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0d2848beecfe4ec7edd6550b883f327ebbb8df6b	the concept of praise as a means of	the concept of praise as a means of behavioral reinforcement in humans is rooted in b.f. skinner's model of operant conditioning. through this lens, praise has been viewed as a means of positive reinforcement, wherein an observed behavior is made more likely to occur by contingently praising said behavior. hundreds of ...	wikipedia
cc9e1cc60f6c03ae825f04fd2b3ee826e215e966	as stated earlier in this article, a variable	as stated earlier in this article, a variable ratio schedule yields reinforcement after the emission of an unpredictable number of responses. this schedule typically generates rapid, persistent responding. slot machines pay off on a variable ratio schedule, and they produce just this sort of persistent lever-pulling be...	wikipedia
3170f600206ad9e5cd7f32c2e1fd758a9af01197	both psychologists and economists have become interested in	both psychologists and economists have become interested in applying operant concepts and findings to the behavior of humans in the marketplace. an exampleis the analysis of consumer demand, as indexed by the amount of a commodity that is purchased. in economics, the degree to which price influences consumption is call...	wikipedia
7f23f2fc2faca6a580a007c093a234dbf54f22fd	providing positive reinforcement for appropriate child behaviors is	providing positive reinforcement for appropriate child behaviors is a major focus of parent management training. typically, parents learn to reward appropriate behavior through social rewards (such as praise, smiles, and hugs) as well as concrete rewards (such as stickers or points towards a larger reward as part of an...	wikipedia
12d55e9058ed65e4d0dd57081d85f3a6e2fe2f4a	animal trainers and pet owners were applying the	animal trainers and pet owners were applying the principles and practices of operant conditioning long before these ideas were named and studied, and animal training still provides one of the clearest and most convincing examples of operant control. of the concepts and procedures described in this article, a few of the...	wikipedia
399ee18910f64a64478fef98e88d287cf3607bde	in drug dependent individuals, negative reinforcement occurs when	in drug dependent individuals, negative reinforcement occurs when a drug is self-administered in order to alleviate or "escape" the symptoms of physical dependence (e.g., tremors and sweating) and/or psychological dependence (e.g., anhedonia, restlessness, irritability, and anxiety) that arise during the state of drug ...	wikipedia
f5aa2e71d308cef97ba8f3b0fb0f999aac32d446	positive and negative reinforcement play central roles in	positive and negative reinforcement play central roles in the development and maintenance of addiction and drug dependence. an addictive drug is intrinsically rewarding; that is, it functions as a primary positive reinforcer of drug use. the brain's reward system assigns it incentive salience (i.e., it is "wanted" or "...	wikipedia
440eba1a1d3a670fcc93269774a2682f56db73a9	challenging behaviors seen in individuals with autism and	challenging behaviors seen in individuals with autism and other related disabilities have successfully managed and maintained in studies using a scheduled of chained reinforcements. functional communication training is an intervention that often uses chained schedules of reinforcement to effectively promote the appropr...	wikipedia
fe6d6936cb12c4c90904d6f2c607880ec374ba8f	chaining involves linking discrete behaviors together in a	chaining involves linking discrete behaviors together in a series, such that the consequence of each behavior is both the reinforcement for the previous behavior, and the antecedent stimulus for the next behavior. there are many ways to teach chaining, such as forward chaining (starting from the first behavior in the c...	wikipedia
32525812654cb0c5f21e37ae0f4e07cc4ccbf83f	shaping is also used for food refusal. food	shaping is also used for food refusal. food refusal is when an individual has a partial or total aversion to food items. this can be as minimal as being a picky eater to so severe that it can affect an individual's health. shaping has been used to have a high success rate for food acceptance.	wikipedia
1b8bd20e497c151a6a090c341aed4171d8bb9a29	the intervention of shaping is used in many	the intervention of shaping is used in many training situations, and also for individuals with autism as well as other developmental disabilities. when shaping is combined with other evidence-based practices such as functional communication training (fct), it can yield positive outcomes for human behavior. shaping typi...	wikipedia
581ff89fa1087f2ebc7a9d818eb2bfe0f5b2e109	shaping is the reinforcement of successive approximations to	shaping is the reinforcement of successive approximations to a desired instrumental response. in training a rat to press a lever, for example, simply turning toward the lever is reinforced at first. then, only turning and stepping toward it is reinforced. eventually the rat will be reinforced for pressing the lever. th...	wikipedia
e5cb8487c7f5f52dde75a8e80a3018ad9d1e3eb9	when both the concurrent schedules are variable intervals,	when both the concurrent schedules are variable intervals, a quantitative relationship known as the matching law is found between relative response rates in the two schedules and the relative reinforcement rates they deliver; this was first observed by r.j. herrnstein in 1961. matching law is a rule for instrumental be...	wikipedia
374bd770da8e21c6ac40f1726b3e271fbaa7b000	it is not necessary for responses on the	it is not necessary for responses on the two schedules to be physically distinct. in an alternate way of arranging concurrent schedules, introduced by findley in 1958, both schedules are arranged on a single key or other response device, and the subject can respond on a second key to change between the schedules. in su...	wikipedia
6eeac3e0300be6f1036db4e30eefe695dbd527df	in operant conditioning, concurrent schedules of reinforcement are	in operant conditioning, concurrent schedules of reinforcement are schedules of reinforcement that are simultaneously available to an animal subject or human participant, so that the subject or participant can respond on either schedule. for example, in a two-alternative forced choice task, a pigeon in a skinner box is...	wikipedia
724ee06c971b33713881d24546ed8f9a1d4eae65	superimposed schedules of reinforcement can create the three	superimposed schedules of reinforcement can create the three classic conflict situations (approach–approach conflict, approach–avoidance conflict, and avoidance–avoidance conflict) described by kurt lewin (1935) and can operationalize other lewinian situations analyzed by his force field analysis. other examples of the...	wikipedia
44b704c5be614bd4b0cca2d6b24cead1afb93657	superimposed schedules of reinforcement have many real-world applications	superimposed schedules of reinforcement have many real-world applications in addition to generating social traps. many different human individual and social situations can be created by superimposing simple reinforcement schedules. for example, a human being could have simultaneous tobacco and alcohol addictions. even ...	wikipedia
9ab986ab3ec49c226419def1fe5c5f8c0c820abb	if an organism is offered the opportunity to	if an organism is offered the opportunity to choose between or among two or more simple schedules of reinforcement at the same time, the reinforcement structure is called a "concurrent schedule of reinforcement". brechner (1974, 1977) introduced the concept of superimposed schedules of reinforcement in an attempt to cr...	wikipedia
22072687c96c7531fa56df212f206f59aa98e56b	in addition, ratio schedules can deliver reinforcement following	in addition, ratio schedules can deliver reinforcement following fixed or variable number of behaviors by the individual organism. likewise, interval schedules can deliver reinforcement following fixed or variable intervals of time following a single response by the organism. individual behaviors tend to generate respo...	wikipedia
bdb57602e8950a37e6c42e2f18ba17bfa43f2013	superimposed schedules of reinforcement are a type of	superimposed schedules of reinforcement are a type of compound schedule that evolved from the initial work on simple schedules of reinforcement by b.f. skinner and his colleagues (skinner and ferster, 1957). they demonstrated that reinforcers could be delivered on schedules, and further that organisms behaved different...	wikipedia
6a1fa764481f9ca588a75d7438555900bd56e77d	the psychology term superimposed schedules of reinforcement refers	the psychology term superimposed schedules of reinforcement refers to a structure of rewards where two or more simple schedules of reinforcement operate simultaneously. reinforcers can be positive, negative, or both. an example is a person who comes home after a long day at work. the behavior of opening the front door ...	wikipedia
003d99a63c427c72dc2635f904abb489d28de425	specific schedules of reinforcement reliably induce specific patterns	specific schedules of reinforcement reliably induce specific patterns of response, and these rules apply across many different species. the varying consistency and predictability of reinforcement is an important influence on how the different schedules operate. many simple and complex schedules were investigated at gre...	wikipedia
6e4a28eb8f270453a2f56cb25216bf100a0400bd	behavior is not always reinforced every time it	behavior is not always reinforced every time it is emitted, and the pattern of reinforcement strongly affects how fast an operant response is learned, what its rate is at any given time, and how long it continues when reinforcement ceases. the simplest rules controlling reinforcement are continuous reinforcement, where...	wikipedia
5bd6b4bcb6bf6b2626b4b15f0b431d590fbac403	thus, artificial reinforcement can be used to build	thus, artificial reinforcement can be used to build or develop generalizable skills, eventually transitioning to naturally occurring reinforcement to maintain or increase the behavior. another example is a social situation that will generally result from a specific behavior once it has met a certain criterion.	wikipedia
25b8d0173e24ab644c27779984aedd232c53b40a	in 1970, baer and wolf developed the concept	in 1970, baer and wolf developed the concept of "behavioral traps." a behavioral trap requires only a simple response to enter the trap, yet once entered, the trap cannot be resisted in creating general behavior change. it is the use of a behavioral trap that increases a person's repertoire, by exposing them to the nat...	wikipedia
72f8d78ba8c8fbe9c3f4684f1f9b1c432b61744a	in his 1967 paper, arbitrary and natural reinforcement,	in his 1967 paper, arbitrary and natural reinforcement, charles ferster proposed classifying reinforcement into events that increase the frequency of an operant behavior as a natural consequence of the behavior itself, and events that affect frequency by their requirement of human mediation, such as in a token economy ...	wikipedia
313b2e09f44b872c93a4c6e4764c2b6829897241	when trying to distinguish primary and secondary reinforcers	when trying to distinguish primary and secondary reinforcers in human examples, use the "caveman test." if the stimulus is something that a caveman would naturally find desirable (e.g. candy) then it is a primary reinforcer. if, on the other hand, the caveman would not react to it (e.g. a dollar bill), it is a secondar...	wikipedia
24b195a1e59135bc88b55660d02c190725068060	a secondary reinforcer, sometimes called a conditioned reinforcer,	a secondary reinforcer, sometimes called a conditioned reinforcer, is a stimulus or situation that has acquired its function as a reinforcer after pairing with a stimulus that functions as a reinforcer. this stimulus may be a primary reinforcer or another conditioned reinforcer (such as money).	wikipedia
28e52f2c9c9335dfeeb60010a95a7aaf3e403369	a primary reinforcer, sometimes called an unconditioned reinforcer,	a primary reinforcer, sometimes called an unconditioned reinforcer, is a stimulus that does not require pairing with a different stimulus in order to function as a reinforcer and most likely has obtained this function through the evolution and its role in species' survival. examples of primary reinforcers include food,...	wikipedia
a46761c3a3f3dced8a987134892899ce0e2ac4b9	reinforcers serve to increase behaviors whereas punishers serve	reinforcers serve to increase behaviors whereas punishers serve to decrease behaviors; thus, positive reinforcers are stimuli that the subject will work to attain, and negative reinforcers are stimuli that the subject will work to be rid of or to end. the table below illustrates the adding and subtracting of stimuli (p...	wikipedia
ff67ac37ee8f408b4037c323130a485c0b54dd4e	extinction occurs when a given behavior is ignored	extinction occurs when a given behavior is ignored (i.e. followed up with no consequence), where it will disappear over time if the behavior continuously receives no reinforcement. behavior after extinction spikes first and then declines over time. extinction does not have to be deliberate in order to have an effect on...	wikipedia
0a9a47d7341186e4e4ab56534a7f4c2215c04f11	negative reinforcement increases the rate of a behavior	negative reinforcement increases the rate of a behavior to avoid or escape an aversive situation or stimulus. doing something unpleasant to people to prevent or remove a behavior from happening again is punishment, not negative reinforcement. the difference is that reinforcement always increases the likelihood of a beh...	wikipedia
d7b2cab6a63102a259eca57975120e33d118acc6	the term operant conditioning was introduced by skinner	the term operant conditioning was introduced by skinner to indicate that in his experimental paradigm, the organism is free to operate on the environment. in this paradigm, the experimenter cannot trigger the desirable response; the experimenter waits for the response to occur (to be emitted by the organism) and then a...	wikipedia
b783529be88e0e813c13809b78e3e9cd0619276d	a great many researchers subsequently expanded our understanding	a great many researchers subsequently expanded our understanding of reinforcement and challenged some of skinner's conclusions. for example, azrin and holz defined punishment as a “consequence of behavior that reduces the future probability of that behavior,” and some studies have shown that positive reinforcement and ...	wikipedia
de31978e99c1762df12f68973f9ec387404e34e0	laboratory research on reinforcement is usually dated from	laboratory research on reinforcement is usually dated from the work of edward thorndike, known for his experiments with cats escaping from puzzle boxes. a number of others continued this research, notably b.f. skinner, who published his seminal work on the topic in the behavior of organisms, in 1938, and elaborated thi...	wikipedia
2a4cd54cdce48da86c2ed518ae77d59a880fe229	the study of reinforcement has produced an enormous	the study of reinforcement has produced an enormous body of reproducible experimental results. reinforcement is the central concept and procedure in special education, applied behavior analysis, and the experimental analysis of behavior and is a core concept in some medical and psychopharmacology models, particularly a...	wikipedia
96a8e6b8117e9160f4a3a089e9e6650fe8d7a00e	the sole criterion that determines if a stimulus	the sole criterion that determines if a stimulus is reinforcing is the change in probability of a behavior after administration of that potential reinforcer. other theories may focus on additional factors such as whether the person expected a behavior to produce a given outcome, but in the behavioral theory, reinforcem...	wikipedia
ba5f7d5d357868e4bdc85c477f18c4e52d3da0bf	b.f. skinner was a well-known and influential researcher	b.f. skinner was a well-known and influential researcher who articulated many of the theoretical constructs of reinforcement and behaviorism. skinner defined reinforcers according to the change in response strength (response rate) rather than to more subjective criteria, such as what is pleasurable or valuable to someo...	wikipedia
200441ee68d85370c8f820ebe02b745a211e888f	this usage is at odds with some non-technical	this usage is at odds with some non-technical usages of the four term combinations, especially in the case of the term "negative reinforcement", which is often used to denote what technical parlance would describe as "positive punishment" in that the non-technical usage interprets "reinforcement" as subsuming both rewa...	wikipedia
98b60856d572bdbb230655058b4b569234481b93	in the behavioral sciences, the terms "positive" and	in the behavioral sciences, the terms "positive" and "negative" refer when used in their strict technical sense to the nature of the action performed by the conditioner rather than to the responding operant's evaluation of that action and its consequence(s). "positive" actions are those that add a factor, be it pleasan...	wikipedia