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10. 6 • lattice structures in crystalline solids 517 figure 10. 49 a simple cubic lattice unit cell contains one - eighth of an atom at each of its eight corners, so it contains one atom total. example 10. 14 calculation of atomic radius and density for metals, part 1 the edge length of the unit cell of alpha polonium ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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now, we will focus on the three cubic unit cells : simple cubic ( which we have already seen ), body - centered cubic unit cell, and face - centered cubic unit cell — all of which are illustrated in figure 10. 50. ( note that there are actually seven different lattice systems, some of which have more than one type of l... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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10. 6 • lattice structures in crystalline solids 519 figure 10. 51 in a body - centered cubic structure, atoms in a specific layer do not touch each other. each atom touches four atoms in the layer above it and four atoms in the layer below it. atoms in bcc arrangements are much more efficiently packed than in a simple... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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near neighbors, and therefore has a coordination number of 12. the fact that fcc and ccp arrangements are equivalent may not be immediately obvious, but why they are actually the same structure is illustrated in figure 10. 53. 520 10 • liquids and solids access for free at openstax. org figure 10. 53 a ccp arrangement ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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the third layer are not above atoms in either of the first two layers ( i. e., the third layer is type c ), and the stacking consists of alternating type a, type b, and type c close - packed layers ( i. e., ). about two – thirds of all metals crystallize in closest - packed arrays with coordination numbers of 12. metal... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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10. 6 • lattice structures in crystalline solids 521 example 10. 15 calculation of atomic radius and density for metals, part 2 calcium crystallizes in a face - centered cubic structure. the edge length of its unit cell is 558. 8 pm. ( a ) what is the atomic radius of ca in this structure? ( b ) calculate the density o... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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, a unit cell is defined by the lengths of three axes ( a, b, and c ) and the angles ( α, β, and γ ) between them, as illustrated in figure 10. 55. the axes are defined as being the lengths between points in the space lattice. consequently, unit cell axes join points with identical environments. figure 10. 55 a unit ce... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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10. 6 • lattice structures in crystalline solids 523 figure 10. 56 there are seven different lattice systems and 14 different unit cells. the structures of ionic crystals ionic crystals consist of two or more different kinds of ions that usually have different sizes. the packing of these ions into a crystal structure i... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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of holes. figure 10. 57 cations may occupy two types of holes between anions : octahedral holes or tetrahedral holes. depending on the relative sizes of the cations and anions, the cations of an ionic compound may occupy tetrahedral or octahedral holes, as illustrated in figure 10. 58. relatively small cations occupy t... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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10. 6 • lattice structures in crystalline solids 525 and na2s. compounds with a ratio of less than 2 : 1 may also crystallize in a closest - packed array of anions with cations in the tetrahedral holes, if the ionic sizes fit. in these compounds, however, some of the tetrahedral holes remain vacant. example 10. 16 occu... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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a closest - packed array of oxide ions. what is the formula of aluminum oxide? solution because there is one octahedral hole per anion ( oxide ion ) and only two - thirds of these holes are occupied, the ratio of aluminum to oxygen must be : 1, which would give the simplest whole number ratio is 2 : 3, so the formula i... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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forming a unit cell with a chloride ion in the center ; or as simple cubic unit cells formed by cs + ions overlapping unit cells formed by cl−ions. cesium ions and chloride ions touch along the body diagonals of the unit cells. one cesium ion and one chloride ion are present per unit cell, giving the l : l stoichiometr... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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cell contains four sodium ions and four chloride ions, giving the 1 : 1 stoichiometry required by the formula, nacl. | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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10. 6 • lattice structures in crystalline solids 527 figure 10. 60 ionic compounds with anions that are much larger than cations, such as nacl, usually form an fcc structure. they can be described by fcc unit cells with cations in the octahedral holes. the cubic form of zinc sulfide, zinc blende, also crystallizes in a... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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terms of a space lattice of points on the fluoride ions because the fluoride ions do not all have identical environments. the orientation of the four calcium ions about the fluoride ions differs. 528 10 • liquids and solids access for free at openstax. org figure 10. 62 calcium fluoride, caf2, forms an fcc unit cell wi... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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10. 6 • lattice structures in crystalline solids 529 check your learning the edge length of the unit cell of kcl ( nacl - like structure, fcc ) is 6. 28 a. assuming anion - cation contact along the cell edge, calculate the radius of the potassium ion. the radius of the chloride ion is 1. 82 a. answer : the radius of th... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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b ) intensity, depending upon the separation of their maxima and minima. when x - rays of a certain wavelength, λ, are scattered by atoms in adjacent crystal planes separated by a distance, d, they may undergo constructive interference when the difference between the distances traveled by the two waves prior to their c... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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to compute distances between atoms as demonstrated in the following example exercise. | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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10. 6 • lattice structures in crystalline solids 531 figure 10. 65 ( a ) in a diffractometer, a beam of x - rays strikes a crystalline material, producing ( b ) an x - ray diffraction pattern that can be analyzed to determine the crystal structure. example 10. 19 using the bragg equation in a diffractometer, x - rays w... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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). her x - ray diffraction images of dna ( figure 10. 66 ) provided the crucial information that allowed watson and crick to confirm that dna forms a double helix, and to determine details of its size and structure. franklin also conducted pioneering research on viruses and the rna that contains their genetic informati... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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10. 6 • lattice structures in crystalline solids 533 key terms adhesive force force of attraction between molecules of different chemical identities amorphous solid ( also, noncrystalline solid ) solid in which the particles lack an ordered internal structure body - centered cubic ( bcc ) solid crystalline structure th... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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##spersion force ) attraction between two rapidly fluctuating, temporary dipoles ; significant only when particles are very close together dynamic equilibrium state of a system in which reciprocal processes are occurring at equal rates face - centered cubic ( fcc ) solid crystalline structure consisting of a cubic unit... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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forces of attraction normal boiling point temperature at which a 534 10 • key terms access for free at openstax. org liquid ’ s vapor pressure equals 1 atm ( 760 torr ) octahedral hole open space in a crystal at the center of six particles located at the corners of an octahedron phase diagram pressure - temperature gra... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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ray crystallography experimental technique for determining distances between atoms in a crystal by measuring the angles at which x - rays are diffracted when passing through the crystal key equations summary | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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10. 1 intermolecular forces the physical properties of condensed matter ( liquids and solids ) can be explained in terms of the kinetic molecular theory. in a liquid, intermolecular attractive forces hold the molecules in contact, although they still have sufficient ke to move past each other. intermolecular attractive... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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heat as intermolecular attractive forces are established or strengthened. the temperatures at which phase transitions occur are determined by the relative strengths of intermolecular attractions and are, therefore, dependent on the chemical identity of the substance. | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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10. 4 phase diagrams the temperature and pressure conditions at which a substance exists in solid, liquid, and gaseous states are summarized in a phase diagram for that substance. phase diagrams are combined plots of three pressure - temperature equilibrium curves : solid - liquid, liquid - gas, and solid - gas. these ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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10. 5 the solid state of matter some substances form crystalline solids consisting of particles in a very organized structure ; others form amorphous ( noncrystalline ) solids with an internal structure that is not ordered. the main types of crystalline solids are ionic solids, metallic solids, covalent network solids,... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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10. 6 lattice structures in crystalline solids the structures of crystalline metals and simple ionic compounds can be described in terms of packing of spheres. metal atoms can pack in hexagonal closest - packed structures, cubic closest - packed structures, body - centered structures, and simple cubic structures. the a... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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10. 1 intermolecular forces 1. in terms of their bulk properties, how do liquids and solids differ? how are they similar? 2. in terms of the kinetic molecular theory, in what ways are liquids similar to solids? in what ways are liquids different from solids? 3. in terms of the kinetic molecular theory, in what ways are... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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the following and give an example of each : ( a ) dispersion force ( b ) dipole - dipole attraction ( c ) hydrogen bond 8. the types of intermolecular forces in a substance are identical whether it is a solid, a liquid, or a gas. why then does a substance change phase from a gas to a liquid or to a solid? 9. why do the... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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the boiling points of acetone ( 56. 2 °c ) and 1 - propanol ( 97. 4 °c ), which have similar molar masses. 15. the melting point of h2o ( s ) is 0 °c. would you expect the melting point of h2s ( s ) to be −85 °c, 0 °c, or 185 °c? explain your answer. 16. silane ( sih4 ), phosphine ( ph3 ), and hydrogen sulfide ( h2s ) ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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10. 2 properties of liquids 22. the test tubes shown here contain equal amounts of the specified motor oils. identical metal spheres were dropped at the same time into each of the tubes, and a brief moment later, the spheres had fallen to the heights indicated in the illustration. rank the motor oils in order of increa... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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1. 00 60 °c 66. 2 0. 47 100 °c 58. 9 0. 28 ( a ) as temperature increases, what happens to the surface tension of water? explain why this occurs, in terms of molecular interactions and the effect of changing temperature. ( b ) as temperature increases, what happens to the viscosity of water? explain why this occurs, in... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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10. 3 phase transitions 30. heat is added to boiling water. explain why the temperature of the boiling water does not change. what does change? 31. heat is added to ice at 0 °c. explain why the temperature of the ice does not change. what does change? 32. what feature characterizes the dynamic equilibrium between a liq... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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pressure of the vapor produced? 43. explain the following observations : ( a ) it takes longer to cook an egg in ft. davis, texas ( altitude, 5000 feet above sea level ) than it does in boston ( at sea level ). ( b ) perspiring is a mechanism for cooling the body. 44. the enthalpy of vaporization of water is larger tha... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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listed correctly in order of increasing boiling points? ( a ) n2 < cs2 < h2o < kcl ( b ) h2o < n2 < cs2 < kcl ( c ) n2 < kcl < cs2 < h2o ( d ) cs2 < n2 < kcl < h2o ( e ) kcl < h2o < cs2 < n2 51. how much heat is required to convert 422 g of liquid h2o at 23. 5 °c into steam at 150 °c? 52. evaporation of sweat requires ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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10. 4 phase diagrams 54. from the phase diagram for water ( figure 10. 31 ), determine the state of water at : ( a ) 35 °c and 85 kpa ( b ) −15 °c and 40 kpa ( c ) −15 °c and 0. 1 kpa ( d ) 75 °c and 3 kpa ( e ) 40 °c and 0. 1 kpa ( f ) 60 °c and 50 kpa 55. what phase changes will take place when water is subjected to ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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##1 60. dry ice, co2 ( s ), does not melt at atmospheric pressure. it sublimes at a temperature of −78 °c. what is the lowest pressure at which co2 ( s ) will melt to give co2 ( l )? at approximately what temperature will this occur? ( see figure 10. 34 for the phase diagram. ) 61. if a severe storm results in the loss... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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10. 5 the solid state of matter 64. what types of liquids typically form amorphous solids? 65. at very low temperatures oxygen, o2, freezes and forms a crystalline solid. which best describes these crystals? ( a ) ionic ( b ) covalent network ( c ) metallic ( d ) amorphous ( e ) molecular crystals 542 10 • exercises ac... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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y soft, yellow 113 °c none insoluble z hard, white 800 °c only if melted / dissolved soluble 10 • exercises 543 71. classify each substance in the table as either a metallic, ionic, molecular, or covalent network solid : substance appearance melting point electrical conductivity solubility in water x brittle, white 800... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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10. 6 lattice structures in crystalline solids 75. describe the crystal structure of iron, which crystallizes with two equivalent metal atoms in a cubic unit cell. 76. describe the crystal structure of pt, which crystallizes with four equivalent metal atoms in a cubic unit cell. 77. what is the coordination number of a... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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free space in a metal may be found by subtracting the volume of the atoms in a unit cell from the volume of the cell. calculate the percentage of free space in each of the three cubic lattices if all atoms in each are of equal size and touch their nearest neighbors. which of these structures represents the most efficie... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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to form a solid in which the sulfur atoms form a closest - packed array with all of the octahedral holes occupied : li, na, be, ca, or al? 93. what is the percent by mass of titanium in rutile, a mineral that contains titanium and oxygen, if structure can be described as a closest packed array of oxide ions with titani... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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4. 20 a. calculate the ionic radius of ti +. ( the ionic radius of i−is 2. 16 a. ) 100. a cubic unit cell contains manganese ions at the corners and fluoride ions at the center of each edge. ( a ) what is the empirical formula of this compound? explain your answer. ( b ) what is the coordination number of the mn3 + ion... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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planes with a separation of 2. 64 a. what is the difference in energy between the k shell and the l shell in molybdenum assuming a first order diffraction? 546 10 • exercises access for free at openstax. org introduction chapter 11 solutions and colloids 11. 1 the dissolution process 11. 2 electrolytes 11. 3 solubility... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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11. 5 colloids coral reefs are home to about 25 % of all marine species. they are being threatened by climate change, oceanic acidification, and water pollution, all of which change the composition of the solution known as seawater. dissolved oxygen in seawater is critical for sea creatures, but as the oceans warm, oxy... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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11. 1 the dissolution process learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : • describe the basic properties of solutions and how they form • predict whether a given mixture will yield a solution based on molecular properties of its components • explain why some solutions either produce or absorb... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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orange solution. ( credit : modification of work by mark ott ) link to learning visit this virtual lab ( http : / / openstax. org / l / 16phetsugar ) to view simulations of the dissolution of common covalent and ionic substances ( sugar and salt ) in water. water is used so often as a solvent that the word solution has... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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solution are dispersed on a molecular scale ; they consist of a mixture of separated solute particles ( molecules, atoms, and / or ions ) each closely surrounded by solvent species. • the dissolved solute in a solution will not settle out or separate from the solvent. • the composition of a solution, or the concentrati... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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gases ( or gases such as helium and argon, which closely approach ideal behavior ) is an example of an ideal solution, since the entities comprising these gases experience no significant intermolecular attractions. 1 if bubbles of gas are observed within the liquid, the mixture is not homogeneous and, thus, not a solut... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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11. 1 • the dissolution process 549 when containers of helium and argon are connected, the gases spontaneously mix due to diffusion and form a solution ( figure 11. 3 ). the formation of this solution clearly involves an increase in matter dispersal, since the helium and argon atoms occupy a volume twice as large as th... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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11. 4, the formation of a solution may be viewed as a stepwise process in which energy is consumed to overcome solute - solute and solvent - solvent attractions ( endothermic processes ) and released when solute - solvent attractions are established ( an exothermic process referred to as solvation ). the relative magni... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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chloride, commonly known as table salt. as noted at the beginning of this module, spontaneous solution formation is favored, but not guaranteed, by exothermic dissolution processes. while many soluble compounds do, indeed, dissolve with the release of heat, some dissolve endothermically. ammonium nitrate ( nh4no3 ) is ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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11. 2 electrolytes learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : • define and give examples of electrolytes • distinguish between the physical and chemical changes that accompany dissolution of ionic and covalent electrolytes • relate electrolyte strength to solute - solvent attractive forces wh... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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related to the strength of the electrolyte. ionic electrolytes water and other polar molecules are attracted to ions, as shown in figure 11. 7. the electrostatic attraction between an ion and a molecule with a dipole is called an ion - dipole attraction. these attractions play an important role in the dissolution of io... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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11. 2 • electrolytes 553 figure 11. 7 as potassium chloride ( kcl ) dissolves in water, the ions are hydrated. the polar water molecules are attracted by the charges on the k + and cl−ions. water molecules in front of and behind the ions are not shown. when ionic compounds dissolve in water, the ions in the solid separ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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covalent compounds conduct electricity because the solute molecules react chemically with the solvent to produce ions. for example, pure hydrogen chloride is a gas consisting of covalent hcl molecules. this gas contains no ions. however, an aqueous solution of hcl is a very good conductor, indicating that an appreciabl... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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11. 3 solubility learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : • describe the effects of temperature and pressure on solubility • state henry ’ s law and use it in calculations involving the solubility of a gas in a liquid • explain the degrees of solubility possible for liquid - liquid solution... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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text chapters on equilibrium ). for example, the carbonated beverage in an open container that has not yet “ gone flat ” is supersaturated with carbon dioxide gas ; given time, the co2 concentration will decrease until it reaches its solubility. link to learning watch this impressive video ( http : / / openstax. org / ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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11. 3 • solubility 555 oxygen is approximately three times greater than that of helium ( there are greater dispersion forces between water and the larger oxygen molecules ) but 100 times less than the solubility of chloromethane, chcl3 ( polar chloromethane molecules experience dipole – dipole attraction to polar water... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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##ute in the gas to which the 556 11 • solutions and colloids access for free at openstax. org solution is exposed. gas solubility increases as the pressure of the gas increases. carbonated beverages provide a nice illustration of this relationship. the carbonation process involves exposing the beverage to a relatively... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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oxygen when its partial pressure is 20. 7 kpa, the approximate pressure of oxygen in earth ’ s atmosphere. solution according to henry ’ s law, for an ideal solution the solubility, cg, of a gas ( 1. 38 10−3 mol l−1, in this case ) is directly proportional to the pressure, pg, of the undissolved gas above the solution ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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2 mol / l ). then, use this k value to compute the oxygen solubility at the specified oxygen partial pressure, 0. 17 atm. finally, convert this dissolved oxygen concentration from mol / l to mg / l. this concentration is lesser than the required minimum value of 7. 5 mg / l, and so these trout would likely not thrive i... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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8. 2 mg / l 558 11 • solutions and colloids access for free at openstax. org deviations from henry ’ s law are observed when a chemical reaction takes place between the gaseous solute and the solvent. thus, for example, the solubility of ammonia in water increases more rapidly with increasing pressure than predicted by... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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may form bubbles that can cause a variety of symptoms ranging from rashes and joint pain to paralysis and death. to avoid dcs, divers must ascend from depths at relatively slow speeds ( 10 or 20 m / min ) or otherwise make several decompression stops, pausing for several minutes at given depths during the ascent. when ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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11. 3 • solubility 559 that the lake underwent a turnover due to gradual heating from below the lake, and the warmer, less - dense water saturated with carbon dioxide reached the surface. consequently, tremendous quantities of dissolved co2 were released, and the colorless gas, which is denser than air, flowed down the... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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. for such liquids, the dipole - dipole attractions ( or hydrogen bonding ) of the solute molecules with the solvent molecules are at least as strong as those between molecules in the pure solute or in the pure solvent. hence, the two kinds of molecules mix easily. likewise, nonpolar liquids are miscible with each othe... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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11. 3 • solubility 561 figure 11. 14 water and oil are immiscible. mixtures of these two substances will form two separate layers with the less dense oil floating on top of the water. ( credit : “ yortw ” / flickr ) two liquids, such as bromine and water, that are of moderate mutual solubility are said to be partially ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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11. 3 • solubility 563 the temperature dependence of solubility can be exploited to prepare supersaturated solutions of certain compounds. a solution may be saturated with the compound at an elevated temperature ( where the solute is more soluble ) and subsequently cooled to a lower temperature without precipitating th... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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11. 4 colligative properties learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : • express concentrations of solution components using mole fraction and molality • describe the effect of solute concentration on various solution properties ( vapor pressure, boiling point, freezing point, and osmotic pr... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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##x. org at different temperatures, due to the contraction / expansion of the solution. more appropriate for calculations involving many colligative properties are mole - based concentration units whose values are not dependent on temperature. two such units are mole fraction ( introduced in the previous chapter on gas... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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mass of solvent ( in kg ). first, use the given mass of ethylene glycol and its molar mass to find the moles of solute : then, convert the mass of the water from grams to kilograms : finally, calculate molality per its definition : 11. 4 • colligative properties 565 check your learning what are the mole fraction and mo... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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7. 14 10−3 ; 0. 399 m example 11. 4 converting mole fraction and molal concentrations calculate the mole fraction of solute and solvent in a 3. 0 m solution of sodium chloride. solution converting from one concentration unit to another is accomplished by first comparing the two unit definitions. in this case, both unit... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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1. 50 m 566 11 • solutions and colloids access for free at openstax. org example 11. 5 molality and molarity conversions intravenous infusion of a 0. 556 m aqueous solution of glucose ( density of 1. 04 g / ml ) is part of some post - operative recovery therapies. what is the molal concentration of glucose in this solu... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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14. 6 m vapor pressure lowering as described in the chapter on liquids and solids, the equilibrium vapor pressure of a liquid is the pressure exerted by its gaseous phase when vaporization and condensation are occurring at equal rates : dissolving a nonvolatile substance in a volatile liquid results in a lowering of th... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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11. 4 • colligative properties 567 higher boiling point as described in the next section of this module. figure 11. 18 the presence of nonvolatile solutes lowers the vapor pressure of a solution by impeding the evaporation of solvent molecules. the relationship between the vapor pressures of solution components and the... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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solvent ( ethanol ) and use raoult ’ s law to compute the solution ’ s vapor pressure. check your learning a solution contains 5. 00 g of urea, co ( nh2 ) 2 ( a nonvolatile solute ) and 0. 100 kg of water. if the vapor pressure of pure water at 25 °c is 23. 7 torr, what is the vapor pressure of the solution assuming id... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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23. 4 torr distillation of solutions solutions whose components have significantly different vapor pressures may be separated by a selective vaporization process known as distillation. consider the simple case of a mixture of two volatile liquids, a and b, with a being the more volatile liquid. raoult ’ s law can be us... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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11. 4 • colligative properties 569 figure 11. 19 a typical laboratory distillation unit is shown in ( a ) a photograph and ( b ) a schematic diagram of the components. ( credit a : modification of work by “ rifleman82 ” / wikimedia commons ; credit b : modification of work by “ slashme ” / wikimedia commons ) oil refin... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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solute species : where kb is the boiling point elevation constant, or the ebullioscopic constant and m is the molal concentration ( molality ) of all solute species. boiling point elevation constants are characteristic properties that depend on the identity of the solvent. values of kb for several solvents are listed i... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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8. 1 table 11. 2 the extent to which the vapor pressure of a solvent is lowered and the boiling point is elevated depends on the total number of solute particles present in a given amount of solvent, not on the mass or size or chemical identities of the particles. a 1 m aqueous solution of sucrose ( 342 g / mol ) and a... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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109. 2 °c example 11. 8 the boiling point of an iodine solution find the boiling point of a solution of 92. 1 g of iodine, i2, in 800. 0 g of chloroform, chcl3, assuming that the iodine is nonvolatile and that the solution is ideal. solution a four - step approach to solving this problem is outlined below. 572 11 • sol... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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100. 12 °c freezing point depression solutions freeze at lower temperatures than pure liquids. this phenomenon is exploited in “ de - icing ” schemes that use salt ( figure 11. 21 ), calcium chloride, or urea to melt ice on roads and sidewalks, and in the use of ethylene glycol as an “ antifreeze ” in automobile radiat... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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11. 4 • colligative properties 573 values depend on the chemical identity of the solvent. values of kf for several solvents are listed in table 11. 2. example 11. 9 calculation of the freezing point of a solution assuming ideal solution behavior, what is the freezing point of the 0. 33 m solution of a nonvolatile nonel... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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propylene glycol, are often used. the glycols used in radiator fluid not only lower the freezing point of the liquid, but they elevate the boiling point, making the fluid useful in both winter and summer. heated glycols are often sprayed onto the surface of airplanes prior to takeoff in inclement weather in the winter ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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frozen, it is actually just the solvent molecules that figure 11. 22 freezing point depression is exploited to remove ice from ( a ) roadways and ( b ) the control surfaces of aircraft. | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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11. 4 • colligative properties 575 undergo the liquid - to - solid transition, forming pure solid solvent that excludes solute species. the solid and gaseous phases, therefore, are composed of solvent only, and so transitions between these phases are not subject to colligative effects. osmosis and osmotic pressure of s... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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the solution to rise, increasing its hydrostatic pressure ( due to the weight of the column of solution in the tube ) and resulting in a faster transfer of solvent molecules back to the pure solvent side. when the pressure reaches a value that yields a reverse solvent transfer rate equal to the osmosis rate, bulk trans... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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greater than the osmotic pressure of a solution will reverse osmosis. solvent molecules from the solution are pushed into the pure solvent. | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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11. 4 • colligative properties 577 examples of osmosis are evident in many biological systems because cells are surrounded by semipermeable membranes. carrots and celery that have become limp because they have lost water can be made crisp again by placing them in water. water moves into the carrot or celery cells by os... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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) is used to purify water in many applications, from desalination plants in coastal cities, to water - purifying machines in grocery stores ( figure 11. 26 ), and smaller reverse - osmosis household units. with a hand - operated pump, small ro units can be used in third - world countries, disaster areas, and in lifeboa... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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solve this problem using the following steps. step 1. determine the change in freezing point from the observed freezing point and the freezing point of pure benzene ( table 11. 2 ). | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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11. 4 • colligative properties 579 step 2. determine the molal concentration from kf, the freezing point depression constant for benzene ( table 11. 2 ), and δtf. step 3. determine the number of moles of compound in the solution from the molal concentration and the mass of solvent used to make the solution. step 4. det... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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1. 8 102 g / mol example 11. 12 determination of a molar mass from osmotic pressure a 0. 500 l sample of an aqueous solution containing 10. 0 g of hemoglobin has an osmotic pressure of 5. 9 torr at 22 °c. assuming ideal solution behavior, what is the molar mass of hemoglobin? solution here is one set of steps that can ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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25. 0 ml of solution has an osmotic pressure of 0. 56 torr at 25 °c? answer : 3 104 g / mol colligative properties of electrolytes as noted previously in this module, the colligative properties of a solution depend only on the number, not on the identity, of solute species dissolved. the concentration terms in the equa... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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-0.005127964075654745,
-0.00... |
of solute particles in solution to the number of formula units dissolved : values for measured van ’ t hoff factors for several solutes, along with predicted values assuming complete dissociation, are shown in table 11. 3. predicated and measured van ’ t hoff factors for several 0. 050 m aqueous solutions formula unit ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
0.016523221507668495,
0.01674589142203331,
0.04626142233610153,
0.025525838136672974,
-0.07341331988573074,
0.020656906068325043,
0.05239864066243172,
-0.00161073193885386,
0.018513381481170654,
0.04226086288690567,
0.00935549195855856,
0.01720583438873291,
0.006623913999646902,
-0.0065106... |
3. 4 table 11. 3 in 1923, the chemists peter debye and erich huckel proposed a theory to explain the apparent incomplete ionization of strong electrolytes. they suggested that although interionic attraction in an aqueous solution is very greatly reduced by solvation of the ions and the insulating action of the polar so... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
0.02162087894976139,
0.0828179270029068,
0.030292855575680733,
0.004733433946967125,
-0.08721540868282318,
0.0265472661703825,
0.004143153317272663,
0.00896731112152338,
0.006436825729906559,
0.0489727146923542,
0.016105758026242256,
0.003958601038902998,
0.022416653111577034,
-0.011339163... |
convert from grams to moles of nacl using the molar mass of nacl in the unit conversion factor. result : 0. 072 mol nacl step 2. determine the number of moles of ions present in the solution using the number of moles of ions in 1 mole of nacl as the conversion factor ( 2 mol ions / 1 mol nacl ). result : 0. 14 mol ions... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.0034852565731853247,
0.05183567479252815,
0.025709526613354683,
0.00712834857404232,
-0.04015207663178444,
-0.026407938450574875,
0.004334280267357826,
0.0129879554733634,
0.0012873871019110084,
0.07542390376329422,
0.05461376532912254,
-0.01921500824391842,
0.008449769578874111,
-0.030... |
11. 5 colloids learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : • describe the composition and properties of colloidal dispersions • list and explain several technological applications of colloids as a child, you may have made suspensions such as mixtures of mud and water, flour and water, or a sus... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.00325999828055501,
0.010768456384539604,
0.02338332310318947,
-0.018699556589126587,
-0.03090258687734604,
-0.027173615992069244,
-0.025431081652641296,
-0.031193718314170837,
0.030749201774597168,
0.03412109240889549,
0.03585871309041977,
0.03162261098623276,
0.035185493528842926,
-0.0... |
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