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id stringlengths 40 40	title stringlengths 15 120	text stringlengths 41 3.14k	source stringclasses 2 values
e04219e7383cbb2a507d6cc9e276d83767edb013	agnew and beverly moved to the los alamos	agnew and beverly moved to the los alamos laboratory in march 1943. agnew, beverly and bernard waldman first went to the university of illinois, where the men disassembled the cockcroft–walton generator and particle accelerator while beverly catalogued all the parts. the parts were shipped to new mexico, where agnew an...	wikipedia
ec40a29688a5153855a0ebc7818d250db3f161c6	at the metallurgical laboratory, agnew worked with enrico	at the metallurgical laboratory, agnew worked with enrico fermi, walter zinn and herbert l. anderson. there, he was involved in the construction of chicago pile-1. initially, agnew worked with the instrumentation. the geiger counters were calibrated using a radon - beryllium source, and agnew received too high a dose o...	wikipedia
c28971713ff47450e359e64c864dc0433a833999	after the japanese bombing of pearl harbor brought	after the japanese bombing of pearl harbor brought the united states into the pacific war, agnew and his girlfriend beverly, a fellow graduate of south denver high school and the university of denver, attempted to join the united states army air corps together. they were persuaded not to sign the enlistment papers. ins...	wikipedia
917289b232b02eb430c6e13643c6ff7b55b53bc7	harold melvin agnew was born in denver, colorado	harold melvin agnew was born in denver, colorado on march 28, 1921, the only child of a pair of stonecutters. he attended south denver high school and entered the university of denver, where he majored in chemistry. he was a strong athlete who pitched for the university softball team that won a championship. he left th...	wikipedia
3ed09df4233a1b4b9e44a6e8a83dc18c770e3f6d	agnew returned to los alamos in 1949, and	agnew returned to los alamos in 1949, and worked on the castle bravo nuclear test at bikini atoll in 1954. he became head of the weapon nuclear engineering division in 1964. he also served as a democratic new mexico state senator from 1955 to 1961, and was the scientific adviser to the nato supreme allied commander eur...	wikipedia
978cf9d592cc994ed6f29d8913bfa13f258c64ca	agnew joined the metallurgical laboratory at the university	agnew joined the metallurgical laboratory at the university of chicago in 1942, and helped build chicago pile-1, the world's first nuclear reactor. in 1943, he joined the los alamos laboratory, where he worked with the cockcroft–walton generator. after the war ended, he returned to the university of chicago, where he c...	wikipedia
cc5874aab951fc167e4baffeb7832b90fa4aab0c	harold melvin agnew (march 28, 1921 – september	harold melvin agnew (march 28, 1921 – september 29, 2013) was an american physicist, best known for having flown as a scientific observer on the hiroshima bombing mission and, later, as the third director of the los alamos national laboratory.	wikipedia
1a59d457201960690adb481c064f1d94c4f4dc5e	alfred otto carl nier was an american physicist	alfred otto carl nier was an american physicist who pioneered the development of mass spectrometry. he was the first to use mass spectrometry to isolate uranium-235 which was used to demonstrate that 235u could undergo fission and developed the sector mass spectrometer configuration now known as nier-johnson geometry.	wikipedia
8baf6a6832c96552eb36405a9da18b48c386955f	the martian crater nier and the mineral nierite	the martian crater nier and the mineral nierite (tiny silicon nitride inclusions in meteorites) were named after him. the nier prize is awarded annually by the meteoritical society and recognizes outstanding research in meteoritics and closely allied fields by young scientists.	wikipedia
9740f1ef8c9086dd7cca6d58a288f18706cb5078	after the war, he returned to minnesota where	after the war, he returned to minnesota where he worked on geochronology, the upper atmosphere, space science and noble gases. nier designed the miniature mass spectrometers used by the viking landers to sample the atmosphere of mars.	wikipedia
6fee702da35443abea51f168a6e3bdba72741b52	from 1943 to 1945, nier worked with kellex	from 1943 to 1945, nier worked with kellex corporation in manhattan, new york city on the design and development of efficient and effective mass spectrographs for use in the manhattan project to build the atomic bomb in world war ii. during the war most of the spectrographs used for monitoring uranium separations were ...	wikipedia
47c974ccee560b66342105773fbf71260259540b	nier returned to minnesota in 1938 to be	nier returned to minnesota in 1938 to be near his ageing parents. in 1940, on the request of enrico fermi, he and a few students, including edward ney, prepared a pure sample of uranium-235 using an early mass spectrograph designed by nier, for john r. dunning 's team at columbia university. on the day of its receipt (...	wikipedia
3a0cb5a8d51744c2d1ef0dce5ce73336e2715307	in 1936, his spectroscopic skills won him a	in 1936, his spectroscopic skills won him a fellowship and substantial grant at harvard university. his work there led to the 1938 publication of measurements of the relative abundance of the isotopes of uranium, measurements that were used by fritz houtermans and arthur holmes in the 1940s to estimate the age of the e...	wikipedia
3ee662c76928edf2b93c42bba9f92e89a58746c5	he was born in st. paul, minnesota on	he was born in st. paul, minnesota on may 28, 1911. nier showed an early ability in mathematics and science, coupled with an aptitude for craft and mechanical work. nier's german immigrant parents had little education or financial resources but their determination for his development meant that he was able to attend th...	wikipedia
536589fff00d336b7627b2f6022946f4bd6ee564	alfred otto carl nier (may 28, 1911 –	alfred otto carl nier (may 28, 1911 – may 16, 1994) was an american physicist who pioneered the development of mass spectrometry. he was the first to use mass spectrometry to isolate uranium-235 which was used to demonstrate that u could undergo fission and developed the sector mass spectrometer configuration now known...	wikipedia
34d63f7abd99fdce08464fc2f4c0b1c3fddc945e	the 15 puzzle is a sliding puzzle. it	the 15 puzzle is a sliding puzzle. it has 15 square tiles numbered 1 to 15 in a frame that is 4 tile positions high and 4 tile positions wide, with one unoccupied position. tiles in the same row or column of the open position can be moved by sliding them horizontally or vertically, respectively. the goal of the puzzle ...	wikipedia
1a7a9120e0b1fb17080895221ad765ba0192a5ef	chess world champion bobby fischer was an expert	chess world champion bobby fischer was an expert at solving the 15 puzzle. he had been timed to be able to solve it within 25 seconds; fischer demonstrated this on november 8, 1972, on the tonight show starring johnny carson.	wikipedia
31fcc4a51598ffd3799ccd40768c5bce81215d8f	some later interest was fueled by loyd's offer	some later interest was fueled by loyd's offer of a $1,000 prize (equivalent to $33,911 in 2023) to anyone who could provide a solution for achieving a particular combination specified by loyd, namely reversing the 14 and 15, which loyd called the 14-15 puzzle. this is impossible, as had been shown over a decade earlie...	wikipedia
71978c823101568080dca58acb19eab427fa4a27	from 1891 until his death in 1911, sam	from 1891 until his death in 1911, sam loyd claimed that he had invented the puzzle. however, loyd had no connection to the invention or initial popularity of the puzzle. loyd's first article about the puzzle was published in 1886, and it was not until 1891 that he first claimed to be the inventor.	wikipedia
993ed04ab1b4b7e8e1d9b51860f77de6e5ed2478	chapman applied for a patent on his "block	chapman applied for a patent on his "block solitaire puzzle" on february 21, 1880. however, this patent was rejected, likely because it was not sufficiently different from the august 20, 1878 "puzzle-blocks" patent (us 207124) granted to ernest u. kinsey.	wikipedia
111c5568d30dcd25b4810306254cd39721c358d6	the puzzle was "invented" by noyes palmer chapman,	the puzzle was "invented" by noyes palmer chapman, a postmaster in canastota, new york, who is said to have shown friends, as early as 1874, a precursor puzzle consisting of 16 numbered blocks that were to be put together in rows of four, each summing to 34 (see magic square). copies of the improved 15 puzzle made thei...	wikipedia
c3fec7f253456a9712fc9b61ab1f0fa09410d9c8	because the combinations of the 15 puzzle can	because the combinations of the 15 puzzle can be generated by 3-cycles, it can be proved that the 15 puzzle can be represented by the alternating group a 15 {\displaystyle a_{15}}. in fact, any 2 k − 1 {\displaystyle 2k-1} sliding puzzle with square tiles of equal size can be represented by a 2 k − 1 {\displaystyle a_{...	wikipedia
763188ca993178ded6c944722fe1fb12c974b51b	the number of possible positions of the 24	the number of possible positions of the 24 puzzle is 25! / 2 ≈ 7.76 × 10, which is too many to calculate god's number feasibly using brute-force methods. in 2011, lower bounds of 152 single-tile moves or 41 multi-tile moves had been established, as well as upper bounds of 208 single-tile moves or 109 multi-tile moves. ...	wikipedia
463a986287c7e383a65ffeb4b7ec78794d251720	for larger versions of the n puzzle, finding	for larger versions of the n puzzle, finding a solution is easy. but, the problem of finding the shortest solution is np-hard. it is also np-hard to approximate the fewest slides within an additive constant, but there is a polynomial-time constant-factor approximation. for the 15 puzzle, lengths of optimal solutions ra...	wikipedia
8e83a3a29c25233706f4fd20fcbceb3e35ab4b37	wilson (1974) studied the generalization of the 15	wilson (1974) studied the generalization of the 15 puzzle to arbitrary finite graphs, the original problem being the case of a 4×4 grid graph. the problem has some degenerate cases where the answer is either trivial or a simple combination of the answers to the same problem on some subgraphs. namely, for paths and poly...	wikipedia
2306d6665f728f871198252b0543bb8dfac52722	johnson & story (1879) also showed that on	johnson & story (1879) also showed that on boards of size m × n, where m and n are both larger or equal to 2, all even permutations are solvable. it can be proven by induction on m and n, starting with m = n = 2. this means that there are exactly two equivalency classes of mutually accessible arrangements, and that the...	wikipedia
544fc4f3fac25158fe3b93cf1379bc907697229c	the invariant is the parity of the permutation	the invariant is the parity of the permutation of all 16 squares plus the parity of the taxicab distance (number of rows plus number of columns) of the empty square from the lower right corner. this is an invariant because each move changes both the parity of the permutation and the parity of the taxicab distance. in p...	wikipedia
2cf98f58463b2c30edfd6a16c62d00d4a6eff290	johnson & story (1879) used a parity argument	johnson & story (1879) used a parity argument to show that half of the starting positions for the n puzzle are impossible to resolve, no matter how many moves are made. this is done by considering a binary function of the tile configuration that is invariant under any valid move and then using this to partition the spa...	wikipedia
733162e9db87683087221a3949d28810f7d163a2	the n puzzle is a classical problem for	the n puzzle is a classical problem for modeling algorithms involving heuristics. commonly used heuristics for this problem include counting the number of misplaced tiles and finding the sum of the taxicab distances between each block and its position in the goal configuration. note that both are admissible. that is, t...	wikipedia
4fc326b9128c8cd4ca336edf2f5aa5feee35e555	named after the number of tiles in the	named after the number of tiles in the frame, the 15 puzzle may also be called a "16 puzzle", alluding to its total tile capacity. similar names are used for different sized variants of the 15 puzzle, such as the 8 puzzle, which has 8 tiles in a 3×3 frame.	wikipedia
6e26f0aeed85c1b09febfa225c921c23fb2bde04	the 15 puzzle (also called gem puzzle, boss	the 15 puzzle (also called gem puzzle, boss puzzle, game of fifteen, mystic square and more) is a sliding puzzle. it has 15 square tiles numbered 1 to 15 in a frame that is 4 tile positions high and 4 tile positions wide, with one unoccupied position. tiles in the same row or column of the open position can be moved by...	wikipedia
768fe86316b2c8d2a9e29b45f5fe0ea79965cccb	marc levoy is a computer graphics researcher and	marc levoy is a computer graphics researcher and professor emeritus of computer science and electrical engineering at stanford university, a vice president and fellow at adobe inc., and a distinguished engineer at google. he is noted for pioneering work in volume rendering, light fields, and computational photography.	wikipedia
81f70a00f9593b32c53dd4c1f2a4c40a6a591ea0	for his work in volume rendering, levoy was	for his work in volume rendering, levoy was the recipient of the acm siggraph computer graphics achievement award in 1996. in 2007, he was inducted as a fellow of the association for computing machinery "for contributions to computer graphics". in 2022 he was elected to the national academy of engineering "for contribu...	wikipedia
a8e04018e5a00dd089376a25ad5c62a6d48d2aae	levoy took a leave of absence from stanford	levoy took a leave of absence from stanford in 2011 to work at googlex as part of project glass. in 2014, he retired from stanford to become full-time at google, where until 2020 he led a team in google research that worked broadly on cameras and photography. one of his projects was hdr+ mode for google pixel smartphon...	wikipedia
b62c9a7cc68c6c0b5c4e182b147da6b81bd13b61	the phrase "computational photography" was first used by	the phrase "computational photography" was first used by steve mann in 1995. it was re-coined and given a broader meaning by levoy for a course he taught at stanford in 2004 and a symposium he co-organized in 2005.	wikipedia
d8aea3ac52df898ba1a31f01dfa241c3f409783f	he joined the faculty of stanford's computer science	he joined the faculty of stanford's computer science department in 1990. in 1991, he received the national science foundation 's presidential young investigator award. in 1994, he co-created the stanford bunny, which has become an icon of computer graphics. in 1996, he and pat hanrahan coauthored the paper, "light fiel...	wikipedia
f491fcbd05d4388a0792e267e45fd03829d4885c	he then did graduate study in computer science	he then did graduate study in computer science under henry fuchs at the university of north carolina at chapel hill, and received his ph.d. in 1989. while there, he published several important papers in the field of volume rendering, developing new algorithms (such as volume ray tracing), improving efficiency, and demo...	wikipedia
3fde93bd9990c2afeba4adb387e99fac7ce67041	levoy first studied computer graphics as an architecture	levoy first studied computer graphics as an architecture student under donald p. greenberg at cornell university. he received his b.arch. in 1976 and m.s. in architecture in 1978. he developed a 2d computer animation system as part of his studies, receiving the charles goodwin sands memorial medal for this work. greenb...	wikipedia
16ae0367c845bd7ebf2fb23fd4a67bd6fb93cccc	marc levoy is a computer graphics researcher and	marc levoy is a computer graphics researcher and professor emeritus of computer science and electrical engineering at stanford university, a vice president and fellow at adobe inc., and (until 2020) a distinguished engineer at google. he is noted for pioneering work in volume rendering, light fields, and computational ...	wikipedia
ccee846eee1d80472228301d8e61181b9210db0a	jeffrey elam is a distinguished fellow, senior chemist	jeffrey elam is a distinguished fellow, senior chemist and group leader in the applied materials division at the u.s. department of energy's argonne national laboratory. he leads argonne's atomic layer deposition (ald) research program, where he directs research and development and commercialization of thin film coatin...	wikipedia