma alone causes a “comma splice” or “fused sentence” (some instructors may call it a run-on). Some readers (especially professors) will think of this as a serious error. BAD: My hamster loved to play, I gave him a hula-hoop. ALSO BAD: You wore a lovely hat, it was your only defense. To fix these comma splices, you can do one of four simple things: just add FANBOYS, change the comma to a semicolon, make each clause a separate sentence, or add a subordinator (a word like because, while, although, if, when, since, etc.) GOOD: You wore a lovely hat, for it was your only defense. ALSO GOOD: You wore a lovely hat; it was your only defense. STILL GOOD: You wore a lovely hat. It was your only defense. TOTALLY GOOD: You wore a lovely hat because it was your only defense. 4. FANBOYS fakers However, therefore, moreover, and other words like them are not FANBOYS (they are called conjunctive adverbs). They go between two complete thoughts, just like FANBOYS, but they take different punctuation. Why? Who cares? You just need to recognize that they are not FANBOYS (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so—remember?), and you’ll make the right choice. When you want to use one of these words, you have two good choices. Check to see if you have a complete thought on both sides of the “conjunctive adverb.” If you do, then you can use a period to make two sentences, or you can use a semicolon after the first complete thought. Either way, you’ll use a comma after the faker in the second complete thought. Notice the subtle differences in punctuation here: GOOD: Basketball is my favorite sport. However, table tennis is where I excel. ALSO GOOD: Basketball is my favorite sport; however, table tennis is where I excel. BAD: Basketball is my favorite sport, however table tennis is where I excel. ALSO BAD: Basketball is my favorite sport, however, table tennis is where I excel. 5. X,Y, and Z Put commas between items in a list. When giving a short and simple list of things in a sentence, the last comma (right before the conjunction–usually and or or) is optional, but it is never wrong. If the items in the list are longer and more complicated, you should always place a final comma before the conjunction. EITHER: You can buy life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness in Los Angeles. OR:You can buy life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness in Los Angeles. BUT ALWAYS: A good student listens to his teachers without yawning, reads once in a while, and writes papers before they are due. 6. Describers If you have two or more adjectives (words that describe) that are not joined by a conjunction (usually and) and both/all adjectives modify the same word, put a comma between them. He was a bashful, dopey, sleepy dwarf. The frothy, radiant princess kissed the putrid, vile frog. 7. Interrupters Two commas can be used to set off additional information that appears within the sentence but is separate from the primary subject and verb of the sentence. Sometimes called a “parenthetical expression” or an “aside,” this information interrupts the main thought to add an additional comment. Occasionally, the interrupter won’t actually interrupt the main thought. It may be added at the end. In that case, it’s preceded by a comma and followed by a period. Bob Mills, a sophomore from Raleigh, was the only North Carolina native at the Japanese food festival in Cary. Aaron thought he could see the future, not the past, in the wrinkles on his skin. My chemistry book, which weighs about 100 pounds, has some really great examples. The organization is committed to protecting wildlife, especially pandas. To see if you need commas around an interrupter, try taking the interrupter out of the sentence completely. If the sentence is still clear without the interrupter, then you probably need the commas. Congratulations! You know how to use commas! But wait—is there more? These guidelines cover the most common situations in writing, but you may have a stickier question. Below are some suggestions for finding some of the many other resources at your disposal. If you are worried about punctuation in general, pick up a writing handbook from the library or the University bookstore. You’ll find a list of handy resources below. Works consulted We consulted these works while writing this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout’s topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find additional publications. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial. We revise these tips periodically and welcome feedback. Gordon, Karen. 1993. The Deluxe Transitive Vampire: The Ultimate Handbook of Grammar for the Innocent, the Eager, and the Doomed. New York: Pantheon Books. Gordon, Karen. 1993. The New Well-Tempered Sentence: A Punctuation Handbook for the Innocent, the Eager, and the Doomed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. Kolln, Martha, and Loretta Gray. 2016. Rhetorical Grammar: Grammatical Choices, Rhetorical Effects, 8th ed. Boston: Pearson Education. Kolln, Martha, Loretta Gray, and Joseph Salvatore. 2016. Understanding English Grammar, 10th ed. Boston: Pearson Education. O’Conner, Patricia. 2010. Woe Is I: The Grammarphobe’s Guide to Better English in Plain English, 3rd ed. New York: Penguin Publishing Group. Rosen, Leonard J., and Laurence Behrens. 2003. The Allyn & Bacon Handbook, 5th ed. New York: Longman. This work is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
4519	dbpedia	3	88	https://internationalstudies.tcnj.edu/languages/	en	Languages Across the Curriculum	https://brand.tcnj.edu/w…L-092221-min.png		[ "https://brand.tcnj.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2021/09/tcnj-wordmark-site-metanav-FINAL-092221-pd-min.png", "https://internationalstudies.tcnj.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/161/2020/02/lac_tube_globe_logo_small-copy.jpg", "https://brand.tcnj.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2021/09/tcnj-compact-logo-site-footer-FINAL-092221-min.png", "https://brand.tcnj.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2018/10/facebook-4-32.png", "https://brand.tcnj.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2018/10/twitter-4-32.png", "https://brand.tcnj.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2018/10/linkedin-4-32.png", "https://brand.tcnj.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2018/10/instagram-4-32.png", "https://brand.tcnj.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2018/10/youtube-32-rev.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null		en			https://internationalstudies.tcnj.edu/languages/	Languages Across the Curriculum (LAC) is a curricular enrichment program that provides students with the opportunity to use their skills in languages other than English in non-language courses. It aims to infuse foreign language across the curriculum, thus building on the skills of language proficient students in courses where authentic foreign language sources are not a regular component of the curriculum but would complement the course material. Students can extend their knowledge of a second language beyond foreign language courses and apply those skills to course materials, research, and projects in non-language disciplines. In addition, the inclusion of authentic course-relevant source materials in another language enriches course perspectives and prepares students more fully for the cross-cultural and multilingual demands of a global society. Students at TCNJ may enroll in LAC 391/Languages Across the Curriculum, an independent study linked to a course in another field. The LAC independent study is directly related to an existing course in English but grants an additional credit for work conducted in a second language that supports and enhances the focus of the original course. A student enrolled in a history, political science, international business or sociology course that examines a topic amenable to research in another language or course-related activities in a second language could enroll in an independent study linked to that course. The expectations for the LAC independent study are specified by the course instructor in conjunction with the LAC director, who provides support and supervises student progress throughout the semester. Activities that lend themselves to LAC projects may include (but are not limited to): Conducting course-related research for papers and projects by accessing and incorporating authentic materials in a second language. Supplemental course readings in the original language. Oral presentations (in English) based on foreign language sources not available to other class members. Submission of written work in the target language (where the course professor is able to evaluate this work). Community-based work with local foreign language populations. Students must have at least an intermediate level of proficiency in the language in order to successfully complete a LAC component. In general, this means students who have completed two, 200-level courses in the target language, or are a heritage speaker who can demonstrate similar proficiency. Students who are unsure of their proficiency level should contact the LAC Director at lac@tcnj.edu. LAC has been embraced by a number of academic institutions nationwide and is a readily identifiable means to indicate a student’s ability to engage in multilingual learning in preparation for the workplace and graduate study. LAC has been successfully instituted at TCNJ, yielding exciting projects and rewarding results.
4519	dbpedia	3	30	https://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/american-sign-language	en	American Sign Language	https://www.nidcd.nih.go…ASL-boy-2019.jpg	https://www.nidcd.nih.go…ASL-boy-2019.jpg	[ "https://www.nidcd.nih.gov/sites/default/themes/nidcd/assets/img/us_flag_small.png", "https://www.nidcd.nih.gov/sites/default/themes/nidcd/assets/img/icon-dot-gov.svg", "https://www.nidcd.nih.gov/sites/default/themes/nidcd/assets/img/icon-https.svg", "https://www.nidcd.nih.gov/sites/default/themes/nidcd/images/NIDCD-Header-Logo-Tagline.png", "https://www.nidcd.nih.gov/sites/default/themes/nidcd/assets/img/close-white.svg", "https://www.nidcd.nih.gov/sites/default/files/Content%20Images/NIDCD-ASL-boy-2019.jpg", "https://www.nidcd.nih.gov/sites/default/files/Content%20Images/NIDCD-ASL-teen-2019.jpg", "https://www.nidcd.nih.gov/sites/default/files/Site Branding Images/social_twitter.png", "https://www.nidcd.nih.gov/sites/default/files/Site Branding Images/social_facebook.png", "https://www.nidcd.nih.gov/sites/default/themes/nidcd/images/NIH-NIDCD-logo.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	2021-10-29T12:00:00+00:00	American Sign Language (ASL) is a language expressed by movements of the hands and face. Learn more about ASL and NIDCD-supported research.	en	/sites/default/themes/nidcd/favicon.ico	NIDCD	https://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/american-sign-language	A young boy signs "I love you." What is American Sign Language? American Sign Language (ASL) is a complete, natural language that has the same linguistic properties as spoken languages, with grammar that differs from English. ASL is expressed by movements of the hands and face. It is the primary language of many North Americans who are deaf and hard of hearing and is used by some hearing people as well. Is sign language the same in other countries? There is no universal sign language. Different sign languages are used in different countries or regions. For example, British Sign Language (BSL) is a different language from ASL, and Americans who know ASL may not understand BSL. Some countries adopt features of ASL in their sign languages. Where did ASL originate? No person or committee invented ASL. The exact beginnings of ASL are not clear, but some suggest that it arose more than 200 years ago from the intermixing of local sign languages and French Sign Language (LSF, or Langue des Signes Française). Today’s ASL includes some elements of LSF plus the original local sign languages; over time, these have melded and changed into a rich, complex, and mature language. Modern ASL and modern LSF are distinct languages. While they still contain some similar signs, they can no longer be understood by each other’s users. How does ASL compare with spoken language? ASL is a language completely separate and distinct from English. It contains all the fundamental features of language, with its own rules for pronunciation, word formation, and word order. While every language has ways of signaling different functions, such as asking a question rather than making a statement, languages differ in how this is done. For example, English speakers may ask a question by raising the pitch of their voices and by adjusting word order; ASL users ask a question by raising their eyebrows, widening their eyes, and tilting their bodies forward. Just as with other languages, specific ways of expressing ideas in ASL vary as much as ASL users themselves. In addition to individual differences in expression, ASL has regional accents and dialects; just as certain English words are spoken differently in different parts of the country, ASL has regional variations in the rhythm of signing, pronunciation, slang, and signs used. Other sociological factors, including age and gender, can affect ASL usage and contribute to its variety, just as with spoken languages. Fingerspelling is part of ASL and is used to spell out English words. In the fingerspelled alphabet, each letter corresponds to a distinct handshape. Fingerspelling is often used for proper names or to indicate the English word for something. How do most children learn ASL? Parents are often the source of a child’s early acquisition of language, but for children who are deaf, additional people may be models for language acquisition. A deaf child born to parents who are deaf and who already use ASL will begin to acquire ASL as naturally as a hearing child picks up spoken language from hearing parents. However, for a deaf child with hearing parents who have no prior experience with ASL, language may be acquired differently. In fact, 9 out of 10 children who are born deaf are born to parents who hear. Some hearing parents choose to introduce sign language to their deaf children. Hearing parents who choose to have their child learn sign language often learn it along with their child. Children who are deaf and have hearing parents often learn sign language through deaf peers and become fluent. Why emphasize early language learning? Parents should expose a deaf or hard-of-hearing child to language (spoken or signed) as soon as possible. The earlier a child is exposed to and begins to acquire language, the better that child’s language, cognitive, and social development will become. Research suggests that the first few years of life are the most crucial to a child’s development of language skills, and even the early months of life can be important for establishing successful communication with caregivers. Thanks to screening programs in place at almost all hospitals in the United States and its territories, newborn babies are tested for hearing before they leave the hospital. If a baby has hearing loss, this screening gives parents an opportunity to learn about communication options. Parents can then start their child’s language learning process during this important early stage of development. What research does the NIDCD support on ASL and other sign languages? The NIDCD supports research on ASL, including its acquisition and characterization. Funded research includes studies to understand sign language’s grammar, acquisition, and development, and use of sign language when spoken language access is compromised by trauma or degenerative disease, or when speech is difficult to acquire due to early hearing loss or injury to the nervous system. Teenage boy having a conversation using sign language. Study of sign language can also help scientists understand the neurobiology of language development. In one study, researchers reported that the building of complex phrases, whether signed or spoken, engaged the same brain areas. Better understanding of the neurobiology of language could provide a translational foundation for treating injury to the language system, for employing signs or gestures in therapy for children or adults, and for diagnosing language impairment in individuals who are deaf. The NIDCD is also funding research on sign languages created among small communities of people with little to no outside influence. Emerging sign languages can be used to model the essential elements and organization of natural language and to learn about the complex interplay between natural human language abilities, language environment, and language learning outcomes. Visit the NIH Clinical Research Trials and You website to read about these and other clinical trials that are recruiting volunteers. Where can I find additional information about American Sign Language?
4519	dbpedia	1	29	https://www.ef.com/wwen/blog/language/how-to-speak-english-better/	en	How to speak English better in 10 easy steps â¹ EF GO Blog	https://a.storyblok.com/…glish-better.jpg	https://a.storyblok.com/…glish-better.jpg	[ "https://www.ef.com/assetscdn/go706j5dozw8p0p3r573/assets/images/logos/go-logo.svg", "https://a.storyblok.com/f/112937/568x464/7f4d74936b/how-to-speak-english-better.jpg/m/620x0/filters:quality(70)/" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	The path to speaking English confidently doesn't have to be long and hard. Here's how to speak English better in 10 easy steps you can put to use today.	en	/assetscdn/go706j5dozw8p0p3r573/assets/images/icons/favicon-48.ico	EF GO Blog \| EF Global Site (English)	https://www.ef.com/wwen/blog/language/how-to-speak-english-better/	Learning how to speak English confidently is incredibly important for anyone studying the language. There is simply no substitute for using your language skills to communicate in real-time and in real life â and there is nothing more fun. Regardless of your level, hereâs how to speak English better in 10 easy steps: 1. Imitate away When most people think about learning English, they think about piles of books, memorizing lists and studying with cards. All of these are helpful in their own way and shouldnât be ignored. However, many people forget â or shy away from â the active side of language learning â exploring, playing, listening, and repeating. Studies show that imitation is one of the best ways to improve your language skills. Listening to others and repeating what they say and how they say it â even intonation, emotion and choice of words â is one of the most powerful and fun ways to make progress. 2. Avoid learning word by word Are you tired of memorizing lists of verbs and feeling like you still canât speak confidently? Itâs time to change your strategy. This time, learn full expressions â this is called chunk-based learning. Think of new expressions as a unit that you canât separate. Listen and repeat. For a moment, allow yourself to forget about grammar or the meaning of each word until the expression starts to feel natural. Be practical and âcopy pasteâ what you hear without creating unnecessary obstacles. This would mean learning an expression like âI need waterâ as a whole, rather than translating word by word and learning how to conjugate the verb âto needâ before you do it. 3. Use what youâve learned immediately If there is one thing your brain enjoys, it is feeling useful. Our brains dislike wasting time with information we donât use. (Maybe thatâs why you keep forgetting the English words you tried learning yesterday!) Hereâs a tip: even if you are alone in the room, the first thing you should do when you see a new expression or phrase in front of you is reading it out loud immediately. Repeat it several times until youâre able to say it without looking at the paper. If you write down three sentences using that new word, even better. This is the moment when you stop memorizing and start using English! 4. Be an actor Actors have one mission: to study a text and then make people believe that text is real. They do that by using emotion, exaggeration, repetition and practice. So why not be inspired by your favorite actors and do the same? Hereâs a game. When you are alone, take a piece of paper and write down an English expression â any expression you want to learn. Now, try reading it until you can say it without looking at the paper. The next step is trying to say that expression with different emotions. Donât be afraid to exaggerate! After a while, you will get used to the sound of the expression without even having to think about it. 5. Listen to others as much as you speak Many English learners struggle with speaking for three reasons: they are embarrassed by their foreign accent, they donât remember key words when they need them, and they canât really understand when people reply back to them, which leads to awkward situations. Solution: expose yourself to as many songs, series, documentaries, accents and conversations as possible. This will help you understand how English sounds in different countries and how it is spoken by different people. Bonus â by doing this, you will realize that many, many foreigners around the world have accents but they are still easily understood by natives and can communicate effectively. Soâ¦why not you? A foreign accent isnât the end of the world â it is just proof that you were brave enough to learn something new! 6. Listen to yourself and get feedback from native speakers Some English students are so shy and nervous that they postpone speaking indefinitely. After months of study, they realize they have never actually heard themselves speak! It is essential that you start practicing basic sentences from day one â out loud. Hear yourself. Listen to how English sounds when you speak it. A good way to start is recording yourself reading simple texts. This helps you in two ways. First, you start getting comfortable with the sound of English coming out of your mouth. Secondly, you can save your recording to keep track of your progress in the future and see how fantastic your progress has been! Itâs essential that you find somebody to give you feedback on your speaking â ideally a native speaker. One of the most powerful ways to do this is to study English in an English-speaking country where you get continuous feedback â in class, while youâre shopping, out on the town and even from your host family. Learning through immersion is so powerful because it makes your whole life a learning opportunity â and the more you use your English in a natural setting with native speakers of all walks of life, the faster your progress will be. If this isnât an option, get continuous feedback from your local teacher, a tutor or any kind native English speaker you know. 7. Become visual Visual learning is powerful â and increasingly popular. Research shows that images associated with words help us recall much more efficiently, and that means less difficulty speaking. Next time you want to remember a new expression, use one of your own pictures or an image you find on Google Images to represent this vocabulary. Choosing your own images for a flashcard or a notebook is key to remembering these words next time! 8. Narrate your life Your brain is more likely to remember new vocabulary if you apply it to your own life and make it as personal as possible. For that reason, itâs smart to take an expression you have recently learned and ask yourself âHow would I use this in my personal situation? In which contexts do I see myself using this?â. This has two benefits: first, you will feel like your learning is useful and avoid frustration. Secondly, you will make your life easier because next time you have to talk about yourself, your memories and your experiences, you will be ready because you have already practiced! 9. Start singing Science has proven that the part of our brains that engages with music is also active when you process language. English students who often listen to music in English tend to have better pronunciation skills and understand other speakers more easily â English just comes more naturally to them.Â Here are artists you should listen to to get started. Singing is a fantastic way to get in a good mood and improve your English at the same time. Next time you find a song you like, search for the lyrics (text) of the song on the Internet and read at the same time as you listen. Next, sing the song at the same time. Pay attention to the way words are pronounced and imitate what you hear to be as similar as possible. Youâll soon find yourself accidentally singing it without needing the lyrics. 10. Know your priorities Ask anybody: âWhy are you learning English?â. Answers will be different, but most people will say: âbecause I want to get a better jobâ, âbecause I want to move to Londonâ, âbecause my partner speaks Englishâ, or âbecause I love Englishâ. However, do you believe you would hear somebody say âI want to speak English because I want to be perfectâ? Probably not! Always remember that your priority should be efficient communication, not perfection. Focus on getting your message across, and that means speaking as soon as you can and as much as you can.
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"https://www.oxford-royale.com/cdn-cgi/image/width=300,height=148,fit=crop,quality=88,gravity=auto,sharpen=0.85,metadata=none,format=auto,onerror=redirect/wp-content/themes/ora2021/static/images/ora-stacked-w.svg", "https://www.oxford-royale.com/cdn-cgi/image/width=32,height=32,fit=crop,quality=88,gravity=auto,sharpen=0.85,metadata=none,format=auto,onerror=redirect/wp-content/themes/ora2021/static/images/social/facebook.svg", "https://www.oxford-royale.com/cdn-cgi/image/width=32,height=32,fit=crop,quality=88,gravity=auto,sharpen=0.85,metadata=none,format=auto,onerror=redirect/wp-content/themes/ora2021/static/images/social/instagram.svg", "https://www.oxford-royale.com/cdn-cgi/image/width=32,height=32,fit=crop,quality=88,gravity=auto,sharpen=0.85,metadata=none,format=auto,onerror=redirect/wp-content/themes/ora2021/static/images/social/twitter.svg", "https://www.oxford-royale.com/cdn-cgi/image/width=32,height=32,fit=crop,quality=88,gravity=auto,sharpen=0.85,metadata=none,format=auto,onerror=redirect/wp-content/themes/ora2021/static/images/social/youtube.svg", "https://www.oxford-royale.com/cdn-cgi/image/width=32,height=32,fit=crop,quality=88,gravity=auto,sharpen=0.85,metadata=none,format=auto,onerror=redirect/wp-content/themes/ora2021/static/images/social/linkedin.svg", "https://www.oxford-royale.com/cdn-cgi/image/width=16,height=16,fit=crop,quality=88,gravity=auto,sharpen=0.85,metadata=none,format=auto,onerror=redirect/wp-content/themes/ora2021/static/images/ui/icon-user-w.svg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Oxford Royale" ]	2020-09-11T00:00:00+00:00	%	en	https://www.oxford-royal…e-touch-icon.png	Oxford Royale	https://www.oxford-royale.com/articles/learning-english-hard/	It’s often said that English is one of the hardest languages to learn. Given the fact that many of the words we use in English stem from Latin and Ancient Greek words – in common with many other European languages – what is it about English that has attracted this reputation for being so fearsomely difficult? And is it really even that difficult when so many other countries adopt it as their second language and speak it a lot more fluently than we Brits speak other languages? We’ll leave you to make your own mind up… If you want to take your English to the next level, join us at Oxford Royale’s Learn English Programme on campus at our Oxford Summer School or Berkeley Summer School for a summer of turbocharging your English skills. It just makes no sense! One of the reasons why English is known for being difficult is because it’s full of contradictions. There are innumerable examples of conundrums such as: There is no ham in hamburger. Neither is there any apple nor pine in pineapple. If teachers taught, why didn’t preachers praught? If a vegetarian eats vegetables, what does a humanitarian eat? “Overlook” and “oversee” have opposite meanings, while “look” and “see” mean the same thing. As native speakers, we rarely stop to think how illogical many of the things we say really are – we’re just used to them. Unless you’ve been brought up speaking English, how can you possibly begin to learn all these oddities? It’s little wonder that people trying to learn English end up feeling confused. But it gets worse. Exceptions to rules One of the hardest things about English is that although there are rules, there are lots of exceptions to those rules – so just when you think you’ve got to grips with a rule, something comes along to shatter what you thought you knew by contradicting it. A good example is the rule for remembering whether a word is spelt “ie” or “ei”: “I before E except after C”. Thus “believe” and “receipt”. But this is English – it’s not as simple as that. What about “science”? Or “weird”? Or “seize”? There are loads of irregular verbs, too, such as “fought”, which is the past tense of “fight”, while the past tense of “light” is “lit”. So learning English isn’t just a question of learning the rules – it’s about learning the many exceptions to the rules. The numerous exceptions make it difficult to apply existing knowledge and use the same principle with a new word, so it’s harder to make quick progress. The order of the words Native English-speakers intuitively know what order to put words in, but this is hard to teach to those learning the language. The difference between the right and wrong order is so subtle that it’s hard to explain beyond simply saying that it “just sounds right”. For example, we often use more than one adjective to describe a noun, but which order should they go in? We would say “an interesting little book” not “a little interesting book”. Both are technically grammatically correct, but the first “just sounds right”. It’s a bit of a nightmare for those who are trying to learn, and it may prove one nuance too much. (In fact, there is some method to this particular English madness – but it’s quite involved, and beyond the scope of this article to explain it.) Pronunciation As if the spelling wasn’t hard enough, English pronunciation is the cause of much confusion among those trying to learn English. Some words are very low on vowels, such as the word “strengths”, which is hard to say when you’re not accustomed to English pronunciation. What’s more, words that end in the same combination of letters aren’t necessarily pronounced in the same way. Why is “trough” pronounced “troff”, “rough” pronounced “ruff”, “bough” pronounced “bow” (to rhyme with cow) and “through” pronounced “throo”? There are silent letters at the start of words, too. Why are there so many words that begin with a silent “K”, such as “knife”? Or even a silent “G”, such as “gnome”? If it’s not pronounced, what’s the point of including that letter in the first place, if it only adds to the confusion of both native speakers and learners? And don’t get us started on the number of hapless tourists who don’t know where to begin with pronouncing a town name such as “Worcester”. Sadly, many English learners have to learn the hard way when it comes to our confusing pronunciation; if you pronounce something incorrectly, most Brits will demonstrate the correct way to you – but not without a little chuckle at your expense. Emphasis To make matters even more complex, the way in which you emphasise certain words in a sentence can subtly change its meaning. For example, consider the different ways of emphasising the sentence below: – I sent him a letter – a plain statement. – I sent him a letter – used to imply that you sent him the letter – someone else didn’t send it (or “you didn’t send it, I did”). – I sent him a letter – this could imply “I sent him a letter, but I’m not sure he received it”. – I sent him a letter – used to imply that you sent him the letter – you didn’t send it to someone else (perhaps even “you weren’t meant to read it”). – I sent him a letter – you sent him a letter, not anything else. When you’re not used to speaking English, these may all sound the same to you. It’s only by constantly being exposed to English that you start to pick up on these subtleties. Homophones Confused yet? If not, you will be after this next point. English is absolutely full of homophones – words that sound the same but have different meanings or spellings. We’ve already dedicated an article to homophones, but if you don’t have time to read that, here are a few examples… A bandage is wound around a wound (“wound”, pronounced “wowned” is the past tense of “wind”, as well as an injury when pronounced “woond”). The door was too close to the table to close (the first “close” is pronounced with a soft “S” and means “near”, while the second is pronounced with a hard “S” and means “shut”). I decided to desert my dessert in the desert (the first “desert” means “abandon” and has the emphasis placed on the second syllable; “dessert” is pronounced the same but means a pudding; and the second “desert” means the dry, sandy environment with camels, and is pronounced with the emphasis on the first syllable). Homophones exist in the English language that has no fewer than seven different meanings – namely words that sound like ‘course’ and ‘raise’. Most have only two or three meanings – such as “there”, “their” and “they’re” – but that’s still enough to add an extra level or two of complexity for those trying to master the English language. Synonyms aren’t necessarily interchangeable Flick through a thesaurus and you’ll see countless groups of words that supposedly mean the same thing. You’d think that this would mean that they were interchangeable – but you’d be wrong. Even words whose definitions are seemingly in the same ballpark differ subtly – or apply to something completely different, because English words can have multiple meanings. You can’t always swap words with the same meaning, and this means that it’s easy to end up using a word in completely the wrong way. For example, you “watch” television, and you can either “watch a film” or “see a film” – but you don’t “see television”. But you’re not a “watcher” when you’re doing this – you’re a “viewer”, even though you don’t “view television” or “view a movie”. To take another example, I could talk about a swan’s elegant neck, but I couldn’t swap the word “elegant” for the word “classic” or “chic” (both suggestions I found in the thesaurus when I looked up “elegant”) because these are words that apply to fashion, not birds! If you were learning English, though, you wouldn’t necessarily know that. Idioms English is a very old language, and over the course of many centuries, interesting sayings have been incorporated into everyday language that make little sense if you haven’t grown up with them. “Barking up the wrong tree”, “the straw that broke the camel’s back” and “raining cats and dogs” are all examples of idioms that add colour to the English language. If you find yourself starting to use idioms when you speak English, well done: you’ve mastered it! Traces of archaic English Though English does ‘move with the times’, there are still plenty of archaic words floating around that you may well encounter (and they may not be in your English dictionary). “Alas” (an expression of grief or pity) is one of the more common ones, but language of the sort traditionally used in the Bible is also still commonly understood, such as “Thou shalt not kill” in the Ten Commandments. This means “You will not kill” in modern lingo, but the Ten Commandments usually retain this old language. Old-fashioned words such as “apothecary” (someone who prepares medicine) and “shilling” (an old form of English currency) will crop up in historical dramas that you watch on television. You’ll also see old literary and poetic references cropping up in popular culture, such as Shakespeare’s “To be or not to be” or Burns’ “My love is like a red, red rose”. Regional dialects We’d imagine that all languages have regional dialects, but when you add the bizarre pronunciations and unique additional vocabularies of the UK’s many regional dialects, they don’t exactly help the poor folk trying to learn English. It’s bad enough for us southerners to understand people from Glasgow, or even for people from Edinburgh to understand people from Glasgow. There’s a broad north/south divide in the pronunciation of certain words, a good example being “bath”, which is pronounced with a short “A” by those “up north” and a long “A” (“barth”) by those “down south”. Of course, every English-speaking country also has its own way of speaking the language; the USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa all have their own distinctive way of pronouncing words. Which you end up using when your native language isn’t English probably depends on whereabouts your English teacher is from, or whereabouts in the country you’re learning. Is it really the hardest language? As we’ve seen, then, English is pretty challenging. But it’s not the only contender for the World’s Most Difficult Language. Other notoriously tricky languages include Finnish, Russian, Japanese and Mandarin. Mandarin’s tone system, for instance, is famously tricky (but when you look at the ‘Emphasis’ section above, you’ll see that English can be just as bad!). Finnish is held to be difficult because of its numerous cases; Arabic because, among other things, its script has four different variations for each letter depending on where in the word it sits. Written Japanese differs from spoken Japanese, and there are three different writing systems – including 2,000 to 3,000 kanji characters that must be learned by heart. It makes English sound easy in comparison! Ultimately, though, it’s down to the individual whether or not a particular language is difficult to learn. Some people have a natural aptitude for languages and pick them up quickly; children, of course, absorb new languages much more easily than adults. The difficulty of a language also depends on its similarity to your own language. You’ll probably find it easier to pick up French if you’re Italian, because these languages use many of the same roots, and the same alphabet. If you’re used to the Roman alphabet then you may struggle to learn oriental languages that rely on symbols, such as Japanese. English isn’t so bad once you get used to it, and it’s probably only commonly talked about as being hard because so many people are trying to learn it.
4519	dbpedia	0	12	https://www.dictionary.com/browse/two-bit	en	TWO-BIT Definition & Meaning	https://www.dictionary.c…_social_logo.png	https://www.dictionary.c…_social_logo.png	[ "https://pixel.carambo.la/Pixel/dctn68/112845/2/1/0", "https://www.dictionary.com/ab34ff65bbd3138890c7.svg", "https://www.dictionary.com/e8d8d7d566d7f7f23acd.svg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	Two-bit definition: costing twenty-five cents.. See examples of TWO-BIT used in a sentence.	en	/94e56a525da4e9fe0cda.png	Dictionary.com	https://www.dictionary.com/browse/two-bit	Two-bit means inferior, cheap, worthless, or insignificant. The term is perhaps most commonly used to negatively describe a person considered to be a small-time hack—someone who’s not good at what they do due to having a very low level of talent or skill. It’s especially used as an insult applied to people who have a high opinion of themselves to call them out as being far inferior in reality. Describing something as two-bit means it’s low-quality. This is especially applied to products. This sense of two-bit is based on its literal meaning: costing 25 cents. The term two bits means 25 cents. It’s based on the sense of the word bit that refers to one eighth of a U.S. dollar, or 12 ½ cents. However, monetary amounts counted in bits were only ever given in multiples of two, as in two bits and six bits. Two bits became an informal way of referring to the value of the 25-cent coin known as the quarter. It then came to be used in a general way meaning a small amount. It’s still sometimes used this way, especially in negative statements, as in That piece of junk isn’t worth two bits or That job is like a vacation—I’d do it for two bits. Two-bit is always used before the noun it describes. Example: That two-bit manager is running this company into the ground. The first records of the term two-bit come from around 1800. The first records of the phrase two bits, in reference to 25 cents, come from around the 1720s. Both terms were first and are primarily used in the U.S. One of the most common and insulting uses of two-bit is to describe someone or someone’s work, which effectively means that they are completely useless or that their work is obviously inferior compared to others. It’s often paired with a word that is already negative, such as con-man, crook, criminal, and huckster. When the term is applied to things, it’s usually intended to indicate that such things are very low-end and therefore low-quality.
4519	dbpedia	3	10	https://www.ef.com/wwen/blog/language/5-easy-languages-to-learn/	en	5 easy languages to learn â¹ EF GO Blog	https://a.storyblok.com/…uare-568x400.jpg	https://a.storyblok.com/…uare-568x400.jpg	[ "https://www.ef.com/assetscdn/go706j5dozw8p0p3r573/assets/images/logos/go-logo.svg", "https://a.storyblok.com/f/112937/568x400/9f60a2f74d/5-easy-languages-to-learn_square-568x400.jpg/m/620x0/filters:quality(70)/" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	Learning any new language is hard. It calls for commitment, determination and motivation. These five, however, are relatively easy languages to learn.	en	/assetscdn/go706j5dozw8p0p3r573/assets/images/icons/favicon-48.ico	EF GO Blog \| EF Global Site (English)	https://www.ef.com/wwen/blog/language/5-easy-languages-to-learn/	Learning a new language is no easy task. It calls for commitment, determination and motivation. But some languages are just easier to learn than others. To make your journey to multilingualism easier, Iâve sourced five easy languages to learn; tackle these as a first step and move on to Mandarin Chinese or Finnish once you feel confident enough! 1. English Itâs the most widely spoken language in the world, making practice possible. It has short words, no gender or word agreement and verbs only change in the third person. There are about 360 million native speakers, but about two billion people speak it â thatâs 30 percent of the world population! 2. French French has over 100 million native speakers and is â as the official language in 28 countries â spoken on almost every continent. This means you can practice French almost everywhere you go. And you should: French belongs to the Romance language family, which means that for English speakers, the vocabulary will look pretty familiar. Linguists estimate that the two languages have more in common than any other members of that group, and that up to a third of all words in the English language were influenced by French. 3. Spanish Itâs heavily influenced by Latin and Arabic, spoken as itâs written and has fewer irregularities than other romance languages. Itâs also estimated that by 2050, USA will become a bilingual state â English and Spanish. Â¡Viva Los Estados Unidos! 4. Italian Found in Italy, Switzerland, Malta, and Argentina, as well as 25 other countries, about 70 to 125 million people speak Italian worldwide. It has similar grammar to other Romance languages but fewer verb forms than French or Spanish. And you already have a headstart with spaghetti, pizza and Ferrari! 5. Swahili Swahili is a Bantu language, heavily influenced by Arabic in particular, as well as English, French, German and Portuguese. It does not use verb conjugations, instead relying on roots and affixes to express verb tense and subjects. Over 140 million people speak it and it can be found throughout East Africa (particularly Tanzania and Kenya). After Arabic, Swahili is the most widely used language on the continent; itâs also considered to be a window to African culture.
4519	dbpedia	3	51	https://cs.stanford.edu/people/eroberts/courses/soco/projects/1999-00/information-theory/entropy_of_english_9.html	en	Bits and Binary Digits			[ "https://cs.stanford.edu/people/eroberts/courses/soco/projects/1999-00/information-theory/images/banner.gif", "https://cs.stanford.edu/people/eroberts/courses/soco/projects/1999-00/information-theory/dice.gif" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null					null	Entropy and Redundancy in English After having defined entropy and redundancy, it is useful to consider an example of these concepcts applied to the English language. Shannon, in his paper "Prediction and Entropy of Printed English," gives two methods of estimating the entropy of English. The redundancy, or number of constraints imposed on the text of the English language, causes a decrease in its overall entropy. For example, the rules "i before e except after c", and the fact that a q must always be followed by a u are dependencies that make the English language more redundant. Rules of grammar, parts of speech, and the fact that we cannot make up words make English redundant as well. Redundancy in the English language is actually beneficial at times, for how else might one discern what is said in a noisy room? The redundancy allows one to infer what is said when only part of a message comes across. For example if one hears "Turn phat mufic down!", one can make a fairly good guess as to what the speaker meant. One possible way of calculating the entropy of English uses N-grams. One can statistically calculate the entropy of the next letter when the previous N - 1 letters are known. As N increases, the entropy approaches H, or the entropy of English. Following are the calculated values from Shannon's paper. FN is the entropy associated with the Nth letter when the previous N - 1 letters are known. The difficulty of calculating the statistics for FN is O(26^N), because there are that many sequences of N letters. Note that F0 is simply the maximum entropy for the set of letters, where each has an equal probability. F0 F1 F2 F3 Fword 26 letter 4.70 4.14 3.56 3.3 2.62 27 letter 4.76 4.03 3.32 3.1 2.14 The 27-letter sequences include the space as a letter. Onecanalmostalwaysfillinthespacesfrom asequenceofwordswithnospaces. Therefore, spaces are basically redundant and will cause lower calculated entropies when taken into account. Only in the case where no statistics are taken into account, F0, is the entropy higher when the space is added. This simply adds another possible symbol, which means more uncertainty. Another strategy Shannon suggests is to calculate the entropy associated with every word in the English language, and take a weighted average. Shannon uses an approximating function to estimate the entropy for over 8,000 words. The calculated value he gets for the entropy per word is 11.82 bits, and since the average word has 4.5 letters, the entropy is 2.62 bits per letter. This is given as Fword in the above table. We have already discussed how to calculate redundancy from entropy. The maximum redundancy occurs when all the symbols have equal likelihood, and is equal to - (log2(1/26)) = 4.7 bits/letter. Therefore, using the formula 1 - H/Hmax, we can estimate the redundancy of English. Shannon initially estimated this value at 50 %, meaning that about half the letters in the English language are redundant! Discussed later in the same article is a rather ingenious way of calculating the entropy of the English language. It incorporates many more features of the English language, such as line of thought and context that statistical methods cannot explicitly account for. Crossword puzzles and games such as Hangman and Wheel of Fortune exploit redundancy by assuming that humans can guess letters in a word or phrase based on their previous knowledge of the language. Shannon's ingenious idea was to exploit this natural measure of redundancy... the human mind. He asked subjects to guess the letters in a phrase one by one. If the subject guessed correctly, then he/she moved on to the next letter. If not, then the subject is told the next letter. Of 129 letters in a phrase, 69% were guessed correctly. This suggests approximately a 69 % redundancy in the English language. Say we reproduce only those letters which were guessed wrong, 31 %. Then we may, by cloning the subject who guessed from scratch, get back the original sentence. The subject can obviously get the 69 % of the symbols right, and he/she has the other 31%, so he/she can reproduce the original text with only about 31 % of the information. Actually, the subject would need slightly more than 31 % of the information. He/she would need to know where the letters are that his is going to guess wrong on, so actually the redundancy might be a little less. Theoretically this is a good example, but practically, it is not. Sampling error in terms of sentences and subjects can cause significant distortion of results. Nevertheless, this example is instrumental in illustrating a practical example of redundancy, and sheds light on how to code English. There is no need to create a statistical grammar of the English language in order to calculate its entropy. Humans have the grammar naturally built in. Statistically calculating the redundancy of the English language has numerous practical applications. ASCII reserves exactly 8 binary digits per character. However, this is highly inefficient, considering that some calculations place the entropy of English at around 1 bit per letter. This means that theoritically, there is a compression scheme that is 8 times as good as ASCII. Although modern computers have enough memory that this inefficiency is not crucial, Huffman compression and Lempel-Ziv compression algorithms save significant space when text is stored. Normally, when people say the English language is redundant, they are speaking of the numerous synonyms which clutter our dictionaries. Redundancy in the sense of information theory is a measure of how efficiently the letters/symbols are used in the language. The fact that English is a redundant language is not necessarily bad. That our language is spoken as well as written brings in many issues besides efficiency. We want to be understood in a noisy room, we want the sound of words to correspond to their meaning, and we want to be able to pronounce words with ease. Information rates are only one small part of the analysis of the English language. A very interesting illustration of how well a language can be be describe statistically occurs are the nth order approximations of the English language, reproduced here from Shannon's paper "The Mathematical Theory of Communication." Would a monkey who knew the n-gram frequencies of the letters in English where n is large be able to produce credible English text? Furthermore, does this monkey "know" English? If the N-gram monkey is behind one door and a human is behind the other, could a third-party observer tell which was the monkey? This question rings of the Turing test for artificial intelligence, to which there is no easy answer.
4519	dbpedia	1	33	https://mangolanguages.com/resources/learn/general/how-to-learn-a-language/your-learning-language-guide/levels-of-learning-a-language	en	Levels of learning a language	https://a-us.storyblok.c…g-a-language.jpg	https://a-us.storyblok.c…g-a-language.jpg	[ "https://mangolanguages.com/resources/_next/static/media/ml-logo.165bb8ba.svg", "https://a-us.storyblok.com/f/1014415/1920x1080/203cee89b5/levels-of-learning-a-language-banner.jpg/m/900x285", "https://a-us.storyblok.com/f/1014415/5000x5000/f93374df83/circle-levels.jpg", "https://a-us.storyblok.com/f/1014415/3500x2600/73591e51c3/cefr-levels.jpg", "https://a-us.storyblok.com/f/1014415/6500x2500/ca741a4b97/mango-scale-in-comparison-to-cefr-and-actfl.jpg", "https://mangolanguages.com/resources/_next/static/media/article-footer-devices.b29c5d3b.png", "https://mangolanguages.com/resources/_next/static/media/article-footer-devices.b29c5d3b.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	In general, beginner language users are able to do less with a language than users at more advanced levels. In this post, we explore two frameworks commonly used to understand the different levels of language proficiency: the CEFR language levels and the ACTFL language levels.	en	/resources/_next/static/media/favicon.eb9fd464.png		null	Different Levels of Language Proficiency When you learn a second language, you naturally go through different levels of language proficiency. These levels are commonly called beginner, intermediate, advanced, and superior (or highly proficient), although they are not always clearly separated from one another. In general, beginner language users are able to do less with a language than users at more advanced levels. In this post, we explore two frameworks commonly used to understand the different levels of language proficiency: the CEFR language levels and the ACTFL language levels. Both of these frameworks identify language learners as somewhere on a spectrum from a complete beginner/novice learner (A1, CEFR; Novice, ACTFL) to entirely proficient (C2, CEFR; Distinguished, ACTFL). In addition to unpacking these language levels, we’ll also compare the ACTFL and CEFR levels, address how to properly test language proficiency, answer questions about what it means to be fluent, and discuss how to improve your fluency in a language. Are you ready? Allons-y ! / Vamos! / يلا (yalla) / Let’s go! Table of Contents What are the CEFR Language Levels? Let’s have a look at each of the CEFR levels in more detail. The CEFR language levels are A1, A2, B1, B2, C1, and C2. These language levels represent proficiency descriptors ranging from beginner to advanced, as measured by the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, teaching, assessment (CEFR). But what is CEFR, anyway? Well, CEFR was first developed by the Council of Europe in 2001 to serve as a framework for the clear and comprehensive assessment of foreign language proficiency. It was also designed to guide the development of language syllabi and curriculum guidelines as resources for language teaching and learning. One of the main objectives behind the creation of CEFR was to bring greater focus to what language learners ought to achieve with language and how this can be accomplished. CEFR A1 Level (Basic) The CEFR A1 proficiency level represents basic users of a language. At the A1 level, language learners are able to use and understand basic phrases or common expressions used in familiar contexts or to complete beginner-friendly, concrete tasks. In speaking, the A1 learner will use isolated and formulaic utterances, along with pauses, repetition, and rephrasing. When listening and reading, language users at the A1 level require slow, direct, and simple speech and text. A1 learners can introduce themselves, ask and answer basic personal questions, and generally interact in simple ways. An A1 user can… Use very basic memorized words and phrases and grammatical structures Answer and ask questions about personal information Use basic connectors like “then” or “and” to link words and phrases Understand short and simple strings of words by recognizing basic vocabulary and phrases Pick up on basic, familiar content from text or conversation, especially with visual aids An A1 user cannot yet… Stray far from a memorized repertoire of words and formulaic expressions Communicate with a non-sympathetic listener Communicate beyond very basic and familiar personal information To reach the A1 level, you can start by memorizing a few key, high-frequency words or phrases in your target language and practice introducing yourself or offering some basic personal information. At the next level, you’ll grow a bit more confident in the language — take a look in the next section! CEFR A2 Level (Basic) The A2 proficiency level is for language learners who are still basic users, but whose skills are slightly more advanced than an A1 learner. At the A2 language proficiency level, users still rely on familiar and personal subject matter to assist with language understanding and production. In reading and listening, A2 users can comprehend predictable and simple texts and conversations. In writing, these users can create short messages with very concrete purposes, like expressing gratitude. An A2 user can… Engage in simple tasks that involve routine exchanges of information such as descriptions of identity, surrounding environment, and immediate needs Use and understand phrases related to topics discussing personal and familial information, employment, shopping, activities, etc. Use simple coordinating conjunctions and connector phrases (e.g. “and” or “but” in English) An A2 user cannot yet… Carry and direct a conversation independently Speak without relying on reformulations, false starts, or hesitation Communicate without making basic grammatical and structural errors To reach the A2 level, you can increase your vocabulary repertoire and practice having conversations about a wide range of topics. Now, let’s explore what to work on next after you master these skills. CEFR B1 Level (Independent) The B1 language proficiency level describes learners who are independent users of the language. B1 users can regularly understand language related to work, leisure, travel, and school as it comes up in clear conversational input. B1 language users should also have enough vocabulary and knowledge of grammatical structures to manage routine and predictable conversation, and to discuss topics of general and personal interest using short connected phrases. A B1 user can… Communicate about and understand the main points of a variety of topics including family, hobbies and interests, travel, work, and familiar current events Offer explanations and opinions, describe experiences, dreams, hopes and ambitions, etc. Confirm mutual understanding in a conversation A B1 user cannot yet… Produce language for long stretches of time without pausing to rephrase or search for expressions or vocabulary Use and understand language on topics that are less familiar or personally interesting To reach the B1 language proficiency level, try to practice stringing independent sentences and expressions into larger sequences of information. Expanding your vocabulary on new topics that feel familiar or interesting to you will also help you reach the “independent user” level. Now, let’s check out the next level: B2. CEFR B2 Level (Independent) Language learners at the B2 level (still independent language users) possess the ability to identify the main point of texts and conversations that discuss both concrete and abstract (although still familiar) topics. B2 users have a higher level of fluency and spontaneity in conversation than A1 to B1 users. While errors may still be occasionally made, they do not prevent understanding, and the B2 language user will often self-correct. A B2 user can… Understand longer and more complicated arguments in speech or text, assuming that it is not too unfamiliar Provide extended detail and offer arguments in favor of or against a topic Have regular, basic interactions with native speakers Provide and defend an opinion or position on a variety of topics familiar to the interests of the language user A B2 user cannot yet… Engage with material that is largely unfamiliar and very abstract Understand and participate in conversations (or engage with material) that is conceptually unfamiliar or difficult Avoid a certain level of pausing or abruptness in longer conversations To reach the B2 level, try to familiarize yourself with more abstract concepts in your target language. Practice speaking and using transition words (even in a mirror!) to improve your fluency and spontaneity in conversation. But maybe you’re already there — in that case, let’s unpack the next level: C1. CEFR C1 Level (Proficient) The C1 language proficiency level refers to proficient language users who can understand a broad range of information, often picking up on implicit details and meaning. C1 language users can express themselves with relative ease and fluency. They can use language flexibility in a wide variety of contexts (social, professional, academic, etc.). In speech and writing, the C1 user can use connectors and organizational devices to structure their thoughts. A C1 user can… Understand information that is less clear, structured, and explicit, even when the information is specialized, technical, or outside the field of interest or knowledge of the language user Use the language spontaneously and easily to meet professional and social needs Use the language with an awareness of appropriate style and audience Limit errors to infrequent, minor mistakes and maintain a high level of grammatical accuracy A C1 user cannot yet… Freely use and understand language even when it is highly stylized, idiomatic, or unfamiliarly colloquial To reach the C1 level, you will want to practice using the language not only in your everyday life, but in more formal contexts, as well — such as in professional and serious conversations at work or in academic settings. Work on your structural knowledge of the language and expand your vocabulary beyond concepts that are concrete or familiarly abstract. Once you do this, you’ll just have one last language level to go — C2! CEFR C2 Level (Proficient) Learners at C2 language proficiency are the most proficient on the CEFR scale, understanding almost all input easily. C2 users can summarize and present information, and even reconstruct arguments or narratives that they have already heard. They can also express themselves accurately and totally fluently, and understand complexities in context, meaning, and language style. C2 users will be able to fully engage content that is unfamiliar, specialized, or complexly abstract. A C2 learner can… Understand almost all oral language spoken with regular, native-speaker pacing Use and understand language that is structurally complex or that relies on idioms or colloquial expressions Navigate confusion or misunderstanding smoothly and delicately, to the point where others may not notice Demonstrate implicit understanding of the language, including knowledge of discourse techniques such as turn-taking in conversation, allusions or references, play on words, etc. To reach the C2 language proficiency level, you’ll need to be an expert in your language! Diversify the content you consume in the language to familiarize yourself with new language styles and more complex vocabulary and grammatical structures. And, of course, practice speaking! Now that we’ve seen the CEFR language proficiency levels, let’s take a look at another scale used to measure language proficiency: the ACTFL language levels. What are the ACTFL Language Levels? The ACTFL language levels are Novice, Intermediate, Advanced, Superior, and Distinguished. These levels, published by the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Language, describe what language users are able to spontaneously do in a language in regard to speaking, writing, listening, and reading. Like the CEFR levels, the ACTFL levels reflect a continuum of language proficiency. Within the five ACTFL language levels (Novice, Intermediate, Advanced, Superior, and Distinguished), the first three levels of proficiency contain the sublevels “low,” “mid,” and “high.” At the highest sublevel (“high”), a language user will occasionally perform at the next major proficiency level but will not be able to sustain this performance consistently. For example, a Novice High language learner will behave almost like an intermediate language user, but not quite as consistently. On the contrary, at the “low” sublevel, the learner is barely meeting the requirements for the level — an Intermediate Low learner is clearly far away from the “high” Intermediate sublevel, while not being too far from the Novice level. At the “mid” sublevel, a language user is solidly performing at that major proficiency level, with very little evidence of reaching the next major level. Pretty straightforward, right? Now, let’s take a closer look at what Novice, Intermediate, Advanced, Superior, and Distinguished language users can and cannot do. ACTFL Novice Novice language learners have a very limited functional ability in the language. Novice learners rely on simple, predictable, memorizable, and familiar language structures. They speak in isolated phrases and words that may require a sympathetic listener to fully understand. When Novice language users listen to their target language, they might need help from the speaker in the form of slower speech, repetition or rephrasing, and simple and predictable input. When writing and reading, a Novice learner relies on formulaic phrases and keywords and predictable content/communication. But what exactly can a Novice learner do? Think back to when you first started learning a second language — you probably started with simple phrases and words like “hello” or “thank you.” Or, maybe you learned how to write your name in a new alphabet! These are all skills that a Novice language learner has. Take a look at the lists below: A Novice learner can… Extract basic information and identify topics in familiar situations, especially with the support of visuals Provide/ask for limited information by answering/asking very simple questions with the aid of familiar body language or visuals Express very basic feelings and preferences, introduce themselves, and name and (sometimes) describe familiar people, places, and objects Recognize and use memorized phrases and words Interact in a limited way in familiar, day-to-day contexts A Novice learner cannot yet… Speak in full sentences or paragraphs Use complex grammatical structures or tenses Produce or understand conversations on topics that are not familiar Are you wondering how to reach the Novice level? You might already be there! This is the language proficiency level at which every learner starts. Pick up a phrase book, practice some easy, formulaic conversations, or learn the alphabet of your new language and you’ll be well on your way to being a Novice. But, maybe you’re a little more advanced by now…in that case, let’s check out what it looks like to be an Intermediate language learner. ACTFL Intermediate Intermediate language users have a stronger grip on the language than a novice user — Intermediate learners can create with the language, which means they can express themselves (and understand others) beyond formulaic phrases and memorized words. In speaking, they can ask and answer simple, familiar questions and form sentences or even groups of sentences. As listeners, Intermediate learners still rely on tools like repetition, restatement, and context clues, but they can comprehend more information from clear, direct, and simple utterances than a Novice user can. In reading and writing, Intermediate learners can produce and understand simple, straightforward messages in individual and multiple-sentence formats on everyday familiar topics. An Intermediate learner can… Understand the main idea from and use single sentences and strings of sentences on familiar subjects Interact with other speakers to meet basic needs or ask/answer simple questions Provide more detailed, while still simplistic, personal information including expressions of opinion, preference, feeling, etc. Use basic, high-frequency vocabulary and grammar structures An Intermediate learner cannot yet… Provide detailed narration across time frames Engage with material or conversations on less familiar topics Entirely effectively use organized, paragraph-structured discourse To reach the Intermediate level, a language user must learn to create with the language — meaning form sentences and questions and string together ideas and familiar expressions/vocabulary to express original information. At the Advanced level, language users start to acquire some of these skills that Intermediate learners do not yet have. Let’s dig in! ACTFL Superior Superior-level language users can use the language accurately and fluently to discuss both familiar and unfamiliar topics in both formal and informal settings. As speakers, Superior language users can communicate without extensive hesitation and can use native-like communications strategies (e.g., turn-taking strategies). In writing, Superior language learners demonstrate a mastery of the writing standards for the target language. Across the communicative domains, Superior language users make few errors in grammar and vocabulary. As readers and listeners, Superior language users can understand information on a variety of topics regardless of level of familiarity. A Superior learner can… Communicate (formally and informally) about general and special interests, concrete and abstract ideas, and select social or political issues/arguments Construct hypotheses and structured arguments with supporting evidence Communicate with infrequent errors, which (if they do occur) do not limit intelligibility Demonstrate knowledge of how to effectively follow structural and vocabulary standards in writing Make inferences, pick up on implicit communication, and understand literary style and genre Use and understand a broad range of vocabulary (including specialized, precise, or academic vocabulary) and complex grammatical structures, like argumentation/refutation and hypothesis A Superior learner cannot yet… Without any difficulty, engage with highly abstract and academic subject matter that is outside of specific interest Speak in a way that is comparable with written language To reach the Superior level of proficiency in a language, a learner must acquire relative mastery of abstract and concrete vocabulary and grammatical and communicative structures that are used by native speakers. In some cases, a language user will continue to master a language to the point that they reach the Distinguished proficiency level. ACTFL Distinguished At the Distinguished level, a language user is accurate, effective, fluent, and comfortable. Not only can Distinguished language users communicate about everyday familiar and unfamiliar topics, but they can offer advice, make arguments, and explain a significant range of complicated, academic, and abstract subjects. In speaking and writing, Distinguished language users can use the language in official and formal contexts like legal representation and correspondence, journal articles, etc. In listening and reading, Distinguished language users can understand and appreciate stylistic features and devices in the language, such as puns, tone, cultural allusions, and flowery/beautiful language. A Distinguished learner can… Use audience-specific and culturally appropriate language Represent opposing views or advocate on behalf of someone else or a different perspective Speak in a way that resembles written communication Understand and communicate subtlety and nuance with attention to style and strategic language use Engage critically with artistic, academic, classic, legal, political, and idiomatic uses of the language Appreciate the strategy and nuance behind certain phrasing, word choice, discourse organization, etc. To reach the Distinguished level, a language user must have extensive knowledge of the language and many years of experience and practice to hone proficiency. A learner must master the ability to use the language not only in formal settings, but in highly academic, professional, legal, political, etc settings. Now that we’ve taken a look at both the ACTFL and CEFR language proficiency levels, let’s take a look at how they are similar and different. How do CEFR and ACTFL Compare? The CEFR and ACTFL organizations have similar goals: to establish criteria that can be used to assess a language user’s functional language proficiency. Both proficiency frameworks are used to form the basis of major testing and certification systems, as well as to develop materials (e.g., textbooks), curricula, and standards. And yet, only recently have the two systems been empirically correlated. In 2010, ACTFL began an effort to align the two scales, resulting in a one-directional correspondence of CEFR ratings to the ACTFL scale. Check out the corresponding CEFR ratings to ACTFL proficiency assessment scores below: Here at Mango, we offer a Mango Proficiency Scale of five levels (Beginner 1, Beginner 1, Skilled 1, Skilled 2, Skilled 3), meant to assist our learners in tracking their progress in their language using the Mango app. Like the CEFR and ACTFL scales, the Mango Proficiency Scale tracks progress across the four domains of speaking, reading, writing, and listening. To see how each Mango level compares with the ACTFL and CEFR frameworks, see the comparison chart we’ve developed below: Alright, so now we understand what the different proficiency levels are — both on the CEFR scale and the ACTFL scale (and even on Mango’s own proficiency level system!). But, how do you find out which language level you’re at? Let’s take a look! How to Test Language Level The most effective way to test your language level is to take a language proficiency test. A language proficiency test assesses a language user’s speaking, reading, writing, and/or listening proficiency. While ACTFL has developed its own assessments in these domains, CEFR offers guides for linking general proficiency test scores to the CEFR scale. As explained by ACTFL, a good proficiency test will emphasize proficiency over performance, meaning that assessment is more about how you can use the language in real-world situations and less about your knowledge of verb conjugations. Proficiency tests should examine: Interpersonal, interpretive, and presentational modes of communication What functions a language user is capable of (what tasks they can complete) What contexts/content a language user can operate in What text types a language user can employ (isolated words, sentences, paragraphs, etc.) A language user’s control of the language, knowledge of communication strategies, cultural and communicative competence, and vocabulary The ability to test language proficiency is an important step in studying how language is acquired. Research using ACTFL proficiency tests and levels, for example, has suggested that college language learners’ proficiency increases by roughly one-third of an ACTFL sublevel per college semester. Interestingly, students at lower proficiency levels seem to make the quickest improvements. Studies like this one suggest that proficiency tests need to properly assess communicative competence (how well a learner can actually function in a language) in a way that is context-appropriate (accounting for differences in learners and their environments). Okay, so now you know a bit more about how to find out what your language level is. But, how do you know if that means you’re fluent? Which Language Level is Enough to Speak Fluently? Generally speaking, the Superior (ACTFL) or C1 (CEFR) language proficiency level is enough to speak fluently. In the descriptors for what learners can do at these levels, ACTFL explains that superior speakers “are able to communicate with accuracy and fluency.” Similarly, CEFR explains that C1 users are able to “express [themselves] fluently and spontaneously, almost effortlessly.” And yet, the term “fluent” certainly can be ambiguous – it depends on what you really mean when you say you want to be fluent. Do you want to be able to ask for directions on the street? Or, maybe you’d like to hold a conversation with your partner’s family? Perhaps you’re even looking to conduct research and do work in the language? These will all require different levels of language fluency. So in order to really know which language level is enough to speak fluently, you’ll first have to figure out your own goals and take a look at the ACTFL Can-Do Statements and CEFR Self-Assessment Grid to see if you’ve reached them! But perhaps you already know you’re not quite where you want to be yet. That’s okay! Let’s take a look at some ways to improve your level of language proficiency. How to Improve Your Level of Language Proficiency To improve your level of language proficiency, you’ll need to practice reading, speaking, writing, and listening. You can also help yourself get to a higher level by familiarizing yourself with new vocabulary topics, studying more complex grammar constructions, and growing comfortable conversing in the language will also help to proficiency. This can help improve your self-confidence too! However, if you’re still not sure where to get started, check out our self-guided reflection on what might be holding you back from achieving your desired level of fluency. Here’s a preview: you might need to focus on your motivation, the amount of time you’re spending on learning, and your language learning strategies. One of my favorite strategies for practicing a language is to simply find ways to make yourself more comfortable with it. When you increase your comfort with speaking, reading, writing, and/or listening in a language, you’re more likely to be motivated, have more self-confidence, and have lower anxiety — all factors which can impact how effectively you learn. In other words, the more anxious or less confident you are in your language, the harder it will be to acquire it. To become more confident and comfortable in your language, try incorporating it into activities you already enjoy: Read a book (especially one you have read before) or even simple texts like recipes, directions, or social media posts in your target language Write a journal entry or notes/grocery lists/etc. in the target language Listen to a podcast or songs (and look up the lyrics) in the language Speak to a friend, pet, plant (it’s good for them!), or even yourself in the mirror Change the language settings on your phone (but make sure you know how to change them back if necessary) Use the Mango app! Learning a language takes time, and it’s not always easy to climb the language proficiency ladder. But don’t worry — with time, dedication, and your new understanding of how proficiency works in language learning, you’ll reach your goals in no time! References Isbell, D. R., Winke, P., & Gass, S. M. (2019). Using the ACTFL OPIc to assess proficiency and monitor progress in a tertiary foreign languages program. Language Testing, 36(3), 439-465. Krashen, S. (1982). Principles and practice in second language acquisition. Pergamon Press.
4519	dbpedia	2	66	https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/10-quick-ways-master-speaking-english-like-american-jackie-donaldson	en	10 Quick Ways to Master Speaking English Like an American	https://static.licdn.com/aero-v1/sc/h/en3f1pk3qk4cxtj2j4fff0gtr	https://static.licdn.com/aero-v1/sc/h/en3f1pk3qk4cxtj2j4fff0gtr	[ "https://media.licdn.com/dms/image/C5612AQG8NgiVf0j4Nw/article-inline_image-shrink_1000_1488/0/1597080766679?e=1729123200&v=beta&t=qjmC3ofoDgez7lIrSdxZwA4KZnEMCqzy3OpoGQPKM-k", "https://media.licdn.com/dms/image/v2/C5612AQGqlLl6koZnaw/article-inline_image-shrink_1000_1488/article-inline_image-shrink_1000_1488/0/1597081409414?e=1729123200&v=beta&t=U-Y7ULTjEwKM1X7fwO406Mlv2qK0BNtp6f3NmqIGHCQ" ]	[ "about:blank", "about:blank", "about:blank", "about:blank", "about:blank", "about:blank" ]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Jackie Donaldson" ]	2020-08-10T17:51:22+00:00	Learning to speak English naturally like an American can be simple with these 10 easy tips. American English has different words, phrases, and manner of speaking that’s distinct from British, Australian, South African, Nigerian, or other dialects of English.	en	https://static.licdn.com/aero-v1/sc/h/al2o9zrvru7aqj8e1x2rzsrca		https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/10-quick-ways-master-speaking-english-like-american-jackie-donaldson	Jackie Donaldson Jackie Donaldson Language Coach \| I help people of all ages feel confident speaking Spanish and English like a native in 90 days or less. DM me for details! Published Aug 10, 2020 Learning to speak English naturally like an American can be simple with these 10 easy tips. American English has different words, phrases, and manner of speaking that’s distinct from British, Australian, South African, Nigerian, or other dialects of English. Let’s go on a short trip through Americanisms that make Americans unique among English speakers. 1. Stress the right words correctly Like all English speakers, American English speakers emphasize certain words that are important to them. But they tend to be a bit more enthusiastic in their speech than other speakers of English. And Americans have a different type of rhythm. They tend to linger on, or stress, content words like nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. It’s basically the words the speaker thinks is most important and wants to emphasize to their listener. Let’s look at some examples. I just got a new dog! What’s the most important part of this sentence? The pronoun I? The verb got? Or the direct object dog? It’s dog! The person is excited because she has a new dog, which she wants to talk about with her listener. Shelly has a new job. What’s the most important word in that sentence? It’s new, because the speaker wants to emphasize that it’s not just any job, it’s a new one. When those words are stressed, the vowels are also stressed. Americans tend to draw out their vowels longer than other English speakers. At the same time, they also rush speaking certain words, especially articles the, a, and an. Check out this video on what words to stress and what words to rush when speaking. 2. Use a lot of contractions You probably already know that English has several standard contractions like can’t for cannot, won’t for will not, I’m for I am, and you’re for you are. Many English learners, especially ones who have learned British English, don’t say the contractions, though. They read “I’m” but they still say “I am.” The key to speaking English naturally is to use contractions and say them correctly every single time. The times when Americans don’t use contractions is in formal speech or writing, or when they really want to emphasize something. Say for instance that a telemarketer calls to ask if you’re interested in their service. The first two or three times you answer, “I’m not interested.”. But by the fourth time, you’re tired of being asked, so you say firmly, “I am not interested” with the emphasis on not. That makes it clear to the person asking all the questions that you are definitely not interested. Then there are informal contractions. When speaking with friends, family, or close coworkers, Americans use informal contractions all the time. You probably already know a few of these, but do you know all of them? Coulda - could have; “I coulda been rich!” Dunno - don’t know, “I dunno what to eat for dinner” D’ya - do you; “D’ya want something?” Gimme - give me; “Gimme a piece of that.” Gonna - going to; “I’m gonna head out now.” Gotta - got to; “I gotta go.” Hafta - have to; “I hafta eat dinner now.” Kinda - kind of; “I kinda want that top.” Wanna - want to; “I wanna go home” Lemme - let me; “Lemme think about that.” Shoulda - should of, “I shoulda thought of that sooner” Whatcha - what are you; “Whatcha gonna do tonight?” Woulda - would have, “I woulda called you if I knew you were home” Ya or y’ - you; “Y’awake right now?” Contractions are said quickly and without good enunciation, because they’re such a part of casual speech. Here’s a great video on many contractions that Americans say all the time and how quickly they say them. 3. Know some common idioms There are more than 500 idioms, or common expressions, in the English language. Americans tend to use idioms in their daily speech. Knowing a few idioms will make you sound more like a native American English speaker. Some common idioms Americans use every day are: Like no tomorrow - all the time, “Americans use idioms like no tomorrow.” Take something with a grain of salt - to not believe something completely; “Take what she says with a grain of salt.” Know an arm from a leg - to not know anything; “He doesn’t know his arm from his leg.” Feel like a stuffed pig - to be very full after eating; “After eating 4 slices of pizza, I feel like a stuffed pig.” Get a running start - to start something quickly before anyone else; “John’s got a running start on all the other kids in his English class.” Get a fresh start - to begin something again with a better attitude; “Get some sleep tonight so you can get a fresh start on the project tomorrow.” Play hardball - to use every tactic to get something you want; “He said no, but I’m going to play hardball so he’ll finally agree.” Think outside the box - to think creatively; “Let’s think outside the box on how to market our new product.” Want to learn more? Check out this video I made for TakeLessons on 35 common idioms. 4. Speak with some slang Like every country in the world, Americans have their own slang, or informal speech. This is speech used in a casual setting. It’s something Americans use every day when talking with friends. Slang differs depending on gender, age, race, and ethnicity. Teens have different and probably more slang than people in the 30s and older. People in their 30s use different slang from people in their 60s. Typical slang that most people in the U.S. today under 60 years old would use or recognize includes: 411 - (noun), information, used in a question like, “What’s the 411?” when a person wants to know details about something Bae - (noun), stands for Before Anyone Else, a significant other Bail - (verb), to leave something or someone in a hurry, “I can’t believe he’s bailing out of picking up his kid from school” Bestie - noun, best friend, “She’s my bestie from high school” Epic fail - a complete failure, “He fell off his bike in the middle of the competition; it was an epic fail” Chillin’ - (adverb), relaxing, used as a response a question about what the person is doing, “I’m just chillin’” Conk out - (verb), to fall asleep quickly, “My brother conked out at 8pm after playing football all day” Dive - (noun), a neighborhood bar or restaurant that may be rundown; “Let’s go to that dive bar on 5th tonight.” Dump - to end a relationship with quickly, “Alexis dumped her boyfriend last night” For real - (adverb), true, honest, “Are you for real right now?” Hit up - (verb), to call or text, “Hit me up if you’re going out tonight.” Queen - (noun), positive female role model, “Beyonce’s a queen” Sketchy - (adjective) something or someone that’s suspicious, unpredictable, and odd Trashed - (verb) to destroy something, “He just trashed his house;” or (adjective) be drunk, “She’s trashed after drinking 5 beers” Zonked - (adjective), to be exhausted, “I’m zonked after partying all night” 5. Get the hang of phrasal verbs Not only do Americans use slang and idioms in their speech, but they also use a lot of phrasal verbs. In fact, if you listened to an American speaking naturally, you probably would hear at least one phrasal verb in every other sentence. Phrasal verbs are verbs with a preposition or prepositional phrase. Phrasal verbs typically use common action verbs like get, go, take, hang, bring, come, hold, break, and start with common prepositions like up, down, with, back, and over. Phrasal verbs can have one or two prepositions. Some common phrasal verbs are: Break off - to end a relationship abruptly, “She broke off her engagement ring to Ted” Call off - to cancel; “He called off the wedding after he learned the truth.” Come across - to appear to other people, “He comes across as unfriendly.” Come down with - to get sick; “I think she’s coming down with a cold.” Come up with - to think of an idea; “He just came up with that plan yesterday.” Count on - to trust or rely on someone; “I know I can count on you to help me after my surgery” Divvy up - to divide; “Let’s divvy up the groceries we bought.” Get the hang of - to learn how to do something comfortably or with ease; “After only two tries, she got the hang of riding a bike.” Go out with - to date casually; “I’m going out with Dan.” Hang on - to wait for someone; “Hang on while I grab my coat.” Hang out - to spend time with friends somewhere, “We’re hanging out at Susie’s apartment tonight.” Hold off - to stop for a period of time, “Hold off on writing that email until you’re not angry anymore.” Start up with - to begin an argument with someone; “He’s started up with her again for the fourth time today.” Take over - to buy another company, usually aggressively or unexpectedly; “Facebook took over Instagram and WhatsApp.” Take up - to start something; “She took up yoga in March when the pandemic started.” When speaking, Americans emphasize the prepositions more than the verb in phrasal verbs. If you’re interested in learning more phrasal verbs, check out this list of 200 phrasal verbs. 6. Use interjections Americans like to use interjections. They show how a person feels by making just a short sound. Common injections include: Ah Alright! Argh! Brrr Cool! Fantastic! Hmmm Jeez Oh my God! Nope Ugh! Wow! Yikes! Yuck! Yum! Sometimes, interjections contradict what the person is actually saying. For instance, let’s look at the interjection yeah. As an adverb yeah is a casual form of yes, but as an interjection it has multiple meanings depending on how the speaker says it. Yeah - ok Yeah! - I agree! I’m happy with that! Yeah (said slowly) - I’m thinking Yeah? - Is that right? Yeah, I don’t think so - no, I don’t agree Yeah, no - no without being assertive Yeah, maybe - maybe it’s possible, but you’re not entirely sure Yeah, ok - that’s fine, though you’re not enthusiastic about it Yeah, alright - same as yeah, ok Yeah, right (said sarcastically) - not believing what’s being said Oh, yeah! - I agree! Oh, yeah (said slowly or disappointingly) - I forgot about that Oh, yeah? - Is that true? Yeah, yeah, yeah - I don’t believe what you’re saying Yeah, yeah, yeah (said quickly) - hurry up Yeah, sure! - agreeing to something with enthusiasm Yeah, sure - agreeing to something but trying to play it cool Yeah, sure (said sarcastically) - agreeing to something with sarcasm, so you don’t actually believe what’s being said Yeah, about that - you don’t want to do something but you don’t want to sound harsh The word ok can act the same as yeah, the meaning contradicting what the word actually means. Ok - that’s fine, I’m fine Ok (with the vowels drawn out, like oookaaaay) - I don’t believe that Ok? (with an inflection up) - do you hear what I’m saying? Ok (said sarcastically) - you’re agreeing out loud but you actually don’t really agree with it Ok (usually with the hand up) - stop, enough And even the word no has several meanings depending on how the speaker uses it. No - no, I don’t agree No? - you don’t agree? No! - stop! Don’t do that! No (said with a drawn-out vowel sound, like nooooo) - I can’t believe that! Start using these interjections in different contexts with the correct inflections and you will start sounding like an American right away. Need some more help? Check out these 101 interjections. 7. Get comfortable with the American R While not every American says the American R, most Americans do pronounce it who speak Standard American English. The way to pronounce it is all in the tongue. Curl your tongue up on the sides so it touches the area of the gums where your gums meet your teeth. The lips make an almost kissing shape but more clenched together with the tongue. Your tongue never touches the roof of the mouth. Basically, think of a dog growling, and there you have it. This video below is terrific, it walks you through the steps on how to pronounce the American R easily. 8. Drop the middle syllable American English has 14 or 15 vowel sounds, depending on which region of the country you’re in. There are only 5 vowel letters, A, E, I, O, U, and sometimes a sixth, Y. But each vowel has multiple ways you can pronounce it, from short to long sounds and then sounds in between. And then there is a special sound called schwa /ə/ . Any of the vowels A, E, I, O, or U can make this sound. Complicated, right? But maybe it’s not so complicated after all. Americans tend to delete the schwa sound in words with three syllables, turning the words into two syllables instead. Take chocolate for example. Americans say choc-late instead of choc-o-late. Another example is camera. Instead of cam-er-ra, Americans say cam-ra. Some more examples are: separate --> sep-rate elaborate --> ela-brate family --> fam-ly every --> ev-ry average --> av-rage different --> diff-rent So learn what vowel sounds you don’t have to say in words to sound more American. 9. Recognize the differences There are a lot of linguistic differences between regions like the South, Northeast, Midwest, and California. And there are differences between gender, race, and ethnicity. For instance, some people in the Black community use slang from distinct people in other communities. Some say that it’s actually a distinct language from Standard American English. This informal Black way of speaking is something called Ebonics and has its own grammar structure along with slang. Check out this video of some Black speech patterns in different parts of the country. Among people in the U.S. whose parents or grandparents are from Latin American and the Caribbean, there are certain ways of speaking. For instance, people in Miami whose families are from Caribbean Spanish-speaking countries tend to sound at times like people who live in New York City or northern New Jersey. And Chicano English is spoken in areas where many Mexican-Americans live, like Chicago, Texas, and Southern California. Both speakers of Miami English and Chicano English use patterns of Spanish in many ways. They tend not to pronounce the TH sound or use long vowel sounds for short vowel sounds. And they tend to drop the -ed ending from regular verbs in the past tense While Chicano English has many similarities in speech, there are still regional differences. This video will make you laugh while you see some distinctions in culture, including speaking. So not only are there racial or ethnic distinctions, there are regional differences within American English. Californians have developed a lot of slang that has become mainstream thanks to popular culture, including music, movies, and TV shows. Dude - (noun) guy, man Killer - (adjective), cool, “That was a killer party, dude” Guac - (noun), guacamole Cali - (noun), California Northeasterners say things like: Wicked - (adjective), verb or really, “That game’s wicked cool” Drop all the Rs - “Park the car in Harvard yard sounds more like “Pahk the cah in Hahvahd yahd” Sometimes in a language, you can tell what values a group of people hold important. Midwesterns are known for being a polite and friendly people, which you can hear in what words use they use. Sorry and thanks - be genuinely yet overly polite when an accident or mistake happens and say sorry or thanks a lot Ope! - (interjection) combination of oh! and whoops! for small mistakes Many states in the South are part of the Bible Belt, a religious and mostly conservative area of the country. Southerners value being polite and warm to others. They tend to speak slowly and draw out the vowels. Words and phrases typically used in the South include: Honey - (noun), used when one woman is actually mad at another woman but wants to appear nice even if it’s fake, “Honey, I don’t think so.” Bless your heart - can be used as a kind response when the person thinks something is sweet or special, but also can be used to disguise the true opinion about something, as in “Well, bless your heart, isn’t that a pretty cake!” when in fact it’s the ugliest cake you’ve ever seen There are some things, such as products or items that are used often, that are different words depending on which region you are in. It depends on what region you’re in when you say the plural form of you. For instance, there’s: You guys - Midwest Y’all - South, contraction form of you all, “Hi y’all!” You all - most of the U.S. For a carbonated sugary drink, you would say in these regions: Coke - South Pop - Midwest Soft drink - little areas of the Midwest Soda - most of the U.S. For a shoe that you typically wear when being active, you would say in these regions: Sneakers - Northeast Tennis shoes - South Running shoes - Gym shoes - Midwest And then there are differences of how to pronounce a word, like for instance pajamas: Puh-jam-uhs (schwa-short A-schwa) Puh-jahm-uhs (schwa-long A-schwa) Or you could just call them pjs or jammies 10. Get help from an American English speaker Want more help speaking like an American? Take my free Master Class on how to speak English like an American. It's Wednesday, Aug. 12 from 10:30 am to 12 pm Pacific. I will guide you in all these tips and more. You'll get instant feedback about your pronunciation and by the end of this Master Class, you'll be speaking like an American! Register for your spot now by emailing me at jackie@amidonstudios.com or messaging me via text or WhatsApp at +01-619-483-5874. Plus we have weekly American English pronunciation lessons where you work on these tips and more with me. Those run every Wednesday from 11am to 12pm Pacific. Sign up today by messaging me at jackie@amidonstudios.com or via text or WhatsApp at +01-619-483-5874.
4519	dbpedia	0	28	https://www.yourdictionary.com/two-bit	en	Two-bit Definition & Meaning	https://assets.ltkconten…o_0066f46bde.jpg		[ "https://assets.ltkcontent.com/images/95578/tongue-twister-baboon-bamboo_0066f46bde.jpg", "https://assets.ltkcontent.com/images/2128/measuring-cup-liter_0066f46bde.jpg", "https://assets.ltkcontent.com/images/11687/analogy-metaphor-simile_0066f46bde.jpg", "https://assets.ltkcontent.com/images/6464/metaphor-simile-example_61cb20090e.jpg", "https://assets.ltkcontent.com/images/11956/18847.thinkstockphotos-510479916-romeo2_0066f46bde.jpg", "https://assets.ltkcontent.com/images/1059/18443.istock-000050677854-middleschool_73e284133a.jpg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	Two-bit definition: Costing or worth 25 cents.	en	/favicon.png		https://www.yourdictionary.com/two-bit	He didn't know if a two-bit thug like Talon rated the attention of the King of Darkness or if Talon was stupid enough to challenge an immortal so much more powerful. Stress that you won't take any crap from some two-bit can't-hack-it pimple-faced gofer. They 're looking for Financial Managers, and I have to say, they seem a lot more professional than your two-bit outfit does. Figure 9.9 shows the size evolution of two-bit multipliers for both recombination operators and for different initial representation sizes.
4519	dbpedia	1	25	https://medium.com/%40lindiebotes/how-to-learn-multiple-languages-at-once-f66b69e17cb6	en	How to learn multiple languages at once	https://miro.medium.com/v2/da:true/resize:fit:1200/0*n0IC4F3ritDjvzq9	https://miro.medium.com/v2/da:true/resize:fit:1200/0*n0IC4F3ritDjvzq9	[ "https://miro.medium.com/v2/resize:fill:64:64/1dmbNkD5D-u45r44go_cf0g.png", "https://miro.medium.com/v2/resize:fill:88:88/1V3xiyQc2rjW9UeiJmsIr4w.png", "https://miro.medium.com/v2/resize:fill:144:144/1*V3xiyQc2rjW9UeiJmsIr4w.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Lindie Botes ✦", "medium.com" ]	2022-09-13T14:42:58.240000+00:00	I’ve been learning multiple languages for many years, and in 2020, I tackled 12 languages. There are many methods you can use to learn more than one language at once. Here are some of my best…	en	https://miro.medium.com/v2/5d8de952517e8160e40ef9841c781cdc14a5db313057fa3c3de41c6f5b494b19	Medium	https://medium.com/@lindiebotes/how-to-learn-multiple-languages-at-once-f66b69e17cb6	I’ve been learning multiple languages for many years, and in 2020, I tackled 12 languages. There are many methods you can use to learn more than one language at once. Here are some of my best recommendations. As for the these tips, you can try some or all — ultimately it’s about finding the technique that works for you! Learn one language to intermediate before moving on You might want to choose one main language and look at the other languages as fun side projects. It’s good to stick to a rule that if you’re a new language learner, first learn 1 language to an intermediate level and then tackle others. This especially works if the languages are different. It’s tricky to learn two similar languages from beginner at once, as you’ll often confuse them. Once you reach intermediate in one language, learning a similar language through another is easier. I try to learn one language to an upper-intermediate level so that it’s good enough to be a language of instruction for the other language. For example, once I learned Korean to a good enough level, I was able to study Japanese using textbooks written in Korean. Split your time (pareto principle) You can consider the 80/20 approach if you’re learning 2 languages at once. Spend 80% of your time on one (main) language, and then 20% of your time on the other language. This works best when they are two different languages or if you are intermediate+ in both. My friend Jonathan from Seabolt Speaks on YouTube learns Afrikaans when he takes a break from learning Japanese, his main focus. Online immersion Browsing YouTube or Twitter are amazing way to practice languages and get content in your target language. What some polyglots do is to have different YouTube accounts for different languages. This way, when you browse and get recommendations, all the videos will be in one language. Having a different account for each language creates an immersive space that you can go back to and put yourself in the mindset of the language each time you open YouTube. Other people have Twitter accounts specific to a language, where they only tweet in the language they are learning and only follow accounts in that language. This can be tedious if you are learning more than 3 languages and keep having to switch between accounts, though. What if you encounter words you don’t know online? There are Google Chrome extensions you can use for language learning on YouTube or Netflix, like Language Learning with Netflix which creates subtitles and vocabulary words for you as you watch. As for static websites like Twitter or blogs, you can use the extension called Readlang Web Reader and as you hover over words, it will translate them for you. Create a flexible schedule If you’re the type to get stressed about all the languages you want to study, try to create a loose schedule. You might have the tendency like me to not feel in the mood for studying a certain language on the day. If that’s you, rather make a list of activities you can do in multiple languages, and do those in the languages you feel like. I prefer to study multiple languages in little bits in one day (e.g. doing Spanish grammar in the morning, Korean vocab in the afternoon, and watching a French series at night, for instance) …or have a strict schedule. If you are the type of person who works well with rules and guidelines, having a strict schedule might help. I choose to focus on one or two MAIN languages alongside the other 10–11 I’m studying, and these usually get a schedule. Because I have a Korean exam coming up (TOPIK II), I’ve made a robust Korean grammar and vocabulary study schedule in preparation. Usually, I don’t schedule my language learning, but this is a way to keep my main languages in focus while I use the others as a fun break. Get rid of perfectionism Perfectionism is a negative mindset that does nothing to help you acheive your goals. If you’ve decided to learn more than one language at once, you’ll have to face the fact that you are going to progress slower in all of the languages than you would learning one at a time. I receive lots of comments like “you are not gonna get anywhere learning 12 languages at once”. While that is untrue, it is true that my progress will be slower since I’m focusing on so many. I choose not to be perfect in all of them, and my goals for each language are unique. I don’t need to be fluent in Burmese — my goal for 2020 is just to learn how to read and write, and that’s enough for me. With learning any language comes making lots of mistakes. You’re in the position of sounding and speaking like a baby again. Don’t let trying to be perfect stop you from working on your language goals. Embrace making mistakes. If you have a language exchange partner or italki tutor, use this as a safe environment to feel comfortable to make mistakes in. Once your mistakes have been corrected, you can write them down and practice the correct way of saying it. It’s a learning opportunity, not a race to perfectionism. TRY NEW METHODS AND LEARN FROM OTHERS I’m often inspired by polyglots like Steve Kaufmann. Here’s a video I did with him in which he shares his language learning tips. It’s always exciting to try new techniques or just listen to what other people have to say so you feel motivated again! Different apps and resources per language You can use different methods, notebooks, apps or systems for your languages. If you don’t know where to find good resources, take a look at my language resources page. You can choose to have one app only for one language so you make that connection in your mind (E.g. using the Bunpo app only for Japanese, Forge for Spanish, and Duolingo for French). Whatever works for you! Remember to work with comprehensible input. This means things that are at, or just above your level, that you can understand and learn from. Here’s a blog post that might help you. Have a positive mindset You can have all the right methods in the world but if you have a negative mindset, you won’t improve. Here’s a video I made that explains some healthy mindsets you can adopt around language learning. The importance of rest It’s important to build in rest too. Don’t overwhelm yourself. You need some off time to let things marinate in your mind! Here’s a video I did with Mari about making a schedule for your languages, in which we also talk about how important it is to take a break! Creating language-specific goals Set language-specific goals. Your goals can (and should) differ from language to language. This helps you prioritize the time you spend on each. Here’s the video I made about my language goals for my 12 languages in 2020, and here’s my follow-up a few months later. You can see that each language has a different level of priority. If you feel like you’re too busy to learn a language, there are always things you can do to fit language learning into your schedule! Do what makes you comfortable Don’t worry too much about how other people are doing it. If you prefer to focus on one language at a time and stack them, that’s awesome. If you want to go full-on and do 5 at a time, as long as you know your progress might be slower, that’s fine too. Happy studying!
4519	dbpedia	2	70	https://www.readingrockets.org/topics/about-reading/articles/simple-view-reading	en	The Simple View of Reading	https://www.readingrocke…pg?itok=N-AfYieY	https://www.readingrocke…pg?itok=N-AfYieY	[ "https://www.readingrockets.org/themes/custom/readingrockets_d9/logo.svg", "https://www.readingrockets.org/sites/default/files/styles/card_image_mobile_1x/public/2023-06/reading-101.jpg?itok=e2F9UtAQ", "https://www.readingrockets.org/sites/default/files/styles/card_image_mobile_1x/public/2023-05/a-z-common-core.jpg?itok=Y9bxUaLr", "https://www.readingrockets.org/sites/default/files/styles/card_image_mobile_1x/public/2023-06/helping-all-readers.jpg?itok=TDAUnJMA", "https://www.readingrockets.org/sites/default/files/styles/card_image_mobile_1x/public/2023-06/books-authors-2.jpg?itok=Ikc1IRNv", "https://www.readingrockets.org/sites/default/files/styles/card_image_mobile_1x/public/2023-06/literacy-at-home-2.jpg?itok=F10Vudjh", "https://www.readingrockets.org/sites/default/files/styles/card_image_mobile_1x/public/article/simple-view-reading.jpg?itok=YG9dwZkl", "https://www.readingrockets.org/sites/default/files/styles/card_image_mobile_1x/public/article/decodable-text_1_0.jpg?itok=NIoiUwqt", "https://www.readingrockets.org/sites/default/files/styles/card_image_mobile_1x/public/article/reading-research.jpg?itok=rU0DxOQT", "https://www.readingrockets.org/sites/default/files/styles/card_image_mobile_1x/public/article/skills-tests.jpg?itok=IyeEncmT", "https://www.readingrockets.org/sites/default/files/styles/card_image_mobile_1x/public/article/eyes-on-page.jpg?itok=PrIUj7CT", "https://www.readingrockets.org/themes/custom/readingrockets_d9/logo-wordmark-white.svg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	The Simple View of Reading is a formula demonstrating the widely accepted view that reading has two basic components: word recognition (decoding) and language comprehension. Research studies show that a student’s reading comprehension score can be predicted if decoding skills and language comprehension abilities are known.	en	/themes/custom/readingrockets_d9/favicon.ico	Reading Rockets	https://www.readingrockets.org/topics/about-reading/articles/simple-view-reading	I give lots of workshops all over the country and I give them on all different aspects of struggling reading. And I start every single workshop with the same introduction and it’s called the Simple View of Reading. It’s research that is the most important research in my opinion, that’s ever been done on reading because it clarifies very clearly what good readers do well and what those who don’t read so well struggle with. And the simple view of reading is research that was first done in 1990. It was proposed in 1986, and it’s been replicated hundreds of times since then. People have tried to disprove it and they’ve tried to prove it. They can only prove it. They cannot disprove the simple view of reading. And what it says simply is that reading is made of two components, decoding and language comprehension. In order to be strong at reading comprehension, you got to be strong at decoding and you got to have background knowledge and understand the words that you’re reading. If you are the most brilliant person in the world and you understand physics and you can draw pictures and you can’t decode the words, you can’t achieve reading comprehension. You only have language comprehension. Decoding is also a critical skill. You must be able to read the words accurately. I work in Africa sometimes helping develop programs for languages that children in rural Africa speak. They’re languages I don’t speak. Fulfulde, Kanuri, Wolof, Pulaar. They have what’s called a transparent orthography. That means one letter always spells the same sound, not like English, where one letter can spell a number of sounds. I can decode those languages perfectly. You tell me that a ‘c’ spells ‘cha’ and I can read any word because the vowel, the vowel ‘a’ always spells ‘ah.’ The vowel ‘o’ always spells ‘oh’. So I can read ‘Cho.’ I don’t have a clue what those words say. I don’t know one word in Wolof, but I can read a whole page. I can decode a whole page. So I’ve got decoding, but I don’t have any language. I can’t get to reading comprehension. So the simple view of reading tells us two things. We have to be strong in decoding and we have to have strong language knowledge. We have to know something that helps us know what the words are. Researchers all know about the simple view of reading teachers don’t know About, and it’s the most important thing that teachers, if they would understand that students must be strong decoders. That means you don’t guess your way through material. You can decode unfamiliar words. It means that you know what you’re reading about. They would understand then that if you have a tier two student, meaning that student has a little bit of reading problem, not a severe reading problem, they would not say all tier two students go into the same program. “Oh, you’re a tier two student and you are in third grade. We’re going to put you in Read Naturally.” Read Naturally is right for some students, but we don’t know because all we have is that they’re a tier two student, meaning they’re behind in reading comprehension. We got to dig further and find out is that a decoding problem or is that a language problem? And we teach those two things separately and we test those two things separately. And that’s something that teachers, they don’t carry that with them. And if teachers could carry that with them, they would, number one know they’ve got to teach decoding until it’s very strong. They cannot let kids guess their way through text. The second thing they would know is that when a student isn’t performing as well as we want them to we don’t say what’s wrong with their reading comprehension. We say, “I wonder if the problem is decoding or language comprehension?” And that is the most important knowledge that we have from research that is absolutely applicable to teaching that teachers don’t know about. If teachers understood the simple view of reading, they would know that when a child has a reading difficulty, they’re not performing as well as we want them to on a reading test. We have to dig deeper. And the first thing we ask is, is the problem that the student has difficulty decoding? Is the problem that the student doesn’t understand what they’re reading or do they have both problems? And if they have both, then we have to address them differently with separate kinds of interventions. Decoding is finite and we teach decoding. You can read words that you don’t even know what they mean. You’re a strong decoder if you can decode ‘em. I’m a really good decoder in Wolof, Fulfulde, and Kanuri. Don’t know anything about the language, but I’m very strong decoder even in those languages. If the problem is language, obviously for me, the problem is I have no vocabulary, so that would be easy. Teacher what the words mean. If I get a student who speaks English and I know that they have a language problem and how do I know they have a language problem because the reading scores are low and they’re strong decoders, it’s simple algebra. It has to be language. The problem has to be language. Well then just like the simple view of reading says, well, the problem’s reading. Is it decoding or language? If a student has a weakness in language, I ask two questions. Is it a vocabulary, background, knowledge, difficulty, weakness, which is relatively easy to fix? Or is it reasoning and syntax that the student just doesn’t get it even though they know what the words mean, but they just miss the idea? One is pretty easy to fix, the other is more difficult to fix. There are a number of tools that we can use. Unlike decoding language is not finite. Every day we’re all learning something new. Just by experience we’re adding to our language comprehension. It’s very complex and it’s very simple. And the reason I say that is it’s complex to figure out exactly where the issue is, but it’s very simple. Once you find the issue, you know exactly what to do. Lemme give you an example. I was working in a ninth grade special education language arts class, and there were 11 students. Nine of them had decoding issues very apparent. So we’re going to fix their decoding, put them in decoding intervention. Two of them had comprehension issues. One of the ways that when I don’t have extensive information, I try to figure out, I just ask students, can you read a paragraph? If there’s strong decoders, which these kids were, these two were strong decoders, and tell me what you just read. They read a paragraph about alligators and how long they had been in southeastern Southern and southeastern America, United States and all about that. So the first girl read it and she read it and I asked her, please tell me what you read. And she said It was a million years. So I said, can you tell me anything else you read alligators? So she really clearly is reading and not getting a whole picture of what she’s reading. Oh, boy, read. He read the passage and I said, “can you please tell me what you read?” “We have alligators in an hour by you right down the house from us, and there are alligators. Sometimes when they’re babies, they only weigh however much they weigh, but they weigh, oh my gosh, they can weigh however much they can weigh.” He knew so much about alligators, but he didn’t tell me anything. He read. He told me just what he knew. So he had exactly the opposite problem that I am not going to work with them the same. So the way I start with this is I teach kids how to describe a picture. So I held up a picture of a kangaroo and there’s a big kangaroo and there’s a little tree, few trees in the background, some brown at the bottom. I said to the girl, could you please describe this picture? She said, there are three trees. She just goes to some detail she didn’t even know how to describe. Okay, so then I called the boy up and I said, could you please describe this picture? Oh, that’s in Australia. Now that picture, it might be in Australia, but he’s going to bring all of, so I have to address their problems very differently. However, I’m going to use a picture at first to get them to focus on the picture to tell me about the picture. One of ‘em, I have to keep him in the picture. The other one, I have to show her how to describe different things. And that’s just the best example that I can come up with right now to show you how a reading comprehension, a language comprehension problem can be, children can have a low score, and yet the reason for exactly the same low score is very different.
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Currently", "practicing boxing" ]	2023-01-20T11:30:00+00:00	Are you learning multiple languages at once? Keep reading to find out why it’s a good idea and get ready to access 9 helpful tips for getting started!	en	https://cdn-blbpl.nitroc…on_V_1-32x32.png	Homeschool Spanish Academy	https://www.spanish.academy/blog/9-tips-for-learning-multiple-languages-at-once/	Are you wondering, “Can I learn more than one language at the same time?” All of it depends on you and how you think. There are different ways that people’s brains are wired. In Spanish, we say cada cabeza es un mundo (every head is a world). In other words, to learn is to take knowledge and make it your own. If your brain is already set up to learn languages, it’s a great idea to learn more than one at the same time. On the other hand, if you’ve never learned another language, you might want to start with just one. Find out why it’s a good idea and how to learn languages quickly by reading on. Here are nine tips to help you get started! Join more than 559 million people on the planet who speak Spanish! Sign up for your free trial Spanish class today. ➡️ Why It’s a Good Idea To Learn Two Languages at Once Should you learn two languages at the same time? Some researchers think so. A 2012 study by Johan Mårtensson shows that learning a new language sharpens your intelligence by helping your brain cells connect in new ways. When you learn a language, or even two languages at the same time, your brain gets stronger, which makes you smarter. It also saves some time to learn two languages at the same time. It can take up to two years to speak a language fluently, depending on how much you practice and how hard the language is. Can you learn three of them? If you learn two or three languages at the same time, it will (almost) take the same amount of time, but you will learn twice or three times as much. This will give you access to more places and cultures. Notice Your Language Choices and Their Roots Have you ever heard that languages have roots? Romance languages include Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, French, Romanian, Galician, and Catalonian. They’re all variations of Latin, so they share common words, roots, and expressions. For example, the word “street” in Spanish is la calle; the word la rúa is less common but still acceptable. In Galician and Portuguese, “street” is “rua,” while in French, it’s “rue.” When languages have the same roots, learning certain words or the syntax makes it easier. You have two options when learning multiple languages at once: Learn two or more languages with the same root Learn two or more languages with different roots The path you take it’s up to you. Some people find it easier to learn Portuguese and Spanish because they are highly similar. However, some students might confuse the words and mix them up. For them, it might be better to learn Portuguese and German, for example, since they are highly different. 9 Tips for Learning Multiple Languages at a Time Whichever path you want to take, here are 10 tips to learn multiple languages at once. 1. Listen to Music in the Languages Adding songs to your playlist in your target language helps you hone not only your listening skills, but also your reading skills. Read the lyrics and sing along to learn a ton of new words. This same rule applies to movies and to videogames, as well. Start with a movie you’ve seen before, since you won’t focus on the plot as much as the new words you’ll be learning. For example, if you watch Star Wars in Spanish, when you see Darth Vader tell Luke that he is his father, you won’t be surprised. Instead, you’ll be paying attention to the dialogue in Spanish (or your other target language). Try repeating your favorite phrases to gain even more fluency! 2. Stop Thinking Logically The easiest path to learn a language is to stop thinking logically. How did you learn your mother tongue? When you started learning how to talk, the only thing you did was repeat what you heard, because you needed others to understand you. My advice is not to get mired in grammar rules as a beginner. Instead, stop your brain and repeat like a parrot. Believe me, it works wonders. 3. Name the Objects Around You This is a simple trick to improve your vocabulary. Imagine that you step into the kitchen. What do you see? The stove, the trash can, the sink, a knife, plates, pans, and many more things. Look at them and switch your language. How do I say “stove” in Spanish? La estufa. How do I say “trash can” in Spanish? El bote de basura. How do I say “sink” in Spanish? El fregadero. How do I say knife, plates, and pans in Spanish? El cuchillo, los platos y los sartenes. Next time you come into the kitchen, repeat the exercise. If you’re learning multiple languages at once, be sure to do this in two phases. For example, apply Spanish to the kitchen and Italian to the living room, and then switch them up the next day. 4. Pick Up Slang This is a more advanced tip, so leave it for when you feel comfortable with the language and you’ve gotten the basics down. If you want to sound like a native speaker, slang is a must. Once you feel comfortable, start listening to rap music in your target language. That way, you’ll learn a ton of slang. This enables you to sound much more like a local, and not like you learned everything from a book. 5. Don’t Mix Your Languages Why is it a bad idea to learn two languages at once? Because mixing them up may lead to not speaking either one of them. This is why it is highly important not to mix your languages. Make sure that you’re speaking either one or the other, no matter how alike or different they may be. 6. Read in the Languages Reading in your target language is a must. If you’re eager to start reading but feel you’re still taking baby steps in your target language, why not read books for kids? The illustrations and the more simple language help a lot. Once you feel comfortable with them, start stepping up your game and move into books for adolescents and teens. Get your favorite book in your target language, too. That way you’ll know exactly what you’re reading and will learn many new words. This advice even works if your target language has different characters, for example the “ä” in German, the “ë” in French, the á, é, í, ó, ö, ú, ü in Hungarian (they have 14 vowels!), or Manji in Japanese. 7. Practice with Friends Learning multiple languages at once is ideal for meeting new people or introducing your pals to a new hobby. This way you can practice together while helping out each other. Challenge each other and play simple games in your target language to get better together. 8. Get to Know a Native Speaker Practicing with your buddies is one thing, but practicing with a native speaker is next level. Most native speakers appreciate it when they hear a foreigner speaking their language, even if they struggle with it. In my personal experience, knowing a native speaker has boosted my Italian and Spanish skills. My friend Emanuele has taught me many things in Italian and I’ve taught him several in Spanish. For instance, I got better at applying “il congiuntivo passato,” which is the equivalent of el pretérito del subjuntivo (subjunctive preterite) in Spanish. I’ve also learned slang words, synonyms, and words in Genovese thanks to this intercultural exchange. 9. Immerse Yourself in the Languages The best way to learn any language is to spend some time in a country where that language is spoken. If you want to learn multiple languages at once, countries with multiple official languages are spectacular. For example, Canada could be a great destiny for a Spanish speaker who aims to learn English and French. Paraguay is an amazing place if you’re looking to learn Spanish and Guaraní. Spain is the place to go if you want to learn Spanish and Basque, Catalonian, or Galician. In Guatemala you can learn Spanish and Kakchiquel Maya, in Mexico Spanish and Náhuatl, in Perú Spanish and Aymara, or in Switzerland learn German, French, and Italian. Immersing yourself in your target language and culture helps you out enormously. Have You Thought About Learning Spanish? As you know, learning another language improves your cognition and decision-making abilities, making your mind even more agile than it already is. What makes Spanish so special among other Romance languages? Its versatility. Spanish will open the door for you in 21 countries on three continents: the Americas, Europe, and Africa! It also opens more doors within the U.S. since more than 53 million people speak Spanish there! And if those two reasons aren’t enough, Spanish is the third most common language on the internet? Sign up for a free trial class at Homeschool Spanish Academy today and put these tips to use. Learn all about our affordable pricing options and tailored, 1-to-1 classes. Include Spanish in your languages to learn today! Join one of the 40,000 classes that we teach each month and you can experience results like these Want more free Spanish lessons, fun content, and easy learning strategies? Check these out!
4519	dbpedia	2	26	https://mangolanguages.com/resources/learn/general/how-to-learn-a-language/your-learning-language-guide/levels-of-learning-a-language	en	Levels of learning a language	https://a-us.storyblok.c…g-a-language.jpg	https://a-us.storyblok.c…g-a-language.jpg	[ "https://mangolanguages.com/resources/_next/static/media/ml-logo.165bb8ba.svg", "https://a-us.storyblok.com/f/1014415/1920x1080/203cee89b5/levels-of-learning-a-language-banner.jpg/m/900x285", "https://a-us.storyblok.com/f/1014415/5000x5000/f93374df83/circle-levels.jpg", "https://a-us.storyblok.com/f/1014415/3500x2600/73591e51c3/cefr-levels.jpg", "https://a-us.storyblok.com/f/1014415/6500x2500/ca741a4b97/mango-scale-in-comparison-to-cefr-and-actfl.jpg", "https://mangolanguages.com/resources/_next/static/media/article-footer-devices.b29c5d3b.png", "https://mangolanguages.com/resources/_next/static/media/article-footer-devices.b29c5d3b.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	In general, beginner language users are able to do less with a language than users at more advanced levels. In this post, we explore two frameworks commonly used to understand the different levels of language proficiency: the CEFR language levels and the ACTFL language levels.	en	/resources/_next/static/media/favicon.eb9fd464.png		null	Different Levels of Language Proficiency When you learn a second language, you naturally go through different levels of language proficiency. These levels are commonly called beginner, intermediate, advanced, and superior (or highly proficient), although they are not always clearly separated from one another. In general, beginner language users are able to do less with a language than users at more advanced levels. In this post, we explore two frameworks commonly used to understand the different levels of language proficiency: the CEFR language levels and the ACTFL language levels. Both of these frameworks identify language learners as somewhere on a spectrum from a complete beginner/novice learner (A1, CEFR; Novice, ACTFL) to entirely proficient (C2, CEFR; Distinguished, ACTFL). In addition to unpacking these language levels, we’ll also compare the ACTFL and CEFR levels, address how to properly test language proficiency, answer questions about what it means to be fluent, and discuss how to improve your fluency in a language. Are you ready? Allons-y ! / Vamos! / يلا (yalla) / Let’s go! Table of Contents What are the CEFR Language Levels? Let’s have a look at each of the CEFR levels in more detail. The CEFR language levels are A1, A2, B1, B2, C1, and C2. These language levels represent proficiency descriptors ranging from beginner to advanced, as measured by the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, teaching, assessment (CEFR). But what is CEFR, anyway? Well, CEFR was first developed by the Council of Europe in 2001 to serve as a framework for the clear and comprehensive assessment of foreign language proficiency. It was also designed to guide the development of language syllabi and curriculum guidelines as resources for language teaching and learning. One of the main objectives behind the creation of CEFR was to bring greater focus to what language learners ought to achieve with language and how this can be accomplished. CEFR A1 Level (Basic) The CEFR A1 proficiency level represents basic users of a language. At the A1 level, language learners are able to use and understand basic phrases or common expressions used in familiar contexts or to complete beginner-friendly, concrete tasks. In speaking, the A1 learner will use isolated and formulaic utterances, along with pauses, repetition, and rephrasing. When listening and reading, language users at the A1 level require slow, direct, and simple speech and text. A1 learners can introduce themselves, ask and answer basic personal questions, and generally interact in simple ways. An A1 user can… Use very basic memorized words and phrases and grammatical structures Answer and ask questions about personal information Use basic connectors like “then” or “and” to link words and phrases Understand short and simple strings of words by recognizing basic vocabulary and phrases Pick up on basic, familiar content from text or conversation, especially with visual aids An A1 user cannot yet… Stray far from a memorized repertoire of words and formulaic expressions Communicate with a non-sympathetic listener Communicate beyond very basic and familiar personal information To reach the A1 level, you can start by memorizing a few key, high-frequency words or phrases in your target language and practice introducing yourself or offering some basic personal information. At the next level, you’ll grow a bit more confident in the language — take a look in the next section! CEFR A2 Level (Basic) The A2 proficiency level is for language learners who are still basic users, but whose skills are slightly more advanced than an A1 learner. At the A2 language proficiency level, users still rely on familiar and personal subject matter to assist with language understanding and production. In reading and listening, A2 users can comprehend predictable and simple texts and conversations. In writing, these users can create short messages with very concrete purposes, like expressing gratitude. An A2 user can… Engage in simple tasks that involve routine exchanges of information such as descriptions of identity, surrounding environment, and immediate needs Use and understand phrases related to topics discussing personal and familial information, employment, shopping, activities, etc. Use simple coordinating conjunctions and connector phrases (e.g. “and” or “but” in English) An A2 user cannot yet… Carry and direct a conversation independently Speak without relying on reformulations, false starts, or hesitation Communicate without making basic grammatical and structural errors To reach the A2 level, you can increase your vocabulary repertoire and practice having conversations about a wide range of topics. Now, let’s explore what to work on next after you master these skills. CEFR B1 Level (Independent) The B1 language proficiency level describes learners who are independent users of the language. B1 users can regularly understand language related to work, leisure, travel, and school as it comes up in clear conversational input. B1 language users should also have enough vocabulary and knowledge of grammatical structures to manage routine and predictable conversation, and to discuss topics of general and personal interest using short connected phrases. A B1 user can… Communicate about and understand the main points of a variety of topics including family, hobbies and interests, travel, work, and familiar current events Offer explanations and opinions, describe experiences, dreams, hopes and ambitions, etc. Confirm mutual understanding in a conversation A B1 user cannot yet… Produce language for long stretches of time without pausing to rephrase or search for expressions or vocabulary Use and understand language on topics that are less familiar or personally interesting To reach the B1 language proficiency level, try to practice stringing independent sentences and expressions into larger sequences of information. Expanding your vocabulary on new topics that feel familiar or interesting to you will also help you reach the “independent user” level. Now, let’s check out the next level: B2. CEFR B2 Level (Independent) Language learners at the B2 level (still independent language users) possess the ability to identify the main point of texts and conversations that discuss both concrete and abstract (although still familiar) topics. B2 users have a higher level of fluency and spontaneity in conversation than A1 to B1 users. While errors may still be occasionally made, they do not prevent understanding, and the B2 language user will often self-correct. A B2 user can… Understand longer and more complicated arguments in speech or text, assuming that it is not too unfamiliar Provide extended detail and offer arguments in favor of or against a topic Have regular, basic interactions with native speakers Provide and defend an opinion or position on a variety of topics familiar to the interests of the language user A B2 user cannot yet… Engage with material that is largely unfamiliar and very abstract Understand and participate in conversations (or engage with material) that is conceptually unfamiliar or difficult Avoid a certain level of pausing or abruptness in longer conversations To reach the B2 level, try to familiarize yourself with more abstract concepts in your target language. Practice speaking and using transition words (even in a mirror!) to improve your fluency and spontaneity in conversation. But maybe you’re already there — in that case, let’s unpack the next level: C1. CEFR C1 Level (Proficient) The C1 language proficiency level refers to proficient language users who can understand a broad range of information, often picking up on implicit details and meaning. C1 language users can express themselves with relative ease and fluency. They can use language flexibility in a wide variety of contexts (social, professional, academic, etc.). In speech and writing, the C1 user can use connectors and organizational devices to structure their thoughts. A C1 user can… Understand information that is less clear, structured, and explicit, even when the information is specialized, technical, or outside the field of interest or knowledge of the language user Use the language spontaneously and easily to meet professional and social needs Use the language with an awareness of appropriate style and audience Limit errors to infrequent, minor mistakes and maintain a high level of grammatical accuracy A C1 user cannot yet… Freely use and understand language even when it is highly stylized, idiomatic, or unfamiliarly colloquial To reach the C1 level, you will want to practice using the language not only in your everyday life, but in more formal contexts, as well — such as in professional and serious conversations at work or in academic settings. Work on your structural knowledge of the language and expand your vocabulary beyond concepts that are concrete or familiarly abstract. Once you do this, you’ll just have one last language level to go — C2! CEFR C2 Level (Proficient) Learners at C2 language proficiency are the most proficient on the CEFR scale, understanding almost all input easily. C2 users can summarize and present information, and even reconstruct arguments or narratives that they have already heard. They can also express themselves accurately and totally fluently, and understand complexities in context, meaning, and language style. C2 users will be able to fully engage content that is unfamiliar, specialized, or complexly abstract. A C2 learner can… Understand almost all oral language spoken with regular, native-speaker pacing Use and understand language that is structurally complex or that relies on idioms or colloquial expressions Navigate confusion or misunderstanding smoothly and delicately, to the point where others may not notice Demonstrate implicit understanding of the language, including knowledge of discourse techniques such as turn-taking in conversation, allusions or references, play on words, etc. To reach the C2 language proficiency level, you’ll need to be an expert in your language! Diversify the content you consume in the language to familiarize yourself with new language styles and more complex vocabulary and grammatical structures. And, of course, practice speaking! Now that we’ve seen the CEFR language proficiency levels, let’s take a look at another scale used to measure language proficiency: the ACTFL language levels. What are the ACTFL Language Levels? The ACTFL language levels are Novice, Intermediate, Advanced, Superior, and Distinguished. These levels, published by the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Language, describe what language users are able to spontaneously do in a language in regard to speaking, writing, listening, and reading. Like the CEFR levels, the ACTFL levels reflect a continuum of language proficiency. Within the five ACTFL language levels (Novice, Intermediate, Advanced, Superior, and Distinguished), the first three levels of proficiency contain the sublevels “low,” “mid,” and “high.” At the highest sublevel (“high”), a language user will occasionally perform at the next major proficiency level but will not be able to sustain this performance consistently. For example, a Novice High language learner will behave almost like an intermediate language user, but not quite as consistently. On the contrary, at the “low” sublevel, the learner is barely meeting the requirements for the level — an Intermediate Low learner is clearly far away from the “high” Intermediate sublevel, while not being too far from the Novice level. At the “mid” sublevel, a language user is solidly performing at that major proficiency level, with very little evidence of reaching the next major level. Pretty straightforward, right? Now, let’s take a closer look at what Novice, Intermediate, Advanced, Superior, and Distinguished language users can and cannot do. ACTFL Novice Novice language learners have a very limited functional ability in the language. Novice learners rely on simple, predictable, memorizable, and familiar language structures. They speak in isolated phrases and words that may require a sympathetic listener to fully understand. When Novice language users listen to their target language, they might need help from the speaker in the form of slower speech, repetition or rephrasing, and simple and predictable input. When writing and reading, a Novice learner relies on formulaic phrases and keywords and predictable content/communication. But what exactly can a Novice learner do? Think back to when you first started learning a second language — you probably started with simple phrases and words like “hello” or “thank you.” Or, maybe you learned how to write your name in a new alphabet! These are all skills that a Novice language learner has. Take a look at the lists below: A Novice learner can… Extract basic information and identify topics in familiar situations, especially with the support of visuals Provide/ask for limited information by answering/asking very simple questions with the aid of familiar body language or visuals Express very basic feelings and preferences, introduce themselves, and name and (sometimes) describe familiar people, places, and objects Recognize and use memorized phrases and words Interact in a limited way in familiar, day-to-day contexts A Novice learner cannot yet… Speak in full sentences or paragraphs Use complex grammatical structures or tenses Produce or understand conversations on topics that are not familiar Are you wondering how to reach the Novice level? You might already be there! This is the language proficiency level at which every learner starts. Pick up a phrase book, practice some easy, formulaic conversations, or learn the alphabet of your new language and you’ll be well on your way to being a Novice. But, maybe you’re a little more advanced by now…in that case, let’s check out what it looks like to be an Intermediate language learner. ACTFL Intermediate Intermediate language users have a stronger grip on the language than a novice user — Intermediate learners can create with the language, which means they can express themselves (and understand others) beyond formulaic phrases and memorized words. In speaking, they can ask and answer simple, familiar questions and form sentences or even groups of sentences. As listeners, Intermediate learners still rely on tools like repetition, restatement, and context clues, but they can comprehend more information from clear, direct, and simple utterances than a Novice user can. In reading and writing, Intermediate learners can produce and understand simple, straightforward messages in individual and multiple-sentence formats on everyday familiar topics. An Intermediate learner can… Understand the main idea from and use single sentences and strings of sentences on familiar subjects Interact with other speakers to meet basic needs or ask/answer simple questions Provide more detailed, while still simplistic, personal information including expressions of opinion, preference, feeling, etc. Use basic, high-frequency vocabulary and grammar structures An Intermediate learner cannot yet… Provide detailed narration across time frames Engage with material or conversations on less familiar topics Entirely effectively use organized, paragraph-structured discourse To reach the Intermediate level, a language user must learn to create with the language — meaning form sentences and questions and string together ideas and familiar expressions/vocabulary to express original information. At the Advanced level, language users start to acquire some of these skills that Intermediate learners do not yet have. Let’s dig in! ACTFL Superior Superior-level language users can use the language accurately and fluently to discuss both familiar and unfamiliar topics in both formal and informal settings. As speakers, Superior language users can communicate without extensive hesitation and can use native-like communications strategies (e.g., turn-taking strategies). In writing, Superior language learners demonstrate a mastery of the writing standards for the target language. Across the communicative domains, Superior language users make few errors in grammar and vocabulary. As readers and listeners, Superior language users can understand information on a variety of topics regardless of level of familiarity. A Superior learner can… Communicate (formally and informally) about general and special interests, concrete and abstract ideas, and select social or political issues/arguments Construct hypotheses and structured arguments with supporting evidence Communicate with infrequent errors, which (if they do occur) do not limit intelligibility Demonstrate knowledge of how to effectively follow structural and vocabulary standards in writing Make inferences, pick up on implicit communication, and understand literary style and genre Use and understand a broad range of vocabulary (including specialized, precise, or academic vocabulary) and complex grammatical structures, like argumentation/refutation and hypothesis A Superior learner cannot yet… Without any difficulty, engage with highly abstract and academic subject matter that is outside of specific interest Speak in a way that is comparable with written language To reach the Superior level of proficiency in a language, a learner must acquire relative mastery of abstract and concrete vocabulary and grammatical and communicative structures that are used by native speakers. In some cases, a language user will continue to master a language to the point that they reach the Distinguished proficiency level. ACTFL Distinguished At the Distinguished level, a language user is accurate, effective, fluent, and comfortable. Not only can Distinguished language users communicate about everyday familiar and unfamiliar topics, but they can offer advice, make arguments, and explain a significant range of complicated, academic, and abstract subjects. In speaking and writing, Distinguished language users can use the language in official and formal contexts like legal representation and correspondence, journal articles, etc. In listening and reading, Distinguished language users can understand and appreciate stylistic features and devices in the language, such as puns, tone, cultural allusions, and flowery/beautiful language. A Distinguished learner can… Use audience-specific and culturally appropriate language Represent opposing views or advocate on behalf of someone else or a different perspective Speak in a way that resembles written communication Understand and communicate subtlety and nuance with attention to style and strategic language use Engage critically with artistic, academic, classic, legal, political, and idiomatic uses of the language Appreciate the strategy and nuance behind certain phrasing, word choice, discourse organization, etc. To reach the Distinguished level, a language user must have extensive knowledge of the language and many years of experience and practice to hone proficiency. A learner must master the ability to use the language not only in formal settings, but in highly academic, professional, legal, political, etc settings. Now that we’ve taken a look at both the ACTFL and CEFR language proficiency levels, let’s take a look at how they are similar and different. How do CEFR and ACTFL Compare? The CEFR and ACTFL organizations have similar goals: to establish criteria that can be used to assess a language user’s functional language proficiency. Both proficiency frameworks are used to form the basis of major testing and certification systems, as well as to develop materials (e.g., textbooks), curricula, and standards. And yet, only recently have the two systems been empirically correlated. In 2010, ACTFL began an effort to align the two scales, resulting in a one-directional correspondence of CEFR ratings to the ACTFL scale. Check out the corresponding CEFR ratings to ACTFL proficiency assessment scores below: Here at Mango, we offer a Mango Proficiency Scale of five levels (Beginner 1, Beginner 1, Skilled 1, Skilled 2, Skilled 3), meant to assist our learners in tracking their progress in their language using the Mango app. Like the CEFR and ACTFL scales, the Mango Proficiency Scale tracks progress across the four domains of speaking, reading, writing, and listening. To see how each Mango level compares with the ACTFL and CEFR frameworks, see the comparison chart we’ve developed below: Alright, so now we understand what the different proficiency levels are — both on the CEFR scale and the ACTFL scale (and even on Mango’s own proficiency level system!). But, how do you find out which language level you’re at? Let’s take a look! How to Test Language Level The most effective way to test your language level is to take a language proficiency test. A language proficiency test assesses a language user’s speaking, reading, writing, and/or listening proficiency. While ACTFL has developed its own assessments in these domains, CEFR offers guides for linking general proficiency test scores to the CEFR scale. As explained by ACTFL, a good proficiency test will emphasize proficiency over performance, meaning that assessment is more about how you can use the language in real-world situations and less about your knowledge of verb conjugations. Proficiency tests should examine: Interpersonal, interpretive, and presentational modes of communication What functions a language user is capable of (what tasks they can complete) What contexts/content a language user can operate in What text types a language user can employ (isolated words, sentences, paragraphs, etc.) A language user’s control of the language, knowledge of communication strategies, cultural and communicative competence, and vocabulary The ability to test language proficiency is an important step in studying how language is acquired. Research using ACTFL proficiency tests and levels, for example, has suggested that college language learners’ proficiency increases by roughly one-third of an ACTFL sublevel per college semester. Interestingly, students at lower proficiency levels seem to make the quickest improvements. Studies like this one suggest that proficiency tests need to properly assess communicative competence (how well a learner can actually function in a language) in a way that is context-appropriate (accounting for differences in learners and their environments). Okay, so now you know a bit more about how to find out what your language level is. But, how do you know if that means you’re fluent? Which Language Level is Enough to Speak Fluently? Generally speaking, the Superior (ACTFL) or C1 (CEFR) language proficiency level is enough to speak fluently. In the descriptors for what learners can do at these levels, ACTFL explains that superior speakers “are able to communicate with accuracy and fluency.” Similarly, CEFR explains that C1 users are able to “express [themselves] fluently and spontaneously, almost effortlessly.” And yet, the term “fluent” certainly can be ambiguous – it depends on what you really mean when you say you want to be fluent. Do you want to be able to ask for directions on the street? Or, maybe you’d like to hold a conversation with your partner’s family? Perhaps you’re even looking to conduct research and do work in the language? These will all require different levels of language fluency. So in order to really know which language level is enough to speak fluently, you’ll first have to figure out your own goals and take a look at the ACTFL Can-Do Statements and CEFR Self-Assessment Grid to see if you’ve reached them! But perhaps you already know you’re not quite where you want to be yet. That’s okay! Let’s take a look at some ways to improve your level of language proficiency. How to Improve Your Level of Language Proficiency To improve your level of language proficiency, you’ll need to practice reading, speaking, writing, and listening. You can also help yourself get to a higher level by familiarizing yourself with new vocabulary topics, studying more complex grammar constructions, and growing comfortable conversing in the language will also help to proficiency. This can help improve your self-confidence too! However, if you’re still not sure where to get started, check out our self-guided reflection on what might be holding you back from achieving your desired level of fluency. Here’s a preview: you might need to focus on your motivation, the amount of time you’re spending on learning, and your language learning strategies. One of my favorite strategies for practicing a language is to simply find ways to make yourself more comfortable with it. When you increase your comfort with speaking, reading, writing, and/or listening in a language, you’re more likely to be motivated, have more self-confidence, and have lower anxiety — all factors which can impact how effectively you learn. In other words, the more anxious or less confident you are in your language, the harder it will be to acquire it. To become more confident and comfortable in your language, try incorporating it into activities you already enjoy: Read a book (especially one you have read before) or even simple texts like recipes, directions, or social media posts in your target language Write a journal entry or notes/grocery lists/etc. in the target language Listen to a podcast or songs (and look up the lyrics) in the language Speak to a friend, pet, plant (it’s good for them!), or even yourself in the mirror Change the language settings on your phone (but make sure you know how to change them back if necessary) Use the Mango app! Learning a language takes time, and it’s not always easy to climb the language proficiency ladder. But don’t worry — with time, dedication, and your new understanding of how proficiency works in language learning, you’ll reach your goals in no time! References Isbell, D. R., Winke, P., & Gass, S. M. (2019). Using the ACTFL OPIc to assess proficiency and monitor progress in a tertiary foreign languages program. Language Testing, 36(3), 439-465. Krashen, S. (1982). Principles and practice in second language acquisition. Pergamon Press.
4519	dbpedia	2	30	https://www.babbel.com/en/magazine/language-speed	en	Are Some Languages Spoken Faster Than Others?	https://i0.wp.com/cms.ba…?resize=1200,630	https://i0.wp.com/cms.ba…?resize=1200,630	[ "https://d1hy1q8bf59ec7.cloudfront.net/lessonnine/babbel-magazine.isomorphic.spa/production/965302f983c992a644431578fc90ac978b05136a/static/media/babbel-logo.c5ae630e7b33aebc393c8f24f8bb45a3.svg", "https://d1hy1q8bf59ec7.cloudfront.net/lessonnine/babbel-magazine.isomorphic.spa/production/965302f983c992a644431578fc90ac978b05136a/static/media/plus.ee82ba588cec0d5b652a0dfd9b467d6b.svg", "https://d1hy1q8bf59ec7.cloudfront.net/lessonnine/babbel-magazine.isomorphic.spa/production/965302f983c992a644431578fc90ac978b05136a/static/media/plus.ee82ba588cec0d5b652a0dfd9b467d6b.svg", "https://i0.wp.com/cms.babbel.news/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/FastLanguages.png?resize=830%2C467 830w,https://i0.wp.com/cms.babbel.news/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/FastLanguages.png?resize=1200%2C675 1200w,https://i0.wp.com/cms.babbel.news/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/FastLanguages.png?resize=640%2C360 640w,https://i0.wp.com/cms.babbel.news/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/FastLanguages.png?resize=960%2C540 960w,https://i0.wp.com/cms.babbel.news/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/FastLanguages.png?resize=511%2C287 511w,https://i0.wp.com/cms.babbel.news/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/FastLanguages.png?resize=766%2C431 766w", "https://i0.wp.com/cms.babbel.news/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/Thomas_WP.png?fit=140%2C140 140w,https://i0.wp.com/cms.babbel.news/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/Thomas_WP.png?fit=280%2C280 280w,https://i0.wp.com/cms.babbel.news/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/Thomas_WP.png?fit=72%2C72 72w,https://i0.wp.com/cms.babbel.news/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/Thomas_WP.png?fit=144%2C144 144w", "https://i0.wp.com/cms.babbel.news/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/CM_MagazineHeader_TonalLanguages.png?resize=480%2C270 480w,https://i0.wp.com/cms.babbel.news/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/CM_MagazineHeader_TonalLanguages.png?resize=720%2C405 720w,https://i0.wp.com/cms.babbel.news/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/CM_MagazineHeader_TonalLanguages.png?resize=394%2C222 394w,https://i0.wp.com/cms.babbel.news/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/CM_MagazineHeader_TonalLanguages.png?resize=608%2C342 608w,https://i0.wp.com/cms.babbel.news/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/CM_MagazineHeader_TonalLanguages.png?resize=310%2C174 310w,https://i0.wp.com/cms.babbel.news/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/CM_MagazineHeader_TonalLanguages.png?resize=528%2C297 528w", "https://i0.wp.com/cms.babbel.news/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/SapirWhorfHeader.png?resize=480%2C270 480w,https://i0.wp.com/cms.babbel.news/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/SapirWhorfHeader.png?resize=720%2C405 720w,https://i0.wp.com/cms.babbel.news/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/SapirWhorfHeader.png?resize=394%2C222 394w,https://i0.wp.com/cms.babbel.news/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/SapirWhorfHeader.png?resize=608%2C342 608w,https://i0.wp.com/cms.babbel.news/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/SapirWhorfHeader.png?resize=310%2C174 310w,https://i0.wp.com/cms.babbel.news/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/SapirWhorfHeader.png?resize=528%2C297 528w", "https://i0.wp.com/cms.babbel.news/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/Refresh_ASL.png?resize=480%2C270 480w,https://i0.wp.com/cms.babbel.news/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/Refresh_ASL.png?resize=720%2C405 720w,https://i0.wp.com/cms.babbel.news/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/Refresh_ASL.png?resize=394%2C222 394w,https://i0.wp.com/cms.babbel.news/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/Refresh_ASL.png?resize=608%2C342 608w,https://i0.wp.com/cms.babbel.news/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/Refresh_ASL.png?resize=310%2C174 310w,https://i0.wp.com/cms.babbel.news/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/Refresh_ASL.png?resize=528%2C297 528w" ]	[ "https://www.youtube.com/embed/Ga5_LBers6c?feature=oembed" ]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Thomas Moore Devlin", "Babbel.com", "Lesson Nine GmbH" ]	2021-10-06T00:00:00	Does it seem like that Spanish is faster than English? It's not all in your head. New research has shed light on the truth of language speed.	en	/favicon.ico	Babbel Magazine	https://www.babbel.com/en/magazine/language-speed	It’s a common experience for the novice language learner: you’ve been going along, feeling pretty confident about your new vocabulary and grammar. You even think you might be ready to speak to a native speaker for the first time. But then, as soon as they open their mouth, your jaw drops. Your brain is helpless against the speedy onslaught of syllables. Before you can get hola out, you flee (OK, maybe you don’t flee). Are Some Languages Faster Than Others? To answer this question straight away: yes, some languages have a higher syllable per second rate, so they are technically faster than others. But it’s worth looking at a couple other factors that influence how we interpret language speed. Your impression that other languages are faster is likely going to be influenced by how advanced you are at a language. Language teachers the world over start students off with slowed down versions of foreign languages because it doesn’t take a study to show that that’s easier for listeners to comprehend. Trying to compare a native speaker with the actors who recorded “How To Introduce Yourself In Spanish” is going to create a mental mismatch. Another theory that lends itself to differences in listening perception is isochrony. The people who study isochrony have pointed out speed differences between languages that are syllable-timed (each syllable is the same length) and stress-timed (the time between every two stressed syllables is the same length). There’s also a third category, which is mora-timed (each mora is the same length). Morae, which are not common way of measuring English, break down syllables into parts. One syllable, depending on its value, can have one, two or in some languages even three morae. Mora are more commonly used to look at languages such as Japanese. To make all that easier to imagine, there is fortunately a simpler nomenclature. Phonetician Arthur Lloyd James distinguished between types of language by saying Spanish and languages like it have machine-gun rhythm (syllable-timed), whereas English and languages like it have morse-code rhythm (stress-timed). While English seems to have syllables of varying length (like morse code), Spanish has a torrent of syllables (like a machine gun). Machine-gun rhythm languages will sound, especially to a morse-code rhythm language, much faster. The problem with isochrony is that it’s not actually proven. There are many proponents of the concept, but it’s a contentious issue that has yet to be fully confirmed by the data. There’s more research to be done, but for now syllables per second is our best measure of language speed. What Are The Fastest Languages? There unfortunately have not been any wide-ranging studies on language speed. One 2011 study from the Université de Lyon looked at 7 languages, which reported the order as Japanese (7.84 syllables per second), Spanish (7.82), French (7.18), Italian (6.99), English (6.19), German (5.97) and Mandarin (5.18). But, you know, seven is pretty small. The most recent study, published this year in Science Advances, looked at 17, which is better but still far short of the roughly 7,000 that exist in the world. So while this article can’t really promise you that any of these are “the fastest” languages, here are the rankings of the 17 that have been looked at, in ranked order. It’s also worth noting that individuals within a language can vary in how quickly they speak (just think of an auctioneer). Japanese Spanish Basque Finnish Italian Serbian Korean Catalan Turkish French English German Hungarian Mandarin Chinese Cantonese Vietnamese Thai While this is only a small selection, it does give you a good idea of how language speeds vary around the world. Syllable-timed (and mora-timed) languages are closer to the top, and tonal languages are generally at the bottom. So Some Languages Are Just Faster Than Others? All of this can seem a bit weird. Some languages being faster than others seems like it could slide into linguistic relativism, in which the language you speak affects the way you interact with the world (generally not true). But as it turns out, “language speed” is not as simple as syllables per second. The same Science Advances study from this year that ranked language speed was also looking at a deeper phenomenon: how quickly do languages convey information? This question is complicated, starting with the fact that information density is calculated by translating syllables into bits. The amount of information any syllable can have corresponds to whether that syllable helps the listener narrow down what the next syllable will be. It’s basically treating your human brain like a predictive text computer, and the faster the language you’re hearing can help you narrow down what is likely to be said next, the greater the information density. The researchers’ analysis of 170 speakers showed that despite variations in syllables per second, the amount of information per second is pretty much the same across all languages, hovering at about 39 bits per second. Languages with a low rate of syllables per second make up for it with a high rate of information per second, and vice versa. All in all, while some have a higher speed, they are not better or more efficient. There is yet to be research on why exactly this is the case, but it could be that the brain has an optimal amount of information intake. Asking Someone To Slow Down What does this mean for learning a new language? For one, it’s reassuring to know that no language is better than any other. But to be fair, none of this will make your first encounters with a native speaker easier. Just remember to take your time, focus and get comfortable with saying “I don’t understand. Could you say that a bit slower?” in a new language. Fortunately, we’ve translated that exact phrase to help you out. Italian — Scusa, non capisco. Potresti parlare più lentamente, per favore?German — Es tut mir leid, ich verstehe nicht. Könnten Sie bitte etwas langsamer sprechen? French — Pardon, je n’ai pas compris. Pouvez-vous parler plus lentement, s’il vous plaît ? Hungarian — Elnézést, de nem értem! Tudna egy picit lassabban beszélni? Japanese — すみません、分かりません。もう少しゆっくり話してください。(Sumimasen, wakarimasen. Mousukoshi yukkuri hanashite kudasai.) So what’s going on here? Are other languages going faster than English? We took a peek at language speed to find out what’s going on, and which languages are fastest.
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"https://merriam-webster.com/assets/mw/images/quiz/quiz-global-footer-recirc/iykyk%20if%20you%20know%20you%20know%20slang%20written%20in%20a%20neon-11707-721c12c7a49f7cf424a2288ab4e26229@1x.jpg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	2024-08-10T00:00:00	The meaning of BIT is the biting or cutting edge or part of a tool. How to use bit in a sentence.	en	/favicon.svg		https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bit	Etymology Noun (1) Middle English bite, bit "bite of an animal, cutting edge, point, mouthpiece of a bridle," going back to Old English bite "bite of an animal, cut from a weapon," going back to Germanic biti- (whence Old Saxon biti "bite, sting," Old High German biz [gebiz "mouthpiece of a bridle"], Old Norse bit), noun derivative from the base of bītan- "to bite" — more at bite entry 1 Verb derivative of bit entry 1 Noun (2) Middle English bite, bit "mouthful of food, morsel," going back to Old English bita, bite, going back to Germanic bitan- (whence Middle Dutch bete "morsel," Old High German bizzo, Old Norse biti), noun derivative from the base of bītan- "to bite" — more at bite entry 1 Noun (3) from binary digit
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310w,https://i0.wp.com/cms.babbel.news/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/Street_Scene_In_Major_Asian_City_At_Night.png?resize=528%2C297 528w" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Dylan Lyons", "Babbel.com", "Lesson Nine GmbH" ]	2023-05-09T00:00:00	Can't decide which new language to take up? Make your life simpler by choosing one of the easiest languages to learn for English speakers.	en	/favicon.ico	Babbel Magazine	https://www.babbel.com/en/magazine/easiest-languages-for-english-speakers-to-learn	So you’ve decided to learn a language. (Good choice! We approve.) Your next task, if you’re up for it: Choosing among many options. Should you go for a more widely spoken language like Spanish or Mandarin, a politically relevant one like Russian, or one you can use on your next vacation? These are all valid motivations, but here’s another thought: What about the easiest languages to learn? You’re busy. We all are. Why not tackle a language that will be relatively easy to learn? With the help of Babbel’s team of language-learning experts, we’ve determined the easiest language to learn for English speakers. Well, let’s just say we’ve narrowed down the list to 9 of them. Hopefully, this will help you narrow down your options, so you can start learning right away. Are Some Language Easier To Learn Than Others? Let’s start by dispelling the idea that there are some languages that are objectively easier than others. Each language is full and complicated, and if you start from scratch (like a baby would), there’s no difference between Arabic, Latin, English, Mandarin or anything else. When you’re learning a second language, however, some will be easier than others. The United States Foreign Service Institute even has an estimate as to how long it will take for someone to learn it (if they’re learning every day with an instructor). There are a few factors that play into a language being “easy.” First, and most important, is similarity. Choosing a language that has a decent amount in common with the one you speak give you a natural leg up. If you speak English, then learning another languages that uses the Latin alphabet is automatically going to be a bit easier than learning one that has an entirely different writing system. Languages within the same language family as English, or that share a lot of vocabulary and grammar, will also be easier. Another factor that can make a language easier is accessibility. Even if a language is similar to English, that doesn’t matter if it’s very hard to find resources and practice partners. While this varies from person to person, it will also be easier to learn a language if you live near others who speak it. There are, of course, many other reasons to learn a language than its ease. You might even prefer the challenge that comes with a harder language. If the idea of an easier language is appealing to you, however, that’s fair. Without further ado, here’s our list. And The Easiest Language To Learn Is… 1. Norwegian Foreign Service Institute Estimate: 24 weeks (600 hours) This may come as a surprise, but we have ranked Norwegian as the easiest language to learn for English speakers. Norwegian is a member of the Germanic family of languages — just like English! This means the languages share quite a bit of vocabulary, such as the seasons vinter and sommer (we’ll let you figure out those translations). Another selling point for Norwegian: the grammar is pretty straightforward, with only one form of each verb per tense. And the word order closely mimics English. For example, “Can you help me?” translates to Kan du hjelpe meg? — the words are in the same order in both languages, so mastering sentence structure is a breeze! Finally, you’ll have a lot more leeway with pronunciation when learning Norwegian. That’s because there are a vast array of different accents in Norway and, therefore, more than one “correct way” to pronounce words. Sound appealing? Lace up your snow boots and give Norwegian a try! 2. Swedish Foreign Service Institute Estimate: 24 weeks (600 hours) Our second easiest language to learn also comes from Scandinavia and the Germanic family of languages. One reason Swedish is one of the easiest languages for English speakers to learn is the large number of cognates the two languages share (cognates are words in different languages that stem from the same ancestral language and look and/or sound very similar to one another). For instance, “grass” is gräs in Swedish — a clear cognate. Like Norwegian, Swedish also has relatively simple grammar rules and similar word order to English. And thanks to the obsession with IKEA, Swedish has something else working in its favor: exposure. English speakers around the world have been exposed to a number of Swedish words while simply shopping for furniture (and chowing down on some meatballs, I presume). The popular, minimalistic Lack tables are named after the Swedish word for “varnish.” And the Stockholm rugs, of course, get their name from Sweden’s capital. Furniture lovers, perhaps Swedish is the language for you. 3. Spanish Foreign Service Institute Estimate: 24 weeks (600 hours) This pick should come as no surprise. Spanish has always been a go-to language for English speakers to learn due to its practicality and wide reach. Well, it’s also one of the easiest languages to learn for English speakers. Spanish is one of the Romance languages, which derive from Latin — as do many English words, so the name of the game here is cognates, cognates, cognates. Correcto means “correct,” delicioso is “delicious,” and pizza is “pizza,” to name a few. Spanish pronunciation is also fairly straightforward. It’s a phonetic language — for the most part, its words are pronounced the way they’re spelled. But grammar haters beware: Spanish does have a number of different verb tenses and exceptions to grammar rules which can get confusing. However, the tenses largely align with ones we use in English, so they’re not as difficult to learn as you may think. But perhaps the biggest pro to choosing to learn Spanish is its prevalence in our everyday lives. According to recent statistics, Spanish is the second most-spoken language in the world, with over 485 million native speakers. You’ve probably heard Spanish spoken on TV, on the radio, and even by members of your community. It’s everywhere, so you already have a leg up on learning it! 4. Dutch Foreign Service Institute Estimate: 24 weeks (600 hours) Dutch is another Germanic language on our list. It’s spoken by the majority of citizens of the Netherlands, as well as a large portion of Belgium’s population. It’s the third most-spoken Germanic language, after German and English, which makes sense — due to shared vocabulary, Dutch sounds like a combination of German and English. A really interesting characteristic of Dutch is that many words are spelled exactly the same as they are in English, more so than in almost any other language. However, use caution, because they’re often pronounced differently. For instance, the word “rat” has the same spelling and meaning in both languages, but in Dutch it’s pronounced like the English word “rot.” Also, keep an eye out for false cognates, like the Dutch word wet, which actually means “law.” If you stay vigilant, Dutch could still be the language for you. Germanic languages nab three of the top four spots on this list, but English’s other cousins, German and Danish, are absent — and for good reason. German didn’t make the cut because although it shares thousands of cognates with English, absolutely no one would describe its grammar as “easy.” And while written Danish looks a lot like Norwegian and Swedish, the pronunciation can be too intimidating for casual learners. If you’re up for the challenge, check out the hardest languages for English speakers to learn. 5. Portuguese Foreign Service Institute Estimate: 24 weeks (600 hours) The fifth easiest language to learn on our list is Portuguese, a member of the Romance language family that’s spoken in both Portugal and Brazil. Like Spanish, this translates to a large number of shared vocabulary words, which always makes picking it up easier. But beware of false cognates. You might be really excited about getting Portuguese pasta, only to be handed a “folder.” Portuguese (particularly Brazilian Portuguese) is another language that gives learners the advantage of exposure. Brazilian food, drinks, music and films have been making frequent appearances in global pop culture, giving students of Portuguese plenty of opportunities to enhance their learning. 6. Indonesian Foreign Service Institute Estimate: 36 weeks (900 hours) This selection may also come as a surprise, but Indonesian has several qualities that make it a logical choice for English speakers. For starters, Indonesian — spoken natively by nearly 23 million people — is one of the few Asian languages that uses the Latin alphabet. Many Asian languages are incredibly difficult for English speakers to master due to the unfamiliar characters in their writing systems, but not Indonesian. It’s also a phonetic language, made up of words that are pronounced exactly the way they’re spelled. Now, Indonesian grammatical structures are very different from those in English, but don’t let that deter you! Its lack of rules make learning grammar a lot easier. There are no verb conjugations (you read that correctly!), no plurals (simply repeat the word twice), and no grammatical genders. If you’re not a fan of grammar rules, Indonesian could be a match made in heaven! 7. Italian Foreign Service Institute Estimate: 24 weeks (600 hours) Next up is another Romance language. Though not as widely spoken as Spanish or Portuguese, Italian still has more than 63 million native speakers. Its Latin roots allow for a sizable chunk of cognates English speakers will recognize, such as futuro (“future”) and lotteria (“lottery”), two things we all wish we could controllare (“control”). Perhaps the best part of choosing Italian is the possibility to learn with food! Italian cuisine has become a staple of many Western countries, bringing a number of Italian words into our regular vocabularies. Penne all’arrabbiata translates to “angry pasta” (presumably because it’s spicy!), and farfalle (the pasta shaped like bow ties) actually means “butterflies.” Doesn’t learning Italian sound delizioso? 8. French Foreign Service Institute Estimate: 30 weeks (750 hours) There’s one more major Romance language on our list, and this one is often a fan favorite. Although it’s not as easy to learn as some of its language cousins, French (and/or its various dialects and creoles) is spoken by nearly 300 million people in many different parts of the world (France, Canada, Belgium and Madagascar — to name only a few). As with the other Romance languages, the biggest benefit to choosing to learn French is the large amount of shared vocabulary. But this isn’t solely due to its linguistic roots. During the lengthy history of wars and conquests between France and England, key language parts were passed from one country to the other. This mostly came in the form of French vocabulary added to the English language, such as avant-garde and à la carte, although the word-sharing went from English to French as well (e.g. week-end). French pronunciation is a bit tricky, at first, but we often hear French accents in pop culture, making them easier to replicate than you may think. 9. Swahili Foreign Service Institute Estimate: 24 weeks (600 hours) The final language on our list is perhaps the “least easiest language to learn” of the easiest languages. Swahili is widely used across eastern and southeastern Africa, including in Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania, among other countries, but usually as a lingua franca — a common language adopted among native speakers of different languages. Swahili words often sound just like they’re spelled, and the pronunciation is relatively easy for English speakers to pick up. It’s said to be the easiest African language for English natives to learn, partially because of the surprising amount of loan words taken from English, like penseli (“pencil”) and mashine (“machine”). Finally, Swahili is fairly straightforward in terms of grammar. Verb conjugations utilize prefixes in a logical way, making them less difficult to learn. If you want to try something different, see if Swahili is the language for you. However, if you want to pick up a new language as easily as possible, we recommend starting with something from the top of the list — like Spanish, Swedish or Norwegian.
4519	dbpedia	1	32	https://www.stordar.com/41-how-to-talk-about-your-english-level/	en	41 How to describe your level of language proficiency	https://www.stordar.com/…English-2-41.png	https://www.stordar.com/…English-2-41.png	[ "https://mc.yandex.ru/watch/56550586", "https://www.facebook.com/tr?id=133366330776399&ev=PageView&noscript=1", "https://ct.pinterest.com/v3/?tid=2614149312607&noscript=1", "https://www.stordar.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/Logo-ENG.png", "https://www.stordar.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/Logo-ENG.png", "https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/9e872f01df29c7a43bae05af866b4935?s=50&d=blank&r=g", "https://www.stordar.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/Figure-Out-English-2-41.png", "https://www.stordar.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/Headers-Blog-Posts-Quiz-3-phrasal-300x100.png", "https://www.stordar.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/Headers-Blog-Posts-so-do-i-300x100.png", "https://www.stordar.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/Figure-Out-English-2-40-300x100.png", "https://www.stordar.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/Figure-Out-English-2-39-300x100.png", "https://www.stordar.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/Figure-Out-English-2-38-300x100.png", "https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/416023b7cd4b6547e3c63ec80bdd49bf?s=100&d=blank&r=g", "https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/424d5665eb889dcde0b5123d0f78fe8d?s=100&d=blank&r=g", "https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/48b0697897cab5ec3b9d5b3812c1aca7?s=100&d=blank&r=g", "https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/bd08c2752ec0f2c372728168983dafbe?s=100&d=blank&r=g", "https://www.stordar.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/55-phrasal-verbs-Free-Guide-Title-791x1024.png", "https://www.stordar.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/Figure-Out-English-Pinterest-41-150x150.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Daria Storozhilova", "Shekinah Chavez", "www.facebook.com" ]	2019-04-02T09:13:50+02:00	Learn how to describe your level of language proficiency in English: Podcast for English learners. Learn useful phrases for conversations.	en	https://www.stordar.com/…Transp-32x32.png	Smart English Learning	https://www.stordar.com/41-how-to-talk-about-your-english-level/	<<Subscribe on iTunes>> <<Watch on Youtube>> <<Support us>> In this episode, you will learn how to describe your level of language proficiency in English or in any other language. How do you describe your level of English knowledge? Learn with me! If somebody asks you questions like ‘How well do you know English?’ or ‘How good is your English?’ or ‘What is your English level?’, you can: name your level of language proficiency according to the CEFR, describe what you can do in this language, or describe your general language competency. Telling about your native language I am a native speaker of … I am a native speaker of Russian. She is a native speaker of Italian. She is an English native speaker. If you can speak two languages at the same level of native-like proficiency, you are BILINGUAL. If you know more than 4 or 5 foreign languages, you can call yourself a POLYGLOT. One polyglot I know can speak 12 foreign languages! BE CAREFUL! A lot of people try to say ‘I speak in English’ or ‘I speak in Russian’. We don’t normally use IN in such sentences. Correct: ‘I speak English’ or ‘I can speak English’, ‘I can speak Russian’. Describing levels of language proficiency according to CEFR There are three levels of language proficiency: Basic User / Beginner, Elementary, and Pre-intermediate (A1-A2) Independent User / Intermediate and Upper-intermediate (B1-B2) Proficient User / Advanced (C1-C2) Learn more about the CEFR here But if you don’t know what it means, a teacher could help you with testing and recommendations. Phrases to describe what you can do in the language ‘I GET BY in English.’ (you have survival skills in this language: you can ask about something in the shop or in the restaurant) ‘I can hold a basic conversation.’ (you can communicate on simple everyday topics) ‘I know some words in Dutch.’ = ‘I know a few words in Dutch’ ‘I studied English at school, but I can’t speak it.’ ‘My English is a bit rusty’. (RUSTY = not fresh) ‘I wish I could speak French better’. ‘My English vocabulary could be better’. ‘I think my speaking skills in English could be better’. Telling about your general language proficiency (CV’s, autobiographies, etc.) You can describe your language skills as Basiс, Conversational, Fluent, or Proficient. Basic – you can communicate on simple topics or know some phrases in this language. Conversational – you can communicate on everyday topics with minor grammar or vocabulary mistakes but you can’t write in this language. Fluent – you have the ability to express any idea without hesitation, with good vocabulary and grammar; people understand you easily. Both your spoken and written skills are good. Proficient – different from fluent in the way that you now understand the structure of the language and you can explain how this language works to other people. You also can use idiomatic language and understand local accents. Now it’s your turn! Please answer these questions in the comments: How is your English? What is your level of English? What can you do in English? Additionally THINKING Phrasal Verbs and Idioms \| Vocabulary Quiz English Numbers \| Listening Test Check your conversation skills in English Grammar Quiz: So do I / Neither do I
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Federico Fellini Did you know that the languages you speak can affect your personality? Indeed, they can change the way you express your emotions, your intonation, your facial expressions and gestures. Rather than making you inconsistent, this versatility’s a fortune. How lucky are we to be able to take on different roles – we do this when we change jobs, and when we speak another language. Sometimes, we can do both simultaneously! Your language skills are effective in all walks of life, and your career is no exception. In our interconnected world, being multilingual is highly valued by recruiters. Wondering how to list your language proficiency on your resume? Our guide covers that and more! Got a resume already? See how good it is with our free ATS resume checker! Is your resume good enough? Drop your resume here or choose a file. PDF & DOCX only. Max 2MB file size. Privacy guaranteed Key takeaways: The core language skills are speaking, listening, reading, and writing. Each of them is uniquely useful, so practice all of them when you can. Listing your language skills is always a good idea, especially in jobs where you’ll work with multinational clients. Language proficiency can help you in different settings, as learning them practices valuable skills such as self-discipline, creativity, and cultural awareness. Your language skills are best placed in a separate section, but interspersing them in your summary, experience, education, and skills section is also an option. A good language section is concise but catchy, so consider using an interesting design to present your fluency. Your language level is probably the most important information to recruiters. Remember to be consistent with the framework you use. If you’re based in the US, choose between the IRL or ACTFL frameworks. The CERF scale is best if you’re in Europe. The LinkedIn scale is universal. What are language skills? Your language skills can range from holding a casual conversation to writing your PhD in a certain language. So, what people consider a language ability can vary widely depending on their needs. Generally, language skills are what allows you to communicate effectively with people from different nationalities and cultures. These abilities are typically divided into four main categories: listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Each of these is important for a unique reason: Listening: Imagine being able to listen to your favorite Spanish song and understand the meaning, or walk around an Italian city and catch glimpses of strangers’ conversations. Listening is all about accurately catching the words, picking up on the grammar and intonation, and making sense of what you hear. In a work environment, strong listening skills can help you accurately understand client needs during meetings and respond effectively. Speaking: Speaking is your ticket to actively engaging with others in a new language. It might be the most useful language skill you can have in a work setting. Don’t sweat about pronunciation so much! Your focus should be on using the proper words to be understood. Mastering conversational nuances can help share your thoughts and connect with people around you. You can use your speaking skills to lead presentations, negotiate deals, and collaborate with colleagues from diverse backgrounds. Reading: Good reading skills can provide access to exclusive information. Many valuable resources, such as industry-specific research, technical manuals, and market analysis reports, are published in various languages. Collecting insights that might not be available in your native language gives you a competitive edge. Writing: Writing allows you to share your ideas and stories with the world in another language. It involves more than just correct grammar and spelling. It's about crafting your thoughts clearly and logically, making sure your message hits home. In a work setting, writing pays off through your ability to draft clear emails, create detailed reports, and develop persuasive proposals. Make this your resume Use Enhancv’s Resume Builder and make a resume that stands out. When should I include language skills on my resume It’s always worth mentioning your language proficiencies on your resume, as they can help in diverse situations. Even if the job posting doesn’t specifically call for them, language skills can set you apart in a competitive environment. Language learning’s also valuable because it develops different cognitive skills like memory and problem-solving. It enhances communication abilities, fosters social and cultural awareness, and cultivates practical skills like time management and digital literacy. Here are some concrete examples of when your language skills could be beneficial in your application. If speaking a foreign language is valuable to the company That’s pretty straightforward — if your language skills are relevant to the job you’re hoping to get, you should include them. Think about what your day-to-day tasks will be in your role. If you’re a translator or a language teacher, your job will naturally revolve around languages. But what about other jobs, where language skills might not seem as crucial? If you’re applying for a retail assistant, will multiple languages help you communicate with customers? If you’re working in customer support, how many countries is the company based in? Reflect on how your language abilities can add value, even in roles where they aren’t an obvious requirement. In developing his customer support resume, Sia knew his ability to speak over three languages would make an impression on recruiters at SAP SE. Sia built his language section with Enhancv. His example uses one of the most popular frameworks, the ACTFL Proficiency Scale (we’ll talk about it in a bit). LANGUAGES German Distinguished English Distinguished Farsi Advanced French Intermediate RIGHT If you have little experience Language skills are great for adding content to your resume. If you’re putting together your first resume, language skills show your ability to learn quickly and to apply your knowledge to real-world situations. Especially if you’ve chosen the functional format that gives more weight to your skills rather than your limited experience. In Avery’s volunteer resume, they highlighted their language skills as they were applying for a role with AIESEC, which has entities based all around the world. LANGUAGES English Native French Native Spanish Limited working proficiency RIGHT This language section example uses the LinkedIn language framework (we’ll talk about this one in a bit, too). If the open position is competitive In a competitive environment, listing your language skills can make you a more well-rounded candidate. Imagine the following scenario: Both Tom and Emma are applying for the position of Senior Marketing Manager at Etsy. They’ve got the same amount of experience, and their skill set is fairly similar, too. However, Emma mentioned that she’s fluent in French & German on her resume, while Tom didn’t. Emma’s value proposition for the company increases exponentially, as there will be a lot of practical uses for her language skills. Even though Tom’s language proficiency might be on par with Emma's, he never bothered to show that – thus, his chances to get a callback get slimmer. Emma's language fluency makes her stand out for the Senior Marketing Manager role at Etsy, proving how crucial it is to highlight all relevant skills on a resume. If you're applying for a job in a different country Reassure the hiring manager that there’d be no language barrier when communicating with your coworkers. Think of ways to express culture familiarity and language use in professional settings. If you speak French, for example, you can list things like: Conducted market research and wrote detailed reports in French for a French-speaking region. Coordinated with French suppliers, ensuring seamless project execution. Spent six months in France on a work exchange, immersing in French business practices and culture. If you’re going to work in a language that’s not your mother tongue, make sure you can provide evidence of your abilities. This will give you credibility. What courses and certificates can you list to show you’ve worked at learning the language? If you have to demonstrate quick-learning skills If you’re applying for a job involving lots of continuous learning, your language-learning experience can come to your advantage. Here are some concrete examples: Adaptability and flexibility: "Learning a new language required me to quickly adapt to different methods and environments, showcasing my flexibility." Problem-solving skills: "Overcoming language learning challenges enhanced my problem-solving abilities." Self-discipline and time management: "Balancing language study with other tasks strengthened my self-discipline and time management." Don’t include your language skills on your resume if… There’s one situation, though, where it makes perfect sense to leave the language section out – if you’re a monoglot. Unlike its more popular cousin, the polyglot, this is someone who only speaks one language. Simply put, the recruiter will assume you’re proficient in the language your resume is written in. So, if you’re living and working in the US, and your resume’s written in English, there’s no need to specifically underline that skill. It’s a given. Where should I include language skills? Our advice is to include a dedicated language section. You don’t want your language skills to get lost; you want to make them as visible as possible. If language proficiency is essential to the job you’re after, create a specific section where you list all the languages you know, along with your fluency levels. Our resume builder allows you to be as concise as you want and customize the language section to fit your needs. You might see some advice on incorporating your language skills throughout your resume. This might be effective for positions where languages aren’t a priority or a top-wanted skill, but be aware that they could easily get lost among your other abilities and accomplishments. Still, it can save space on your resume without underrating the skill. Here’s how you could approach this: In your experience section, e.g., “Conducted training sessions in both English and Spanish to support a diverse team of new hires”. In your education section – when you have a degree in Linguistics, Languages, or Literature. How to write a good language skills section? If you’ve opted for a separate language section, make it concise but catchy. You just need the language and the level of fluency. The trick is to creatively visualize your proficiency. The Enhancv resume builder has five different styles you can use to present your language skills. When crafting this section, follow these tips: List languages by proficiency: Start with the ones you’re most proficient in. In most cases, skip languages you only know at beginner/elementary level. These can add color to your resume, but they’re not really helpful in a work setting. Mention context of use: Detail contexts where you've utilized the language, like "Used in international conferences" or "Daily communication with overseas clients." Avoid overstatement: Be honest about your proficiency. Overstating your skills can lead to uncomfortable situations in professional settings. Use standard proficiency levels: Use widely recognized proficiency levels like "Native," "Intermediate," "Professional Working Proficiency," and "Limited Working Proficiency." Use Enhancv’s Resume Builder Use Enhancv’s Resume Builder and make a resume that stands out. Language proficiency level Marking the level of fluency in a language is similar to quantifying your achievements in different resume headings. The recruiter needs a tangible way of judging your ability. Let’s review the most popular frameworks: LinkedIn Framework LinkedIn’s scale is based on, and is very similar to, the IRL (Interagency Language Round-table) scale, developed by the U.S. Foreign Service Institute. It measures language proficiency in terms of work settings, so its levels are, as follows: Native or bilingual proficiency Full professional proficiency Professional working proficiency Limited working proficiency Elementary proficiency Take a look at this sample language proficiency section: LANGUAGES English Native or bilingual proficiency French Full professional proficiency Spanish Professional working proficiency RIGHT The IRL scale is mainly used when applying for US government jobs. Its levels (from 0 – 5, where 5 is Native) correspond to the levels on LinkedIn. ACTFL Proficiency Framework This scale assesses the ability to use language to accomplish communication objectives in real-world situations, with specific criteria for accuracy, context and content, and text type. Here are the levels it works with: Distinguished Superior Advanced Intermediate Novice These scales are widely recognized by recruiters in the US, so choose the one you feel more comfortable with. But what if you’re based outside the States? Then, we recommend this one: Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) CEFR is an internationally recognized standard for describing language ability. It outlines what learners can do in speaking, reading, listening, and writing at each level. It’s widely recognized across Europe but currently gaining popularity in other countries as well. Here’s an overview of its levels: C2 (Proficiency) C1 (Advanced) B2 (Upper Intermediate) B1 (Intermediate) A2 (Elementary) A1 (Beginner) Again, just remember that if you’re coming from Europe but are applying for a job in the US, you should use the LinkedIn/IRL or the ACTFL framework. And here’s a quick recap of what each level represents. Note that the CERF doesn’t measure native proficiency, as it’s mainly designed for learners of foreign languages. Native or bilingual proficiency/Distinguished: This means you’ve grown up speaking the language, using it throughout your life, and refining your abilities through formal education. Full professional proficiency/Superior/C2: You can read, write, and speak a language smoothly and without hesitation. Professional working proficiency/Advanced/C1: You can speak, write, and read a language comfortably for your role, though you might struggle with colloquialisms and occasionally need repetition. Limited working proficiency/Intermediate/B1-B2: Intermediate language skill means you can hold conversations and read adequately in the language, but you speak with some difficulty and have a limited vocabulary. Elementary proficiency/Novice/A1-A2: You can understand basic words or phrases but can’t hold a conversation. We recommend you don’t list this one on your resume. Mistakes to avoid when including your language skills Lying What’s essential in listing your language skills is being fair about your fluency level. You don’t want to list an intermediate language level if you can only ask for coffee or say a few phrases. And if you list your skills as advanced or above, be prepared to answer a few questions or hold a conversation in that specific language. You never know – perhaps the recruiter will be fluent and in the mood for a little bit of practice! Forgetting to update LinkedIn If you’re discussing your language skills on your resume, be sure your LinkedIn profile is up-to-date, too. One advantage of updating your language skills on LinkedIn is you can have colleagues provide recommendations and references of your ability in this skill. Forgetting to include your mother tongue Add your native language, alongside the foreign languages you know. Otherwise, you’ll confuse recruiters, especially if you’re applying for a job abroad. Don't mix and match different language frameworks Consistency is important. Don’t list one of your language levels as “Professional working proficiency”, and the other as “Intermediate.” Use the most relevant language framework If you’re based in the US, choose the LinkedIn, IRL, or ACTFL scale. In Europe, go with the CERF levels. FAQs about language skills on resume How to demonstrate language skills? You can show your fluency on your resume with examples of how you’ve used the languages you’re proficient in. This could be a portfolio of work samples in different languages, or any certificates, awards, and diplomas. For cover letters, real-life examples are your best bet. What language level is considered fluent? Depending on the framework you use, a person with an advanced level of proficiency or someone with a professional working proficiency or above will be considered fluent. Is proficient better than fluent? Fluency refers to the flow of your speech, the ability to speak comfortably and consistently. In other words, being fluent means being able to carry out a conversation without much hesitation. Proficiency, on the other hand, is the ability to comprehend and accurately produce content, so it refers mainly to reading and writing. It is highly valued in jobs that require a precise use of language, such as an academic setting. So, to answer the question, one is not necessarily better than the other, because they refer to different things. We recommend using “proficient” on your resume, as it’s the word recognized by the most popular frameworks. How to check language proficiency? You can look up local language centers – most test your language skills for free if you’re interested in enrolling in a course. Some even have language proficiency checkers online! Can you have two native languages on a resume? Yes, of course! Being bilingual will definitely impress recruiters. You can list all the languages you speak natively. How to list programming languages? Speaking of languages, you might wonder about programming ones. Programming skills refer to the ability to write, test, and maintain code that enables software applications to function. Some of the most popular programming languages include Python, Java, and C++, each used for various purposes. Knowledge of one programming language can often help you learn others quickly. As with other skills, list your programming languages in a dedicated "Skills" section on your resume. If you can, give context to past projects or work experience (like a GitHub portfolio) to demonstrate practical application and expertise. What is the most important language skill? The answer to this question is individual to your situation. What do you need the language for? To read documents or to have conversations? Are you going to communicate orally with clients? Do you know the etiquette and turns of phrase to talk to your coworkers in their native language? Understanding your specific needs and context will help determine whether reading, writing, speaking, or listening is the most crucial language skill for you to focus on for the specific job you’re applying for. In conclusion Your multilanguage magic can open doors with every word you know! We hope the tips in our guide will help you in proudly list your language skills on your resume. It’s inspiring to think about the myriad of cool things you can do with another language in your arsenal. Make your move! Your resume is an extension of yourself. Make one that's truly you. Rate my article: Language Skills on Resume: How to Explain Proficiency & Fluency Average: 4.95 / 5.00 ( 563 people already rated it)
4519	dbpedia	3	50	https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/220817/dq220817a-eng.htm	en	The Daily — While English and French are still the main languages spoken in Canada, the country's linguistic diversity continues to grow	https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/wet-boew4b/assets/favicon.ico	https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/wet-boew4b/assets/favicon.ico	[ "https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/wet-boew4b/assets/sig-blk-en.svg", "https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/dai-quo/img/magnify-clip.png", "https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/220817/mc220817a001-eng.png", "https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/dai-quo/img/magnify-clip.png", "https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/220817/g220817a001-eng.png", "https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/dai-quo/img/magnify-clip.png", "https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/220817/g220817a002-eng.png", "https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/dai-quo/img/magnify-clip.png", "https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/220817/g220817a003-eng.png", "https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/dai-quo/img/magnify-clip.png", "https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/220817/g220817a004-eng.png", "https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/dai-quo/img/magnify-clip.png", "https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/220817/g220817a005-eng.png", "https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/dai-quo/img/magnify-clip.png", "https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/220817/g220817a006-eng.png", "https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/dai-quo/img/magnify-clip.png", "https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/220817/mc220817a002-eng.png", "https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/dai-quo/img/magnify-clip.png", "https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/220817/cg220817a001-eng.png", "https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/dai-quo/img/magnify-clip.png", "https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/220817/g220817a007-eng.png", "https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/dai-quo/img/magnify-clip.png", "https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/220817/mc220817a003-eng.png", "https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/dai-quo/img/magnify-clip.png", "https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/220817/cg220817a002-eng.png", "https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/wet-boew4b/assets/wmms-blk.svg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	Immigration drove up the number of Canadians who spoke predominantly a language other than English or French at home, from 4.0 million in 2016 to 4.6 million in 2021. English was the first official language spoken by 75.5% of the country's population, up from 74.8% in 2016, while French was the first official language spoken by 21.4% of Canadians in 2021, down from 22.2% in 2016.	en	/wet-boew4b/assets/favicon.ico		https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/220817/dq220817a-eng.htm	Despite the impact that the COVID-19 pandemic has had on arrivals to the country, immigration has continued to enrich Canada's linguistic diversity. English and French remain by far the most commonly spoken languages in Canada. More than 9 in 10 Canadians speak one of the two official languages at home at least on a regular basis. The 2021 Census also found that 4.6 million Canadians speak predominantly a language other than English or French at home (in other words, they speak this language most often at home, without speaking other languages equally often; see the box "Languages known and spoken: Understanding the concepts"). These individuals represent 12.7% of the Canadian population, a proportion that has been increasing for 30 years. By comparison, the proportion was 7.7% in 1991, when immigration levels were rising. In addition, one in four Canadians in 2021—or 9 million people—had a mother tongue other than English or French. This is a record high since the 1901 Census, when a question on mother tongue was first added. Canada has a rich linguistic diversity. The languages known and spoken here are closely linked to the identity and culture of Canadians and to their relationship with their community. Languages are an integral part of the everyday lives of Canadians—be it in early childhood, at home, at school or at work—and extend beyond the country's borders into broader cultural and historical contexts. For example, in 2022, the Observatoire démographique et statistique de l'espace francophone (link is in French only) estimated that 321 million people around the world spoke French, with half living in Africa. The vast majority of the Canadian population commonly uses English and French, Canada's official languages, to communicate and access services. Although both are spoken throughout the country, English is a minority language in Quebec, while French is a minority language in the other provinces and territories, as well as in Canada as a whole. Indigenous languages existed long before Canada was formed. As the International Decade of Indigenous Languages kicks off, the preservation, vitality and growth of the more than 70 distinct Indigenous languages spoken in the country remain as relevant and important as ever. Today, Statistics Canada is releasing a fourth set of 2021 Census results, on mother tongue, languages spoken at home and languages known by Canadians. Census data on languages are essential to understanding how Canada's linguistic profile has changed, as well as for developing and improving programs and services for all Canadians. They are also used in the development, application and administration of various federal and provincial laws, such as the federal Official Languages Act and Indigenous Languages Act, New Brunswick's Official Languages Act, Ontario's French Language Services Act and Quebec's Charter of the French Language. Highlights English is the first official language spoken by just over three in four Canadians. This proportion increased from 74.8% in 2016 to 75.5% in 2021. French is the first official language spoken by an increasing number of Canadians, but the proportion fell from 22.2% in 2016 to 21.4% in 2021. From 2016 to 2021, the number of Canadians who spoke predominantly French at home rose in Quebec, British Columbia and Yukon, but decreased in the other provinces and territories. The proportion of Canadians who spoke predominantly French at home decreased in all the provinces and territories, except Yukon. For the first time in the census, the number of people in Quebec whose first official language spoken is English topped 1 million and their proportion of the population rose from 12.0% in 2016 to 13.0% in 2021. Moreover, 7 in 10 English speakers lived on Montréal Island or in Montérégie. The proportion of bilingual English-French Canadians (18.0%) remained virtually unchanged from 2016. From 2016 to 2021, the increase in the bilingualism rate in Quebec (from 44.5% to 46.4%) offset the decrease observed outside Quebec (from 9.8% to 9.5%). In Canada, 4 in 10 people could conduct a conversation in more than one language. This proportion rose from 39.0% in 2016 to 41.2% in 2021. In addition, 1 in 11 could speak three or more languages. In 2021, one in four Canadians had at least one mother tongue other than English or French, and one in eight Canadians spoke predominantly a language other than English or French at home—both the highest proportions on record. The number of Canadians who spoke predominantly a South Asian language such as Gujarati, Punjabi, Hindi or Malayalam at home grew significantly from 2016 to 2021, an increase fuelled by immigration. In fact, the growth rate of the population speaking one of these languages was at least eight times larger than that of the overall Canadian population during this period. In contrast, there was a decline in the number of Canadians who spoke predominantly certain European languages at home, such as Italian, Polish and Greek. Aside from English and French, Mandarin and Punjabi were the country's most widely spoken languages. In 2021, more than half a million Canadians spoke predominantly Mandarin at home and more than half a million spoke Punjabi. Among Canadians whose mother tongue is neither English nor French, 7 in 10 spoke an official language at home at least on a regular basis. In 2021, 189,000 people reported having at least one Indigenous mother tongue and 183,000 reported speaking an Indigenous language at home at least on a regular basis. Cree languages and Inuktitut are the main Indigenous languages spoken in Canada. Among individuals with an Indigenous mother tongue, four out of five spoke that language at home at least on a regular basis, and half spoke it predominantly. The proportion of Canadians with English as their first official language spoken rises, while those with French decreases The vast majority of Canadians know and speak at least one of Canada's two official languages. In 2021, 98.1% of the Canadian population could have a conversation in English or French, and 92.9% spoke one of these languages at home at least on a regular basis. Of the two official languages, most Canadians spoke English at home at least on a regular basis (74.2%) or predominantly (63.8%), and English was the mother tongue of more than half of the country's population (54.9%). From 2016 to 2021, the number of Canadians with English as their first official language spoken rose from 26.0 million to 27.6 million. The proportion they represent also increased during this period, from 74.8% to 75.5%. In fact, the number and proportion of Canadians with English as their first official language spoken have been rising since 1971, the first year the census collected information on first official language spoken. As in the past, immigration contributed to this trend, given that most immigrants turn to using English after they arrive in Canada. For example, in 2021, 80.6% of Canadians with a mother tongue other than English or French (referred to as "non-official languages" hereinafter) had English as their first official language spoken, compared with 6.1% who had French. Canadians with a non-official mother tongue include a significant proportion of immigrants. French was the first official language spoken by more than 7.8 million Canadians in 2021, up from 7.7 million in 2016. However, since this growth (+1.6%) was slower than the growth of the population overall (+5.2%), the proportion of the Canadian population whose first official language spoken is French decreased from 22.2% in 2016 to 21.4% in 2021, continuing the downward trend seen in recent decades. In 1971, French was the first official language spoken by 27.2% of Canadians. Most indicators of the evolution of French in Canada follow this same trend, where the absolute numbers increase whereas the percentage of the population decreases. This is because the number of speakers of languages other than French increases faster in proportion. In 2021, more than one in five Canadians (22.6%) spoke French at home at least on a regular basis. In addition, from 2016 to 2021, the number of Canadians who spoke predominantly French at home rose from 6.9 million to 7.0 million, but their proportion in the population fell from 20.0% to 19.2%. Similarly, the number of Canadians whose mother tongue was French rose slightly (from 7,167,000 to 7,189,000), but their proportion in the population decreased (from 20.6% to 19.6%). This was also observed for the number of people who could have a conversation in French, reaching 10.7 million in 2021, continuing the decrease in proportion that began in 1981. Back then, 31.8% of Canadians could have a conversation in French, compared with 29.1% in 2021. In Quebec, the proportion of the population who speak predominantly French at home has been decreasing since 2001 Echoing the situation at the national level, the number of French speakers in Quebec is increasing, but their proportion in Quebec's population is decreasing. In 2021, 85.5% of the Quebec population reported speaking French at home at least on a regular basis. The number of people who spoke predominantly French at home increased from 6.4 million in 2016 to 6.5 million in 2021, but their proportion in the population fell from 79.0% to 77.5%. Meanwhile, the proportion of the Quebec population who spoke French most often at home equally with another language rose slightly from 2016 (3.3%) to 2021 (3.5%). Furthermore, while the number of people in Quebec with French as their mother tongue rose from 2016 to 2021, their proportion in Quebec's population decreased from 77.1% to 74.8%. Increasing numbers and declining proportions were also observed for people in Quebec with French as their first official language spoken (down from 83.7% to 82.2%) or who could have a conversation in French (down from 94.5% to 93.7%). In most of Quebec's 17 regions, French remained the first official language spoken by more than 90% of the population (for instance, 91.3% in the Laurentides, 97.9% in Mauricie, 99.1% in Bas-Saint-Laurent). However, the situation was different in Montérégie (84.6%), in Outaouais (77.1%), in Laval (68.9%), on Montréal Island (58.4%) and in Nord-du-Québec (31.1%). From 2016 to 2021, the proportion of the population with French as their first official language spoken decreased in all regions of Quebec, except in Gaspésie–Îles-de-la-Madeleine (+1.1 percentage points). The largest declines were observed in Nord-du-Québec (-3.6 percentage points), in Laval (-3.0 percentage points), in Outaouais (-2.4 percentage points) and on Montréal Island (-2.4 percentage points). Outside Quebec and the territories, the number of Canadians with French as their only first official language spoken is decreasing in all provinces, except British Columbia In its Action Plan for Official Languages – 2018-2023: Investing in Our Future, the Government of Canada stressed the importance of the vitality of official language minority communities in the country's social fabric, while recognizing a decline in the percentage of French-speaking people in Canada outside Quebec. In Canada outside Quebec, French remained the second most common language in 2021, after English. More than 2.7 million people (or 1 in 10) could have a conversation in French in Canada outside Quebec. In addition, in Canada outside Quebec, nearly 1.1 million people spoke French at home at least on a regular basis, including more than half a million (532,000) who spoke predominantly French. However, since 2016, the number of people who spoke predominantly French at home outside Quebec fell by 36,000. The number of people whose only mother tongue was French also decreased outside Quebec from 2016 to 2021 (-49,000), continuing the trend observed from 2011 to 2016. However, accounting for an increasing number of people who learned French at the same time as another language in their childhood (English most of the time), the trend differs. Instead, from 2016 to 2021, the number of people who had French as their mother tongue, alone or with another language, rose by 36,000 to 1.1 million. The number of residents of Canada outside Quebec who had French as their exclusive first official language spoken (not including those who had both English and French as their first official languages spoken; see the box "Languages known and spoken: Understanding the concepts") has decreased by 36,000 since 2016, but has continued to top 900,000. This decline—the first since the period from 1991 to 1996—was observed in all the provinces, except British Columbia (+1,200). In the territories, the number of speakers was fairly stable, except in Yukon where it grew (+200). Moreover, the proportion of Canadians living outside Quebec whose first official language spoken is French was down from 3.6% in 2016 to 3.3% in 2021. This decrease is attributable to a combination of factors, such as an older population on average (generally speaking, there are more deaths in an older population), incomplete transmission of French from one generation to the next, and linguistic transfers (when a person speaks a language at home that is different from their mother tongue). Also, the effect of interprovincial and international migration on these figures varies depending on the period and the region. In Canada outside Quebec, more than half of the population whose first official language spoken is French lived in Ontario and one-quarter lived in New Brunswick. In 2021, French was the first official language spoken by 30.0% of New Brunswick's population, by 4.5% of Yukon's population and by 3.4% of Ontario's population. In many municipalities in Canada outside Quebec, a large proportion of the population had French as their first official language spoken. For example, more than one-third of the population of Wellington (Fire District), Prince Edward Island (42%), Clare, Nova Scotia (56%), Paquetville (Parish), New Brunswick (98%), Hearst, Ontario (86%), St-Pierre-Jolys, Manitoba (40%), and Falher, Alberta (41%) had French as their first official language spoken. French was also the first official language spoken by a significant proportion of the population in many large urban centres (also known as census metropolitan areas) outside Quebec, such as Moncton (32.6%), Greater Sudbury (22.7%) and Ottawa (14.9%) (see the Note to readers for more information about Ottawa). However, in these three centres, the proportion of individuals whose first official language spoken is French decreased from 2016 to 2021 (-2.2 percentage points in Moncton, -2.9 percentage points in Greater Sudbury, and -1.1 percentage points in Ottawa). In Quebec, 1 in 10 people speak predominantly English at home English is one of Canada's official languages, but in Quebec, it is a minority language. From 2016 to 2021, the proportion of Quebec's population whose sole mother tongue is English was relatively stable (from 7.5% in 2016 to 7.6% in 2021), but the number of speakers rose (+38,000) to 639,000. Accounting for all Quebeckers who have English as their sole mother tongue or together with another language, the gain is much bigger (+125,000). This is driven by an increase in the number of individuals who reported both English and French as their mother tongues. Almost one in five people in Quebec (19.2%) spoke English at home at least on a regular basis, more than half of whom spoke it along with French, another language, or French and another language. The number of people who spoke predominantly English at home (874,000 in 2021) accounted for 10.4% of the Quebec population, up from 9.7% in 2016. The demographic weight of those who spoke English most often at home equally with another language also grew (from 2.3% in 2016 to 2.8% in 2021). Furthermore, the proportion of people whose first official language spoken is English rose from 12.0% in 2016 to 13.0% in 2021, at about the same level as in 1981. For the first time since comparable data have been compiled, the number of people in Quebec with English as the first official language spoken topped the 1 million mark in 2021. A number of factors explain the increase in the relative proportion of English speakers in Quebec, including the English-speaking population being younger on average (and therefore having proportionally fewer deaths) and specific recent migration trends. Other data sources indicate that the number of non-permanent residents has risen considerably in Quebec since 2016 and that the province's net interprovincial migration—though still in a deficit—improved over the recent period. Historically, English-speaking populations are overrepresented in Quebec's interprovincial migratory movements. Those with English as their first official language spoken were concentrated in certain areas of the province. For example, more than 7 in 10 speakers (71.7%) lived on Montréal Island or in Montérégie. The demographic weight of those with English as their first official language spoken was highest in the regions of Nord-du-Québec (54.4%), Montréal Island (30.6%), Outaouais (19.1%) and Laval (19.0%). These regions also saw this population's demographic weight increase the most from 2016 to 2021 (+7.8 percentage points in Nord-du-Québec, +2.2 percentage points on Montréal Island, +1.7 percentage points in Laval and +1.7 percentage points in Outaouais). In contrast, English was the first official language spoken by less than 1% of the population of the regions of Saguenay–Lac-Saint-Jean (0.7%) and Bas-Saint-Laurent (0.7%). Finally, in 2021, more than one in two people in Quebec could have a conversation in English. This is the first time this level has been observed since the 1901 Census, when information on the knowledge of official languages began being collected. In 2021, the vast majority of these individuals could also conduct a conversation in French. The English-French bilingualism rate is up in Quebec, but down in Canada outside Quebec Among the different types of multilingualism that exist, the ability to have a conversation in English and French is of particular interest, especially given that the dynamics of Canada's two official languages are the focus of many policies and programs. In 2021, the English-French bilingualism rate in Canada was 18.0%. This rate was relatively stable compared with its previous peak in 2016 (17.9%). This relative stability stems from two divergent trends: the rate of English-French bilingualism rising in Quebec, but decreasing outside Quebec. In Quebec, the proportion of bilingual English-French individuals rose from 44.5% in 2016 to 46.4% in 2021. Except for a dip from 2001 to 2006, the rate of English-French bilingualism has been rising in Quebec in recent decades. It was at 25.5% in 1961. Although the number of bilingual English-French individuals rose in Canada outside Quebec (+53,000) from 2016 to 2021, the English-French bilingualism rate decreased, falling from 9.8% to 9.5%. This is due to faster growth in the number of people who can conduct a conversation only in English, or in neither English nor French. The rate of English-French bilingualism peaked in Canada outside Quebec in 2001 (10.3%). The concentration of bilingual English-French individuals in Quebec rose from 2016 to 2021. In 2021, nearly 6 in 10 bilingual English-French Canadians (59.2%) lived in Quebec, compared with 57.7% in 2016. In New Brunswick, the only officially bilingual province in the country, the rate of English-French bilingualism remained fairly stable over this period (33.9% in 2016 and 34.0% in 2021). The proportion of bilingual English-French Canadians was higher among those whose mother tongue was French. From 2016 to 2021, the rate of English-French bilingualism increased among Canadians with a French mother tongue (from 46.2% to 47.6%), and decreased slightly among those whose mother tongue is English (from 9.2% to 9.0%) or another language (from 11.7% to 11.5%). The English-French bilingualism rate was also particularly high among Canadians whose mother tongue is an official language in a minority situation, that is, English in Quebec and French in Canada outside Quebec. Compared with 2016, the rate of English-French bilingualism was stable in 2021 among people with a French mother tongue in Canada outside Quebec, at 85.3%. Among English-mother-tongue individuals in Quebec, it decreased from 68.8% in 2016 to 67.1% in 2021. Overall, more than 4 in 10 Canadians can have a conversation in more than one language In addition to the language or languages learned in childhood and spoken at home, many Canadians can conduct a conversation in one, two or several other languages (either official or non-official languages). If we consider all languages, in 2021, 58.8% of Canadians could have a conversation in one language, 32.1% were bilingual, 7.6% were trilingual, and 1.5% could have a conversation in four or more languages. In 2021, the proportion of Canadians who could conduct a conversation in more than one language (41.2%) was up from 2016 (39.0%). By comparison, in the Europe of 28 (EU-28) in 2016, the European Commission reported that about one-third of adults aged 25 to 64 spoke two languages, and another one-third knew at least three languages. This varied greatly from one country to another. For example, one-third of the population 25 to 64 years of age in the United Kingdom spoke more than one language, compared with 6 in 10 people in France. In European countries with more than one official language, it is not uncommon for a high proportion of adults aged 25 to 64 to know three or more languages. In 2016, this was the case for more than 6 in 10 Belgians, Swiss or Finns. In Canada in 2021, among the provinces and territories, Nunavut had the highest rate of bilingualism (68.0%), thanks to Inuktitut–English bilingualism, and Quebec had the highest rate of trilingualism (12.2%). In the large urban centre of Montréal, nearly one in five people were trilingual in 2021. Montréal stood out in this regard, with 69.8% of its population capable of having a conversation in two or more languages. This is the highest proportion of all large urban centres in Canada, followed by Ottawa–Gatineau (60.0%) and Toronto (56.1%). Conversely, this proportion was lower in St. John's (13.5%), Belleville–Quinte West (14.6%) and Peterborough (15.0%). Immigration drives up the number of Canadians who speak a language other than English or French at home, especially a South Asian language The number of Canadians who speak certain languages other than English or French has grown significantly from 2016 to 2021. The number of Canadians who speak predominantly a non-official language at home rose 16.0%, from 4.0 million to 4.6 million. While the Canadian population increased 5.2% during this period, driven mainly by immigration, the number of Canadians who spoke predominantly a South Asian language at home grew faster, particularly speakers of Malayalam (+129% to 35,000 people), Hindi (+66% to 92,000 people), Punjabi (+49% to 520,000 people) and Gujarati (+43% to 92,000 people). In fact, the growth rate of the number of speakers of these languages was at least eight times larger than that of the entire Canadian population. Other languages spoken predominantly at home also grew rapidly, including Tigrigna, an East African language (+114% to 22,000 people), Turkish (+48% to 28,000 people), Tagalog (+29% to 275,000 people), Arabic (+28% to 286,000 people), Persian languages (+26% to 180,000 people) and Spanish (+20% to 317,000 people). Mandarin (531,000 speakers) and Punjabi (520,000 speakers) remained the two languages other than English and French spoken predominantly at home by the largest number of Canadians in 2021. The number of Mandarin speakers grew from 2016 to 2021 (+15%), but was outpaced by the growth in the number of Punjabi speakers (+49%). The rapid growth in the number of speakers of certain languages is mostly due to immigration. According to the Longitudinal Immigration Database, one-quarter of the permanent residents who arrived in Canada from May 2016 to December 2020 were born in a South Asian country, and one in five was born in India. Furthermore, during the same period, about 1 in 10 permanent residents who arrived in Canada was born in China or the Philippines, where Mandarin and Tagalog are spoken, respectively. The situation was different for a number of European languages. For example, the number of Canadians who spoke predominantly Italian (-23,000), Polish (-10,000) or Greek (-6,000) at home fell from 2016 to 2021. This decrease is primarily linked to the speakers of these languages aging, a significant proportion of whom immigrated to Canada before 1980. What's more, there were relatively few immigrants from Italy, Poland or Greece who recently arrived in Canada. Canadians who spoke predominantly a language other than English or French at home were more likely to live in a large urban centre than other Canadians. In 2021, fewer than 3 in 4 Canadians (73.8%) lived in a large urban centre, compared with more than 9 in 10 Canadians who spoke predominantly a language other than English or French at home (92.4%). Each year, large urban centres are the destination of a significant proportion of immigrants who settle in Canada, which helps to increase the diversity of these centres. Nearly 7 in 10 Canadians whose mother tongue is neither English nor French speak an official language at home Canada's two official languages, English and French, remain the languages of convergence—meaning that they are learned, spoken and adopted as the languages of everyday life by many Canadians for whom neither is their mother tongue. In fact, many Canadians whose mother tongue is a language other than English or French speak one of Canada's two official languages at home, either on a regular basis or predominantly. In 2021, nearly 7 in 10 Canadians (68.8%) with a non-official mother tongue spoke an official language at home at least on a regular basis. Also, more than one-third (34.8%) spoke predominantly an official language, a proportion that was identical in 2016. In Quebec, nearly one in two individuals with a non-official mother tongue (47.9%) spoke French at home at least on a regular basis in 2021, while 37.5% spoke English. From 2016 to 2021, the proportion of individuals with a non-official mother tongue living in Quebec speaking predominantly French at home rose slightly (from 18.8% to 20.1%), while the proportion who spoke predominantly English at home remained relatively stable over the same period (from 15.3% to 15.4%). In Canada outside Quebec, 68.5% of individuals with a non-official mother tongue spoke English at home at least on a regular basis, and 1.5% spoke French at least on a regular basis in 2021. However, the proportion of individuals whose mother tongue is a non-official language and who spoke French at home at least on a regular basis was higher in New Brunswick (8.6%) and some large urban centres, such as Ottawa (10.4%) and Moncton (14.0%). More than 180,000 people in Canada speak an Indigenous language at home at least on a regular basis "Indigenous languages are fundamental to the identities, cultures, spirituality, relationships to the land, world views and self-determination of Indigenous peoples." (excerpt from the Indigenous Languages Act) In 2022, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) launched the International Decade of Indigenous Languages to highlight the importance of preserving and revitalizing Indigenous languages, particularly to uphold the right of Indigenous peoples to liberty of expression, education and participation in public life in their mother tongue. According to UNESCO, the state of Indigenous languages in a number of countries is precarious, including in Canada, where a number of Indigenous languages are vulnerable or endangered. In Canada, the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples shed light of the negative consequences from centuries of colonial history on the use and transmission of Indigenous languages. More than 70 different Indigenous languages are spoken in Canada. In many cases, incomplete transmission to future generations is reflected in the decrease and the aging of populations speaking these languages. In 2021, more than 20 Indigenous languages in Canada were the mother tongue of 500 or fewer people, whose median age was 60 years and older. A number of efforts to revitalize Indigenous languages are underway in Canada, including by means of the Indigenous Languages Act. In Canada, 189,000 individuals reported having an Indigenous mother tongue, alone or in combination with another language, and 183,000 reported speaking an Indigenous language at home at least on a regular basis in 2021. Of these, 86,000 spoke predominantly an Indigenous language at home. More individuals could conduct a conversation in an Indigenous language—243,000 people in 2021. As in prior censuses, the number of people who can have a conversation in an Indigenous language is greater than the number of people reporting an Indigenous mother tongue. This is an indication that Indigenous languages are being learned as second languages in Indigenous communities. Cree languages and Inuktitut are the main Indigenous languages spoken at home in Canada. The Inuit language or Inuktut, which includes Inuktitut, Inuinnaqtun and Inuvialuktun, has official language status in Nunavut and the Northwest Territories. The most widely spoken Indigenous languages differ by region. In the Atlantic provinces, Mi'kmaq is the most common Indigenous language spoken predominantly at home, except in Newfoundland and Labrador, where it is Innu (Montagnais). Cree languages are the most widely spoken Indigenous languages in Quebec and the Prairie provinces, while in Ontario, Ojibway languages are most common. The main Indigenous languages spoken at home were different in British Columbia (Dakelh [Carrier]), the Northwest Territories (Tlicho [Dogrib]) and Nunavut (Inuktitut). In Yukon, several Indigenous languages are spoken by a similar number of speakers, such as Tutchone languages, Kaska (Nahani) and Gwich'in. Of those with an Indigenous mother tongue, alone or with another language, 4 in 10 lived in one of the Prairie provinces and one-quarter lived in Quebec. In fact, Quebec had the largest number of people with at least one Indigenous mother tongue (45,600). Other provinces and territories where Indigenous languages are spoken by a significant number of people included Saskatchewan (27,500), Manitoba (26,500), Alberta (24,600) and Nunavut (23,000). When a person speaks their mother tongue at home, it is an indicator of that language being retained and a factor associated with its transmission to future generations. In 2021, nearly four out of five people whose mother tongue is an Indigenous language spoke that language at home at least on a regular basis (78.2%) and more than half spoke it predominantly at home (51.3%). This proportion was higher for some languages. In 2021, approximately three-quarters of those whose mother tongue was Atikamekw, Innu (Montagnais), Inu Ayimun (Southern East Cree) or Inuktitut spoke predominantly that language at home. This proportion also varied by age. For example, among individuals under 25 years of age with an Indigenous mother tongue, around two-thirds (65.6%) spoke predominantly that language at home. Looking ahead: Telling the stories of Canadians The 2021 Census data to be released in the coming months will help to complete the portrait of the Canadian population. The next releases of 2021 Census of Population data, scheduled for September 21, 2022, will be on First Nations, Métis and Inuit in Canada and on housing in Canada. On November 30, 2022, other releases will examine the languages used at work and, for the first time, provide information on instruction in the minority official language in Canada. Please see the 2021 Census release schedule to find out when data and analysis on the different topics will be published throughout 2022. Contact information
4519	dbpedia	3	46	https://slator.com/a-brief-history-of-foreign-language-in-comics/	en	A Brief History of Foreign Language in Comics	https://slator.com/asset…d-900x600-CD.jpg	https://slator.com/asset…d-900x600-CD.jpg	[ "https://slator.com/assets/2022/03/logo.svg", "https://slator.com/assets/2022/03/logo-light.svg", "https://slator.com/assets/2021/04/Interpreters-Unlimited-900x600-CD.jpg", "https://slator.com/assets/2018/04/Interpreters-Unlimited_1200x900-100x100.jpg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Interpreters Unlimited", "www.facebook.com" ]	2022-07-28T02:14:09+00:00	Just in time for Comic-Con in San Diego, Interpreters Unlimited gives a brief history of foreign language in comics	en	https://slator.com/asset…r-icon-32x32.png	Slator	https://slator.com/a-brief-history-of-foreign-language-in-comics/	As Comic-Con has descended on our headquarter city of San Diego, California for its first full scale event since the pandemic, it brought up thoughts about diversity, foreign language, and their representation in comic books. So many comics contain characters from different worlds, as well as different cultures in our own world, so one would imagine many languages would be present, but that wasn’t always the case. Non-American and Non-English speaking characters in comics have had a bit of a dark history, being portrayed with negative stereotypes and racial depictions. While some may say it was parody and comedy, much of it, especially in the early 1900s, was blatantly derogatory, offensive and in bad taste. As comics date back to the late 19th century, times when racism and hate were more prevalent and accepted, the books were influenced by the reality of the times, which has in turn evolved as society saw race relations and foreign acceptance improve over the years. Fiction often mirrors reality and the times during which the writers and artists are working. From the World War era where the enemies of America became the enemies and villains in American comics, to the progress into inclusion and equality that we see and strive for today, there has been a great shift in the diversity and culture representation in comics. Whether it is implied that a character speaks another language, or it is directly shown in the comic text, from Super Man to Star Trek, other languages have been slowly weaved in. Early on, most comics would not have any text other than English, so when depicting a Non-English speaking character, the text would be written in a way that exaggerates the English language so the reader sees it as that race, communicating language with typed accent stereotypes and pronunciation. In some cases, it makes sense, like distinguishing between an American and someone British, where they speak the same language but there needs to be a differentiation. For example, words like “Ello” instead of “Hello”. A real-world example comes from a 1956 comic, Yellow Claw #1, with the line “I vould neffer vork for you”, providing a German stereotypical accent with distorted English rather than using the actual language with American translation beside it. When it comes to showing multilingual text rather than just distorted English, that took decades to occur. It started with a combination of languages being used, like “Spanglish”, the combination of Spanish and English. Using some Spanish words mixed in with the English text, or word variations combining both, like “Es un cat” instead of the English “It’s a cat” or the Spanish “Es un gato”. This was the new way to show language and background. One of the earliest mentions of a Non-English language in American comics comes from one of the biggest superheroes of all time, Superman, which launched in 1939. Born on the fictional planet Krypton, the fictional/alien language Kryptonian, or Kryptonese, was eventually introduced. He speaks English all of the time since coming to Earth as a baby, but he is also known to speak virtually every language…he is Superman of course. Beyond Superman eventually working in Kryptonian, by reference or by text and images, other languages didn’t become more widespread until the ‘60s and ‘70s. Starting in the 1960s, mainstream comics stepped up their diversity with an influx of ethnic characters. The evolution of comics in the ‘60s and ‘70s coincided with and was inspired by the societal evolution and race equality taking shape in America. Comics continued to mirror reality becoming much more inclusive during the timeline of the civil rights movement and Foreign/American activism. During this time, a superhero named Black Panther burst onto the scene, the first African American superhero, originally introduced in an issue of the Fantastic Four in 1966, he quickly got his own feature comic and is still relevant today. With Black Panther, his homeland is the fictional Wakanda, which has three official languages, Wakandan, Yoruba and Hausa, the last two being actual African languages. In the ‘70s the popular X-Men comics introduced multiple characters from German, Russian Japanese, Kenyan and other backgrounds, which helped move things forward a bit more. One example being the popular Nightcrawler of Bavaria, Germany who would speak often in a mix of English and German phrases. Around the same time, the first Latin American superhero appeared in the mainstream, White Tiger. Speaking in both Spanish and English, White Tiger not only had his own feature comic, but he crossed over into several issues of Spider-Man from the ‘70s to ‘80s, and then the popular Daredevil comics in the ‘00s, which was huge for the character and for diversity in comics in general. As previous Non-American and multilingual characters were depicted with stereotypes and distorted English, in passing and in small roles, they were now being featured in the forefront, and while cliches and stereotypes continued to exist in comics, this was a very big step forward for diversity and equality. During the late ‘70s and ‘80s, following their television and film debuts, two of the biggest science fiction entities arrived in comics, Star Trek and Star Wars. With characters hailing from all corners of the universe, many new languages were introduced. In Star Trek, various languages from Klingon to Vulcan were eventually presented. While many of these languages are mostly featured in the films and tv show, there were comics dedicated completely to the Klingon language, including a special comic and additional 5-part comic miniseries written entirely in Klingon (with English language versions available for the Non-Klingon speakers). Just as so much fiction is based on reality, reality also comes from fiction. The fictional Star Trek languages of Vulcan and Klingon were turned into full-fledged languages with set grammar and vocabulary, so anyone can learn and speak it. Taking things even further, a Klingon Language Institute (KLI) was formed which now has about 5,000 members and holds yearly conventions. It became so popular that the language learning platform Duolingo added a Klingon course attracting over 100,000 learners, and while they report that the fastest growing languages are Asian languages, the KLI website claims that Klingon is the “fastest growing language in the galaxy”. With Star Wars, one of the most well-known franchises of all time brought us some of the most well-known characters, many of which famously speak other languages. From Huttese spoken by Jaba the Hutt, to Jawaese spoken by the popular Jawa characters, to Shyriiwook or Wookiee spoken by the beloved Chewbacca, Star Wars has introduced many new languages to the world. Though mostly fictional alien-speak, it would be hard to find someone, Star Wars fan or not, who couldn’t recognize and speak a little Wookiee. Star Wars has brought us droids like R2-D2 who speaks in droid-speak, communicating with robotic beeps and boops, and then there is C-3PO, a protocol droid designed to assist in etiquette, customs, and translation, fluent in over 6 million forms of communication. When you break it down, he is an interpreter, language service is his specialty. With so many characters in their world, 65 different languages have been included in their comics, books, movies, and TV shows over the years. The trend of incorporating other languages in comics eventually included American Sign Language (ASL) with multiple popular and lesser-known characters. One character, Jericho of Teen Titans, can control others with eye contact, and though he cannot speak vocally he can communicate with ASL. Another example, Hawkeye, from one of the biggest superhero teams the Avengers, lost his hearing twice which led to him learning and speaking in ASL. One issue of the Hawkeye comic was even told completely in ASL. Now in the ‘00s, more and more diverse characters have made their way into the mainstream. From Ms. Marvel, a Pakistani-American superhero who can speak Urdu, to America Chavez, a Puerto Rican superhero who speaks English and Spanish, it has become a common theme. In recent years there have been new versions of Spider-Man introduced, one of the more popular versions, Miles Morales, is also Puerto Rican speaking both Spanish and English. These characters have not only have found their way into mainstream comic books, but they’ve also been given their own features in film and television. From the early days of comic books through today, things have come a very long way. The industry took decades to evolve, mirroring American society and how the country took so long to evolve accepting all races, cultures, and languages. Though it took so long for comics to get the inclusion ball rolling, and slowly phase in more diverse characters, once they did, they never looked back. With this integration continuing over the years, the protagonists and antagonists in comic book culture are more diverse than ever, and there is no limit to what the future holds. For more information about Interpreters Unlimited, Inc., please visit www.interpreters.com or call 800-726-9891. About Interpreters Unlimited, Inc. The IU Group of companies include: Interpreters Unlimited, Accessible Communication for the Deaf, Albors & Alnet, Arkansas Spanish Interpreters and Translators, and IU GlobeLink, LLC, and are headquartered in San Diego, California as a minority-owned company. IU Group is committed to providing equal opportunity in the work environment with its diverse team to aid in supplying linguistic and cultural interpretation services to clients. A combined 70 years in the industry has demonstrated a surplus of leadership and best practices, which has helped establish its respected role in the language services community. Its services include interpretation, document translation and non-emergency medical transportation. Follow us on Social Media: LinkedIn Facebook Twitter Instagram Media Contact Marc Westray marc.westray@interpreters.com (858) 275-2582 Research Sources: https://books.google.com/books?id=DdarDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA68&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=3#v=onepage&q&f=false https://core.ac.uk/reader/232778930 https://www.pbs.org/opb/historydetectives/feature/the-golden-age-of-comics/ https://www.cbr.com/marvel-characters-who-are-bilingual/ https://www.cnn.com/style/article/star-trek-klingon-marc-okrand/index.html https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Tiger_(Hector_Ayala)#cite_note-GR-5 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_in_Star_Wars https://starwars.fandom.com/wiki/Huttese/Legends https://starwars.fandom.com/wiki/Jawaese/Legends
4519	dbpedia	3	31	https://www.michigandaily.com/opinion/youre-in-america-learn-a-language-other-than-english/	en	‘You’re in America, learn a language other than English’	https://www.michigandail…nish_teacher.png	https://www.michigandail…nish_teacher.png	[ "https://i0.wp.com/www.michigandaily.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/cropped-TMDFullLogo.png?fit=2854%2C388&ssl=1", "https://i0.wp.com/www.michigandaily.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/spanish_teacher.png?fit=1200%2C800&ssl=1", "https://i0.wp.com/www.michigandaily.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/cropped-cropped-TMD-White-Masthead.png?fit=400%2C54&ssl=1" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Mackenzie Kilano" ]	2023-11-03T01:28:58+00:00	“You’re in America, speak English.” That’s the sentiment that has been hurled at people speaking a foreign language in public time and time again. While the United States has no official language, 70% of Americans feel that for someone to be truly American, they must speak English. This assumption has led to the belief that […]	en	https://www.michigandail…0x200.png?crop=1	The Michigan Daily	https://www.michigandaily.com/opinion/youre-in-america-learn-a-language-other-than-english/	“You’re in America, speak English.” That’s the sentiment that has been hurled at people speaking a foreign language in public time and time again. While the United States has no official language, 70% of Americans feel that for someone to be truly American, they must speak English. This assumption has led to the belief that learning a language after childhood is a difficult feat only possible for people who are capable of learning new skills efficiently. However, this is not true. In fact, learning another language is possible through repetition and it boasts a variety of benefits. By changing its requirements, the state of Michigan can help students graduate high school with meaningful knowledge of other languages and cultures. In the state of Michigan, students are required to take two years of the same foreign language to graduate high school. The class of 2016 was the first class that faced this two-year language mandate. The goal of this requirement was for students to demonstrate language proficiency, acquire basic knowledge of the cultures that use that language and use the language beyond the school setting. The state of Michigan should change this requirement to allow students an option between four years of foreign language or two years of foreign language followed by two years of cultural classes. Approximately 79.7% of Americans only speak English. This is very different from the nearly two-thirds of working-age Europeans who report knowing at least one foreign language. Outside of language, a survey from Gallup, National Geographic and the Council on Foreign Relations found that Americans have limited knowledge of geography and international issues, yet seven out of 10 respondents reported that international issues have an effect on their daily lives. Improved language and culture education requirements can help to inform Michiganders and teach them language proficiency that can be used outside of the classroom. Currently, many Americans lack the cultural awareness to engage across differences. This can be changed through education. So, why is the current two-year requirement inadequate? For many, two years is simply not long enough for any meaningfully lasting language skills. A study done by the University of Oregon Center for Applied Second Language Studies investigated the proficiency level that high school students achieve after each year of foreign language classes. After two years of Spanish classes, only around 3.7% of students were able to achieve intermediate proficiency or higher in reading. However, after four years, more than 30% of students reached intermediate proficiency or higher. Writing and speaking also saw similar increases in proficiency between year two and year four of foreign language study. This is because instructional hours are directly tied to student proficiency. Learning a foreign language is only possible through repetition and practice. Learning another language comes with an abundance of benefits, starting with college admissions. The University of Michigan College of Literature, Science and the Arts requires two years of the same foreign language to even be considered for admission. Plenty of other universities require two years of foreign language experience and even recommend four years for admittance into their schools. For those hoping to go to college, a four-year language requirement or two years of language and two years of cultural classes can better prepare them to succeed. For all students, this same requirement will allow them to engage across differences and help them be successful in many jobs. For example, cultural competence is very important for providing equitable care in the health care industry. In law, cultural competence aids lawyers in communicating clearly with all involved parties. Problems with communication can cause negative outcomes in trials, which makes basic knowledge of another language useful. The ability to speak a foreign language also opens up new job opportunities because being bilingual is a desirable skill set for many employers. Research from the National Education Association also shows that learning a second language benefits academic progress, narrows the achievement gap, benefits basic skills development, promotes cultural awareness and enhances cognitive development. While the benefits of learning another language are immense, it is also important to recognize how learning disabilities may make this more challenging. Kenneth Dinklage, a psychologist at Harvard University, observed that students with learning disabilities face more difficulties when trying to learn a second language. This is where the idea of cultural classes becomes important. For students who complete the first two years of required language but face additional struggles or do not feel like they are grasping the concepts, cultural classes may be the answer. The public high school I went to in Michigan required students to take two semesters of cultural classes that focused on traditions, holidays, food, religion, politics and norms of other countries. We learned to make food from Spanish-speaking countries, read about political conflicts affecting those areas and discussed the importance of popular holidays such as Day of the Dead. It’s classes like these that contribute to increasing cultural competency and address accessibility concerns for students who may struggle with learning a new language. Still, this new requirement does not work without making other necessary changes. Inadequate funding stands in the way of an enhanced foreign-language education. In order for this requirement to be impactful, the state would also need to dedicate more funding to high schools to help them hire high-quality foreign language teachers and allow students to take foreign language classes for four years and beyond. More funding could also be used to expand the number of languages taught at schools, which would be very beneficial considering current options are often few. Being able to connect with diverse groups of people through culture and language is a priceless skill. This skill goes beyond the classroom to professional life and the interactions that students will have with other people for the rest of their lives. Making more language and cultural classes required and accessible in Michigan high schools will give students useful skills and create more cultural understanding. The state of Michigan has the ability to open students up to a world of possibilities, and it all starts with language and culture education. Mackenzie Kilano is an opinion columnist who writes about student life, culture, and politics. She can be reached at mkilano@umich.edu
4519	dbpedia	1	28	https://www.busuu.com/en/languages/speak-english-fluently	en	How to Speak English Fluently: 10 Top Tips	https://cdn.busuu.com/ho…-graph/busuu.png	https://cdn.busuu.com/ho…-graph/busuu.png	[ "https://www.busuu.com/user/pages/languages/speak-english-fluently/_03-icons/icon-1.png", "https://www.busuu.com/user/pages/languages/speak-english-fluently/_03-icons/icon-3.png", "https://www.busuu.com/user/pages/languages/speak-english-fluently/_03-icons/illustration-1.png", "https://www.busuu.com/user/pages/languages/speak-english-fluently/_05-body-2/1-practice-listening-speaking.png", "https://www.busuu.com/user/pages/languages/speak-english-fluently/_05-body-2/2-make-a-study-plan.png", "https://www.busuu.com/user/pages/languages/speak-english-fluently/_05-body-2/3-become-pronunciation-based.png", "https://www.busuu.com/user/pages/languages/speak-english-fluently/_05-body-2/4-learn-from-native-english-speakers.png", "https://www.busuu.com/user/pages/languages/speak-english-fluently/_05-body-2/5-dont-be-afraid-to-make-mistakes.png", "https://www.busuu.com/user/pages/languages/speak-english-fluently/_06-cta-2/2-speak_english_fluently_updated.png", "https://www.busuu.com/user/pages/languages/speak-english-fluently/_07-body-3/6-put-books-audiobooks-to-work.png", "https://www.busuu.com/user/pages/languages/speak-english-fluently/_07-body-3/7-practice-english-alone.png", "https://www.busuu.com/user/pages/languages/speak-english-fluently/_07-body-3/8-celebrate-success.png", "https://www.busuu.com/user/pages/languages/speak-english-fluently/_07-tab-carousel/h-1.png", "https://www.busuu.com/user/pages/languages/speak-english-fluently/_07-tab-carousel/h-2.png", "https://www.busuu.com/user/pages/languages/speak-english-fluently/_07-tab-carousel/h-3.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	Find out how to speak English fluently with Busuu’s learning tips and complete English course. Put these tips to work and you’ll be on your way to English fluency!	en	https://cdn.busuu.com/ho…-transparent.png	Busuu	https://www.busuu.com/en/languages/speak-english-fluently	10 Tips on how to speak English fluently These are our top tips for how to improve your English speaking fluency! No matter your level of English right now, if you put these tips to work, you should see your fluency in English improve over time. 1. Practice listening and speaking When it comes to building English fluency, one of the most important things you can do is get practice actually using the language. According to Oxford Languages, “fluency” is defined as the ability to speak and write with ease and accuracy. Many exercises in English courses focus on the written language, but it’s important to make the leap to listening and speaking without written text if you want to become more comfortable with the language, especially if you want to be able to use it in a work environment where you’d need to be able to listen and respond quickly. That’s why, at Busuu, we use dialogues and speaking exercises to help you learn to listen and practice speaking out loud from the get-go. 2. Make a plan and stick to it To reach true fluency is to be as proficient as possible in a language. Frankly, that takes work! One of the best things you can do to build your English fluency is to create a schedule for your learning and stick to it. At Busuu, our experts recommend making a habit out of learning by tying lessons to something you already do daily – for example, taking an English lesson with your morning coffee or doing one as part of your bedtime routine. If you can seamlessly integrate learning into your day, it’ll be easier to keep going and making progress. When you learn English with Busuu, you can easily track your progress and create a Study Plan to make sure you stay on track to meet your goals. A Study Plan can help you figure out what you need to do to reach a level of fluency by a specific date and help remind you to keep showing up and getting the learning done. And we’re not just telling you this because we’re Study Plan fans. Statistically, learners on Busuu who create Study Plans tend to learn more and faster than those who don’t! 3. Become pronunciation obsessed While English grammar tends to be pretty flexible, English pronunciation is famously tricky. If you want to get your English fluency levels up, working on your pronunciation can help! A better grasp of English pronunciation can improve not just how much other people understand you, but also your ability to identify words when you hear them. Since pronunciation is such a big part of building your fluency in English, Busuu has a dedicated set of lessons focusing solely on English pronunciation. 4. Learn from native English speakers With any language, going from the version of the language you learn in lessons to the way people actually use the language in real life can be challenging. Pronunciation, grammar, intonation, and slang can all make it difficult to sound like a native speaker, even when your English is otherwise perfect. Want to know how to develop English speaking fluency? Learn English with support from native speakers! Fortunately, when you learn with Busuu, you get tips and feedback on your writing and pronunciation from English speakers thanks to the Conversations feature. And, if you need a little extra support, you can always get one-on-one tutoring from an experienced English tutor on Verbling. 5. Don’t be afraid to make mistakes Studies show that we learn faster when we learn more like children, trying out our growing language skills with abandon and fumbling through our mistakes! Trial and error is part of figuring out how to actually use a language, so don’t be afraid to take a leap. That’s how to achieve fluency in English! You could attend English-language events, practice with English speakers in your life, or even travel or move to an English-speaking place to learn through immersion. In the meantime, be bold in your shared exercises on Busuu and our awesome community of native English speakers can help you learn from your mistakes! Plus, Smart Review will automatically capture vocabulary and grammar you’ve struggled with during lessons, so mistakes simply become quiz questions for later practice. 6. Put books (and audiobooks!) to work For many language learners, one of the hurdles to fluency is learning to listen and understand without training wheels (like written versions of what’s being said). One way to start building this skill is to alternate between reading and listening to a book. Listen as much as you can, then use the written text to support you when you hear something you don’t understand. There are books for every level of English reader, so you can put this technique to work at all English fluency levels. Don’t be afraid to start with books for younger audiences as you get started! The news and podcasts can also be great for this – the more you can train yourself to understand spoken English in realtime, the closer you’ll get to fluency in English. And learning from unique sources can help you build vocabulary and learn to understand a range of English accents and dialects. 7. Sing your way to fluency Who says language learning has to be boring? Another way to learn how to speak English fluently is by mimicking native speakers. You can repeat after your favorite TV show characters or listen to music and learn the lyrics to your favorite English language songs. You could work toward fluency at karaoke, how fun is that? From Beyoncé to The Beatles, there are tons of great English musicians to love – just make sure you know what you’re saying (and what’s appropriate to say and in what context) before putting any new slang or phrases to use in the real world! 8. Keep learning in your downtime Another way to build your English fluency quickly is to add more English media into your couch time. There’s a whole world of English language TV and movies out there for you to learn from! To get a real boost, try rewatching a favorite show, turning subtitles on and off, in your native language and in English. Take notes on words and phrases you don’t recognize and look them up next time you’re studying. Repeat this until you can understand a whole episode or movie without help and you’ll be on your way to fluency! As an added bonus, whether you’re studying one episode or binging a whole series, all that exposure to American or British accents will help you develop a better ear for your own spoken language. As with music, try repeating back what you hear – just choose wisely which characters you want to emulate! (Check out our article on learning a new language with Netflix and discover how it works!) 9. Practice English when you’re alone Here’s another tip for how to improve English speaking fluency: talk to yourself (yes, really!). Practice narrating what you’re doing, recapping your day, or thinking to yourself in English when you’re alone. When you get stuck, look up any words you’re missing or try to find ways around it – making yourself understood even when you forget a word is an important skill for fluency too! You can even fake a phone call and practice talking to yourself out loud alone in public, if you’re brave enough. 10. Celebrate your successes! Last but certainly not least, don’t forget to congratulate yourself when you finish a lesson or pass a milestone! Reaching English fluency is hard, and the effort you put in, no matter how far you get, is worth celebrating. Many language learners fall off because it’s challenging and they lose heart and motivation. Remind yourself why you want to be fluent in English and keep showing up and you’ll have plenty to congratulate yourself on.
4519	dbpedia	2	92	https://www.fluentu.com/blog/learn/similar-languages/	en	Multitasker? 16 Similar Language Pairs You Can Use for Bonus Learning	https://www.fluentu.com/…698402583242.jpg	https://www.fluentu.com/…698402583242.jpg	[ "https://www.fluentu.com/blog/wp-content/themes/fluentu-wp-theme/img/fluentu-logo.png", "https://www.fluentu.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/twins-two-girls-faces-closeup-on-eyes-1024x683.jpg", "https://www.fluentu.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/try-fluentu-for-free.jpg", "https://www.fluentu.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/Spanish-5.png", "https://www.fluentu.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/General-2.png", "https://www.fluentu.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/Spanish-6.png", "https://www.fluentu.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/Ad-English.jpg", "https://www.fluentu.com/public/images/dictionary/logo-white.png", "https://www.fluentu.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/background-lan.png", "https://www.fluentu.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/left-hero-image.png", "https://www.fluentu.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/fluentu-logo.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Meredith Kreisa" ]	2023-09-04T14:50:26+00:00	Learning similar language pairs is your shortcut to multilingualism! Discover 16 language pairs that have some degree of mutual intelligibility for ease of learning. From similar Romance Language pairs to lesser known pairs like Bulgarian and Macedonian... and beyond! Study these languages together to get a leg up on your polyglot journey.	en		FluentU Language Learning	https://www.fluentu.com/blog/learn/similar-languages/	If you’re asking yourself, “what language should I learn?” similar languages may be the option for you. Whether you’re trying to learn several new languages quickly, or you just want to learn a language that’s not far from your native tongue, understanding which ones are similar is your first step. We’ll show you 16 sets of similar languages that you can pair together for easy learning, some of which may surprise you. Make friends with these linguistic besties and you’ll be on the fast track to multilingualism! Contents What Makes Some Languages Similar? Similar Romance Languages 1. Spanish and Portuguese 2. Spanish and Italian 3. Italian and Romanian 4. French and Occitan Similar Germanic Languages 5. Afrikaans and Dutch 6. German and English 7. German and Dutch Similar Scandinavian Languages 8. Norwegian and Swedish 9. Norwegian and Danish Similar Slavic Languages 10. Ukrainian and Polish 11. Serbian, Croatian, Montenegrin and Bosnian 12. Bulgarian and Macedonian 13. Czech and Slovak Similar Semitic Languages 14. Arabic and Maltese Similar East Asian Languages 15. Mandarin Chinese and Hokkien (Min Nan) Similar South Asian languages 16. Hindi and Urdu More Similar Language Pairs Why is it Useful to Be Aware of Similar Languages? And One More Thing... Download: This blog post is available as a convenient and portable PDF that you can take anywhere. Click here to get a copy. (Download) What Makes Some Languages Similar? The reason that some languages are so similar is that they’re part of the same language family. We’d love to tell you that language families are formed when two languages love each other very much. However, language families are actually just formed of languages that share a common ancestor. Related languages are also usually close geographically, though that isn’t always the case. Due to their shared origins, languages within the same family often possess something called “lexical similarity.” Lexical similarity is a measure of how much vocabulary two languages share. This can also lead to “mutual intelligibility,” which occurs when a speaker of one language can understand a speaker of another language with little effort. Many similar languages have some degree of mutual intelligibility, which can aid significantly in learning grammar and overcoming the language barrier. If you’re learning a language, you might also consider learning a language similar to your target language since they have so much in common. To illustrate the similarities between the language pairs below, I used a handful of example sentences: I like reading books. You make me happy. Wherever these sentences didn’t adequately show off the similarities, I opted for a different sentence (or two) that are better suited for the occasion. Read on and learn about some languages that make great linguistic couples! Similar Romance Languages Romance languages stemmed from a form of Latin, and you’re probably already aware of how similar these languages are, at least in passing. Romance languages include Spanish, French, Italian, Portuguese and Romanian. That’s right! Even though it’s geographically distant, Romanian is related to these other Romance languages. The degree of mutual intelligibility varies greatly between language pairs. Here are some pretty similar pairs: 1. Spanish and Portuguese The most mutually intelligible pair of Romance languages is Spanish and Portuguese. In some cases, TV stations don’t even translate between the two languages, instead assuming that Spanish-speaking audiences would understand Portuguese and Portuguese-speaking audiences would understand Spanish. Perhaps the most notable difference between the two languages is in pronunciation. You’re likely to understand everything you read if you’re reading either language while familiar with the other, but you’ll have more trouble understanding them when they’re spoken out loud. Examples: Spanish: Me gusta leer libros Portuguese: Eu gosto de ler livros English: I like reading books 2. Spanish and Italian Spanish and Italian also have some degree of mutual intelligibility. The two languages are very similar both structurally and in terms of vocabulary, featuring many cognates between them. As with Portuguese, though, Italian sounds quite different from Spanish when it’s spoken out loud, so you might have more luck understanding if you see the languages written down. In fact, Spanish is particularly intelligible to speakers of other Romance languages, no matter what language you’re coming from. Examples: Spanish: Me gusta leer libros Italian: Mi piace leggere libri English: I like reading books Spanish: Me haces feliz Italian: Mi fai felice English: You make me happy 3. Italian and Romanian Romanian is the most dissimilar from its linguistic siblings, making it more difficult for speakers of other Romance languages to understand. Still, according to the book “The Romance Languages,” 70% of the words between Italian and Romanian are considered “look-alike words”—that is, exact or close cognates. Examples: In this case, the two example sentences I’ve been using aren’t the best for showing off the languages’ similarities. Here’s a different sentence that better displays how the languages resemble each other: Italian: Mi piace andare al mare Romanian: Îmi place să merg la mare English: I like going to the sea/beach Italian: La mia famiglia è molto importante per me Romanian: Familia mea este foarte importantă pentru mine English: My family is very important to me 4. French and Occitan French and Occitan are closely related languages, both belonging to the Romance language family. While they share certain linguistic features and have a common historical origin, they aren’t mutually intelligible to a high degree, especially in spoken form. However, speakers of one language might find some similarities in vocabulary and grammar that could assist in understanding basic written texts or simple spoken sentences from the other language. Occitan is a Romance language spoken primarily in southern France, as well as in parts of Spain and Italy. It has several dialects, each with its own characteristics. The language has a rich literary tradition, particularly in poetry and troubadour songs from the medieval period. Examples: French: Je vais au marché ce matin Occitan: Vau al mercat aqueste matin (Voh ahl mehr-kah a-kwes-teh ma-teen.) English: I’m going to the market this morning Similar Germanic Languages The Germanic language family covers Central through Northern Europe and includes languages that stem from the Proto-Germanic language spoken around 500 BC in Northern Europe. Germanic languages aren’t as mutually intelligible as Romance languages. Some northern and southern dialects of German aren’t even mutually intelligible! While the degree of mutual intelligibility is significantly less than that of Romance languages, German, English, Dutch and Afrikaans do have some overlap, particularly in writing. This group of languages can also be called “West Germanic.” 5. Afrikaans and Dutch Since Afrikaans is derived from Dutch, it should perhaps come as no surprise that these two languages are largely mutually intelligible. However, as with many other language pairs, you’ll find that the spoken language is more difficult to decipher—and that you’ll have an easier time learning Dutch if you already speak Afrikaans, in particular. Examples: Afrikaans: Ek hou van lees boeke (Ehk how fahn lees boo-kuh.) Dutch: Ik hou van het lezen van boeken (Ihk how fahn het lay-zuhn vahn boo-kuhn.) English: I like reading books 6. German and English You might know that Spanish and English have some similarities, especially in terms of vocabulary, but English is actually a Germanic language. That means that there are quite a few similarities between German and English, especially in terms of sentence structure, word order and grammar rules. Vocabulary isn’t as similar between the two, but you’ll definitely be able to find some familiar words between the two. Examples: German: Sie ist eine gute Freundin English: She is a good friend 7. German and Dutch Dutch and German are closely related languages, but they’re not mutually intelligible to a high degree. Some shared vocabulary and similarities in grammar mean that speakers of one language might be able to understand a bit of the other. You’ll find it easier to understand the written language than the spoken (in either direction). That said, the differences in pronunciation, vocabulary and certain grammatical structures can make it challenging for speakers of one language to fully understand the other without prior exposure or study. Examples: Dutch: Jij maakt me gelukkig (Yay mahkt muh ghuh-look-khuh.) German: Du machst mich glücklich English: You make me happy You can study multiple languages like these in a language program like FluentU. You can switch between the languages offered and the program will save your progress in each language as you do so. Similar Scandinavian Languages Though technically considered a Northern Germanic group, Scandinavian languages are much more similar to one another than they are to other Germanic languages. Danish, Norwegian, Swedish and Icelandic are all considered Scandinavian languages. However, while Danish, Norwegian and Swedish are fairly closely linked, Icelandic is more distant. 8. Norwegian and Swedish The Nordic Council notes that while there’s some mutual intelligibility, this seems to vary a great deal between groups of speakers. For instance, young Norwegians are able to understand more Scandinavian languages due to their familiarity with dialects. Young Danes, on the other hand, have much greater difficulty understanding other Scandinavian languages. Norwegian and Swedish are very closely related, so they share many grammar constructs and much of the vocabulary is nearly identical. You should watch out for some false cognates, but in general, the two languages are said to be “nearly identical” by native speakers, and it’s not unusual to see a conversation where one person is speaking Swedish and the other responds in Norwegian. Examples: Norwegian: Jeg liker å lese bøker (Yay lee-kehr oh lay-suh buh-kehr.) Swedish: Jag gillar att läsa böcker (Yahg yee-lahr aht lay-sah bök-ehr.) English: I like reading books Norwegian: Du gjør meg lykkelig (Doo yur may leek-kay-lee.) Swedish: Du gör mig lycklig (Doo yur meeg lük-kleeg.) English: You make me happy 9. Norwegian and Danish Danish might look nearly indistinguishable from Norwegian in its written form, the language sounds quite different when it’s spoken due to differences in pronunciation and intonation. Danish is said to have a “softer” sound than the Norwegian’s more clipped sound. Examples: Norwegian: Jeg liker å lese bøker (Yay lee-kehr oh lay-suh buh-kehr.) Danish: Jeg kan lide at læse bøger (Yay kahn lee-duh aht lay-suh böh-er.) English: I like reading books Similar Slavic Languages The Slavic language family is a large group of languages spread throughout Eastern and Central Europe. The language group is thought to have originated in the Early Middle Ages from the Proto-Slavic language. The family includes Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian, Polish, Bulgarian, Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian, Slovene, Macedonian, Czech and Slovak. 10. Ukrainian and Polish While you might think that Russian and Ukrainian are similar, they’re not really mutually intelligible at all. A Ukrainian speaker might understand some Russian, but Russian speakers don’t understand Ukrainian—as a Russian speaker with a mother who knows some Ukrainian, I can definitely confirm this! However, Ukrainian and Polish sound more similar and are easier for speakers to understand. This is despite the fact that the two languages belong to different subgroups of Slavic languages, with Ukrainian coming from the East Slavic branch and Polish belonging to the West Slavic branch. So where do these two languages’ close relation come from? History, naturally! When Poland had control over Ukraine in the 14th century, the official language in Ukraine was changed to Polish, and many Ukrainian nobles learned Polish. While Russian also had control over Ukraine for a period in history, by then the language was undergoing efforts to be standardized and so wasn’t affected in the same way. (This is gross simplification—if you’re interested in the topic, you can learn much more in this chronology of the Ukrainian language.) Examples: Ukrainian: Це місто дуже красиве влітку (Tse misto duzhe krasive vlitku.) Polish: To miasto jest bardzo piękne latem (Toh mias-toh yest bar-dzoh pyen-kneh la-tem.) English: This city is very beautiful in the summer 11. Serbian, Croatian, Montenegrin and Bosnian I’m cheating a little here, as this clearly isn’t a language pair. But these four languages are so similar that they’re often lumped together as one language: Serbo-Croatian. According to writer and linguist Robert Lindsay, Serbo-Croatian is also partially mutually intelligible with other languages, most notably Macedonian. These sentences are virtually identical across these languages due to their shared linguistic characteristics! Examples: Serbian: Sviđa mi se čitanje knjiga (Svee-jda mee seh chee-tahn-yeh knee-gah.) Croatian: Sviđa mi se čitanje knjiga (Svee-jda mee seh chee-tahn-yeh knee-gah.) Montenegrin: “Sviđa mi se čitanje knjiga (Svee-jda mee seh chee-tahn-yeh knee-gah.) Bosnian: Sviđa mi se čitanje knjiga (Svee-jda mee seh chee-tahn-yeh knee-gah.) English: I like reading books 12. Bulgarian and Macedonian Macedonian developed as a dialect of Bulgarian and didn’t become an official language until 1944! In fact, some linguists still hold that Macedonian is a Bulgarian dialect. As such, the two languages are, unsurprisingly, pretty similar. Although they’re similar in both directions, it’s generally easier for Bulgarian speakers to understand Macedonian than vice versa. Examples: Bulgarian: Ти правиш ме щастлив (Ti pravish me shtastliv.) Macedonian: Ме правиш среќен (Me pravish srekjen.) English: You make me happy 13. Czech and Slovak Czech and Slovak both come from the former Czechoslovakia, a country that existed for most of the 20th century. While Czech and Slovak are distinct languages, they’ve influenced each other over the years thanks to a shared government and educational system for nearly a century. The languages are highly mutually intelligible, with similarities across grammar, syntax and vocabulary. Examples: Czech: Mám rád číst knihy (Mam rahts keest kneehy.) Slovak: Mám rád čítať knihy (Mam raht chy-taht kneehy.) English: I like reading books Czech: Děláš mě šťastný (Deh-lahsh meh shtahst-nee.) Slovak: Robíš ma šťastný (Roh-beesh mah shtahst-nee.) English: You make me happy Similar Semitic Languages Semitic languages are a branch of the Afroasiatic language family and are primarily spoken in the Middle East and parts of North Africa. They’re among the world’s oldest and most influential language groups. Please note that the level of mutual intelligibility can vary significantly within these pairs, and it might not be as high as in some of the Romance or Germanic language pairs mentioned earlier. This is largely due to the fact that the languages, despite sharing a common ancestry in Proto-Semitic, have evolved independently over millennia. That said, there are still some similarities across Semitic language pairs. For instance, many Semitic languages, including Arabic and Hebrew, use a triconsonantal root system. Words are often formed around a core of three consonants, and changes in vowels and additional consonants modify the meaning and function of words. From personal experience, I’ve lived in Israel where I spoke Hebrew, and I couldn’t understand a lick of Arabic. I’ll highlight one interesting Semitic language pair that’s worth mentioning here: 14. Arabic and Maltese Arabic and Maltese are related languages, with Maltese being heavily influenced by Arabic due to centuries of contact and historical connection. While Maltese is a unique language and written in the Latin script, it has borrowed a substantial amount of vocabulary and some grammatical structures from Arabic. While Maltese is heavily influenced by Arabic, it also has significant influence from Italian and English due to Malta’s history. As such, though Maltese and Arabic share similarities, they’re not fully mutually intelligible. Examples: Here’s a beautiful example: Maltese: Il-ħajja hija qalb ta’ kull kuljum (Il-hai-yah hee-yah kahlb tah kool kool-yoom.) Arabic: Al-ḥayāh hiya qalb kull yawm (Al-hai-yah hee-yah kahlb kool yawm.) English: Life is the heart of every day Similar East Asian Languages East Asian languages refer to a group of languages spoken in the eastern part of Asia, primarily in countries such as China, Japan, Korea and Taiwan. Pairs of East Asian languages that are at least partially mutually intelligible are quite rare due to the significant linguistic differences in this language family. However, here are a couple of examples where some level of mutual intelligibility exists to a fairly small degree: 15. Mandarin Chinese and Hokkien (Min Nan) Mandarin Chinese and Hokkien are members of the Sino-Tibetan language family, and due to historical and cultural interactions they have limited mutual intelligibility. However, the degree of intelligibility can vary widely depending on the dialects and the speaker’s exposure to both languages. In other words… this one’s a bit of a stretch, but I thought it worth including for the sake of being thorough! Both languages are tonal (though Hokkien has more tones, with the actual number varying by dialect). You might also find similarities in hanzi and vocabulary between the two languages. However, grammar and pronunciation are fairly different between the two. In particular, Mandarin and Hokkien have distinct phonological systems, including different consonant and vowel sounds. The sound of a word can be quite different when comparing the two languages. Examples: Mandarin Chinese: 你让我快乐。(Nǐ ràng wǒ kuàilè.) Hokkien (Min Nan): 你令我歡喜 (Lí līng guá huān-hí) English: You make me happy Similar South Asian languages The South Asian language family, also known as the Indo-Aryan language family, is a branch of the larger Indo-European language family. It is primarily spoken in South Asia, which includes countries such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and parts of Afghanistan. This language family is rich and diverse, with numerous languages and dialects. Within the South Asian language family, there are some pairs of mutually intelligible languages, but they’re often the exception rather than the rule. The majority of languages in this family are distinct and not mutually intelligible due to differences in vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation and script. 16. Hindi and Urdu Hindi and Urdu are both standardized registers of the Hindustani language and share a significant amount of vocabulary and grammar. The two languages share grammar and sentence structure, as well as a significant portion of their vocabulary, especially for everyday words and concepts, making it relatively easy for speakers of the languages to be able to understand each other. The most significant difference between Hindi and Urdu lies in their writing systems: Hindi is typically written in the Devanagari script, which is a script of Indian origin, while Urdu uses a modified form of the Arabic script. However, the spoken language is highly similar, and many words are pronounced the same way. Examples: Hindi: तुम मुझे खुशी देते हो। (Tum mujhe khushi dete ho.) Urdu: تم مجھے خوشی دیتے ہو۔ (Tum mujhe khushi dete ho.) English: You make me happy Hindi: मुझे पढ़ना पसंद है। (Mujhe padhna pasand hai.) Urdu: مجھے پڑھنا پسند ہے۔ (Mujhe parhna pasand hai.) English: I like to read More Similar Language Pairs Want even more language pairs? While the language pairs below are not quite mutually intelligible, knowing one can help you learn the other: Gaelic and Irish: Gaelic and Irish are both part of the Celtic language family, specifically the Goidelic branch. Gaelic typically refers to Scottish Gaelic, which is spoken in Scotland, while Irish refers to the Irish language, spoken in Ireland. These languages share a common linguistic heritage and have similarities due to their shared Celtic origins. Japanese and Korean: Although they belong to different language families, Japanese and Korean have linguistic similarities like shared vocabulary and grammatical concepts due to historical and cultural interactions. Japanese and Ryukyuan languages: Ryukyuan languages, including Okinawan, have historical ties to Japanese and share certain linguistic elements. While not mutually intelligible, knowing Japanese can provide some insight into Ryukyuan languages. Arabic and Persian: Arabic and Persian belong to different language families but have had extensive cultural interactions. As a result, they share some vocabulary and linguistic features. Finnish and Estonian: These Uralic languages share linguistic roots, although they have evolved separately. Some vocabulary and grammatical patterns are similar. Malay and Indonesian: These Austronesian languages share a high degree of mutual intelligibility due to their common origin. While differences exist, speakers of one can often understand the other. Swahili and Zulu: These Bantu languages share certain linguistic features and vocabulary due to their common Bantu roots. Thai and Lao: Thai and Lao are closely related Tai-Kadai languages. While not mutually intelligible, they do share some vocabulary and grammar concepts. Why is it Useful to Be Aware of Similar Languages? One reason it’s useful to be aware of similar languages is because you may actually be able to understand one language by speaking another. You might even be able to do some language exchange right off the bat without knowing much about the similar language. Additionally, you may have an easier time learning a similar language once you know its cousin. Since similar languages often share some grammar rules and vocabulary, you may already know key details, so it’s like getting a running start on the road to fluency. Finally, being aware of similar languages will help you understand more about the roots of the language. Languages are traditionally similar because they stem from the same root language. Therefore, if you learn two languages from the same linguistic family, you can see how the original language influenced its descendants. That’ll give you valuable insights into the ones you’re learning. While they may seem similar, each language is still unique and worth learning. If you pair a similar language with your target language, though, it’ll make learning them so much easier than learning two unrelated languages!
4519	dbpedia	3	5	https://www.scotthyoung.com/blog/myprojects/the-year-without-english-2/	en	The Year Without English	https://www.scotthyoung.…9/05/favicon.png	https://www.scotthyoung.…9/05/favicon.png	[ "https://www.scotthyoung.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/gbaa-mockup-small.png", "https://www.scotthyoung.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/dynamik-gen/theme/images/blog_footer_img.jpg" ]	[ "https://www.youtube.com/embed/vPnHJ1OoK5o?feature=oembed", "https://www.youtube.com/embed/G1RRbupCxi0?feature=oembed", "https://www.youtube.com/embed/3oPIDXKf-Bw?feature=oembed", "https://www.youtube.com/embed/J4ZSsKLv2fk?feature=oembed", "https://www.youtube.com/embed/UqavSdojM4E?feature=oembed", "https://www.youtube.com/embed/0pfwyaO3ep4?feature=oembed", "https://www.youtube.com/embed/6UFU_i5KWAQ?feature=oembed", "https://www.youtube.com/embed/-485Kdr2Ltc?feature=oembed", "https://www.youtube.com/embed/x3LaXVZPfoU?feature=oembed", "https://www.youtube.com/embed/78BYEKr97TM?feature=oembed", "https://www.youtube.com/embed/Fpa0USCqJGY?feature=oembed" ]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	2015-03-23T17:35:06+00:00	In 2014, I went with Vat Jaiswal on a trip to learn languages around the world. We traveled for just under one year, learning Spanish in Spain, Portuguese in Brazil, Mandarin Chinese in China and Taiwan and Korean in South Korea. For each language we had minimal preparation and aimed to learn with one rule: don't speak in English! See the progress we made for each language in just three months each, as well as Vat's stunning videography from each country.	en	https://www.scotthyoung.…9/05/favicon.png	Scott H Young	https://www.scotthyoung.com/blog/myprojects/the-year-without-english-2/	Hey, if you’re reading this now, the project is finished. Vat and I left Seoul, South Korea on August 27th, 2014 and concluded just over a year of travel. I’ve written an in-depth summary evaluating the successes and stumbles of the trip, but for a quick version: Did we go the whole year without speaking English? No. But we did get pretty close to no English in Spain and Brazil. China and Korea were more mixed. Can we speak all four of the languages? Yes. We’re in an intermediate level in all four. Spanish is my best and Korean is my worst. Vat’s best is also Spanish and his worst is Chinese. See our TEDx Talk about the project here: I want to announce my next learning project, The Year Without English. The challenge is to live in four countries, learn four languages and attempt to speak zero English for an entire year. Along this trip I’m going to be accompanied by my good friend, Vat Jaiswal. Vat is also going to be learning all four languages, under the same constraint of not speaking English, even though he has never learned foreign language as an adult. Together, we want to show an honest record of what the process of full immersion is like. Excitement and burnout, triumphs and embarrassing slip ups, we want to share the experience of what it is like to abandon speaking the language you’re most comfortable with and attempt to learn something strange and new. The Languages We want to document the trip in two principle ways. First, we want to record a daily sample of our actual conversations from that day. Second, when each leg of our trip is complete, we want to compile it into a short video which will have an audio timelapse, drawn from our daily audio logs, so anyone can watch whatever progress we made along the way. Here are the four countries with the language we’ll be attempting to learn in each. We’ll update each of these below with our audio logs and the video, once complete. 1. Spain (Valencia) – Spanish To get a longer assessment of our level of Spanish when we left, see this interview we did with Benny Lewis of FluentInThreeMonths: In Spain, we also recorded near-daily conversations, so you can pop in and check our Spanish level as it actually progressed. 2. Brazil (Florianopolis) – Portuguese To get a longer assessment of our level of Portuguese when we left, see this interview we did with Portuguese professor, Renata Luis: Once again, in Brazil, we recorded frequent conversations on SoundCloud so you can see our progress. 3. Kunming, Shanghai (China) and Taipei (Taiwan) – Mandarin Chinese I have two interviews, one with Olle Linge of Hacking Chinese recorded at the 3.5 month mark and another with John Pasden of Sinosplice recorded at the 3 month point. In China we recorded daily conversations for the first half of our project. Unfortunately, I had my cellphone stolen and our schedules made further recordings quite cumbersome, so we stopped the daily recordings at around the halfway point. 4. South Korea (Seoul) – Korean After three countries, with three videos all done in the same style, Vat and I opted for something a little different. Check it out in the above video! Project FAQ Q: Will you really speak zero English on this trip? We really are trying to go without speaking English, but full avoidance is impossible. For one, my business often requires me to get on the phone and speak to someone. Second, my mother would probably kill me if I didn’t speak to her for an entire year. So we have a small list of exceptions: Anything absolutely necessary for work. Calling family members. Emergencies (like dealing with customs officials or police officers) In all I hope that the combination of #1 and #2 will be less than an hour per week of speaking in English. Everything else—any conversations we have with each other, friends we make, etc. will be done in the language of the country we’re in. Keep in mind the rule is no speaking English. Although I’ll want to communicate with people I meet in the written form of the language I use to speak with them, I’m (of course) going to continue blogging, answering emails and posting written updates in English. My goal is to keep my blog updated the same way I did during the MIT Challenge, which had a minimal time commitment. Note: The rule was only a partial success on the trip. In Spain and Brazil, Vat and I were successful at avoiding speaking English expect for a few emergencies. In China and Korea, we did break the rule occasionally, on account of these languages being harder and fatigue from the trip itself. Q: How much preparation did you do in each language prior to going? When I asked my good friend, Benny Lewis, himself a language learning veteran, for advice on the project his first thought was: learn as much as you can before you get to each country. Our goal was to show it was possible to learn without extensive preparation, but we still wanted to have the basics so our no-English rule could be feasibly upheld from the first day. In total, we had about seven months to prepare for all four languages. My (Scott’s) total preparation was less than an hour per day. Vat’s was roughly 15 minutes per day, over the same time period. Here is a breakdown of the practice we did for each language, prior to arrival: Scott Vat Spanish Anki = 27 hours Pimsleur = 25 hours Tutoring = 4 hours Total = 56 hours Anki = 2 hours Pimsleur = 25 hours Tutoring = 4 hours Total = 31 hours Portuguese Total = 0 hours Total = 0 hours Mandarin Chinese Anki = 70 hours Pimsleur = 25 hours Tutoring = 10 hours Total = 105 hours Pimsleur = 25 hours Total = 25 hours Korean Anki = 16 hours Pimsleur = 15 hours TalkToMeInKorean = 15 hours Tutoring = 7 hours Total = 53 hours Pimsleur = 10 hours Total = 10 hours Q: How are you paying for this? You guys must be rich. Most people grossly overestimate the cost of a trip like this. Living in a single place for three months is far cheaper than staying in hotels and doing the things people typically associate with tourism. My first time I lived abroad for a year, I earned less than $12,000 that year and didn’t have any debt when I left. I will continue running my business online and I’ve hired Vat to help me edit the videos for the project. This means the only major expenses are plane tickets and any activities we want to do in each country, which we wouldn’t normally do back home. Q: What level do you plan to reach in each language? I have no idea. In each country, my aspiration is to reach comfortable conversational fluency. But that may not happen. Especially in Mandarin and Korean which have a larger culture and linguistic distance from English. Instead, we wanted to focus the project on the method of not speaking English, and see how far we can go. Whatever happens, I’m sure it will be an interesting ride! Q: What language learning resources do you recommend? Benny Lewis’s website, Fluent in Three Months, was a big inspiration for this project. Benny shared a lot of advice with me in starting this project, so I strongly recommend his website to anyone who is interested in learning a language conversationally. For actually learning the languages, the three programs I found most useful, across all languages, were Pimsleur, iTalki and Anki. Pimsleur is a bit expensive, but it’s worth it. iTalki is a way of getting inexpensive tutoring online. Anki is free, and is one of the most popular tools for learning languages. As we go to each country, I’ll list the resources we found particular helpful in each country. Q: Why four languages? Why not learn one language really well? Part of it was the excitement to see if it could be done. I had learned French in one year, even if less efficiently than I had hoped. This challenge is something I’m not sure whether I can succeed at, which makes it more interesting. Another reason is to get a taste of four very different cultures, side-by-side. I’m hoping seeing the differences between them at the same stage in my life, will make the cultural differences more distinct and I can appreciate them better. Finally, I see this, not as an end, but as a beginning for each of these languages. We picked these languages because they would afford us an opportunity to practice them all when we got back to Vancouver. I hope that even if I don’t reach a high degree of fluency, they are languages I will continue to improve the rest of my life. Q: Why did you pick those languages? With difficulty! Vat and I spent months debating about which countries we were going to go to. In the end, we opted for a mix of geographic diversity, cultural diversity, linguistic prevalence in Canada and simply which countries we wanted to visit most. The four weren’t selected to be the hardest possible four languages to learn, or the four with the least inter-similarities (Portuguese and Spanish are quite similar in comparison with English). Other close candidates we had a hard time deciding between were Japanese, German, Turkish and Polish. Narrowing down a world of possibilities to just four was hard work! Q: Why Taiwan instead of mainland China? EDIT: Originally we were going to go to Taiwan, however Vat had visa problems staying in Taiwan for over 30 days! This was completely unexpected (we only learned later they wouldn’t offer a 90-day visa for him) so we opted to return to Canada for one week to process visas for China. It broke the strictness of not speaking English for a year, but we were able to salvage this leg of the trip. In China, we lived in Kunming and Shanghai. We did go to Taiwan for a short breather between China and Korea for three weeks.
4519	dbpedia	0	25	https://idioms.thefreedictionary.com/two-bit	en	two-bit	http://img.tfd.com/TFDlogo1200x1200.png	http://img.tfd.com/TFDlogo1200x1200.png	[]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	Definition of two-bit in the Idioms Dictionary. two-bit phrase. What does two-bit expression mean? Definitions by the largest Idiom Dictionary.		https://img.tfd.com/favicon.ico	TheFreeDictionary.com	https://idioms.thefreedictionary.com/two-bit	Far from being a "two-bit" entity, once again Plaid will be in a position to make sensible gains for Wales - notably to get us a fairer share of Westminster funding. "Plaid is just a two-bit player in this national context and I think people will understand that." All we are interested in,apparently,are two-bit telly actors,``love rat'' theatre stars and troubled sportsmen. As far as I can tell, the greatest downside of the computing and communications revolution is that every two-bit, weasely politician and mediocre educational bureaucrat in the world has read Peter Drucker. ("The 'Gate-less Community," July/August) Those good ol' boys--awash in oil, money, graft, and slick bookkeeping--are turning out to be more crooked than the crookedest two-bit Texan card shark. The answer is deceptively obvious: In the war on terror, the American people don't need the help of two-bit felons. It looks cheap and boxy, like an in-house magazine from some two-bit business concern. Even as the Reagan-Bush administration promised to minimize the scope and size of the federal government, it waged a gratuitous, invasive, multi-front campaign against pleasure-seeking: It reinvigorated the War on Drugs, pushing through grotesquely draconian laws that have helped create a national drug-gulag system the envy of every two-bit dictatorship. In 16 years, ad agency Saatchi and Saatchi grew from a two-bit company to a billion pound global business. With a bravado that would shame a two-bit con artist, ministers say they have acted to stop the Chinese from dumping cheap imports. Had he been a two-bit crook, he would almost certainly be behind bars. STRICTLY Come Dancing judge Craig Revel Horwood says that former EastEnders star Patsy Palmer is just a " scrubber in a Puffa jacket" and that he shouldn't have to defend his decisions to a "two-bit actress from a second-rate soap". Ray Mallon was criticised for dragging politics into the gutter after calling opponents of a regional assembly "two-bit Conservatives" when he hit the streets of Durham yesterday. It's an engaging read, though some of the two-bit moralising is a bit intrusive.
4519	dbpedia	3	27	https://kids.britannica.com/students/article/language/275372	en	language	https://kids.britannica.…-07-14-17-A2.jpg	https://kids.britannica.…-07-14-17-A2.jpg	[ "https://www.facebook.com/tr?id=160638381132823&ev=PageView&noscript=1", "https://pubads.g.doubleclick.net/activity;dc_iu=/15510053/DFPAudiencePixel;ord=1;dc_seg=806891421", "https://kids.britannica.com/resources/img/BkidsLogoDesktop.png", "https://kids.britannica.com/resources/img/BkidsLogoTruncated.png", "https://cdn.britannica.com/91/1491-004-6581ECB0.jpg?w=300&h=300&q=85", "https://cdn.britannica.com/96/96196-004-2539B3E8.jpg?w=300&h=300&q=85", "https://kids.britannica.com/resources/img/tour/icon-inspire.png", "https://kids.britannica.com/resources/img/tour/icon-inform.png", "https://kids.britannica.com/resources/img/tour/icon-educate.png", "https://kids.britannica.com/resources/img/tour/icon-subscribe-yellow.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "language", "encyclopedia", "encyclopaedia", "article" ]	null	[]	null	There is a sea of language around us. From that sea comes a constant flow of messages in Brooklynese and Basque, teenybop and Tibetan. And all those messages are wrapped in…	en	/resources/icons/favicons/bkids/bkids-favicon-57c.png	Britannica Kids	https://kids.britannica.com/students/article/language/275372	The Sounds of Language Sounds are what language comes wrapped in. But not all sounds made by people are language. For example, people can’t say a sneeze. Or a burp. Burps and sneezes are sounds they can’t usually help. The sounds of language are those people want to make. They are sounds that carry a message. Bits of Sound There are strings of sound called sentences, strings of sound called words, strings of sound called syllables. Syllables are strings of vowel and consonant sounds. And the smallest bits of sound people recognize are vowels and consonants. But even vowels and consonants are strings of smaller sounds. Strictly speaking, no two language sounds are ever the same. But a person learns to ignore some differences between sounds, depending on his language. To a speaker of English, the sounds of p in pot and spot are alike. Actually, the first p is followed by a small puff of air. The second p isn’t. But whether or not the p is puffed, the meanings of pot and spot do not change. So in English, no one pays attention to the difference. In other languages, however—Northern Chinese, for instance—a puffed p may change the meaning of a word. So speakers of Northern Chinese learn to hear the difference. English has one p sound. Northern Chinese has two—a puffed p and an unpuffed one. Such classes of sounds are called phonemes. A phoneme is the smallest bit of sound that may change meaning. Most often phonemes are vowels or consonants. Phonemes combine in patterns. And these patterns vary from language to language. In Spanish, for instance, the sp combination never begins a word. But many words in English begin with sp. So an English word like Spanish is difficult for a Spanish speaker to pronounce. Often a Spanish speaker will say Espanish. In English the sound ng comes only at the end of a syllable—ring, ringer, ringworm. But in some languages of Africa, ng may begin a syllable as well as end a syllable. The last name of Kenyan novelist James Ngugi is an example. Strings of Sound Most phonemes have no meaning. But they form strings of sound that do. The smallest string of sound with meaning is called a morpheme. A morpheme can be what we call a word, or it can be a piece of a word. Take eater, in English. Eat is a morpheme—it can’t be broken down into anything smaller with meaning. The other morpheme is -er, meaning “someone who --s.” In eaters, there is still a third morpheme, -s, meaning “plural” or “more than one.” The Trouble with Words If eater is a word, eat is a piece of that word. But in anteater, eater is only a piece of a word. Of course, eater can be used as a word in English. So can eat and ant. So on that basis they might be called words. This would set them apart from morphemes like -er and -s, which are commonly used only as pieces of words. All languages have what might be called words. But the nature of a word varies from language to language. For instance take Chukchi, a language spoken in Siberia. In Chukchi, the-big-reindeer-a-person-has-killed is one unit, one word. It can’t be broken up into smaller units the way it would be in English. There are many such words in Chukchi, Inuit, and other languages. In Northern Chinese, on the other hand, many syllables—and even parts of syllables—are what might be called words in English. Boundaries between words may shift or disappear in actual speech. In English, for instance, found it often comes out foun dit; don’t know becomes dunno; and so on. This is one of the things that makes it hard for people learning a second language to understand speakers of that language. Spoken Signals The sounds of language include spoken signals. The voice rises and falls. It stresses some sounds. And it pauses between some sounds. Such spoken signals may change meaning. In English, stress makes a difference between con′ tract and con tract′. A pause makes a difference between careless and care less. And pitch—the rise and fall of the voice—makes a difference between “Really?” and “Really.” In languages such as English, pitch is added in a sentence. And it belongs to a place in the sentence, not to a word. Compare “Really?”; “Truly?”; “Honest?” The rising pitch goes with a certain place in that type of sentence. It doesn’t matter what the word is. In fact the same words will take different pitches in other sentences. But in some languages, called tone languages, certain pitches belong to certain words. In Northern Chinese, for instance, chyan spoken in a level tone means “thousand.” In a rising tone it means “money”; in a dipping tone, “shallow”; in a falling tone, “owe.” In such languages, the same pitches and the same words always go together. The Meaning of Language Language is, above all, meaning. Meanings are attached to pieces of words, to words, or to groups of words. Meanings are attached to the spoken signals of language. Meanings are attached to the shifts and changes of grammar. Meaning and No Meaning The sounds of words have no meaning to begin with. People attach a meaning to them. Every day someone thinks up a new word. Or someone uses an old word in a new way. Someone might suddenly say, “Hey, that’s like zonko, you know? Boy, that’s totally zonko!” If no one pays much attention, that’s the end of zonko. But maybe friends and other people begin to use the word, too—“Wow! Zonko!” Then another word has been born. Meaning More or Less Some words have more of what might be called outside meaning than others. Orange, for instance, means “a reddish-yellow color, a fruit,” etc. But it also means tigers and sunsets and excitement—meanings outside the dictionary definitions. Words like the, and, to have little outside meaning. They are sometimes called function words (see grammar). Much-repeated words may mean less after a while. Clichés are an example. A cliché is an expression that loses its punch through overuse. Used sparingly, “That’s really great!” may get a listener’s special attention. If it’s used too often, however, it does not mean much to most listeners. Common expressions of courtesy often lose meaning. Chances are that a casual acquaintance who asks “How are you?” doesn’t really want to know. Same and Different Meaning Few words have exactly the same meaning. Not only are the Burmese and Arabic words for “house” different, they mean different things to a Burmese villager and a desert Arab. Return and take back are much alike in English. But like all synonyms they do not always mean the same. There’s a world of difference between “We took Ralphie back to the monkey house” and “We returned Ralphie to the monkey house.” But in practice, speakers accept certain words as more or less the same. This helps them communicate more easily. The same word often has different meanings, depending on how it’s used with other words. In English, go can mean “leave,” as in the phrase “Please don’t go”; “work,” as in “My watch won’t go”; and “reach,” as in “It doesn’t go far enough.” Homonyms, or homophones, like bear and bare are more or less the same word to a listener. It’s how they’re used with other words that gives them different meanings. Not only do the same words have different meanings; the same groups of words often do. “She drove into the bank this morning” is an example. Was it a drive-in bank? Or did she zig when she should have zagged? Or what? The surrounding sentences will give clues to the meaning. A phrase or clause doesn’t always mean the same as its words. Idioms are an example. Another example is the way the words are spoken. “Oh, sure I will!” in a sarcastic tone means something very different from what the words say. Ways of Meaning A word commonly has different ways of meaning. What a word refers to is only one way it means. Thus, the word prunes refers to a food. But much of the meaning of words has to do with the speaker’s attitude. So the meaning of prunes depends also on how the speaker feels about them. The word has a pleasant meaning if the speaker likes them, an unpleasant meaning if he or she doesn’t. The meaning a word refers to is its denotation. What a word suggests because of the speaker’s or listener’s attitude is its connotation. Languages have different ways of separating meaning. The Inuit language has separate words for falling snow and snow on the ground, while English uses only one word for both—snow. Shona, a language of Zimbabwe, has three words for all the colors. One word means “red, purple, orange.” Another means “white, yellow, green.” Social Meaning People don’t usually talk to themselves. They talk to other people. And their talk has social meaning. Only part of the social meaning of a conversation is carried by words. Take saying hello or talking about the weather. Often such talk has little dictionary meaning. It is a way of being friendly or polite. Choice of language often has social meaning. An informal “Yeah” in the neighborhood carries a relaxed meaning. Often it is replaced by a formal “Yes” in a classroom or at a job interview. Spanish-speaking Americans often switch from Spanish at home to English in the classroom. The same principle applies to other bilingual students. Use of special work words may mean a speaker is an architect or plumber or foundry worker. In many countries, the words a speaker uses label him a member of the upper or lower classes. Swear words have social meaning. So do expressions using God’s name in vain. The same goes for conversation about such things as using the toilet. Usually these are no-no’s, and they have that meaning attached to them. Grammatical Meaning Some meanings attach to words. These are dictionary meanings. And some meanings, called grammatical meanings, attach to the signals of grammar. The form a word takes may have grammatical meaning. In English, -s or -es added to a noun means “plural” or “more than one.” A mashita ending on a Japanese verb means “past tense.” Word order may have grammatical meaning. Take the English sentence “Mary bit John.” In English, the common order for statements is subject-verb-direct object. So Mary means “subject,” and John means “direct object.” It’s Mary who does the biting, John who gets bitten. Function words have grammatical meaning. In English, the or a means that a noun is coming up. Quién (who) at the beginning of a Spanish sentence means that the sentence is a question. Spoken signals can have dictionary meaning. Pitch in the words of tone languages is an example. But spoken signals can also have grammatical meaning. In English, for example, stress on sus- in suspect signals that the word is a noun. Stress on -spect, on the other hand, means “verb.” At the end of a clause, a drop in pitch with a fading into silence commonly means “statement.” The Trouble with Translation The words of one language seldom mean the same as the words of another. Take the Russian “Ja govorila.” It can be translated into English as “I said.” But the meanings are not exactly the same. The verb govorila tells a Russian speaker that “I” is a female, and that “I” spoke more than once or hadn’t finished speaking. Neither of these meanings is carried by the English words. In some cases, the same word may not have the same meaning in two different languages. English borrowed the word sputnik from Russian. It means “artificial satellite.” But in Russian, the word also means “fellow-traveler” and “guide.” So sputnik in English does not mean the same as sputnik in Russian. A translation, at best, conveys something similar to the original language. It tries to transfer meanings from one language to another. But different words and different mechanics of language must be used. Take the Japanese “Musukosan wa hebi wo tabemashita.” Word by word this reads, “Your son + wa + snake + wo + ate.” But that’s not a translation. Wa and wo have no dictionary meaning, only grammatical meaning—wa comes after a subject, wo after a direct object. So wa and wo are dropped in translation. This leaves us with the translated phrase, “Your son snake ate.” But in English the direct object (snake) should follow the verb (ate). So the words must be switched around to read “Your son ate snake.” That’s still not comfortable English, though. Japanese has no word for a, so it must be added. The result is “Your son ate a snake.” But even that doesn’t carry over all the meanings of the original Japanese phrase. Musukosan, for instance, has a meaning of respect that is missing in the English your son. Just the same, it’s a good translation. And it is important to note that a Japanese speaker trying to translate “Your son ate a snake” from English into Japanese faces the same problems in reverse. A translation doesn’t usually take the same form as the original. Sometimes a noun can be translated by a noun, and a phrase can be translated by a phrase. But it doesn’t work that way very often. The German phrase “Guten Tag” means “Good day,” but it’s better translated as “Hello”—people don’t usually say “Good day” in English. The French phrase s’il vous plaît (if it pleases you) is better translated in English as please. As we can see, the idea of only one correct translation leads to problems. For instance, the Italian “La casa è a Sua disposizione” can be translated as “The house is at your disposal” or perhaps as “Make yourself at home.” It is both a matter of choice and a matter of style. Much depends on the circumstances—for example, whether the words were used in a formal or informal way. When computers are used to translate material, the result is called machine translation. A computer can work much faster than a human in looking up a word. But the machines have many problems. They have trouble identifying the same sounds made by different people. Sometimes different sounds are spelled with the same letters. For example, compare the sounds of the s in cats and in dogs. Computers have trouble distinguishing those sounds. And computers have much trouble with meaning—words with different possible meanings, sentences with different possible meanings. A computer is only as good as the information put into it. And that’s the heart of the machine translation problem. No one has all the answers to how any language works. Kinds of Language People speak many kinds of language. There is the language of different places, and there is the language of different groups. Language and Dialect A speaker of Arabic and a speaker of Malay have different speech habits and don’t understand one another’s speech. A speaker from the Tennessee hills and a speaker from Chicago have different speech habits too. But they can pretty much understand each other. Arabic and Malay are called languages. Chicagoese and Tennessee mountainese are called dialects. A dialect is a variety of a language. The line between languages and dialects is not always clear. Dialects are sometimes called languages, and languages are sometimes called dialects. Northern Italians and Sicilians commonly do not understand each other’s speech. Yet both speak so-called dialects of Italian. Danish and Norwegian are called different languages. Yet Danes and Norwegians pretty well understand one another. A country’s boundaries can be marked on a map. But language boundaries can’t be readily distinguished—at least, not in the same way. A line between two languages would mean everyone on one side of the line spoke one language. It would also mean everyone on the other side of the line spoke another language. But language just doesn’t work that way. For one thing, some people use two or more languages. French and English are spoken by many Canadians, especially by those living in Quebec. Quite a few Swiss can speak both German and French. Many people of Paraguay are fluent in both Spanish and Guarani, an Amerindian language. Quite a number of Israelis understand Hebrew, Yiddish, and a European language, such as Russian. For another thing, languages have dialects. And often the dialects of one language merge into the dialects of a neighbor language. Take French and Italian. Anyone going from Paris to Naples can hear small language differences between each town and the next. At no point can a sharp line be drawn. Yet the French of Paris and the Italian of Naples are different languages. The Difference in Dialect Differences in speech habits are what make dialects. Speakers pronounce words differently. They use different words for the same thing. And they sometimes put words together in different ways. A London cockney will say ’arry for Harry, ’orrible for horrible. Hot dog, frankfurter, wiener, and red hot are all words for the same thing in the United States. “Goin’ git me some” and “I’m going to get some” are two ways of saying much the same thing. Each way of pronouncing words, of using words, is right for a particular dialect. No dialect is better or worse than another—only different. All Kinds of Dialects Strictly speaking, no two people have exactly the same dialect. Every speaker pronounces at least some words a little differently from everyone else. Probably no two persons know exactly the same set of words. Everyone puts his words together in his own ways. And to complicate matters, a person’s dialect is always changing. Just the same, there are patterns of dialect. People in certain neighborhoods, certain cities, certain regions speak a lot alike—even if there are some differences. Many New Yorkers have a way of speaking that sets them apart. The speech of most people from the Southern United States is also distinctive. American English is distinct from Australian English, which is distinct from the British English spoken in England. Such dialects, spoken by people of different places, might be called geographical dialects. Another type of dialect is the social dialect. Social dialects are spoken by people of different groups. In many countries, people in high society speak differently from working-class people. People who work together—astronauts, doctors, social workers, auto mechanics—often share special work words, a sort of shop talk. The language of older people often is not the same as that of the young. In many places one dialect has more social standing than the others. Often it becomes the language of government and is taught in the schools. Such a dialect is called a standard dialect. Take the dialect of Paris. Originally it was one of many dialects spoken in what is now France. As Paris became a center for government and culture, the Parisian dialect became relatively more important. Now it is the standard French dialect. All people have more than one dialect. Dialects depend on where people live, what groups they move with, their education, and so on. For instance, a Tokyo engineer from Kyoto might use his own Kyoto dialect at home but would speak the standard dialect of Tokyo while at work. His speech would differ in some ways from that of his wife. And it would differ from that of his teenage son. With other engineers he would use a kind of engineering shop talk. Such switching from one dialect to another is common. People also have more than one way of using their dialects. There is a relaxed way, such as the way one speaks with friends, for instance. And there is a formal way of talking, such as the way you would talk to a job interviewer. Standard Languages Language has no boundaries. Speakers of the same language may live in many countries. And every country has many languages. But often, one of the languages of a country is chosen as the standard language. And this is the language taught in the schools and used for official business. The standard language is used for easier communication. It is also used to unite the people of a country. In France, for instance, the standard language is French. But not all French people speak French. There are German speakers in Alsace-Lorraine, Breton speakers in Brittany, and Basque speakers in the Pyrenees mountains. In southern France the Provençal dialects are so different from standard French that they can be considered a separate language. Often a standard language does make communication easier. French is taught in all the schools of France, so most French people can get through to each other. For instance, a Basque speaker can use French to talk to a Breton speaker. A standard language can also help give speakers of different languages a feeling of oneness. An example is Modern Hebrew, the standard language of Israel. The trouble is, a standard language doesn’t always work the way it’s supposed to. There are no first-class or second-class languages. But because a standard language is the official language, it often has a higher social standing. And nonstandard languages are often considered less important, and may even be looked down upon. In such instances, nonstandard speakers learn the standard language only if they have to. And even then they resent it. The resentment may take the form of not learning it well—just enough to get by. Or they may simply refuse to learn it at all. Some countries have more than one standard language. Belgium uses French and Flemish. Canada uses French and English. Switzerland has three standard languages—French, Italian, and German. India has two standard languages—Hindi and English—but more than 20 ethnic languages are also widely spoken. Problems arise because one language is—or seems to be—more favored than another. In Belgium, Flemish speakers have protested the favored position of French. In India, many have protested the favored position of Hindi. Problems also arise because most people in most places use only one language. So unless all a country’s languages are taught in the schools, which usually isn’t practical, most people can’t understand speakers of another language. In some countries, an outside language is sometimes chosen as a standard language. Take Ghana. Its people speak perhaps 50 or more languages. So English was adopted as an official language. And it was used for teaching in the schools. Second Languages Most people speak only their first language—the language learned in the home. But many also learn a second language. There are several kinds of second languages. One kind is the language of the other speaker. When a Basque speaker uses French to talk to a French speaker, for instance, he or she is using the other speaker’s language. But sometimes speakers of different languages don’t use the language of the other speaker. They use a third language. Such a language is sometimes called a lingua franca. A speaker of Telugu from southern India and a speaker of Hindi from northern India may talk to each other in English. Then English is being used as a lingua franca. A Ukrainian speaker and a Sakha speaker from Siberia may use Russian as their common language. In that case, Russian is their lingua franca. Another kind of second language is a pidgin language. Pidgins are often used for brief contacts between people—between two traders, say. A pidgin is a sort of hybrid of both the speakers’ languages. But the vocabulary is greatly reduced. And the way words fit together is greatly simplified. The first known Pidgin English was used by English speakers and Native Americans. Russonorsk was a pidgin of Russian and Norwegian used by Russian and Norwegian fishermen for roughly a hundred years before World War I. A pidgin of Dutch and Malay, known as Bazaar Malay, was used in the Dutch East Indies. Bahasa Indonesia, the official language of Indonesia, is based on Bazaar Malay. Sometimes a pidgin becomes the first language of a group of speakers. When this happens, it becomes known as a creole language. In the Caribbean, African slaves from the same tribe were often separated. This was done to reduce the danger of revolt. So the slaves on a plantation had no common language. They could only talk to each other in a pidgin of their owner’s language—such as Pidgin French or Pidgin Spanish. In time the slaves married and had children. The children learned the pidgin as their only language. At that point, their language was a creole language. Gullah is a creole language. It is spoken on and near the Sea Islands off Georgia. Louisiana Creole is a French-based language. Another French-based creole is Haitian Creole, the language of Haiti. Speakers of Louisiana Creole and Haitian Creole commonly understand each other. Jamaican Creole is an English-based language of Jamaica. So-called Hawaiian Pidgin English is actually a creole language. It is the speech of a large number of people brought up in the Hawaiian Islands. Interlanguages The Old Testament tells of a time when there was one world language. It tells of how Nimrod ruined it all by building a tower to reach Heaven, and how the Lord made the workmen speak different languages. So the Tower of Babel was never finished. The idea of a world language, or interlanguage, is very old. Hundreds have been invented. But few have received much attention. The first one to become well known was Volapük. It was introduced by a Bavarian clergyman, Johann Martin Schleyer, in 1880. Schleyer based his language mostly on German and English, with many words also from languages like Latin—French, Italian, Spanish, and so on. The name Volapük meant “world speech.” Volapük was popular in Europe for a while, but it didn’t last. For one thing, some of its sounds were difficult for non-German speakers. The ü sound in Volapük is an example. For another thing, the way its words fit together was complicated. Volapük went out of use shortly after the invention of another—and simpler—interlanguage, Esperanto. Esperanto is probably the best-known interlanguage. It was introduced in 1887 by a Polish doctor, L.L. Zamenhof. The name Esperanto is based on a word for “hope.” Zamenhof felt that language was at the root of problems between people. He believed a world language would bring peace and understanding. Esperanto is based mostly on languages like French, Italian, and Spanish, with a number of words also from German and Greek. Both the sounds and the mechanics of the language are fairly simple—for most Europeans. Esperanto is used in many countries. Schools teach it, and books are published in Esperanto. The trouble with world languages is that in actuality, they’re not spoken worldwide. Mostly they are made for speakers of English, German, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, and a number of related languages. A speaker of Northern Chinese, for instance, would have as much trouble with Esperanto as with French or German. The same is true of a speaker of Inuit or a speaker of Tamil, a language of southern India. Esperanto ignores the sounds and mechanics and meanings of most of the world’s languages. Another problem with world languages has to do with language change. Suppose Esperanto, say, were adopted as a world language. It would soon be spoken in many different dialects. For one thing, people have different speech habits. For another thing, language is always changing. Dialects of people far apart would become more and more different. This would be especially true of people in remote places, people having little or no contact with speakers of other dialects. It would probably also be especially true of people who felt that Esperanto was not “their” language, that it represented the languages of other people. Given time enough, resistance or resentment enough, and separation enough, speakers of different dialects would no longer be able to understand one another. And a new interlanguage would have to be invented all over again. Related Languages Languages have dialects. And some of those dialects grow so far apart that they become languages. And the new languages separate into dialects. And some of those become languages. Such related languages are called a language family. Indo-European The family to which English belongs is the Indo-European family. It consists of many groups of languages. The Germanic, or Teutonic, group includes the Scandinavian languages—Danish, Norwegian, Swedish, and Icelandic. German is commonly divided into High German and Low German. High German includes the dialects of southern Germany, the dialects of Austria, and the German dialects of Switzerland. Dutch, Flemish (spoken in Belgium), and the dialects of northern Germany make up Low German. Afrikaans, an offshoot of Dutch, is spoken in South Africa. English, which is also a Germanic language, is closely related to Dutch. But even closer to English is Frisian, spoken mostly in the northern Netherlands. Yiddish, a language of the Jewish people, is for the most part a High German of the Middle Ages. The Romance group of languages descended from Latin. After the Roman Empire fell apart, the Latin dialects of the different regions grew farther and farther apart. Best known of the Romance languages are French, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, and Romanian. Provençal, a name for the dialects of southern France, is sometimes considered a separate language. Catalan is spoken mostly in eastern Spain. Romansh is spoken in Switzerland. The Balto-Slavic group consists of the Baltic languages and the Slavic languages. Lithuanian and Latvian (or Lettish) are Baltic languages. The Slavic languages include Russian, spoken in Russia; Ukrainian, spoken in Ukraine; and Belarusian (or White Russian), spoken in Belarus. Czech and Slovak, spoken in the Czech Republic and Slovakia, are closely related. Indeed they might be called varieties of the same language. Serbo-Croatian is one language written in two alphabets—Croatian in Roman letters, Serbian in the Cyrillic alphabet. It is spoken chiefly in Serbia, Croatia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina. Other Slavic languages include Polish and Bulgarian. (See also writing.) The Celtic group of languages, once spoken over a large territory, today is used only in the British Isles and northwestern France. The number of speakers is small. Irish Gaelic and Scottish Gaelic are Celtic languages. Welsh, spoken in Wales, and Breton, a language of Brittany in northwestern France, form another branch of Celtic. The Indo-Iranian group consists of Indic languages and Iranian languages. Persian (or Farsi) is an Iranian language. So are Pashto (or Pushtu), spoken in Afghanistan and Pakistan; and Kurdish, spoken in Kurdistan. Balochi, spoken mostly in Pakistan and Iran, also is an Iranian language. Sanskrit is an Indic language. It is the oldest living Indo-European language, and is now used chiefly as the sacred language of Hinduism. Hindi, the leading language of northern India, and Urdu, the national language of Pakistan, are also Indic languages. Both Hindi and Urdu are varieties of the same language. But Urdu has more Persian and Arabic words and is written with a different alphabet. Other Indic languages include Bengali, Panjabi, Gujarati, Marathi, Rajasthani, Bihari, Kashmiri, Oriya, Sindhi, Assamese, and Nepali. Sinhalese, spoken in Sri Lanka, is also an Indic language. And so is the Romany language of the Rom people, a group formerly referred to as Gypsies. Greek belongs in a separate language group within the Indo-European family. The same is true of Armenian and of Albanian. An Indo-European language called Tocharian was once spoken in what is now Xinjiang, China. The language of the Hittites, a people who inhabited Anatolia in ancient times, was also Indo-European. Uralic The Uralic language family has two main groups: Finno-Ugric and Samoyed. Of the Finno-Ugric group, the best-known Ugric language is Hungarian (called Magyar in the language itself). Finnish, Estonian, and Lapp are the best-known Finnic languages. Sami, or Lapp, is the language of the Sami people of Lapland and is spoken mostly in Norway, Sweden, and Finland. Two other Finnic languages, Mordvin and Cheremis, are spoken in Russia. The Samoyed languages are spoken in Siberia. Altaic The Altaic family is commonly divided into three main groups: Turkic, Mongolian, and Manchu-Tungus (or Manchurian). Turkish is the best-known Turkic language. Other Turkic languages include Azerbaijanian, spoken in Azerbaijan; Uzbek, spoken in Uzbekistan; Kazakh, spoken in Kazakhstan; Tatar, spoken in Russia; Kyrgyz, spoken in Kyrgyzstan; and Turkmen, spoken in Turkmenistan. Azerbaijanian is also spoken in Iran. Another Turkic language, spoken mostly in what is now Xinjiang, China, is Uighur. Sakha, spoken in Siberia, is also a Turkic language. The Mongolian group of languages is spoken in Mongolia and China. The Manchu-Tungus group of languages is spoken in Manchuria and Siberia. Sino-Tibetan The Sino-Tibetan family has many groups of languages. Of these, the best known is the group called Chinese. Chinese has about half a dozen main dialects, so-called. But they are, for practical purposes, separate languages. They are very different—in sounds and vocabulary mostly. And the speakers of one dialect cannot understand the speakers of another. Northern Chinese (or Mandarin) is considered the standard language of China. Other Chinese languages include Wu, Min (or Fukienese), Hakka, and Cantonese (or Yue). Most Chinese in Taiwan speak Min. Cantonese is used by most of the Chinese speakers in the United States. Tibetan and Burmese also belong to the Sino-Tibetan family. Sometimes they are considered one group, sometimes two. Another group includes Thai and Lao. Thai is spoken in Thailand mostly, Lao mostly in Laos. The Miao-Yao languages are sometimes considered Sino-Tibetan. They are spoken by tribespeople in southwest China, northern Myanmar, and Indochina. Austronesian The Austronesian, or Malayo-Polynesian, family is spoken from Madagascar, off the coast of Africa, to Hawaii. One of its best-known languages is Malay. The standard languages of Malaysia and Indonesia are varieties of Malay. Tagalog, Visayan, and Ilocano, all spoken in the Philippines, also belong to this family. So does Malagasy, a language spoken on the island of Madagascar. Māori, spoken in New Zealand, is an Austronesian language. And related languages are spoken in many of the South Sea Islands. These include Fiji in the Fiji Islands, Samoan in the Samoan Islands, Tahitian in the Society Islands, and Hawaiian in the Hawaiian Islands. Congo-Kordofanian The Congo-Kordofanian family has two main groups: the Niger-Congo and the Kordofanian. The Kordofanian languages are spoken in the Sudan. The Niger-Congo languages are spoken over a great part of central and southern Africa. Well-known languages of the Niger-Congo group include Ibo, Yoruba, and Efik, spoken in Nigeria. Fulani (or Fula) is spoken mostly in Nigeria and Guinea; Mandingo mostly in Mali, Côte d’Ivoire, and Guinea. Twi has many speakers in Ghana. Mossi, Wolof, Ewe, and Tiv also are Niger-Congo languages. The numerous Bantu languages are only one branch of one division of the Niger-Congo group. A few better-known Bantu languages are Swahili, Rwanda and Rundi, Sotho and Tswana, Ganda, Kongo, Kikuyu, Xhosa, Zulu, Swazi, and Shona. Afroasiatic The Afroasiatic family is divided into four main groups. The best known is Semitic. Arabic, with its many dialects, is the most widely used Semitic language. It is spoken in many countries of the Middle East and North Africa. Modern Hebrew, the standard language of Israel, is also a Semitic language. So is Amharic, the standard language of Ethiopia. The other groups of Afroasiatic are Berber, Cushitic, and Chadic. The Berber languages are spoken in North Africa. The Cushitic languages are spoken over a wide area in East Africa. Somali is the best-known Cushitic language. Hausa, the best-known Chadic language, is widely spoken in West Africa. (See also African languages.) Other language families The Dravidian family of languages is spoken mostly in southern India. They include Telugu, Tamil, Kanarese (or Kannada), and Malaya-lam. Tamil is also spoken in Sri Lanka. Brahui, a Dravidian language, is used in Pakistan and Iran. The Munda family consists of a few languages in central India. The Mon-Khmer family is spoken in Southeast Asia. Its best-known language is Cambodian, or Khmer, spoken in Cambodia. Most Mon speakers live in Myanmar and Thailand. Among the better-known languages of the Nilo-Saharan family are Kanuri, Dinka, Luo, and Masai. Kanuri is spoken in Nigeria and Niger, Dinka and Luo in Kenya, Masai in Tanzania. The Khoisan family of languages is spoken mostly in South Africa by the Khoikhoi and San peoples. These languages, including Nama and !Khung, use special click sounds. Some of these sounds have spread to nearby Bantu languages like Zulu, Sotho, and Xhosa. Japanese seems to be the only member of its family. The same is true of Korean and also of Vietnamese. Basque is spoken mostly in the Pyrenees mountains region of France and Spain. It has no ties with any other language. Another language without ties is Burushaski. It is spoken in and around Hunza, in the Karakoram mountains of Kashmir. Andamanese, spoken by a handful of people in the Andaman Islands, has no known relatives. Neither has Ainu, once the language of a non-Japanese people of northern Japan. The Ainu people survive, but only a few words of their language are still used in communication today. About 25 or so languages spoken in the Caucasus Mountains have no known relatives. Some of them seem to be related, but the language picture there as a whole is not clear. Among the better known of these languages are Circassian and Georgian. How the languages spoken in Australia are related also is not known. The same is true of most languages of Papua New Guinea. Sometimes they are divided into two groups, a northern group and a southern. A few languages of Siberia do not belong to families elsewhere. These are sometimes called Paleosiberian languages. Some of these are related. But it is not certain that all are. Probably the most numerous group, the Chukchi group, includes Chukchi and Koryak. The American Indian languages in North and South America are sometimes called Amerindian languages. Like the Paleosiberian languages, they are not clearly understood. Some Amerindian languages are related—Inuit and Aleut, for instance. And most seem to fit into families such as Iroquoian or Siouan. But many do not. Language Through Language: Guidelines for a Model Second-Language Program No language is hard for children.They pick up any language easily and naturally—by listening and talking. But that ability soon fades. And thenthey must learn a new language through the onethey already have. And that’s where the second-language teacher comes in. The following are some guidelines for a model second-language program. 1. Sounds are first. Students concentrate on listening and speaking, especially to begin with. 2. Students get lots of practice in listening—to the teacher, to records and tapes, and so on. Then they imitate. They try to hear groups of words, not just one word at a time. 3. Students get lots of practice in speaking, too. Everyone gets to do some talking every period, especially slow learners. And the students do most of the talking—the teacher already knows the language. 4. Learning a new language is hard. Students are told—slow learners especially—not to worry about making mistakes, that everybody makes them. 5. The teacher explains about the new language when necessary. But mostly students practice using the language to help them understand how it works. 6. Students get drill. They need it to break old language habits and form new ones. But the teacher doesn’t overdo drill and tries to make it interesting. 7. Students don’t translate from the new language to English. That builds the wrong skill—making sentences in English. And they go easy on translating from English. Instead they concentrate on thinking in and using the new language. 8. Students are surrounded with second language. As much as possible, the teacher teaches in it. 9. Students practice in lifelike situations—asking directions, ordering a meal, shopping, and so on. That way, they get to feel the new language is as alive as their own. And they get to understand about varieties of language. 10. Students learn the body talk that goes along with language. They watch live speakers. Or they see films and videotapes. Then they practice using language and body talk together. 11. Class time is used for live language interchange—between teacher and student, between student and student. Outside time is set aside for language lab work, for practice work of various kinds. 12. Many kinds of materials are used—no one kind works best with all students. Practice materials are available for use outside of class. 13. Students use the hardware of second-language learning—a language lab, tape recorders, records, and other aids. These are sometimes used at random. But they are also part of every student’s program. 14. The teacher uses many approaches to language learning.Teachers know that the best method is the one that works with a particular student at a particular time. 15. The teacher adjusts the program to each student’s abilities, especially with slow learners. 16. Classes are small—small enough for everyone to have a chance to talk every day, small enough for the teacher to get around to everyone. 17. The teacher aims for interest and excitement in materials and in the daily work.
4519	dbpedia	2	84	https://teacherluke.co.uk/2018/07/31/541-what-british-people-say-vs-what-they-mean/	en	541. What British People Say vs What They Mean	https://teacherluke.co.u…HI-RES-32x32.jpg	https://teacherluke.co.u…HI-RES-32x32.jpg	[ "https://teacherluke.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/LEP-youtube-624x351.png", "https://www.paypal.com/en_US/i/btn/btn_donate_SM.gif", "https://teacherluke.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/Screen-Shot-2018-07-31-at-21.05.18.png", "https://teacherluke.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/Screen-Shot-2018-07-31-at-21.05.18.png", "https://teacherluke.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/luke-thumbnail-2023-copy-2-1-1024x1024.jpg", "https://teacherluke.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/LEP-LOGO-HIGHEST-RES-JULY21-rgb-04-1.4MB-JPEG-VERSION-1024x1024.jpg", "https://teacherluke.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/qr-code-podcast-app-website-widget-1024x1024.png", "https://teacherluke.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/LEP-PREMIUM-ON-ACAST-1.png", "https://teacherluke.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/donate-blue-background-copy-1024x1024.png", "https://teacherluke.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/LEP-YT.png", "https://teacherluke.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/RSS-feed-1-1024x1024.png" ]	[ "https://embed.acast.com/62b0ada25c7ea10012f541cb/62b0ada86fddaf0012d1f129" ]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Luke Thompson" ]	2018-07-31T00:00:00		en	https://teacherluke.co.u…HI-RES-32x32.jpg		https://teacherluke.co.uk/2018/07/31/541-what-british-people-say-vs-what-they-mean/	Examining British communication style and debunking a few myths about how British people communicate. This episode is based on a famous infographic called “What British People Say vs What They Really Mean” or “The Anglo-EU Translation Guide”. It contains lots of thoughts about how direct and indirect cultures communicate with each other, and some samples of business English, with a few improvised scenarios too! Transcript available. [DOWNLOAD] Transcript (below) In this episode I’m talking about an infographic which is often shared online called “What British People Say vs What They Mean”. In the infographic there are three columns. One with sentences typically spoken by English people. The next column has what, apparently, British people really mean, and then the third column shows us the perceived meanings of those sentences by foreigners. It is supposed to highlight the indirectness of British English speakers and the how people from direct cultures often misunderstand us. I’m going to go through the graphic line by line, discussing the language, talking about the indirect communication style of British people and discussing to what extent this infographic is true and how much is a stereotype. This relates to several conversations I’ve had in episodes in the past, namely the ones about cultural differences with Amber & Paul, British humour with Amber and the one about language & culture with Alex van Walsum. This chart often pops up online. You might have seen it. It’s shared on Facebook or Twitter, and people send it to me by email. People send this to me all the time, often accompanied with the question “Is this true?” It’s probably the infographic that I’ve seen more than any other. A while ago I shared it on my Facebook page and it got a big response with thousands of people seeing it and loads of comments. The chart is anonymously written. It may have first appeared in an article on the Economist’s website. Apparently some people say it originated in a Dutch company that had dealings with the UK, which is interesting because the Dutch are known for being very direct in their communication, so through their eyes the Brits might seem excessively indirect. The infographic is sometimes entitled “What British People Say vs What They Mean” or the “Anglo-EU translation guide”. Basically the chart presents a list of utterances, which it presents as typical things the British say in business situations, and then two other columns which represent what British people really mean when they say those things, and then how other people actually understand them to mean something quite different. I think it’s based on communication and cultural differences between the UK and European neighbours. The underlying cultural difference is that in the UK we have an indirect communication culture, particularly with regard to saying negative things, and tend to signal their disapproval, disappointment, disagreement or offence in other ways – either by minimising the negative part, or using euphemism, which may be hard to understand to the untrained ear. In my experience as an English person living in France, I find that it is definitely true that we have slightly different communication styles as a result of our cultural differences. But they’re just slightly different really. One example of a difference between France and the UK is that generally in the UK our first interaction with people – especially people in service positions, e.g. if you’re going to the post office to collect a package which you’ve been told is there even though last time you went they claimed it definitely wasn’t there. So you have to go back and kind of complain and make them look again. In the UK my normal way of doing it would be to approach the situation in a nice way, using friendliness as a social lubricant to help things go more smoothly. Like “Sorry to bother you again! I went to the other post office and they told me the package is definitely here. Could you have another look for me? Thanks!” You kind of talk to that person like you understand how you’re personally putting them out, but between the two of you there is a friendly understanding. You’re nice to the person, even though technically they’re wrong and you’re sort of making a complaint. That’s how it goes much of the time – not every time of course. Often when Brits are unhappy with a service they will complain about it very directly. But many times you’ll see or hear Brits being pretty friendly when dealing with people in impersonal situations. Now, that might actually be perceived not as a nice, informal gesture – but as fake, and two faced because in fact you’re actually not happy with the situation and you don’t know them personally, so why are you being all chummy? In Paris, your first interaction would typically be a bit more formal and also a bit less friendly. If you’re all nice and friendly and you smile, you might be perceived as weak. That’s not to say that French people don’t smile – of course they do, but in that kind of service situation where you are making a complaint you’re likely to be serious and with a straight face. You can be completely straight about it and bring your unhappiness to the table. It’s normal to dig your heels in and argue a little bit before things then turn into a more amicable arrangement. It usually ends well, but there’s a bit of conflict at the start, for example saying “no” or “it’s not possible” at the beginning, before deciding later to ‘make an exception’. I refer you to the episode with Alex Van Walsum who sums this up really well. http://teacherluke.libsyn.com/391-discussing-language-culture-comedy-with-alexander-van-walsum Episode 391 – play the bit If you’re nice and you compromise from the start they’ll walk all over you without even realising it. So there’s conflict at the beginning until the thing finally gets resolved, and later on a relationship of trust might develop from the problem being fixed, but it comes after. I’m not saying in the UK we’re never direct or angry in that situation, or that in France people are never nice at first, I’m just saying in my experience it pays to be more formal and tough at the beginning or you’ll be taken for granted. Whereas in the UK my approach would be a bit different. Sometimes this difference gets the better of me. I might go to a restaurant and say “Do you have a table for two at 8?” and the guy says “It’s complicated” or “No, it’s not possible” and I smile and say “OK, that’s a pity, thanks for your help!” and then leave. But what I often don’t realise is that “No, it’s not possible” is just the starting point. What you should do then is wait and just not take no for an answer. Wait and say “Is there anything you can do?” and dig your heels in a bit. Often, after a bit of digging, you might get a result. But you have to push through a little barrier first in many cases. The point is that the words we use and the messages we convey are often quite different, and messages are often subject to various cultural codes which allow the people involved to truly understand what is being said vs what is the intended meaning, or illocutionary force of something. Or more simply, in indirect cultures we don’t always say exactly what we mean, and it depends on the other person to decode the intended meaning of our messages. This is more common in some cultures than others, and this kind of indirectness does have a social function. If you’re from a direct culture, you’re less likely to be able to decode the messages and that’s where the misunderstandings happen. That brings us to this chart of what British people say vs what they mean. This chart essentially targets this cultural and linguistic point quite specifically, and while there is truth in it, I think the chart is not completely accurate. Nevertheless, let’s go through what Brits say vs what they mean and see what we can learn. One of the most important problems with this chart is the lack of context and the fact that these are spoken phrases written down, so none of the intonation is included. Intonation and context are vital in the way these messages are delivered and understood. Without the context and intonation, this chart makes Brits look incredibly devious and two-faced. It also makes other people seem pretty dumb and naive. On balance, what do I think of this? It’s exaggerated. Brits are not as stuffy, awkward or unable to say what we mean as this seems to suggest. It’s slightly old fashioned too. Also it’s not really fair on foreigners who aren’t that stupid. I think it originally came from the Netherlands (who we do most of our business with in the EU) and they’re known for being a very plain talking, direct culture. So, this is perhaps from the dutch point of view, which exaggerates things further. There is a point being made too, which is that the English say the opposite of what they mean, which is not true. Direct cultures tend to view indirect ones as being two-faced, hypocritical and even duplicitous. We do speak indirectly, perhaps downplaying negative things and attempting to use tact and diplomacy but it doesn’t stretch to being deceitful. For the English it’s a way to keep things nice and to sugarcoat our formal relationships. It’s a respectful distance which has been in the culture for a long time. We might be a bit indirect by dutch standards, but we know what we’re talking about. We understand what each other means, because we know the codes. So it’s a functional communication system, and just another way to share ideas while getting on at the same time. Another point is that you could argue that it’s specifically English, rather than British because there is a slight cultural difference between the English and the Scottish, Irish, Welsh and even Cornish people, who might be more direct. Anyway, I know plenty of English people who are perfectly capable of being direct and saying exactly what they mean. Also, there may be a class issue here. I think this relates to certain kinds of middle class or upper class English people, who tend to communicate like this, especially in a formal situation. There are certainly plenty of English people who are very direct in their communication style. The situation is also important. Most of these phrases are used at work where diplomacy is important. In social situations these same people might be extremely direct, for example with friends who you make fun of and speak to without any kind of filter. The sentences are out of context, so it’s not obvious how the phrase is intonated or what other phrases are used around it. Written down like that it has no nuance and can make the Brits look like pretty awful. So, this graph is designed to make people laugh and illustrate a tendency for Brits to be a bit indirect, but it is by no means a flawless guide to British communication style. It’s a bit black and white. In fact there are plenty of UK individuals who are more direct than this, and EU individuals who are indirect. It’s a bit “them and us”, a bit ‘black and white’ and therefore a bit unfair. It’s not just Brits. There are plenty of other cultures or individuals who also communicate like this. Canadians, for example, are well-known for having a polite and indirect communication style. While there is definitely an underlying point being demonstrated by the chart, taking it on face value makes British people seem insincere and sneaky – which is a common criticism of us by European people with direct communication styles. Whereas us Brits see our communication style as diplomatic and avoiding conflict and essentially all about being nice, other people think we are not being honest, straight or sincere. We just don’t want to be too negative or nasty, but we come across as being unsure of ourselves, weak or untrustworthy. Equally, from the other side, Brits think the French can be wilfully difficult, stubborn and problematic because of how direct they are with negative comments. We also find the Germans – who tend to state things exactly as they are, to be cold and humourless with their ultra-pragmatic approach which doesn’t involve much small talk or ‘window dressing’. It’s tricky isn’t it! In English we like to sugarcoat things. Not every culture does that. Some do it more than us. Of course it doesn’t always go like that and most of the time communication happens without problems and it’s all fine. For example I have had many many exchanges with people from many different cultures including those from direct cultures and they’ve been absolutely lovely, but then again I am quite culturally aware and able to minimise this sort of thing by recognising the importance of saying exactly what you mean. I imagine that when people from other countries do business with Brits who are not used to cross cultural communication that sometimes there is friction and it’s often related to these cultural differences. Also, it could be related to writing style in emails where this kind of thing becomes so much more obvious. I can imagine foreign people receiving English emails and wondering what exactly the person means – like the example of my wife and the castle. For example, apparently when the German company BMW took over the British car manufacturer Rover, it took ages for BMW to fully understand the extent of the problems at Rover because all the British staff minimised the problems or spoke in slightly vague euphemisms. The Germans were not able to decode the embedded negatives within the Brits’ responses. E.g. “We’ve had a few slight issues on the production line. Staff have expressed some preference for a longer break during the afternoon shift.” How big are those problems on the production line exactly? It would probably be worth investigating them further rather than assuming they are just “a few slight issues”. Overall, I think there is truth in this chart, which is why it’s such an enduring success online, but it’s not totally true. The truth is that Brits put a positive shine on things as a social lubricant (sugarcoating) and it works within indirect cultures, whereas direct cultures say things as they are which can make them seem unfriendly or cold hearted yet ultimately more sincere. Neither approach is better than the other, they’re just alternatives. Really, it’s about context. With indirect cultures, the indirect style probably feels more natural, with direct cultures it’s the other way around. The problems arise when the two cultures get together and then misunderstand each other. For the chart, more perspective and context is required to really understand what’s going on, and to avoid knee-jerk reactions. I say knee-jerk reactions – these are sort of quick, instant responses that happen without thoughtful consideration (like when a doctor taps your knee and it jerks forward without you thinking about it). Those things might be to conclude that Germans have no sense of humour, French people are willfully difficult and don’t want to work, English people are hypocrites who don’t say what they mean. Simple binary comparisons of language without context like this can foster unbalanced opinions which can lead to or reinforce resentment and things like that. The final point is that despite our communication style, we’re still just as fair-minded, honest, trustworthy, narrow minded, dishonest and untrustworthy as anybody else! Don’t jump to conclusions and never let cultural differences cause you to make fast judgements about people without seeing the whole picture!
4519	dbpedia	0	72	https://sunfarm.com/images/2bits.htm	en				[]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null					null
4519	dbpedia	2	10	https://english.stackexchange.com/questions/497453/what-does-two-bit-jerk-mean	en	What does “two-bit (jerk)” mean?	https://cdn.sstatic.net/…g?v=5bebfd2a0d06	https://cdn.sstatic.net/…g?v=5bebfd2a0d06	[ "https://cdn.sstatic.net/Sites/english/Img/logo.svg?v=ab4a3db22ab2", "https://i.sstatic.net/wi7up.png?s=64", "https://www.gravatar.com/avatar/c2384aacf017489d8657c19c33075cbf?s=64&d=identicon&r=PG", "https://english.stackexchange.com/posts/497453/ivc/3938?prg=03096814-099e-474a-a9bd-b40b7d1750d0" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	2019-05-06T17:57:26	From subtitles for a Russian movie. The source translated for two-bit was: полный/последний/конченный [English meaning totally, absolutely (something bad)] (Do you know russian word "dno"?)	en	https://cdn.sstatic.net/Sites/english/Img/favicon.ico?v=52ad6b0c151a	English Language & Usage Stack Exchange	https://english.stackexchange.com/questions/497453/what-does-two-bit-jerk-mean	"Two-bit" is an idiom meaning cheap or petty. It comes from a slang term for the American eighth of a dollar, a "bit." Even after the "bit" was phased out of the currency in 1792, the term "two-bit" persisted to refer to the quarter dollar. A two-bit person isn't worth much. From the Oxford English Dictionary under "two, adj, n., and adv.": 1978 T. Willis Buckingham Palace Connection viii. 155 Some other two-bit General will try shooting us up. When applied to people or things, unless it is used ironically, it is a put-down or insult, implying cheapness or low quality. So "two-bit jerk" may mean that the character isn't of much importance and he's a jerk (i.e. he's rude or crass).
4519	dbpedia	1	7	https://mangolanguages.com/resources/learn/general/how-to-learn-a-language/your-learning-language-guide/9-reasons-why-english-is-a-difficult-language-to-learn	en	9 reasons why English is a difficult language to learn	https://a-us.storyblok.c…ult-language.jpg	https://a-us.storyblok.c…ult-language.jpg	[ "https://mangolanguages.com/resources/_next/static/media/ml-logo.165bb8ba.svg", "https://a-us.storyblok.com/f/1014415/1920x1080/50e8a9d528/9-reasons-english-banner.jpg/m/900x285", "https://a-us.storyblok.com/f/1014415/800x800/6c248dc611/pep-talk.jpg", "https://a-us.storyblok.com/f/1014415/800x800/519541b9a8/english-language-learners.jpg", "https://mangolanguages.com/resources/_next/static/media/article-footer-devices.b29c5d3b.png", "https://mangolanguages.com/resources/_next/static/media/article-footer-devices.b29c5d3b.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	Many students find that learning the English language is not easy. English language learners may struggle to pronounce English, to learn English grammar, to memorize the meanings of English words, or to use the right metaphors or idioms. In this article, we’ll talk about some of the specific features of English that language learners often struggle to master, and explain why those specific language skills are so difficult to learn. English is the most studied language in the world, with over a billion second-language speakers worldwide. The English language, which was born in England, is now spoken globally, and in many places it functions as a “lingua franca” (or shared language) between people from different language backgrounds. As a result, many students today are learning English so they can work for international businesses, engage in international politics, travel the world, or just watch their favorite movies and TV shows. Interested in learning about some of the challenges that English learners face? Read on!	en	/resources/_next/static/media/favicon.eb9fd464.png		null	Many students find that learning the English language is not easy. English language learners may struggle to pronounce English, to learn English grammar, to memorize the meanings of English words, or to use the right metaphors or idioms. In this article, we’ll talk about some of the specific features of English that language learners often struggle to master, and explain why those specific language skills are so difficult to learn. English is the most studied language in the world, with over a billion second-language speakers worldwide. The English language, which was born in England, is now spoken globally, and in many places it functions as a “lingua franca” (or shared language) between people from different language backgrounds. As a result, many students today are learning English so they can work for international businesses, engage in international politics, travel the world, or just watch their favorite movies and TV shows. Interested in learning about some of the challenges that English learners face? Read on! 1. English is not similar to your native language Learning English will be most difficult for students whose native language is very different from English. The more different your native language is from English, the more you will have to learn in terms of vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, and cultural knowledge. English belongs to a large group of languages called the “Indo-European Languages,” which includes most languages of Europe and some from the Middle East and the Indian Subcontinent as well. In general, speakers of Indo-European languages will have an easier time learning English because they will recognize familiar vocabulary and grammar. However, some Indo-European languages (e.g., German, French, Norwegian) are closer to English than others (e.g., Persian, Hindi, Kurdish), so this isn’t a guarantee. But if your native language is not an Indo-European language, then you’re probably going to struggle a lot more to learn English words, grammar, and pronunciation. The next several list items will outline aspects of English grammar that require a lot of memorization or which are unusual in the world’s languages, and so can present difficulties for learners from a wide range of backgrounds. 2. English verb tenses take practice Learning when to use different English verb tenses is notoriously difficult for English language students. The reason English verb tenses are so tricky is that they carry a lot of information about when and how something happened. It’s more complicated than just past, present, and future! Let’s look at some examples: Emily had cried when Patrick walked into the room. Emily was crying when Patrick walked into the room. Emily had been crying when Patrick walked into the room. Emily had cried when Patrick walked into the room. In all four sentences above, Emily cried at some point in the past, so the verb to cry appears in the “past tense” in all four sentences. However, did you notice that in each verb looks a little different and in each sentence, there is a slightly different relationship between the timing of the two different past events? In the first three sentences, Emily started crying before Patrick entered, while in the final sentence, the two things happened at the same time. In sentences 2 and 3, Emily was finished crying by the time Patrick walked in, but there’s a difference between these two as well! In the second sentence, we’re focusing more on the fact Emily cried for a period of time. In the third sentence, we’re more focused on the simple fact that she cried. Can you see how it might be tricky to learn all the nuances of these differences? To use the correct English verb tense, you need to keep in mind both the tense of the verb (when it happened compared to now: past/present/future) and the “aspect” of the verb (which describes how that event overlapped with other events or times under discussion). This is a lot to keep in your head all at once, so it’s no wonder that picking the right tense can be very confusing for students who are just starting out! 3. Choosing when to use which article is difficult Deciding when and how to use articles in English (a, an, the) is usually challenging for English learners. Articles are difficult for English learners because using them correctly requires you to get inside the mind of the person that you’re talking to. What does this mean? Most English teachers and learners will tell you to use a(n) for something that isn’t specific and the for something that is specific. But the story is actually more complicated than that. Let’s look at an example: The mailman came into the shop today and bought an iced vanilla latte. A mailman came into the shop today and bought an iced vanilla latte. In both of these sentences, a specific person came into the shop. The difference is that in the first example (“The mailman…”), the speaker is assuming that the person being addressed will know the mailman in question. Maybe he’s the mailman who regularly delivers mail to the coffee shop! But in the second example (“A mailman…”), we can assume that the person being addressed does not know the mailman in question. In order to use the correct article, therefore, you need to know how much information someone has about a given situation, and adjust your language accordingly. If your listener can pick out the specific person or item you are referring to, then you use the. If your listener can’t or doesn’t need to pick it out, you use a(n). This may sound simple, but using articles correctly can be a challenge, especially for learners whose native languages don’t require a choice between “specific” and “not specific”. There are other things to learn when it comes to articles. Some proper nouns must always be accompanied by articles (ex: the Bahamas, the Miami Heat) while others cannot have them (ex: Charles, New Hampshire). Sometimes we leave out articles after prepositions (ex: at school, in prison, after lunch), while some types of nouns, like mass nouns (milk, knowledge, grass), can’t occur with a(n). These exceptions must simply be memorized, and learning these rules can be tricky! 4. Phrasal verbs are unpredictable Phrasal verbs are verbs made up of more than one word, usually a classic verb (ex: put, kick, move) and a preposition (ex: out, over, up). English is packed with phrasal verbs, and learning how to use them correctly requires a lot of practice. There are two main reasons why learning phrasal verbs can be tricky. Reason 1: Most phrasal verbs are idioms, meaning you cannot reliably guess the meaning of a phrasal verb just from the meaning of its parts. Let’s look at some of the phrasal verbs based on the verb “to pick.” Notice that while you might be able to predict a few of these meanings based on the meaning of the preposition (ex: pick up, pick apart), most of them have meanings that need to be memorized. Reason 2: Different phrasal verbs follow different grammar rules. As you can see in the examples below, some phrasal verbs can be split apart while others cannot. Learners simply have to memorize which phrasal verbs belong to each group. Let’s look at some examples: These phrasal verbs can be split apart: These phrasal verbs cannot be split apart: Because phrasal verbs require a lot of memorization, both in terms of what they mean and how they’re used, these types of verbs are often a hurdle for language learners. 5. Negative sentences and questions are challenging English questions (What does Ken like?) and negative sentences (Ken does not like cheese) are usually challenging for language learners. Questions and negative sentences in English are so difficult because they can have a different word order and sometimes involve changing the form of a verb. We can see this when we compare the word order of a question to the regular sentence you would use to answer it. Have a look at these examples: Is Ken eating cheese? Ken is eating cheese. What is Ken eating? Ken is eating cheese. Who is eating cheese? Ken is eating cheese. Did Ken eat cheese? Ken ate cheese. What did Ken eat? Ken ate cheese. We can also see this when we compare the negative form of a sentence with the positive form: Ken is eating cheese. Ken is not eating cheese. Ken ate cheese. Ken did not eat cheese. If you want to correctly form English questions and negative sentences, you need to learn the rules for changing verbs and word order! These rules take a lot of practice, especially for learners coming from languages which may not alter the word order or verb forms at all in order to form these types of sentences. 6. English spelling is confusing English spelling is one of the most difficult things for English language learners to master. English speakers like to think that we spell things the way they sound, but there are a lot of exceptions. There are places where the same sound is spelled differently in different words (ex: bread and bed), or the same spelling has different pronunciations in different words (ex: fig and sigh). There are lots of silent letters (ex: who, ride, psychology) and sometimes groups of letters have unpredictable pronunciations (ex: gh in rough, ch in chemistry). Learning to spell and to pronounce words can take a lot of work (even for native English speakers), and is especially tough if you’re just starting out! Here’s an example of how confusing English spelling can be: Did you know that, if you wanted to, you could spell the word fish as ghoti? Seems a little ridiculous, right? But let me show you how: The word “enough” ends with an f sound, so gh can be pronounced f. The o in the word “women” is pronounced more like an i, so let’s use o next! In words like “ignition,” the ti sounds like an sh, so we’ll use that at the end. Put that all together, and we get: gh+o+ti → fish! You can see why English spelling might be hard to learn! There are several reasons why English spelling is a bit of a mess: Depending on the dialect someone speaks, English uses between 16 and 25 different vowel sounds, but we only have 5-6 letters to use to write them (a, e, i, o, u, (y)). This means that we have to get creative about showing which sound each vowel represents! Can you hear all the different vowels in: beat, bit, bait, bet, bat, bot, boot, boat, bite, but, and bought? English borrows words from a lot of different languages, and sometimes uses their original spellings, even when those other languages follow different spelling rules. Just think about words like faux or psychology! English words are usually spelled the way they were pronounced in the mid-1500s, since that was when we decided on the “correct spelling.” Often, silent letters represent sounds that used to be pronounced (e.g., knife used to be pronounced “kuh-neef-uh!”) English spelling is fun for those of us who like to study the history of languages, but it can be quite a bummer for people who are learning to spell English! 7. English idioms are everywhere Learning how to use and understand English idioms is crucial if you want to use English in the real world. Idioms are set phrases whose meaning you cannot usually predict, even if you know the meanings of each word in the phrase. Because the meanings of idiomatic phrases must be memorized separately from the meanings of words, idioms can be a fly in the ointment for people trying to learn English! Did you see that? I used an idiom! The English phrase “a fly in the ointment” can be used to describe any annoying circumstance that causes problems in an otherwise good plan (just like idioms can cause problems for your plan to learn English!) It is an idiom because it doesn’t refer to actual flies getting stuck in actual ointment! English learners need to learn idioms because idioms are everywhere in English. Have a look at the sort of “pep talk” a coach might give his losing basketball team: “Here’s the deal, team. I know you all expected winning this game to be a piece of cake, but now, here we are, 30 points down in the second half. So I’m going to need you all to step up and chip in so we can win this game! We haven’t missed the boat on winning this tournament yet! Come on, guys, let’s blow them out of the water!” Let’s look at the meanings of all those idioms! English courses often focus on teaching students how to assemble literal sentences (sentences that mean what you’d expect them to mean). As a result, many English language learners are left to learn to use non-literal language, like idioms, outside the classroom, through conversations with native speakers, watching movies, or reading books. This can mean that even learners who do very well in a classroom setting will struggle with things like idioms when they start using English in the real world. One of the best ways to learn to use any language naturally is to consume media in the language you’re trying to learn. So if you’re trying to learn English idioms, try reading a book, listening to a podcast, watching TV shows or movies, or even just spending time on English-language social media! 8. English has irregular verbs and plurals can surprise you Learning to use irregular verbs and irregular plurals is difficult for most English language learners because it requires a lot of memorization. Irregular words are those that do not follow “conventional” grammar rules. For example: Sing is an irregular verb because the past tense is sang and not singed Mouse has an irregular plural form because the plural of mouse is mice, not mouses Learning to use regular verbs and plurals is quite easy. Once you’ve learned the pluralization rule (add -s or -es) and the past tense rule (add -ed), all you need to do is plug new words into each rule. You know that the plurals of fox, cup, and table are foxes, cups, and tables, and that the past tenses of walk, meow, and toss, are walked, meowed, and tossed. But you cannot do the same thing with irregular verbs and plurals. With irregular words, each word must be memorized on its own. You just have to memorize that the plural forms of man, loaf, and fish, are men, loaves, and fish, and you just have to memorize that the past tense forms of is, bring, and have are was, brought, and had! There are some tips and tricks you can use to learn English irregular plurals and irregular verbs, but even if you learn these tricks, you’ll probably need to spend some time with your flashcards! All languages have irregular words and English doesn’t have any more than is normal. But learning them for the first time still requires a lot of memorization, which can be quite a hurdle! 9. English has a large and diverse vocabulary Most linguists would tell you that English has a larger and more diverse vocabulary than most other grammatically similar languages. The size and diversity of the vocabulary of English presents several different challenges to English language learners. The 1989 full edition of the Oxford English Dictionary contains over 250,000 individual entries. This means that there are at least a quarter-million words in English. That’s a lot of words! Now, most English learners don’t need to learn anywhere close to 250,000 words in order to function on a day-to-day basis. Researchers estimate that most native English speakers can only actively use somewhere between 15,000 and 60,000 words. But even that is a lot to learn. Because English has so many words, memorizing enough vocabulary to sound fluent takes a long time. English is spoken all over the world, and it has long been spoken by people from a wide variety of language backgrounds. Before English started spreading all over the world, it already had its own complete vocabulary. But as English has acquired new speakers, it has also acquired new words from all of those new speakers’ native languages. The result is that, today, words of English origin make up less than 25% of our modern vocabulary! The diversity of English’s vocabulary not only means that English language students have more words to learn; students must also learn a lot of grammar and spelling exceptions that are associated with borrowed words. Words that come from non-English languages often follow slightly different rules from words that are native to English. For example, if a noun is borrowed from Latin or Greek, we usually don’t follow the normal English pluralization rule (add an -s), and instead follow these rules: The size and diversity of the English vocabulary therefore not only presents challenges to learners’ ability to memorize words, but also to their ability to remember grammatical and spelling exceptions. What are some tips for learning English easily? The best way to learn English is to find the type of course or learning materials that fit your lifestyle. You can learn English with a face-to-face course, from a good series of recorded lessons, by reading books or online articles, or by using an app like Mango! If you are just starting out, try to find a course taught in your native language. Learning English with Mango? We offer English courses taught in a variety of languages, including: Bengali Hatian Creole Hmong Chinese (Mandarin, Cantonese) Arabic (MSA, Egyptian) Armenian French German Greek Italian Japanese Korean Polish Portuguese Russian Somali Spanish Turkish Vietnamese Learning English requires the same skills as learning any other language. So if you follow all the methods for learning English that we discussed in our Comprehensive Guide to Learning a Language, you’ll be all ready to learn English as easily as possible! How hard is it to study English? While some things about learning English are hard, the good news is that it is easy to find opportunities to study English. English is the most studied second language in the world (with over a billion second-language speakers worldwide!), so you should be able to easily find courses, books, apps, online lessons, and many other resources wherever you are. You’ll still have to work hard if you want to learn English, but at least you won’t need to struggle to find materials and courses to help you along the way! What is the most challenging part of learning English? Most English language learners will find it challenging to learn English verb tenses, phrasal verbs, articles, spelling, pronunciation, and idioms. This is because these are features of English that are very different from most other languages in the world, or which simply require a lot of memorization. Keep in mind that the languages you already speak affect what about English is difficult for you. The things that will be most difficult for you are the things that English does very differently from your native language. For example, in Persian, there is only one pronoun for humans, ,او [ oo ](he/she) which can be applied to both men and women. If Persian is your native language, then you might have to work hard to remember to use he and she appropriately, because it’s not something you have had to think about doing before. However, speakers of Spanish would not struggle with this at all, as Spanish also has a distinction between masculine and feminine pronouns ( él(he)/ ella(she)), and so this feature of English seems only natural. Because speakers of different languages will run into different sorts of challenges when learning English, it can be helpful to find an English course that is designed specifically for learners who speak your native language. This is why Mango’s English courses, designed specifically for speakers of Spanish, or Mandarin, or German, or Somali (etc.), are the best sorts of courses to take! What is the average length of time it takes to learn English? According to ALTE (Association of Language Testers in Europe), it takes 500-600 hours of study to learn English to an upper intermediate level (B2) and up to 1,200 hours of study to gain proficiency (C2). The ALTE estimates of how long it takes for a total beginner to achieve various levels of English mastery are given below: CEFR Level CEFR Level Name Hours of Study A1 Beginner 90-100 hours A2 Elementary 180-200 hours B1 Intermediate 350-400 hours B2 Upper Intermediate 500-600 hours C1 Advanced 700-800 hours C2 Proficient 1,000-1,200 hours The proficiency levels above are determined according to the Common European Framework of language Reference (CEFR). This is the most common language proficiency ranking system applied to most European languages. Just like any language, the amount of time it will take one particular person to learn English can vary. The speed at which one person can learn English depends on many factors. If you want to learn more about how to speed up the process of learning a language, check out one of these articles: Summing it all up! There are lots of things about English that can make it difficult to learn, like verb tenses, articles, and idioms – to name a few. We hope that this overview has been helpful and that the tips we’ve given you point you in the right direction. Be sure to check out some of our other articles for some tricks and strategies that can help you or your friends to learn English (or any other language) quickly! Start Learning
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4519	dbpedia	3	32	https://www.nytimes.com/2024/05/14/magazine/native-language-loss.html	en	Can You Lose Your Native Tongue?	https://static01.nyt.com…acebookJumbo.jpg	https://static01.nyt.com…acebookJumbo.jpg	[ "https://static01.nyt.com/images/2024/05/13/magazine/19mag-language-video-image/19mag-language-video-image-superJumbo.jpg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Madeleine Schwartz", "www.nytimes.com", "madeleine-schwartz" ]	2024-05-14T00:00:00	After moving abroad, I found my English slowly eroding. It turns out our first languages aren’t as embedded as we think.	en	/vi-assets/static-assets/favicon-d2483f10ef688e6f89e23806b9700298.ico		https://www.nytimes.com/2024/05/14/magazine/native-language-loss.html	It happened the first time over dinner. I was saying something to my husband, who grew up in Paris where we live, and suddenly couldn’t get the word out. The culprit was the “r.” For the previous few months, I had been trying to perfect the French “r.” My failure to do so was the last marker of my Americanness, and I could only do it if I concentrated, moving the sound backward in my mouth and exhaling at the same time. Now I was saying something in English — “reheat” or “rehash” — and the “r” was refusing to come forward. The word felt like a piece of dough stuck in my throat. Other changes began to push into my speech. I realized that when my husband spoke to me in English, I would answer him in French. My mother called, and I heard myself speaking with a French accent. Drafts of my articles were returned with an unusual number of comments from editors. Then I told a friend about a spill at the grocery store, which — the words “conveyor belt” vanishing midsentence — took place on a “supermarket treadmill.” Even back home in New York, I found my mouth puckered into the fish lips that allow for the particularly French sounds of “u,” rather than broadened into the long “ay” sounds that punctuate English. My mother is American, and my father is French; they split up when I was about 3 months old. I grew up speaking one language exclusively with one half of my family in New York and the other language with the other in France. It’s a standard of academic literature on bilingual people that different languages bring out different aspects of the self. But these were not two different personalities but two separate lives. In one version, I was living with my mom on the Upper West Side and walking up Columbus Avenue to get to school. In the other, I was foraging for mushrooms in Alsatian forests or writing plays with my cousins and later three half-siblings, who at the time didn’t understand a word of English. The experience of either language was entirely distinct, as if I had been given two scripts with mirroring supportive casts. In each a parent, grandparents, aunts and uncles; in each, a language, a home, a Madeleine. I moved to Paris in October 2020, on the heels of my 30th birthday. This was both a rational decision and something of a Covid-spurred dare. I had been working as a journalist and editor for several years, specializing in European politics, and had reported across Germany and Spain in those languages. I had never professionally used French, in which I was technically fluent. It seemed like a good idea to try. When I arrived in France, however, I realized my fluency had its limitations: I hadn’t spoken French with adults who didn’t share my DNA. The cultural historian Thomas Laqueur, who grew up speaking German at home in West Virginia, had a similar experience, as the linguist Julie Sedivy notes in “Memory Speaks,” her book about language loss and relearning her childhood Czech. Sedivy cites an essay of Laqueur’s in which he describes the first time he learned that German was not, in fact, a secret family language. He and his brother had been arguing over a Popsicle in front of the grocery store near his house: A lady came up to us and said, in German, that she would give us a nickel so that we could each have a treat of our own. I don’t remember buying a second Popsicle, but I do remember being very excited at finding someone else of our linguistic species. I rushed home with the big news. My own introduction to speaking French as an adult was less joyous. After reaching out to sources for a different article for this magazine with little success, I showed the unanswered emails to a friend. She gently informed me that I had been yelling at everyone I hoped to interview. Thank you for your patience while we verify access. If you are in Reader mode please exit and log into your Times account, or subscribe for all of The Times. Thank you for your patience while we verify access. Already a subscriber? Log in. Want all of The Times? Subscribe.
4519	dbpedia	1	93	https://www.topuniversities.com/student-info/studying-abroad/7-ways-quickly-improve-your-english-language-skills	en	7 ways to quickly improve your English language skills	https://www.topuniversit…1209605_1280.jpg	https://www.topuniversit…1209605_1280.jpg	[ "https://pool.admedo.com/pixel?id=136038&t=img", "https://www.topuniversities.com/themes/custom/tu_d8/logo.svg", "https://www.topuniversities.com/themes/custom/tu_d8/images/user-icon-white.svg", "https://www.topuniversities.com/themes/custom/tu_d8/images/close-icon-button.png", "https://www.topuniversities.com/themes/custom/tu_d8/images/Success_img.gif", "https://www.topuniversities.com/sites/default/files/pictures/guest_writer_icon_1.jpg", "https://www.topuniversities.com/themes/custom/tu_d8/images/share_fb.png", "https://www.topuniversities.com/themes/custom/tu_d8/images/x-twitter.webp", "https://www.topuniversities.com/themes/custom/tu_d8/images/share_linked.png", "https://www.topuniversities.com/themes/custom/tu_d8/images/share_whatsapp.png", "https://www.topuniversities.com/themes/custom/tu_d8/images/share_mail.png", "https://www.topuniversities.com/themes/custom/tu_d8/images/share_url.png", "https://www.topuniversities.com/themes/custom/tu_d8/images/uniprofile/open_icon.svg", "https://www.topuniversities.com/themes/custom/tu_d8/images/uniprofile/close_icon.svg", "https://www.topuniversities.com/themes/custom/tu_d8/images/user-default.png", "https://www.topuniversities.com/themes/custom/tu_d8/images/user-default.png", "https://www.topuniversities.com/themes/custom/tu_d8/images/user-default.png", "https://www.topuniversities.com/themes/custom/tu_d8/images/user-default.png", "https://www.topuniversities.com/sites/default/files/styles/40x40/public/externals/7c0138087a109c30ae22251f32d99444.jpg.webp", "https://www.topuniversities.com/sites/default/files/styles/views_count_article/public/articles/lead-images/AdobeStock_432873430.jpeg.webp", "https://www.topuniversities.com/sites/default/files/styles/40x40/public/externals/92bbc10827aee3862ee2ad2317784045.jpg.webp", "https://www.topuniversities.com/sites/default/files/styles/views_count_article/public/articles/lead-images/AdobeStock_100218316.jpeg.webp", "https://www.topuniversities.com/sites/default/files/styles/40x40/public/externals/92bbc10827aee3862ee2ad2317784045.jpg.webp", "https://www.topuniversities.com/sites/default/files/styles/views_count_article/public/articles/lead-images/AdobeStock_264920988%20%283%29.jpeg.webp", "https://www.topuniversities.com/sites/default/files/styles/40x40/public/externals/3e5214940d7de4653a8660b2ab046d65.jpg.webp", "https://www.topuniversities.com/themes/custom/tu_d8/images/x-twitter.webp", "https://www.topuniversities.com/themes/custom/tu_d8/images/signup/universities.svg", "https://www.topuniversities.com/themes/custom/tu_d8/images/signup/programs.svg", "https://www.topuniversities.com/themes/custom/tu_d8/images/signup/events.svg", "https://www.topuniversities.com/themes/custom/tu_d8/images/signup/countries.svg", "https://www.topuniversities.com/themes/custom/tu_d8/images/signup/signup-banner.svg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	2018-01-03T00:00:00	Got an English language test coming up? Here are some quick ways to boost your TOEFL or IELTS chances.	en	/themes/custom/tu_d8/favicon.ico	Top Universities	https://www.topuniversities.com/student-info/studying-abroad/7-ways-quickly-improve-your-english-language-skills	By Laura Kabelka If English isn’t your first language, you might find you need to take an English language proficiency exam such as the IELTS or the TOEFL as part of your application to study abroad. These tests may seem straightforward, but learning to write and speak in a sophisticated and eloquent manner in a new language doesn’t come easily. In order to succeed, you’ll need to put a lot of continuous effort into learning a new language, but there are some quick fixes that can help to boost your test performance at short notice. If the exam is just a few weeks away, here are some ways to quickly improve your English language skills. Watching series on Netflix might not exactly improve your debating skills or formal register, but it helps you to understand the language better, get used to colloquial, conversational forms of English and implicitly get a feeling for the language. Also, you could try to pick out words that sound highly informal and look up their more scholarly counterparts. Of course, there is also a plethora of documentaries (try anything by David Attenborough to start you off) to be found online as well. Being exposed to a language for the length of a movie might help you to actually start thinking in English. Try to sample a broad range of English language newspapers, including broadsheets as well as magazines and tabloids. As well as helping you keep up to date with current affairs, this range of news sources will also expand your vocabulary. Another advantage is that you will also become more comfortable with how words are spelt and the contexts in which they are used. Either in a notebook or on your computer, start making a list of useful words and phrases. Every time you hear or see a word you’re not familiar with, note it down. Don’t only focus on the word itself, but search for synonyms and phrases in which it’s used. After all, you might understand what words such as “precedence” or “tantalizing” mean, but do you know how to use them accurately? As helpful as listening and reading tasks may be, you also need to use English interactively and practice your own speaking skills. If you’re lucky, you’ll be friends with a few native speakers who can help you out, but if not then try to meet up with someone else studying English. Another option is to talk to yourself in the mirror or record yourself. Listening to the sound of your own voice might be a little bit awkward at first, but you will be able to hear mistakes of which you weren’t previously aware. Let’s face it, academic phrases won’t just fall from heaven and straight into your brain. Even if your English is already quite good, don’t be complacent and underestimate stressful factors such as the time pressure in an exam. You still have to practice, no matter how much time you have left before your big day. Try coming up with a word of the day, and then try to employ it as often as possible. If you do this, don’t waste time on extremely specific words you will never actually use. Instead, focus on conversational English which is likely to be relevant in the exam. In order to improve rapidly, you should ask a lot of questions and resolve them. Don’t just read phrases. Ask why they are used in a particular way, whether other constructions are possible as well and don’t trust everything you read online. Of course, it is tempting to be content with the first answer that pops up on Google, but you’ll find more rewards if you show a bit of curiosity. If studying the English language only feels like a burden, it will seem tedious and you won’t perform as well. This is why it’s important to stay motivated and enjoy the experience of learning a new language. Find ways to add entertainment into your studies, such as playing word games with friends that will boost your critical thinking skills. Obviously, learning a new language is a long-term project and you can’t start from zero and write an academic paper a week later. But, when building on a decent foundation, you can achieve great results quickly if you devote yourself intensely. Especially for exams like the IELTS, you should really know what questions will be asked, what the formats look like and how to deal with the respective tasks. Try to stay focused and improve certain parts, rather than frantically trying to catch up with everything at once. Laura Kabelka works in Communication and Marketing at StudentJob AT.
4519	dbpedia	0	30	https://stackoverflow.com/questions/28066462/how-many-bits-is-a-word	en	How many bits is a "word"?	https://cdn.sstatic.net/…g?v=73d79a89bded	https://cdn.sstatic.net/…g?v=73d79a89bded	[ "https://www.gravatar.com/avatar/cdbf214e232f5cf4293ae5b755114bc7?s=64&d=identicon&r=PG&f=y&so-version=2", "https://i.sstatic.net/a8qUy.jpg?s=64", "https://www.gravatar.com/avatar/64b7edfe17165c299d4dd604c631e1cb?s=64&d=identicon&r=PG", "https://i.sstatic.net/VrUwT.jpg?s=64", "https://www.gravatar.com/avatar/cdbf214e232f5cf4293ae5b755114bc7?s=64&d=identicon&r=PG&f=y&so-version=2", "https://www.gravatar.com/avatar/8168b8a0110d576ea10101744f8902cc?s=64&d=identicon&r=PG&f=y&so-version=2", "https://www.gravatar.com/avatar/32e1aeeac2e58a714d87473a4b056416?s=64&d=identicon&r=PG", "https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/a-/AOh14Gj7mk2XZmxtCfxzKnUOircJ6O1GePpmxznGtowe=k-s64", "https://stackoverflow.com/posts/28066462/ivc/3938?prg=539542ce-98e4-4deb-a0db-37f00a3287df", "https://stackoverflow.com/js-false.gif" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	2015-01-21T11:45:27	This is from the book Assembly Language Step By Step, Jeff Duntemann: Here’s the quick tour: A bit is a single binary digit, 0 or 1. A byte is 8 bits side by side. A word is 2 bytes side by si...	en	https://cdn.sstatic.net/Sites/stackoverflow/Img/favicon.ico?v=ec617d715196	Stack Overflow	https://stackoverflow.com/questions/28066462/how-many-bits-is-a-word	I'm not familiar with either of these books, but the second is closer to current reality. The first may be discussing a specific processor. Processors have been made with quite a variety of word sizes, not always a multiple of 8. The 8086 and 8087 processors used 16 bit words, and it's likely this is the machine the first author was writing about. More recent processors commonly use 32 or 64 bit words. In the 50's and 60's there were machines with words sizes that seem quite strange to us now, such as 4, 9 and 36. Since about the 70's word size has commonly been a power of 2 and a multiple of 8. On x86/x64 processors, a byte is 8 bits, and there are 256 possible binary states in 8 bits, 0 thru 255. This is how the OS translates your keyboard key strokes into letters on the screen. When you press the 'A' key, the keyboard sends a binary signal equal to the number 97 to the computer, and the computer prints a lowercase 'a' on the screen. You can confirm this in any Windows text editing software by holding an ALT key, typing 97 on the NUMPAD, then releasing the ALT key. If you replace '97' with any number from 0 to 255, you will see the character associated with that number on the system's character code page printed on the screen. If a character is 8 bits, or 1 byte, then a WORD must be at least 2 characters, so 16 bits or 2 bytes. Traditionally, you might think of a word as a varying number of characters, but in a computer, everything that is calculable is based on static rules. Besides, a computer doesn't know what letters and symbols are, it only knows how to count numbers. So, in computer language, if a WORD is equal to 2 characters, then a double-word, or DWORD, is 2 WORDs, which is the same as 4 characters or bytes, which is equal to 32 bits. Furthermore, a quad-word, or QWORD, is 2 DWORDs, same as 4 WORDs, 8 characters, or 64 bits. Note that these terms are limited in function to the Windows API for developers, but may appear in other circumstances (eg. the Linux dd command uses numerical suffixes to compound byte and block sizes, where c is 1 byte and w is bytes). "most convenient block of data" probably refers to the width (in bits) of the WORD, in correspondance to the system bus width, or whatever underlying "bandwidth" is available. On a 16 bit system, with WORD being defined as 16 bits wide, moving data around in chunks the size of a WORD will be the most efficient way. (On hardware or "system" level.) With Java being more or less platform independant, it just defines a "WORD" as the next size from a "BYTE", meaning "full bandwidth". I guess any platform that's able to run Java will use 32 bits for a WORD.
4519	dbpedia	1	85	https://www.theliteracynest.com/2019/08/a-phoneme-a-grapheme-a-morpheme.html	en	Phonemes, Graphemes, and Morphemes: What’s the Difference?	https://www.theliteracyn…og-Images-15.png	https://www.theliteracyn…og-Images-15.png	[ "https://www.facebook.com/tr?id=877992012340865&ev=PageView&noscript=1", "https://ct.pinterest.com/v3/?tid=YOUR_TAG_ID&noscript=1", "https://ct.pinterest.com/v3/?tid=2612380778029&noscript=1", "https://www.theliteracynest.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/the-literacy-nest.jpg", "https://www.theliteracynest.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/the-literacy-nest.jpg", "https://www.theliteracynest.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/Copy-of-Blog-Images-15.png", "https://www.theliteracynest.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/Untitled-design-9-1030x1030.png", "https://www.theliteracynest.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/pin-template-10-687x1030.jpg", "https://www.theliteracynest.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/Copy-of-Spelling-Binder-Cover-1030x1030.jpeg", "https://www.theliteracynest.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/Word-List-Builder-2.0-logo-new.png", "https://www.theliteracynest.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/pin-template-9-687x1030.jpg", "https://www.theliteracynest.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/Copy-of-Blog-Images-2.png", "https://www.theliteracynest.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/Copy-of-Blog-Images-2.png", "https://www.theliteracynest.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/Reading-Passages-PIN-1.jpg", "https://www.theliteracynest.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/about-emily.jpg", "https://www.theliteracynest.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/Generalization-for-reading-and-spelling-1030x1030.jpg", "https://www.theliteracynest.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/Summer-covers-1030x1030.jpg", "https://www.theliteracynest.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/Morphology-Passages-Bundle-Cover-1030x1030.jpg", "https://www.theliteracynest.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/Decoding-Strategies-Cover-1030x1030.jpg" ]	[ "https://www.youtube.com/embed/aIDccw8ooFc?feature=oembed" ]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Emily", "www.facebook.com" ]	2019-08-18T23:00:44+00:00	Find out the meanings of phonemes, graphemes, and morphemes. Understanding these terms is helpful for structured literacy teachers.	en	https://www.theliteracyn…l-icon-32x32.png	The Literacy Nest	https://www.theliteracynest.com/2019/08/a-phoneme-a-grapheme-a-morpheme.html	Share: The science of teaching reading can sound like a foreign language, especially when you are first learning about Orton-Gillingham or Structured Literacy instruction. While you will likely be talking about digraphs, trigraphs, and blends before you know it, some of the specialized vocabulary can be a bit confusing. Let’s discuss three important terms: phoneme, grapheme, and morpheme. What’s the Difference Between Phonemes, Graphemes, and Morphemes? Download and print our Phonemes, Graphemes, and Morphemes checklist here! What’s A Phoneme? A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound. A phoneme is the smallest unit of spoken sound and is often the one thing that distinguishes one word from another. For example, cat and rat are only differentiated by the first phoneme. In many cases, a single letter represents a single phoneme, but in most cases, there are multiple ways of representing a particular phoneme in English spelling. And the case of the letter x, it is comprised of two phonemes /k/ & /s/. Generally, the accepted belief is that there are 44 phonemes in English. This includes short vowel sounds, long vowel sounds, digraph sounds such as /sh/, /th/ (voiced and unvoiced), and /ch/, and single consonant sounds. Most people consider the diphthong sounds /oy/ and /ou/ to be single phonemes as well. Linguistically, /ng/ and /ar/, /or/, /er/, /ear/, /oar/, and schwa are also phonemes. So, a single phoneme such as /n/ may be represented by letters in numerous different ways such as n, nn, kn, gn, or pn. Phonemes can be indicated through the International Phonemic Alphabet or by indicating a sound between slanted lines. Phonemic Awareness Phonemic awareness is the ability to hear and manipulate individual sounds is foundational to the development of literacy. The ability of your students to segment and differentiate phonemes is crucial for accurate decoding, encoding, and understanding of speech. Meaning is very much affected by differences in words of a single phoneme which may differ only by whether it is voiced or unvoiced. What’s A Grapheme? In linguistics, a grapheme is the smallest unit of a written language whether or not it carries meaning or corresponds to a single phoneme. In different languages, a grapheme may represent a syllable or unit of meaning. Graphemes can include other printed symbols such as punctuation marks. In this example, the grapheme <x> represents the phonemes /k//s/ while a single character in Japanese may represent a syllable. Different types/fonts of a single letter are considered the same grapheme. A basic alphabetic understanding and rapid recognition is a necessary first step to learning to read. Your student’s ability to quickly, accurately, and easily write graphemes is necessary for fluent writing and spelling. When we are speaking purely about English, you will often see another definition of grapheme. In this case, a grapheme is a letter or group of letters that represent a single phoneme. This is a term used more or less synonymously with phonograms. There are often numerous graphemes (or phonograms) that can represent a single phoneme. For example, the /ā/ sound is a phoneme that can be represented by numerous graphemes including ai, ay, ey, ei, eigh, a-e. To make things even more confusing for young learners, a single grapheme such as ea may represent three different phonemes /ē/, /ā/, or /ĕ/. While English has 26 letters and 44 phonemes, there are approximately 250 graphemes. To learn more about assessing spelling, read Taking a Closer Look at Spelling Errors: How a Spelling Assessment Can Inform Your Instruction. What’s A Morpheme? Perhaps the most neglected term and concept in the study of teaching reading is the morpheme. A morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning that cannot be further divided. So, a base word might be a morpheme, but a suffix, prefix, or root also represents a morpheme. For example, the word red is a single morpheme, but the word unpredictable is made of the morphemes un + pre + dict + able. While none of these units stand alone as words, they are the smallest units of meaning. Morphemes can vary tremendously in length from a single letter such as the prefix a- to a place name derived from another language such as Massachusetts, which in English represents a single morpheme. As students move into reading and writing more sophisticated academic language, the concept of morphemes becomes increasingly important to their decoding and their spelling as well as their ability to infer meanings of new vocabulary. The root of a word makes tremendous differences in spelling words with the -ion suffix for instance. Morphology While linguists can spend hours debating the precision of certain aspects of morphology such as whether the word dog is made of one morpheme or two (the base word and the absence of a suffix or nul), the purpose of our pursuit of this study is far from a purely cognitive exercise. The reason for building this understanding is clear. English is by its nature a morpho-phonemic language. Not only is it phonemic, but morphology also has a crucial role to play as well. In addressing both aspects of language learning, give your students the tools to understand the challenges of words that change pronunciation with the application of affixes such as clean and cleanse or sign and signature. Try to help them understand seemingly random spellings like to and two when they learn about the relationship of two to twenty and twin and twelve. English makes sense! Rather than our language being random and illogical and full of exceptions, English has a deep and complex logic to its orthography that your students can learn to use. Knowledge of how English works extends beyond the 44 phonemes or the 26 letters of the alphabet to a much more sophisticated understanding of how words are made and broken. How is this useful for our students? Our students benefit when we are transparent and give them the tools and practice to think critically and analytically about our language. And it all begins with some shared understandings such as these terms. You can share the definitions in a reference binder like the Spelling Concepts and Strategies binder. You can learn more about it in this video, Spelling Concepts and Strategies Binder for Orton-GIllingham Lessons. Be sure to subscribe so you can receive notifications when I create a new video. Are you looking for a list of words to use in your structured literacy lessons? Word List Builder has got you covered! Save time searching for phonemes, graphemes, and morphemes! Create customized and meaningful review, build your folder of words, create templates and games, and much more in Word List Builder. Share:
4519	dbpedia	3	6	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_the_United_States	en	Languages of the United States	https://upload.wikimedia…es_cp-02.svg.png	https://upload.wikimedia…es_cp-02.svg.png	[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png", "https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg", "https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Languages_cp-02.svg/300px-Languages_cp-02.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/KB_United_States-NoAltGr.svg/250px-KB_United_States-NoAltGr.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Population_speaking_English_at_home_by_PUMA.png/440px-Population_speaking_English_at_home_by_PUMA.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/USA_states_english_official_language.svg/300px-USA_states_english_official_language.svg.png", 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"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Anglophone_World.svg/600px-Anglophone_World.svg.png", "https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1", "https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg", "https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/footer/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Contributors to Wikimedia projects" ]	2002-07-24T04:14:57+00:00		en	/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png		https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_the_United_States	Languages of the United StatesOfficialNoneNationalEnglish (de facto)MainEnglish 78.0%, Spanish 13.3%, other Indo-European languages 3.8%, Asian and Pacific languages 3.6%, other languages 1.2% (2022 survey by the Census Bureau[1])IndigenousNavajo, Cherokee, Choctaw, Muscogee, Dakota, Lakota, Western Apache, Keres, Hopi, Zuni, Kiowa, Ojibwe, O'odham, Miwuk[2][3] RegionalNew Mexican Spanish, Ahtna, Alutiiq, Carolinian, Central Alaskan Yup'ik, Central Siberian Yupik, Chamorro, Deg Xinag, Dena’ina, Eyak, Pennsylvania Dutch, Gwich’in, Haida, Hän, Hawaiian, Holikachuk, Inupiaq, Koyukon, Samoan, Tanacross, Tanana, Tlingit, Tsimshian, Upper Kuskokwim, Upper Tanana, Gullah, Virgin Islands Creole, California English, New England English, New Jersey English, Southern American English, Texan English, Louisiana French, Texas German, Puerto Rican SpanishVernacularAfrican American Vernacular EnglishImmigrantSpoken at home by more than 1,000,000 people[4] Spanish 41,460,427 Chinese 3,471,604 French 2,066,656 Tagalog 1,760,468 Vietnamese 1,542,473 German 1,422,798 Korean 1,086,335 SignedAmerican Sign Language, Keresan Sign Language, Navajo Family Sign, Plains Indian Sign Language, Puerto Rican Sign Language, Samoan Sign Language, Black American Sign Language, Hawaiʻi Sign LanguageKeyboard layout The United States does not have an official language at the federal level, but the most commonly used language is English (specifically, American English), which is the de facto national language. In addition, 32 U.S. states out of 50 and all five U.S. territories have declared English as an official language. The great majority of the U.S. population (approximately 78%) speaks only English at home.[5] The remainder of the population speaks many other languages at home, most notably Spanish (13.3% of the population), according to the American Community Survey (ACS) of the U.S. Census Bureau; others include indigenous languages originally spoken by Native Americans, Alaska Natives, Native Hawaiians, and native populations in the U.S. unincorporated territories. Other languages were brought in by people from Europe, Africa, Asia, other parts of the Americas, and Oceania, including multiple dialects, creole languages, pidgin languages, and sign languages originating in what is now the United States. Interlingua, an international auxiliary language, was also created in the U.S. The majority of foreign language speakers in the U.S. are bilingual or multilingual, and they commonly speak English. Although 21.7% of U.S. residents report that they speak a language other than English at home, only 8.2% speak English less than "very well."[6] Approximately 430 languages are spoken or signed by the population, of which 177 are indigenous to the U.S. or its territories.[7] Most common languages [edit] Based on annual data from the American Community Survey (ACS), the U.S. Census Bureau regularly publishes information on the most common languages spoken at home. It also reports on the English-speaking ability of people who speak a language other than English at home.[8] In 2023, Spanish speakers made up about three-fifths of all foreign language speakers in the United States. In 2017, the U.S. Census Bureau published information on the number of speakers of some 350 languages as surveyed by the ACS from 2009 to 2013,[9][10] but it does not regularly tabulate and report data for that many languages. The most spoken native languages in the United States in 2021 were:[8] English (only language spoken in the household) – 245 million Spanish – 41.3 million Chinese (including Mandarin, Cantonese, Hokkien and all other varieties) – 3.40 million Tagalog (including Filipino) – 1.72 million Vietnamese – 1.52 million Arabic – 1.39 million French – 1.18 million Korean – 1.07 million Russian – 1.04 million Portuguese – 937,000 Haitian Creole – 895,000 Hindi – 865,000 German – 857,000 Polish – 533,000 Italian – 513,000 Urdu – 508,000 Persian (including Farsi, Dari and Tajik) – 472,000 Telugu – 460,000 Japanese – 455,000 Gujarati – 437,000 Bengali – 403,000 Tamil – 341,000 Punjabi – 319,000 Thais (including Central Thai and Lao) – 284,000 Serbo-Croatian (including Bosnian, Croatian, Montenegrin, and Serbian) – 266,000 Armenian – 256,000 Greek – 253,000 Hmong – 240,000 Hebrew – 215,000 Khmer – 193,000 Navajo – 155,000 other Indo-European languages – 662,000 Yoruba, Twi, Igbo and other languages of West Africa – 640,000 Amharic, Somali, and other Afro-Asiatic languages – 596,000 Dutch, Afrikaans, Frisian, Yiddish, Pennsylvania Dutch, Low German, and other West Germanic languages – 574,000 Ilocano, Samoan, Hawaiian, and other Austronesian languages – 486,000 Other languages of Asia – 460,000 Nepali, Marathi, and other Indic languages – 448,000 Ukrainian and other Slavic languages – 385,000 Swahili and other languages of Central, Eastern, and Southern Africa – 288,000 Malayalam, Kannada, and other Dravidian languages – 280,000 Other Native languages of North America – 169,000 other and unspecified languages – 327,000 The ACS is not a full census but an annual sample-based survey conducted by the U.S. Census Bureau. The language statistics are based on responses to a three-part question asked about all members of a target U.S. household who are at least five years old. The first part asks if they "speak a language other than English at home." If so, the head of the household or main respondent is asked to report which language each member speaks in the home, and how well each individual speaks English. It does not ask how well individuals speak any other language of the household. Thus, some respondents might have only limited speaking ability in those languages.[11] In addition, it is difficult to make historical comparisons of the numbers of speakers because language questions used by the U.S. Census changed numerous times before 1980.[12] The ACS does not tabulate the number of people who report the use of American Sign Language at home, so such data must come from other sources. While modern estimates indicate that American Sign Language was signed by as many as 500,000 Americans in 1972 (the last official survey of sign language), estimates as recently as 2011 were closer to 100,000. Various cultural factors, such as the passage of the Americans with Disabilities Act, have resulted in far greater educational opportunities for hearing-impaired children, which could double or triple the number of current users of American Sign Language. English is the most common language spoken in U.S. homes, with approximately 239 million speakers as well as numerous bilingual speakers. Spanish is spoken by approximately 35 million people.[13] The United States has the world's fourth largest Spanish-speaking population, outnumbered only by Mexico, Colombia, and Argentina; other estimates[which?] put the United States at over 50 million, second only to Mexico. Throughout the Southwestern United States and Puerto Rico, long-established Spanish-speaking communities coexist with large numbers of more recent Hispanophone immigrants. Although many new Latin American immigrants are less than fluent in English, nearly all second-generation Hispanic and Latino Americans speak English fluently, while only about half still speak Spanish.[14] According to the 2000 U.S. Census, people of German ancestry made up the largest single ethnic group in the United States, but German language was the fourth most-spoken language in the country.[15][16] Italian, Polish, and French are still widely spoken among populations descending from immigrants from those countries in the early 20th century, but the use of these languages is dwindling as the older generations die. Russian is also spoken by immigrant populations. Tagalog and Vietnamese have over one million speakers each in the United States, almost entirely within recent immigrant populations. Both languages, along with the varieties of Chinese (mostly Cantonese, Taishanese, and Standard Mandarin), Japanese, and Korean, are now used in elections in Alaska, California, Hawaii, Illinois, New York, Texas, and Washington.[17] Native American languages are spoken in smaller pockets of the country, but these populations are decreasing, and the languages are seldom widely used outside of reservations. Besides English, Spanish, French, German, Navajo and other Native American languages, all other languages are usually learned from immigrant ancestors that came after the time of independence or learned through some form of education. American Sign Language is the most common sign language in the United States, although there are unrelated sign languages that have also been developed in the States and territories—mostly in the Pacific. No concrete numbers exist for signers but something upwards of 250,000 is common. The most widely taught foreign languages in the United States, in terms of enrollment numbers from kindergarten through university undergraduate education, are Spanish, French, and German. Other commonly taught languages include Latin, Japanese, American Sign Language, Italian, and Chinese.[18][19] Official languages [edit] The United States has never had an official language at the federal level,[20][21] but English is typically used at the federal level and in states that do not have an official language. Outside of Puerto Rico, English is the primary language used for legislation, regulations, executive orders, treaties, federal court rulings, and all other official pronouncements. Nonetheless, laws require documents such as ballots to be printed in multiple languages when there are large numbers of non-English speakers in an area. Thirty-two of the 50 states have adopted legislation granting official or co-official status to English, in some cases as part of what has been called the English-only movement.[22][23] Typically only "English" is specified, not a particular variety like American English. (From 1923 to 1969, the state of Illinois recognized its official language as "American".)[24][25] Hawaiian, although having few native speakers, is an official language along with English of the state of Hawaii. Alaska has made some 20 native languages official, along with English;[26][27] for example, Alaska provides voting information in Iñupiaq, Central Yup'ik, Gwich'in, Siberian Yupik, and Koyukon among others.[28] On July 1, 2019, a law went into effect making Lakota, Dakota, and Nakota the official indigenous languages of South Dakota.[29] French is a de facto, but unofficial, language in Maine and Louisiana, while New Mexico law grants Spanish a special status. The government of Louisiana offers services and most documents in both English and French, and New Mexico does so in English and Spanish. English is at least one of the official languages in all five permanently inhabited U.S. territories. In Puerto Rico both English and Spanish are official, although Spanish has been declared the principal official language. The school system and the government operate almost entirely in Spanish, but federal law requires the United States District Court for the District of Puerto Rico to use English,[30] like the rest of the federal court system. Guam recognizes English and Chamorro. In the U.S. Virgin Islands, English is the only official language. In American Samoa, both English and Samoan are officially recognized; English is common but Samoan is also seen in some official communications. In the Northern Mariana Islands, English, Chamorro, and Carolinian are official.[citation needed] In New Mexico, although the state constitution does not specify an official language, laws are published in English and Spanish, and government materials and services are legally required (by Act) to be made accessible to speakers of both languages as well as Navajo and various Pueblo languages. New Mexico also has its own dialect of Spanish, which differs from Spanish spoken in Latin America. Algonquian, Cherokee, and Sioux are among many other Native American languages which are official or co-official on many U.S. Indian reservations and Pueblos. In Oklahoma before statehood in 1907, territory officials debated whether or not to have Cherokee, Choctaw, and Muscogee languages as co-official, but the idea never gained ground. Cherokee is officially recognized by the Cherokee Nation within the Cherokee tribal jurisdiction area in eastern Oklahoma.[31] After New Amsterdam (formerly a Dutch colony) was transferred to English administration (becoming the Province of New York) in the late 17th century, English supplanted Dutch as the official language. However, "Dutch remained the primary language for many civil and ecclesiastical functions and most private affairs for the next century."[32] The Jersey Dutch dialect is now extinct. California has agreed to allow the publication of state documents in other languages to represent minority groups and immigrant communities. Languages such as Spanish, Chinese, Korean, Tagalog, Persian, Russian, Vietnamese, and Thai appear in official state documents, and the Department of Motor Vehicles publishes in nine languages.[33] The issue of multilingualism also applies in the states of Arizona and Texas. While the constitution of Texas has no official language policy, Arizona passed a proposition in 2006 declaring English as the official language.[34] Nonetheless, Arizona law requires the distribution of voting ballots in Spanish, as well as indigenous languages such as Navajo, O'odham and Hopi, in counties where they are spoken.[35] A popular urban legend called the Muhlenberg legend claims that German was almost made an official language of the United States but lost by one vote. In reality, it was a request by a group of German immigrants to have an official translation of laws into German. House speaker Frederick Muhlenberg has since become associated with the legend.[36][37][38] Place English official Other official language(s) Note Alabama Yes None since 1990[39] Alaska Yes Inupiaq, Siberian Yupik, Central Alaskan Yup'ik, Alutiiq, Unangax, Dena'ina, Deg Xinag, Holikachuk, Koyukon, Upper Kuskokwim, Gwich'in, Tanana, Upper Tanana, Tanacross, Hän, Ahtna, Eyak, Tlingit, Haida, Tsimshian[40] since 2015[40] Arizona Yes None since 2006, 1988 law ruled unconstitutional[41] Arkansas Yes None since 1987[39] California Yes None since 1986 with Proposition 63.[39] Proposition 63 is unenforceable due to the lack of appropriate legislation,[42] and the Bilingual Services Act provides for the use of other languages in public outreach.[43] Colorado Yes None since 1988;[39] from 1876–1990 the Colorado Constitution required laws to be published in English, Spanish, and German[44] Connecticut No None[39] Delaware No None[39] Florida Yes None since 1988[39] Georgia Yes None since 1996[39] Hawaii Yes Hawaiian since 1978[39] Idaho Yes None since 2007[39] Illinois Yes None since 1969; "American" was the official language 1923–1969.[39] Indiana Yes None since 1984[39] Iowa Yes None since 2002[39] Kansas Yes None since 2007[39] Kentucky Yes None since 1984[39] Louisiana No None French has had special status since 1968 founding of CODOFIL.[39][45] Maine No None[39] Maryland No None[39] Massachusetts Yes None[39] since 2002; 1975 law ruled unconstitutional Michigan No None[39] Minnesota No None[39] Mississippi Yes None since 1987[39] Missouri Yes None[39] since 1998; state constitution amended accordingly in 2008[46] Montana Yes None since 1995[39] Nebraska Yes None since 1920[47] Nevada No None[39] New Hampshire Yes None since 1995[39] New Jersey No None[39] New Mexico No None Spanish has had special recognition since 1912 passage of state constitution. See article. English Plus since 1989[39] New York No None[39] North Carolina Yes None since 1987[39] North Dakota Yes None since 1987[39] Ohio No None[39] Oklahoma Yes None since 2010. The Choctaw language is official within the Choctaw Nation; the Cherokee language has been official among the Cherokee and the UKB since 1991.[48][49][50][51] Oregon No None English Plus since 1989[39] Pennsylvania No None[39] Rhode Island No None English Plus since 1992[39] South Carolina Yes None since 1987[39] South Dakota Yes Sioux since 1995,[39] since 2019[52] Tennessee Yes None since 1984[39] Texas No None[39] Utah Yes None English only from 2000–2021;[39] since 2021, the Utah code has been amended to be English official but not English only.[53] Vermont No None[39] Virginia Yes None since 1996[39] Washington No None English Plus since 1989[39] West Virginia Yes None[39] since 2016[54] Wisconsin No None[39] Wyoming Yes None since 1996[39] District of Columbia No None[55][56] The Language Access Act of 2004 guarantees equal access and participation in public services, programs, and activities for residents of the District of Columbia who cannot (or have limited capacity to) speak, read, or write English. Speakers of Amharic, French, Chinese, Spanish, Vietnamese and Korean receive additional accommodations.[57][58] American Samoa Yes Samoan[59] Guam Yes Chamorro[60] Northern Mariana Islands Yes Chamorro, Carolinian[61] Puerto Rico Yes Spanish[62] U.S. Virgin Islands Yes None[63] Education [edit] Bilingual education in the United States, often a different concept from language immersion or dual-language school programs, is an area of political controversy. In standard bilingual classes, the non-English language (typically Spanish or Chinese) is utilized over a period of time when students' English-language proficiency is lacking. Otherwise the medium of instruction at almost all U.S. schools, at all levels, is English. The exceptions are in language classes such as French or German, or in general education in the territory of Puerto Rico, where Spanish is standard. English is the language of instruction in the territory of American Samoa, despite most students speaking Samoan as their native language.[64] There are also hundreds of language immersion and dual-language schools across the United States that teach in a variety of languages, including Spanish, Hawaiian, Chamorro, French, and Mandarin Chinese (for example, the Mandarin Immersion Magnet School in Texas). However, English is a mandatory class in all these schools. African, Asian and European languages [edit] Some of the first European languages to be spoken in the U.S. were English, Dutch, French, Spanish, and Swedish. From the mid-19th century, the nation had large numbers of immigrants who spoke little or no English. The laws, constitutions, and legislative proceedings of some states and territories appeared in the languages of politically important immigrant groups. There have been bilingual schools and local newspapers in such languages as German, Ukrainian, Hungarian, Irish, Italian, Norwegian, Greek, Polish, Swedish, Romanian, Czech, Japanese, Yiddish, Hebrew, Lithuanian, Welsh, Cantonese, Bulgarian, Dutch, Portuguese Persian, arabic and others. These flourished despite English-only laws in some jurisdictions prohibiting church services, telephone conversations, and even conversations in the street or on railway platforms in a language other than English, up until the first of these laws was ruled unconstitutional in 1923 (Meyer v. Nebraska). Typically, immigrant languages tend to be lost through assimilation within two or three generations.[66] Several states and territories have native populations who spoke their own language prior to joining the United States, and have maintained their original languages for centuries. The languages include Alaskan Russian, Louisiana French, Pennsylvania Dutch, and Puerto Rican Spanish. Historic languages [edit] English (245 million speakers) [edit] English was inherited from British colonization, and it is spoken by the majority of the population. English has become increasingly common; when the United States was founded, just 40% of Americans spoke English.[67][better source needed]. In 2002, 87% of Americans spoke English as their first language.[68][69] It serves as the de facto national language, the language in which government business is carried out. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, 80% spoke only English at home and all but approximately 13,600,000 U.S. residents age 5 and over speak English "well" or "very well".[70] American English is different from British English in terms of spelling (one example being the dropped "u" in words such as color/colour), grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, and slang usage. The differences are not usually a barrier to effective communication between an American English and a British English speaker. Some states, like California, have amended their constitutions to make English the only official language, but in practice, this only means that official government documents must at least be in English, and does not mean that they should be exclusively available only in English. For example, the standard California Class C driver's license examination is available in 32 different languages.[71] Spanish (41.3 million speakers) [edit] Spanish was also inherited from colonization and is sanctioned as official in the commonwealth of Puerto Rico, where it is the general language of instruction in schools and universities. In the 50 states, the District of Columbia, and all territories except Puerto Rico, Spanish is taught as a foreign or second language. It is spoken at home in areas with large Hispanic populations: the Southwestern United States along the border with Mexico, as well as in Florida, parts of California, the District of Columbia, Illinois, New Jersey, and New York. In Hispanic communities across the country, bilingual signs in both Spanish and English may be quite common. Furthermore, numerous neighborhoods exist (such as Washington Heights in New York City or Little Havana in Miami) in which entire city blocks will have only Spanish-language signs and Spanish-speaking people. Spanish speakers in the United States Year Number of Spanish speakers Percent of US population 1980 11 million 5% 1990 17.3 million 7% 2000 28.1 million 10% 2010 37 million 13% 2012 38.3 million 13% 2015 41 million 14% Sources:[16][72][73][74] Younger generations of non-Hispanics in the United States choose to study Spanish as a foreign or second language in far greater numbers than other second-language options. This might be due in part to the growing Hispanic population and the increasing popularity of Latin American movies and music performed in the Spanish language. A 2009 American Community Survey (ACS) conducted by the United States Census Bureau, showed that Spanish was spoken at home by over 35 million people aged 5 or older,[75] making the United States the world's fifth-largest Spanish-speaking community, outnumbered only by Mexico, Colombia, Spain, and Argentina.[76][77] Since then, the number of persons reported on the ACS to speak Spanish at home has increased (see table). New Mexican Spanish [edit] Main article: New Mexican Spanish In northern New Mexico and southern Colorado, Spanish speakers have been isolated for centuries in the southern Rockies, and developed a distinct dialect of Spanish spoken nowhere else: New Mexican Spanish. The dialect features a mix of Castilian, Galician and, more recently, Mexican Spanish, as well as Pueblo loan words. New Mexican Spanish also contains a large proportion of English loan words, particularly for technological words (e.g. bos, troca, and telefón). Speakers of New Mexican Spanish are mainly descendants of Spanish colonists who arrived in New Mexico in the sixteenth through the eighteenth centuries. During this time, contact with the rest of Spanish America was limited, and New Mexican Spanish developed on its own course. In the meantime, Spanish colonists coexisted with and intermarried with Puebloan peoples and Navajos. After the Mexican–American War, New Mexico and all its inhabitants came under the governance of the English-speaking United States, and for the next hundred years, English-speakers increased in number. Puerto Rican Spanish [edit] Main article: Puerto Rican Spanish Puerto Rican Spanish is the main language and dialect of the people of Puerto Rico, as well as many people descended from Puerto Ricans elsewhere throughout the United States. Spanglish [edit] Spanglish is a code-switching variant of Spanish and English and is spoken in areas with large bilingual populations of Spanish and English speakers, such as along the Mexico–United States border (California, Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas), Florida, and New York City. French (2.08 million speakers) [edit] French, the fourth-most-common language (when all varieties of French are combined and separate yet related languages such as Haitian Creole are counted as French), is spoken mainly by the Louisiana Creole, native French, Cajun, Haitian, and French-Canadian populations. It is widely spoken in Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, and in Louisiana, with notable Francophone enclaves in St. Clair County, Michigan, many rural areas of the Upper Peninsula of Michigan and the northern San Francisco Bay area. [citation needed] Because of its legacy in Louisiana, that state is served by the Council for the Development of French in Louisiana (CODOFIL), the only state agency in the United States whose mission is to serve a linguistic population. In October 2018, Louisiana became the first U.S. state to join the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie.[78] Three varieties of French developed within what is now the United States in colonial times including Louisiana French, Missouri French, and New England French (essentially a variant of Canadian French).[79] French is the second-most-spoken language in the states of Louisiana and Maine. The largest French-speaking communities in the United States reside in Northeast Maine; Hollywood and Miami, Florida; New York City;[citation needed] certain areas of rural Louisiana; and small minorities in Vermont and New Hampshire. Many of the New England communities are connected to the dialect found across the border in Quebec or New Brunswick. More than 13 million Americans possess primary French heritage, but only 2 million speak French, or any regional creoles and variations language at home. The largest concentration of French speakers in the country is in Louisiana. Louisiana French [edit] Further information: Louisiana French and Louisiana Creole Louisiana French (Cajun French: français de la Louisiane; Louisiana Creole: françé la lwizyàn) is an umbrella term for the dialects and varieties of the French language spoken traditionally in colonial Lower Louisiana. As of today Louisiana French is primarily used in the U.S. state of Louisiana, specifically in the southern parishes. French is spoken across ethnic and racial lines by Louisiana French people who may identify as Cajuns or Creoles as well as Chitimacha, Houma, Biloxi, Tunica, Choctaw, Acadians, and French Indian among others.[80][81] For these reasons, as well as the relatively small influence Acadian French has had on the region, the label Louisiana French or Louisiana Regional French (French: français régional louisianais) is generally regarded as more accurate and inclusive than "Cajun French" and is the preferred term by linguists and anthropologists.[82][83][84][85] However, "Cajun French" is commonly used in lay discourse by speakers of the language and other inhabitants of Louisiana.[86] German (1.29 million speakers) [edit] German was a widely spoken language in some of the colonies, especially Pennsylvania, where a number of German-speaking Protestants and other religious minorities settled to escape persecution in Europe. Another wave of settlement occurred when Germans fleeing the failure of 19th Century German revolutions emigrated to the United States. A large number of these German immigrants settled in the urban areas, with neighborhoods in many cities being German-speaking and numerous local German language newspapers and periodicals established. German farmers also took up farming around the country, including the Texas Hill Country, at this time. The language was widely spoken until the United States entered World War I. In the early twentieth century, German was the most widely studied foreign language in the United States, and prior to World War I, more than 6%[citation needed] of American schoolchildren received their primary education exclusively in German, though some of these Germans came from areas outside of Germany proper. Currently, more than 49 million Americans claim German ancestry, the largest self-described ethnic group in the U.S., but less than 4% of them speak a language other than English at home, according to the 2005 American Community Survey.[87] The Amish speak a dialect of German known as Pennsylvania Dutch. One reason for this decline of German language was the perception during both World Wars that speaking the language of the enemy was unpatriotic; foreign language instruction was banned in places during the First World War. Unlike earlier waves, they were more concentrated in cities and integrated quickly. Another reason for the decline in German was the lack of first-generation immigrants, as immigration to the United States from Western Europe slowed following the World Wars. Waves of colonial Palatines from the Rhenish Palatinate, one of the Holy Roman states, settled in the Province of New York and the Province of Pennsylvania. The first Palatines arrived in the late 1600s but the majority came throughout the 1700s; they were known collectively as the Palatine Dutch. The Pennsylvania Dutch settled other states, including Indiana and Ohio.[88][89] For many years, the term "Palatine" meant German American.[90] There is a myth (known as the Muhlenberg Vote) that German was to be the official language of the U.S., but this is inaccurate and based on a failed early attempt to have government documents translated into German.[91] The myth also extends to German being the second official language of Pennsylvania; however, Pennsylvania has no official language. Although more than 49 million Americans claim they have German ancestors, only 1.24 million Americans speak German at home. Many of these people are either Amish and Mennonites or Germans having newly immigrated (e.g. for professional reasons). Pennsylvania Dutch [edit] Main article: Pennsylvania Dutch language Pennsylvania Dutch or Pennsylvania German is a dialect of Palatine German that is traditionally spoken by the Pennsylvania Dutch, and has settled the Midwest, in places such as Ohio, Indiana, Iowa and other states, where many of the speakers live today. It evolved from the German dialect of the Palatinate brought over to America by Palatines from the Holy Roman Empire in the 1600s.[92] They settled on land sold to them by William Penn. Germantown included not only Mennonites, but also Quakers.[93] The Pennsylvania Dutch speak Pennsylvania Dutch, and adhere to different Christian denominations: Lutherans, German Reformed, Mennonites, Amish, German Baptist Brethren, Roman Catholics; today Pennsylvania Dutch is mainly spoken by Old Order Amish and Old Order Mennonites. Texas German [edit] Main article: Texas German Texas German is a group of High German dialects spoken by Texas Germans, descendants of German immigrants who settled in Texas in the mid-19th century. Yiddish [edit] Yiddish has a much longer history in the United States than Hebrew.[94] It has been present since at least the late 19th century and continues to have roughly 148,000 speakers as of the 2009 American Community Survey. Though they came from varying geographic backgrounds and nuanced approaches to worship, immigrant Jews of Central Europe, Germany and Russia were often united under a common understanding of the Yiddish language once they settled in America, and at one point dozens of publications were available in most East Coast cities. Though it has declined by quite a bit since the end of WWII, it has by no means disappeared. Many Israeli immigrants and expatriates have at least some understanding of the language in addition to Hebrew, and many of the descendants of the great migration of Ashkenazi Jews of the past century pepper their mostly English vocabulary with some loan words. Furthermore, it is a lingua franca among American Jews (particularly Hasidic Jewry), concentrated in Los Angeles, Miami, and New York.[95] A significant diffusion of Yiddish loan words into the non-Jewish population continues to be a distinguishing feature of New York City English. Some of these words include glitch, chutzpah, mensch, kvetch, klutz, etc. Russian (1.04 million speakers) [edit] The Russian language is spoken in areas of some states, including New York, California, Washington, New Jersey, Illinois, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Alaska. It is especially spoken in immigrant neighborhoods of some cities: New York City, Boston, Los Angeles, San Francisco, Philadelphia, Chicago, Seattle, Sacramento, Spokane, Miami, Vancouver, Washington, Portland, Oregon, and Woodburn, Oregon. The Russian-American Company owned most all of what became Alaska Territory until its sale right after the Crimean War. The presence of Russian speakers in the United States had always been limited, especially after the assassination of the Romanov dynasty of tsars. Starting in the 1970s and continuing until the mid-1990s, however, many Russian-speaking people from the Soviet Union and later its constituent republics such as Russia, Moldova, Ukraine, Belarus, and Uzbekistan have immigrated to the United States, increasing the use of Russian in the country. The largest Russian-speaking neighborhoods in the United States are found in Brooklyn, Queens, and Staten Island in New York City (specifically the Brighton Beach area of Brooklyn); parts of Los Angeles, particularly West Los Angeles and West Hollywood; parts of Philadelphia, particularly the Far Northeast; and parts of Miami like Sunny Isles Beach. The Russian-language media group Slavic Voice of America, based in Dallas, Texas, serves Russian-speaking Americans. Alaskan Russian [edit] Main article: Alaskan Russian Alaskan Russian, known locally as Old Russian, is a dialect of Russian influenced by the Alutiiq language spoken by Alaskan Creoles. Most of its speakers live on Kodiak Island and in the Ninilchik (Kenai Peninsula). It has been isolated from other varieties of Russian for over a century.[96] Kodiak Russian was natively spoken along the Afognak Strait until the Great Alaskan earthquake and tsunami of 1964. It has become moribund, spoken by only a handful of elderly people, and is virtually undocumented.[97] Ninilchik Russian has been better studied and is more vibrant. It developed from the Russian colonial settlement of the village of Ninilchik in 1847.[98][99] Ninilchik Russian vocabulary is clearly Russian, with a few borrowings from English and Alaskan native languages. In Nikolaevsk, Alaska, 66.57% of the population still spoke Russian at home as late as 2017.[100] Dutch (142 thousand speakers) [edit] In a 1990 demographic consensus, 3% of surveyed citizens claimed to be of Dutch descent. Modern estimates place the Dutch American population (with total or partial Dutch heritage) at 3.1 million, or 0.93%,[101] lagging just a bit behind Norwegian Americans and Swedish Americans,[101] while 885,000[102] Americans claimed total Dutch heritage. An estimated 141,580 people, or 0.0486%,[103] in the United States still speak the Dutch language, including its Flemish variant, at home as of 2013. This is in addition to the 23,010 and 510 speakers, respectively, of the Afrikaans and West-Frisian languages, both closely related to Dutch.[103] Dutch speakers in the U.S are concentrated mainly in California (23,500), Florida (10,900), Pennsylvania (9,900), Ohio (9,600), New York (8,700) and Michigan (6,600, residing almost entirely in the city of Holland).[104] In 2021, 95.3% of the total Dutch-American population aged 5 years and over spoke only English at home.[105] History [edit] Further information: Jersey Dutch language Further information: Mohawk Dutch There has been a Dutch presence in North America since establishment of 17th-century colony of New Netherland (parts of New York, New Jersey and Delaware), where Dutch was spoken by the New Netherlander, the original settlers, and their descendants. It was still spoken in the region at the time of the American Revolution and thereafter. For example, Alexander Hamilton's wife, Eliza Hamilton, attended a Dutch-language church during their marriage. African-American abolitionist and women's rights activist Sojourner Truth (born "Isabella Baumfree") was a native speaker of Dutch. Martin Van Buren, the first president born in the United States following its independence from Great Britain, spoke Dutch as his native language. He is the only U.S. president whose first language was not English. Vernacular dialects of Dutch were spoken in northeastern New Jersey (Bergen, Hudson, Passaic county) and the Capital District of New York until they gradually declined throughout the 20th century. Indigenous languages [edit] Native American languages [edit] Native American languages predate European settlement of the New World. In a few parts of the U.S. (mostly on Indian reservations), they continue to be spoken fluently. Most of these languages are endangered, although there are efforts to revive them. Normally the fewer the speakers of a language the greater the degree of endangerment, but there are many small Native American language communities in the Southwest (Arizona and New Mexico) which continue to thrive despite their small size. In 1929, speaking of indigenous Native American languages, linguist Edward Sapir observed:[106] Few people realize that within the confines of the United States there is spoken today a far greater variety of languages ... than in the whole of Europe. We may go further. We may say, quite literally and safely, that in the state of California alone there are greater and more numerous linguistic extremes than can be illustrated in all the length and breadth of Europe. Navajo [edit] Main article: Navajo language According to the 2000 Census and other language surveys, the largest Native American language-speaking community by far is the Navajo. Navajo is an Athabaskan language of the Na-Dené family, with 178,000 speakers, primarily in the states of Arizona, New Mexico, and Utah. Altogether, Navajo speakers make up more than 50% of all Native American language speakers in the United States. Western Apache, with 12,500 speakers, also mostly in Arizona, is closely related to Navajo but not mutually intelligible with it. Navajo and other Athabaskan languages in the Southwest are relative outliers; most other Athabascan languages are spoken in the Pacific Northwest and Alaska. Navajo has struggled to keep a healthy speaker base, although this problem has been alleviated to some extent by extensive education programs on the Navajo Nation, including a Navajo language immersion school in Fort Defiance, Arizona. Cherokee [edit] Main article: Cherokee language Cherokee is the Iroquoian language spoken by the Cherokee people, and the official language of the Cherokee Nation.[107] Significant numbers of Cherokee speakers of all ages[108] still populate the Qualla Boundary in Cherokee, North Carolina and several counties within the Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma, significantly Cherokee, Sequoyah, Mayes, Adair, and Delaware. Increasing numbers of Cherokee youth are renewing interest in the traditions, history, and language of their ancestors.[108] Cherokee-speaking communities stand at the forefront of language preservation, and at local schools, all lessons are taught in Cherokee and thus it serves as the medium of instruction from pre-school on up.[107] Also, church services and traditional ceremonial stomp dances are held in the language in Oklahoma and on the Qualla Boundary in North Carolina.[107] Cherokee is one of the few, or perhaps the only, Native American language with an increasing population of speakers,[109] and along with Navajo it is the only indigenous American language with more than 50,000 speakers,[110] a figure most likely achieved through the tribe's 10-year long language preservation plan involving growing new speakers through immersion schools for children,[111][112] developing new words for modern phrases, teaching the language to non-Cherokees in schools and universities,[113] fostering the language among young adults so their children can use that language at home, developing iPhone and iPad apps for language education, the development of Cherokee language radio stations including Cherokee Voices, Cherokee Sounds,[114] and promoting the writing system through public signage, products like the Apple iPhone, internet use through Google including Gmail, and others so the language remains relevant in the 21st century. Other Native American languages [edit] Dakota is a Siouan language with 18,000 speakers in the US alone (22,000 including speakers in Canada), not counting 6,000 speakers of the closely related Lakota. Most speakers live in the states of North Dakota and South Dakota. Other Siouan languages include the closely related Winnebago, and the more distant Crow, among others. Central Alaskan Yup'ik is an Eskimo–Aleut language with 16,000 speakers, most of whom live in Alaska. The term "Yupik" is applied to its relatives, which are not necessarily mutually intelligible with Central Alaskan, including Naukan and Central Siberian, among others. The O'odham language, spoken by the Pima and the Tohono O'odham, is a Uto-Aztecan language with more than 12,000 speakers, most of whom live in central and southern Arizona and northern Sonora. Other Uto-Aztecan languages include Hopi, Shoshone, and the Pai-Ute languages. Choctaw has 11,000 speakers. Choctaw is part of the Muskogean family, like Seminole and Alabama. The Algonquian language family includes languages like Chippewa/Ojibwe, Cheyenne, and Cree. Keres has 11,000 speakers in New Mexico and is a language isolate. The Keres pueblo people are the largest of the Pueblo nations. The Keres pueblo of Acoma is the oldest continually inhabited community in the United States. Zuni, another isolate, has around 10,000 speakers, most of whom reside within the Zuni pueblo. Because of immigration from Mexico, there are Mexican native American languages speakers in the US. There are thousands of Nahuatl, Mixtec, Zapotec and Trique speakers in communities established mainly in the southern states. Although the languages of the Americas have a history stretching back about 17,000 to 12,000 years, current knowledge of them is limited. There are doubtlessly a number of undocumented languages that were once spoken in the United States that are missing from historical record. List of Native American languages [edit] Below is an estimate of Native American languages "spoken at home" in the United States (American Community Survey 2006–2008).[115] This is not an exhaustive list of Native American languages in the US. Because the distinction between dialect and language is not always clear, multiple dialects of varying mutual intelligibility may be classified as a single language, while a group of effectively identical dialects may be classified separately for historical or cultural reasons. Languages included here may be classified as "extinct" (having no living native speakers), but many extinct or moribund Native American languages are the subjects of ongoing language revitalization efforts; other extinct languages undergoing revitalization might not be listed here. Language Endonym[a] Family Speakers (% of total) Does not speak English "Very Well"[b] Total — — 444,124 (100) 19.22% Total (excl. Navajo) — — 203,127 (54.32) 15.82% Navajo Diné bizaad Na-Dené 170,822 (45.68) 23.25% Dakota Dakȟótiyapi Siouan 18,804 (5.03) 9.86% Yupik — Eskimo–Aleut 18,626 (4.98) 37.02% O'odham — Uto-Aztecan 15,123 (3.59) 8.03% Apache Ndee biyati' Na-Dené 14,012 (3.75) 3.53% Keres — Isolate 13,073 (3.50) 6.20% Cherokee Tsalagi Gawonihisdi (ᏣᎳᎩ ᎦᏬᏂᎯᏍᏗ) Iroquoian 12,320 (3.29) 16.33% Choctaw Chahta' Muskogean 10,368 (2.77) 23.44% Zuni Shiwi'ma Isolate 9432 (2.52) 14.22% American Indian (Other) — — 8888 (2.38) 16.73% O'odham (Pima) Oʼodham ñiʼokĭ Uto-Aztecan 8190 (2.19) 14.70% Ojibwe (Chippewa) Anishinaabemowin Algic 6986 (1.87) 11.28% Hopi Hopilàvayi Uto-Aztecan 6776 (1.81) 18.80% Inupiat (Inupik) Iñupiatun Eskimo–Aleut 5580 (1.49) 26.04% Tewa — Tanoan 5123 (1.37) 13.80% Muskogee (Creek) Mvskoke Muskogean 5072 (1.36) 19.62% Crow Apsáalooke Siouan 3962 (1.06) 6.59% Shoshoni Sosoni' da̲i̲gwape Uto-Aztecan 2512 (0.67) 7.25% Cheyenne Tsėhésenėstsestȯtse Algic 2399 (0.64) 3.21% Tiwa — Tanoan 2269 (0.61) 3.22% Towa (Jemez) — Tanoan 2192 (0.59) 27.65% Inuit (Eskimo) — Eskimo–Aleut 2168 (0.58) 25.46% Blackfoot Siksiká (ᓱᖽᐧᖿ) Algic 1970 (0.53) 11.02% Sahaptin Ichishkíin sɨ́nwit Plateau Penutian 1654 (0.44) 6.17% Paiute — Uto-Aztecan 1638 (0.44) 11.78% Athapascan — Na-Dené 1627 (0.44) 19.55% Ute Núu-'apaghapi Uto-Aztecan 1625 (0.43) 5.23% Southern Tiwa — Tanoan 1600 (0.42) Mohawk Kanien’kéha' Iroquoian 1423 (0.38) 11.67% Seneca Onödowága Iroquoian 1353 (0.36) 11.23% Winnebago Hocąk Siouan 1340 (0.36) 6.27% Kiowa Cáuijògà Tanoan 1274 (0.34) 9.58% Aleut Unangam tunuu Eskimo–Aleut 1236 (0.33) 19.01% Salish — Salishan 1233 (0.33) 22.87% Gwich’in (Kuchin) Gwich’in Na-Dené 1217 (0.33) 25.82% Kickapoo Kiwikapawa Algic 1141 (0.31) 41.72% Arapaho Hinónoʼeitíít Algic 1087 (0.29) 1.20% Tlingit Lingít Na-Dené 1026 (0.27) 8.19% Siberian Yupik (SLI Yupik) Sivuqaghmiistun Eskimo–Aleut 993 (0.27) 39.48% Passamaquoddy Peskotomuhkat Algic 982 (0.26) 6.11% Comanche Nʉmʉ tekwapʉ Uto-Aztecan 963 (0.26) 10.59% Cree Nēhiyawēwin Algic 951 (0.25) 8.73% Menominee Omāēqnomenew Algic 946 (0.25) 39.64% Nez Perce Niimiipuutímt Plateau Penutian 942 (0.25) 12.10% Potawatomi Bodéwadmi Algic 824 (0.22) 9.95% Hidatsa Hidatsa Siouan 806 (0.22) 4.47% Kickapoo — Algic 800 (0.22) Mesquakie (Fox) Meshkwahkihaki Algic 727 (0.19) 22.15% Karok Káruk Isolate 700 (0.19) 5.43% Pomo — Pomoan 648 (0.17) 14.81% Oneida Oneyota'aaka Iroquoian 527 (0.14) 58.63% Yurok Puliklah Algic 491 (0.13) 1.63% Cocopah Kwikapa Yuman 483 (0.13) 22.77% Hualapai Hwalbáy Yuman 458 (0.12) 4.80% Omaha Umoⁿhoⁿ Siouan 457 (0.12) 1.97% Chiricahua Ndee bizaa Na-Dené 457 (0.12) — Jicarilla Abáachi mizaa Na-Dené 455 (0.12) 14.51% Yaqui Yoem noki Uto-Aztecan 425 (0.11) 10.12% Yokuts — Yokutsan 407 (0.11) 27.27% Koasati Coushatta Muskoeaen 370 (0.10) — Mono Mono Uto-Aztecan 349 (0.09) — Mohave Hamakhav Yuman 330 (0.09) 6.36% Luiseño Cham'teela Uto-Aztecan 327 (0.09) 4.28% Shawnee Sawanwa Algic 321 (0.09) 6.23% Maidu (NE Maidu) Májdy Maiduan 319 (0.09) 6.90% Ottawa Nishnaabemwin Algic 312 (0.08) 10.90% Algonquin Anicinâbemowin Algic 288 (0.08) 19.79% Okanogan Nsəlxcin Salishan 284 (0.08) 10.92% Osage Wazhazhe ie Siouan 260 (0.07) 20.38% Wichita Kirikirʔi:s Caddoan 242 (0.06) 16.12% Onondaga Onǫda’gegá Iroquoian 239 (0.06) 2.93% Mi'kmaq (Micmac) Míkmawísimk Algic 230 (0.06) 10.87% Digueño (Ipai-Kumiai-Tipai) — Yuman 228 (0.06) 60.96% Washo Wá:šiw ʔítlu Isolate 227 (0.06) 9.69% Miwok Miwok Utian 216 (0.06) — Lushootseed (Puget Salish) Xʷəlšucid Salishan 207 (0.06) 47.83% Kutenai Ktunaxa Isolate 200 (0.05) 32.50% Miccosukee Mikisúkî Muskogean 188 (0.05) 22.87% Tuscarora Ska:rù:rę' Iroquoian 179 (0.05) 10.06% Makah Qʷi·qʷi·diččaq Wakashan 176 (0.05) 30.11% Coeur d'Alene Snchitsuʼumshtsn Salishan 174 (0.05) — Hupa Na:tinixwe Na-Dené 174 (0.05) — Quechan (Yuma) Kwtsaan Yuman 172 (0.05) 31.98% Miami Myaamia Algic 168 (0.04) 50.60% Alabama Albaamo innaaɬiilka Muskogean 165 (0.04) 20.00% Delaware Lënape / Lunaapeew Algic 146 (0.04) 25.34% Clallam Nəxʷsƛ̕ay̕əmúcən Salishan 146 (0.04) 1.37% Penobscot (E Abenaki) Panawahpskek Algic 144 (0.04) 5.56% Yavapai — Yuman 139 (0.04) — Cahuilla Ivia Uto-Aztecan 139 (0.04) — Ponca Paⁿka Siouan 131 (0.04) 6.87% Quinault Kʷínaył Salishan 128 (0.03) — Deg Xinag (Ingalit) Degexit’an Na-Dené 127 (0.03) — Pawnee Paári Caddoan 122 (0.03) 16.39% Haida X̱aat Kíl Isolate 118 (0.03) 19.49% Cowlitz Stl'pulimuhkl Salishan 110 (0.03) 82.73% Mandan Nų́ʔetaːre Siouan 104 (0.03) 38.46% Arikara Sáhniš Caddoan 103 (0.03) — Klamath Maqlaqs Plateau Penutian 95 (0.03) 27.37% Havasupai Havasu’baaja Yuman 90 (0.02) 52.22% Chitimacha Sitimaxa Isolate 89 (0.02) 21.35% Abenaki (W Abenaki) Wôbanakiôdwawôgan Algic 86 (0.02) — Kwak'wala (Kwakiutl) Kwak'wala Wakashan 85 (0.02) 24.71% Tututni (Rogue River) Dotodəni Na-Dené 84 (0.02) — Iroquois — Iroquoian 76 (0.02) — Tsimshian Sm'algyax Tsimshianic 68 (0.02) — Achumawi — Palaihnihan 68 (0.02) — Chiwere Jíwere Siouan 60 (0.02) — Koasati Kowassá:ti Muskogean 59 (0.02) 6.78% Koyukon Denaakkʼe Na-Dené 58 (0.02) 12.07% Upper Chinook Kiksht Chinookan 58 (0.02) 10.34% Caddo Hasí:nay Caddoan 51 (0.01) 23.53% Kalapuya (Santiam) — Kalapuyan 50 (0.01) — Gros Ventre (Atsina) Ahahnelin Algic 45 (0.01) — Tachi — Yokutsan 45 (0.01) 57.78% Maricopa Piipaash chuukwer Yuman 44 (0.01) 22.73% Chumash S.hamala Chumashan 39 (0.01) 100.00% Nomlaki Nomlāqa Wintuan 38 (0.01) — Konkow (NW Maidu) Koyoom k'awi Maiduan 32 100.00% Tunica Yuron Isolate 32 — Tonkawa Tickanwa•tic Isolate 29 — Caddo — Caddoan 25 — Wintu Wintʰu:h Wintuan 24 — Spokane Npoqínišcn Salishan 20 40.00% Ahtna Atnakenaege’ Na-Dené 18 — Columbia (Sinkiuse) Nxaảmxcín Salishan 17 — Atsugewi Atsugé Palaihnihan 15 — Chemehuevi Nüwüvi Uto-Aztecan 15 — Abenaki — Algic 14 — Northern Paiute Numu Uto-Aztecan 12 — Dena'ina (Tanaina) Dena’ina qenaga Na-Dené 11 — Cupeño Kupangaxwicham Uto-Aztecan 11 — Nuu-chah-nulth (Nootka) Nuučaan̓uł Wakashan 10 — Pawnee Chatiks si chatiks Caddoan 10 Arikara Sanish Caddoan 10 Alutiiq (Gulf Yupik) Sugpiaq Eskimo–Aleut 8 — Kansa Káⁿza Siouan 7 — Siuslaw Šáayušła Isolate 6 — Cayuga Gayogo̱hó:nǫ’ Iroquoian 6 — Serrano Taaqtam Uto-Aztecan 5 — Tübatulabal — Uto-Aztecan 5 — Yuchi Tsoyaha Isolate 4 — Shasta — Shastan 2 100.00% Wukcumni — Yokutsan 1 0.00% Quapaw — Siouan 1 — Native American sign languages [edit] A sign-language trade pidgin, known as Plains Indian Sign Language, Plains Standard or Plains Sign Talk, arose among the Native Americans of the plains. Each signing nation had a separate signed version of their oral language, that was used by the hearing, and these were not mutually intelligible. Plains Standard was used to communicate between these nations. It seems to have started in Texas and then spread north, through the Great Plains, as far as British Columbia. There are still a few users today, especially among the Crow, Cheyenne, and Arapaho. Unlike other sign languages developed by hearing people, it shares the spatial grammar of deaf sign languages. Through intergenerational transmission, Plains Sign Talk became a working language still in use today in some Deaf First Nations or Native American communities. As Plains Sign Talk was so widespread and was a spectrum of dialects and accents, it probably hosted several languages under its umbrella. One is potentially Navajo Sign Language which is in use by a sole Navajo clan. Additionally, Plateau Sign Language existed alongside Plains Sign Talk as either a trade pidgin or another language around the Columbia Plateau and surrounding regions. Austronesian languages [edit] Hawaiian [edit] Hawaiian is an official state language of Hawaii as prescribed in the Constitution of Hawaii. Hawaiian has 1,000 native speakers. Formerly considered critically endangered, Hawaiian is showing signs of language renaissance. The recent trend is based on new Hawaiian language immersion programs of the Hawaii State Department of Education and the University of Hawaii, as well as efforts by the Hawaii State Legislature and county governments to preserve Hawaiian place names. In 1993, about 8,000 could speak and understand it; today estimates range up to 27,000. Hawaiian is related to the Māori language spoken by around 150,000 New Zealanders and Cook Islanders as well as the Tahitian language which is spoken by another 120,000 people of Tahiti. Samoan [edit] Samoan is an official territorial language of American Samoa. Samoans make up 90% of the population, and most people are bilingual. Chamorro [edit] Chamorro is co-official in the Mariana Islands, both in the territory of Guam and in the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands. In Guam, the indigenous Chamorro people make up about 60% of the population. Carolinian [edit] Carolinian is also co-official in the Northern Marianas, where only 14% of people speak English at home. Creole languages [edit] Several distinct natural languages and pidgins have developed on American soil, including full languages like creole and sign languages. Angloromani [edit] Main article: Angloromani language Angloromani is an English creole or mixed language spoken by Romani Americans.[116] Chinuk Wawa or Chinook Jargon [edit] Main article: Chinook Jargon A pidgin of 700–800 words of French, English, Cree and other Native origins is the old trade language of the Pacific Northwest. It was used extensively among both European and Native peoples of the Oregon Territory, even used instead of English at home by many pioneer families. It is estimated that around 100,000 people spoke it at its peak, between 1858 and 1900, and it was last widely used in Seattle just before World War II.[117] Gullah [edit] Main article: Gullah language An English creole language with African influence spoken on the Sea Islands of South Carolina and Georgia retains strong influences of West African languages. The language is sometimes referred to as "Geechee". Hawaii Creole English [edit] Main article: Hawaiian Pidgin The Hawaiian English creole language, locally known as Hawaiian Pidgin, is used by locals and is considered an unofficial language of the state of Hawaii.[118] Louisiana Creole French [edit] Main article: Louisiana Creole A French Creole language spoken by the Louisiana Creole people of the state of Louisiana, close to Haitian Creole, Colonial French, and Cajun French (language of Acadians deported from New France after 1755 and the Grand Dérangement). French Creole languages are spoken by millions of people worldwide, mainly in the United States, Caribbean, and Indian Ocean areas. U.S. Virgin Islands Creole Dutch (extinct) [edit] Main article: Negerhollands Negerhollands ('Negro-Dutch') was a Dutch-based creole language that was spoken in the Danish West Indies, now known as the U.S. Virgin Islands. Dutch was its superstrate language with Danish, English, French, Spanish, and African elements incorporated. Notwithstanding its name, Negerhollands drew primarily from the Zeelandic rather than the Hollandic dialect of Dutch.[119] Sign languages [edit] See also: Native American sign languages Alongside the numerous and varied oral languages, the United States also boasts several sign languages. Historically, the US was home to some six or more sign languages (that number rising with the probability that Plains Sign Talk is actually a language family with several languages under its umbrella) which has fallen with the death of several of these. As with all sign languages around the world that developed organically, these are full languages distinct from any oral language. American Sign Language (unlike Signed English) is not a derivation of English.[120] Some languages present here were trade pidgins which were used first as a system of communication across national and linguistic boundaries of the Native Americans, however, they have since developed into mature languages as children learned them as a first language. American Sign Language [edit] American Sign Language (ASL) is the native language of a number of deaf and hearing people in America (roughly 100,000 to 500,000). While some sources have stated that ASL is the third most frequently used language in the United States, after English and Spanish,[121] recent scholarship has pointed out that most of these estimates are based on numbers conflating deafness with ASL use, and that the last actual study of this (in 1972) seems to indicate an upper bound of 500,000 ASL speakers at the time.[122] Black American Sign Language (BASL) developed in the southeastern US, where separate residential schools were maintained for white and black deaf children. BASL shares much of the same vocabulary and grammatical structure as ASL and is generally considered one of its dialects.[120][121][123] Hawai'i Sign Language [edit] Hawaii Sign Language is moribund with only a handful of speakers on O'ahu, Lana'i, Kaua'i and possibly Ni'ihau. Some of these speakers may actually be speaking a creolized version of HSL and ASL, however; research is slow-going. The language was once called Hawai'i Pidgin Sign Language, as many people thought it was a derivative of ASL, but it was discovered to be a separate language altogether.[124] Plains Sign Talk [edit] Once a trade pidgin and the most far-reaching sign language in North America, Plains Sign Talk or Plains Sign Language is now critically endangered with an unknown number of speakers. Navajo Sign Language has been found to be in use in one clan of Navajo; however, whether it is a dialect of Plains Sign Talk or a separate language remains unknown.[125] Plateau Sign Language is another trade pidgin that may have become a separate language, Plateau Sign Language replaced Plains Sign Talk in the Columbia Plateau and surrounding regions of British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, and Idaho. It is now extinct. Martha's Vineyard Sign Language [edit] Martha's Vineyard Sign Language is now extinct. Along with French Sign Language, it was one of several main contributors to American Sign Language. Henniker Sign Language [edit] Henniker Sign Language is now extinct but was once found around the Henniker region of New Hampshire and formed a basis for American Sign Language. Sandy River Valley Sign Language [edit] Sandy River Valley Sign Language is now extinct but once could be found around the Sandy River Valley in Maine. It was one of several main contributors to American Sign Language. Immigrant languages [edit] Arabic [edit] Varieties of Arabic are spoken by immigrants from the Middle East as well as many Muslim Americans. The highest concentrations of native Arabic speakers reside in heavily urban areas like Chicago, New York City, and Los Angeles. Detroit and the surrounding areas of Michigan boast a significant Arabic-speaking population including many Arab Christians of Lebanese, Syrian, and Palestinian descent. Arabic is used for religious purposes by Muslim Americans and by some Arab Christians (notably Catholics of the Melkite and Maronite Churches as well as Rum Orthodox, i.e. Antiochian Orthodox Christians and Coptic churches.). A significant number of educated Arab professionals who immigrate often already know English quite well, as it is widely used in the Middle East. Lebanese immigrants also have a broader understanding of French as do many Arabic-speaking immigrants from North Africa.[126][127][128][129] Chinese [edit] The population of Chinese speakers in the United States was increasing rapidly in the 20th century because the number of Chinese immigrants has increased at a rate of more than 50% since 1940.[130] 2.8 million Americans speak some variety of Chinese, which combined are counted by the federal census as the third most-spoken language in the country. Until the late 20th century, Yue dialects, including Taishanese and Cantonese, were the most common dialects among immigrants and the descendants of immigrants, especially in California. Since the opening of the People's Republic of China, Mandarin, the official language in the PRC and Republic of China (Taiwan), has become increasingly prevalent.[131] Many Americans of all ethnic backgrounds are also learning Mandarin and, to a far lesser extent, Cantonese.[131] In New York City in 2002, Mandarin was spoken as a native language among only 10% of Chinese speakers but was predicted to replace Cantonese as the lingua franca among Chinese speakers.[132] Czech [edit] Texas Czech [edit] 12,805 Texans can speak the Czech language.[133] Drawing on Boas's model for interviewing speakers of the language and digitally cataloging the dialects, John Tomecek founded and Lida Cope of East Carolina University developed the Texas Czech Legacy Project at the University of Texas at Austin to document and preserve the dwindling language.[134][135][136] Because the majority of Texas immigrants came from Moravia, the Czech spoken in Texas is largely characterized by Moravian dialects (Lachian and Moravian Wallachian) which vary to some extent from the Bohemian dialects spoken by most Czech-Americans. Czech-language journalism has been very active in the state over the years. Thirty-three newspapers and periodicals have been published. As of 1993 one weekly newspaper, Našinec, published at Granger, and one monthly, Hospodář, published at West, were still being published entirely in Czech. Other periodicals such as Věstník and the Brethren Journal contained sections printed in Czech.[137] Finnish [edit] The first Finnish settlers in America were amongst the settlers who came from Sweden and Finland to the New Sweden colony. Most colonists were Finnish. However, the Finnish language was not preserved as well among subsequent generations as Swedish. Between the 1890s and the outbreak of the first World War, an estimated quarter million Finnish citizens immigrated to the United States, mainly in rural areas of the Midwest and more specifically in the mining regions of Northeastern Minnesota, Northern Wisconsin and Michigan's Upper Peninsula. Hancock, Michigan, as of 2005, still incorporates bi-lingual street signs written in both English and Finnish.[138][139] Americans of Finnish origin yield at 800,000 individuals, though only 26,000 speak the language at home. There is a distinctive dialect of English to be found in the Upper Peninsula, known as Yooper. Yooper often has a Finnish cadence and uses Finnish sentence structure with modified English, German, Swedish, Norwegian, and Finnish vocabulary.[citation needed] Notable Finnish Americans include U.S. Communist Party leader Gus Hall, film director Renny Harlin, and the Canadian-born actress Pamela Anderson. Northern Clark County, Washington (encompassing Yacolt, Amboy, Battle Ground and Chelatchie) contains a large exclave of Old Apostolic Lutherans who originally immigrated from Finland. Many families in this portion of the county speak fluent Finnish at home before learning English.[citation needed] Another noteworthy Finnish community in the United States is found in Lake Worth, Florida, north of Miami. Hebrew [edit] Modern Hebrew is spoken by Israeli immigrants. Liturgical Hebrew is used as a religious or liturgical language[140] by many of the United States' approximately 7 million Jews.[141] Gaelic Languages [edit] Further information: Goidelic languages About 40 million Americans have Irish ancestry, many of whose ancestors would have spoken Irish Gaelic. In 2013, around 20,600 Americans spoke Irish at home and As of 2008 it was the 76th most spoken language in the United States.[142] An additional 1,600 spoke Scottish Gaelic.[143] Italian, Sicilian and Neapolitan [edit] The Italian language and other Italo-Dalmatian languages have been widely spoken in the United States for more than one hundred years, primarily due to large-scale immigration from the late 19th century to the mid 20th century. In addition to Italian learned by most people today, there has been a strong representation of the languages of Southern Italy amongst the immigrant population (Sicilian and Neapolitan in particular). As of 2009, though 15,638,348 American citizens report themselves as Italian-Americans, only 753,992 of these report speaking the Italian language at home (0.3264% of the US population). Khmer (Cambodian) [edit] Main article: Cambodian Americans Between 1981 and 1985 about 150,000 Cambodians resettled in the United States.[144] Before 1975 very few Cambodians came to the United States. Those who did were children of upper-class families sent abroad to attend school. After the fall of Phnom Penh to the communist Khmer Rouge in 1975, some Cambodians managed to escape. In 2007 the American Community Survey reported that there were approximately 200,000 Cambodians living in the United States, making up about 2% percent of the Asian population. This population is, however, heavily concentrated in two areas: the Los Angeles metropolitan area in California, especially the city of Long Beach; and Greater Boston in New England, especially Lowell, Massachusetts. These two areas hold a majority of the Cambodians living in the US. Korean [edit] In 2011 over 1.1 million Americans spoke Korean at home. This number increased greatly at the end of the 20th century, increasing 327% from the 300,000 speakers in 1980. The greatest concentration of these speakers was in the Los Angeles, New York, and Washington D.C. metro areas.[145] Speakers of Korean are found in the Koreatowns.[citation needed] Polish and Silesian [edit] As of 2013, around 580,000 Americans spoke Polish at home.[143] The Polish language is very common in the Chicago metropolitan area. Chicago's third largest white ethnic groups are those of Polish descent, after German and Irish.[146] The Polish people and the Polish language in Chicago were very prevalent in the early years of the city, and today the 650,000 Poles in Chicago make up one of the largest ethnically Polish populations in the world, comparable to the city of Wrocław, the fourth largest city in Poland. That makes it one of the most important centers of Polonia and the Polish language in the United States, a fact that the city celebrates every Labor Day weekend at the Taste of Polonia Festival in Jefferson Park.[147] Texas Silesian [edit] Further information: Texas Silesian Texas Silesian, a dialect of the Silesian language (itself controversially considered a branch of Polish by some linguists), has been used by Texas Silesians in American settlements from 1852 to the present. Portuguese [edit] The first Portuguese speakers in America were Portuguese Jews who had fled the Portuguese Inquisition. They spoke Judeo-Portuguese and founded the earliest Jewish communities in the Thirteen Colonies, two of which still exist: Congregation Shearith Israel in New York and Congregation Mikveh Israel in Philadelphia. However, by the end of the 18th century, their use of Portuguese had been replaced by English. In the late 19th century, many Portuguese, mainly Azoreans, Madeirans and Cape Verdeans (who prior to independence in 1975 were Portuguese citizens), immigrated to the United States, settling in cities like Providence, Rhode Island, New Bedford, Massachusetts, and Santa Cruz, California. There was also a substantial Portuguese immigration to Hawaii, which at the time was not yet part of the United States. In the mid-late 20th century there was another wave of Portuguese immigration to the US, mainly the Northeast (New Jersey, New York, Connecticut, Massachusetts), and for a time Portuguese became a major language in Newark, New Jersey. Many Portuguese Americans may include descendants of Portuguese settlers born in Portuguese Africa (known as Portuguese Africans, or, in Portugal, as retornados) and Asia (mostly Macau). There were around 1 million Portuguese Americans in the United States by 2000. Portuguese (European Portuguese) has been spoken in the United States by small communities of immigrants, mainly in the metropolitan New York City area, like Newark, New Jersey. The Portuguese language is also spoken widely by Brazilian Americans, concentrated in Miami, New York City, and Boston. Swedish [edit] There has been a Swedish presence in America since the New Sweden colony came into existence in March 1638. Widespread diaspora of Swedish immigration did not occur until the latter half of the 19th century, bringing in a total of a million Swedes. No other country had a higher percentage of its people leave for the United States except Ireland and Norway. At the beginning of the 20th century, Minnesota had the highest ethnic Swedish population in the world after the city of Stockholm. 3.7% of US residents claim descent from Scandinavian ancestors, amounting to roughly 11–12 million people. According to SIL's Ethnologue, over half a million ethnic Swedes still speak the language, though according to the 2007 American Community Survey only 56,715 speak it at home. Cultural assimilation has contributed to the gradual and steady decline of the language in the US. After the independence of the US from the Kingdom of Great Britain, the government encouraged colonists to adopt the English language as a common medium of communication, and in some cases, imposed it upon them. Subsequent generations of Swedish Americans received education in English and spoke it as their first language. Lutheran churches scattered across the Midwest started abandoning Swedish in favor of English as their language of worship. Swedish newspapers and publications alike slowly faded away. There are sizable Swedish communities in Minnesota, Ohio, Maryland, Philadelphia, and Delaware, along with small isolated pockets in Pennsylvania, San Francisco, Fort Lauderdale, and New York. Chicago once contained a large Swedish enclave called Andersonville on the city's north side. John Morton, the person who cast the decisive vote leading to Pennsylvania's support for the United States Declaration of Independence, was of Finnish descent. Finland was part of the Kingdom of Sweden in the 18th century. Walloon [edit] Wisconsin Walloon [edit] Main article: Wisconsin Walloon Wisconsin Walloon is a dialect of the Walloon language brought to Wisconsin from Wallonia, Belgium's largely French-speaking region. It is spoken in the Door Peninsula of Wisconsin, United States. The speakers of Wisconsin Walloon are descendants of Belgian immigrants from a wave of immigration lasting from 1853 to 1857. It includes around 2,000 Belgians who immigrated to Wisconsin.[149] Walloon is sometimes referred to by its speakers as "Belgian". The descendants of native Walloon speakers have since switched to English, and as of 2021, Walloon has fewer than 50 speakers in the United States. Welsh [edit] Further information: Welsh language Up to two million Americans are thought to have Welsh ancestry. However, there is very little Welsh being used commonly in the United States. According to the 2007 American Community Survey, 2,285 people speak Welsh at home; primarily spoken in California (415), Florida (225), New York (204), Ohio (135), and New Jersey (130).[151] Some place names, such as Bryn Mawr in Chicago and Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania (English: Big Hill) are Welsh. Several towns in Pennsylvania, mostly in the Welsh Tract, have Welsh namesakes, including Uwchlan, Bala Cynwyd, Gwynedd, and Tredyffrin. Tagalog [edit] Tagalog speakers were already present in the United States as early as the late sixteenth century as sailors contracted by the Spanish colonial government. In the eighteenth century, they established settlements in Louisiana, such as Saint Malo. After the American annexation of the Philippines, the number of Tagalog speakers steadily increased, as Filipinos began to migrate to the U.S. as students or contract laborers. Their numbers, however, decreased upon Philippine independence, as some Filipinos were repatriated. Today, Tagalog, together with its standardized form Filipino, is spoken by over a million and a half Filipino Americans and is promoted by Filipino American civic organizations and Philippine consulates. As Filipinos are the second largest Asian ethnic group in the United States, Tagalog is the second most spoken Asian language in the country, after Chinese. Taglish, a form of code-switching between Tagalog and English, is also spoken by a number of Filipino Americans. Tagalog is also taught at some universities where a significant number of Filipinos exist. As it is the national and most spoken language of the Philippines, most Filipinos in the United States are proficient in Tagalog in addition to their local regional language. Vietnamese [edit] According to the 2010 Census, there are over 1.5 million Americans who identify themselves as Vietnamese in origin, ranking fourth among the Asian American groups and forming the largest Overseas Vietnamese population. Orange County, California, is home to the largest concentration of ethnic Vietnamese outside Vietnam, especially in its Little Saigon area. Other significant Vietnamese communities are found in the metropolitan areas of San Jose, Houston, Dallas-Fort Worth, Seattle, Northern Virginia, and New Orleans. Similarly to other overseas Vietnamese communities in Western countries (except France), the Vietnamese population in the United States was established following the Fall of Saigon in 1975 and communist takeover of South Vietnam following the Vietnam War. South Asian languages [edit] There are many South Asians in the United States. These include Indians, Pakistanis, and Bangladeshis, who speak various South Asian languages. Major South Asian languages spoken in the US include Telugu (see "Telugu" below), Malayalam, Kannada, Tamil (see "Tamil" below), Gujarati, Hindi and Urdu (see 'Hindi-Urdu" below), Bengali, Punjabi, Sinhala, Nepali (see "Nepali" below), and Marathi. Hindi and Urdu [edit] Main article: Hindustani language Hindi and Urdu are the two standard registers of the Hindustani language, an Indo-Aryan language native to North India, Central India, and Pakistan. While the formal registers draw vocabulary from Sanskrit and Arabic & Persian respectively, the colloquial forms are indistinguishable. Hindi and Urdu are widely spoken among the Indian and Pakistani communities in the United States as a first or second language. Speakers are concentrated in states with large South Asian populations, including California, Illinois, New Jersey, New York, Texas, and Virginia.[152] Additionally, Hindi-Urdu (Hindustani) is a cultural language for many South Asians who have different mother tongues and dialects. Bollywood in particular, as well as film music, is an important cultural product that influences many South Asian youth. Some South Indians, Bangladeshis, and Indian Bengalis learn the language or its dialects through films.[153][154] Nepali [edit] The first Nepalese to enter the United States were classified as "other Asian". Immigration records show that between 1881 and 1890, 1,910 "other Asians" were admitted to the United States. However, Nepal did not open its borders until 1950, and most Nepalis who left the country during that time went primarily to India to study. Nepalese Americans were first classified as a separate ethnic group in 1974 when 56 Nepalese immigrated to the United States. New York City, Boston, Dallas-Fort Worth, Columbus, Los Angeles, Cincinnati, Erie, Harrisburg, Chicago, Denver, Gainesville, Portland, and Saint Paul have the largest number of Nepalese. There are some Nepalese community or cultural events in every American state, including Dashain, Tihar, Holi, Teej Special, and Nepali New Year. Tamil [edit] The Tamil community in the United States is largely bilingual. Tamil is taught in weekly classes in many Hindu temples and by associations such as the American Tamil Academy in South Brunswick, Tamil Jersey School in Jersey City, New Jersey,[155] The written form of the language is highly formal and quite distinct from the spoken form. A few universities, such as the University of Chicago and the University of California Berkeley, have graduate programs in the language.[156] In the second half of the 20th century, Tamils from India migrated as skilled professionals to the United States, Canada, Europe, and Southeast Asia. The Tamil American population numbers over 195,685 individuals,[157] and the Federation of Tamil Sangams of North America functions as an umbrella organization for the growing community.[158] The New York City and Los Angeles metropolitan areas are home to the largest concentrations of Tamil-speaking Sri Lankan Americans.[159][160][161] New York City's Staten Island alone is estimated to be home to more than 5,000 Sri Lankan Americans,[162] one of the largest Sri Lankan populations outside Sri Lanka itself,[163] and a significant proportion of whom speak Tamil. Central New Jersey is home to the largest population concentration of Tamils. New Jersey houses its own Tamil Sangam.[164] Sizeable populations of Indian American Tamils have also settled in the New York City and Washington metropolitan areas, as well as on the West Coast in Silicon Valley, where there are Tamil associations such as the Bay Area Tamil Mandram.[165] The New York City and Los Angeles metropolitan areas are home to the largest concentrations of Tamil-speaking Sri Lankan Americans,[159][160][161] with New York City's Staten Island alone estimated to be home to more than 5,000 Sri Lankan Americans,[162] one of the largest Sri Lankan populations outside Sri Lanka itself,[163] and a significant proportion of whom speak Tamil. Telugu [edit] See also: Telugu Americans There were 171,000 speakers of Telugu in 2006–2008.[166] In the second half of the 20th century, Telugu people from India (especially from Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu) migrated as professionals to the United States. Central New Jersey is home to the largest population concentration of Telugu people. Telugu people have also settled in New York City and the DC metropolitan area, as well as on the West Coast in Silicon Valley. The New York City and Los Angeles metropolitan areas are home to the largest concentrations of Telugu-speakers. See also [edit] United States portal Languages portal American English Language education in the United States Language Spoken at Home (U.S. Census) List of multilingual presidents of the United States Muhlenberg legend List of U.S. communities where English is not the majority language spoken at home Modern Language Association General: Bilingual education Culture of the United States Languages of Canada Notes [edit] References [edit] Bibliography [edit] Biers, Kelly; Osterhaus, Ellen (2021). "Notes from the Field: Wisconsin Walloon Documentation and Orthography" (PDF). Language Documentation and Conservation. 15: 1–29. Campbell, Lyle. (1997). American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America. New York: Oxford University Press. Campbell, Lyle; & Mithun, Marianne (Eds.). (1979). The languages of native America: Historical and comparative assessment. Austin: University of Texas Press. Grimes, Barbara F. (Ed.). (2000). Ethnologue: Languages of the world, (14th ed.). Dallas, TX: SIL International. ISBN 1-55671-106-9. Online edition: the world, accessed on December 7, 2004. Mithun, Marianne. (1999). The languages of native North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. van Rossem, C.; van der Voort, H. (1996). Die Creol Taal: 250 Years of Negerhollands Texts. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press – via Digitale Bibliotheek voor de Nederlandse Letteren. Zededa, Ofelia; Hill, Jane H. (1991). The condition of Native American Languages in the United States. In R. H. Robins & E. M. Uhlenbeck (Eds.), Endangered languages (pp. 135–155). Oxford: Berg. Further reading [edit] Blatt, Ben. "Tagalog in California, Cherokee in Arkansas." Slate. May 13, 2014.
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4519	dbpedia	3	24	https://learningcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/learning-a-second-language/	en	Learning Languages – Learning Center	https://creativecommons.…somerights20.png	https://creativecommons.…somerights20.png	[ "https://learningcenter.unc.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/330/2018/09/learningcenterlogo-oneline.png", "https://learningcenter.unc.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/330/2018/09/learningcenterlogo-oneline.png", "https://creativecommons.org/images/public/somerights20.png", "https://writingcenter.unc.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/346/2024/01/wcinsta.png", "https://writingcenter.unc.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/346/2024/01/wctwitter.png", "https://writingcenter.unc.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/346/2024/01/wcfacebook.png", "https://writingcenter.unc.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/346/2015/12/youtube-icon.png", "https://learningcenter.unc.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/330/2015/12/logo-cssac-292x300.png", "https://learningcenter.unc.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/330/2022/04/HC_Badge_Partner_B_Light-150x150.png", "https://writingcenter.unc.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/346/2024/01/wcinsta.png", "https://writingcenter.unc.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/346/2024/01/wcfacebook.png", "https://writingcenter.unc.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/346/2015/12/youtube-icon.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	2015-05-22T14:05:34+00:00	Learning a language is a complex, time-intensive task that requires dedication, persistence, and hard work. If you’re reading this, then you probably already know that. What you might not know is that there are strategies that can help you study … Read more	en	https://learningcenter.u…8/07/favicon.png	Learning Center	https://learningcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/learning-a-second-language/	Learning Languages Learning a language is a complex, time-intensive task that requires dedication, persistence, and hard work. If you’re reading this, then you probably already know that. What you might not know is that there are strategies that can help you study more effectively, so that you make the most of your time and energy. This handout first explains some of the key principles that guide effective language learning, and then describes activities that can help you put these principles into practice. Use these tools to create a strategic study plan that helps your language skills grow. Key principles of language learning The Basics: First, let’s talk about the basics. Research in this area (called “second language acquisition” in academia) suggests that there are three key elements to learning a new language. The first is comprehensible input, which is a fancy way of saying being exposed to (hearing or reading) something in the new language and learning to understand it. Comprehensible output is the second element, and unsurprisingly it means learning to produce (speak or write) something in the new language. The third element is review or feedback, which basically means identifying errors and making changes in response.[1] Fancy terms aside, these are actually pretty straightforward ideas. These three elements are the building blocks of your language practice, and an effective study plan will maximize all three. The more you listen and read (input), the more you speak and write (output), the more you go back over what you’ve done and learn from your errors (review & feedback), the more your language skills will grow. DO: Create a study plan that maximizes the three dimensions of language learning: understanding (input), producing (output), and identifying and correcting errors (review/feedback). Seek balance Learning a new language involves listening, speaking, reading, writing, sometimes even a new alphabet and writing format. If you focus exclusively on just one activity, the others fall behind. This is actually a common pitfall for language learners. For example, it’s easy to focus on reading comprehension when studying, in part because written language is often readily accessible—for one thing, you have a whole textbook full of it. This is also true of the three key elements: it’s comparatively easy to find input sources (like your textbook) and practice understanding them. But neglecting the other two key principles (output and feedback/review) can slow down language growth. Instead, what you need is a balanced study plan: a mix of study activities that target both spoken and written language, and gives attention to all three key principles. DO: Focus on balance: practice both spoken and written language, and make sure to include all of the three key principles—input, output, and feedback/review. Errors are important Sometimes, the biggest challenge to language learning is overcoming our own fears: fear of making a mistake, of saying the wrong thing, of embarrassing yourself, of not being able to find the right word, and so on. This is all perfectly rational: anyone learning a language is going to make mistakes, and sometimes those mistakes will be very public. The thing is, you NEED to make those mistakes. One of the key principles of language learning is all about making errors and then learning from them: this is what review & feedback means. Plus, if you’re not willing to make errors, then the amount of language you produce (your output) goes way down. In other words, being afraid of making a mistake negatively affects two of the three key principles of language learning! So what do you do? In part, you may need to push yourself to get comfortable with making errors. However, you should also look for ways to get low-stakes practice: create situations in which you feel more comfortable trying out your new language and making those inevitable mistakes. For example, consider finding a study partner who is at your level of language skill. This is often more comfortable than practicing with an advanced student or a native speaker, and they’re usually easier to find—you’ve got a whole class full of potential partners! DO: Learn to appreciate mistakes, and push yourself to become more comfortable with making errors. DO: Create opportunities for ‘low-stakes’ practice, where you’ll feel comfortable practicing and making mistakes. Spread it out Studying a new language involves learning a LOT of material, so you’ll want to use your study time as effectively as possible. According to research in educational and cognitive psychology, one of the most effective learning strategies is distributed practice. This concept has two main components: spacing, which is breaking study time up into multiple small sessions, and separation, which means spreading those sessions out over time.[2] For example, let’s imagine you have a list of vocabulary words to learn. Today is Sunday, and the vocab quiz is on Friday. If you can only spend a total of 30 minutes studying this vocab, which study plan will be the most effective? (A) Study for 30 minutes on Thursday. (B) Study for 10 minutes at a time on Tuesday, Wednesday, and Thursday. (C) Study for 10 minutes at a time on Sunday, Tuesday, and Thursday. (D) Study for 30 minutes on Sunday. If you look at the total time spent studying, all four options are exactly the same. But research suggests that option C is the most effective way to manage your time: instead of studying the vocabulary all at once, you’ve spread out the time into several shorter sessions, and you’ve also increased the amount of time between study sessions. (And yes, this is also why “cramming” isn’t a good study plan!) DO: Break up your study time into shorter chunks and spread those sessions out over time. Bump up your memory Memory is a critical part of any kind of studying, and effective memorization is strongly correlated with success in foreign language classes.[3] But if you’re not “good at” memorizing things, don’t despair! Although people often think of memory as a fixed quality, it’s actually a skill that you can improve through deliberate practice. There’s a considerable amount of research on how memory works, as well as a wide range of strategies for improving memory. For example, scientific experiments show that our short-term memory can only hold about 7 pieces of new information at once. So if you’re working on a long list of new vocabulary words, start by breaking it up into smaller chunks, and study one shorter section at a time. Additionally, research also suggests that recall-based study methods are most effective. This means that actively trying to recall information is more effective than simply reviewing information; essentially, self-testing will help you more than re-reading your notes will.[4] The best way to start working on your memory is to build on the techniques that you already know work for you. For example, if associating a word with a picture is effective for you, then you should incorporate images into your vocabulary practice. However, if you’re not sure where to start, here’s a “beginner” formula for memorizing a new word: use the word at least five times the first day that you learn it, then multiple times over the week, at least once every day. If you’re interested in more tips for improving your memory, check out our resource on memorization strategies. In addition to figuring out which memorization techniques work best for you, it’s also important to actively protect your memory. For example, experiencing a strong emotion has been shown to sharply decrease the ability to memorize unrelated content. (So if you’ve just watched a horror movie, it’s probably not a great time for vocabulary review!) To get the most out of your study time, here’s a list of common “memory killers” to avoid: Stress and anxiety: Just like other strong emotions, stress and anxiety drastically reduce your ability to make new memories and recall information. Information overload: Studying for hours at a time might seem like a great idea, but it’s actually a really ineffective use of time. In fact, taking a short break every 30 minutes helps improve focus, and after 2 hours you should consider switching topics. Fatigue: The more tired you are, the less effective your memory is. Chronic sleep deprivation is particularly detrimental, so those late-night study sessions might actually do more harm than good! Multitasking: As you may have noticed, all of these “memory killers” are also things that disrupt focus. Multi-tasking is probably the most common source of distraction. In fact, here’s a great rule of thumb for protecting your memory: if you’re not supposed to do it while driving, then you shouldn’t do it while studying. (Yes, that means drinking, texting, and watching Netflix “in the background” are all NOs.) DO: Increase memorization by breaking information into small chunks and studying the chunks one at a time, and by using recall-based strategies like self-testing. DO: Focus on protecting and improving your memorization skills, and build the memory techniques that work best for you into your study plan. Vocab is king Want to know a secret? Vocabulary is more important than grammar. DISCLAIMER: This does NOT mean that grammar is unimportant. Without grammar, you won’t know how to use your vocabulary, since grammar tells you how to combine words into sentences. And obviously, if you’re in a foreign language class, you’re going to need to study ALL the material to do well, and that will definitely include grammar. The more vocabulary you know, the more quickly you can grow your language skills. The reason is simple: understanding more words directly translates into more input, producing more words means more output, and more output means more opportunity for feedback. Additionally, when you’re interacting with native speakers, vocabulary is more beneficial to communication than grammar is. Being able to produce words will help get your meaning across, even if what you say is not perfectly grammatical.[5] Of course, in order to become fully fluent in your new language, eventually you will need strong grammar skills. But once again, this is something that having a strong, well-developed vocabulary will help with. Since grammar dictates relationships between words and phrases, understanding those smaller components (aka vocabulary) will help improve your understanding of how those grammatical relationships work. DO: Design a study plan that emphasizes vocabulary. Activities Now that we’ve talked about the general principles that you should incorporate in your language study, let’s focus on activities: practical suggestions to help you find new ways to grow your language skills! Find real-life sources Since one of the main 3 components of language learning is input, look for ways to expose yourself to as much of the language you’re learning as possible. But this doesn’t mean reading more textbooks (unless your textbook is a fascinating read that you’re excited about). Instead, look for “authentic” examples of the language, things you’ll actually enjoy and look forward to practicing with, even if you don’t understand every word! Here are some examples to get you started: Newspaper articles, magazines, & blogs: Many of these are freely available online, and once you’ve tried reading them a few times, it’s easy to translate the key parts to check your understanding. Look for a topic you’re already interested in and follow it with a news reader app! Books: Children’s picture books and books you’ve read before in your native language are easy options for intermediate/advanced beginners. The library often has great options available for free! TV shows and movies: Try watching them without subtitles the first time, starting in ~15 minute segments. Another great option is to watch first without any subtitles, then with subtitles in the language you’re learning, and then finally with subtitles in your native language if you need them. Soap operas are also great options (especially if you like lots of drama!), since the plot lines are often explained multiple times. Songs: Music, especially popular songs, can be especially well suited to language practice, since you’re likely to memorize the ones you enjoy. Ask a teacher or native speaker for recommendations if you’re struggling to find good examples. Children’s songs can also be fun practice tools. Podcasts and audio books: There are a lot of options for all sorts of languages, and as a bonus you’ll often get exposure to local news and cultural topics. To get you started, we recommend this site, which has a great list of podcasts for many different languages. Also, consider tweaking some of your media settings to “bump up” your casual language exposure. For example, changing your Facebook and LinkedIn location and language preferences will force you to interact with the language you’re learning, even when you’re (mostly) wasting time. Pro tips Improve the effectiveness of this activity by using the following suggestions! Slow it down: If you’re listening to a podcast or audio book, try slowing down the speed just a bit: 0.75x is a common option, and the slowed-down audio still doesn’t sound too strange. Also, make sure to take breaks frequently to help you process what you’ve just heard. Combine your senses: In many cases, you can combine types of input to help create a more learning environment: reading and listening to a text at the same time can help you improve your comprehension. For example, for TV shows and movies, turn on subtitles in the same language. Other options include: Radio news stories often have both audio and transcripts available online, especially for pieces that are a few days old. Amazon’s Kindle offers an “immersive reading” option that syncs audio books with text. TED talks come in many different languages, and often include an interactive transcript. If you’re an ESL student, the ESL Bits website has some great resources that link reading and listening, and it also has adjustable audio speeds! Get hooked: To make this strategy as effective as possible, find a source that you really enjoy, and commit to experiencing it only in the language you’re learning. Having a go-to program that you love will help keep you motivated. For example, if you love podcast/radio story programs like “Radiolab” and are learning Spanish, check out “Radio Ambulante.” Hold shadow conversations A key part of learning a new language involves training your ear. Unlike written language, spoken language doesn’t have the same context clues that help you decipher and separate out words. Plus, in addition to using slang and idioms, native speakers tend to “smoosh” words together, which is even more confusing for language learners![6] In part, this is why listening to real-life sources can be so helpful (see the previous activity). However, even beginning language learners can benefit from something called conversational shadowing. Basically, this means repeating a conversation word-for-word, even when you don’t know what all of the words mean. This helps you get used to the rhythm and patterns of the language, as well as learn to identify individual words and phrases from longer chunks of spoken language. Another great strategy involves holding practice conversations, where you create imaginary conversations and rehearse them multiple times. Both of these strategies are great ways to help you learn and retain new vocabulary, and they also increase your language output in a low-stakes practice setting! Example: If you’ve got a homework exercise that involves reviewing an audio or video clip, take a few extra steps to get the most benefit: After you’ve listened to the clip once, shadow the conversation in short sections (think ~20-30 seconds). Focus on reproducing the words as accurately as possible, paying close attention to rhythm, intonation, and pacing. Once you can accurately shadow the entire clip, then focus on understanding the meaning of the material, and answer any homework questions related to the clip. Now, use the same vocabulary to create a new conversation: think of what you would want to say in a real-life situation like this one, and practice it until you can respond confidently to any side of the exchange. Become a collector Since expanding your vocabulary is so important, identifying new words is a big priority. This is especially true when you’re in an immersion environment (studying abroad, etc), but it’s also something that you can do on a regular basis even when you’re at home. Basically, you need to collect words: any time you encounter a new word, you want to capture it by recording it in some way. The easiest way to do this is in a small pocket notebook, but you could also put a note in your phone, send a text or email to yourself, or even record yourself saying it. The key point is to capture the word as quickly and easily as possible. Also, don’t worry too much about spelling or definitions in the moment: you’ll deal with those later. Whatever your recording system is (notebook, phone, voice memo, etc), it’s only the first part of the collection process. Next, you’ll need to review each of the words you’ve recorded. This is something you’ll do on a regular basis, so that you can actually use the words you’ve recorded. Depending on how many new words you’re collecting, it might be every day, every few days, or once a week. This is the time when you find the correct spelling, write down the definition, maybe find an example, and so on. To make this process as effective as possible, you also want to have some sort of system that helps you record and organize your word collection. If you like paper-based methods, then flashcards can be easily organized in index card boxes, though you might want to include some alphabetical divider tabs to help yourself stay organized. However, digital tools are particularly helpful with this kind of information, and there are tons of apps that can help you organize a large vocabulary collection. But you don’t need a fancy app or program: a simple spreadsheet also works great for most cases. Finally, you also want to make sure to use your word collection! Not only do you need to learn new words once you add them, you’ll also need regular review of old words to maintain your vocabulary. This is another place where digital tools shine, since it’s easy to access the entire collection at any time, making it easier to study and review on a regular basis. In any case, make sure that you incorporate review along with learning new words. The 4 basic steps of word collection Capture new words. Listen for them in class, seek them out in conversations, find them in your “authentic sources,” etc. Record them in the moment, without worrying too much about spelling and definitions. Review your new words. Establish a routine so that you regularly “empty out” your recording tool and add the new words to your collection. Record and organize your collection. Create an organized system for your collection; common tools include digital flashcard apps, spreadsheets, and traditional index cards. Use your words! Make sure you’re learning new additions and also periodically reviewing older words. Pro tips If you’re struggling to find new words to collect—or if you feel overwhelmed by the number of words you could collect—then try working “backwards.” Instead of looking for new words in the language you’re learning, think about the gaps in your vocabulary. For example, think about the topics you frequently discuss in your native language. Do you know how to talk about those things in the language you’re learning? Hobbies and other classes are often great places to start. If you’re in a foreign language class, you can use the same word collection system to help you learn and review assigned vocabulary. Consider color-coding or tagging words that are class-related if you want to give those words extra attention. If you’re using a digital flashcard app, you might consider creating different card “sets” to help you organize them. Flashcard zen Flashcards are one of the most common tools that language learners use. There is a good reason for this: they’re easily portable, they’re excellent for learning short pieces of information (like new words), and used correctly they’re a great recall-based study strategy. However, flashcards are not without problems. For example, it’s far too easy to devote excessive time to making elaborately detailed flashcards, and then spend comparatively little time actually using them! The following tips describe ways to use flashcards in a strategic and effective manner. Less is more The more time you spend making flashcards, the less time you spend using them…but if you don’t make flashcards, then you don’t have any to use. The point behind this paradox is that you want to minimize the time and effort you put into the flashcard set-up process. This is a situation where perfectionism can really harm you: if you focus on making absolutely “perfect” flashcards, then you’re really just wasting time. Similarly, you also want to minimize the volume of information you put on each flashcard. Flashcards should not be pages of notes in a smaller format, especially when using them for vocabulary. Instead, each card should have just enough information on it to test your memory. Instead of containing many details, a good flashcard will serve as a “cue” that triggers your memory. This way, you’re forcing your brain to work to produce the information, which helps build and maintain strong memories. Mix it up Another common flashcard issue is that they promote rote memorization, so that information is divorced from context. But in real life, you’ll be using your vocabulary in a wide range of contexts. Only practicing vocabulary in rote drills may end up slowing you down when you need to actually use the words.[7] One example of this is the “translation” phenomenon: instead of learning to associate new words with their meanings, they become associated with the word in your native language. If you’re always translating word-for-word in your head, then it takes much longer to understand and interact. A great way to reduce this issue is to change the type of cues used on your flashcard: instead of written words, you might represent the meaning of new words with a picture—or for digital flashcards, you could even use audio files. Example: Imagine a beginning student (and native English speaker) learns that the Arabic word for door is “bab” (باب). She could make several different flashcards for this word: Traditional flashcard: the written word in Arabic on one side, and in English on the other Audio flashcard (digital): the spoken Arabic word on one side, and the spoken word in English on the other Pictoral flashcard: a picture of a door on one side, and the word written in Arabic on the other You can also combine these types to make different hybrid-style flashcards. Once again, don’t try to make elaborate, perfect flashcards—just something that will push you to associate words with meanings, instead of just their translations. Not all of your flashcards have to use non-written cues, but it’s a great way to add variety and prevent “translation” memory. Additionally, make sure to practice using both sides of the flashcards as cues. In other words, if you’ve already gone through a set of cards starting with the English side, flip the stack over the next time you use it, so that you’re getting prompted by the language you’re learning. You can also avoid the pitfalls of rote memorization by making sure to practice using the words in context. For example, in addition to testing yourself with each card, follow that up by using the word in a sentence. This is particularly good for words you’ve already learned and are now reviewing. You can also turn this into a game, where you make up “mad-lib” style sentences by randomly drawing cards and combining them. If you’re working with a partner or study group, you can also use flashcards to play games like charades or Pictionary. Make it a habit Ultimately, flashcards are just a tool, albeit one that is ideally suited to vocabulary practice. And as with any kind of practice, the more time you put in, better your results will be: flashcards work best when used frequently and consistently. If you want to get the most out of your flashcards, turn using them into a regular habit. Here are some tips to keep in mind: Small sets, many reps: To improve memorization when practicing new words, create sets of 7 flashcards or less and practice each set several times before moving on to the next one. Also, make sure to space out your flashcard sessions, and once you’ve reviewed a set of words, put it aside for a day or two before reviewing it again. Increase portability: Make sure you take full advantage of the portable nature of flashcards. If you’re using paper, then consider using a binder ring and hole punch to keep small sets together. You might also use smaller cards: since you’ll be making simple cards (minimalism!), you could probably cut a regular 3”x5” index card into halves (or even quarters) and still have more than enough room! Even if you use full-sized paper cards, you increase portability by being selective in the number you take with you. Remember, you want to space out your sets and reps, so it isn’t necessary to carry all your cards with you all the time. If you’re using digital tools, look for apps that can sync to all your devices—phone, tablet, computer, web, etc. Wasted’ time: Since flashcards are so portable, they’re a great way to turn “wasted” time into useful time. How much time do you spend riding the bus? How about stuck in line at the grocery store, or waiting for an appointment at Campus Health? Instead of checking your Twitter feed or hopping on Facebook, open up your flashcard app (or pull out your flashcard stack) and do a quick vocab review. If you’re doing small sets it won’t take very long to go through one, and you’ve just bumped up your number of reps for the day! Create a routine: Habits are powerful. Once you’ve established a behavior pattern, you find yourself doing it without thinking about it. So think about how you can create a daily routine for using your flashcards. Finding and using “wasted” time is a good start, especially if you have a daily bus commute. What about taking 5 minutes every morning to do vocabulary review while you drink your coffee? Or making it your first “after-dinner to do” once you’ve finished eating? Once you find ways to make vocabulary flashcards part of your daily routine, you can use the power of habit to help grow your vocabulary. Periodic review: Once you’ve learned new words, you’re not done with those flashcards—instead, use them to keep your vocabulary strong. Each week, randomly select a few words to review. You might do a review set once each day, or the review words can be mixed in with your current learning sets (this is a great way to keep your word collection going strong!). Make it fun Learning a new language is a lot of work, but that’s not what motivated you to start studying it in the first place, right? Instead, you probably want to travel or work abroad, or be able to talk with people from other countries, maybe even study literature or history… Whatever got you interested in this language in the first place, it’s probably a lot more fun than all this studying is. Here’s the thing: whenever you can do something that connects you back with the reasons that motivate you to study your new language, or you find something new and exciting about the language you’re studying or the cultures that use it, use your excitement to boost your motivation. It’s what will keep you going—and that kind of persistence is a key factor in language learning success.[8] But in addition to staying focused on what you enjoy, you can also deliberately create fun social activities that also help you grow your language skills. For example, try hosting a dinner and movie “theme” night with friends who are studying the same language. Create a “mini-immersion” environment: watch movies in the language you’re learning, cook some authentic cuisine, and try to speak only in your new (shared!) language. It’s a great way to get some authentic, low-stakes practice. (Plus, it’s a great excuse for a party!) Parting advice In addition to this handout, there are lots of resources to help you with your language learning goals. If you’re in a language class, your professor, TA, and/or other instructors often have great advice for study strategies—in addition to their teaching experience, at one point they were learning a new language, just like you are! Check out what the language department offers: perhaps there is a peer tutoring program, or conversation tables (aka “language coffee hours”), or cultural events that can be great authentic sources for practice (and fun motivation boosters). Language departments often have online resources as well, so be sure to check out their websites. Look for other campus organizations that offer language learning resources, such as global studies and student groups. UNC language departments, programs, and curricula Department of Asian Studies Department of African, African American, and Diaspora Studies Department of Romance Studies Department of German and Slavic Languages and Literatures Curriculum in Global studies Works consulted Murphey, T. (1998). Language hungry!: An introduction to language learning fun and self-esteem. Japan: MacMillan Language house. Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K. A., Marsh, E. J., Nathan, M. J., & Willingham, D. T. (2013). Improving students’ learning with effective learning techniques promising directions from cognitive and educational psychology. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 14(1), 4-58. Brown, H. D., & Gonzo, S. T. (1995). Readings on second language acquisition. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Regents. O’Malley, J. M., Chamot, A. U., & Küpper, L. (1995). Listening comprehension strategies in second language acquisition. Readings on second language acquisition, 138-160. Oxford, R., & Crookall, D. (1989). Research on language learning strategies: Methods, findings, and instructional issues. The Modern Language Journal,73(4), 404-419. Nunan, David. Second Language Teaching & Learning. Heinle & Heinle Publishers, 7625 Empire Dr., Florence, KY 41042-2978, 1999. Son, L. K., & Simon, D. A. (2012). Distributed learning: Data, metacognition, and educational implications. Educational Psychology Review, 24(3), 379-399. [1] Brown & Gonzo, 1995; Ellis, 1997; Nunan, 1999 [2] Dunlosky et al, 2013; Son & Simon, 2012 [3] Oxford, R., & Crookall, D. (1989). Research on language learning strategies: Methods, findings, and instructional issues. The Modern Language Journal,73(4), 404-419. [4] Dunlosky et al, 2013 [5] Murphey, T. (1998). Language hungry!: An introduction to language learning fun and self-esteem. Japan: MacMillan Languagehouse. [6] Nunn, 1999; Murphey, 1998 [7] Nunan, 1999; Oxford & Crookall, 1989 [8] Nunan, 1999; Oxford & Crookall, 1989, Brown & Gonzo, 1995. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 4.0 License. You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Learning Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill If you enjoy using our handouts, we appreciate contributions of acknowledgement.
4519	dbpedia	2	87	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_as_a_second_or_foreign_language	en	English as a second or foreign language	https://upload.wikimedia…l%2C_1964_46.jpg	https://upload.wikimedia…l%2C_1964_46.jpg	[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png", "https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg", "https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/English_classes_in_Moscow_school%2C_1964_46.jpg/220px-English_classes_in_Moscow_school%2C_1964_46.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Young_Jayaji_Rao_Sindhia%2C_Maharaja_of_Gwalior%2C_studying_English_%286125060402%29.jpg/220px-Young_Jayaji_Rao_Sindhia%2C_Maharaja_of_Gwalior%2C_studying_English_%286125060402%29.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Diploma_icon.png/28px-Diploma_icon.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Globe_of_letters.svg/28px-Globe_of_letters.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/School.svg/16px-School.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Anglophone_World.svg/600px-Anglophone_World.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png", "https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1", "https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg", "https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/footer/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Contributors to Wikimedia projects" ]	2003-12-30T04:08:04+00:00		en	/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png		https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_as_a_second_or_foreign_language	Use of English by speakers with different native languages Not to be confused with English as a lingua franca. "ESL" redirects here. For other uses, see ESL (disambiguation). For the Community episode, see English as a Second Language (Community). For the podcast, see English as a Second Language Podcast. English as a second or foreign language refers to the use of English by individuals whose native language is different, commonly among students learning to speak and write English. Variably known as English as a foreign language (EFL), English as a second language (ESL), English for speakers of other languages (ESOL), English as an additional language (EAL), or English as a new language (ENL), these terms denote the study of English in environments where it is not the dominant language. Programs such as ESL are designed as academic courses to instruct non-native speakers in English proficiency, encompassing both learning in English-speaking nations and abroad. Teaching methodologies include teaching English as a foreign language (TEFL) in non-English-speaking countries, teaching English as a second language (TESL) in English-speaking nations, and teaching English to speakers of other languages (TESOL) worldwide. These terms, while distinct in scope, are often used interchangeably, reflecting the global spread and diversity of English language education. Critically, recent developments in terminology, such as English-language learner (ELL) and English Learners (EL), emphasize the cultural and linguistic diversity of students, promoting inclusive educational practices across different contexts.[citation needed] Methods for teaching English encompass a broad spectrum, from traditional classroom settings to innovative self-directed study programs, integrating approaches that enhance language acquisition and cultural understanding. The efficacy of these methods hinges on adapting teaching strategies to students' proficiency levels and contextual needs, ensuring comprehensive language learning in today's interconnected world. Definition and purposes [edit] The aspect in which EFL is taught is referred to as teaching English as a foreign language (TEFL), teaching English as a second language (TESL) or teaching English to speakers of other languages (TESOL). Technically, TEFL refers to English language teaching in a country where English is not the official language, TESL refers to teaching English to non-native English speakers in a native English-speaking country and TESOL covers both. In practice, however, each of these terms tends to be used more generically across the full field. TEFL is more widely used in the United Kingdom and TESL or TESOL in the United States.[1] Usage [edit] The term "ESL" has been seen by some[who?] to indicate that English would be of subordinate importance; for example, where English is used as a lingua franca in a multilingual country. The term can be a misnomer for some students who have learned several languages before learning English. The terms "English language learners" (ELL), and, more recently, "English learners" (EL), have been used instead, and the students' native languages and cultures are considered important.[2] Educational approach [edit] Methods of learning English are highly variable, depending on the student's level of English proficiency and the manner and setting in which they are taught, which can range from required classes in school to self-directed study at home, or a blended combination of both. Teaching technique plays an important role in the performance of English language acquisition as a foreign language.[3][4][5] In some programs, educational materials (including spoken lectures and written assignments) are provided in a mixture of English, and the student's native language. In other programs, educational materials are always in English, but the vocabulary, grammar, and context clues may be modified to be more easily understood by students with varying levels of comprehension. Adapting comprehension, insight-oriented repetitions, and recasts are some of the methods used in training. However, without proper cultural immersion (social learning grounds) the associated language habits and reference points (internal mechanisms) of the host country are not completely transferred through these programs.[2][6][7][8] The major engines that influence the language are the United States and the United Kingdom and they both have assimilated the language differently so they differ in expressions and usage. This is found to a great extent primarily in pronunciation and vocabulary. Variants of the English language also exist in both of these countries (e.g. African American Vernacular English). Influence [edit] The English language has a great reach and influence, and English is taught all over the world. In countries where English is not usually a native language, there are two distinct models for teaching English: educational programs for students who want to move to English-speaking countries, and other programs for students who do not intend to move but who want to understand English content for the purposes of education, entertainment, employment or conducting international business. The differences between these two models of English language education have grown larger over time, and teachers focusing on each model have used different terminology, received different training, and formed separate professional associations. English is also taught as a second language for recent immigrants to English-speaking countries, which faces separate challenges because the students in one class may speak many different native languages. Terminology and types [edit] The many acronyms and abbreviations used in the field of English teaching and learning may be confusing and the following technical definitions may have their currency contested upon various grounds. The precise usage, including the different use of the terms ESL and ESOL in different countries, is described below. These terms are most commonly used in relation to teaching and learning English as a second language, but they may also be used in relation to demographic information.[citation needed] English language teaching (ELT) is a widely used teacher-centered term, as in the English language teaching divisions of large publishing houses, ELT training, etc. Teaching English as a second language (TESL), teaching English to speakers of other languages (TESOL), and teaching English as a foreign language (TEFL) are also used.[citation needed] Other terms used in this field include English as an international language (EIL), English as a lingua franca (ELF), English for special purposes and English for specific purposes (ESP), and English for academic purposes (EAP). Those who are learning English are often referred to as English language learners (ELL). The learners of the English language are of two main groups. The first group includes the learners learning English as their second language i.e. the second language of their country and the second group includes those who learn English as a totally foreign language i.e. a language that is not spoken in any part of their county. English outside English-speaking countries [edit] EFL, English as a foreign language, indicates the teaching of English in a non–English-speaking region. The study can occur either in the student's home country, as part of the normal school curriculum or otherwise, or, for the more privileged minority, in an anglophone country that they visit as a sort of educational tourist, particularly immediately before or after graduating from university. TEFL is the teaching of English as a foreign language;[9] note that this sort of instruction can take place in any country, English-speaking or not. Typically, EFL is learned either to pass exams as a necessary part of one's education or for career progression while one works for an organization or business with an international focus. EFL may be part of the state school curriculum in countries where English has no special status (what linguistic theorist Braj Kachru calls the "expanding circle countries"); it may also be supplemented by lessons paid for privately. Teachers of EFL generally assume that students are literate in their mother tongue. The Chinese EFL Journal[10] and Iranian EFL Journal[11] are examples of international journals dedicated to specifics of English language learning within countries where English is used as a foreign language. English within English-speaking countries [edit] The other broad grouping is the use of English within the English-speaking world. In what Braj Kachru calls "the inner circle", i.e., countries such as the United Kingdom and the United States, this use of English is generally by refugees, immigrants, and their children. It also includes the use of English in "outer circle" countries, often former British colonies and the Philippines, where English is an official language even if it is not spoken as a mother tongue by a majority of the population. In the US, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand this use of English is called ESL (English as a second language). This term has been criticized on the grounds that many learners already speak more than one language. A counter-argument says that the word "a" in the phrase "a second language" means there is no presumption that English is the second acquired language (see also Second language). TESL is the teaching of English as a second language. There are also other terms that it may be referred to in the US including ELL (English Language Learner) and CLD (Culturally and Linguistically Diverse). In the UK and Ireland, the term ESL has been replaced by ESOL (English for speakers of other languages). In these countries TESOL (teaching English to speakers of other languages) is normally used to refer to teaching English only to this group. In the UK and Ireland, the term EAL (English as an additional language) is used, rather than ESOL, when talking about primary and secondary schools, in order to clarify that English is not the students' first language, but their second or third. The term ESOL is used to describe English language learners who are above statutory school age. Other acronyms were created to describe the person rather than the language to be learned. The term Limited English proficiency (LEP) was first used in 1975 by the Lau Remedies following a decision of the U.S. Supreme Court. ELL (English Language Learner),[12] used by United States governments and school systems, was created by James Crawford of the Institute for Language and Education Policy in an effort to label learners positively, rather than ascribing a deficiency to them. Recently, some educators have shortened this to EL – English Learner. Typically, a student learns this sort of English to function in the new host country, e.g., within the school system (if a child), to find and hold down a job (if an adult), or to perform the necessities of daily life (cooking, taking a cab/public transportation, or eating in a restaurant, etc.). The teaching of it does not presuppose literacy in the mother tongue. It is usually paid for by the host government to help newcomers settle into their adopted country, sometimes as part of an explicit citizenship program. It is technically possible for ESL to be taught not in the host country, but in, for example, a refugee camp, as part of a pre-departure program sponsored by the government soon to receive new potential citizens. In practice, however, this is extremely rare. Particularly in Canada and Australia, the term ESD (English as a second dialect) is used alongside ESL, usually in reference to programs for Aboriginal peoples in Canada or Australians. The term refers to the use of standard English by speakers of a creole or non-standard variety. It is often grouped with ESL as ESL/ESD. the Umbrella terms [edit] All these ways of denoting the teaching of English can be bundled together into an umbrella term. Unfortunately, not all of the English teachers in the world would agree on just only a simple single term(s). The term TESOL (teaching English to speakers of other languages) is used in American English to include both TEFL and TESL. This is also the case in Canada as well as in Australia and New Zealand. British English uses ELT (English language teaching), because TESOL has a different, more specific meaning; see above. Difficulties for learners [edit] Language teaching practice often assumes that most of the difficulties that learners face in the study of English are the consequence of the degree to which their native language differs from English (a contrastive analysis approach). A native speaker of Chinese, for example, may face many more difficulties than a native speaker of German, because German is more closely related to English than Chinese. This may be true for anyone of any mother tongue (also called the first language, normally abbreviated L1) setting out to learn any other language (called a target language, second language or L2). See also second-language acquisition (SLA) for mixed evidence from linguistic research. Language learners often produce errors of syntax, vocabulary, and pronunciation thought to result from the influence of their L1, such as mapping its grammatical patterns inappropriately onto the L2, pronouncing certain sounds incorrectly or with difficulty, and confusing items of vocabulary known as false friends. This is known as L1 transfer or "language interference". However, these transfer effects are typically stronger for beginners' language production, and SLA research has highlighted many errors which cannot be attributed to the L1, as they are attested in learners of many language backgrounds (for example, failure to apply 3rd person present singular -s to verbs, as in 'he make' not 'he makes'). Some students may have problems due to certain words being usable, unchanged, as different parts of speech. For example, the word "suffering" in "I am suffering terribly" is a verb, but in "My suffering is terrible" is a noun — and confounding matters is the fact that both of these sentences express the same idea, using the same words. Other students might have problems due to the prescribing and proscribing nature of rules in the language formulated by amateur grammarians rather than ascribing to the functional and descriptive nature of languages evidenced from distribution. For example, a cleric, Robert Lowth, introduced the rule to never end a sentence with a preposition, inspired by Latin grammar, through his book A Short Introduction to English Grammar.[13] The inconsistencies brought from Latin language standardization of English language led to classifying and sub-classifying an otherwise simple language structure. Like many alphabetic writing systems, English also has incorporated the principle that graphemic units should correspond to the phonemic units; however, the fidelity to the principle is compromised, compared to an exemplar language like the Finnish language. This is evident in the Oxford English Dictionary; for many years it experimented with various spellings of 'SIGN' to attain a fidelity with the said principle, among which were SINE, SEGN, and SYNE, and through the diachronic mutations eventually settled on SIGN.[14] Cultural differences in communication styles and preferences are also significant. For example, a study among Chinese ESL students revealed that preference for not using the tense marking on verb present in the morphology of their mother tongue made it difficult for them to express time-related sentences in English.[15] Another study looked at Chinese ESL students and British teachers and found that the Chinese learners did not see classroom 'discussion and interaction' type of communication for learning as important but placed a heavy emphasis on teacher-directed lectures.[16] Pronunciation [edit] This section contains phonetic transcriptions in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA. For the distinction between [ ], / / and ⟨ ⟩, see IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters. Main articles: Non-native pronunciations of English and Accent reduction English contains a number of sounds and sound distinctions not present in some other languages. These sounds can include vowels and consonants, as well as diphthongs and other morphemes. Speakers of languages without these sounds may have problems both with hearing and pronouncing them. For example: The interdentals, /θ/ ('three') and /ð/ ('thee'), both written as th, are relatively rare in other languages. Phonemic contrast of /i/ with /ɪ/ (beat vs bit vowels), of /u/ with /ʊ/ (fool vs full vowels), and of /ɛ/ with /æ/ (bet vs bat vowels) is rare outside northwestern Europe, so unusual mergers or exotic pronunciations such as [bet] for bit may arise. Note that [bɪt] is a pronunciation often used in England and Wales for bet, and also in some dialects of American English.[17] See Northern cities vowel shift, and Pin-pen merger. Native speakers of Japanese, Korean, and most Chinese dialects have difficulty distinguishing /r/ and /l/, as do speakers of certain Caribbean Spanish dialects when these sounds are at the ends of syllables, a phenomenon known as lambdacism, which is one form of lallation. Native speakers of Brazilian Portuguese, Spanish or Galician, and Ukrainian may pronounce [h]-like sounds where a /r/, /s/, or /ɡ/, respectively, would be expected, as those sounds often or almost always follow this process in their native languages, what is known as debuccalization. Native speakers of Arabic, Tagalog, Japanese, Korean, and important dialects of all current Iberian Romance languages (including most of Spanish) have difficulty distinguishing [b] and [v], what is known as betacism. Native speakers of almost all of Brazilian Portuguese, of some African Portuguese registers, of Portuguese-derived creole languages, some dialects of Swiss German, and several pontual processes in several Slavic languages, such as Bulgarian and Ukrainian, and many dialects of other languages, have instances of /l/ or /ɫ/ always becoming [w] at the end of a syllable in a given context, so that milk may be variously pronounced as [mɪu̯k], [mɪʊ̯k], or [mɪo̯k]. This is present in some English registers — known as l-vocalization — but may be shunned as substandard or bring confusion in others. Native speakers of many widely spoken languages (including Dutch and all the Romance ones) distinguish voiceless stop pairs /p/, /t/, /k/ from their voiced counterparts /b/, /d/, /ɡ/ merely by their sound (and in Iberian Romance languages, the latter trio does not even need to be stopped, so its native speakers unconsciously pronounce them as [β], [ð], and [ɣ ~ ɰ] — voiced fricatives or approximants in the very same mouth positions — instead much or most of the time, that native English speakers may erroneously interpret as the /v/ or /w/, /ð/ and /h/, /w/, or /r/ of their language). In English, German, Danish, and some other languages, though, the main distinguishing feature in the case of initial or stressed stopped voiceless consonants from their voiced counterparts is that they are aspirated [pʰ tʰ kʰ] (unless if immediately preceded or followed by /s/), while the voiced ones are not. As a result, much of the non-English /p/, /t/ and /k/ will sound to native English ears as /b/, /d/ and /ɡ/ instead (i.e. p⁠arking may sound more like b⁠arking). Ukrainian, Turkish and Azeri speakers may have trouble distinguishing between /v/ and /w/ as both pronunciations are used interchangeably for the letter v in those languages. Languages may also differ in syllable structure; English allows for a cluster of up to three consonants before the vowel and five after it (e.g. strengths, straw, desks, glimpsed, sixths). Japanese and Brazilian Portuguese, for example, broadly alternate consonant and vowel sounds so learners from Japan and Brazil often force vowels between the consonants (e.g. desks becomes [desukusu] or [dɛskis], and milk shake becomes [miɽukuɕeːku] or [miwki ɕejki], respectively). Similarly, in most Iberian dialects, while a word can begin with [s], and within a word [s] can be followed by a consonant, a word can never both begin with [s] and be immediately followed by a consonant, so learners whose mother tongue is in this language family often have a vowel in front of the word (e.g. school becomes [eskul], [iskuɫ ~ iskuw], [ɯskuɫ] or [əskuɫ] for native speakers of Spanish, Brazilian and European Portuguese, and Catalan, respectively). Grammar [edit] Tense, aspect, and mood – English has a relatively large number of tense–aspect–mood forms with some quite subtle differences, such as the difference between the simple past "I ate" and the present perfect "I have eaten". Progressive and perfect progressive forms add complexity. (See English verbs.) Functions of auxiliaries – Learners of English tend to find it difficult to manipulate the various ways in which English uses auxiliary verbs. These include negation (e.g. "He hasn't been drinking."), inversion with the subject to form a question (e.g. Has he been drinking?), short answers (e.g. Yes, he has.) and tag questions (has he?). A further complication is that the dummy auxiliary verb do/does/did is added to fulfil these functions in the simple present and simple past, but not to replace the verb to be (He drinks too much./Does he? but He is an addict/Is he?). Modal verbs – English has several modal auxiliary verbs, each with a number of uses. These verbs convey a special sense or mood such as obligation, necessity, ability, probability, permission, possibility, prohibition, or intention. These include "must", "can", "have to", "need to", "will", "shall", "ought to", "will have to", "may", and "might". For example, the opposite of "You must be here at 8" (obligation) is usually "You don't have to be here at 8" (lack of obligation, choice). "Must" in "You must not drink the water" (prohibition) has a different meaning from "must" in "You must have eaten the chocolate" (deduction). This complexity takes considerable work for most English language learners to master. All these modal verbs or "modals" take the first form of the verb after them. These modals (most of them) do not have past or future inflection, i.e. they do not have past or future tense (exceptions being have to and need to). Idiomatic usage – English is reputed to have a relatively high degree of idiomatic usage.[18] For example, the use of different main verb forms in such apparently parallel constructions as "try to learn", "help learn", and "avoid learning" poses difficulty for learners. Another example is the idiomatic distinction between "make" and "do": "make a mistake", not "do a mistake"; and "do a favor", not "make a favor". Articles – English has two forms of article: the (the definite article) and a and an (the indefinite article). In addition, at times English nouns can or indeed must be used without an article; this is called the zero article. Some of the differences between definite, indefinite, and zero articles are fairly easy to learn, but others are not, particularly since a learner's native language may lack articles, have only one form, or use them differently from English. Although the information conveyed by articles is rarely essential for communication, English uses them frequently (several times in the average sentence) so that they require some effort from the learner. Vocabulary [edit] Phrasal verbs – Phrasal verbs (also known as multiple-word verbs) in English can cause difficulties for many learners because of their syntactic pattern and because they often have several meanings. There are also a number of phrasal verb differences between American and British English. Prepositions – As with many other languages, the correct use of prepositions in the English language is difficult to learn, and it can turn out to be quite a frustrating learning experience for ESL/EFL learners. For example, the prepositions on (rely on, fall on), of (think of, because of, in the vicinity of), and at (turn at, meet at, start at) are used in so many different ways and contexts, it is very difficult to remember the exact meaning for each one. Furthermore, the same words are often used as adverbs (come in, press on, listen in, step in) as part of a compound verb (make up, give up, get up, give in, turn in, put on), or in more than one way with different functions and meanings (look up, look on, give in) (He looked up her skirt/He looked up the spelling/Things are looking up/When you're in town, look me up!; He gave in his homework/First he refused but then he gave in; He got up at 6 o'clock/He got up the hill/He got up a nativity play). Also, for some languages, such as Spanish, there is/are one/some prepositions that can mean multiple English prepositions (i.e. en in Spanish can mean on, in, or at). When translating back to the ESL learners' respective L1, a particular preposition's translation may be correct in one instance, but when using the preposition in another sense, the meaning is sometimes quite different. "One of my friends" translates to (transliterated) wahed min isdiqa'i in Arabic. Min is the Arabic word for "from", so it means one "from" my friends. "I am on page 5" translates to ich bin auf Seite 5 in German just fine, but in Arabic it is Ana fee safha raqm 5 (I am "in" page 5). Word formation – Word formation in English requires much rote learning. For example, an adjective can be negated by using the prefixes un- (e.g. unable), in- (e.g. inappropriate), dis- (e.g. dishonest), non- (non-standard) or a- (e.g. amoral), as well as several rarer prefixes. Size of lexicon – The history of English has resulted in a very large vocabulary, including one stream from Old English and one from the Norman infusion of Latin-derived terms. (Schmitt & Marsden claim that English has one of the largest vocabularies of any known language.) One estimate of the lexicon puts English at around 250,000 unique words. This requires more work for a learner to master the language. Collocations – Collocation in English is the tendency for words to occur together with others. For example, nouns and verbs that go together ("ride a bike" or "drive a car"). Native speakers tend to use chunks[clarification needed] of collocations and ESL learners make mistakes with collocations. Slang and colloquialisms – In most native English-speaking countries, many slang and colloquial terms are used in everyday speech. Many learners may find that classroom based English is significantly different from how English is usually spoken in practice. This can often be difficult and confusing for learners with little experience of using English in Anglophone countries. Also, slang terms differ greatly between different regions and can change quickly in response to popular culture. Some phrases can become unintentionally rude if misused. Silent letters - Within English, almost every letter has the 'opportunity' to be silent in a word, except F, J, Q, R, V, and Y.[19] The most common is e, usually at the end of the word and used to elongate the previous vowel(s). The common usage of silent letters can throw off how ESL learners interpret the language (especially those who are fluent in a Germanic language), since a common step to learning words in most languages is to pronounce them phonetically. Words such as queue, Colonel, knight and Wednesday tend to throw off the learner, since they contain large amounts of silent letters. First-language literacy [edit] Learners who have had less than eight years of formal education in their first language are sometimes called adult ESL literacy learners. Usually, these learners have had their first-language education interrupted.[20] Many of these learners require a different level of support, teaching approaches and strategies, and a different curriculum from mainstream adult ESL learners. For example, these learners may lack study skills and transferable language skills,[20][21] and these learners may avoid reading or writing.[22] Often these learners do not start classroom tasks immediately, do not ask for help, and often assume the novice role when working with peers.[23] Generally, these learners may lack self-confidence.[24] For some, prior schooling is equated with status, cultured, civilized, high class, and they may experience shame among peers in their new ESL classes.[25][26] Second-language literacy [edit] Learners who have not had extensive exposure to reading and writing in a second language, despite having acceptable spoken proficiency, may have difficulties with the reading and writing in their L2. Joann Crandall (1993)[27] has pointed out that most teacher training programs for TESOL instructors do not include sufficient, in most cases "no", training for the instruction in literacy. This is a gap that many scholars feel needs to be addressed.[citation needed] Social and academic language acquisition [edit] Basic interpersonal communication skills (BICS) are language skills needed in social situations. These language skills usually develop within six months to two years.[citation needed] Cognitive academic language proficiency (CALP) refers to the language associated with formal content material and academic learning. These skills usually take from five to seven years to develop.[citation needed] Importance of reading in ESL instruction [edit] According to some English professionals, reading for pleasure is an important component in the teaching of both native and foreign languages:[28] "Studies that sought to improve writing by providing reading experiences in place of grammar study or additional writing practice found that these experiences were as beneficial as, or more beneficial than, grammar study or extra writing practice."[29] Differences between spoken and written English [edit] For further discussion of English spelling patterns and rules, see Phonics. As with most languages, written language tends to use a more formal register than spoken language. Spelling and pronunciation: probably the biggest difficulty for non-native speakers, since the relation between English spelling and pronunciation does not follow the alphabetic principle consistently. Because of the many changes in pronunciation which have occurred since a written standard developed, the retention of many historical idiosyncrasies in spelling, and the large influx of foreign words (mainly from Norman French, Classical Latin and Greek) with different and overlapping spelling patterns,[30] English spelling and pronunciation are difficult even for native speakers to master. This difficulty is shown in such activities as spelling bees. The generalizations that exist are quite complex and there are many exceptions, leading to a considerable amount of rote learning. The spelling and pronunciation system causes problems in both directions: a learner may know a word by sound but be unable to write it correctly (or indeed find it in a dictionary) or they may see a word written but not know how to pronounce it or mislearn the pronunciation. However, despite the variety of spelling patterns in English, there are dozens of rules that are 75% or more reliable.[31] There is also debate about "meaning-focused" learning and "correction-focused" learning. Supporters for the former think that using speech as the way to explain meaning is more important. However, supporters of the latter do not agree with that and instead think that grammar and correct habit is more important.[32] Technology [edit] Technology plays an integral part in our lives and has become a major instrument in the field of education. Educational technologies make learning and teaching of English language more convenient and enable new opportunities. The video talks about the history of technology in education and its current integration in learning. Computers have made an entry into education in the past decades and have brought significant benefits to teachers and students alike. Computers help learners by making them more responsible for their own learning. Studies have shown that one of the best ways of improving one's learning ability is to use a computer where all the information one might need can be found. In today's developed world, a computer is one of a number of systems that help learners to improve their language. Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) is a system which aids learners to improve and practice language skills. It provides a stress-free environment for learners and makes them more responsible. Computers can provide help to ESL learners in many different ways such as teaching students to learn a new language. The computer can be used to test students about the language they already learn. It can assist them in practicing certain tasks. The computer permits students to communicate easily with other students in different places. In recent years the increasing use of mobile technology, such as smartphones and tablet computers, has led to a growing usage application created to facilitate language learning, such as The Phrasal Verbs Machine from Cambridge. In terms of online materials, there are many forms of online materials such as blogs, wikis, webquests. For instance, blogs can allow English learners to voice their opinions, sharpen their writing skills, and build their confidence. However, some who are introverted may not feel comfortable sharing their ideas on the blog. Class wikis can be used to promote collaborative learning through sharing and co-constructing knowledge. On-line materials are still just materials and thus need to be subject to the same scrutiny of evaluation as any other language material or source. Augmented reality (AR) is another emerging technology that has an important place in language education. It allows for merging of the virtual objects into the real world, as if they co-exist in the same time and place.[33] The research has shown 8 benefits of AR in the educational setting: 1. Collaboration; 2. Connectivity; 3. Student centred; 4.Community; 5. Exploration; 6. Shared knowledge; 7. Multisensory experience; 8. Authenticity.[34] Learners have mentioned that AR increased classroom engagement and student motivation.[33] Two applications that have been tested in the ESL setting are QuiverVision and JigSpace.[33] QuiverVision offers colouring pages that can be brought to life using Android or iOS devices. JigSpace can be a helpful resource in learning complex scientific, technical and historical concepts for ESL students. Increasing social nature of internet opened up new opportunities for language learners and educators.[35] Videos, memes and chats are all sources of authentic language that are easily accessible via mobile devices or computers.[35] Additional benefit for English language learners is that non-textual representation can be more beneficial for students with various learning preferences. Integration of games and gaming in language learning has recently received a surge of interest.[35] There are games that have been specifically designed for English language learning while there are others that can be adapted to this context. Games to Learn English includes multiple games that can be played to develop language skills. Trace Effects is a game developed by U.S. Department of State which helps learners not only increase their language knowledge but also explore American culture. The most important features of gaming are their collaborative and interactive nature[35] which makes learning engaging for learners. The learning ability of language learners can be more reliable with the influence of a dictionary. Learners tend to carry or are required to have a dictionary which allows them to learn independently and become more responsible for their own work. In these modern days, education has upgraded its methods of teaching and learning with dictionaries where digital materials are being applied as tools. Electronic dictionaries are increasingly a more common choice for ESL students. Most of them contain native-language equivalents and explanations, as well as definitions and example sentences in English. They can speak the English word to the learner, and they are easy to carry around. However, they are expensive and easy to lose, so students are often instructed to put their names on them. Varieties of English [edit] The English language in England (and other parts of the United Kingdom) exhibits significant differences by region and class, noticeable in structure (vocabulary and grammar), accent (pronunciation) and in dialect. The numerous communities of English native speakers in countries all over the world also have some noticeable differences like Irish English, Australian English, Canadian English, Newfoundland English, etc. For instance, the following are words that only make meaning in originating culture: Toad in the hole, Gulab jamun, Spotted Dick, etc. Attempts have been made to regulate English to an inclination of a class or to a specific style of a community by John Dryden and others. Auspiciously, English as a lingua franca is not racialized and has no proscribing organization that controls any prestige dialect for the language – unlike the French Academie de la langue française, Spain's Real Academia Española, or Esperanto's Akademio. Teaching English, therefore, involves not only helping the student to use the form of English most suitable for their purposes, but also exposure to regional forms and cultural styles so that the student will be able to discern meaning even when the words, grammar, or pronunciation are different from the form of English they are being taught to speak. Some professionals in the field have recommended incorporating information about non-standard forms of English in ESL programs. For example, in advocating for classroom-based instruction in African-American English (also known as Ebonics), linguist Richard McDorman has argued, "Simply put, the ESL syllabus must break free of the longstanding intellectual imperiousness of the standard to embrace instruction that encompasses the many "Englishes" that learners will encounter and thereby achieve the culturally responsive pedagogy so often advocated by leaders in the field."[36] Social challenges and benefits [edit] Class placement [edit] ESL students often suffer from the effects of tracking and ability grouping. Students are often placed into low ability groups based on scores on standardized tests in English and math.[37] There is also low mobility among these students from low to high performing groups, which can prevent them from achieving the same academic progress as native speakers.[37] Similar tests are also used to place ESL students in college-level courses. Students have voiced frustration that only non-native students have to prove their language skills, when being a native speaker in no way guarantees college-level academic literacy.[38] Studies have shown that these tests can cause different passing rates among linguistic groups regardless of high school preparation.[39] Dropout rates [edit] Dropout rates for ESL students in multiple countries are much higher than dropout rates for native speakers. The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) in the United States reported that the percentage of dropouts in the non-native born Hispanic youth population between the ages of 16 and 24 years old is 43.4%.[40] A study in Canada found that the high school dropout rate for all ESL students was 74%.[41] High dropout rates are thought to be due to difficulties ESL students have in keeping up in mainstream classes, the increasing number of ESL students who enter middle or high school with interrupted prior formal education, and accountability systems.[40] The accountability system in the US is due to the No Child Left Behind Act. Schools that risk losing funding, closing, or having their principals fired if test scores are not high enough begin to view students that do not perform well on standardized tests as liabilities.[42] Because dropouts actually increase a school's performance, critics claim that administrators let poor performing students slip through the cracks. A study of Texas schools operating under No Child Left Behind found that 80% of ESL students did not graduate from high school in five years.[42] Access to higher education [edit] ESL students face several barriers to higher education. Most colleges and universities require four years of English in high school. In addition, most colleges and universities only accept one year of ESL English.[38] It is difficult for ESL students that arrive in the United States relatively late to finish this requirement because they must spend a longer time in ESL English classes in high school, or they might not arrive early enough to complete four years of English in high school. This results in many ESL students not having the correct credits to apply for college, or enrolling in summer school to finish the required courses.[38] ESL students can also face additional financial barriers to higher education because of their language skills. Those that don't place high enough on college placement exams often have to enroll in ESL courses at their universities. These courses can cost up to $1,000 extra, and can be offered without credit towards graduation.[38] This adds additional financial stress on ESL students that often come from families of lower socioeconomic status. The latest statistics show that the median household income for school-age ESL students is $36,691 while that of non-ESL students is $60,280.[failed verification][43] College tuition has risen sharply in the last decade, while family income has fallen. In addition, while many ESL students receive a Pell Grant, the maximum grant for the year 2011–2012 covered only about a third of the cost of college.[44] Interaction with native speakers [edit] ESL students often have difficulty interacting with native speakers in school. Some ESL students avoid interactions with native speakers because of their frustration or embarrassment at their poor English. Immigrant students often also lack knowledge of popular culture, which limits their conversations with native speakers to academic topics.[45] In classroom group activities with native speakers, ESL students often do not participate, again because of embarrassment about their English, but also because of cultural differences: their native cultures may value silence and individual work at school in preference to social interaction and talking in class.[37] These interactions have been found to extend to teacher-student interactions as well. In most mainstream classrooms, a teacher-led discussion is the most common form of lesson. In this setting, some ESL students will fail to participate, and often have difficulty understanding teachers because they talk too fast, do not use visual aids, or use native colloquialisms. ESL students also have trouble getting involved with extracurricular activities with native speakers for similar reasons. Students fail to join extra-curricular activities because of the language barrier, the cultural emphasis of academics over other activities, or failure to understand traditional pastimes in their new country.[45] Social benefits [edit] Supporters of ESL programs claim they play an important role in the formation of peer networks and adjustment to school and society in their new homes. Having class among other students learning English as a second language relieves the pressure of making mistakes when speaking in class or to peers. ESL programs also allow students to be among others who appreciate their native language and culture, the expression of which is often not supported or encouraged in mainstream settings. ESL programs also allow students to meet and form friendships with other non-native speakers from different cultures, promoting racial tolerance and multiculturalism.[45] Controversy over ethical administration of ESL programs [edit] ESL programs have been critiqued for focusing more on revenue-generation than on educating students.[46][47] This has led to controversy over how ESL programs can be managed in an ethical manner. Professional and Technical Communication Advocacy [edit] The field of technical and professional communication has the potential to disrupt barriers that hinder ESL learners from entering the field, although it can just as easily perpetuate these issues. One study by Matsuda & Matsuda sought to evaluate introductory-level textbooks on the subject of technical communication. Among their research, they found that these textbooks perpetuated the "myth of linguistic homogeneity—the tacit and widespread acceptance of the dominant image of composition students as native speakers of a privileged variety of English."[48] While the textbooks were successful in referencing global and international perspectives, the portrayal of the intended audience, the you of the text, ultimately alienated any individual not belonging to a predominantly white background and culture. In constructing this guise, prospective ESL learners are collectively lumped into an "other" group that isolates and undermines their capacity to enter the field. Furthermore, this alienation is exacerbated by the emergence of English as the pinnacle language for business and many professional realms. In Kwon & Klassen's research, they also identified and criticized a "single native-speaker recipe for linguistic success,"[49] which contributed to anxieties about entering the professional field for ESL technical communicators. These concerns about an English-dominated professional field indicate an affective filter that provides a further barrier to social justice for these ESL individuals. These misconceptions and anxieties point towards an issue of exclusivity that technical and professional communicators must address. This social justice concern becomes an ethical concern as well, with all individuals deserving usable, accessible, and inclusive information. There is a major concern about the lack of accessibility to translation services and the amount of time and attention their English proficiency is given throughout their educational experiences. If a student lacks an understanding of the English language and still needs to participate in their coursework, they will turn to translations in order to aid their efforts. The issue is that many of these translations rarely carry the same meaning as the original text. The students in this study said that a translated text is "pretty outdated, covers only the basics or is terribly translated," and that "The technical vocabulary linked to programming can be complicated to assimilate, especially in the middle of explanatory sentences if you don't know the equivalent word in your native language."[50] Students can't be proficient in their given subjects if the language barrier is complicating the message. Researchers found that syntax, semantics, style, etc., scramble up the original messages.[citation needed] This disorientation of the text fogs up the message and makes it difficult for the student to decipher what they are supposed to be learning. This is where additional time and attention are needed to bridge the gap between native English speakers and ESL students. ESL students face difficulties in areas concerning lexico-grammatical aspects of technical writing., overall textual organization and comprehension, differentiation between genres of technical communication and the social hierarchies that concern the subject matter.[51] This inhibits their ability to comprehend complex messages from English texts, and it would be more beneficial for them to tackle these subjects individually. The primary issue with this is the accessibility to more instruction. ESL students need an individual analysis of their needs and this needs to revolve around the student's ability to communicate and interpret information in English.[52] Due to the civil rights decision of Lauv v. Nichols[53] school districts are required to provide this additional instruction based on the needs of students, but this requirement still needs to be acted on. Many ESL students have issues in higher-level courses that hinder their academic performances due to the complicated language used in these courses being at a more complex level than what many ESL students were taught.[54] In many cases of ESL students learning Computer Programming, they struggle with the language used in instructional manuals. Writing media centers have caused ESL students issues with universities unable to provide proofreading in their writing media center programs. This causes many ESL students to have difficulties writing papers for high-level courses that require a more complex lexicon than what many of them were taught.[55] Fortunately, university tutors have had successes with teaching ESL students how to write a more technically complex language that ESL students need to know for their courses, but it raises the question of if ESL learners need to know a more complex version of the English language to succeed in their professional careers.[56] Peer tutoring for ESL students [edit] Peer tutoring refers to an instructional method that pairs up low-achieving English readers, with ESL students that know minimal English and who are also approximately the same age and same grade level. The goal of this dynamic is to help both the tutor, in this case, the English speaker, and the tutee, the ESL student. Monolingual tutors are given the class material in order to provide tutoring to their assigned ESL tutee. Once the tutor has had the chance to help the student, classmates get to switch roles in order to give both peers an opportunity to learn from each other. In a study, which conducted a similar research, their results indicated that low-achieving readers that were chosen as tutors, made a lot of progress by using this procedure. In addition, ESL students were also able to improve their grades due to the fact that they increased their approach in reading acquisition skills.[57] Importance [edit] Since there is not enough funding to afford tutors, and teachers find it hard to educate all students who have different learning abilities, it is highly important to implement peer-tutoring programs in schools. Students placed in ESL program learn together along with other non-English speakers; however, by using peer tutoring in a classroom it will avoid the separation between regular English classes and ESL classes. These programs will promote community between students that will be helping each other grow academically.[58] To further support this statement, a study researched the effectiveness of peer tutoring and explicit teaching in classrooms. It was found that students with learning disabilities and low performing students who are exposed to the explicit teaching and peer tutoring treatment in the classroom, have better academic performance than those students who do not receive this type of assistance. It was proven that peer tutoring is the most effective and no cost form of teaching[58] Benefits [edit] It has been proven that peer-mediated tutoring is an effective tool to help ESL students succeed academically. Peer tutoring has been utilized across many different academic courses and the outcomes for those students that have different learning abilities are outstanding. Classmates who were actively involved with other peers in tutoring had better academic standing than those students who were not part of the tutoring program.[59] Based on their results, researchers found that all English student learners were able to maintain a high percentage of English academic words on weekly tests taught during a tutoring session. It was also found that the literature on the efficacy of peer tutoring service combined with regular classroom teaching, is the best methodology practice that is effective, that benefits students, teachers, and parents involved.[59] Research on peer English immersion tutoring [edit] Similarly, a longitudinal study was conducted to examine the effects of the paired bilingual program and an English-only reading program with Spanish speaking English learners in order to increase students' English reading outcomes.[60] Students whose primary language was Spanish and were part of the ESL program were participants of this study. Three different approaches were the focus in which immersing students in English from the very beginning and teaching them reading only in that language; teaching students in Spanish first, followed by English; and teaching students to read in Spanish and English simultaneously. This occurs through a strategic approach such as structured English immersion or sheltered instruction. Findings showed that the paired bilingual reading approach appeared to work as well as, or better than, the English-only reading approach in terms of reading growth and results. Researchers found differences in results, but they also varied based on several outcomes depending on the student's learning abilities and academic performance.[60] ESL teachers' training [edit] Teachers in an ESL class are specifically trained in particular techniques and tools to help students learn English. Research says that the quality of their teaching methods is what matters the most when it comes to educating English learners. It was also mentioned[who?] how it is highly important for teachers to have the drive to help these students succeed and "feel personal responsibility."[61] It is important to highlight the idea that the school system needs to focus on school-wide interventions in order to make an impact and be able to help all English learners. There is a high need for comprehensive professional development for teachers in the ESL program.[62] Effects of peer tutoring on the achievement gap [edit] Although peer tutoring has been proven to be an effective way of learning that engages and promotes academic achievement in students, does it have an effect on the achievement gap? It is an obvious fact that there is a large academic performance disparity between White, Black, and Latino students, and it continues to be an issue that has to be targeted.[63] In an article, it was mentioned that no one has been able to identify the true factors that cause this discrepancy. However it was mentioned that by developing effective peer tutoring programs in schools could be a factor that can potentially decrease the achievement gap in the United States.[63] Exams for learners [edit] See also: Category:English language tests Learners of English are often eager to get accreditation and a number of exams are known internationally:[64] IELTS (International English Language Testing System) is the world's most popular English test for higher education and immigration. It is managed by the British Council, Cambridge Assessment English and IDP Education. It is offered in Academic, General and Life Skills versions. IELTS Academic is the normal test of English proficiency for entry into universities in the UK, Australia, Canada, and other British English countries. IELTS General is required for immigration into Australia and New Zealand. Both versions of IELTS are accepted for all classes of UK visa and immigration applications. IELTS Life Skills, was introduced in 2015 specifically to meet the requirements for some classes of UK visa application.[65][66] CaMLA, a collaboration between the University of Michigan and Cambridge English Language Assessment offer a suite of American English tests, including the MET (Michigan English Test), the MTELP Series (Michigan Test of English Language Proficiency), MELAB (Michigan English Language Assessment Battery), CaMLA EPT (English Placement Test), YLTE (Young Learners Test of English), ECCE and ECPE. TOEFL (Test of English as a Foreign Language), an Educational Testing Service product, developed and used primarily for academic institutions in the US, and now widely accepted in tertiary institutions in Canada, New Zealand, Australia, the UK, Japan, South Korea, and Ireland. The current test is an Internet-based test and is thus known as the TOEFL iBT. Used as a proxy for English for Academic Purposes. iTEP (International Test of English Proficiency), developed by former ELS Language Centers President Perry Akins' Boston Educational Services, and used by colleges and universities such as the California State University system. iTEP Business is used by companies, organizations, and governments, and iTEP SLATE (Secondary Level Assessment Test of English) is designed for middle and high school-age students. PTE Academic (Pearson Test of English Academic), a Pearson product, measures reading, writing, speaking and listening as well as grammar, oral fluency, pronunciation, spelling, vocabulary and written discourse. The test is computer-based and is designed to reflect international English for academic admission into any university requiring English proficiency. TOEIC (Test of English for International Communication), an Educational Testing Service product for Business English used by 10,000 organizations in 120 countries. Includes a listening and reading test as well as a speaking and writing test introduced in selected countries beginning in 2006. Trinity College London ESOL offers the Integrated Skills in English (ISE) series of 5 exams which assesses reading, writing, speaking and listening and is accepted by academic institutions in the UK. They also offer Graded Examinations in Spoken English (GESE), a series of 12 exams, which assesses speaking and listening, and ESOL Skills for Life and ESOL for Work exams in the UK only. Cambridge Assessment English offers a suite of globally available examinations including General English: Key English Test (KET), Preliminary English Test (PET), First Certificate in English (FCE), Certificate in Advanced English (CAE) and Certificate of Proficiency in English (CPE). London Tests of English from Pearson Language Tests, a series of six exams each mapped to a level from the Common European Framework (CEFR) – see below. Secondary Level English Proficiency test MTELP (Michigan Test of English Language Proficiency), is a language certificate measuring a student's English ability as a second or foreign language. Its primary purpose is to assess a learner's English language ability at an academic or advanced business level. Many countries also have their own exams. ESOL learners in England, Wales, and Northern Ireland usually take the national Skills for Life qualifications, which are offered by several exam boards. EFL learners in China may take the College English Test, the Test for English Majors (TEM), and/or the Public English Test System (PETS). People in Taiwan often take the General English Proficiency Test (GEPT). In Greece, English students may take the PALSO (PanHellenic Association of Language School Owners) exams. The Common European Framework [edit] Between 1998 and 2000, the Council of Europe's language policy division developed its Common European Framework of Reference for Languages. The aim of this framework was to have a common system for foreign language testing and certification, to cover all European languages and countries. The Common European Framework (CEF) divides language learners into three levels: A. Basic User B. Independent User C. Proficient User Each of these levels is divided into two sections, resulting in a total of six levels for testing (A1, A2, B1, etc.). This table compares ELT exams according to the CEF levels: CEF Level ALTE Level RQF Level PTE General Trinity College London ESOL GESE Trinity College London ESOL ISE UBELT exam IELTS Cambridge English Language Assessment BULATS Cambridge English Language Assessment BEC Cambridge English Language Assessment General Cambridge English Language Assessment YLE Cambridge English Language Assessment Skills for Life[67] CaMLA[68] C2 Level 5 Level 3 Level 5 Grade 12 ISE IV 4.0–5.0 8.5–9.0 90–100 n/a CPE n/a n/a ECPE C1 Level 4 Level 2 Level 4 Grade 10, 11 ISE III 3.0–3.5 7.0–8.0 75–89 Higher CAE n/a Level 2 MET, MELAB B2 Level 3 Level 1 Level 3 Grade 7, 8, 9 ISE II 2.0–2.5 5.5–6.5 60–74 Vantage FCE n/a Level 1 MET, MELAB, ECCE B1 Level 2 Entry 3 Level 2 Grade 5, 6 ISE I 1.5 4.0–5.0 40–59 Preliminary PET n/a Entry 3 MET, MELAB A2 Level 1 Entry 2 Level 1 Grades 3, 4 ISE 0 1.0 n/a 20–39 n/a KET Flyers Entry 2 MET, YLTE A1 Breakthrough Entry 1 Level A1 Grade 2 n/a <1.0 n/a 0-19 n/a n/a Movers Entry 1 YLTE Qualifications for teachers [edit] Qualifications vary from one region or jurisdiction to the next. There are also different qualifications for those who manage or direct TESOL programs[69][70] Non-native speakers [edit] Most people who teach English are in fact not native speakers[citation needed]. They are state school teachers in countries around the world, and as such, they hold the relevant teaching qualification of their country, usually with a specialization in teaching English. For example, teachers in Hong Kong hold the Language Proficiency Assessment for Teachers. Those who work in private language schools may, from commercial pressures, have the same qualifications as native speakers (see below). Widespread problems exist of minimal qualifications and poor quality providers of training, and as the industry becomes more professional, it is trying to self-regulate to eliminate these.[71] Australian qualifications [edit] The Australian Skills Quality Authority[72] accredits vocational TESOL qualifications such as the 10695NAT Certificate IV in TESOL and the 10688NAT Diploma in TESOL. As ASQA is an Australian Government accreditation authority, these qualifications rank within the Australian Qualifications Framework.[73] And most graduates work in vocational colleges in Australia. These TESOL qualifications are also accepted internationally and recognized in countries such as Japan, South Korea, and China. British qualifications [edit] Common, respected qualifications for teachers within the United Kingdom's sphere of influence include certificates and diplomas issued by Trinity College London ESOL and Cambridge English Language Assessment (henceforth Trinity and Cambridge). A certificate course is usually undertaken before starting to teach. This is sufficient for most EFL jobs and for some ESOL ones. CertTESOL (Certificate in Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages), issued by Trinity, and CELTA (Certificate in English Language Teaching to Adults), issued by Cambridge, are the most widely taken and accepted qualifications for new teacher trainees. Courses are offered in the UK and in many countries around the world. It is usually taught full-time over a one-month period or part-time over a period of up to a year. Teachers with two or more years of teaching experience who want to stay in the profession and advance their career prospects (including school management and teacher training) can take a diploma course. Trinity offers the Trinity Licentiate Diploma in Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (DipTESOL) and Cambridge offers the Diploma in English Language Teaching to Adults (DELTA). These diplomas are considered to be equivalent and are both accredited at level 7 of the revised National Qualifications Framework. Some teachers who stay in the profession go on to do an MA in a relevant discipline such as applied linguistics or ELT. Many UK master's degrees require considerable experience in the field before a candidate is accepted onto the course. The above qualifications are well-respected within the UK EFL sector, including private language schools and higher education language provision. However, in England and Wales, in order to meet the government's criteria for being a qualified teacher of ESOL in the Learning and Skills Sector (i.e. post-compulsory or further education), teachers need to have the Certificate in Further Education Teaching Stage 3 at level 5 (of the revised NQF) and the Certificate for ESOL Subject Specialists at level 4. Recognised qualifications which confer one or both of these include a Postgraduate Certificate in Education (PGCE) in ESOL, the CELTA module 2, and City & Guilds 9488. Teachers of any subject within the British state sector are normally expected to hold a PGCE and may choose to specialise in ELT. Canadian qualifications [edit] Teachers teaching adult ESL in Canada in the federally funded Language Instruction to Newcomers (LINC) program must be TESL certified. Most employers in Ontario encourage certification by TESL Ontario. Often this requires completing an eight-month graduate certificate program at an accredited university or college. See the TESL Ontario or TESL Canada websites for more information. United States qualifications [edit] Some U.S. instructors at community colleges, private language schools and universities qualify to teach English to adult non-native speakers by completing a Master of Arts (MA) in TESOL. Other degrees may be a Master in Adult Education and Training or Applied Linguistics[74].[citation needed] This degree also qualifies them to teach in most EFL contexts. There are also a growing number of online programs offering TESOL degrees.[75] In fact, "the growth of Online Language Teacher Education (OLTE) programs from the mid-1990s to 2009 was from 20 to more than 120".[76] In many areas of the United States, a growing number of K–12 public school teachers are involved in teaching ELLs (English Language Learners, that is, children who come to school speaking a home language other than English). The qualifications for these classroom teachers vary from state to state but always include a state-issued teaching certificate for public instruction. This state licensing requires substantial practical experience as well as course work. In some states, an additional specialization in ESL/ELL is required. This may be called an "endorsement". Endorsement programs may be part of a graduate program or maybe completed independently to add the endorsement to the initial teaching certificate An MA in TESOL may or may not meet individual state requirements for K–12 public school teachers. It is important to determine if a graduate program is designed to prepare teachers for adult education or K–12 education. The MA in TESOL typically includes second-language acquisition theory, linguistics, pedagogy, and an internship. A program will also likely have specific classes on skills such as reading, writing, pronunciation, and grammar. Admission requirements vary and may or may not require a background in education and/or language. Many graduate students also participate in teaching practica or clinicals, which provide the opportunity to gain experience in classrooms.[77] In addition to traditional classroom teaching methods, speech pathologists, linguists, actors, and voice professionals are actively involved in teaching pronunciation of American English—called accent improvement, accent modification, and accent reduction—and serve as resources for other aspects of spoken English, such as word choice. It is important to note that the issuance of a teaching certificate or license for K–12 teachers is not automatic following completion of degree requirements. All teachers must complete a battery of exams (typically the Praxis test or a specific state test subject and method exams or similar, state-sponsored exams) as well as supervised instruction as student teachers. Often, ESL certification can be obtained through extra college coursework. ESL certifications are usually only valid when paired with an already existing teaching certificate. Certification requirements for ESL teachers vary greatly from state to state; out-of-state teaching certificates are recognized if the two states have a reciprocity agreement. The following document states the qualifications for an ESL certificate in the state of Pennsylvania.[78] Chile qualifications [edit] Native speakers will often be able to find work as an English teacher in Chile without an ESL teaching certificate. However, many private institutes give preference to teachers with a TEFL, CELTA, or TESOL certificate. The Chilean Ministry of Education also sponsors the English Opens Doors program, which recruits native English speakers to come work as teaching assistants in Chilean public schools. English Opens Doors requires only a bachelor's degree in order to be considered for acceptance. United Arab Emirates qualifications [edit] Native speakers must possess teacher certification in their home country in order to teach English as a foreign language in most institutions and schools in United Arab Emirates (UAE). Otherwise, CELTA/TESOL/TEFL/ Certificate or the like is required along with prior teaching experience. Professional associations and unions [edit] TESOL International Association (TESOL) is a professional organization based in the United States. In addition, TESOL International Association has more than 100 statewide and regional affiliates in the United States and around the world, see below. The International Association of Teachers of English as a Foreign Language (IATEFL) is a professional organization based in the United Kingdom. Professional organizations for teachers of English exist at national levels. Many contain phrases in their title such as the Japan Association for Language Teaching (JALT), TESOL Greece in Greece, or the Society of Pakistan English Language Teachers (SPELT). Some of these organizations may be bigger in structure (supra-national, such as TESOL Arabia in the Gulf states), or smaller (limited to one city, state, or province, such as CATESOL in California). Some are affiliated with TESOL or IATEFL. The National Association for Teaching English and other Community Languages to Adults (NATECLA) which focuses on teaching ESOL in the United Kingdom. National Union of General Workers is a Japanese union which includes English teachers. University and College Union is a British trade union which includes lecturers of ELT. Acronyms and abbreviations [edit] See also: Language education Note that some of the terms below may be restricted to one or more countries, or may be used with different meanings in different countries, particularly the US and UK. See further discussion is Terminology, and types above. Types of English [edit] 1-to-1 - One to one lesson BE – Business English EAL – English as an additional language EAP – English for academic purposes EFL – English as a foreign language EE - Extramural English EIL – English as an international language (see main article at International English) ELF – English as a lingua franca, a common language that is not the mother tongue of any of the participants in a discussion ELL – English language learner ELT – English language teaching ESL – English as a second language ESOL – English for speakers of other languages ESP – English for specific purposes, or English for special purposes (e.g. technical English, scientific English, English for medical professionals, English for waiters) EST – English for science and technology (e.g. technical English, scientific English) TEFL – Teaching English as a foreign language. This link is to a page about a subset of TEFL, namely travel-teaching. More generally, see the discussion in Terminology and types. TESL – Teaching English as a second language TESOL – Teaching English to speakers of other languages, or Teaching English as a second or other languages. Also the short name for TESOL International Association. TYLE – Teaching Young Learners English. Note that "Young Learners" can mean under 18, or much younger. Other abbreviations [edit] BULATS – Business Language Testing Services, a computer-based test of business English, produced by CambridgeEsol. The test also exists for French, German, and Spanish. CELT – Certificate in English Language Teaching, certified by the National Qualifications Authority of Ireland (ACELS). CELTA – Certificate in English Language Teaching to Adults CELTYL – Certificate in English Language Teaching to Young Learners Delta – Diploma in English Language Teaching to Adults ECPE – Examination for the Certificate of Proficiency in English IELTS – International English Language Testing System LTE – London Tests of English by Pearson Language Tests OLTE – Online Language Teacher Education TOEFL – Test of English as a Foreign Language TOEIC – Test of English for International Communication UCLES – University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate, an exam board ELICOS – English Language Intensive Courses for Overseas Students, commonly used in Australia See also [edit] Education portal Language portal Spanish as a second or foreign language Language terminology [edit] Foreign language Glossary of language teaching terms and ideas Second language Basic English General language teaching and learning [edit] Applied linguistics Contrastive rhetoric Language education Second-language acquisition English language teaching and learning [edit] Assistant Language Teacher Academic English Non-native pronunciations of English Structured English Immersion, a framework for teaching English language learners in public schools Teaching English as a foreign language (TEFL) Translanguaging Contemporary English [edit] Comparison of American and British English English language English studies International English Dictionaries and resources [edit] Advanced learner's dictionary Foreign language writing aid Statistics [edit] EF English Proficiency Index References and notes [edit] Further reading [edit]
4519	dbpedia	0	71	https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Operators/Bitwise_AND	en	Bitwise AND (&) - JavaScript	https://developer.mozill…are.cd6c4a5a.png	https://developer.mozill…are.cd6c4a5a.png	[]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	2023-08-18T10:32:05+00:00	The bitwise AND (&) operator returns a number or BigInt whose binary representation has a 1 in each bit position for which the corresponding bits of both operands are 1.	en	/favicon-48x48.cbbd161b.png	MDN Web Docs	https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Operators/Bitwise_AND	The & operator is overloaded for two types of operands: number and BigInt. For numbers, the operator returns a 32-bit integer. For BigInts, the operator returns a BigInt. It first coerces both operands to numeric values and tests the types of them. It performs BigInt AND if both operands become BigInts; otherwise, it converts both operands to 32-bit integers and performs number bitwise AND. A TypeError is thrown if one operand becomes a BigInt but the other becomes a number. The operator operates on the operands' bit representations in two's complement. Each bit in the first operand is paired with the corresponding bit in the second operand: first bit to first bit, second bit to second bit, and so on. The operator is applied to each pair of bits, and the result is constructed bitwise. The truth table for the AND operation is: 9 (base 10) = 00000000000000000000000000001001 (base 2) 14 (base 10) = 00000000000000000000000000001110 (base 2) -------------------------------- 14 & 9 (base 10) = 00000000000000000000000000001000 (base 2) = 8 (base 10) Numbers with more than 32 bits get their most significant bits discarded. For example, the following integer with more than 32 bits will be converted to a 32-bit integer: Before: 11100110111110100000000000000110000000000001 After: 10100000000000000110000000000001 For BigInts, there's no truncation. Conceptually, understand positive BigInts as having an infinite number of leading 0 bits, and negative BigInts having an infinite number of leading 1 bits.
4519	dbpedia	2	68	https://nomadcapitalist.com/expat/english-speaking-countries-for-expats/	en	Top 14 English-Speaking Countries for Expats	https://nomadcapitalist.…s-for-Expats.png	https://nomadcapitalist.…s-for-Expats.png	[ "https://nomadcapitalist.com/wp-content/uploads/nomad-capitalist-logo-dark.png", "https://nomadcapitalist.com/wp-content/uploads/lang-switch.svg", "https://nomadcapitalist.com/wp-content/uploads/lang-en.png", "https://nomadcapitalist.com/wp-content/uploads/lang-de.png", "https://nomadcapitalist.com/wp-content/uploads/lang-es.png", "https://nomadcapitalist.com/wp-content/uploads/lang-fr.png", "https://nomadcapitalist.com/wp-content/uploads/lang-pt.png", "https://nomadcapitalist.com/wp-content/uploads/lang-ar.png", "https://nomadcapitalist.com/wp-content/uploads/lang-ru.png", "https://nomadcapitalist.com/wp-content/uploads/andrew-henderson-menu.webp", "https://nomadcapitalist.com/wp-content/uploads/NC-image-menu.webp", "https://nomadcapitalist.com/wp-content/uploads/post-bg.webp", "https://nomadcapitalist.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/Bermuda.png", "https://nomadcapitalist.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/ISLE-OF-MAN.png", "https://nomadcapitalist.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/THE-PHILIPPINES.png", "https://nomadcapitalist.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/Dubrovnik-Croatia-1.png", "https://nomadcapitalist.com/wp-content/uploads/Top-7-of-the-Best-Expat-Cities-in-Mexico-Guadalajara-400x250.png", "https://nomadcapitalist.com/wp-content/uploads/10-of-the-Least-Corrupt-Countries-in-Africa-400x250.png", "https://nomadcapitalist.com/wp-content/uploads/10-of-the-Least-Corrupt-Countries-in-the-World-400x250.png", "https://nomadcapitalist.com/wp-content/uploads/12-of-the-Safest-Countries-in-The-World-400x250.png", "https://nomadcapitalist.com/wp-content/uploads/10-of-the-Safest-Countries-in-Europe-400x250.webp", "https://nomadcapitalist.com/wp-content/uploads/10-of-the-Safest-Countries-in-Latin-America-400x250.png", "https://nomadcapitalist.com/wp-content/plugins/nomad-tools/wizard/public/assets/img/icon-legally-reduce-tax.png", "https://nomadcapitalist.com/wp-content/plugins/nomad-tools/wizard/public/assets/img/icon-create-plan-b-strategy.png", "https://nomadcapitalist.com/wp-content/plugins/nomad-tools/wizard/public/assets/img/icon-diversify-investments.png", "https://nomadcapitalist.com/wp-content/plugins/nomad-tools/wizard/public/assets/img/flag-united-states.png", "https://nomadcapitalist.com/wp-content/plugins/nomad-tools/wizard/public/assets/img/flag-canada.png", "https://nomadcapitalist.com/wp-content/plugins/nomad-tools/wizard/public/assets/img/flag-united-kingdom.png", "https://nomadcapitalist.com/wp-content/plugins/nomad-tools/wizard/public/assets/img/flag-australia.png", "https://nomadcapitalist.com/wp-content/plugins/nomad-tools/wizard/public/assets/img/flag-european-union.png", "https://nomadcapitalist.com/wp-content/plugins/nomad-tools/wizard/public/assets/img/flag-other.png", "https://nomadcapitalist.com/wp-content/plugins/nomad-tools/wizard/public/assets/img/icon-political-instability.png", "https://nomadcapitalist.com/wp-content/plugins/nomad-tools/wizard/public/assets/img/icon-economic-instability.png", "https://nomadcapitalist.com/wp-content/plugins/nomad-tools/wizard/public/assets/img/icon-missed-opportunities.png", "https://nomadcapitalist.com/wp-content/plugins/nomad-tools/wizard/public/assets/img/icon-travel-restrictions.png", "https://nomadcapitalist.com/wp-content/plugins/nomad-tools/wizard/public/assets/img/icon-high-tax-liabilities.png", "https://nomadcapitalist.com/wp-content/plugins/nomad-tools/wizard/public/assets/img/icon-risk-management.png", "https://nomadcapitalist.com/wp-content/plugins/nomad-tools/wizard/public/assets/img/icon-market-protection.png", "https://nomadcapitalist.com/wp-content/plugins/nomad-tools/wizard/public/assets/img/icon-wealth-preservation.png", "https://nomadcapitalist.com/wp-content/plugins/nomad-tools/wizard/public/assets/img/icon-opportunity-capitalization.png", "https://nomadcapitalist.com/wp-content/plugins/nomad-tools/wizard/public/assets/img/icon-estate-planning.png", "https://nomadcapitalist.com/wp-content/uploads/logo-white-for-web.png", "https://www.facebook.com/tr?id=1576501219246743&ev=PageView&noscript=1" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Nomad Capitalist" ]	2021-10-27T00:00:00	Discover the 14 best English-speaking countries for expats in this informative guide.	en	https://nomadcapitalist.…-black-32x32.png	Nomad Capitalist	https://nomadcapitalist.com/expat/english-speaking-countries-for-expats/	Have you dreamed of living and working abroad but have concerns about whether you’ll be understood and be able to communicate with the locals? In other words, you’re monolingual. ‘Do you speak English?’ – asking this over and over again and continually fumbling for the right words in your new country has little appeal. While some look forward to the challenge of learning a new language, to others it’s a chore and something that can be difficult to master. And that’s why you may keep putting off moving abroad and, in the process, the opportunity to enhance your lifestyle and potentially even lessen your tax burden. It can certainly feel isolating not knowing the language that the majority of people speak. Sure, you can get by with English in tourist spots and hire a local to help you navigate finding a property and the bureaucracy, but it’s not quite the same as connecting with a place on a more personal level. If not being able to speak a second language is stopping you from living overseas and gaining tax advantages, don’t let it. Are you someone who wants to leave your home country and either settle in one place or have multiple bases while maintaining a tax-friendly lifestyle? Become a Nomad Capitalist client, and we will combine all your needs in a single holistic tax, immigration, asset protection and investment strategy. What’s in a Language, Anyway? Before moving to a new place, the number one fear expats face is the language barrier. It comes before the fear of being too far away from friends and family and before things like culture shock or concerns over healthcare and infrastructure standards. The team at Nomad Capitalist knows this all too well, having lived and worked in many different countries. There is nothing like the feeling of isolation that comes with being unable to understand the news, the shop vendor or the taxi driver. A smile and a hand gesture go a long way, but that’s not really a fulfilled life, is it? There is so much value in these micro-interactions that it’s little wonder that people who don’t speak a second language hesitate to move abroad. But with so much to gain, both personally and financially, don’t let it become the reason you’re missing out on a new life. The good news is that you can reduce your tax burden and move to a new place without having to compromise on your quality of life. Expat English-Speaking Countries (That Make Sense Tax-Wise) We’ve pulled together the ultimate list of expat-friendly countries where you can get by with English perfectly fine. Not just get by but adapt to a new culture without speaking a foreign language, build relationships with expats and locals and thrive. Here are the best English-speaking countries to move to if you want the tax advantages of living abroad without having to learn a new language. 1. The Bahamas Obtaining a residence permit for the Bahamas is easy, and once you do, living there is tax-free. With millions of tourists heading there each year, the Bahamas is everything you would expect of a sun-soaked, tropical Caribbean island chain. Beyond its beaches, another attraction is that 87% of Bahamians speak English well. So, if island life appeals to you and you’re unphased by the potential for tropical storms, it could be a good choice. And if you want to do business in the Bahamas, it’s a recognised tax haven with favourable laws that welcome foreign investment and company formation. 2. Belize If you want to enjoy the beach or explore Mayan ruins, all while speaking English with the locals, head to Belize. It’s a beautiful paradise along the coast of the Caribbean Sea, where you can go snorkelling, fishing, sailing and caving. Since the EU removed Belize from its tax haven blacklist in 2019, it’s now an even better place to consider for offshore banking. The country’s official language is English, with around 63% of the population speaking it. There are pockets where Belizean Creole or Spanish are used more often, but English will be enough to help you conduct your affairs and social life. 3. Bermuda You’ll easily find native English speakers as you enjoy the stunning beaches and sunsets in Bermuda. Of course, it makes sense that Bermuda, a British Overseas Territory, would make our list of countries where English is spoken fluently. Bermuda is one of the most livable countries with no income tax, although it can be expensive. Finding a property will also be a tall order as it’s in short supply and relatively expensive. Yet, if you have the cash and want to live on a highly developed island with good travel connections to the United States, Bermuda may be for you. 4. Dominica You can get fast-track citizenship of this tropical paradise for as little as a US$100,000 donation to the Dominican government. It’s worth remembering that e the island of Dominica and the Dominican Republic are two separate countries. As home to one of the world’s most affordable citizenship by investment programs, Dominica isn’t just a place to get a second passport; it’s also a Caribbean paradise where over 2,000 US expats live. These are mostly retirees so if you’re after an upbeat lifestyle, Dominica is possibly not for you. Unlike Saint Kitts and Nevis, where English is also widely spoken, Dominica imposes income tax at progressive rates from 15% to 35%, so you may want to consider other options if you’re planning to live somewhere full time. 5. Gibraltar If you want the beauty of Spain’s south coast in an English-speaking country, Gibraltar gives you just that, plus an attractive tax regime. Gibraltar is one of the few English-speaking countries in Europe and has long been a tax haven and the perfect place to incorporate a business (no capital gains tax) and even become a tax resident (maximum effective tax rate of 25% with the possibility for a lump-sum tax incentive). Being a British Overseas Territory, Gibraltar’s official language is English, so you will have no problem conversing with the locals. Gibraltar residence permits are relatively easy to come by, and overall, it’s a place that welcomes expats. Plus, if you feel bored, you can always pop over to Andalusia for the wines, cured meats and flamenco dancing. 6. Ireland Ireland is undoubtedly one of the friendliest English-speaking countries in the world, and although Gaelic is recognised as the official language, just 5% of the population speak it regularly. While it’s not exactly a recognised income tax haven, it is a tax-friendly offshore jurisdiction, it actually has one of the lowest corporate tax rates in Europe. Multinational companies such as Apple, Microsoft and Google have long recognised this and have established operations there – with the 12.5% corporate tax rate and skilled workforce being the main appeal. While the accent will take some getting used to, Ireland ticks many boxes: A highly reputable country on the international scene Member of the EU, it’s very close to the continent Modern infrastructure, high standard of health care and education A great quality of life. Personal income tax ranges from 20% to 40%, but with some smart planning, lower corporate taxes could compensate for the relatively high-income tax. And if you don’t qualify for citizenship by descent in Ireland, you can still get a residence by investment in the Emerald Isle. 7. Isle of Man If you don’t mind paying a little tax, this English-speaking country is just a short flight from London. A small island between Ireland and the United Kingdom, the Isle of Man is well-connected to both the UK and Europe. It’s a self-governing territory of the British Crown, with sleepy fishing towns, medieval castles and rural landscapes. Needless to say, everyone there speaks English, so if you’re after an island that’s a bit closer to home then the Isle of Man could be a good choice, with London, Dublin and Edinburgh a quick plane ride away. Income tax operates in two bands of either 10% or 20%, so it’s not too high in exchange for an English-speaking country with all the amenities a low-key island life could require. 8. Jersey Don’t be fooled by the place names on Jersey – St Helier, St Ouen and La Pulente all sound suspiciously French. However, Jersey has two official languages, and one of those is English. Located between the UK and France, it’s a so-called ‘channel island’ that offers, a relatively high quality of life and a booming finance sector. Jersey has no capital gains tax, and the income tax rate is a flat 20%. However, you can opt to pay a lump-sum tax which may make it more worthwhile. 9. Malaysia Given past British involvement in this Southeast Asian paradise, you can get by there speaking English. If you have a base in Malaysia, learning Malay does not necessarily need to be a high priority. In Kuala Lumpur, practically everyone speaks English to some degree, and if you stay in the city, you don’t need to learn Bahasa Malay because English is the de facto official language. There are also some islands where you can immerse yourself fully in the local culture and speak only English, for example, Langkawi and Penang – and both offer a great quality of life. Malaysia also has a reputation for being tax-friendly and is an attractive English-speaking destination for entrepreneurs, businesses and retirees alike. 10. Malta While it is closer to Italy than it is to Britain, English is the language of choice in Malta. Malta may well be one of the best places to live in Europe when it comes to countries that speak English. And it certainly helps that it’s tax-friendly, allowing offshore companies domiciled there to claim a credit on taxes they pay with an effective corporate tax rate as low as 5%. Setting up a company in Malta also allows non-EU citizens to obtain residency there. Plus, its territorial tax system means that foreign income will not be taxed unless it is remitted to Malta, at which time it will be taxed at a rate of just 15%. You’ll also have access to all of Europe without having to worry about resetting your visa every time you want to move country. On top of Malta’s benefit as an offshore hub for easy banking, low taxes and openness to industries like gambling, 89% of Maltese people speak English. 11. Mauritius This African island nation has a lot to offer, including being an English-speaking country with tax and offshore company benefits, and advantages for crypto investors. This small Indian Ocean island is an English-speaking country in Africa that packs a punch. Its ease of doing business, favourable tax laws and growing banking system allow you to incorporate your offshore company in Mauritius easily. Income tax rates stand at 10-15%, and only income remitted to Mauritius is taxed there. In other words, the majority of your worldwide income will not be taxed there. In 2018 Mauritius became the very first country in the world to introduce custodian services to digital assets such as Bitcoin. 12. The Philippines You’ll have a better chance of running into English speakers in the Philippines in larger cities like Manila. Because of historical ties, English has been the unofficial language of the Philippines for decades. It is widely taught in schools, although you should stick to mainly urban areas to experience the benefit of the 64% of the people who speak English in the country. As a bonus – only income derived from sources within the Philippines is taxed there, so if you have foreign income, it is not taxed. Retirees love the Philippines for its relatively low cost of living, relaxed island lifestyle and welcoming locals. 13. Singapore Nowhere exudes opulence and luxury like Singapore. The fact that it’s a tax-friendly, English-speaking country is the icing on the cake. Singapore is a place where so many nationalities and cultures intermingle that it’s difficult to imagine that English is widely spoken. But forget the preconceptions – most Singaporeans are bilingual Chinese and English speakers. However, English is the de facto language of business and is widely used in banking and legal circles. With one in five of the expats in Singapore a millionaire; it’s an extremely pricey place to live, and you’ll need some capital behind you to make the move. 14. Vanuatu It is possible to get residence or citizenship in Vanuatu and enjoy tax-free living in this English-speaking country. It will make particular sense for New Zealanders or Australians to move there because it’s relatively close to them. Perhaps less so for everyone else because it is so remote. However, if you want to take the plunge and give Vanuatu a chance, you’ll be glad to know that 62% of the population speaks English. It’s also one of the easiest places on earth to pay zero income tax and get a second passport in a matter of months. Other English-First Scenarios If you’re not so concerned about lessening your tax burden and are simply looking for the best English-speaking countries to live in for a part of the year (thus not becoming a tax resident as per Nomad Capitalist’s Trifecta Strategy), here are some more options. 1. Scandinavia – Norway, Sweden and Denmark If you’re just looking for an English-speaking country to visit, consider the Scandinavian countries. Just don’t stick around long enough to pay taxes. These Viking lands are economic powerhouses, where the adopted common language is English. So, while it might not be an obvious choice, Norway, Sweden and Denmark are rated as some of the happiest places on earth, so you know that the quality of life there is attractive. What they are not, however, are tax havens. With some of the highest rates of income tax in the world, it won’t suit everyone to move there permanently. However, if you plan it carefully and don’t become a tax resident, Scandinavia is an amazing place to live. High-quality public services and unspoiled nature could be all yours, and you’d get to enjoy it in English too. 2. The Netherlands The Netherlands has a large population that speaks English as a second language, and they do it very well. The Dutch were named the most adept at speaking English as a second language in the world. Amsterdam, the Hague and other Dutch cities are some of the biggest English-speaking destinations in Europe. If you have ever dreamed of strolling the romantic canals of Amsterdam, you’ll be happy to know that over 90% of Dutch speak English. While becoming a permanent resident of the Netherlands may not be the best move for tax purposes, Western citizens can easily spend half their year in Europe’s Schengen area, giving you plenty of time to enjoy a second home in Amsterdam. The Netherlands also has favourable corporate arrangements in place, thanks to its copious tax treaties and tax participation exemptions (including, dividends and capital gains realised are exempt from corporate tax). It’s a highly stable country with access to Europe and extremely modern health, transport and educational facilities. What’s not to like? The income tax is a potential issue, so be careful not to overstay your non-resident welcome. 3. The Balkans – Serbia, Croatia and Bulgaria You may be surprised by how many English speakers you can find in Eastern Europe. Depending on where you are in the Balkans, you might have some luck with Italian or German. However, the main second language of the younger generation is English. Many of the older generations might still be monolingual or speak Russian as their only foreign language, but in cities like Zagreb, Sofia or Belgrade, you shouldn’t encounter problems as an English speaker. Some Balkan countries have favourable tax regimes with flat income tax rates and are extremely grateful for foreign capital by way of business incorporation or investment. So, if you are looking for an English-speaking country that’s expat-friendly and below the radar, the Balkans could be a good choice. 4. The Baltics – Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia You may not have guessed you would find Lithuania on our list of English-speaking countries, but you are sure to find plenty here and in neighbouring Estonia and Latvia. People often disregard the Baltics in favour of places with a richer cultural history, better food or a milder climate. And if you think this way, too, you’re not doing yourself any favours. The region has experienced some of the fastest growth rates in the EU over the last few years. There’s loads of investment potential here, with some generous tax-friendly exemptions for foreign capital. With growing foreign investment and tourism, the Baltics can provide a comfortable life at a fraction of the cost of Scandinavia but with many of the same amenities. In Vilnius, Riga and Tallinn, you can work towards lower tax rates and fully immerse yourself in life there while speaking English. The Best English-Speaking Country for Expats We’ve given you plenty of food for thought as to the countries you can call home and go about your daily life in English. As we always say at Nomad Capitalist, however, it’s about ‘going where you’re treated best’. The choice to live, work or invest in one of these English-speaking countries will only make sense if you have planned it properly. That’s where Nomad Capitalist comes in.
4519	dbpedia	1	11	https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/manuscriptsandspecialcollections/researchguidance/medievaldocuments/languages.aspx	en	Languages used in medieval documents	https://www.nottingham.a…ages/img-src.jpg	https://www.nottingham.a…ages/img-src.jpg	[ "https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/SiteElements/Images/Base/logo.png", "https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/ManuscriptsandSpecialCollections/Images-Multimedia/ResearchGuidance/ReadingMedievalDocuments/RAO04WLC-LM4-f57v.jpg", "https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/ManuscriptsandSpecialCollections/Images-Multimedia/ResearchGuidance/ReadingMedievalDocuments/RAO05WLC-LM-38.jpg", "https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/ManuscriptsandSpecialCollections/Images-Multimedia/ResearchGuidance/ReadingMedievalDocuments/RAO06WLC-LM-9-ff1v-2r.jpg", "https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/ManuscriptsandSpecialCollections/Images-Multimedia/ResearchGuidance/ReadingMedievalDocuments/RAO07WLC-LM-8-f203v.jpg", "https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/ManuscriptsandSpecialCollections/Images-Multimedia/ResearchGuidance/ReadingMedievalDocuments/RAO08Ne-D-742.jpg", "https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/ManuscriptsandSpecialCollections/Images-Multimedia/ResearchGuidance/ReadingMedievalDocuments/RAO09WLC-LM-1-f37r.jpg", "https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/ManuscriptsandSpecialCollections/Images-Multimedia/ResearchGuidance/ReadingMedievalDocuments/RAO10Pa-L-2detail.jpg", "https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/ManuscriptsandSpecialCollections/Images-Multimedia/ResearchGuidance/ReadingMedievalDocuments/RAO11Ne-D-4716.jpg", "https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/SiteElements/Images/Icons/icon-facebook.png", "https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/SiteElements/Images/Icons/icon-twitter.png", "https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/SiteElements/Images/Icons/icon-youtube.png", "https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/SiteElements/Images/Icons/icon-linkedin.png", "https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/SiteElements/Images/Icons/icon-tumblr.png", "https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/SiteElements/Images/Icons/icon-instagram.png", "https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/SiteElements/Images/Icons/icon-weibo.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null		en			null	Three main languages were in use in England in the later medieval period – Middle English, Anglo-Norman (or French) and Latin. Authors made choices about which one to use, and often used more than one language in the same document. Eventually English emerged as the standard literary medium, but it was not until the eighteenth century that Latin disappeared from legal documents. Hebrew and Aramaic were used by the medieval Jewish community in England. Anglo-Norman Anglo-Norman had emerged as a distinct dialect of French after the Norman Conquest in 1066 established a French-speaking aristocracy in English. It was still dominant in the mid-thirteenth century when Robert of Gretham wrote his advice on moral conduct, the Mirur. For Robert the appropriate language for lay education was French, but by the late fourteenth century his book had been translated into English. Detail from Robert of Gretham, Mirur, in Anglo-Norman (WLC/LM/4, f.57v) Middle English The earliest literary document in English in the University of Nottingham’s collections is a fragment from the life of St Bridget, from the South English Legendary, composed in the late thirteenth century. The scribe uses the Anglo-Saxon letters ‘yogh’ for ‘y’ or ‘g’ (ȝ) and thorn for ‘th’ (þ). He leaves a wide gap between the first capital letter of each line and the rest of the word. See the words ‘This’ ('Þ is') at the start of line 2, and ‘begat’ ('byȝat') in the middle of line 3. Fragment of the Life of St Bridget, in English (WLC/LM/38) The author of the Speculum Vitae (The Mirror of Life), writing late in the fourteenth century, chose to use English and explained why. Detail from Speculum Vitae, WLC/LM/9, ff. 1v-2r His explanation concludes that everybody, both the educated (‘lered’) and unschooled (‘lewed’), old and young, can understand the English tongue. In contrast, Latin was only understood by those who learnt it at school, and French by those who attended court. These languages were used by particular communities and for specific purposes. French John Gower, a contemporary and friend of Geoffrey Chaucer in the late fourteenth century, wrote in all three languages. His ballades include the French poem Traitié pour les amantz marietz, promoting the virtues of married love. Shown here is a section headed by an introduction (rubricated in red ink) in which Gower apologises for any mistakes in his French. The introduction to the passage is in Latin, and reads 'Gower, qui Anglicus est, sua verba Gallica … excusat' ('Gower, who is English, makes excuse for his French words'). This followed a familiar convention of bilingual presentation. Gower’s great English work was known by its Latin title Confessio Amantis and included Latin running titles and section headings. Detail from John Gower, Traitié ..., in French with Latin headings (WLC/LM/8, f.203v) Although French remained familiar to Gower’s contemporaries at court and in educated or wealthy circles, the great days of Anglo-Norman as a literary medium were over. A form of French, known as 'Law French', continued to be used by English lawyers in written form until the seventeenth century. It became fossilized and degraded, because after the fourteenth century, most of those using the language did not fully understand it. Many legal terms still in existence today derive from French, such as 'attorney', 'bailiff' and 'defendant'. Title deeds in French are rare after the early fifteenth century. This agreement relating to dower, made in 1417 (Ne D 742), is in fact the very last French deed known to exist in the University of Nottingham’s collection. Detail from agreement relating to dower, in French, 1417 (Ne D 742) Latin Latin was still the preferred language for many purposes. With its fixed grammar and spelling, it was easy to abbreviate without misunderstanding. It remained the medium for international scholarship until the seventeenth century. The Catholic church used Latin in its services, so all liturgical books were written in this language until the Reformation in the sixteenth century. The theologian John Wycliffe began to translate the Bible into English in the late fourteenth century, but the Lollard movement with which he was associated was persecuted by the authorities, so late medieval Bibles in English are rare. Detail from Latin breviary with musical notation, c.1175-1225 (WLC/LM/1, f.37r) English was slow to take over as the language of government, law and bureaucracy, despite the fact that by a law passed in 1362 all legal pleadings had to be in English. This bill of complaint (Pa L 2) dates from the late fifteenth century and is indeed in English. Detail of bill of complaint of Elizabeth Whitfield, Pa L 2 However, most other types of official document continued to be written in Latin, such as the manor court roll (MS 66/1) shown on the previous page of this unit. It was not until the mid-sixteenth century that English began to appear in manorial records, and even then it was often only used to record presentments spoken in that language at the meeting of the manor court. It was a similar situation in the records of the Nottingham Archdeaconry court. In depositions written in 1610, the words spoken by ordinary people are written in English, as they said them, but the rest of the document explaining the case is in Latin. Rentals and accounts from landed estates are rare in English before the beginning of the sixteenth century. Most title deeds were also written in Latin until the sixteenth century and even later, although many fifteenth-century examples in English exist. However, since Latin was not a living, spoken language, the scribes sometimes struggled to find suitable words and phrases to use. They often resorted to inserting English words where necessary, for instance a person's occupation in a title deed, or a description of a particular item in an inventory which could not be accurately identified using a Latin word. Latin continued to be used as the language of some deeds and legal documents until the early eighteenth century. By Act of Parliament, 'Use of English Language in the Law Courts made Obligatory', 4 George II, c.26, 1731, it was enacted that English should be used to record all official information from 25 March 1733. Detail from title deed in Latin, 1388, Ne D 4716 Conclusion Researchers studying medieval documents must expect them to be in Latin or French. Even if they are in English, the medieval form of the language uses many words which are now obsolete or mean something different. However, many works of literature and some important parliamentary and governmental records have been translated into modern English and published. There are also plenty of books and websites to help researchers understand the medieval Latin used in title deeds and administrative records.
4519	dbpedia	3	49	https://esl-bits.eu/ESL.English.Listening.Short.Stories/Switzerland/01/text.html	en	English Language Learning			[ "https://esl-bits.eu/ESL.English.Listening.Short.Stories/Switzerland/Switzerland.jpg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null					null	PART I PORTRAIT OF MR. WHEELER IN MONTREUX INSIDE THE STATION CAFE IT WAS WARM and light. The wood of the tables shone from wiping and there were baskets of pretzels in glazed paper sacks. The chairs were carved, but the seats were worn and comfortable. There was a carved wooden clock on the wall and a bar at the far end of the room. Outside the window it was snowing. Two of the station porters sat drinking new wine at the table under the clock. Another porter came in and said the Simplon-Orient Express was an hour late at Saint-Maurice. He went out. The waitress came over to Mr. Wheelerâs table. âThe Express is an hour late, sir,â she said. âCan I bring you some coffee?â âIf you think it wonât keep me awake.â âPlease?â asked the waitress. âBring me some,â said Mr. Wheeler. âThank you.â She brought the coffee from the kitchen and Mr. Wheeler looked out the window at the snow falling in the light from the station platform. âDo you speak other languages besides English?â he asked the waitress. âOh, yes, sir. I speak German and French and the dialects.â âWould you like a drink of something?â âOh, no, sir. It is not permitted to drink in the cafÃ© with the clients.â âYou wonât take a cigar?â âOh, no, sir. I donât smoke, sir.â âThat is all right,â said Mr. Wheeler. He looked out of the window again, drank the coffee, and lit a cigarette. âFrÃ¤ulein,â he called. The waitress came over. âWhat would you like, sir?â âYou,â he said. âYou must not joke me like that.â âIâm not joking.â âThen you must not say it.â âI havenât time to argue,â Mr. Wheeler said. âThe train comes in forty minutes. If youâll go upstairs with me Iâll give you a hundred francs.â âYou should not say such things, sir. I will ask the porter to speak with you.â âI donât want a porter,â Mr. Wheeler said. âNor a policeman nor one of those boys that sell cigarettes. I want you.â âIf you talk like that you must go out. You cannot stay here and talk like that.â âWhy donât you go away, then? If you go away I canât talk to you.â The waitress went away. Mr. Wheeler watched to see if she spoke to the porters. She did not. âMademoiselle!â he called. The waitress came over. âBring me a bottle of Sion, please.â âYes, sir.â Mr. Wheeler watched her go out, then come in with the wine and bring it to his table. He looked toward the clock. âIâll give you two hundred francs,â he said. âPlease do not say such things.â âTwo hundred francs is a great deal of money.â âYou will not say such things!â the waitress said. She was losing her English. Mr. Wheeler looked at her interestedly. âTwo hundred francs.â âYou are hateful.â âWhy donât you go away then? I canât talk to you if youâre not here.â The waitress left the table and went over to the bar. Mr. Wheeler drank the wine and smiled to himself for some time. âMademoiselle,â he called. The waitress pretended not to hear him. âMademoiselle,â he called again. The waitress came over. âYou wish something?â âVery much. Iâll give you three hundred francs.â âYou are hateful.â âThree hundred francs Swiss.â She went away and Mr. Wheeler looked after her. A porter opened the door. He was the one who had Mr. Wheelerâs bags in his charge. âThe train is coming, sir,â he said in French. Mr. Wheeler stood up. âMademoiselle,â he called. The waitress came toward the table. âHow much is the wine?â âSeven francs.â Mr. Wheeler counted out eight francs and left them on the table. He put on his coat and followed the porter onto the platform where the snow was falling. âAu revoir, Mademoiselle,â he said. The waitress watched him go. Heâs ugly, she thought, ugly and hateful. Three hundred francs for a thing that is nothing to do. How many times have I done that for nothing. And no place to go here. If he had sense he would know there was no place. No time and no place to go. Three hundred francs to do that. What people those Americans. Standing on the cement platform beside his bags, looking down the rails toward the headlight of the train coming through the snow, Mr. Wheeler was thinking that it was very inexpensive sport. He had only spent, actually, aside from the dinner, seven francs for a bottle of wine and a franc for the tip. Seventy-five centimes would have been better. He would have felt better now if the tip had been seventy-five centimes. One franc Swiss is five francs French. Mr. Wheeler was headed for Paris. He was very careful about money and did not care for women. He had been in that station before and he knew there was no upstairs to go to. Mr. Wheeler never took chances. PART II MR. JOHNSON TALKS ABOUT IT AT VEVEY Inside the station cafÃ© it was warm and light; the tables were shiny from wiping and on some there were red and white striped table cloths; and there were blue and white striped table cloths on the others and on all of them baskets with pretzels in glazed paper sacks. The chairs were carved but the wood seats were worn and comfortable. There was a clock on the wall, a zinc bar at the far end of the room, and outside the window it was snowing. Two of the station porters sat drinking new wine at the table under the clock. Another porter came in and said the Simplon-Orient Express was an hour late at Saint-Maurice. The waitress came over to Mr. Johnsonâs table. âThe Express is an hour late, sir,â she said. âCan I bring you some coffee?â âIf itâs not too much trouble.â âPlease?â asked the waitress. âIâll take some.â âThank you.â She brought the coffee from the kitchen and Mr. Johnson looked out the window at the snow falling in the light from the station platform. âDo you speak other languages besides English?â he asked the waitress. âOh, yes, I speak German and French and the dialects.â âWould you like a drink of something?â âOh, no, sir. It is not permitted to drink in the cafÃ© with the clients.â âHave a cigar?â âOh, no, sir,â she laughed. âI donât smoke, sir.â âNeither do I,â said Johnson. âItâs a dirty habit.â The waitress went away and Johnson lit a cigarette and drank the coffee. The clock on the wall marked a quarter to ten. His watch was a little fast. The train was due at ten-thirtyâan hour late meant eleven-thirty. Johnson called to the waitress. âSignorina!â âWhat would you like, sir?â âYou wouldnât like to play with me?â Johnson asked. The waitress blushed. âNo, sir.â âI donât mean anything violent. You wouldnât like to make up a party and see the night life of Vevey? Bring a girl friend if you like.â âI must work,â the waitress said. âI have my duty here.â âI know,â said Johnson. âBut couldnât you get a substitute? They used to do that in the Civil War.â âOh, no, sir. I must be here myself in the person.â âWhere did you learn your English?â âAt the Berlitz school, sir.â âTell me about it,â Johnson said. âWere the Berlitz undergraduates a wild lot? What about all this necking and petting? Were there many smoothies? Did you ever run into Scott Fitzgerald?â âPlease?â âI mean were your college days the happiest days of your life? What sort of team did Berlitz have last fall?â âYou are joking, sir?â âOnly feebly,â said Johnson. âYouâre an awfully good girl. And you donât want to play with me?â âOh, no, sir,â said the waitress. âWould you like me to bring you something?â âYes,â said Johnson. âWould you bring me the wine list?â âYes, sir.â Johnson walked over with the wine list to the table where the three porters sat. They looked up at him. They were old men. âWollen Sie trinken?â he asked. One of them nodded and smiled. âOui, monsieur.â âYou speak French?â âOui, monsieur.â âWhat shall we drink? Connais-vous des champagnes?â âNon, monsieur.â âFaut les connaÃ®tre,â said Johnson. âFrÃ¤ulein,â he called the waitress. âWe will drink champagne.â âWhich champagne would you prefer, sir?â âThe best,â said Johnson. âLaquelle est le best?â he asked the porters. âLe meilleur?â asked the porter who had spoken first. âBy all means.â The porter took out a pair of gold-rimmed glasses from his coat pocket and looked over the list. He ran his finger down the four typewritten names and prices. âSportsman,â he said. âSportsman is the best.â âYou agree, gentlemen?â Johnson asked the other porters. The one porter nodded. The other said in French, âI donât know them personally but Iâve often heard speak of Sportsman. Itâs good.â âA bottle of Sportsman,â Johnson said to the waitress. He looked at the price on the wine card: eleven francs Swiss. âMake it two Sportsmen. Do you mind if I sit here with you?â he asked the porter who had suggested Sportsman. âSit down. Put yourself here, please.â The porter smiled at him. He was folding his spectacles and putting them away in their case. âIs it the gentlemanâs birthday?â âNo,â said Johnson. âItâs not a fÃªte. My wife has decided to divorce me.â âSo,â said the porter. âI hope not.â The other porter shook his head. The third porter seemed a little deaf. âIt is doubtless a common experience,â said Johnson, âlike the first visit to the dentist or the first time a girl is unwell, but I have been upset.â âIt is understandable,â said the oldest porter. âI understand it.â âNone of you gentlemen is divorced?â Johnson asked. He had stopped clowning with the language and was speaking good French now and had been for some time. âNo,â said the porter who had ordered Sportsman. âThey donât divorce much here. There are gentlemen who are divorced but not many.â âWith us,â said Johnson, âitâs different. Practically every one is divorced.â âThatâs true,â the porter confirmed. âIâve read it in the paper.â âI myself am somewhat in retard,â Johnson went on. âThis is the first time I have been divorced. I am thirty-five.â âMais vous Ãªtes encore jeune,â said the porter. He explained to the two others. âMonsieur nâa que trente-cinq ans.â The other porters nodded. âHeâs very young,â said one. âAnd it is really the first time youâve been divorced?â asked the porter. âAbsolutely,â said Johnson. âPlease open the wine, mademoiselle.â âAnd is it very expensive?â âTen thousand francs.â âSwiss money?â âNo, French money.â âOh, yes. Two thousand francs Swiss. All the same itâs not cheap.â âNo.â âAnd why does one do it?â âOne is asked to.â âBut why do they ask that?â âTo marry someone else.â âBut itâs idiotic.â âI agree with you,â said Johnson. The waitress filled the four glasses. They all raised them. âProsit,â said Johnson. âA votre santÃ©, monsieur,â said the porter. The other two porters said âSalut.â The champagne tasted like sweet pink cider. âIs it a system always to respond in a different language in Switzerland?â Johnson asked. âNo,â said the porter. âFrench is more cultivated. Besides, this is La Suisse romande.â âBut you speak German?â âYes. Where I come from they speak German.â âI see,â said Johnson, âand you say you have never been divorced?â âNo. It would be too expensive. Besides I have never married.â âAh,â said Johnson. âAnd these other gentlemen?â âThey are married.â âYou like being married?â Johnson asked one of the porters. âWhat?â âYou like the married state?â âOui. Câest normale.â âExactly,â said Johnson. âEt vous, monsieur?â âÃa va,â said the other porter. âPour moi,â said Johnson, âÃ§a ne va pas.â âMonsieur is going to divorce,â the first porter explained. âOh,â said the second porter. âAh ha,â the third porter said. âWell,â said Johnson, âthe subject seems to be exhausted. Youâre not interested in my troubles,â he addressed the first porter. âBut, yes,â said the porter. âWell, letâs talk about something else.â âAs you wish.â âWhat can we talk about?â âYou do the sport?â âNo,â said Johnson. âMy wife does, though.â âWhat do you do for amusement?â âI am a writer.â âDoes that make much money?â âNo. But later on when you get known it does.â âIt is interesting.â âNo,â said Johnson, âit is not interesting. I am sorry gentlemen, but I have to leave you. Will you please drink the other bottle?â âBut the train does not come for three-quarters of an hour.â âI know,â said Johnson. The waitress came and he paid for the wine and his dinner. âYouâre going out, sir?â she asked. âYes,â said Johnson, âjust for a little walk. Iâll leave my bags here.â He put on his muffler, his coat, and his hat. Outside the snow was falling heavily. He looked back through the window at the three porters sitting at the table. The waitress was filling their glasses from the last wine of the opened bottle. She took the unopened bottle back to the bar. That makes them three francs something apiece, Johnson thought. He turned and walked down the platform. Inside the cafÃ© he had thought that talking about it would blunt it; but it had not blunted it; it had only made him feel nasty. PART III THE SON OF A FELLOW MEMBER AT TERRITET In the station cafÃ© at Territet it was a little too warm; the lights were bright and the tables shiny from polishing. There were baskets with pretzels in glazed paper sacks on the tables and cardboard pads for beer glasses in order that the moist glasses would not make rings on the wood. The chairs were carved but the wooden seats were worn and quite comfortable. There was a clock on the wall, a bar at the far end of the room, and outside the window it was snowing. There was an old man drinking coffee at a table under the clock and reading the evening paper. A porter came in and said the Simplon-Orient Express was an hour late at Saint-Maurice. The waitress came over to Mr. Harrisâs table. Mr. Harris had just finished dinner. âThe Express is an hour late, sir. Can I bring you some coffee?â âIf you like.â âPlease?â asked the waitress. âAll right,â said Mr. Harris. âThank you, sir,â said the waitress. She brought the coffee from the kitchen and Mr. Harris put sugar in it, crunched the lumps with his spoon, and looked out the window at the snow falling in the light from the station platform. âDo you speak other languages besides English?â he asked the waitress. âOh, yes, sir. I speak German and French and the dialects.â âWhich do you like best?â âThey are all very much the same, sir. I canât say I like one better than another.â âWould you like a drink of something or a coffee?â âOh, no, sir, it is not permitted to drink in the cafÃ© with the clients.â âYou wouldnât take a cigar?â âOh, no, sir,â she laughed. âI donât smoke, sir.â âNeither do I,â said Harris, âI donât agree with David Belasco.â âPlease?â âBelasco. David Belasco. You can always tell him because he has his collar on backwards. But I donât agree with him. Then, too, heâs dead now.â âWill you excuse me, sir?â asked the waitress. âAbsolutely,â said Harris. He sat forward in the chair and looked out of the window. Across the room the old man had folded his paper. He looked at Mr. Harris and then picked up his coffee cup and saucer and walked to Harrisâs table. âI beg your pardon if I intrude,â he said in English, âbut it has just occurred to me that you might be a member of the National Geographic Society.â âPlease sit down,â Harris said. The gentleman sat down. âWonât you have another coffee or a liqueur?â âThank you,â said the gentleman. âWonât you have a kirsch with me?â âPerhaps. But you must have it with me.â âNo, I insist.â Harris called the waitress. The old gentleman took out from an inside pocket of his coat a leather pocket-book. He took off a wide rubber band and drew out several papers, selected one, and handed it to Harris. âThat is my certificate of membership,â he said. âDo you know Frederick J. Roussel in America?â âIâm afraid I donât.â âI believe he is very prominent.â âWhere does he come from? Do you know what part of the States?â âFrom Washington, of course. Isnât that the headquarters of the Society?â âI believe it is.â âYou believe it is. Arenât you sure?â âIâve been away a long time,â Harris said. âYouâre not a member, then?â âNo. But my father is. Heâs been a member for a great many years.â âThen he would know Frederick J. Roussel. He is one of the officers of the society. You will observe that it is by Mr. Roussel that I was nominated for membership.â âIâm awfully glad.â âI am sorry you are not a member. But you could obtain nomination through your father?â âI think so,â said Harris. âI must when I go back.â âI would advise you to,â said the gentleman. âYou see the magazine, of course?â âAbsolutely.â âHave you seen the number with the colored plates of the North American fauna?â âYes. I have it in Paris.â âAnd the number containing the panorama of the volcanoes of Alaska?â âThat was a wonder.â âI enjoyed very much, too, the wild animal photographs of George Shiras three.â âThey were damned fine.â âI beg your pardon?â âThey were excellent. That fellow Shirasââ âYou call him that fellow?â âWeâre old friends,â said Harris. âI see. You know George Shiras three. He must be very interesting.â âHe is. Heâs about the most interesting man I know.â âAnd do you know George Shiras two? Is he interesting too?â âOh, heâs not so interesting.â âI should imagine he would be very interesting.â âYou know, a funny thing. Heâs not so interesting. Iâve often wondered why.â âHâm,â said the gentleman. âI should have thought any one in that family would be interesting.â âDo you remember the panorama of the Sahara Desert?â Harris asked. âThe Sahara Desert? That was nearly fifteen years ago.â âThatâs right. That was one of my fatherâs favorites.â âHe doesnât prefer the newer numbers?â âHe probably does. But he was very fond of the Sahara panorama.â âIt was excellent. But to me its artistic value far exceeded its scientific interest.â âI donât know,â said Harris. âThe wind blowing all that sand and that Arab with his camel kneeling toward Mecca.â âAs I recall, the Arab was standing holding the camel.â âYouâre quite right,â said Harris. âI was thinking of Colonel Lawrenceâs book.â âLawrenceâs book deals with Arabia, I believe.â âAbsolutely,â said Harris. âIt was the Arab reminded me of it.â âHe must be a very interesting young man.â âI believe he is.â âDo you know what he is doing now?â âHeâs in the Royal Air Force.â âAnd why does he do that?â âHe likes it.â âDo you know if he belongs to the National Geographic Society?â âI wonder if he does.â âHe would make a very good member. He is the sort of person they want as a member. I would be very happy to nominate him if you think they would like to have him.â âI think they would.â âI have nominated a scientist from Vevey and a colleague of mine from Lausanne and they were both elected. I believe they would be very pleased if I nominated Colonel Lawrence.â âItâs a splendid idea,â said Harris. âDo you come here to the cafÃ© often?â âI come here for coffee after dinner.â âAre you in the University?â âI am not active any longer.â âIâm just waiting for the train,â said Harris. âIâm going up to Paris and sail from Havre for the States.â âI have never been to America. But I would like to go very much. Perhaps I shall attend a meeting of the society some time. I would be very happy to meet your father.â âIâm sure he would have liked to meet you but he died last year. Shot himself, oddly enough.â âI am very truly sorry. I am sure his loss was a blow to science as well as to his family.â âScience took it awfully well.â âThis is my card,â Harris said. âHis initials were E. J. instead of E. D. I know he would have liked to know you.â âIt would have been a great pleasure.â The gentleman took out a card from the pocketbook and gave it to Harris. It read: DR. SIGISMUND WYER, PH.D. Member of the National Geographic Society, Washington, D. C., U. S. A. âI will keep it very carefully,â Harris said.
4519	dbpedia	1	50	https://www.redhat.com/sysadmin/bits-vs-bytes	en	When bandwidth and storage size matters: Bits vs. bytes	https://www.redhat.com/s…pg?itok=E-u-0RFd	https://www.redhat.com/s…pg?itok=E-u-0RFd	[ "https://www.redhat.com/sysadmin/themes/custom/sysadmin/logo.svg", "https://www.redhat.com/sysadmin/sites/default/files/styles/full/public/2020-08/pexels-pixabay-51320.jpg?itok=cSC47RpC", "https://www.redhat.com/sysadmin/sites/default/files/styles/card/public/2020-03/cleaning-service-3194504_1920%20Cropped.jpg?itok=nEBkDfJ_", "https://www.redhat.com/sysadmin/sites/default/files/styles/card/public/2019-09/SANvNAS.png?itok=afsM40eX", "https://www.redhat.com/sysadmin/sites/default/files/styles/user_picture_square/public/pictures/2020-05/Headshot.jpg?itok=mmtkzdyl", "https://www.redhat.com/sysadmin/sites/default/files/2020-04/woman-in-black-long-sleeved-top-1181317.jpg", "https://www.redhat.com/sysadmin/sites/default/files/2022-11/dog-bowl.jpg", "https://www.redhat.com/sysadmin/sites/default/files/2021-12/saas-smartphone-testing.jpg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Stephen Wilson", "www.redhat.com", "stephen-wilson" ]	2020-09-03T09:00:01+00:00	Understanding the difference between similar units can be critical, especially when you're expecting one and getting the other.	en	/sysadmin/themes/custom/sysadmin/favicon.ico	Enable Sysadmin	https://www.redhat.com/sysadmin/bits-vs-bytes	I hate to break it to you, but your internet speed is not 100MB/s (megabytes per second); it is more like 100Mb/s (megabits per second). As sysadmins, we sometimes blend the two—bits and bytes—but there is a difference between them. But then you get on a call with an ISP rep, and they promise you 10 gigabytes/s, 40 gigabytes/s, 100 gigabytes/s or one gigabyte/s of bandwidth, and you purchase the service only to find out the hard way that they meant 100 gigabits/s. I'm not saying who that happened to… TL;DR Megabytes are typically for storage (RAM, HDD, SSD, NVMe, etc.), and megabits are typically for network bandwidth or throughput (network cards, modems, WiFi adapters, etc.). It can be easy to confuse the two because both bits/s and bytes/s represent data transmission speeds, but remember that, in the abbreviations for each, the uppercase "B" stands for bytes while the lowercase "b" stands for bits. Bits/s vs Bytes/s So, bits and bytes are both units of data, but what is the actual difference between them? One byte is equivalent to eight bits. A bit is considered to be the smallest unit of data measurement. A bit can be either 0 or 1. Computers interpret our intentions and process information by the respective representation of those "instructions" as bits. Computers also send and receive data as ones and zeroes—bits. Regardless of the amount of data transmitted over the network, or stored or retrieved from storage, the information is streamed as bits. How we interpret the rate of the bits transmitted denotes how we communicate that rate of transmission. We can arbitrarily express the rate of transmission as "bit per [any measurement of time]." We could have used minutes, hours, days, or even microseconds, but seconds became the customary standard. This gives us an easy way to estimate how long something is going to take. Bits/s When data is transmitted over a network medium, it is typically written in bits/s, kilobits/s(kbps), megabits/s (Mbps), or gigabits/s (Gbps). The following table describes this: As network speeds have increased, it has become easier to describe transmission rates in higher units of measurement. We have gone from 9600 bits/s to 14.4 kbits/s to 28.8 kbits/s to 56 kbits/s to 128 kbits/s. From there, we skyrocketed to 1Mbits/s then 100 Mbits/s then 1000 Mbits/s (1Gb/s), 10000 Mb/s (10Gbit/s). As the medium of transmission changed over the years, so has the transmission rate. Bytes/s Storing and retrieving data locally on a computer has always been faster than transmitting it over a network. Transmission over the network was (and still is) limited by the transmission medium used. As file sizes grew over the years, it was easier to understand how long it would take to store or retrieve the file. The key to understanding the terminology for storage is remembering that eight bits equals one byte. So a one Megabyte file is actually an 8,000,000 bit file. This means the file is composed of 8,000,000 ones and zeroes, and it can be stored at a rate of one MB/s or 8,000,000 bits/s. Extra—MiB vs. MB Openshift 4 (OCP 4) can now "containerize" VMs (virtual machines)—yeah, the game has changed. In Openshift, you may now see some file sizes labeled MiB. MiB stands for Mebibyte, which is a contraction of "mega" and "binary." It's a new way of writing storage capacity to offer some clarity to the words we use, and the actual math behind those words. Summary It's always an interesting conversation when network admins and system admins talk about speed. Remember to do the conversion and verify what is being expressed.
4519	dbpedia	2	72	https://www.merriam-webster.com/thesaurus/understand	en	UNDERSTAND Synonyms: 80 Similar and Opposite Words	https://merriam-webster.…o-245x245@1x.png	https://merriam-webster.…o-245x245@1x.png	[ "https://www.merriam-webster.com/dist-cross-dungarees/2024-08-01--16-05-18-ys8rq/images/svg/link-icon.svg", "https://www.merriam-webster.com/dist-cross-dungarees/2024-08-01--16-05-18-ys8rq/images/svg/link-icon.svg", "https://www.merriam-webster.com/dist-cross-dungarees/2024-08-01--16-05-18-ys8rq/images/svg/link-icon.svg", "https://www.merriam-webster.com/dist-cross-dungarees/2024-08-01--16-05-18-ys8rq/images/svg/link-icon.svg", "https://www.merriam-webster.com/dist-cross-dungarees/2024-08-01--16-05-18-ys8rq/images/svg/link-icon.svg", "https://www.merriam-webster.com/dist-cross-dungarees/2024-08-01--16-05-18-ys8rq/images/svg/sidebar-nav-item-icon.svg", "https://www.merriam-webster.com/dist-cross-dungarees/2024-08-01--16-05-18-ys8rq/images/svg/redesign/orange-ribbon.svg", 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"https://merriam-webster.com/assets/mw/images/quiz/quiz-global-footer-recirc/iykyk%20if%20you%20know%20you%20know%20slang%20written%20in%20a%20neon-11707-721c12c7a49f7cf424a2288ab4e26229@1x.jpg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	2024-08-03T00:00:00	Synonyms for UNDERSTAND: derive, decide, think, conclude, infer, guess, deduce, reason; Antonyms of UNDERSTAND: misunderstand, misinterpret, misapprehend, misconceive, misperceive, misknow, miss, misread	en	/favicon.svg		https://www.merriam-webster.com/thesaurus/understand	How is the word understand distinct from other similar verbs? The words appreciate and comprehend are common synonyms of understand. While all three words mean "to have a clear or complete idea of," understand and comprehend are very often interchangeable, with understand sometimes stressing the fact of having attained a firm mental grasp of something. orders that were fully understood and promptly obeyed When is it sensible to use appreciate instead of understand? The synonyms appreciate and understand are sometimes interchangeable, but appreciate implies a just evaluation or judgment of a thing's value or nature. failed to appreciate the risks involved Where would comprehend be a reasonable alternative to understand? Although the words comprehend and understand have much in common, comprehend may stress the process of coming to grips with something intellectually. I have trouble comprehending your reasons for doing this
4519	dbpedia	0	84	https://www.arduino.cc/reference/en/language/structure/bitwise-operators/bitwiseor/	en	- Arduino Reference	https://www.arduino.cc/reference/favicon.ico	https://www.arduino.cc/reference/favicon.ico	[]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	The Arduino programming language Reference, organized into Functions, Variable and Constant, and Structure keywords.	en	../../../../../favicon.ico		null	The Arduino Reference text is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 License. Find anything that can be improved? Suggest corrections and new documentation via GitHub.
4519	dbpedia	1	27	https://www.babbel.com/en/magazine/6-hardest-languages-for-english-speakers-to-learn	en	The 6 Hardest Languages For English Speakers To Learn	https://i0.wp.com/cms.ba…?resize=1200,630	https://i0.wp.com/cms.ba…?resize=1200,630	[ "https://d1hy1q8bf59ec7.cloudfront.net/lessonnine/babbel-magazine.isomorphic.spa/production/965302f983c992a644431578fc90ac978b05136a/static/media/babbel-logo.c5ae630e7b33aebc393c8f24f8bb45a3.svg", "https://d1hy1q8bf59ec7.cloudfront.net/lessonnine/babbel-magazine.isomorphic.spa/production/965302f983c992a644431578fc90ac978b05136a/static/media/plus.ee82ba588cec0d5b652a0dfd9b467d6b.svg", "https://d1hy1q8bf59ec7.cloudfront.net/lessonnine/babbel-magazine.isomorphic.spa/production/965302f983c992a644431578fc90ac978b05136a/static/media/plus.ee82ba588cec0d5b652a0dfd9b467d6b.svg", "https://i0.wp.com/cms.babbel.news/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/CM_MagazineHeader_HardestLanguages.png?resize=830%2C467 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394w,https://i0.wp.com/cms.babbel.news/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/CM_MagazineHeader_10MostSpokenLanguages.png?resize=608%2C342 608w,https://i0.wp.com/cms.babbel.news/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/CM_MagazineHeader_10MostSpokenLanguages.png?resize=310%2C174 310w,https://i0.wp.com/cms.babbel.news/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/CM_MagazineHeader_10MostSpokenLanguages.png?resize=528%2C297 528w" ]	[ "https://www.youtube.com/embed/DbY4NNXMU5I?feature=oembed" ]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Dylan Lyons", "Babbel.com", "Lesson Nine GmbH" ]	2021-02-25T00:00:00	Want to take on a new challenge in your life? These are the 6 hardest languages to learn for English speakers. Give one a try!	en	/favicon.ico	Babbel Magazine	https://www.babbel.com/en/magazine/6-hardest-languages-for-english-speakers-to-learn	Some people love a good challenge. We recently gave you the list of easiest languages for English speakers to learn, but maybe you prefer life on hard mode. We checked in with language expert Benjamin Davies from our Didactics team to determine the six hardest languages to learn for English speakers. They may take a bit longer to master, but they’re definitely worth the challenge! The Hardest Languages To Learn For English Speakers 1. Mandarin Chinese Interestingly, the hardest language to learn is also the most widely spoken native language in the world. Mandarin Chinese is challenging for a number of reasons. First and foremost, the writing system is extremely difficult for English speakers (and anyone else) accustomed to the Latin alphabet. In addition to the usual challenges that come with learning any language from scratch, people studying Mandarin must also memorize thousands of special characters, unlike anything seen in Latin-based languages. But writing isn’t the only difficult part of learning Mandarin. The tonal nature of the language makes speaking it very hard as well. There are several Chinese dialects, including Cantonese — spoken primarily in southeastern China, as well as in Hong Kong and other parts of Southeast Asia — which have different written characters and pronunciations, and are also very difficult to learn. Mandarin Chinese (the most common dialect) has four tones, so one word can be pronounced four different ways, and each pronunciation has a different meaning. For instance, the word ma can mean “mother,” “horse,” “rough” or “scold” — depending on how you say it. 2. Arabic Next on the list of the hardest languages to learn for English speakers is Arabic, which is also in the top five most spoken world languages. For starters, there are dozens of varieties of the Arabic language — generally classified by the region or country in which they’re spoken — that can be radically different from one another. So the first step is to choose which dialect you want to pursue, but that’s the easy part. Arabic is another language with a non-Latin alphabet. Its 28 script letters are easier for English speakers to comprehend than the thousands of Chinese characters, but it’s still an adjustment to become familiar with a new writing system. The thing that makes reading and writing in Arabic particularly challenging for beginners is the exclusion of most vowels in words. Ths mks rdng th lngg vry dffclt. Arabic is also written from right to left instead of left to right, which takes some getting used to. There are also characteristics of spoken Arabic that make it hard to learn. Some of the sounds used don’t exist in other languages or are simply unfamiliar to English speakers, including sounds made in the back of your throat. The grammar is challenging too; verbs tend to come before the subject, and you have to learn a dual form of words in addition to the singular and plural forms. 3. Polish From this point forward, the hardest languages to learn get less difficult but are still quite challenging. Polish got the number three spot on our list. Spelling and grammar are a couple of areas in which Polish can give English speakers a hard time. Words are loaded with consonants, which makes them difficult to spell and pronounce. For example, szczęście means “happiness” and bezwzględny means “ruthless.” Ruthless, indeed. In terms of grammar, there are seven cases: it’s like German on steroids. On the bright side, Polish uses a Latin alphabet, so the letters are much more familiar to English speakers than those used in Chinese, Arabic and other non-Latin languages. In addition, being able to speak Polish as a second language puts you in a coveted group, considering Poland’s developing status as a major economy in Europe. 4. Russian Ranking fourth on our list of hardest languages to learn, Russian uses a Cyrillic alphabet — made up of letters both familiar and unfamiliar to us. But speaker beware: some of the Cyrillic letters may look familiar but make a different sound than the Latin letter they resemble. For instance, “B” in the Cyrillic alphabet makes a “V” sound. Grammatically, Russian is not as difficult as Polish but pretty darn close. Polish has seven cases, while Russian has six. Also, Russians omit the verb “to be” in the present tense, which can throw beginners for a loop when they try to form basic sentences. In Russian, “I am a student” would simply translate to “I student.” Like Polish, Russian uses a lot of consonants clustered together, which makes spelling and pronunciation a challenge. Despite its difficulty, Russian might be worth the extra effort to learn. It’s an extremely politically and culturally relevant language, opening the door to numerous career and leisure opportunities. 5. Turkish Here’s a new word for you: agglutinative. Turkish is an agglutinative language, which basically means prefixes and suffixes are attached to words to determine their meaning and indicate direction, rather than using separate prepositions. This results in extremely long verbs, like konuşmayı reddediyorlar (“they refuse to talk”). Turkish also features a concept English speakers may find confusing: vowel harmony, where vowels are changed or endings with vowels are added to make a word flow more smoothly. A large number of unfamiliar vocabulary words, of Arabic origin, add to the difficulty of what we’d consider to be one of the hardest languages to learn. The good news for Turkish learners is that there are relatively few grammar exceptions in comparison to other languages, spelling is straightforward to master, and it’s a cool way to explore a rare agglutinative language (linguistics nerds assemble!). 6. Danish Which of these is not like the others? Yes, we have crowned Danish as the least hard of the hardest languages to learn. If you read our article on the easiest languages, you may remember that the Germanic languages from Scandinavia largely dominated that list. In fact, Norwegian and Swedish took the top two spots. And like those languages, Danish has relatively simple grammar concepts and shares plenty of cognates with English.
4519	dbpedia	2	33	https://www.berlitz.com/blog/mandarin-vs-cantonese	en	Mandarin vs. Cantonese: What's the difference? An easy guide	https://images.contentst…p=1200:630,smart	https://images.contentst…p=1200:630,smart	[ "https://images.contentstack.io/v3/assets/bltacc1a01c4d280f24/blt10404c2c9d2a3fdc/64226d91d794441fc0f4507d/pexels-angela-roma-7364082.jpg?auto=webp&format=pjpg&quality=80&width=900&height=500&fit=crop", "https://images.contentstack.io/v3/assets/bltacc1a01c4d280f24/blt72aa62b5e0baa073/629b66377e445a4356bd796e/photo.jpg?auto=webp&format=pjpg&quality=80&width=96&height=96&fit=crop&crop=96:96,smart", "https://images.contentstack.io/v3/assets/bltacc1a01c4d280f24/bltb7050f37953c1268/64226e906f5dc30fb7649026/pexels-sam-lion-6002000_(1).jpg?auto=webp&format=pjpg&quality=80&", "https://images.contentstack.io/v3/assets/bltacc1a01c4d280f24/blte15da9808cf4d10b/64226f033ef5155e035cad1f/pexels-sabel-blanco-1486577.jpg?auto=webp&format=pjpg&quality=80&", "https://images.contentstack.io/v3/assets/bltacc1a01c4d280f24/blt664636d4e9dee96a/6422702b3ef5155e035cad23/pexels-sandra-peng-5620808.jpg?auto=webp&format=pjpg&quality=80&", "https://images.contentstack.io/v3/assets/bltacc1a01c4d280f24/bltb70c840c6a8a5fbc/642270ce8cbb571155db192f/pexels-vanessa-garcia-6325938.jpg?auto=webp&format=pjpg&quality=80&", "https://images.contentstack.io/v3/assets/bltacc1a01c4d280f24/blt77e2b3e5fc6c01bd/642271e1d8094d0e9ee08763/pexels-arnie-chou-927485.jpg?auto=webp&format=pjpg&quality=80&", "https://images.contentstack.io/v3/assets/bltacc1a01c4d280f24/bltdf67f0674aa9543b/610bc00e93c9a33d7352f77f/India_iStock-509646957.jpeg?auto=webp&format=pjpg&quality=80&width=800&height=800&fit=crop&crop=800:600,smart", "https://images.contentstack.io/v3/assets/bltacc1a01c4d280f24/blt07b0a753aec748fc/637f28b9b8f65a105c7bddde/china_936773994.jpeg?auto=webp&format=pjpg&quality=80&width=800&height=800&fit=crop&crop=800:600,smart", "https://images.contentstack.io/v3/assets/bltacc1a01c4d280f24/blt90febc8f37140d9c/637dc95efa033a109b5da1eb/istock-1020489160_copy.jpeg?auto=webp&format=pjpg&quality=80&width=800&height=800&fit=crop&crop=800:600,smart", "https://images.contentstack.io/v3/assets/bltacc1a01c4d280f24/bltbd61f3f557b93286/6643a7bf66b81df9ac33e5e6/AccreditedbyACCETlogo_lightblue_200p.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Marco Monroy" ]	2023-03-28T00:00:00+00:00	Why are Mandarin & Cantonese considered to be the same language but not mutually intelligible? We explore the differences between Mandarin vs. Cantonese.	en	/favicon-32x32.png?v=32787f3e93fa4493cd296c28e4bda513	Berlitz	https://www.berlitz.com/blog/mandarin-vs-cantonese	Chinese is a special group of languages that includes both Mandarin and Cantonese. If you grew up speaking English, then you can probably think of many dialects: British English, North American English, Australasian English, and so on. And, although it may take a little getting used to, you likely can understand almost everything any speaker of any English dialect can say without much trouble. That means that English dialects are mutually intelligible â you can understand someone who speaks a different dialect within the same language. But what about Chinese? Most know that Chinese is made up of different âdialects,â but does that mean that everyone can understand each other regardless of the specific dialect they speak? Well, the answer is a bit complicated. For starters, most Chinese languages are not mutually intelligible. That means that two people could both speak âChineseâ and still not understand each other. It also means that there are multiple types of âChineseâ that you can learn as a foreign language. So, why are both Mandarin and Cantonese considered to be the same language? Thatâs because of shared historical roots and the use of the Chinese writing system. Though these dialects sound almost nothing alike, they pretty much use the same characters for the same words. If all of that sounds very complicated, do not worry. Weâll take a close look at both Mandarin and Cantonese over the next couple of sections to help you get a clear understanding of the differences in pronunciation, characters, vocab, and grammar between these two dialects. Weâll also give you some advice on which one to pick if youâre looking to learn Mandarin or Cantonese. Letâs get started! Mandarin vs. Cantonese overview Mandarin Cantonese Language family Mandarin Chinese Yue Chinese Where itâs spoken Mainland China, Taiwan, Singapore, Malaysia Southeast China, Hong Kong, Macau, and Chinese diaspora Romanization system Pinyin Jyutping Spoken characteristics 23 initials 19 initials 35 finals 58 finals 4 tones (plus neutral tone) 6 tones plus 3 entering tones Characters Mostly simplified characters Mostly traditional characters Usefulnenss Used across the Sinosphere as a common tongue Mostly useful in Hong Kong, Macau, and Guangdong Where Mandarin and Cantonese are spoken First, you should know that Mandarin is by far the most common Chinese dialect. Thatâs because itâs the official language of mainland China, Taiwan, and Singapore, and serves as an official or recognized language in Hong Kong, Macao, Malaysia, and even the United Nations! The wide territorial expanse of Mandarin is mostly due to it being recognized as the lingua franca of the Sinosphere. No matter oneâs native dialect, almost all Chinese speakers are able to communicate in Mandarin to some extent. The Chinese name for Mandarin is æ®éè¯ (pÇ tÅng huÃ ), which translates into the common language. Its status as a common language has also propelled its importance in classrooms across China and consequently made Mandarin the most common language in Chinese TV shows, movies, and books. Additionally, the overwhelming majority of the Chinese population speaks Mandarin as its first language. Some of the regions and provinces with the most native Mandarin speakers include: Beijing Hebei Shandong Inner Mongolia Shandong Henan Shaanxi Gansu Xinjiang Jiangsu Anhui Hubei Sichuan Guizhou Yunnan Cantonese, on the other hand, is spoken natively almost exclusively in Southeast China. The Chinese city of Guangzhou and the province of Guangdong both used to be romanized as Canton, which is where the name Cantonese came from. Although this may sound like a small area, Guangdong is actually the most populous province in China, helping make Cantonese one of the top 20 most spoken languages in the world! Besides natives in and near Guangzhou, Cantonese is also a common language amongst the Chinese diaspora in Southeast Asia, Europe, and North America, with Cantonese speakers making a majority of Chinese migrants up until the mid-20th century. Cantonese has significant native speakers in the following regions: Guangdong Guangxi Hong Kong Macao Overseas Chinese diaspora All in all, Cantonese has around 75 million native speakers worldwide. Differences in pronunciation As you now know, Mandarin and Cantonese arenât mutually intelligible as most words have different pronunciations. However, the phonetic differences donât end there â they also have different tonal rules! Mandarin uses four tones to differentiate words. Thereâs also a fifth âneutralâ tone, so you could consider a grand total of five tones for Mandarin. Tone number Tone name Description Pinyin diacritic IPA diacritic Example Example pinyin 1 é´å¹³ - yÄ«npÃng High Ä /Ã¡/ å·´ bÄ 2 é³å¹³ - yÃ¡ngpÃng Rising Ã¡ /Ç/ [aá·] æ bÃ¡ 3 ä¸ - shÇng Low (dipping) Ç /Ã / [Ã Ì¤, aÌ¤á·, aÌ¤á·] æ bÇ 4 å» - qÃ¹ Falling Ã /Ã¢/ ç¸ bÃ 5 è½» - qÄ«ng Neutral a Various å§ ba Cantonese, on the other hand, uses nine tones to differentiate pronunciation! Of these nine tones, three are known as âchecked tones,â which are used exclusively by syllables that end in a stop consonant or a glottal stop (-p, -t, -k). These are the nine tones in Cantonese: Type Tone number Tone name Description Example Tone letter IPA Open syllables 1 dark flat (é°å¹³) high level, high falling è©©, æ siËË¥, siËË¥Ë§ sÃË, sÃ®Ë 2 dark rising (é°ä¸) medium rising å² siËË§Ë¥ sÇË 3 dark departing (é°å») medium level è©¦ siËË§ sÄ«Ë 4 light flat (é½å¹³) low falling, very low level æ siËË¨Ë©, siËË© siÌË, sÄ±ÌË 5 light rising (é½ä¸) low rising å¸ siËË©Ë§ siÌË 6 light departing (é½å») low level æ¯ siËË¨ sÃ¬Ë Checked syllables 7 (or 1) upper dark entering (ä¸é°å ¥) high level è sekË¥ sÃ©k 8 (or 2) lower dark entering (ä¸é°å ¥) medium level é« sÉËkË§ sÉÌËk 9 (or 3) light entering (é½å ¥) low level é£ sekË¨ sÃ¨k Differences in the characters We saw earlier in the article that written Chinese is largely the same across dialects. But, now that you know how extensive the differences in pronunciation are, youâre probably wondering how Mandarin and Cantonese use the same characters. The truth is, standard written Cantonese is based largely on written Mandarin. Thus, those who speak Cantonese technically use Mandarin to write in non-informal situations. Cantonese is actually in a state of digraphia, which means that there are two written standards for this dialect. Cantonese speakers use a colloquial adaptation of spoken Cantonese when writing in very informal situations and for Cantonese words that arenât present in Mandarin. In all other cases, Cantonese speakers use a form of written Chinese that more closely resembles that of Mandarin. This isnât a new concept, as Classical Chinese was used as a common written language up until the early 20th century. Although not specifically tied to any single Chinese dialect, all literate Chinese speakers followed Classical Chinese written rules. Throughout the 20th century, though, the use of Classical Chinese was replaced with written Mandarin, largely due to national efforts to increase the literacy rate across mainland China. Simplified vs. traditional characters Another big difference you might notice is the prevalence of traditional characters in Cantonese-speaking environments. Today, simplified Chinese is used almost exclusively everywhere in mainland China and Singapore. However, Cantonese-speaking Hong Kong and Macau still use traditional characters for writing. Given that Hong Kong is a media powerhouse largely thanks to the success of the Hong Kong film industry, youâll likely encounter plenty of traditional characters in Cantonese-speaking places. Keep in mind that Cantonese speakers in mainland China tend to use simplified characters, and Mandarin speakers in Taiwan use traditional characters. Thus, you canât assume that traditional characters mean that somethingâs in Cantonese or that simplified characters mean itâs in Mandarin. Characters unique to Cantonese Although Cantonese follows the same grammar rules as Mandarin, there are certain Cantonese words that simply donât exist in Mandarin. So, a Mandarin speaker wonât be able to understand 100% of Cantonese texts, as some characters are completely unique to Cantonese. Here are some of the most common Cantonese characters that donât exist in Mandarin. Cantonese Jyutping Mandarin equivalent Meaning ä½¢ keoi5 N/A He, she, it å ge3 ç Possessive particle equivalent to Mandarin ç (de) å° go3 é£ That as in âthat oneâ åº hai2 å¨ To be at ä½¬ lou2 N/A Male ä¹å¢ mat1 je5Â ä»ä¹ What or why å zo2 äº or è¿ Puts the sentence in past tense å gam3 è¿æ · So as in âso goodâ å± ngaam1 å¯¹ Correct ç fan3 ç¡ Sleep Differences in vocab & grammar Besides pronunciation and characters, Mandarin and Cantonese are also different in terms of vocabulary and grammar. I know, at this point, youâre probably wondering why theyâre even considered part of the same language family if theyâre so different. Well, luckily, this is one part where they actually have some similarities in addition to differences! Letâs get into the vocab and grammar differences and similarities between Mandarin and Cantonese. Vocabulary Most words in Mandarin and Cantonese are written with the same characters. This gives the languages a level of mutual intelligibility, allowing Mandarin speakers to understand written Cantonese and vice-versa. However, that doesnât mean that both dialects use the exact same words all the time. Beyond the unique Cantonese words we just learned above, there are a few vocabulary words that can be different in each dialect. English Mandarin Pinyin Cantonese Jyutping To eat å chÄ« é£ sik6 Beautiful ç¾ mÄi é leng3 To look ç kÃ n ç tai2 To stand ç« zhÃ n ä¼ kei5 To cry å kÅ« å haam3 Potato åè± tÇ dÃ²u è¯ä» syu4 zai2 Eggplant èå qiÃ© zi ç®ç ai2 gwaa1 Grape è¡è pÃº tao æå tai4 zi2 Tomorrow æå¤© mÃng tiÄn è½æ¥ ting1 jat6 Grammar Mandarin and Cantonese grammar are very similar, as evidenced by their basic sentence structures: Basic Mandarin sentence structure: Subject + Verb + Object (SVO structure) Basic Cantonese sentence structure: Subject + Verb + Object (SVO structure) On a superficial level, both Mandarin and Cantonese follow the same pattern. However, that doesnât mean that grammar rules are identical. After all, each dialect is its own language and comes with its own distinct grammar rules.Â Here are the most common grammar differences between Mandarin and Cantonese: Adverb order. In Mandarin, adverbs are usually placed before the verb, whereas Cantonese places them after the verb. Double objects. In Mandarin, the indirect object always comes before the direct object, whereas the opposite is true in Cantonese. If that seems a bit difficult to visualize, check out the following sample sentences comparing Mandarin sentences to Cantonese sentences. English Mandarin Pinyin Cantonese Jyutping You go out first ä½ å åºå» nÇ xiÄn chÅ« qÃ¹ ä½ åºå»å nei5 ceot1 heoi3 sin1 Where are you from? ä½ æ¯åªå½äººï¼ nÇ shÃ¬ nÇ guÃ³ rÃ©n? ä½ ä¿éåº¦äººåï¼ nei5 hai6 bin1 dou6 jan4 aa1ï¼ He gives me money ä»ç»æé± tÄ gÄi wÇ qiÃ¡n ä»çµ¦é¢æ keoi5 bei2 cin2 ngo5 Whatâs your name? ä½ å«ä»ä¹ååï¼ nÇ jiÃ o shÃ©n me mÃng zi? ä½ å«åä¹éååï¼ nei5 giu3 zou6 mat1 je5 ming4 aa1ï¼ Long time no see å¥½ä¹ ä¸è§ hÇo jiÇ bu jiÃ n å¥½èåè§ hou2 noi6 mou5 gin3 Which one to learn? Deciding whether to learn Mandarin or Cantonese is a personal decision that largely depends on your goals. In terms of utility, Mandarin will be far more useful than Cantonese, as itâs the only official language of mainland China and has over 10 times as many speakers. If you want to do business in mainland China, this is the language for you. Mandarin is also the lingua franca of mainland China, meaning that many people speak it as a second language. For example, many Shanghai natives will use Shanghainese to communicate with each other, although virtually everyone in Shanghai can speak Mandarin. So, even if youâre not in a Mandarin-speaking region, being able to speak it may still help you communicate with locals. The same cannot be said for Cantonese, as very few people outside of Guangdong, Hong Kong, and Macau speak Cantonese if itâs not their native language. However, Cantonese could be more helpful for you if youâre planning to relocate to Guangdong, Hong Kong, or Macau. While Mandarin will take you far in the Cantonese-speaking regions of mainland China, that isnât the case for either of the Chinese Special Administrative Regions (SARs). So, if life is taking you to Guangdong, Hong Kong or Macau, then your best bet is to learn Cantonese. Is Cantonese harder to learn than Mandarin? We know what youâre thinking: okay, the utility of each dialect is one thing but, is Mandarin or Cantonese harder? And we donât blame you! After all, Chinese is one of the hardest languages for English speakers, so approaching it with some caution is quite prudent. Most people will agree that Mandarin is slightly easier to learn than Cantonese. Cantonese has four more tones than Chinese, and then traditional characters tend to be more common in Cantonese than in Mandarin. If youâre looking for the one that will take the least amount of effort to learn, then itâs going to be Mandarin. However, most of our top tips to learn Chinese characters require a continued interest in studying and learning the language. Your personal interests, family and friends, business endeavors, and even learning opportunities will drastically impact how well you can study a language. So, if you have a passion for Hong Kong cinema or found a killer business venture in Guangzhou, donât worry too much about Cantonese being slightly harder than Mandarin and simply go with your gut instinct! Fun facts: Mandarin vs. Cantonese 1. Cantonese is very common in Chinatowns around the world If thereâs a Chinatown in or near your hometown, then youâre much more likely to be familiar with Cantonese than with Mandarin. In fact, did you know that the first Chinatown in the United States used to be called Little Canton? Thatâs because most Chinese immigrants in the 20th century came from Hong Kong and Guangdong province, thus spreading the use of Cantonese among the Chinese diaspora. 2. Mandarin has more than 10 times more speakers than Cantonese Mandarin is spoken by over 1.1 billion speakers around the world, with about 929 million people calling it their native tongue. That makes Mandarin the language with the most native speakers in the world and the second-most spoken language after English. Cantonese, on the other hand, is estimated to have around 75 million speakers around the world, making the Mandarin-to-Cantonese speaker ratio almost 15-to-1! 3. Cantonese has more speakers than languages like Korean or Persian Donât let Mandarinâs relative might trick you into thinking that Cantonese is a small or uncommon language. Although it has far fewer speakers than its sister tongue, Cantonese is still one of the 20 largest languages in the world, with more speakers than popular languages like Korean and Persian! 4. The locals have never referred to Guangzhou as Canton Although the most common romanization for the city of Guangzhou (and, by extension, the province of Guangdong) was Canton for centuries, the locals never referred to it as such. It comes from the Portuguese Cidade de CantÃ£o, with CantÃ£o being a misunderstanding of a dialectical pronunciation of Guangdong. As the Portuguese established the first contact between Europe and East Asia in 1517, the name Canton stuck among Europeans and later among most Western countries. However, this name comes from a misunderstanding, which is why itâs since been mostly phased out. Maybe itâs time to rename Cantonese into Guangongnese or Guangzhousian! Mandarin vs. Cantonese FAQs Do all Chinese people speak Mandarin? Not all Chinese speakers speak a Mandarin dialect, but an overwhelming majority of them do. It is estimated that around 80% of the population of mainland China can speak Mandarin, with plans to increase the level to 85% by 2025. However, the younger generation is almost fully fluent in Mandarin not only in mainland China but also in Hong Kong and Macau, as Mandarin has found its way into school curriculums. Can Mandarin and Cantonese speakers understand each other? Mandarin and Cantonese speakers cannot understand each other. The difference is pronunciation is too high for the languages to be mutually understandable. However, the differences in the written language are small enough that Mandarin and Chinese speakers could understand each other when texting or writing letters to each other. Can I use Mandarin in Hong Kong? About half of the people in Hong Kong (48%) can speak Mandarin, largely due to the rising number of mainland immigrants and tourists and the growing prevalence of Mandarin in education. However, if youâre a foreigner who speaks English and Mandarin but not Cantonese, your best bet is going to be to use English to communicate with the locals. English is still a very popular language and one of the official languages of Hong Kong, so you wonât run into any trouble with English. Is Taiwanese Mandarin the same as Mainland China Mandarin? Mandarin is the official language of both mainland China and Taiwan. While the Mandarin spoken in Taiwan and that on the mainland are very similar, there are key differences in pronunciation, grammar, writing style, and vocabulary. Most significantly, Taiwan uses traditional characters, while mainland China uses simplified characters. So, if youâve learned simplified Chinese and find yourself in Taiwan, you may have some trouble reading signs on the street! Learn your favorite of the sister tongues We hope that clears things up! Although comparing Mandarin vs. Cantonese can be a little complicated, they are still both part of the Chinese language family. If youâre interested in picking either one of them up, then we encourage you to give it a shot! Although learning Chinese can seem like a gargantuan task, there are well over a hundred million people studying Chinese as a foreign language right now, serving as proof that learning this fascinatingly-complex language is certainly doable.
4519	dbpedia	1	89	https://www.aft.org/ae/summer2020/moats	en	Teaching Reading Is Rocket Science	https://www.aft.org/themes/custom/aft-main/favicon.ico	https://www.aft.org/themes/custom/aft-main/favicon.ico	[ "https://www.aft.org/themes/custom/aft-main/images/icons/benefits.btn.png", "https://www.aft.org/themes/custom/aft-main/images/icons/join.btn.png", "https://www.aft.org/themes/custom/aft-main/images/icons/en-espanol.png", "https://www.aft.org/themes/custom/aft-main/images/AFT-Main-Logo-196x80.jpg", "https://www.aft.org/themes/custom/aft-main/images/icons/benefits.btn.png", "https://www.aft.org/themes/custom/aft-main/images/icons/join.btn.png", "https://www.aft.org/themes/custom/aft-main/images/icons/en-espanol.png", "https://www.aft.org/sites/default/files/styles/full_width_custom_user_xsmall_1x/public/media/2020/ae-summer2020-moats-opener.jpg?itok=LNoft_4_", "https://www.aft.org/sites/default/files/styles/full_width_custom_user_xsmall_1x/public/media/2020/ae-summer2020-moats-spot1.jpg?itok=DZP8X6as", "https://www.aft.org/sites/default/files/styles/full_width_custom_user_xsmall_1x/public/media/2020/ae-summer2020-moats-spot2.jpg?itok=QR5hv1hE", "https://www.aft.org/sites/default/files/styles/full_width_custom_user_xsmall_1x/public/media/2020/ae-summer2020-moats-spot3.jpg?itok=NN81JeFZ", "https://www.aft.org/sites/default/files/styles/full_width_custom_user_xsmall_1x/public/media/2020/ae-summer2020-moats-spot4.jpg?itok=WVkuMX9v", "https://www.aft.org/sites/default/files/styles/full_width_custom_user_xsmall_1x/public/media/2020/ae-summer2020-moats-table.jpg?itok=LVRfcMhB", "https://www.aft.org/sites/default/files/styles/full_width_custom_user_xsmall_1x/public/ae-summer2020-moats-report-cover.jpg?itok=wUgHsoda" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	2023-07-12T14:22:46-04:00		en	/themes/custom/aft-main/favicon.ico	American Federation of Teachers	https://www.aft.org/ae/summer2020/moats	The most fundamental responsibility of schools is teaching students to read. Because reading affects all other academic achievement and is associated with social, emotional, economic, and physical health, it has been the most researched aspect of human cognition. By the year 2000, after decades of multidisciplinary research, the scientific community had achieved broad consensus regarding these questions: How do children learn to read? What causes reading difficulties? What are the essential components of effective reading instruction and why is each important? How can we prevent or reduce reading difficulties? Two decades later, hundreds of additional studies have refined and consolidated what we know about bolstering reading achievement, especially for students at risk. Scientists use increasingly sophisticated technology that can picture the brain’s activation patterns or measure split-second reactions to speech or print. New statistical methods can document the complicated interactions of many factors as students develop reading skills. Fine-grained analyses illuminate the nature of individual differences and individual responses to instruction. These advanced investigative techniques have confirmed and extended the bedrock findings about reading and effective teaching of reading that were known 20 years ago. Evidence to guide our practices is stronger than it has ever been. Unfortunately, much of this research is not yet included in teacher preparation programs, widely used curricula, or professional development, so it should come as no surprise that typical classroom practices often deviate substantially from what is recommended by our most credible sources. As a result, reading achievement is not as strong as it should be for most students, and the consequences are particularly dire for students from the least advantaged families and communities. This we know: reading failure can be prevented in all but a small percentage of children with serious learning disorders. It is possible to teach most students how to read if we start early and follow the significant body of research showing which practices are most effective. Students living in poverty, students of color, and students who are eligible for remedial services can become competent readers—at any age. Persistent “gaps” between more advantaged and less advantaged students can be narrowed and even closed. Fundamentally, these gaps are the result of differences in students’ opportunities to learn—not their learning abilities. Although educators have long understood the importance of literacy, teaching children to read is very complex. Far too many children have trouble reading and writing. About 20 percent of elementary school students nationwide have serious problems learning to read; at least another 20 percent are at risk for not meeting grade-level expectations.1 For children growing up in underresourced communities and attending underresourced schools, the incidence of reading failure is astronomical and completely unacceptable. Students who are African American, Hispanic, learning English, and/or from impoverished homes fall behind and stay behind in far greater proportion than students who are white and middle class. The rate of weak reading skills in these groups is 60–70 percent, according to the National Assessment of Educational Progress.2 The tragedy here is that most reading failure is unnecessary. We now know that classroom teaching itself, when it includes a range of research-based components and practices, can prevent and mitigate reading difficulty. Although home factors do influence how well and how soon students read, informed classroom instruction that targets specific language, cognitive, and reading skills beginning in kindergarten enhances success for all but a very small percentage of students with learning disabilities or severe dyslexia. Researchers now estimate that 95 percent of all children can be taught to read by the end of first grade, with future achievement constrained* only by students’ reasoning and listening comprehension abilities.3 While parents, tutors, and the community can contribute to reading success, classroom instruction is the critical factor in preventing reading problems and must be the primary focus for change.4 To be clear: although the day-to-day work is teachers’ responsibility, students’ reading success is our shared responsibility. From preparation programs to standards and assessments to curricula and professional development, the policies and systems currently impacting how reading is taught need to improve—dramatically and rapidly. Teaching reading is rocket science. But it is also established science, with clear, specific, practical instructional strategies that all teachers should be taught and supported in using. Research-Validated Ideas for Instruction A well-validated concept that should underpin the design of instruction is called the Simple View of Reading.5 It states that reading comprehension is the product of word recognition and language comprehension. Without strong skills in either domain, an individual’s reading comprehension will be compromised. A reader’s recognition of printed words must be accurate and automatic to support comprehension. The development of automatic word recognition depends on intact, proficient phoneme awareness, knowledge of sound-symbol (phoneme-grapheme) correspondences, recognition of print patterns such as recurring letter sequences and syllable spellings, and recognition of meaningful parts of words (morphemes).6 Young readers progress by gradually learning each of these ways that our print system represents language, and then applying what they know during ample practice with both oral and silent reading. If reading skill is developing successfully, word recognition gradually becomes so fast that it seems as if we are reading “by sight.” The path to that end, however, requires knowing how print represents sounds, syllables, and meaningful word parts; for most students, developing that body of knowledge requires explicit instruction and practice over several grades.7 While some students seem to figure out how the print system works through incidental exposure, most do not. Language comprehension, the other essential domain that underlies reading comprehension, depends on background knowledge, vocabulary, ability to decipher formal and complex sentence patterns, and recognition of the devices that hold a text together.8 Furthermore, language comprehension is facilitated by metacognitive skills such as monitoring whether reading is making sense and choosing to act if it does not. The language comprehension factor in overall reading achievement becomes more and more important from about fourth grade onward.9 From preschool through high school, students gain vital exposure to a variety of text forms, language patterns, background knowledge, and vocabulary both by listening to text read aloud and by reading itself. The implications of the Simple View of Reading should be self-evident: reading and language arts instruction must include deliberate, systematic, and explicit teaching of word recognition and must develop students’ subject-matter knowledge, vocabulary, sentence comprehension, and familiarity with the language in written texts. Each of these larger skill domains depends on the integrity of its subskills. Learning to read is a complex achievement, and learning to teach reading requires extensive knowledge and skills across the components of word recognition, language comprehension, spelling, and writing. Consider what the classroom demands of the teacher. Children’s interest in reading must be stimulated through regular exposure to interesting books and through discussions in which students respond to many kinds of texts. For best results, the teacher must instruct the majority of students directly, systematically, and explicitly to decipher words in print, all the while keeping in mind the ultimate purpose of reading, which is to learn, enjoy, and understand. To accommodate children’s variability, the teacher must assess children and tailor lessons to individuals or groups. This includes interpreting errors, giving corrective feedback, selecting examples to illustrate concepts, explaining new ideas in several ways, and connecting word recognition instruction to meaningful reading and writing. Some children learn language concepts and their application very easily in spite of incidental teaching, but others never learn unless they are taught in an organized, systematic, efficient way by a knowledgeable teacher using a well-designed instructional approach. Children of average ability might learn enough about reading to get by if their instruction is haphazard; with systematic research-based instruction, those students could achieve much more, such as the appreciation for language structure that supports learning words from context, perceiving subtle differences in meaning, or refining language use. Toward a Curriculum on the Science of Reading A core curriculum on effective literacy instruction for pre-service and in-service teacher education would, of course, be supplemented and honed over time, but its goal is to bring continuity, consistency, quality, and comprehensiveness to the many different programs, organizations, and systems through which aspiring and current teachers receive information about how to teach reading. Given the current science of reading, this core should be divided roughly into the following four areas: Knowing the basics of reading psychology and development; Understanding language structure for both word recognition and language comprehension; Applying best practices in all components of reading instruction; and Using validated, reliable, efficient assessments to inform classroom teaching. This excerpt offers an introduction to the first two areas. For a detailed discussion of all four areas, please see the full report. 1. Reading Psychology and Development Learning to read is not natural or easy for most children. Unlike spoken language, which is learned with almost any kind of contextual exposure, reading is an acquired skill. Although surrounding children with books will support reading development, and a “literature-rich environment” is highly desirable, it is not sufficient for learning to read. Neither will exposure to print ordinarily be sufficient for learning to spell, unless organized practice is provided. Thus, teachers must be reflective, knowledgeable, and intentional about the content they are teaching—that is, the symbol system (orthography) itself and its relationship to meaning. Good readers do not skim and sample the text when they scan a line in a book. They process the letters of each word in detail, although they do so very rapidly and unconsciously. Those who comprehend well accomplish letter-wise text scanning with relative ease and fluency. When word identification is fast and accurate, a reader has ample mental energy to think over the meaning of the text. Knowledge of sound-symbol mapping is crucial in developing word recognition: the ability to sound out and recognize words accounts for about 80 percent of the variance in first-grade reading comprehension and continues to be a major (albeit diminishing) factor in text comprehension as students progress through the grades (and students’ background knowledge and vocabulary become ever-larger factors in comprehending academic texts).11 The ability to sound out words is, in fact, a major underpinning that allows rapid recognition of words. (This recognition is so fast that some people mistakenly believe it is happening “by sight.”) Before children can easily sound out or decode words, they must have at least an implicit awareness of the speech sounds that are represented by symbolic units (letters and their combinations). Children who learn to read well are sensitive to linguistic structure, recognize redundant patterns, and connect letter patterns with sounds, syllables, and meaningful word parts quickly, accurately, and unconsciously. Effective teaching of reading entails these concepts, presenting them in a sequence from simple and consistent to complex and variable. The word-recognition component of reading is most closely dependent on the phonological aspect of language processing.12 Phonological language skills include awareness of bits of speech or linguistic elements within words: consonant and vowel phonemes, spoken syllables, grammatical endings, and meaningful word parts (morphemes). Awareness of these linguistic elements in spoken language is essential for making sense of print because our alphabetic writing system represents language at all these levels. When students cannot rapidly associate the sounds, syllables, and/or morphemes in spoken words with printed symbols, they will not be able to store words in their mental dictionaries. Conversely, a new word that is decoded accurately through phonological analysis can be pronounced and remembered, even if its meaning is not yet known. Beginning reading instruction of necessity will focus on teaching students how to read and write words, following a systematic and logical sequence. When appropriate, the emphasis will shift to increasing reading volume. Combining research on reading, cognitive science related to the role of knowledge in thinking, and practice-based wisdom, it appears that opportunities for wide reading are best provided within a knowledge-building curriculum in which text readings are linked by a theme or topic.13 Ironically, while background knowledge can be gained from reading, it is also true that those who already know more about a topic make better inferences and retain meanings better than those who know little about it. Therefore, reading practice should be linked to or embedded within the study of subjects including science, history, literature, and the arts. Interpretive strategies that facilitate comprehension—including summarizing, questioning, predicting outcomes, and monitoring one’s own understanding—are best used in the service of learning defined curricular content.14 Moreover, writing in response to reading is one of the best ways to enhance reading comprehension.15 2. Language Structure Expert teaching of reading requires knowledge of language structure at all levels.16 Without such knowledge, teachers are not able to respond insightfully to student errors, choose examples for concepts, explain and contrast words and their parts, or judge what focus is needed in a lesson. The table below provides examples of key concepts of language structure and how they apply to instruction. (click image to expand) Experts agree that children who initially are at risk for failure are saved, in most cases, by instruction that directly teaches the specific foundational language skills on which proficient reading depends.17 Effective teachers of reading raise awareness and proficiency through every layer of language organization, including sounds, syllables, meaningful parts (morphemes), phrases, sentences, paragraphs, and various genres of text. Their teaching strategies are explicit, systematic, and engaging.18 They also balance language skill instruction with its application to purposeful daily writing and reading, no matter what the skill level of the learner. Middle- and upper-grade children who are weak readers can be brought up to grade level with appropriate instruction (although the time, effort, and emotional strain for children and teachers involved is considerably greater than that required to teach younger children, so offering research-based instruction in the early grades must remain a top priority). A rich and meaningful curriculum, in which students are exposed to a variety of texts as they learn concepts in science, literature, social studies, history, the arts, and culture, should provide the context for developing reading and writing skills. Comprehension strategies should not be taught in isolation but used as necessary to enhance understanding of text assigned for content learning. Useful comprehension strategies to embed in content reading include prediction of outcomes, summarizing, clarification, questioning, and visualization; these can be modeled explicitly by the teacher and practiced overtly if students are not comprehending well or if they approach reading comprehension passively. Vocabulary is best taught with a variety of complementary methods, both direct and incidental, designed to explore the relationships among words and the relationships among word structure, origin, and meaning. Of course, children also benefit from access to full libraries and incentives to read independently. The fact that teachers need better preparation, professional development, and resources to carry out deliberate instruction in reading, spelling, and writing should prompt action rather than criticism. It should highlight the chronic gap between what teachers need and what they have been given. Just about all children can be taught to read and deserve no less from their teachers. Teachers, in turn, deserve no less than the knowledge, skills, and supported practice that will enable their teaching to succeed. There is no more important challenge for education to undertake. Louisa C. Moats has been a teacher, psychologist, researcher, graduate school faculty member, and author of many influential scientific journal articles, books, and policy papers on the topics of reading, spelling, language, and teacher preparation. After 15 years as a licensed psychologist specializing in evaluation and consultation with individuals who experienced reading, writing, and language difficulties, she served as a site director of the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development’s Early Interventions Project and research advisor and consultant with Sopris Learning. *It is important to note that students’ reasoning and comprehension abilities can also be enhanced through informed instruction. As students’ subject-matter knowledge and vocabulary grow, so will their capacity to think critically. (return to article) Endnotes
4519	dbpedia	0	1	https://sueburke.site/2020/08/27/two-bits-and-pieces-of-eight/	en	Two bits and pieces of eight	https://sueburke.site/wp…nand_vi_coin.jpg	https://sueburke.site/wp…nand_vi_coin.jpg	[ "https://sueburke.site/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/640px-ferdinand_vi_coin.jpg?w=676", "https://assets.pinterest.com/images/pidgets/pinit_fg_en_rect_gray_20.png", "https://mysueburke.files.wordpress.com/2023/02/dualmemory_9781250809131_cvr_2p_fc.jpg?w=196", "https://mysueburke.files.wordpress.com/2020/09/immunityindex_cover-art_small-1.jpg?w=194", "https://mysueburke.files.wordpress.com/2017/12/cover_websized.jpg?w=198", "https://mysueburke.files.wordpress.com/2023/02/interferencecover.jpg?w=674", "https://mysueburke.files.wordpress.com/2024/01/usurpation_hi_comp_v3-1-small.jpg", "https://s2.wp.com/i/logo/wpcom-gray-white.png", "https://s2.wp.com/i/logo/wpcom-gray-white.png", "https://pixel.wp.com/b.gif?v=noscript" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Sue Burke" ]	2020-08-27T00:00:00	You may know the American English-language expression two bits from the musical/rhythmic riff, “shave and a haircut, two bits” or from the meaning of two-bit as something cheap or trivial. You may even know that in the United States, two bits is twenty-five cents, a quarter-dollar, so you might think that one bit is one-eight…	en	https://s1.wp.com/i/favicon.ico	Sue Burke	https://sueburke.site/2020/08/27/two-bits-and-pieces-of-eight/	You may know the American English-language expression two bits from the musical/rhythmic riff, “shave and a haircut, two bits” or from the meaning of two-bit as something cheap or trivial. You may even know that in the United States, two bits is twenty-five cents, a quarter-dollar, so you might think that one bit is one-eight of a dollar. You would be right. How did this linguistic oddity come to pass? Back when the United States were British colonies, due to a coin shortage, the colonies tended to use a Spanish coin called a dollar, also known as a piece of eight because it was worth eight reales. The real coin had been circulating in Spain since medieval times, and because of the rich silver mines in Spanish colonies in Mexico and South America, during colonial times reales and Spanish dollars became common currency throughout the world. The one-eighth dollar coins became known as “bits” or parts of a dollar. When the United States became an independent country, it started making its own silver dollars and smaller coins, including quarter-dollars, and the terminology for bits as eighths hung on for a couple of centuries. Language changes slower than currency. As for Spanish, the only meaning of bit is another meaning for that word in English, a BInary digiT used in computer sciences. Spain stopped using reales in 1868, when it replaced them with the peseta, until that was replaced by the euro in 2002.
4519	dbpedia	1	31	https://learningcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/learning-a-second-language/	en	Learning Languages – Learning Center	https://creativecommons.…somerights20.png	https://creativecommons.…somerights20.png	[ "https://learningcenter.unc.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/330/2018/09/learningcenterlogo-oneline.png", "https://learningcenter.unc.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/330/2018/09/learningcenterlogo-oneline.png", "https://creativecommons.org/images/public/somerights20.png", "https://writingcenter.unc.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/346/2024/01/wcinsta.png", "https://writingcenter.unc.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/346/2024/01/wctwitter.png", "https://writingcenter.unc.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/346/2024/01/wcfacebook.png", "https://writingcenter.unc.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/346/2015/12/youtube-icon.png", "https://learningcenter.unc.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/330/2015/12/logo-cssac-292x300.png", "https://learningcenter.unc.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/330/2022/04/HC_Badge_Partner_B_Light-150x150.png", "https://writingcenter.unc.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/346/2024/01/wcinsta.png", "https://writingcenter.unc.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/346/2024/01/wcfacebook.png", "https://writingcenter.unc.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/346/2015/12/youtube-icon.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	2015-05-22T14:05:34+00:00	Learning a language is a complex, time-intensive task that requires dedication, persistence, and hard work. If you’re reading this, then you probably already know that. What you might not know is that there are strategies that can help you study … Read more	en	https://learningcenter.u…8/07/favicon.png	Learning Center	https://learningcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/learning-a-second-language/	Learning Languages Learning a language is a complex, time-intensive task that requires dedication, persistence, and hard work. If you’re reading this, then you probably already know that. What you might not know is that there are strategies that can help you study more effectively, so that you make the most of your time and energy. This handout first explains some of the key principles that guide effective language learning, and then describes activities that can help you put these principles into practice. Use these tools to create a strategic study plan that helps your language skills grow. Key principles of language learning The Basics: First, let’s talk about the basics. Research in this area (called “second language acquisition” in academia) suggests that there are three key elements to learning a new language. The first is comprehensible input, which is a fancy way of saying being exposed to (hearing or reading) something in the new language and learning to understand it. Comprehensible output is the second element, and unsurprisingly it means learning to produce (speak or write) something in the new language. The third element is review or feedback, which basically means identifying errors and making changes in response.[1] Fancy terms aside, these are actually pretty straightforward ideas. These three elements are the building blocks of your language practice, and an effective study plan will maximize all three. The more you listen and read (input), the more you speak and write (output), the more you go back over what you’ve done and learn from your errors (review & feedback), the more your language skills will grow. DO: Create a study plan that maximizes the three dimensions of language learning: understanding (input), producing (output), and identifying and correcting errors (review/feedback). Seek balance Learning a new language involves listening, speaking, reading, writing, sometimes even a new alphabet and writing format. If you focus exclusively on just one activity, the others fall behind. This is actually a common pitfall for language learners. For example, it’s easy to focus on reading comprehension when studying, in part because written language is often readily accessible—for one thing, you have a whole textbook full of it. This is also true of the three key elements: it’s comparatively easy to find input sources (like your textbook) and practice understanding them. But neglecting the other two key principles (output and feedback/review) can slow down language growth. Instead, what you need is a balanced study plan: a mix of study activities that target both spoken and written language, and gives attention to all three key principles. DO: Focus on balance: practice both spoken and written language, and make sure to include all of the three key principles—input, output, and feedback/review. Errors are important Sometimes, the biggest challenge to language learning is overcoming our own fears: fear of making a mistake, of saying the wrong thing, of embarrassing yourself, of not being able to find the right word, and so on. This is all perfectly rational: anyone learning a language is going to make mistakes, and sometimes those mistakes will be very public. The thing is, you NEED to make those mistakes. One of the key principles of language learning is all about making errors and then learning from them: this is what review & feedback means. Plus, if you’re not willing to make errors, then the amount of language you produce (your output) goes way down. In other words, being afraid of making a mistake negatively affects two of the three key principles of language learning! So what do you do? In part, you may need to push yourself to get comfortable with making errors. However, you should also look for ways to get low-stakes practice: create situations in which you feel more comfortable trying out your new language and making those inevitable mistakes. For example, consider finding a study partner who is at your level of language skill. This is often more comfortable than practicing with an advanced student or a native speaker, and they’re usually easier to find—you’ve got a whole class full of potential partners! DO: Learn to appreciate mistakes, and push yourself to become more comfortable with making errors. DO: Create opportunities for ‘low-stakes’ practice, where you’ll feel comfortable practicing and making mistakes. Spread it out Studying a new language involves learning a LOT of material, so you’ll want to use your study time as effectively as possible. According to research in educational and cognitive psychology, one of the most effective learning strategies is distributed practice. This concept has two main components: spacing, which is breaking study time up into multiple small sessions, and separation, which means spreading those sessions out over time.[2] For example, let’s imagine you have a list of vocabulary words to learn. Today is Sunday, and the vocab quiz is on Friday. If you can only spend a total of 30 minutes studying this vocab, which study plan will be the most effective? (A) Study for 30 minutes on Thursday. (B) Study for 10 minutes at a time on Tuesday, Wednesday, and Thursday. (C) Study for 10 minutes at a time on Sunday, Tuesday, and Thursday. (D) Study for 30 minutes on Sunday. If you look at the total time spent studying, all four options are exactly the same. But research suggests that option C is the most effective way to manage your time: instead of studying the vocabulary all at once, you’ve spread out the time into several shorter sessions, and you’ve also increased the amount of time between study sessions. (And yes, this is also why “cramming” isn’t a good study plan!) DO: Break up your study time into shorter chunks and spread those sessions out over time. Bump up your memory Memory is a critical part of any kind of studying, and effective memorization is strongly correlated with success in foreign language classes.[3] But if you’re not “good at” memorizing things, don’t despair! Although people often think of memory as a fixed quality, it’s actually a skill that you can improve through deliberate practice. There’s a considerable amount of research on how memory works, as well as a wide range of strategies for improving memory. For example, scientific experiments show that our short-term memory can only hold about 7 pieces of new information at once. So if you’re working on a long list of new vocabulary words, start by breaking it up into smaller chunks, and study one shorter section at a time. Additionally, research also suggests that recall-based study methods are most effective. This means that actively trying to recall information is more effective than simply reviewing information; essentially, self-testing will help you more than re-reading your notes will.[4] The best way to start working on your memory is to build on the techniques that you already know work for you. For example, if associating a word with a picture is effective for you, then you should incorporate images into your vocabulary practice. However, if you’re not sure where to start, here’s a “beginner” formula for memorizing a new word: use the word at least five times the first day that you learn it, then multiple times over the week, at least once every day. If you’re interested in more tips for improving your memory, check out our resource on memorization strategies. In addition to figuring out which memorization techniques work best for you, it’s also important to actively protect your memory. For example, experiencing a strong emotion has been shown to sharply decrease the ability to memorize unrelated content. (So if you’ve just watched a horror movie, it’s probably not a great time for vocabulary review!) To get the most out of your study time, here’s a list of common “memory killers” to avoid: Stress and anxiety: Just like other strong emotions, stress and anxiety drastically reduce your ability to make new memories and recall information. Information overload: Studying for hours at a time might seem like a great idea, but it’s actually a really ineffective use of time. In fact, taking a short break every 30 minutes helps improve focus, and after 2 hours you should consider switching topics. Fatigue: The more tired you are, the less effective your memory is. Chronic sleep deprivation is particularly detrimental, so those late-night study sessions might actually do more harm than good! Multitasking: As you may have noticed, all of these “memory killers” are also things that disrupt focus. Multi-tasking is probably the most common source of distraction. In fact, here’s a great rule of thumb for protecting your memory: if you’re not supposed to do it while driving, then you shouldn’t do it while studying. (Yes, that means drinking, texting, and watching Netflix “in the background” are all NOs.) DO: Increase memorization by breaking information into small chunks and studying the chunks one at a time, and by using recall-based strategies like self-testing. DO: Focus on protecting and improving your memorization skills, and build the memory techniques that work best for you into your study plan. Vocab is king Want to know a secret? Vocabulary is more important than grammar. DISCLAIMER: This does NOT mean that grammar is unimportant. Without grammar, you won’t know how to use your vocabulary, since grammar tells you how to combine words into sentences. And obviously, if you’re in a foreign language class, you’re going to need to study ALL the material to do well, and that will definitely include grammar. The more vocabulary you know, the more quickly you can grow your language skills. The reason is simple: understanding more words directly translates into more input, producing more words means more output, and more output means more opportunity for feedback. Additionally, when you’re interacting with native speakers, vocabulary is more beneficial to communication than grammar is. Being able to produce words will help get your meaning across, even if what you say is not perfectly grammatical.[5] Of course, in order to become fully fluent in your new language, eventually you will need strong grammar skills. But once again, this is something that having a strong, well-developed vocabulary will help with. Since grammar dictates relationships between words and phrases, understanding those smaller components (aka vocabulary) will help improve your understanding of how those grammatical relationships work. DO: Design a study plan that emphasizes vocabulary. Activities Now that we’ve talked about the general principles that you should incorporate in your language study, let’s focus on activities: practical suggestions to help you find new ways to grow your language skills! Find real-life sources Since one of the main 3 components of language learning is input, look for ways to expose yourself to as much of the language you’re learning as possible. But this doesn’t mean reading more textbooks (unless your textbook is a fascinating read that you’re excited about). Instead, look for “authentic” examples of the language, things you’ll actually enjoy and look forward to practicing with, even if you don’t understand every word! Here are some examples to get you started: Newspaper articles, magazines, & blogs: Many of these are freely available online, and once you’ve tried reading them a few times, it’s easy to translate the key parts to check your understanding. Look for a topic you’re already interested in and follow it with a news reader app! Books: Children’s picture books and books you’ve read before in your native language are easy options for intermediate/advanced beginners. The library often has great options available for free! TV shows and movies: Try watching them without subtitles the first time, starting in ~15 minute segments. Another great option is to watch first without any subtitles, then with subtitles in the language you’re learning, and then finally with subtitles in your native language if you need them. Soap operas are also great options (especially if you like lots of drama!), since the plot lines are often explained multiple times. Songs: Music, especially popular songs, can be especially well suited to language practice, since you’re likely to memorize the ones you enjoy. Ask a teacher or native speaker for recommendations if you’re struggling to find good examples. Children’s songs can also be fun practice tools. Podcasts and audio books: There are a lot of options for all sorts of languages, and as a bonus you’ll often get exposure to local news and cultural topics. To get you started, we recommend this site, which has a great list of podcasts for many different languages. Also, consider tweaking some of your media settings to “bump up” your casual language exposure. For example, changing your Facebook and LinkedIn location and language preferences will force you to interact with the language you’re learning, even when you’re (mostly) wasting time. Pro tips Improve the effectiveness of this activity by using the following suggestions! Slow it down: If you’re listening to a podcast or audio book, try slowing down the speed just a bit: 0.75x is a common option, and the slowed-down audio still doesn’t sound too strange. Also, make sure to take breaks frequently to help you process what you’ve just heard. Combine your senses: In many cases, you can combine types of input to help create a more learning environment: reading and listening to a text at the same time can help you improve your comprehension. For example, for TV shows and movies, turn on subtitles in the same language. Other options include: Radio news stories often have both audio and transcripts available online, especially for pieces that are a few days old. Amazon’s Kindle offers an “immersive reading” option that syncs audio books with text. TED talks come in many different languages, and often include an interactive transcript. If you’re an ESL student, the ESL Bits website has some great resources that link reading and listening, and it also has adjustable audio speeds! Get hooked: To make this strategy as effective as possible, find a source that you really enjoy, and commit to experiencing it only in the language you’re learning. Having a go-to program that you love will help keep you motivated. For example, if you love podcast/radio story programs like “Radiolab” and are learning Spanish, check out “Radio Ambulante.” Hold shadow conversations A key part of learning a new language involves training your ear. Unlike written language, spoken language doesn’t have the same context clues that help you decipher and separate out words. Plus, in addition to using slang and idioms, native speakers tend to “smoosh” words together, which is even more confusing for language learners![6] In part, this is why listening to real-life sources can be so helpful (see the previous activity). However, even beginning language learners can benefit from something called conversational shadowing. Basically, this means repeating a conversation word-for-word, even when you don’t know what all of the words mean. This helps you get used to the rhythm and patterns of the language, as well as learn to identify individual words and phrases from longer chunks of spoken language. Another great strategy involves holding practice conversations, where you create imaginary conversations and rehearse them multiple times. Both of these strategies are great ways to help you learn and retain new vocabulary, and they also increase your language output in a low-stakes practice setting! Example: If you’ve got a homework exercise that involves reviewing an audio or video clip, take a few extra steps to get the most benefit: After you’ve listened to the clip once, shadow the conversation in short sections (think ~20-30 seconds). Focus on reproducing the words as accurately as possible, paying close attention to rhythm, intonation, and pacing. Once you can accurately shadow the entire clip, then focus on understanding the meaning of the material, and answer any homework questions related to the clip. Now, use the same vocabulary to create a new conversation: think of what you would want to say in a real-life situation like this one, and practice it until you can respond confidently to any side of the exchange. Become a collector Since expanding your vocabulary is so important, identifying new words is a big priority. This is especially true when you’re in an immersion environment (studying abroad, etc), but it’s also something that you can do on a regular basis even when you’re at home. Basically, you need to collect words: any time you encounter a new word, you want to capture it by recording it in some way. The easiest way to do this is in a small pocket notebook, but you could also put a note in your phone, send a text or email to yourself, or even record yourself saying it. The key point is to capture the word as quickly and easily as possible. Also, don’t worry too much about spelling or definitions in the moment: you’ll deal with those later. Whatever your recording system is (notebook, phone, voice memo, etc), it’s only the first part of the collection process. Next, you’ll need to review each of the words you’ve recorded. This is something you’ll do on a regular basis, so that you can actually use the words you’ve recorded. Depending on how many new words you’re collecting, it might be every day, every few days, or once a week. This is the time when you find the correct spelling, write down the definition, maybe find an example, and so on. To make this process as effective as possible, you also want to have some sort of system that helps you record and organize your word collection. If you like paper-based methods, then flashcards can be easily organized in index card boxes, though you might want to include some alphabetical divider tabs to help yourself stay organized. However, digital tools are particularly helpful with this kind of information, and there are tons of apps that can help you organize a large vocabulary collection. But you don’t need a fancy app or program: a simple spreadsheet also works great for most cases. Finally, you also want to make sure to use your word collection! Not only do you need to learn new words once you add them, you’ll also need regular review of old words to maintain your vocabulary. This is another place where digital tools shine, since it’s easy to access the entire collection at any time, making it easier to study and review on a regular basis. In any case, make sure that you incorporate review along with learning new words. The 4 basic steps of word collection Capture new words. Listen for them in class, seek them out in conversations, find them in your “authentic sources,” etc. Record them in the moment, without worrying too much about spelling and definitions. Review your new words. Establish a routine so that you regularly “empty out” your recording tool and add the new words to your collection. Record and organize your collection. Create an organized system for your collection; common tools include digital flashcard apps, spreadsheets, and traditional index cards. Use your words! Make sure you’re learning new additions and also periodically reviewing older words. Pro tips If you’re struggling to find new words to collect—or if you feel overwhelmed by the number of words you could collect—then try working “backwards.” Instead of looking for new words in the language you’re learning, think about the gaps in your vocabulary. For example, think about the topics you frequently discuss in your native language. Do you know how to talk about those things in the language you’re learning? Hobbies and other classes are often great places to start. If you’re in a foreign language class, you can use the same word collection system to help you learn and review assigned vocabulary. Consider color-coding or tagging words that are class-related if you want to give those words extra attention. If you’re using a digital flashcard app, you might consider creating different card “sets” to help you organize them. Flashcard zen Flashcards are one of the most common tools that language learners use. There is a good reason for this: they’re easily portable, they’re excellent for learning short pieces of information (like new words), and used correctly they’re a great recall-based study strategy. However, flashcards are not without problems. For example, it’s far too easy to devote excessive time to making elaborately detailed flashcards, and then spend comparatively little time actually using them! The following tips describe ways to use flashcards in a strategic and effective manner. Less is more The more time you spend making flashcards, the less time you spend using them…but if you don’t make flashcards, then you don’t have any to use. The point behind this paradox is that you want to minimize the time and effort you put into the flashcard set-up process. This is a situation where perfectionism can really harm you: if you focus on making absolutely “perfect” flashcards, then you’re really just wasting time. Similarly, you also want to minimize the volume of information you put on each flashcard. Flashcards should not be pages of notes in a smaller format, especially when using them for vocabulary. Instead, each card should have just enough information on it to test your memory. Instead of containing many details, a good flashcard will serve as a “cue” that triggers your memory. This way, you’re forcing your brain to work to produce the information, which helps build and maintain strong memories. Mix it up Another common flashcard issue is that they promote rote memorization, so that information is divorced from context. But in real life, you’ll be using your vocabulary in a wide range of contexts. Only practicing vocabulary in rote drills may end up slowing you down when you need to actually use the words.[7] One example of this is the “translation” phenomenon: instead of learning to associate new words with their meanings, they become associated with the word in your native language. If you’re always translating word-for-word in your head, then it takes much longer to understand and interact. A great way to reduce this issue is to change the type of cues used on your flashcard: instead of written words, you might represent the meaning of new words with a picture—or for digital flashcards, you could even use audio files. Example: Imagine a beginning student (and native English speaker) learns that the Arabic word for door is “bab” (باب). She could make several different flashcards for this word: Traditional flashcard: the written word in Arabic on one side, and in English on the other Audio flashcard (digital): the spoken Arabic word on one side, and the spoken word in English on the other Pictoral flashcard: a picture of a door on one side, and the word written in Arabic on the other You can also combine these types to make different hybrid-style flashcards. Once again, don’t try to make elaborate, perfect flashcards—just something that will push you to associate words with meanings, instead of just their translations. Not all of your flashcards have to use non-written cues, but it’s a great way to add variety and prevent “translation” memory. Additionally, make sure to practice using both sides of the flashcards as cues. In other words, if you’ve already gone through a set of cards starting with the English side, flip the stack over the next time you use it, so that you’re getting prompted by the language you’re learning. You can also avoid the pitfalls of rote memorization by making sure to practice using the words in context. For example, in addition to testing yourself with each card, follow that up by using the word in a sentence. This is particularly good for words you’ve already learned and are now reviewing. You can also turn this into a game, where you make up “mad-lib” style sentences by randomly drawing cards and combining them. If you’re working with a partner or study group, you can also use flashcards to play games like charades or Pictionary. Make it a habit Ultimately, flashcards are just a tool, albeit one that is ideally suited to vocabulary practice. And as with any kind of practice, the more time you put in, better your results will be: flashcards work best when used frequently and consistently. If you want to get the most out of your flashcards, turn using them into a regular habit. Here are some tips to keep in mind: Small sets, many reps: To improve memorization when practicing new words, create sets of 7 flashcards or less and practice each set several times before moving on to the next one. Also, make sure to space out your flashcard sessions, and once you’ve reviewed a set of words, put it aside for a day or two before reviewing it again. Increase portability: Make sure you take full advantage of the portable nature of flashcards. If you’re using paper, then consider using a binder ring and hole punch to keep small sets together. You might also use smaller cards: since you’ll be making simple cards (minimalism!), you could probably cut a regular 3”x5” index card into halves (or even quarters) and still have more than enough room! Even if you use full-sized paper cards, you increase portability by being selective in the number you take with you. Remember, you want to space out your sets and reps, so it isn’t necessary to carry all your cards with you all the time. If you’re using digital tools, look for apps that can sync to all your devices—phone, tablet, computer, web, etc. Wasted’ time: Since flashcards are so portable, they’re a great way to turn “wasted” time into useful time. How much time do you spend riding the bus? How about stuck in line at the grocery store, or waiting for an appointment at Campus Health? Instead of checking your Twitter feed or hopping on Facebook, open up your flashcard app (or pull out your flashcard stack) and do a quick vocab review. If you’re doing small sets it won’t take very long to go through one, and you’ve just bumped up your number of reps for the day! Create a routine: Habits are powerful. Once you’ve established a behavior pattern, you find yourself doing it without thinking about it. So think about how you can create a daily routine for using your flashcards. Finding and using “wasted” time is a good start, especially if you have a daily bus commute. What about taking 5 minutes every morning to do vocabulary review while you drink your coffee? Or making it your first “after-dinner to do” once you’ve finished eating? Once you find ways to make vocabulary flashcards part of your daily routine, you can use the power of habit to help grow your vocabulary. Periodic review: Once you’ve learned new words, you’re not done with those flashcards—instead, use them to keep your vocabulary strong. Each week, randomly select a few words to review. You might do a review set once each day, or the review words can be mixed in with your current learning sets (this is a great way to keep your word collection going strong!). Make it fun Learning a new language is a lot of work, but that’s not what motivated you to start studying it in the first place, right? Instead, you probably want to travel or work abroad, or be able to talk with people from other countries, maybe even study literature or history… Whatever got you interested in this language in the first place, it’s probably a lot more fun than all this studying is. Here’s the thing: whenever you can do something that connects you back with the reasons that motivate you to study your new language, or you find something new and exciting about the language you’re studying or the cultures that use it, use your excitement to boost your motivation. It’s what will keep you going—and that kind of persistence is a key factor in language learning success.[8] But in addition to staying focused on what you enjoy, you can also deliberately create fun social activities that also help you grow your language skills. For example, try hosting a dinner and movie “theme” night with friends who are studying the same language. Create a “mini-immersion” environment: watch movies in the language you’re learning, cook some authentic cuisine, and try to speak only in your new (shared!) language. It’s a great way to get some authentic, low-stakes practice. (Plus, it’s a great excuse for a party!) Parting advice In addition to this handout, there are lots of resources to help you with your language learning goals. If you’re in a language class, your professor, TA, and/or other instructors often have great advice for study strategies—in addition to their teaching experience, at one point they were learning a new language, just like you are! Check out what the language department offers: perhaps there is a peer tutoring program, or conversation tables (aka “language coffee hours”), or cultural events that can be great authentic sources for practice (and fun motivation boosters). Language departments often have online resources as well, so be sure to check out their websites. Look for other campus organizations that offer language learning resources, such as global studies and student groups. UNC language departments, programs, and curricula Department of Asian Studies Department of African, African American, and Diaspora Studies Department of Romance Studies Department of German and Slavic Languages and Literatures Curriculum in Global studies Works consulted Murphey, T. (1998). Language hungry!: An introduction to language learning fun and self-esteem. Japan: MacMillan Language house. Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K. A., Marsh, E. J., Nathan, M. J., & Willingham, D. T. (2013). Improving students’ learning with effective learning techniques promising directions from cognitive and educational psychology. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 14(1), 4-58. Brown, H. D., & Gonzo, S. T. (1995). Readings on second language acquisition. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Regents. O’Malley, J. M., Chamot, A. U., & Küpper, L. (1995). Listening comprehension strategies in second language acquisition. Readings on second language acquisition, 138-160. Oxford, R., & Crookall, D. (1989). Research on language learning strategies: Methods, findings, and instructional issues. The Modern Language Journal,73(4), 404-419. Nunan, David. Second Language Teaching & Learning. Heinle & Heinle Publishers, 7625 Empire Dr., Florence, KY 41042-2978, 1999. Son, L. K., & Simon, D. A. (2012). Distributed learning: Data, metacognition, and educational implications. Educational Psychology Review, 24(3), 379-399. [1] Brown & Gonzo, 1995; Ellis, 1997; Nunan, 1999 [2] Dunlosky et al, 2013; Son & Simon, 2012 [3] Oxford, R., & Crookall, D. (1989). Research on language learning strategies: Methods, findings, and instructional issues. The Modern Language Journal,73(4), 404-419. [4] Dunlosky et al, 2013 [5] Murphey, T. (1998). Language hungry!: An introduction to language learning fun and self-esteem. Japan: MacMillan Languagehouse. [6] Nunn, 1999; Murphey, 1998 [7] Nunan, 1999; Oxford & Crookall, 1989 [8] Nunan, 1999; Oxford & Crookall, 1989, Brown & Gonzo, 1995. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 4.0 License. You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Learning Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill If you enjoy using our handouts, we appreciate contributions of acknowledgement.
4519	dbpedia	3	53	https://www.toastmasters.org/magazine/magazine-issues/2021/june/speak-the-language-speak-the-culture	en	Toastmasters International	https://toastmasterscdn.…AB2A64E680D5CB0E		[ "https://www.toastmasters.org/content/images/globals/toastmasters-logo@2x.png", "https://toastmasterscdn.azureedge.net/medias/images/magazine/magazine-issues/2024/aug/august-2024-cover-thumbnail.png", "https://toastmasterscdn.azureedge.net/medias/convention/toastmasterslogo/toastmaster-white.svg", "https://toastmasterscdn.azureedge.net/medias/images/magazine/magazine-issues/2024/aug/august-2024-cover-thumbnail.png", "https://www.toastmasters.org/Content/images/DesktopTOCArrow.svg", "https://www.toastmasters.org/Content/images/DesktopTOCArrow.svg", "https://www.toastmasters.org/magazine/magazine-issues/2021/june/medias/images/pubs-and-magazine/2021-digital-magazine/06/speak-the-language-speak-the-culture/26-language-culture-main.png", "https://static.addtoany.com/buttons/facebook.svg", "https://static.addtoany.com/buttons/twitter.svg", "https://static.addtoany.com/buttons/linkedin.svg", "https://static.addtoany.com/buttons/email.svg", "https://www.toastmasters.org/Content/images/MobileSidebarExpand.svg", "https://www.toastmasters.org/Content/images/MobileArticleNav_Arrow.svg", "https://www.toastmasters.org/Content/images/MobileArticleNav_Arrow.svg", "https://toastmasterscdn.azureedge.net/medias/images/pubs-and-magazine/2021-digital-magazine/06/breaking-language-barriers/29-breaking-barriers-index.png?la=en&h=153&w=203&hash=75E861D19730DC6CAB2A64E680D5CB0E", "https://toastmasterscdn.azureedge.net/medias/images/pubs-and-magazine/2019-digital-magazine/02/the-benefits-of-bilingualism/toastmasters-22-benefits-of-bilingualism-toc.png?la=en&h=114&w=203&hash=37C43F158F40D701F04105A45D7198C2", "https://toastmasterscdn.azureedge.net/medias/images/pubs-and-magazine/2019-digital-magazine/02/two-ways-to-say-it/toastmasters-25-miracle-chinese-bilingual-index.png?la=en&h=153&w=203&hash=50A950F7E6F4F9F68F478482D7B5D02A", "https://toastmasterscdn.azureedge.net/medias/images/pubs-and-magazine/2019-digital-magazine/10/trilingual-club-in-spain/toastmasters-12-bilbao-club-index.png?la=en&h=153&w=203&hash=28E96EACB18A92EEF636D9638F02AC8E", "https://www.securitymetrics.com/images/sm_ccsafe_whborder.gif" ]	[ "https://www.youtube.com/embed/qxlYLjui1oM" ]	[]	[ "Toastmaster", "Toastmasters", "Toastmasters International", "Pathways learning experience", "leadership", "communication", "Sonja Bonin", "language", "multilingual", "native language", "speaker", "culture", "non-native", "Carol Bausor" ]	null	[]	null		en	/Content/images/favicon.ico		null	We are a multilingual bunch here at the International Lunchtime Toastmasters in Zurich, Switzerland—which seems only appropriate for a country with four official national languages (German, French, Italian, and Romansh) and a city where one in three people carries a foreign passport. At our club, we strive to practice English, German, and French at every meeting, and for many of our members and guests, not one of those is their native language! As a Toastmaster, you may have experienced similar situations. Perhaps you live abroad, or your home club might have members who aren’t native speakers; or maybe you’ve signed up for a club specifically to practice your second or third language. You are reading this article in English, but statistically, there’s a two-to-one chance that English is not your first language. In a globalized world where many of us are communicating and collaborating across borders and cultures, proficiency in a second language can be a stepping-stone in your career and can open many doors while traveling. Bilinguals have also proven to be better in social and cognitive tasks, showing greater empathy, recovering more quickly from brain injury, and staving off dementia significantly longer than monolinguals. Still, besides all the fun and benefits, speaking in a non-native language can be intimidating, especially when you are just starting out. So I asked some proficient public speakers for advice. Take the Leap For many speakers, going from speaking a non-native language conversationally to giving a whole speech can feel quite daunting. “It seems like so much more effort,” says Selina Man Karlsson of International Lunchtime Toastmasters in Switzerland. She can manage Table Topics®, she says, however, when putting together a speech, there are many more pieces to the puzzle. “But I know that once I accomplish it, it will feel like a personal victory.” To ease into it, she suggests you recycle an idea or translate a speech you’ve given before, in order to feel more confident. And perhaps you can find a mentor who speaks both languages. Most importantly, Man Karlsson says, because Toastmasters is such a safe and supportive environment, it’s the perfect training ground. Public Speaking as a Mental Workout Another happy multilingual is Beatriz Macedo of Oporto Toastmasters Club in Porto, Portugal. “I love learning languages,” she says. “It’s like a gym for the brain, something challenging that keeps me on top of my mental capacities.” Beside her native Portuguese, Macedo is fluent in English, Spanish, French, and Italian. She is also learning German and Mandarin Chinese. The former was a practical decision because German might benefit her career as a metallurgical engineer for a German company. She says she chose to learn Chinese precisely because it is so different from English and the Romance languages she already speaks. Macedo uses Toastmasters speech contests to practice languages she doesn’t speak frequently, and she’s won contests at the District level in English and Italian. “I think the audience is a bit more forgiving with a non-native speaker,” she says. “But you definitely have to prepare much longer and better than in your first language.” Immerse Yourself in Your Target Language When Macedo plans a speech in one of her non-native languages, she prepares much more thoroughly than she would otherwise. “You want to get to a place where you aren’t translating what you want to say but thinking in the foreign language.” She starts the process by jogging her memory. “I switch to reading in my target language every day, watching movies and the news in it, and talking to native speakers.” She looks up words, synonyms, and even whole phrases, and discusses usage of certain expressions or metaphors in online forums. She recommends listening to native speakers talk, for instance on YouTube, to help with pronunciation. “I immerse myself in my target language before I start writing my speech. That way, I will not translate it, but write it in my target language.” Next, the preparation. “In my more fluent languages, I usually jot down some bullet points and rehearse in a more improvisational style, almost like Table Topics—just 10 Table Topics in a row,” she says. In her less fluent languages, she memorizes more, because it’s not as easy to find a quick work-around if you forget a word or jumble up a sentence. “If I’m speaking in front of a Portuguese audience, I might be able to cheat a little and simply inject a word or two in Portuguese. But with a mixed audience or abroad, that won’t work.” Consider Culture You must take into account that your audience, even if you’re speaking the same language, might differ in cultural background. For instance, Macedo believes that speakers of Romance languages gesture more and are more lively in tone than Northern Europeans. On the other hand, there are subtle differences from language to language too. So, when she prepares a speech in Italian, she says she needs to memorize and rehearse the respective gestures alongside the words of her speech. The further you get from your native culture, the more pronounced the differences. Macedo experienced this first-hand when she spent time living in South Korea. “When I talk about school milk, every Portuguese of my generation will share the same memory. The South Koreans were flabbergasted that I would want to drink milk every day!” Another example: What is “a piece of cake” (meaning: super easy) for English speakers is “chicken soup” for the Portuguese. And a joke or a wink can work well in one culture but feel inappropriate in another. It’s therefore a good idea to double-check your speech for culture-specific metaphors, examples, or expressions and give it a test run with a member of your target audience. Is your message clear and easy to grasp? Does what you say and how you say it contribute to your message or distract from it? If you present to varying audiences, you may want to adjust your speech for each audience. For instance, a baseball reference works fine in the U.S., but in German-speaking countries, soccer is the sport that most people are familiar with. “Speaking the language is not enough. You have to speak the culture too,” says Macedo. “It’s like the seasoning for a dish. If you use nutmeg instead of cinnamon, it won’t taste so good.” Talking to a Non-Native Audience On the flip side, all is not that easy for native speakers either! Talking to a non-native audience can be tricky, especially for native English speakers. Since English has become such a widespread lingua franca, it’s easy to neglect cultural sensitivities. You are also prone to forget that processing a foreign language is always a bit more difficult than listening to your mother tongue, no matter how fluent you are. “Most native English speakers think they are communicating, where in fact, they aren’t,” says John Zimmer, a professional speaker and speaking coach from Canada who has worked for the United Nations and has been living in the French-speaking part of Switzerland for more than 20 years. His experience has taught him to speak “a different English” when he’s talking to non-native speakers. “Back in Canada, I speak faster, and I use more slang and colloquialisms; I also allow for fewer pauses.” Here are some of his tips for English speakers talking to a non-native audience: Talk slowly, enunciate well, and use more pauses. Avoid jargon, filler words (such as “like” or “actually”), and colloquialisms (“We’d’ve come” is far more difficult to process than “We would have come”; don’t say “we need to up our game”—instead, say “we need to improve.”). Beware of phrasal verbs, where the meaning is different than the combined meanings of the individual words, such as “I’ll see to it” or “he turned me down.” Use the active voice over the passive voice and the affirmative over the negative (say “often” instead of “not uncommon”). Use short words and short sentences and avoid unnecessary flourishes. Zimmer’s recommendation is “Value clarity over creativity.” Luckily, all these rules serve any speaker well under any circumstances. And “taking your non-native audience into consideration will force you to think more rigorously about your message and how to express it,” Zimmer says. Whether you speak in a foreign language or speak your first language to an audience of non-native speakers, the challenge will enhance your performance as a public speaker in the long run. Just remember: Think the language, speak the culture, and put some extra effort into your preparation. You’ll earn even more credibility as a citizen of the world.
4519	dbpedia	0	51	https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/two-bits	en	Rotten Tomatoes	https://resizing.flixste…288_p_v10_aa.jpg	https://resizing.flixste…288_p_v10_aa.jpg	[ "https://images.fandango.com/cms/assets/97c33f00-313f-11ee-9aaf-6762c75465cf--newsletter.png", "https://images.fandango.com/cms/assets/97c33f00-313f-11ee-9aaf-6762c75465cf--newsletter.png", "https://www.rottentomatoes.com/assets/pizza-pie/images/rtlogo.9b892cff3fd.png", "https://resizing.flixster.com/kRMEvzSpAOG7H2aTNamim76vrRI=/fit-in/128x128/v2/http://resizing.flixster.com/F2uEmOXOoG96RMHfK1YLBIeFrZo=/38x37/v1.YzsxNjUxO2c7MTk5ODA7MjA0ODszODszNw", "https://images.fandango.com/cms/assets/5b6ff500-1663-11ec-ae31-05a670d2d590--rtactordefault.png", "https://images.fandango.com/cms/assets/5b6ff500-1663-11ec-ae31-05a670d2d590--rtactordefault.png", "https://images.fandango.com/cms/assets/5b6ff500-1663-11ec-ae31-05a670d2d590--rtactordefault.png", "https://resizing.flixster.com/2IlKpSeQ_OqZl2fdFvf58LtWg_I=/fit-in/128x128/v2/http://resizing.flixster.com/aIvZHmaymHbAOim6yFaoEpncuNM=/38x40/v1.YzsxNjM4O2c7MTk5ODA7MjA0ODszODs0MA", "https://images.fandango.com/cms/assets/5b6ff500-1663-11ec-ae31-05a670d2d590--rtactordefault.png", "https://images.fandango.com/cms/assets/266533e0-7afb-11ed-83f2-4f600722b564--privacyoptions.svg", "https://images.fandango.com/cms/assets/266533e0-7afb-11ed-83f2-4f600722b564--privacyoptions.svg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	1995-10-12T00:00:00	A 12-year-old schemes (Jerry Barone) to get into a new movie house while fulfilling an ailing grandfather's (Al Pacino) wish in 1933 South Philadelphia.	en	https://www.rottentomatoes.com/assets/pizza-pie/images/favicon.ico	Rotten Tomatoes	https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/two-bits	Let's keep in touch! > Sign up for the Rotten Tomatoes newsletter to get weekly updates on: Upcoming Movies and TV shows Rotten Tomatoes Podcast Media News + More Sign me up No thanks
4519	dbpedia	1	8	https://www.spanishdict.com/answers/116586/how-come-almost-every-word-in-spanish-is-the-same-as-english	en	How come almost every word in Spanish is the same as English	https://d1q4kshf6f0axi.c…quare-medium.png	https://d1q4kshf6f0axi.c…quare-medium.png	[ "https://pixel.quantserve.com/pixel/p-J6UREPaB79qHH.gif", "http://c.sdswift.com//images/smileys/question.gif", "http://c.sdswift.com//images/smileys/smile.gif", "http://c.sdswift.com//images/smileys/lol.gif", "https://d1q4kshf6f0axi.cloudfront.net/img/svgs/ixl-learning.svg", "https://d1q4kshf6f0axi.cloudfront.net/img/svgs/rosetta-stone.svg", "https://d1q4kshf6f0axi.cloudfront.net/img/svgs/tpt-logo.svg", "https://d1q4kshf6f0axi.cloudfront.net/img/svgs/emmersion.svg", "https://d1q4kshf6f0axi.cloudfront.net/img/svgs/abcya.svg", "https://d1q4kshf6f0axi.cloudfront.net/img/svgs/ixl-logo-2.svg", "https://d1q4kshf6f0axi.cloudfront.net/img/svgs/wyzant.svg", "https://d1q4kshf6f0axi.cloudfront.net/img/svgs/education-com.svg", "https://d1q4kshf6f0axi.cloudfront.net/img/svgs/vocabulary-com.svg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	acampar camp familia family ect.... \| SpanishDictionary.com Answers	en	https://d1q4kshf6f0axi.c…n-production.png	SpanishDictionary.com	https://www.spanishdict.com/answers/116586/how-come-almost-every-word-in-spanish-is-the-same-as-english	Let me bore y'all with my two bits. English is a Germanic based language in which 60% of its vocabulary ir Romance in origin. (Latin by way of French). If you like etymology and language studies it's an interesting thing. When the Normans "conquered" England in 1066 it was simply a replacement of the ruling class of Anglo-Saxon descended people with French speaking Normans. (Who were originally of Norse Viking stock.) The new royal court spoke French for I think up to 100 years before they started speaking English like their subjects. An interesting phenomenon is the two-layered speech that developed in England. A "cow" (Germanic source) was out in the field. When it was slaughtered and prepared for the lord's table it bacame "beef" (boeuf, a French term). A "house" (Germanic "haus") was where the people lived while the "mansion" (maison) was where the ruling class lived. You get the idea. Elizabethian English of the 1500's was closer to French construction than what English is now. That's why Appalachian "hillbilly" speech actually harks back to the old French constructions. That's why Jethro Bodine saying, "We commenced to shootin'" is actually a direct link to the French "commencer a" (begin to). Another example would be "I heard tell" comming from the French construction "J'ai entendu dire" meaning the same thing. So, as discussed a week or so ago on this site, French and Spanish are two of the Romance languages of Southern Europe descended from Latin, with Spanish having the advantage of acquiring an added richness from 700 years of Arab rule. English in turn (in my opinion as a French Canadian descendant) has the added richness of French infusion by the Norseman. (Figure that one out!) Sorry to prattle on but it's not often I get to communicate with folks like you all who enjoy languages.
4519	dbpedia	3	12	https://news.mit.edu/2024/mit-study-polyglots-brain-processing-native-language-0310	en	For people who speak many languages, there’s something special about their native tongue	https://news.mit.edu/sit…ain-01-press.jpg	https://news.mit.edu/sit…ain-01-press.jpg	[ "https://news.mit.edu/sites/default/files/styles/news_article__download/public/download/202403/MIT-Polyglot-Brain-01-press.jpg?itok=R9G3VS0b", "https://news.mit.edu/themes/mit/src/img/placeholder/placeholder--news-article--image-gallery.jpg", "https://news.mit.edu/themes/mit/src/img/placeholder/placeholder--frontpage--featured-news.jpg", "https://news.mit.edu/themes/mit/src/img/placeholder/placeholder--frontpage--featured-news.jpg", "https://news.mit.edu/themes/mit/src/img/placeholder/placeholder--frontpage--featured-news.jpg", "https://news.mit.edu/themes/mit/src/img/placeholder/placeholder--frontpage--featured-news.jpg", "https://news.mit.edu/themes/mit/src/img/placeholder/placeholder--frontpage--featured-news.jpg", "https://news.mit.edu/themes/mit/src/img/placeholder/placeholder--frontpage--featured-news.jpg", "https://news.mit.edu/themes/mit/src/img/placeholder/placeholder--frontpage--featured-news.jpg", "https://news.mit.edu/themes/mit/src/img/placeholder/placeholder--frontpage--featured-news.jpg", "https://news.mit.edu/themes/mit/src/img/placeholder/placeholder--frontpage--featured-news.jpg", "https://news.mit.edu/themes/mit/src/img/placeholder/placeholder--frontpage--featured-news.jpg" ]	[]	[]	[ "learning languages", "polyglots", "language processing network", "Evelina Fedorenko", "Saima Malik-Moraleda" ]	null	[ "Anne Trafton", "MIT News" ]	2024-03-11T00:01:00+00:00	An MIT study of polyglots found the brain’s language network responds more strongly when hearing languages a speaker is more proficient in — and much more weakly to the speaker’s native language.	en	/themes/mit/assets/img/favicon/favicon.ico	MIT News \| Massachusetts Institute of Technology	https://news.mit.edu/2024/mit-study-polyglots-brain-processing-native-language-0310	A new study of people who speak many languages has found that there is something special about how the brain processes their native language. In the brains of these polyglots — people who speak five or more languages — the same language regions light up when they listen to any of the languages that they speak. In general, this network responds more strongly to languages in which the speaker is more proficient, with one notable exception: the speaker’s native language. When listening to one’s native language, language network activity drops off significantly. The findings suggest there is something unique about the first language one acquires, which allows the brain to process it with minimal effort, the researchers say. “Something makes it a little bit easier to process — maybe it’s that you’ve spent more time using that language — and you get a dip in activity for the native language compared to other languages that you speak proficiently,” says Evelina Fedorenko, an associate professor of neuroscience at MIT, a member of MIT’s McGovern Institute for Brain Research, and the senior author of the study. Saima Malik-Moraleda, a graduate student in the Speech and Hearing Bioscience and Technology Program at Harvard University, and Olessia Jouravlev, a former MIT postdoc who is now an associate professor at Carleton University, are the lead authors of the paper, which appears today in the journal Cerebral Cortex. Many languages, one network The brain’s language processing network, located primarily in the left hemisphere, includes regions in the frontal and temporal lobes. In a 2021 study, Fedorenko’s lab found that in the brains of polyglots, the language network was less active when listening to their native language than the language networks of people who speak only one language. In the new study, the researchers wanted to expand on that finding and explore what happens in the brains of polyglots as they listen to languages in which they have varying levels of proficiency. Studying polyglots can help researchers learn more about the functions of the language network, and how languages learned later in life might be represented differently than a native language or languages. “With polyglots, you can do all of the comparisons within one person. You have languages that vary along a continuum, and you can try to see how the brain modulates responses as a function of proficiency,” Fedorenko says. For the study, the researchers recruited 34 polyglots, each of whom had at least some degree of proficiency in five or more languages but were not bilingual or multilingual from infancy. Sixteen of the participants spoke 10 or more languages, including one who spoke 54 languages with at least some proficiency. Each participant was scanned with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) as they listened to passages read in eight different languages. These included their native language, a language they were highly proficient in, a language they were moderately proficient in, and a language in which they described themselves as having low proficiency. They were also scanned while listening to four languages they didn’t speak at all. Two of these were languages from the same family (such as Romance languages) as a language they could speak, and two were languages completely unrelated to any languages they spoke. The passages used for the study came from two different sources, which the researchers had previously developed for other language studies. One was a set of Bible stories recorded in many different languages, and the other consisted of passages from “Alice in Wonderland” translated into many languages. Brain scans revealed that the language network lit up the most when participants listened to languages in which they were the most proficient. However, that did not hold true for the participants’ native languages, which activated the language network much less than non-native languages in which they had similar proficiency. This suggests that people are so proficient in their native language that the language network doesn’t need to work very hard to interpret it. “As you increase proficiency, you can engage linguistic computations to a greater extent, so you get these progressively stronger responses. But then if you compare a really high-proficiency language and a native language, it may be that the native language is just a little bit easier, possibly because you've had more experience with it,” Fedorenko says. Brain engagement The researchers saw a similar phenomenon when polyglots listened to languages that they don’t speak: Their language network was more engaged when listening to languages related to a language that they could understand, than compared to listening to completely unfamiliar languages. “Here we’re getting a hint that the response in the language network scales up with how much you understand from the input,” Malik-Moraleda says. “We didn’t quantify the level of understanding here, but in the future we’re planning to evaluate how much people are truly understanding the passages that they're listening to, and then see how that relates to the activation.” The researchers also found that a brain network known as the multiple demand network, which turns on whenever the brain is performing a cognitively demanding task, also becomes activated when listening to languages other than one’s native language. “What we’re seeing here is that the language regions are engaged when we process all these languages, and then there’s this other network that comes in for non-native languages to help you out because it’s a harder task,” Malik-Moraleda says. In this study, most of the polyglots began studying their non-native languages as teenagers or adults, but in future work, the researchers hope to study people who learned multiple languages from a very young age. They also plan to study people who learned one language from infancy but moved to the United States at a very young age and began speaking English as their dominant language, while becoming less proficient in their native language, to help disentangle the effects of proficiency versus age of acquisition on brain responses. The research was funded by the McGovern Institute for Brain Research, MIT’s Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, and the Simons Center for the Social Brain.
4519	dbpedia	0	10	https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/two_bits	en	Wiktionary, the free dictionary	https://en.wiktionary.org/static/favicon/wiktionary/en.ico	https://en.wiktionary.org/static/favicon/wiktionary/en.ico	[ "https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1", "https://en.wiktionary.org/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg", "https://en.wiktionary.org/static/images/footer/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null		en	/static/apple-touch/wiktionary/en.png	Wiktionary	https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/two_bits	Based on the old monetary bit, which was one eighth of an old Spanish dollar (or 12½ cents in more modern usage). Audio (General Australian): two bits pl (plural only) (US, slang) Twenty-five cents, or a quarter. long bit short bit two-bit
4519	dbpedia	3	45	https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/Foreign_language_skills_statistics	en	Foreign language skills statistics			[ "https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/images/thumb/d/d8/Distribution_of_people_aged_25%E2%80%9364_by_knowledge_of_foreign_languages%2C_2007%2C_2011_and_2016_%28%25%29.png/500px-Distribution_of_people_aged_25%E2%80%9364_by_knowledge_of_foreign_languages%2C_2007%2C_2011_and_2016_%28%25%29.png", "https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/images/thumb/2/20/People_aged_25%E2%80%9364_reporting_they_knew_one_or_more_foreign_languages%2C_2016_%28%C2%B9%29_%28%25%29.png/500px-People_aged_25%E2%80%9364_reporting_they_knew_one_or_more_foreign_languages%2C_2016_%28%C2%B9%29_%28%25%29.png", "https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/images/thumb/4/43/People_reporting_they_knew_one_or_more_foreign_languages%2C_by_age%2C_2016_%28%C2%B9%29_%28%25%29.png/500px-People_reporting_they_knew_one_or_more_foreign_languages%2C_by_age%2C_2016_%28%C2%B9%29_%28%25%29.png", "https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/images/thumb/5/50/People_aged_25%E2%80%9364_reporting_they_knew_one_or_more_foreign_languages%2C_by_educational_attainment_level%2C_2016_%28%C2%B9%29_%28%25%29.png/500px-People_aged_25%E2%80%9364_reporting_they_knew_one_or_more_foreign_languages%2C_by_educational_attainment_level%2C_2016_%28%C2%B9%29_%28%25%29.png", "https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/images/thumb/4/4b/People_aged_25%E2%80%9364_reporting_they_knew_one_or_more_foreign_languages%2C_by_labour_status%2C_2016_%28%C2%B9%29_%28%25%29.png/500px-People_aged_25%E2%80%9364_reporting_they_knew_one_or_more_foreign_languages%2C_by_labour_status%2C_2016_%28%C2%B9%29_%28%25%29.png", "https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/images/thumb/a/a4/People_aged_25%E2%80%9364_reporting_they_knew_one_or_more_foreign_languages%2C_by_occupation%2C_2016_%28%C2%B9%29_%28%25%29.png/500px-People_aged_25%E2%80%9364_reporting_they_knew_one_or_more_foreign_languages%2C_by_occupation%2C_2016_%28%C2%B9%29_%28%25%29.png", "https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/images/thumb/b/bf/Distribution_of_the_level_of_command_of_the_best-known_foreign_language%2C_2007%2C_2011_and_2016.png/500px-Distribution_of_the_level_of_command_of_the_best-known_foreign_language%2C_2007%2C_2011_and_2016.png", "https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/images/thumb/f/fe/Distribution_of_the_level_of_command_of_the_best-known_foreign_language%2C_2016_%28%C2%B9%29_%28%25_of_people_aged_25%E2%80%9364_years_who_knew_at_least_one_foreign_language%29.png/500px-Distribution_of_the_level_of_command_of_the_best-known_foreign_language%2C_2016_%28%C2%B9%29_%28%25_of_people_aged_25%E2%80%9364_years_who_knew_at_least_one_foreign_language%29.png", "https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/images/thumb/3/36/Distribution_of_the_level_of_command_of_the_best-known_foreign_language%2C_EU%2C_2016_%28%25_of_people_aged_25%E2%80%9364_years_who_knew_at_least_one_foreign_language%29.png/500px-Distribution_of_the_level_of_command_of_the_best-known_foreign_language%2C_EU%2C_2016_%28%25_of_people_aged_25%E2%80%9364_years_who_knew_at_least_one_foreign_language%29.png", "https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/images/thumb/f/f0/People_aged_25%E2%80%9364_reporting_they_were_proficient_in_their_best-known_foreign_language%2C_by_age%2C_2016_%28%C2%B9%29.png/500px-People_aged_25%E2%80%9364_reporting_they_were_proficient_in_their_best-known_foreign_language%2C_by_age%2C_2016_%28%C2%B9%29.png", "https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/images/thumb/4/46/People_aged_25%E2%80%9364_reporting_they_were_proficient_in_their_best-known_foreign_language%2C_by_educational_attainment_level%2C_2016_%28%C2%B9%29.png/500px-People_aged_25%E2%80%9364_reporting_they_were_proficient_in_their_best-known_foreign_language%2C_by_educational_attainment_level%2C_2016_%28%C2%B9%29.png", "https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/images/thumb/7/75/People_aged_25%E2%80%9364_reporting_they_were_proficient_in_their_best-known_foreign_language%2C_by_labour_status%2C_2016_%28%C2%B9%29.png/500px-People_aged_25%E2%80%9364_reporting_they_were_proficient_in_their_best-known_foreign_language%2C_by_labour_status%2C_2016_%28%C2%B9%29.png", "https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/images/thumb/c/c1/People_aged_25%E2%80%9364_reporting_they_were_proficient_in_their_best-known_foreign_language%2C_by_occupation%2C_2016_%28%C2%B9%29.png/500px-People_aged_25%E2%80%9364_reporting_they_were_proficient_in_their_best-known_foreign_language%2C_by_occupation%2C_2016_%28%C2%B9%29.png", "https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/images/thumb/9/96/People_aged_25%E2%80%9364_reporting_they_were_proficient_in_their_best-known_foreign_language%2C_by_degree_of_urbanisation%2C_2016_%28%C2%B9%29.png/500px-People_aged_25%E2%80%9364_reporting_they_were_proficient_in_their_best-known_foreign_language%2C_by_degree_of_urbanisation%2C_2016_%28%C2%B9%29.png", "https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/images/0/0b/Excel.jpg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	EU statistics provide information on the number of foreign languages known and the levels of command/proficiency by age, sex, level of educational attainment, labour status and occupation.	en	/skins/common/logos/favicon.gif		https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=Foreign_language_skills_statistics	Number of foreign languages known Around two thirds of working-aged adults in the EU knew at least one foreign language In 2016, over one third (35.4 %) of the working-age adults (defined here as 25–64 year-olds) in the EU-28 reported that they did not know any foreign languages. A similar proportion (35.2 %) reported that they knew one foreign language, while just over one fifth (21.0 %) knew two foreign languages, and fewer than one tenth (8.4 %) of all working-age adults knew three or more foreign languages. An analysis by sex reveals that there was almost no gender gap in relation to foreign language skills. In 2016, a slightly higher share of men did not know any foreign languages or knew only one foreign language (both 36.1 %) compared with the corresponding share for women (34.8 % and 34.3 % respectively). However, the share of women who knew two foreign languages (22.1 %) was 2.2 percentage points higher than that for men, and the share of women who knew three or more foreign languages (8.9 %) was also higher than that recorded for men (7.9 %). What constitutes a foreign language? Interest in foreign language skills centres on the ability of Europeans to communicate in an efficient way: with information collected in relation to the most commonly used languages and levels of language competence/skill. When conducting the adult education survey (AES) respondents are asked to name the language(s) they use as their mother tongue. They are subsequently asked to provide information on other languages that they may know. A ‘mother tongue’ is understood to mean the first language learned at home in childhood and still understood by the individual at the time of the adult education survey (AES). In bilingual homes, the language of either the father or of the mother could be the most dominant, in the sense that it is used for in-house communication, or it could be that both the languages of the mother and father are used, in which case the respondent has more than one ‘mother tongue’. Note there are cases among the EU Member States where there is more than one ‘official language’ — for example, in Belgium there are three (German, French and Dutch). However, it is not necessarily the case that these official languages coincide with the ‘mother tongue(s)’ of the respondent and if they only speak one of these at home, then the others are considered (for the purpose of this article) as foreign languages. In a similar vein, a relatively large proportion of people living in the EU were not born in the Member State where they are resident. Many of these people may well have a different mother tongue from the official language(s) where they are resident, for example, a person who has Russian as their mother tongue living in the United Kingdom. When the survey is conducted this person should reply that Russian is their ‘mother tongue’, while (for the purpose of this article) English would be considered as a foreign language (given the respondent had some knowledge of the English language). It is important to note that — in spite of the existence of these rules to be applied when collecting the AES data — countries may also implement national preferences when building their questionnaires. The following specificity in particular has been reported to Eurostat about the national collection of foreign languages: Slovakian was not considered as a foreign language in the Czech survey up to the AES 2011, while Czech is considered as a foreign language in all waves of the Slovakian survey. More than half of the adult working-age population in Luxembourg knew three or more foreign languages The extent of multilingualism differed considerably between the EU Member States. The share of the adult working-age population who reported that they knew three or more foreign languages peaked at 51.2 % in Luxembourg, while the next highest shares were recorded in Finland (44.9 %) and Slovenia (37.7 %). In contrast, less than 3.0 % of the adult working-age populations of Greece, Hungary, Poland and Romania reported that they knew three or more foreign languages. In 2016, more than half of the adult working-age populations of Bulgaria (50.5 %), Hungary (57.6 %), Romania (64.2 %) and the United Kingdom (65.4 %) reported that they did not know any foreign language. In contrast, there were eight EU Member States in 2016 where less than 10.0 % of the population reported that they knew no foreign languages. Among these, the lowest share was recorded in Sweden, where less than 4.0 % reported that they did not know any foreign language. Upwards of 9 out of every 10 individuals of working-age knew at least one foreign language in the Nordic Member States and the Baltic Member States as well as in Luxembourg and Malta In 16 EU Member States, more than three quarters of the adult working-age population reported that they knew at least one foreign language in 2016. At least 9 out of every 10 adults of working-age reported that they knew at least one foreign language in Sweden (96.6 %), Latvia (95.7 %), Denmark (95.7 %), Lithuania (95.6 %), Luxembourg (94.5 %), Finland (92.1 %), Malta (91.8 %) and Estonia (91.2 %). Figure 1 provides an analysis of the extent of multilingualism in the EU Member States. The very high proportion of working-age adults in Luxembourg who reported speaking at least three foreign languages may, at least in part, reflect the local administrative (where there are three official languages) and education systems (where most pupils receive instruction in Luxembourgish, German and French at a primary level of education, with English and other languages being introduced at secondary level). Luxembourg also has a high share of foreign nationals working in an international environment: in 2016, some 57.7 % of the resident population aged 25–64 was born in a foreign country. Some of the other EU Member States that displayed high degrees of multilingualism in 2016 are characterised by their geographical and linguistic proximity. For example, it is relatively common for people from some of the Nordic, Baltic, and eastern EU Member States to understand the languages of some of their neighbours. Some Member States have more than one official language: for example, there are three in Belgium (German, French and Dutch) and two in Finland (Finnish and Swedish), while minority languages exist in others, for example, in Slovenia the official language is Slovenian, with Italian and Hungarian considered as co-official languages. Analysis of those knowing one or more foreign languages There appears to be a clear generation gap favouring younger people in relation to self-reported foreign language skills. Figure 2 presents information related to those people who reported they knew at least one foreign language with an analysis by age group. Younger people tended to report greater foreign language skills … In 2016, about three quarters (73.3 %) of the EU’s population aged 25–34 reported that they knew at least one foreign language. This share fell for each successive age group, with the lowest proportion recorded among those aged 55–64. Nevertheless, more than half (55.1 %) of the age group 55–64 declared that they knew at least one foreign language. This gap between the generations was most pronounced among those EU Member States that reported a relatively low share of their adult working-age populations knowing at least one foreign language. In Greece, 86.6 % of the population who were aged 25–34 reported that they knew at least one foreign language, compared to 40.4 % among those aged 55–64 — a difference of 46.2 percentage points. Based on the same comparison (between the youngest and oldest age groups), there were also considerable generation gaps (33–39 percentage points difference) in foreign language skills in Croatia, Hungary, Portugal and Romania. In contrast, this gap between the generations was relatively small in those EU Member States where a high proportion of the adult working-age population knew at least one foreign language. Lithuania was the only EU Member State where the share of the older generation (those aged 55–64) who knew at least one foreign language was higher than the corresponding share for the youngest age group (those aged 25–34), with a gap of 0.3 percentage points. In Lithuania and Latvia (and Estonia to a lesser degree), the relatively high proportion of older persons who speak at least one foreign language may reflect the fact that the older generations learnt Russian, whereas the younger generations learnt English. … as did those with a tertiary level of education … Aside from a generational gap, there also appears to be an educational gap in relation to foreign language skills as shown for the adult working-age population (25–64 years-old) in Figure 3. In 2016, more than 8 out of 10 (82.5 %) people in the EU who had completed a tertiary level of education (ISCED 2011 levels 5 to 8) reported that they knew at least one foreign language. The corresponding share among those with an intermediate level of education (ISCED levels 3 and 4) was approximately two thirds (63.1 %), falling to 41.7 % among those with a low level of education (ISCED levels 0 to 2). In 2016, more than 90 % of the adult working-age population with a tertiary level of education knew at least one foreign language in the majority of the EU Member States. Some 75–87 % of those with a tertiary level of education knew at least one foreign language in all but two of the remaining Member States. In the United Kingdom less than half (45.9 %) of this subgroup knew at least one foreign language, and in Ireland it was less than two thirds (64.8 %). In 2016, there were seven EU Member States where at least three quarters of the adult working-age population with a low level of education reported that they knew at least one foreign language. In contrast, there were 13 Member States where less than half of the population with a low level of education knew at least one foreign language, a share that fell to less than 10 % in Romania and Hungary. As for the analysis by age, the gap in foreign language skills between the different levels of education was most pronounced for those EU Member States which had a relatively low share of their adult working-age populations knowing at least one foreign language. This was particularly true in Greece, Croatia, Poland, Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania, where the share of the population with a tertiary level of education who reported they knew at least one foreign language was 63–78 percentage points higher than the corresponding share among those with a low level of education. … and those who were in employment Figure 4 provides an analysis with a breakdown according to labour status. In 2016, 68.0 % of the EU’s adult working-age population who were employed reported that they knew at least one foreign language. This proportion fell among those who were unemployed to 58.6 %, while the corresponding share among inactive persons — those outside of the labour force — was 54.9 %. These figures may support the view that, at least for some jobs, employers are keen to engage people who have some foreign language skills, or to promote the learning of foreign languages as part of a training strategy for their staff. The gap in foreign language skills between people in different labour market situations was most pronounced for those EU Member States which had a relatively low share of their adult working-age populations (aged 25–64) knowing at least one foreign language. In 2016, more than four fifths of the inactive people in Romania did not know any foreign language, while there were ten other EU Member States where more than half of the inactive population reported no foreign language skills. Just over half of the unemployed persons in Spain did not know a foreign language, while in Hungary this share rose to around three quarters of the unemployed. The United Kingdom, Romania and Hungary were the only EU Member States to report that less than half of those in employment (aged 25–64) knew at least one foreign language. By contrast, there were ten EU Member States where more than 9 out of 10 employed persons knew at least one foreign language, with this share passing above 95 % in Luxembourg, Denmark, Latvia, Lithuania and Sweden. A high proportion of managers, professionals, technicians and associate professionals declared that they knew at least one foreign language The final analysis presented in this section relates to the proportion of people aged 25–64 who reported they knew at least one foreign language, broken down by occupation. In 2016, 79.3 % of all managers, professionals, technicians and associate professionals in the EU-28 knew at least one foreign language. Corresponding shares were also relatively high among clerical support, service and sales workers (66.7 %), whereas approximately half of those employed as skilled manual workers (53.4 %) or in elementary occupations (48.7 %) knew at least one foreign language; the latter group covers those providing domestic help, cleaners, refuse collectors, as well as those who manually assemble components, sort, pack or deliver goods. A majority of the managers, professionals, technicians and associate professionals working in each of the EU Member States reported that they knew at least one foreign language. In contrast, there were eight EU Member States where more than half of the skilled manual workers did not know any foreign language (the highest share being in Romania, at 76.4 %), and there were nine EU Member States where more than half of those with an elementary occupation did not know any foreign language (the highest share was in Romania, at 85.4 %). The biggest gaps in foreign language skills between occupations tended to be observed in those EU Member States which had a relatively low share of their adult working-age populations knowing at least one foreign language. Level of command of best known foreign language The following section examines the level of command, or proficiency, of foreign language skills within the EU. Note that the data presented refers to self-reported proficiency for those who knew at least one foreign language. Furthermore, the measure of proficiency is given only in relation to the best-known foreign language in those cases where a person knows more than one foreign language. The share of those declaring they were proficient in their best-known foreign language increased between 2007 and 2016 … In the EU, almost one quarter (24.8 %) of working-age adults who knew at least one foreign language reported that they knew their best-known foreign language at a proficient level. Table 2 presents the level of foreign language skills among adults of working-age in 2007, 2011 and 2016. Within the EU, the share who declared that they were proficient in their best-known foreign language rose by 3.4 and 1.1 percentage points respectively over the two periods under consideration, from 20.3 % in 2007. There was a larger increase between 2007 and 2011 in the proportion of people in the EU who declared they were good at their best-known foreign language, as this share rose from approximately one quarter (24.3 %) to one third (32.4 %) but this share decreased between 2011 and 2016 by 2.1 percentage points. In contrast, the proportion of working-age adults who declared they were basic in their best-known foreign language fell from 51.3 % to 43.4 % between 2007 and 2011 and rose again to 44.6 % in 2016. … but the situation is quite different from one country to another … Between 2007 and 2016 the share of working-age adults who declared that they were proficient in their best-known foreign language fell in 5 out of the 23 EU Member States for which data are available (see Table 2 for coverage); the largest reductions were recorded in Latvia and Slovakia. In contrast, there was a relatively fast increase in the share of individuals who declared that they were proficient in their best-known foreign language in Sweden (note there is a break in series; see ‘Data sources and availability’ for more details), Bulgaria and Finland. In 2016, almost three quarters (65.5 %) of the population in Luxembourg declared that they were proficient in their best-known foreign language (see Figure 6). Sweden (59.7 %) and Malta (50.9 %) were the only other EU Member States to report that more than half of their working-age populations declared they were proficient in their best-known foreign language. In contrast, there were five EU Member States in 2016 where fewer than one fifth of the individuals who knew at least one foreign language declared that they were proficient in their best-known foreign language: France, Poland, Romania, Czechia and Italy (where the lowest share was recorded, at 10.8 %). Analysis of those who consider themselves proficient in their best known foreign language Figure 7, on the one hand, provides an overview for the EU of the different analyses of foreign language proficiency. Figures 8–12, on the other, provide information for the EU Member States. Focusing on those individuals aged 25–64 in the EU who spoke at least one foreign language in 2016, the highest degrees of foreign language proficiency by sex, age, level of education, labour market status, occupation and degree of urbanisation were recorded for those who were male, young (25–34 years-old), tertiary-educated, employed, occupied as a manager, professional, technician or associate professional and living in a city. A higher proportion of people aged 25–34 were proficient in their best-known foreign language … In 2016, the share of individuals who reported that they were proficient in their best-known foreign language was generally higher among younger age groups. For the whole of the EU, more than one quarter (30.1 %) of the population aged 25–34 reported that they were proficient in their best-known foreign language, compared with only 18.7 % of the population aged 55–64. This pattern was repeated across most of the EU Member States. The highest share of foreign language proficiency was recorded for those aged 25–34 in all but six of the EU Member States. The exceptions were Slovenia, Belgium, France, the United Kingdom, Lithuania and Latvia. At the other end of the range, those aged 55–64 recorded the lowest shares of foreign language proficiency in all but two of the EU Member States; the only exceptions were Greece and Lithuania. … a pattern that was repeated for those with a tertiary level of education … Across the EU there was a clear link between foreign language proficiency and levels of educational attainment. This may, at least in part, be explained by some tertiary students improving their foreign language proficiency as a result of having to continue their foreign language studies during tertiary education, while others may choose or be required to follow courses whose instruction is given in a foreign language. In 2016, more than one third (35.4 %) of the EU’s working-age population with a tertiary level of education reported that they were proficient in their best-known foreign language. This was almost twice as high as the share of proficient linguists recorded among those with an intermediate level of education or with a low level of education (17.8 % and 17.1 % respectively). An analysis across the EU Member States shows that the share of individuals who reported that they were proficient in their best-known foreign language was consistently higher among those with a tertiary level of education, irrespective of whether a comparison was made against those with an intermediate or even lower level of education. This pattern held across each of the EU Member States. This educational gap was particularly evident in Malta where the share of individuals who reported that they were proficient in their best-known foreign language was more than 40 percentage points higher for those with a tertiary level of education than for those with a low level of education. The largest differences in linguistic proficiency between those with a tertiary and an intermediate level of education were recorded in Greece, Austria and Cyprus. … those who were employed ... Figure 10 shows that employed persons tended to have a higher level of foreign language proficiency. In 2016, one quarter (25.7 %) of those aged 25–64 in the EU who were employed and who knew at least one foreign language reported that they were proficient in their best-known foreign language. The corresponding shares recorded for unemployed persons and inactive persons (22.2 % each) were somewhat lower. In a majority of the EU Member States, it was common to find that employed persons had the highest level of foreign language proficiency when compared with the shares recorded among unemployed and inactive persons of the same age. In 2016, the gap in levels of foreign language proficiency between people with different labour market status was most pronounced for those EU Member States which had the highest levels of proficiency. This was particularly true in Luxembourg, Malta, Cyprus, Latvia and Lithuania, where the share of employed individuals who reported that they were proficient in their best-known foreign language was 15–26 percentage points higher than the lowest share (recorded either for the unemployed or for inactive persons). There were however some exceptions to this general pattern, as there were six EU Member States where a higher share of unemployed people (rather than employed people) reported that they were proficient in their best-known foreign language; this was the case in Portugal, the Netherlands, Denmark, France, Ireland and the United Kingdom. In a similar vein, more than one quarter (29.3 %) of the inactive persons in Germany reported that they were proficient in their best-known foreign-language, which was 2.0 percentage points higher than the share recorded among employed persons. Figure 11 presents information relating to the share of working-age adults who reported that they were proficient in their best-known foreign language, with an analysis by occupation. In 2016, the highest share (31.8 %) of foreign language proficiency in the EU was recorded for managers, professionals, technicians and associate professionals. This was considerably higher than for the other three groups of occupations shown in Figure 11, as around one fifth of those employed in elementary occupations (20.2 %) and clerical support, service and sales (20.6 %) reported that they were proficient in their best-known foreign language, while this share fell to 15.6 % among skilled manual workers. … and those who lived in cities Figure 12 shows that persons living in cities reported a higher share of being proficient in their best-known foreign language that those living in towns and suburbs and in rural areas (30.1 %, 22.7 % and 17.0 % respectively) in the EU in 2016. The same pattern (highest in cities and lowest in rural areas) was found in 22 EU Member States. Ireland, Luxembourg and the United Kingdom have highest shares in cities but lowest shares in towns and suburbs while Malta and Latvia recorded their highest shares in towns and suburbs. Lastly, Spain is the only Member State with the highest share in rural areas. In 2016, the gap in levels of foreign language proficiency between people living in areas with different degrees of urbanisation was more pronounced in Lithuania, Denmark, Cyprus and Finland (from 20 to 24 percentage points), and peaking at 33.8 percentage points in Austria. Source data for tables and graphs Foreign language skills: tables and figures Data sources Key concepts Within the adult education survey (AES) of 2011, three levels of foreign language knowledge were identified: Basic — “I can understand and use the most common everyday expressions. I use the language in relation to familiar things and situations”; Good — “I can understand the essential of clear language and produce simple text. I can describe experiences and events and communicate fairly fluently”; Proficient — “I can understand a wide range of demanding texts and use the language flexibly. I master the language almost completely”. Note that the AES of 2007 and 2016 had a fourth level of foreign language knowledge: Very basic — “I only understand and can use a few words”. In order to facilitate comparisons between 2007/2016 and 2011 the information collected for this fourth category in 2007 and 2016 has been added to the category covering ‘basic’. Data source The adult education survey (AES) is the source of all information in this article. Among others, the AES provides information on self-reported foreign language skills, in contrast to foreign language qualifications that may be obtained within the formal education system or from specialist language schools. The AES focuses on people aged 25–64. Three waves of the AES have been implemented so far, in 2007, 2011 and 2016. The 2007 AES was a pilot exercise and was carried out on a voluntary basis, while the 2011 and 2016 AES were underpinned by a legal act (Commission Regulation (EU) No 823/2010 and Commission Regulation (EU) No 1175/2014). Specific breaks in series related to self-reported language skills: two countries in particular reported a methodological break between the 2007 AES and the 2011 AES. Belgium: the 2007 AES was a stand-alone self-completion survey and people that have participated in education and training activities were more inclined to answer the questionnaire (non-participants would more easily tend to not send any response). Therefore the profile of the respondents was slightly specific ('active learners') which could have led to a bias in the share of people knowing foreign languages. In the 2011 AES, the intervention of interviewers explaining the purpose of the questionnaire before self-completion lead to a better representativeness of the whole population which can account for a lower share for people being able to speak foreign languages. 2016 AES was again implemented as a stand-alone survey. Czechia: up to the 2011 AES, Slovakian was not considered as a foreign language in the Czech survey. On the other hand Czech is considered as a foreign language in the Slovakian survey in all waves. Note on symbols used in tables The colon (‘:’) is used to show where data are not available. Context The modern world is increasingly characterised by interactions that extend well beyond the confines of national borders. Within the EU, this development can be seen for example in the single market and the free movement of individuals. On a wider scale, globalisation, economic growth in developing economies, and improved transport infrastructure have resulted, among others, in a considerable shift in world trading patterns and a higher proportion of the world’s population being able to visit other countries, whether for business, pleasure or other reasons. Language and cultural barriers are two aspects which restrict the level of geographic mobility within the EU. By contrast, foreign language skills have the potential to increase the mobility, employability and personal development of Europeans. Indeed, they can give individuals a competitive advantage in labour markets: this is particularly true for those working in senior management, multinational firms or sales and marketing. English language skills are well-established as an important (business) skill, and English is by far the most widely-spoken foreign language in the EU. Alongside the importance of English, in a world of increasing international exchanges, the ability to speak other foreign languages is of particular importance in large markets where there is relatively little English spoken — for example, in China, Brazil or Russia. In September 2008, the European Commission adopted a Communication titled ‘Multilingualism: an asset for Europe and a shared commitment’ (COM(2008) 566 final), which was followed in November 2008 by a Council Resolution on a European strategy for multilingualism (2008/C 320/01). These addressed languages in the wider context of social cohesion and prosperity and focused on actions to encourage and assist citizens in acquiring language skills. The Resolution invited the EU Member States and the European Commission to: promote multilingualism with a view to strengthening social cohesion, intercultural dialogue and European construction; strengthen lifelong language learning; promote (better) multilingualism as a factor in the European economy’s competitiveness and people’s mobility and employability; promote linguistic diversity and intercultural dialogue by increasing assistance for translation, in order to encourage the circulation of works and the dissemination of ideas and knowledge in Europe and across the world; promote EU languages across the world. The strategic framework for European cooperation in education and training (ET 2020) provides a common set of objectives for EU Member States and seeks to: enable citizens to communicate in two languages in addition to their mother tongue; promote language teaching in vocational education and training (VET) and for adult learners; give migrants the opportunity to learn the language of their host country. ‘Rethinking education: investing in skills for better socio-economic outcomes’ (COM(2012) 0669 final) was adopted by the European Commission in 2012. It promotes a range of ideas, including that the ability to speak a foreign language: is an important factor for competitiveness; is an important attribute for those seeking work; may remove an obstacle to free movement. The Communication also called on several EU Member States to improve their capacity for providing adequate teaching resources for basic skills (that include numeracy, literacy and foreign languages). A European Commission staff working document titled Language competences for employability, mobility and growth (SWD(2012) 372 final) accompanied the release of the ‘Rethinking education’ Communication. One section of the document looked at foreign language skills as a means for enhancing employability, mobility and growth. It emphasised the importance of raising the general level of foreign language skills, broadening the range of foreign languages taught, and re-orienting teaching content towards professional purposes.
4519	dbpedia	2	3	https://paizo.com/threads/rzs2ut43%3FSpeaking-with-Tongues	en	Forums / Pathfinder First Edition: General Discussion: Speaking with Tongues			[ "https://cdn.paizo.com/image/navigation/Personal-Cart.png", "https://cdn.paizo.com/image/navigation/Personal-Help.png", "https://paizo.com/image/button/rss.png", "https://paizo.com/image/button/facebook.png", "https://paizo.com/image/button/twitter.png", "https://paizo.com/image/button/email.png", "https://paizo.com/WebObjects/Frameworks/Ajax.framework/WebServerResources/wait30.gif", "https://paizo.com/WebObjects/Frameworks/Ajax.framework/WebServerResources/wait30.gif", "https://paizo.com/image/content/PathfinderSociety/GrandLodge_itsy.png", "https://cdn.paizo.com/image/avatar/Boatsman.jpg", "https://paizo.com/WebObjects/Frameworks/Ajax.framework/WebServerResources/wait30.gif", "https://paizo.com/WebObjects/Frameworks/Ajax.framework/WebServerResources/wait30.gif", "https://paizo.com/image/content/PathfinderSociety/SilverCrusade_itsy.png", "https://cdn.paizo.com/image/avatar/A4-scoring1.jpg", "https://paizo.com/WebObjects/Frameworks/Ajax.framework/WebServerResources/wait30.gif", "https://cdn.paizo.com/image/avatar/PZO9280-Android_500.jpeg", "https://paizo.com/WebObjects/Frameworks/Ajax.framework/WebServerResources/wait30.gif", "https://cdn.paizo.com/image/avatar/PZO9519-Olvan.jpg", "https://paizo.com/WebObjects/Frameworks/Ajax.framework/WebServerResources/wait30.gif", "https://cdn.paizo.com/image/avatar/PZO9280-Android_500.jpeg", "https://paizo.com/WebObjects/Frameworks/Ajax.framework/WebServerResources/wait30.gif", "https://paizo.com/image/content/PathfinderSociety/SilverCrusade_itsy.png", "https://cdn.paizo.com/image/avatar/A4-scoring1.jpg", "https://paizo.com/WebObjects/Frameworks/Ajax.framework/WebServerResources/wait30.gif", "https://paizo.com/WebObjects/Frameworks/Ajax.framework/WebServerResources/wait30.gif", "https://cdn.paizo.com/image/avatar/PZO1126-Seltyiel_500.jpeg", "https://paizo.com/WebObjects/Frameworks/Ajax.framework/WebServerResources/wait30.gif", "https://cdn.paizo.com/image/avatar/PZO9280-Android_500.jpeg", "https://paizo.com/WebObjects/Frameworks/Ajax.framework/WebServerResources/wait30.gif", "https://paizo.com/WebObjects/Frameworks/Ajax.framework/WebServerResources/wait30.gif", "https://cdn.paizo.com/image/avatar/PZO9280-Android_500.jpeg", "https://paizo.com/WebObjects/Frameworks/Ajax.framework/WebServerResources/wait30.gif", "https://paizo.com/image/content/PathfinderSociety/SilverCrusade_itsy.png", "https://cdn.paizo.com/image/avatar/A4-scoring1.jpg", "https://paizo.com/WebObjects/Frameworks/Ajax.framework/WebServerResources/wait30.gif", "https://cdn.paizo.com/image/avatar/PZO9280-Android_500.jpeg", "https://paizo.com/WebObjects/Frameworks/Ajax.framework/WebServerResources/wait30.gif", "https://paizo.com/image/content/PathfinderSociety/SilverCrusade_itsy.png", "https://cdn.paizo.com/image/avatar/PZO9443-Alain.jpg", "https://cdn.paizo.com/image/navigation/Nav-Logo-Global.png", "https://cdn.paizo.com/image/navigation/Social-Facebook.png", "https://cdn.paizo.com/image/navigation/Social-Twitter.png", "https://cdn.paizo.com/image/navigation/Social-Twitch.png", "https://cdn.paizo.com/image/navigation/Social-Instagram.png", "https://cdn.paizo.com/image/navigation/Social-YouTube.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	2018-01-04T08:20:43+00:00					null	We all know how Tongues and Comprehend Languages are meant to work: PCs can read any non-magical language or speak to any creature and avoid having the game grind to a halt while they play charades or visit libraries and scholars. That's fine but what I am interested in is the limits of the spells and how they might fail or give misleading results. How faithful is the translation? To what extent do they convey cultural content? For instance, in Norway for many years, and to an extent today, 'krigen' (lit. 'the war') referred to WWII unless context made it clear you were speaking of some other war. Would Tongues pick up on this and convey it correctly or would the listener have to ask which war? Would Gandalf have instantly understood the door of Moria was "say 'friend', and enter" if he had cast CL instead of relying on this knowledge of Sindarin? Are homonyms/homographs explained? Do the spells explain puns and double entendres? Could you understand the multi-layer meanings of, e.g. certain Japanese poems? Are idioms, common sayings and memes translated and explained? Will words that have different meanings of the same word at different points in time be explained? If my group is anything to go by, everything is just translated into our native tongue and whatever linguistic oddities and uncertainties there are are magically translated into our tongue with all its cultural flavors and biases or ignored. This is because even if people know more than one language, thinking of translations and the problems of two or more in a general sense is something they don't usually do. Is this something anyone else has thought about? pauljathome wrote: You do realize that you're getting into very deep philosophical and linguistic issues, right? That's the point. I know how and why the spells are intended to work, I usually use them as intended, I just want to think and get input on a more detailed and consequential level. pauljathome wrote: There is no such thing as a perfect translation of any significant work from one language to another. Some information is nearly ALWAYS lost. There is a reason that real scholars of works like the Bible go back to the oldest texts that they can find. I know. I speak more than one language and have a smattering of a couple more. I have studied philology and etymology and semantics, that's why I made this thread. I'm trying to figure out to what degree and how these spells translate stuff. pauljathome wrote: I think that the spells are assumed to be as good as a professional translator would be. Good enough for most practical purposes. What's a professional translator? Someone who gets paid to do it? You get all sorts of horrible Engrish from 'professionals'. Proper translations have to take into account a lot of stuff beyond dictionary definitions. Take Gaiman's "American Gods": because the French for Wednesday isn't a variant of 'Odin's day', the whole bit about "it's my day so call me Wednesday" wouldn't make sense and they had to rename him and rewrite the scene. Now you could easily say this is exactly the sort of thing the spells would miss and you'd get "it's my do so call me Mercredi". Then you'd have to do some digging into the languages proper and culture to get the right god, if this if it were a plot point in some game, but why would it fail to do that but still manage to get idioms, metaphors and ellipsis? pauljathome wrote: How they'd work on what is essentially a riddle in the "Speak friend and enter" is up to GM interpretation. Personally, I'd probably handle that as a linguistics check with a bonus if you spoke the language. I know it's up to GM interpretation. I'm trying to interpret it. I'm trying to get a handle on how these spells work so I can give consistent interpretations instead of just doing whatever is convenient for me at any given time. Claxon wrote: Yeah the Moria riddle would only get you the literal translation of the elvish, "Speak/Say friend and enter". Both are correct, and sense this is a made up language it's hard to know which is more correct. But translating an ambiguous statement to an unambiguous one because of the necessities of the target language is the problem. The spell would either have to make a choice about which sense to use, or it will have to give specific knowledge the problem, which basically solves the issue. In the case of the Moria inscription, if Gandalf had used CL and the fact that the tricky verb could be transitive or intransitive, he'd have the right answer right then and there. The problem came about because he was stuck thinking about one possible solution and forgetting the other. Claxon wrote: Regardless, there's totally room for Comprehend Language to only give you the literal meaning of something and provide no useful context. I lean heavily this way, but there is still the problem of dead metaphors and phrases which have lost their poetic meaning and became standard meanings in their own right. Failing to translate these would still leave many texts partially unreadable, and would indicate that the spell can't do synonyms. And assuming the spells can't do metaphorical language but can do dead metaphors, how will it translate stuff that has the same form but different states of metaphorical 'life' due to differing ages? There is also the problem of grammar and phrasing. The spell has to do more than mere word substitution to be of much use to anyone who doesn't have a general understanding of linguistics and the source language. It has to get the grammar of the target language mostly right, so we can end up with the spell making choices about the source text that are misleading. Japanese, for instance, can omit things like subjects, objects and other grammatical elements which are mostly necessary in English, which leads us to question whether the spell can correctly supply the missing elements, will it be forced to make choices which may give the wrong impression, will it fail entirely? In the case of ambiguities, will you get the same result if you cast the spell multiple times? Will other people get the same result as you? Claxon wrote: A great example I can think of is the Chinese jia you (加油). The literal meaning is "add fuel" or more specifically to "fill a car with gasoline". But the general usage of the phrase is actually encouragement, meaning something along the lines of "You can do it!". Exactly! But if this is such a common phrase that it literally in the minds of Chinese speakers (which language, btw?) it means 'you can do it' and they don't think of the literal meanings of the composite words, then isn't the meaning of the phrase 'you can do it', rather than 'to fill with gasoline'? JoeElf wrote: Or for simplicity, you could say "no language in game has homonyms or idioms that the characters can't figure out once someone has access to the language." There's really no reason to hamstring the adventure by playing that every language is roughly equivalent to English in its [not "it's"] use of confusing homonyms too [not "to" or "two"]. Of course, if you want to make every conversation require not only a language spell, but also some Linguistics check, feel free. I'm not doing this thread for simplicity's sake. I could just say all game languages are glosses of Norwegian or English and be done with it, but that is boring and actively unfun. I don't hamstring adventures with this either. I'm trying to figure out how to have the fun of many languages and their quirks without making it unfun for my players and not just handwaving everything away. I'm lucky in that my players tend to load up on Linguistics so they can usually handle most languages they come across, but magic is sometimes necessary and always makes me ask 'how is it doing this?'. If I can figure out how CL and T work and what their limits are, I can add more fun linguistic elements (especially linguistic, cultural and historical research) into certain adventures without going 'I cast one low-level spell and solve it all'. Because that's what we've been doing so far. The point of the spells (as I've already noted) is not to bog down the game with pointless communication problems of being stuck when all you want to know is which way is north. If communication isn't meant to be a plot point, the spells work fine. If communication and understanding of intricacies is important, the spells need some better definition of abilities.
4519	dbpedia	3	44	https://www.fullstackacademy.com/blog/nine-best-programming-languages-to-learn	en	The 9 Best Programming Languages to Learn in 2024	https://fsa2-assets.imgi….3.1&q=82&w=1200	https://fsa2-assets.imgi….3.1&q=82&w=1200	[ "https://no-cache.hubspot.com/cta/default/2972642/d31f219e-086d-43ce-b6f9-1cb48b86b0a0.png", "https://fsa2-assets.imgix.net/assets/laptop-coding-terminal.jpg?auto=compress%2Cformat&crop=focalpoint&domain=fsa2-assets.imgix.net&fit=crop&fp-x=0.5&fp-y=0.5&h=558&ixlib=php-3.3.0&w=992", "https://fsa2-assets.imgix.net/assets/New-blog/Which-Programming-Language-to-Learn-Based-on-Your-Career-Goals-2023.jpg?auto=compress%2Cformat&crop=focalpoint&domain=fsa2-assets.imgix.net&fit=crop&fp-x=0.5&fp-y=0.5&h=1200&ixlib=php-3.3.1&w=1200", "https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/fsa2-assets/assets/New-blog/Which-Programming-Language-to-Learn-Based-on-Your-Career-Goals-Table-2024_2024-07-18-132114_rolj.jpg", "https://www.fullstackacademy.com/dist/img/logo_firefox.png", "https://www.fullstackacademy.com/dist/img/logo_chrome.png", "https://www.fullstackacademy.com/dist/img/logo_edge.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	2018-06-07T17:27:00-04:00	When you’re new to programming, it’s tough to know where to start. To help narrow the field, here are 9 of the most in-demand programming languages.	en	/favicon-32x32.png	Fullstack Academy	https://www.fullstackacademy.com/blog/nine-best-programming-languages-to-learn	Last Updated 10/24/2023 If you’re new to the field of software development, the toughest part of learning programming is deciding where to begin. There are hundreds of programming languages in widespread use, each with its own complexities and idiosyncrasies. The good news is that as you begin your journey as a software developer, you’ll start to discover which programming language will be most suitable for you, your interests, and your career goals. In this article, we’ll go over the best and most in-demand programming languages for many common use cases and career paths, including web development, mobile development, game development, and more. Best Programming Languages With over 700 programming languages to choose from, you’re likely wondering which programming language is the best to learn. Your choice will ultimately depend on your skill level, career goals, and which languages employers are using in their organizations. To help you get started, here are the 10 best programming languages to learn in 2024. 1. JavaScript With increasing demand for dynamic web applications, it’s nearly impossible to become a professional software developer without learning JavaScript. According to Stack Overflow's 2023 Developer's Survey, JavaScript is the most popular language among developers for the eleventh year in a row. Nearly 64% of survey respondents reported that they had used JavaScript in the past year. Along with HTML and CSS, JavaScript is essential to front-end web development. A majority of the web’s most popular sites, from Facebook and Twitter to Gmail and YouTube, rely on JavaScript to create interactive web pages and dynamically display content to users. Due to its flexibility, JavaScript has many possible applications. Although it’s primarily a front-end language run on the browser, it can be used on the server-side through Node.js to build scalable network applications. Node.js is compatible with Linux, SunOS, Mac OS X, and Windows. Through the use of specialized frameworks, like React Mobile and Electron, JavaScript can also be used for mobile app and desktop software development. Because JavaScript has a forgiving, flexible syntax and works across all major browsers, it is also one of the friendliest programming languages for beginners. At Fullstack Academy, we chose to focus our curriculum on Javascript back in 2013. Today, as a leader in the tech education space, Fullstack Academy continues to primarily teach full stack JavaScript across all our coding bootcamps for 2024—including our Software Engineering Immersive and Grace Hopper Program for women and nonbinary coders. 2. Python Python is perhaps the most user-friendly programming language of any on this list. It’s often said that Python’s syntax is clear, intuitive, and almost English-like, which makes it a popular choice for beginners. Python has a variety of applications that make it a versatile, powerful option when choosing the best programming language for your use case. If you’re interested in back-end web development, for example, then the open-source Django framework, written in Python, is popular, easy to learn, and feature-rich. Django has been used in the development of some popular sites like Mozilla, Instagram, and Spotify. Python also has packages such as NumPy and SciPy that are commonly used in the fields of scientific computing, mathematics, and engineering. Other Python libraries such as TensorFlow, PyTorch, scikit-learn, and OpenCV are used to build programs in data science, machine learning, image processing, and computer vision. Python's science and data applications make it a great choice for the academically inclined. 3. SQL Along with Python, SQL programming is essential to efficiently using data in web applications. Unlike other coding languages on our list, though, SQL specifically enables the storage, extraction, and manipulation of data within an existing database. As the primary database programming language, SQL has its own markup that must be learned to query a database effectively. Programmers interested in working with apps that utilize intensive-use databases like social media platforms, payment processors, and music libraries should consider learning SQL. For prospective data professionals, SQL familiarity is usually a must-have skill for roles like database administrator, data analyst, and QA engineer. 4. TypeScript Over the last several years, TypeScript has grown in popularity, with close to 40% of developers using the programming language, according to Stack Overflow's 2023 Developer's Survey. According to the TypeScript website, several well-known companies are utilizing the programming language, including Google, Airbnb, and Slack. Once you learn JavaScript, TypeScript is simple to learn. The open-source programming language builds on JavaScript and works in any environment that runs JavaScript. One of the biggest benefits of TypeScript is its ability to help speed up development by finding errors before the JavaScript code is even run. 5. Rust Rust is a bit of an upstart among the other languages on this list, but that doesn’t mean it’s not a valuable language to learn. Stack Overflow’s 2023 Developer's Survey found that Rust was the most loved programming language among developers for the eighth year in a row, with 80 percent of Rust developers saying that they want to continue working with it. Developed by the Mozilla Corporation, Rust, like C and C++, is intended primarily for low-level systems programming. What Rust adds to the mix, however, is an emphasis on speed and security. Rust emphasizes writing “safe code” by preventing programs from accessing parts of memory that they shouldn’t, which can cause unexpected behavior and system crashes. The advantages of Rust mean that other big tech companies, such as Dropbox and Coursera, are using it internally for operational purposes. While it may be a bit more difficult to master than other beginner languages, Rust programming skills are likely to pay off handsomely, as the language's popularity will only continue to rise in the near future. 6. Go One of the core languages favored by Google, Go is the little language that could. As a low-level language, Go is ideal for engineers who want to enter the field of systems programming. It encompasses much of the same functionality of C and C++ without the difficult syntax and steep learning curve. It’s the perfect language for building web servers, data pipelines, and even machine-learning packages. As a compiled language, Go runs “close to the metal,” allowing for a blazing-fast runtime. It’s an open-source language, and ambitious developers can see their personal contributions adopted and enjoyed by programmers worldwide. 7. Swift If you’re interested in Apple products and mobile app development, Swift is a good place to start. First announced by Apple in 2014, Swift is a relatively new programming language used to develop iOS and macOS applications. Swift has been optimized for performance and built from the ground up to match the realities of modern iOS development. Not only does iOS run on every iPhone and iPad, but it’s also the basis for other operating systems such as watchOS (for Apple Watches) and tvOS (for Apple TVs). In addition, Apple isn't going anywhere as a tech industry leader, and iOS apps continue to be the most profitable in the mobile app marketplace. 8. C# Like C++, C# (pronounced C Sharp) is a general-purpose, object-oriented language built on the foundations of C. It was originally designed by Microsoft as part of its .NET framework for building Windows applications. C# uses a syntax that’s similar to other C-derived languages such as C++, so it’s easy to pick up if you’re coming from another language in the C family. C# is not only the go-to for Microsoft app development, but it’s also the language mobile developers use to build cross-platform apps on the Xamarin platform. Additionally, anyone who is interested in VR development should consider learning C#. C# is the recommended language for building 3D and 2D video games using the popular Unity game engine, which produces one-third of the top games on the market. 9. Elixir Elixir is a functional, general-purpose programming language that was first introduced in 2011 by Ruby developer, José Valim. The low-latency language is used to develop high-traffic websites and highly scalable applications. While the use of pure functional programming languages is still relatively niche, Elixir has grown in popularity in recent years due to its ability to easily handle a large amount of processing. Plus, the programming language has concurrent functioning, allowing it to work on multiple tasks at once. Today, Elixir is being used by many prominent companies like Toyota, Pinterest, and PepsiCo.
4519	dbpedia	2	2	https://medium.com/%40lindiebotes/how-to-learn-multiple-languages-at-once-f66b69e17cb6	en	How to learn multiple languages at once	https://miro.medium.com/v2/da:true/resize:fit:1200/0*n0IC4F3ritDjvzq9	https://miro.medium.com/v2/da:true/resize:fit:1200/0*n0IC4F3ritDjvzq9	[ "https://miro.medium.com/v2/resize:fill:64:64/1dmbNkD5D-u45r44go_cf0g.png", "https://miro.medium.com/v2/resize:fill:88:88/1V3xiyQc2rjW9UeiJmsIr4w.png", "https://miro.medium.com/v2/resize:fill:144:144/1*V3xiyQc2rjW9UeiJmsIr4w.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Lindie Botes ✦", "medium.com" ]	2022-09-13T14:42:58.240000+00:00	I’ve been learning multiple languages for many years, and in 2020, I tackled 12 languages. There are many methods you can use to learn more than one language at once. Here are some of my best…	en	https://miro.medium.com/v2/5d8de952517e8160e40ef9841c781cdc14a5db313057fa3c3de41c6f5b494b19	Medium	https://medium.com/@lindiebotes/how-to-learn-multiple-languages-at-once-f66b69e17cb6	I’ve been learning multiple languages for many years, and in 2020, I tackled 12 languages. There are many methods you can use to learn more than one language at once. Here are some of my best recommendations. As for the these tips, you can try some or all — ultimately it’s about finding the technique that works for you! Learn one language to intermediate before moving on You might want to choose one main language and look at the other languages as fun side projects. It’s good to stick to a rule that if you’re a new language learner, first learn 1 language to an intermediate level and then tackle others. This especially works if the languages are different. It’s tricky to learn two similar languages from beginner at once, as you’ll often confuse them. Once you reach intermediate in one language, learning a similar language through another is easier. I try to learn one language to an upper-intermediate level so that it’s good enough to be a language of instruction for the other language. For example, once I learned Korean to a good enough level, I was able to study Japanese using textbooks written in Korean. Split your time (pareto principle) You can consider the 80/20 approach if you’re learning 2 languages at once. Spend 80% of your time on one (main) language, and then 20% of your time on the other language. This works best when they are two different languages or if you are intermediate+ in both. My friend Jonathan from Seabolt Speaks on YouTube learns Afrikaans when he takes a break from learning Japanese, his main focus. Online immersion Browsing YouTube or Twitter are amazing way to practice languages and get content in your target language. What some polyglots do is to have different YouTube accounts for different languages. This way, when you browse and get recommendations, all the videos will be in one language. Having a different account for each language creates an immersive space that you can go back to and put yourself in the mindset of the language each time you open YouTube. Other people have Twitter accounts specific to a language, where they only tweet in the language they are learning and only follow accounts in that language. This can be tedious if you are learning more than 3 languages and keep having to switch between accounts, though. What if you encounter words you don’t know online? There are Google Chrome extensions you can use for language learning on YouTube or Netflix, like Language Learning with Netflix which creates subtitles and vocabulary words for you as you watch. As for static websites like Twitter or blogs, you can use the extension called Readlang Web Reader and as you hover over words, it will translate them for you. Create a flexible schedule If you’re the type to get stressed about all the languages you want to study, try to create a loose schedule. You might have the tendency like me to not feel in the mood for studying a certain language on the day. If that’s you, rather make a list of activities you can do in multiple languages, and do those in the languages you feel like. I prefer to study multiple languages in little bits in one day (e.g. doing Spanish grammar in the morning, Korean vocab in the afternoon, and watching a French series at night, for instance) …or have a strict schedule. If you are the type of person who works well with rules and guidelines, having a strict schedule might help. I choose to focus on one or two MAIN languages alongside the other 10–11 I’m studying, and these usually get a schedule. Because I have a Korean exam coming up (TOPIK II), I’ve made a robust Korean grammar and vocabulary study schedule in preparation. Usually, I don’t schedule my language learning, but this is a way to keep my main languages in focus while I use the others as a fun break. Get rid of perfectionism Perfectionism is a negative mindset that does nothing to help you acheive your goals. If you’ve decided to learn more than one language at once, you’ll have to face the fact that you are going to progress slower in all of the languages than you would learning one at a time. I receive lots of comments like “you are not gonna get anywhere learning 12 languages at once”. While that is untrue, it is true that my progress will be slower since I’m focusing on so many. I choose not to be perfect in all of them, and my goals for each language are unique. I don’t need to be fluent in Burmese — my goal for 2020 is just to learn how to read and write, and that’s enough for me. With learning any language comes making lots of mistakes. You’re in the position of sounding and speaking like a baby again. Don’t let trying to be perfect stop you from working on your language goals. Embrace making mistakes. If you have a language exchange partner or italki tutor, use this as a safe environment to feel comfortable to make mistakes in. Once your mistakes have been corrected, you can write them down and practice the correct way of saying it. It’s a learning opportunity, not a race to perfectionism. TRY NEW METHODS AND LEARN FROM OTHERS I’m often inspired by polyglots like Steve Kaufmann. Here’s a video I did with him in which he shares his language learning tips. It’s always exciting to try new techniques or just listen to what other people have to say so you feel motivated again! Different apps and resources per language You can use different methods, notebooks, apps or systems for your languages. If you don’t know where to find good resources, take a look at my language resources page. You can choose to have one app only for one language so you make that connection in your mind (E.g. using the Bunpo app only for Japanese, Forge for Spanish, and Duolingo for French). Whatever works for you! Remember to work with comprehensible input. This means things that are at, or just above your level, that you can understand and learn from. Here’s a blog post that might help you. Have a positive mindset You can have all the right methods in the world but if you have a negative mindset, you won’t improve. Here’s a video I made that explains some healthy mindsets you can adopt around language learning. The importance of rest It’s important to build in rest too. Don’t overwhelm yourself. You need some off time to let things marinate in your mind! Here’s a video I did with Mari about making a schedule for your languages, in which we also talk about how important it is to take a break! Creating language-specific goals Set language-specific goals. Your goals can (and should) differ from language to language. This helps you prioritize the time you spend on each. Here’s the video I made about my language goals for my 12 languages in 2020, and here’s my follow-up a few months later. You can see that each language has a different level of priority. If you feel like you’re too busy to learn a language, there are always things you can do to fit language learning into your schedule! Do what makes you comfortable Don’t worry too much about how other people are doing it. If you prefer to focus on one language at a time and stack them, that’s awesome. If you want to go full-on and do 5 at a time, as long as you know your progress might be slower, that’s fine too. Happy studying!
4519	dbpedia	0	11	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shave_and_a_Haircut	en	Shave and a Haircut	https://en.wikipedia.org/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico	https://en.wikipedia.org/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico	[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png", "https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg", "https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/score/q/7/q76q6k7d57oppp3mc35ejnpq4sw69wu/q76q6k7d.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/50px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/50px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png", "https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1", "https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg", "https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/footer/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Contributors to Wikimedia projects" ]	2005-12-26T11:32:20+00:00		en	/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png		https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shave_and_a_Haircut	Seven-note rhythm and melody Problems playing this file? See media help. "Shave and a Haircut" and the associated response "two bits" is a seven-note musical call-and-response couplet, riff or fanfare popularly used at the end of a musical performance, usually for comedic effect. It is used melodically or rhythmically, for example as a door knocker. "Two bits" is a term in the United States and Canada for 25 cents, equivalent to a U.S. quarter. "Four bits" and "Six bits" are also occasionally used, for example in the cheer "Two bits, four bits, six bits, a dollar." The final words may also be "get lost", "drop dead" (in Australia),[citation needed] or some other facetious expression. In the UK, it was often said as "five bob" (slang for five shillings), although words are now rarely used to accompany the rhythm or the tune. History [edit] An early occurrence of the tune is from an 1899 Charles Hale minstrel song, At a Darktown Cakewalk.[1] Other songs from the same period also used the tune. The same notes form the bridge in the Hot Scotch Rag, written by H. A. Fischler in 1911. An early recording used the 7-note tune at both the beginning and the ending of a humorous 1915 song, by Billy Murray and the American Quartet, called "On the 5:15". The tune features in part of the instrumental accompaniment to the 1925 Buster Keaton film Battling Butler. In his 1933 novel, Hizzoner the Mayor, Joel Sayre wrote of boats "tooting the official Malta welcome blast to the tempo of “Shave-and-a-haircut-two-bits, shave-and-a-haircut-two-bits, shave-and-a-haircut-two-bits”, which was soon taken up by every craft in the harbor that had a boiler.[2] In 1939, Dan Shapiro, Lestor Lee and Milton Berle released "Shave and a Haircut – Shampoo",[3] which used the tune in the closing bars. In the same year, Rosalind Rosenthal and Herbert Halpert recorded "Shave and a Haircut, Bay Rum".[4] Popularity [edit] The tune can be heard on customized car horns,[5][6] while the rhythm may be tapped as a door knock[7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14] or as a Morse code "dah-di-di-dah-di, dah-dit" ( –··–· –· )[15] at the end of an amateur radio contact. The former prisoner of war and U.S. Navy seaman Doug Hegdahl reports fellow U.S. captives in the Vietnam War would authenticate a new prisoner's U.S. identity by using "Shave and a Haircut" as a shibboleth, tapping the first five notes against a cell wall and waiting for the appropriate response. U.S. POWs were then able to communicate securely with one another via a tap code.[16] The tune has been used innumerable times as a coda or ending in musical pieces. It is strongly associated with the stringed instruments of bluegrass music, particularly the 5-string banjo. Earl Scruggs often ended a song with this phrase or a variation of it. On the television show The Beverly Hillbillies, musical cues signifying the coming of a commercial break (cues which were in bluegrass style) frequently ended with "Shave and a Haircut". It is the second most popular bluegrass run, after the G run.[17] "Shave and a Haircut" was used in many early cartoons, particularly Looney Tunes cartoons. It was also used as an ending to many cartoon shows, just after the credits. Decades later, the couplet became a plot device to lure-out an intended victim, as used by Judge Doom in the film Who Framed Roger Rabbit, the idea being that toons cannot resist finishing with the "two bits" when they hear the opening rhythm.[18] The tune was also featured in early Nokia phones, like the 3310 model, as the That's it! ringtone.[19][20] Usage [edit] The phrase has been incorporated into countless recordings and performances. Notable examples include: Johnny's Theme, the music that opened The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson, famously ended with the "shave and a haircut" flourish every weeknight for 30 years and 4,531 episodes. "That's a Lot of Bunk", a 1920s novelty song composed by Al Wilson, James A. Brennan and Mack Henshaw, and performed by Billy Jones and Ernest Hare, known as "The Happiness Boys", closes with the riff.[21] The Crazy Gang sang "How's your father? Goodbye!" to the same tune at the end of their 1937 movie O-Kay for Sound.[22] R&B singer and bandleader Dave Bartholomew used the phrase on two of his recordings: "Country Boy" (1950) at the very end, and the original version of "My Ding-a-Ling" (1952) as a figure introducing each verse.[23] Les Paul and Mary Ford's Capitol recording of "Magic Melody" concluded with the phrase minus the last two notes ("two bits"). Responding to complaints from disc jockeys, Capitol in 1955 released "Magic Melody Part 2"—consisting solely of the missing notes—on a 45, said to be the shortest tune on record.[24] P. D. Q. Bach ends his "Blaues Gras" ("bluegrass") aria with "Shave and a Haircut", sung in Denglisch (mangled German and English): "Rasieren und Haarschneiden, zwei bitte" ("Shave and haircut, two please", ungrammatical in either language). "Zwei bitte" is a Denglisch pun, sounding like "two bits" to a speaker of both languages.[25] The melody is also used in The Short-Tempered Clavier.[26] The original version of "Love and Marriage" by Frank Sinatra (recorded for Capitol Records in 1955) ends with the tune. "Unsquare Dance" (1961) by Dave Brubeck ends with the tune, and also features part of "Turkey in the Straw". One of the musical numbers in Mister Magoo's Christmas Carol (1962), "We're Despicable (The Plunderers' March)," incorporates the melody into its chorus. The characters sing, "we're blank-blankety-blank-blank no good." Every interview by Nardwuar the Human Serviette ends with the melody of the song, with Nardwuar singing "doot doot da loot doo", after which the interviewee is expected to reply with "doot doo". The ending theme in the credits of Barney the Dinosaur makes use of it from seasons 1–3. In a 1960s television comedy sketch called "The Time Window", Mike Wallace interviews Victor Borge who is portraying composer and pianist Franz Liszt. During the segment, Borge (Liszt) states that his very first composition were two notes; which he plays on the piano. He next demonstrates that without these two notes "we would never have had this", and he plays "Shave and a Haircut".[27][28] The animated show Animaniacs makes frequent use of this theme, in particular at the end of the song "Wakko's America" with the line "That's all the capitals there are". The song "Gee, Officer Krupke" from Leonard Bernstein's musical West Side Story ends with the tune. The tune is sampled in several of "Weird Al" Yankovic's polka medleys. "Everything About You", by Ugly Kid Joe (recorded for Mercury Records in 1992), ends with the tune. The song "Mi Abuela" by Wilfred y La Ganga (BMG Ariola, 1990) opens with the tune as a door knock. The tune is played as part of the guitar solo in the song "Play with Me" by Extreme, which is also used in the mall chase scene in Bill & Ted's Excellent Adventure. Cassian Andor taps the five-note rhythm to signal Bix Caleen, outside her window, in S1:E7 "The Announcement" of the series Star Wars: Andor. There is no two-note response. In the opening sequence of Kendrick Lamar's music video for "Not Like Us" (2024), the full 7-note rhythm is knocked on a large metal door. Uses in other countries [edit] The Italian version is Ammazza la vecchia … col Flit! (English: "Kill the old lady … with Flit!")—Flit being an old brand of DDT insecticide. This is a humorous popular version of a post-World War II commercial Ammazza la mosca... col Flit (English: "Kill the fly with Flit!").[citation needed] The tune is used in Catalan with a different lyric: "Nas de barraca … Sant Boi" (English: "Shack nose … Sant Boi"). It is also tapped, as a door knock. The Catalan lyrics may come from Blanes, where it was sung twice with Nas de barraca. Sant Boi. Cinc de carmelos pel noi (English: Shack nose. Sant Boi. Five candies for the boy).[29] In Spain, it is sung with the lyrics, Una copita … de Ojén (English: "A shot … of schnapps"). In Mexico, it means a vulgar insult with the lyrics, Chinga tu madre … cabrón (English: "Fuck your mother … bastard"). In Irish barroom music, the tune is sometimes tagged at the end of a song. The performer sings the first part to the lyrics, "How is your aul' one?" (read: "old one", a slang term for mother), to which the audience replies, "Gameball!" (A slang term meaning ok).[30] In Sweden, it is well known as Kvart över elva … halv tolv, which means A quarter past eleven … half past eleven. The twist doesn't work as well in English, as the English time system treats 11:30 as a continuation of eleven instead of as the first half of twelve. Halv tolv thus means half twelve and is the correct Swedish equivalent of half past eleven. In Sweden, the melody was also used in a commercial for the Bronzol brand of candy with the slogan Hälsan för halsen — Bronzol (English: Health for the throat — Bronzol). In Icelandic, the lyrics are Saltkjöt og baunir … túkall (English: "Salt meat and split peas … two krona" (króna is the currency in Iceland)). In the Netherlands, the phrase is used when someone leaves with the intention to not return. Die zien we nooit meer, te-rug (English: We shall never see them, a-gain). It is used as a way to make fun of someone/something, if it suddenly disappears from the scene. In Argentina, Carlos Balá, a former children's TV show host, used to include a bit in his routine in which he would whistle the "shave and a haircut" part of the tune, prompting the children in the audience to answer "Ba-lá" to the rhythm of the two final notes. In the same country in school context to call for silence being sung with the teacher saying the phrase Tapa Tapita (Bottlecap, Small cap) and the students answering Tapon (Plug), followed with the teacher singing the phrase cierro la boca (shutting my mouth) and answering ya está (already done). See also [edit] Banjo roll Oriental riff Bo Diddley beat References [edit]
4519	dbpedia	3	13	https://www.dictionary.com/e/borrowed-words/	en	Which Words Did English Take From Other Languages?	https://www.dictionary.c….mapbox.com_.gif	https://www.dictionary.c….mapbox.com_.gif	[ "https://www.dictionary.com/e/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/loan_words_1000x700-790x310.jpg", "https://www.dictionary.com/e/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/loanwords-2.jpg", "https://www.dictionary.com/e/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/loanwords.jpg", "https://www.dictionary.com/e/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/20240214_africanAmericanVernacular_1920x1080-382x247.jpg", "https://www.dictionary.com/e/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/20240228_femaleTerms_1920x1080-382x247.jpg", "https://www.dictionary.com/e/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/20240314_holi_1920x1080-382x247.jpg", "https://www.dictionary.com/e/wp-content/themes/dictionary-com/images/temp/ico-arrow.png", "https://www.dictionary.com/e/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/weird_olympic3-590x380.jpg", "https://www.dictionary.com/e/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/olympic_medal-382x247.jpg", "https://www.dictionary.com/e/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/baseballwordsquiz-382x247.jpg", "https://www.dictionary.com/e/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/humanoid_monsters_6-382x247.jpg", "https://www.dictionary.com/e/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/astille-382x247.jpg", "https://www.dictionary.com/e/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/20240418_GenZ_Slang_1920x1080-382x247.jpg", "https://www.dictionary.com/e/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/20240416_mayTheForth_1920X1080-590x380.png", "https://www.dictionary.com/e/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/20240404_askDragon_1920x1080-382x247.jpg", "https://www.dictionary.com/e/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/20240403_shakespeare_1920x1080-382x247.png", "https://www.dictionary.com/e/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/20240401_climateTerms_1920x1080-382x247.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Dictionary.com" ]	2018-10-01T09:00:46+00:00	English—is one of the most incredible, flavorfully-complex melting pots of linguistic ingredients from other countries. These linguistic ingredients are called loanwords that have been borrowed and incorporated into English. The loanwords are oftentimes so common now, the foreign flavor has been completely lost.	en	https://www.dictionary.c…nary_Favicon.jpg	Dictionary.com	https://www.dictionary.com/e/borrowed-words/	English is a more varied (and delicious) melting pot than you think … English—is one of the most incredible, flavorfully-complex melting pots of linguistic ingredients from other countries that’s been left to simmer for (in some cases) centuries. These linguistic ingredients are called loanwords that have been borrowed and incorporated into English. The loanwords are oftentimes so common now, the foreign flavor has been completely lost on speakers. What usually happens is that English speakers find a word in another language to describe something they don’t yet have a word for. So they “borrow” that word. Forever. That said, loanwords fall into two categories: popular loanwords and learned loanwords. Learned loanwords tend to come from scholarly or specialized fields, like medicine or law. It’s usually easier to see what language these words came from. English, for example, draws from Latin for a lot of medical and legal terms. It’s not always that cut and dried, though. Sometimes it’s harder to see the line between popular and learned loanwords. The word ballet, for example, comes from French, and the terms for the different positions and steps in ballet have retained their original French names. In this case, ballet is a popular loanword. Most English speakers recognize the word as referring to a type of dance. However, the specialized terms in ballet could also be considered learned loanwords because they’re familiar to dancers and choreographers (who are skilled professionals), but largely unknown to people outside the field. Loanwords make up 80% of English What this means is that there is no such thing as pure English. English is a delectable, slow-cooked language of languages. As lexicographer Kory Stamper explains, “English has been borrowing words from other languages since its infancy.” As many as 350 other languages are represented and their linguistic contributions actually make up about 80% of English! Ranking from most influential to least, English is composed of words from: Latin, French, German, Italian, Spanish, Dutch, Scandinavian, Japanese, Arabic, Portuguese, Sanskrit, Russian, Maori, Hindi, Hebrew, Persian, Malay, Urdu, Irish, Afrikaans, Yiddish, Chinese, Turkish, Norwegian, Zulu, and Swahili. And, that’s not even 10% of the 350 languages in the English melting pot. Taking a less charitable tack to describe the multilingual aspect of English, the writer James Nicoll said, “English doesn’t borrow from other languages. English follows other languages down dark alleys, knocks them over and goes through their pockets for loose grammar.” That’s certainly a grimmer view, but it’s a metaphor that when looking at certain periods of the history of English, especially during episodes of colonization by English-speakers around the world, rings true. War is actually a way a lot of loanwords have come into English. Viking invasions of England during the Old English period brought Old Norse words like war and ugly. In 1066, the Normans (basically the French), led by William the Conqueror, invaded and took over the British Isles. That made French the language of the English court for hundreds of years. As many as 10,000 loanwords resulted from that period of English history. Interestingly, a lot of war-related words are loanwords. Looking at the sheer multilingual complexity of English gives great insight into how richly flavored and inclusive the language really is. We’re sharing just a dash of some of the international linguistic ingredients that make English so special. Just know that the true recipe for English would fill countless volumes, and what we’ve got here is a pretty flavorless oversimplification by comparison! Borrowing & loaning—like money? Before we divulge some of the secret global ingredients of English, though, what exactly does borrowing and loaning mean when it comes to languages? These terms make it seem like a word is taken from one language by another for only a brief time and then returned to the lender (with interest?). Obviously, this isn’t what happens. Using banking terminology may not be the best way to describe the exchange; influencing is probably a better way to conceptualize it. Nevertheless, linguists have been employing words like borrow and loan as metaphors to describe what amounts to be a very complicated and abstract process of exchanging words across cultures. How does loaning words work? Borrowing and lending of words happens because of cultural contact between two communities that speak different languages. Often, the dominant culture (or the culture perceived to have more prestige) lends more words than it borrows, so the process of exchange is usually asymmetrical. A lot of the words that end up being loaned are part of the material culture of the dominant group. Food, plants, animals, and tools migrate with the groups that use them, and, of course, so do the words that describe those things. So, when other cultures come into contact with those new people and their objects and words, it’s no surprise that physical and linguistic exchanges take place. Because those objects already have names, the borrowing culture tends to adopt those names instead of inventing their own words. The new loanwords that the receiving language incorporates into its lexicon usually start off sounding foreign and might only be used in certain pockets of the community until they gradually spread to more speakers over time. Pronunciation differences happen too, as the foreign word is phonologically reshaped so that it’s easier to say in the language that borrowed it through a process called naturalization or assimilation. If a loanword is spoken by a large majority of people on a regular basis and its meaning no longer needs to be explained, then the word has been conventionalized. Loanwords can retain vestiges of their former selves (they can still be perceived as foreign in some way), or they can completely melt into the new language. Once the word no longer seems foreign, it is, in fact, a loanword. The yummy English melting pot (fast food version) Popular loanwords are everyday words. You might not even realize that some of them came from another language. Most popular loanwords are the result of cultural contact. Many of them describe food, the arts, and entertainment. You probably know sushi comes from Japanese, and taco comes from Spanish, by way of Mexico. But some other food-related loanwords you might have forgotten are pizza from Italian, lemon from Arabic, and tart from French (the French spell it tarte). There are so many ways to showcase the global ingredients of English, but to really do it justice would take as many years as it took English to get to the rich stew it is now. So, the table below is our “fast food” version of the melting pot. It’s a super-simplified ingredient list with a smattering of words in English that have been borrowed from the different languages we listed above. Keep in mind that because of this presentation format, we’re not able to tell the intricate stories of how and when these words were introduced into the English lexicon. That involves slow-cooking that we just don’t have time for! But, at the end, we list some great suggestions for where to find a fuller recipe. (Following the order of most-to-least contributing languages): Rank Language Examples 1 Latin agriculture, language, justice, science, forum, circus, opium, dominatrix, religion, apostle, city, master, paper 2 French art, dance, jewel, painting, ballet, government, salon, brigade, infantry, grenade, quiche, beef, salmon 2 Greek phobia, academy, siren, lexicon, muse, odyssey, democracy, psyche, atlas, platonic, biology, comedy, tragedy, history, data 3 German blitz, strudel, kindergarten, flak, schadenfreude, schnitzel, zeitgeist, poodle, noodle, pretzel, sauerkraut, lager, zeppelin, delicatessen 4 Italian opera, soprano, piano, broccoli, fresco, spaghetti, prima donna, parmesan, pesto, viola, pizza, cappuccino, latte 5 Spanish canyon, tornado, tortilla, barricade, guitar, alligator, burrito, coyote, junta 6 Dutch buoy, cruise, dock, avast, freight, dyke, yacht, easel, landscape, sketch, booze, coleslaw, cookie, gin 7 Scandinavian smorgasbord, ski, fjord, saga, sauna, maelstrom, slalom 8 Japanese karaoke, samurai, kimono, sushi, tsunami, kamikaze, geisha, judo, jujitsu, soy 9 Arabic alcohol, bedouin, harem, lute, algebra, zero, zenith, giraffe, gazelle, sultan, caravan, mosque 10 Portuguese albino, dodo, emu, fetish, tempura 11 Sanskrit avatar, karma, mahatma, swastika, yoga 12 Russian borscht, czar/tsar, icon, vodka, glasnost (a term from the Soviet Union for “open government”) 13 Maori kiwi, mana, moa, waka (common Maori words used in New Zealand English) 14 Hindi bandanna, bangle, bungalow, juggernaut, jungle, loot, pajamas, punch (drink), shampoo 15 Hebrew sapphire, babble, brouhaha, maven, abacus, behemoth, cherub, jubilee, sabbatical, sabbath, amen 16 Persian chess, checkmate, check 17 Malay ketchup, amok 18 Urdu chintz, bungalow, cheroot, cot, many overlaps with Hindi 19 Irish boycott, brogues, clock, dig (slang), hooligan 20 Afrikaans apartheid, commando, trek, aardvark, meerkat, wildebeest 21 Yiddish Chanukkah (Hanukkah), chutzpah, kosher, lox, pastrami, schlep, klutz, oy vey, schmuck 22 Chinese dim sum, chow mein, tea, kowtow, tai chi, kung fu 23 Turkish baklava, coffee, kiosk, ottoman 24 Norwegian berserk, gun, ransack, slaughter, hell, husband, skill, bug, reindeer, dirt 25 African origins banana, bongo, banjo, cola, jazz, chimpanzee, goober, gumbo, impala, jumbo, mamba, zebra, zombie As you’d imagine, learning about English’s loanwords from other languages is linked with the history of the English language itself. Because of its status as a global lingua franca, English is now much more of a lender than a borrower, but the ways in which English has contributed to other languages around the world is a recipe for another day. Though at a decreasing rate, English continues to borrow words in the 21st-century. Popular recent loanwords include Sudoku (the Japanese number puzzle appearing in the daily paper), wiki (a Hawaiian word describing a user-controlled website, i.e., Wikipedia), and latte (that Italian coffee drink with frothy milk that you need every morning so you can see straight). If you want to explore these and many other global linguistic ingredients according to roughly when they were added to the melting pot (and what condition the world ‘kitchen’ was in, so to speak), check out Philip Durkin’s detailed analysis, Borrowed Words: A History of Loanwords in English. Durkin is the Deputy Chief Editor of the Oxford English Dictionary and his exploration describes the intricacies of loanwords in terms of the historical and linguistic landscape of English from its earliest stages to the present day. In a Slate article summarizing his findings, Durkin includes a fascinating timeline of all the lending-languages that have influenced English over the centuries. You can click across to view the different periods of English and the proportions of each linguistic ingredient added during that time. For another accessible summary of major periods of borrowing in English, take a look at Rice University’s outline on loanwords. And, the next time you encounter someone who claims English is pure and wants to keep it that way, tell them they have absolutely no idea what they’re talking about. In fact, now you have all the ingredients to back up your observation of how “tasteless” their statement is!