text stringlengths 1 3.55k | source stringlengths 24 207 | emb listlengths 1.02k 1.02k |
|---|---|---|
17. 4 potential, free energy, and equilibrium potential is a thermodynamic quantity reflecting the intrinsic driving force of a redox process, and it is directly related to the free energy change and equilibrium constant for the process. for redox processes taking place in electrochemical cells, the maximum ( electrica... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.041832052171230316,
0.02139182761311531,
-0.023877615109086037,
0.022245079278945923,
-0.02247657999396324,
-0.002191836480051279,
0.005071459338068962,
-0.019430793821811676,
-0.02838674560189247,
0.07719631493091583,
0.06815509498119354,
0.01887422613799572,
0.03186803683638573,
-0.01... |
17. 5 batteries and fuel cells galvanic cells designed specifically to function as electrical power supplies are called batteries. a variety of both single - use batteries ( primary cells ) and rechargeable batteries ( secondary cells ) are commercially available to serve a variety of applications, with important speci... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.01746155321598053,
-0.016038930043578148,
0.002935583470389247,
0.021589454263448715,
-0.009370521642267704,
0.03543948009610176,
-0.019324377179145813,
-0.03143372759222984,
0.0357583723962307,
0.007830842398107052,
0.03811842203140259,
-0.016477035358548164,
0.058206893503665924,
-0.0... |
17. 1 review of redox chemistry 1. identify each half - reaction below as either oxidation or reduction. ( a ) ( b ) ( c ) ( d ) 2. identify each half - reaction below as either oxidation or reduction. ( a ) ( b ) ( c ) ( d ) 3. assuming each pair of half - reactions below takes place in an acidic solution, write a bal... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.009663427248597145,
0.016807179898023605,
0.00206752703525126,
-0.0025144051760435104,
-0.04772135987877846,
0.0061427694745361805,
0.01543138176202774,
0.013831470161676407,
0.0024995431303977966,
0.08713610470294952,
0.04442360997200012,
0.03700589761137962,
0.04367620125412941,
-0.04... |
17. 2 galvanic cells 11. write cell schematics for the following cell reactions, using platinum as an inert electrode as needed. ( a ) ( b ) ( c ) ( d ) 12. assuming the schematics below represent galvanic cells as written, identify the half - cell reactions occurring in each. ( a ) ( b ) 13. write a balanced equation ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.013573209755122662,
0.009443254210054874,
-0.0002715126611292362,
0.005400920286774635,
-0.036350034177303314,
0.00275432993657887,
0.0062964255921542645,
-0.02368956431746483,
0.011571044102311134,
0.06191004812717438,
0.047210708260536194,
0.019061435014009476,
0.0396006740629673,
-0.... |
allowed to proceed. was the electrode an anode or a cathode? explain. 20. the masses of three electrodes ( a, b, and c ), each from three different galvanic cells, were measured before and after the cells were allowed to pass current for a while. the mass of electrode a increased, that of electrode b was unchanged, and... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
0.024082718417048454,
-0.009985503740608692,
-0.017716074362397194,
-0.0036326188128441572,
-0.05165644735097885,
0.03609413281083107,
-0.007561799138784409,
-0.008260274305939674,
0.038435403257608414,
0.011763149872422218,
0.05264439433813095,
-0.007515857461839914,
0.015377800911664963,
... |
17. 3 electrode and cell potentials 21. calculate the standard cell potential for each reaction below, and note whether the reaction is spontaneous under standard state conditions. ( a ) ( b ) ( c ) ( d ) 22. calculate the standard cell potential for each reaction below, and note whether the reaction is spontaneous und... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.010919897817075253,
0.020933354273438454,
0.019463175907731056,
-0.01386899035423994,
-0.005398380104452372,
0.0006339671090245247,
0.03202148899435997,
0.00563710555434227,
0.023702235892415047,
0.07738663256168365,
0.04169812425971031,
0.0136555265635252,
0.029852574691176414,
-0.0140... |
17. 4 potential, free energy, and equilibrium 27. for each pair of standard cell potential and electron stoichiometry values below, calculate a corresponding standard free energy change ( kj ). ( a ) 0. 000 v, n = 2 ( b ) + 0. 434 v, n = 2 ( c ) −2. 439 v, n = 1 28. for each pair of standard free energy change and elec... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.008442427963018417,
0.036346569657325745,
0.0176168791949749,
0.014532000757753849,
-0.031087305396795273,
-0.013362823985517025,
0.012372637167572975,
-0.0015887451590970159,
-0.00025938291219063103,
0.08450642973184586,
0.07063998281955719,
-0.009039053693413734,
0.03140532225370407,
... |
17. 5 batteries and fuel cells 32. consider a battery made from one half - cell that consists of a copper electrode in 1 m cuso4 solution and another half - cell that consists of a lead electrode in 1 m pb ( no3 ) 2 solution. ( a ) what is the standard cell potential for the battery? ( b ) what are the reactions at the... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.01861514523625374,
0.010321415029466152,
-0.001840883633121848,
-0.0043815672397613525,
-0.012582380324602127,
0.0029324146453291178,
0.013459598645567894,
-0.008564171381294727,
0.03518961742520332,
0.06126917153596878,
0.033164963126182556,
0.034558817744255066,
0.026287224143743515,
... |
17. 6 corrosion 37. which member of each pair of metals is more likely to corrode ( oxidize )? ( a ) mg or ca ( b ) au or hg ( c ) fe or zn ( d ) ag or pt 38. consider the following metals : ag, au, mg, ni, and zn. which of these metals could be used as a sacrificial anode in the cathodic protection of an underground s... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
0.016420895233750343,
0.03709733858704567,
0.06371881812810898,
0.015502247959375381,
-0.035710595548152924,
0.019275028258562088,
0.0014383133966475725,
0.007760313805192709,
0.03526589646935463,
0.015493977814912796,
0.012913631275296211,
-0.04368135333061218,
0.03763134405016899,
-0.039... |
17. 7 electrolysis 43. if a 2. 5 a current flows through a circuit for 35 minutes, how many coulombs of charge moved through the circuit? 44. for the scenario in the previous question, how many electrons moved through the circuit? 45. write the half - reactions and cell reaction occurring during electrolysis of each mo... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
0.02867746166884899,
0.03575054556131363,
0.012868017889559269,
0.012712154537439346,
-0.02872828021645546,
0.005898435600101948,
0.013851314783096313,
-0.004001157823950052,
0.017619192600250244,
0.05171353742480278,
0.03598377853631973,
0.010987005196511745,
0.04213027283549309,
-0.06842... |
periodicity 18. 2 occurrence and preparation of the representative metals 18. 3 structure and general properties of the metalloids 18. 4 structure and general properties of the nonmetals 18. 5 occurrence, preparation, and compounds of hydrogen 18. 6 occurrence, preparation, and properties of carbonates 18. 7 occurrence... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.011944680474698544,
0.0012205950915813446,
0.026837773621082306,
-0.04067843407392502,
-0.046684566885232925,
0.02273453213274479,
-0.04615633934736252,
-0.007148076314479113,
0.03124791756272316,
0.05656266584992409,
0.04341958835721016,
-0.07409454882144928,
0.02551911398768425,
-0.03... |
18. 12 occurrence, preparation, and properties of the noble gases the development of the periodic table in the mid - 1800s came from observations that there was a periodic relationship between the properties of the elements. chemists, who have an understanding of the variations of these properties, have been able to us... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.0063614677637815475,
0.019814448431134224,
0.026150137186050415,
0.00266272178851068,
-0.019133012741804123,
0.023300763219594955,
-0.033869680017232895,
-0.026687152683734894,
0.015359251759946346,
0.030880337581038475,
0.02560827136039734,
-0.047492653131484985,
0.01823972351849079,
-... |
18. 1 periodicity learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : • classify elements • make predictions about the periodicity properties of the representative elements we begin this section by examining the behaviors of representative metals in relation to their positions in the periodic table. t... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
0.00900683831423521,
0.012546156533062458,
0.01785794273018837,
-0.027975009754300117,
-0.014856668189167976,
0.0337538905441761,
-0.03239794075489044,
0.006159126292914152,
-0.0039047899190336466,
0.06622899323701859,
0.047947958111763,
-0.02937115915119648,
0.020346665754914284,
-0.03901... |
a salt is an ionic compound consisting of cations and anions. 858 18 • representative metals, metalloids, and nonmetals access for free at openstax. org figure 18. 2 the location of the representative metals is shown in the periodic table. nonmetals are shown in green, metalloids in purple, and the transition metals an... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.032732389867305756,
0.004677206743508577,
0.02977958880364895,
-0.006983895320445299,
-0.02827628143131733,
0.027893293648958206,
-0.002180107170715928,
0.015696730464696884,
0.0039934259839355946,
0.028028137981891632,
0.05832254886627197,
-0.008961023762822151,
0.03315410763025284,
-0... |
first ionization energy in their periods. this combination makes it very easy to remove the single electron in the outermost ( valence ) shell of each. the easy loss of this valence electron means that these metals readily form stable cations with a charge of 1 +. their | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.017575746402144432,
0.05914265662431717,
0.024818623438477516,
-0.02317584492266178,
-0.044203609228134155,
-0.029352767392992973,
-0.01471279002726078,
-0.00941772386431694,
0.00043953940621577203,
0.02353627048432827,
0.041820574551820755,
0.02909899316728115,
0.010687052272260189,
-0... |
18. 1 • periodicity 859 reactivity increases with increasing atomic number due to the ease of losing the lone valence electron ( decreasing ionization energy ). since oxidation is so easy, the reverse, reduction, is difficult, which explains why it is hard to isolate the elements. the solid alkali metals are very soft ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.01825105957686901,
0.04416302964091301,
0.033026326447725296,
-0.002755469409748912,
-0.026987649500370026,
0.0029434063471853733,
-0.01582545042037964,
0.002820051973685622,
0.010078506544232368,
0.043335922062397,
0.038680125027894974,
-0.023862581700086594,
0.020460814237594604,
-0.0... |
zirconium relies, in part, on the ability of sodium to reduce compounds of these metals. the manufacture of many organic compounds, including 860 18 • representative metals, metalloids, and nonmetals access for free at openstax. org certain dyes, drugs, and perfumes, utilizes reduction by lithium or sodium. sodium and ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.014965372160077095,
0.006932561751455069,
0.03529931232333183,
-0.0019358282443135977,
-0.044745199382305145,
0.025511540472507477,
-0.04055190086364746,
0.00813877210021019,
0.003718773601576686,
0.054570164531469345,
0.04451100900769234,
-0.036436762660741806,
0.042849913239479065,
-0... |
ionization energy makes the alkaline earth metals less reactive than the alkali metals ; however, they are still very reactive elements. their reactivity increases, as expected, with increasing size and decreasing ionization energy. in chemical reactions, these metals readily lose both valence electrons to form compoun... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.014760087244212627,
0.04907430335879326,
0.04030532017350197,
-0.010279410518705845,
-0.03324711695313454,
0.022650837898254395,
-0.026422303169965744,
0.006498086266219616,
-0.006591748911887407,
0.022357909008860588,
0.02659199759364128,
-0.004801211878657341,
0.0183088481426239,
-0.0... |
18. 1 • periodicity 861 electrolysis. even though the ionization energies are low, the two metals with the highest ionization energies ( beryllium and magnesium ) do form compounds that exhibit some covalent characters. like the alkali metals, the heavier alkaline earth metals impart color to a flame. as in the case of... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.005449153948575258,
0.005288483574986458,
0.046296246349811554,
0.003204452572390437,
-0.026529425755143166,
0.048498496413230896,
-0.028676826506853104,
0.013081499375402927,
0.02509692683815956,
0.011209526099264622,
0.024634068831801414,
-0.01865972764790058,
0.029268091544508934,
-0... |
indicator. ( credit : modification of work by sahar atwa ) the potent reducing power of hot magnesium is useful in preparing some metals from their oxides. indeed, magnesium ’ s affinity for oxygen is so great that burning magnesium reacts with carbon dioxide, producing elemental carbon : for this reason, a co2 fire ex... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.011708525009453297,
-0.016306059435009956,
0.045316848903894424,
0.023094812408089638,
-0.04847784712910652,
0.026842812076210976,
-0.04623058810830116,
0.010048364289104939,
0.02010970748960972,
0.05474500730633736,
0.03452637419104576,
-0.02482093684375286,
0.02749445289373398,
-0.066... |
discussion. the chemical behaviors of zinc and cadmium are quite similar to each other but differ from that of mercury. zinc and cadmium have lower reduction potentials than hydrogen, and, like the alkali metals and alkaline earth metals, they will produce hydrogen gas when they react with acids. the reaction of zinc w... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.02081918530166149,
0.019285961985588074,
0.02718489244580269,
0.016799870878458023,
-0.0681503638625145,
0.017954260110855103,
-0.0233650840818882,
-0.0035119433887302876,
0.04321052506566048,
0.03283312916755676,
0.017809780314564705,
-0.03726159408688545,
0.042303670197725296,
-0.0353... |
such a system begins with the attachment of a more active metal ( more negative reduction potential ) to the metal needing protection. attachment may be direct or via a wire. to complete the circuit, a salt bridge is necessary. this salt bridge is often seawater or ground water. once the circuit is complete, oxidation ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.013862527906894684,
0.030053099617362022,
-0.003316749818623066,
-0.0007668398320674896,
-0.059806037694215775,
0.0030740699730813503,
-0.004200881812721491,
-0.010785975493490696,
0.05373774468898773,
0.013172539882361889,
0.025892166420817375,
-0.028697164729237556,
0.026357844471931458... |
18. 1 • periodicity 863 mercury is very different from zinc and cadmium. mercury is the only metal that is liquid at 25 °c. many metals dissolve in mercury, forming solutions called amalgams ( see the feature on amalgams ), which are alloys of mercury with one or more other metals. mercury, shown in figure 18. 8, is a ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
0.011648916639387608,
0.02048393525183201,
-0.010479271411895752,
0.02698543481528759,
-0.03187863901257515,
-0.0027967626228928566,
-0.03375168517231941,
0.02225072681903839,
0.042272258549928665,
0.08014058321714401,
0.0213913731276989,
-0.0282132551074028,
0.034423477947711945,
-0.05226... |
the gold into the mercury to form an amalgam for easier collection. unfortunately, losses of small amounts of mercury over the years left many streams in california polluted with mercury. dentists use amalgams containing silver and other metals to fill cavities. there are several reasons to use an amalgam including low... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
0.01591603085398674,
0.020038912072777748,
-0.0043353610672056675,
0.04809095710515976,
-0.07096746563911438,
-0.02261359617114067,
0.020894620567560196,
0.03809554502367973,
0.009891415946185589,
0.0450877919793129,
0.00478926720097661,
-0.02144569344818592,
0.0034740723203867674,
-0.0553... |
melt in your hand. aluminum is amphoteric because it will react with both acids and bases. a typical reaction with an acid is : the products of the reaction of aluminum with a base depend upon the reaction conditions, with the following being one possibility : with both acids and bases, the reaction with aluminum gener... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.006717086303979158,
0.0478830486536026,
0.014306479133665562,
0.018653875216841698,
-0.04783766716718674,
-0.0017618349520489573,
-0.013119776733219624,
-0.005945457611232996,
0.024645114317536354,
0.06364793330430984,
0.004456650000065565,
-0.008368276059627533,
0.029503874480724335,
-... |
occurs as a tough, hard, thin film of the metal oxide forms upon exposure to air. disruption of this film may counter the passivation, allowing the metal to react. one way to disrupt the film is to expose the passivated metal to mercury. some of the metal dissolves in the mercury to form an amalgam, which sheds the pro... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.005447000730782747,
0.04500873014330864,
-0.005276720505207777,
0.04162406548857689,
-0.0461578406393528,
0.015259793028235435,
-0.02227708138525486,
0.031297218054533005,
0.054703377187252045,
0.045863356441259384,
-0.0040275296196341515,
0.004411519505083561,
0.03598874434828758,
-0.0... |
18. 1 • periodicity 865 aluminum is a very good reducing agent and may replace other reducing agents in the isolation of certain metals from their oxides. although more expensive than reduction by carbon, aluminum is important in the isolation of mo, w, and cr from their oxides. group 14 the metallic members of group 1... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
0.004216023255139589,
0.01233381126075983,
0.03083452396094799,
0.0011497088707983494,
-0.010155091993510723,
-0.01640595681965351,
-0.023683208972215652,
-0.01050304714590311,
0.021158821880817413,
0.057312555611133575,
0.0405491404235363,
-0.025079211220145226,
0.019327303394675255,
-0.0... |
the difference between these forms of tin is in the arrangement of the atoms. white tin is stable above 13. 2 °c and is malleable like other metals. at low temperatures, gray tin is the more stable form. gray tin is brittle and tends to break down to a powder. consequently, articles made of tin will disintegrate in col... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.030217420309782028,
0.004030122421681881,
0.026684418320655823,
0.0002667435328476131,
-0.03426533192396164,
-0.006844643969088793,
-0.015801450237631798,
-0.013265985995531082,
0.02349383570253849,
0.06635557115077972,
0.061694949865341187,
0.008960788138210773,
0.041747260838747025,
-... |
18. 2 occurrence and preparation of the representative metals learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : • identify natural sources of representative metals • describe electrolytic and chemical reduction processes used to prepare these elements from natural sources because of their reactivity... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.021099621430039406,
0.04176865145564079,
0.0322391614317894,
-0.0004139381635468453,
-0.04805309325456619,
0.011820863001048565,
-0.02545030228793621,
0.011482947506010532,
0.0057871295139193535,
0.024300111457705498,
0.05014807730913162,
-0.050398439168930054,
0.03658048436045647,
-0.0... |
in the isolation of reactive metals in their pure forms. sodium, aluminum, and magnesium are typical examples. the preparation of sodium the most important method for the production of sodium is the electrolysis of molten sodium chloride ; the set - up is a downs cell, shown in figure 18. 10. the reaction involved in t... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.0347701832652092,
0.052052658051252365,
0.006309730466455221,
0.03744610399007797,
-0.019362131133675575,
-0.01866483874619007,
-0.01326565258204937,
0.006781817879527807,
0.020747125148773193,
0.03841917961835861,
0.019959252327680588,
0.015691809356212616,
0.021081676706671715,
-0.040... |
18. 2 • occurrence and preparation of the representative metals 867 figure 18. 10 pure sodium metal is isolated by electrolysis of molten sodium chloride using a downs cell. it is not possible to isolate sodium by electrolysis of aqueous solutions of sodium salts because hydrogen ions are more easily reduced than are s... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.022319789975881577,
0.029736723750829697,
0.030140405520796776,
0.012292151339352131,
-0.03053552471101284,
-0.011192562989890575,
-0.037004873156547546,
0.020086970180273056,
0.025329479947686195,
0.028435731306672096,
0.03408510982990265,
-0.011427298188209534,
0.044115856289863586,
-... |
carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide form at the anode. 868 18 • representative metals, metalloids, and nonmetals access for free at openstax. org figure 18. 11 an electrolytic cell is used for the production of aluminum. the electrolysis of a solution of cryolite and calcium fluoride results in aluminum metal at the ca... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.016920095309615135,
0.02392783761024475,
0.03253310173749924,
0.00400199880823493,
-0.02758648991584778,
-0.006867197807878256,
-0.004177790600806475,
0.0077214473858475685,
0.05262875184416771,
0.017190178856253624,
0.041233036667108536,
-0.02132922224700451,
0.02629981003701687,
-0.05... |
in the chapter on fundamental equilibrium concepts ). the production of magnesium, zinc, and tin provide additional examples of chemical reduction. | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.0018804108258336782,
0.011513808742165565,
0.027133509516716003,
-0.0013113557361066341,
-0.04146507754921913,
-0.013495810329914093,
-0.042646825313568115,
-0.006627182941883802,
0.017919208854436874,
0.04807128384709358,
0.03203930705785751,
-0.010568268597126007,
0.018386464565992355,
... |
18. 2 • occurrence and preparation of the representative metals 869 the preparation of magnesium the pidgeon process involves the reaction of magnesium oxide with elemental silicon at high temperatures to form pure magnesium : although this reaction is unfavorable in terms of thermodynamics, the removal of the magnesiu... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.012647830881178379,
0.008565003052353859,
0.03914983570575714,
0.008343541994690895,
-0.04131703078746796,
0.007202463690191507,
-0.05093876272439957,
-0.015642590820789337,
0.031321167945861816,
0.04278211295604706,
0.01701534353196621,
-0.014881148003041744,
0.058127790689468384,
-0.0... |
18. 3 structure and general properties of the metalloids learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : • describe the general preparation, properties, and uses of the metalloids • describe the preparation, properties, and compounds of boron and silicon a series of six elements called the metallo... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
0.006309156771749258,
-0.009079166688024998,
0.0037397027481347322,
-0.02407992258667946,
0.0016318690031766891,
0.03606114163994789,
-0.021040869876742363,
-0.009995690546929836,
0.005029467865824699,
0.041004594415426254,
-0.0014629201032221317,
-0.04324834421277046,
0.03521452844142914,
... |
it commonly forms tetrahedral structures in which it is sp3 hybridized with a formal oxidation state of 4 +. the major differences between the chemistry of carbon and silicon result from the relative strength of the carbon - carbon bond, carbon ’ s ability to form stable bonds to itself, and the presence of the empty 3... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.01601989008486271,
0.008109237998723984,
0.03505343198776245,
-0.0011105338344350457,
-0.0018244987586513162,
0.054337028414011,
-0.038674790412187576,
-0.03638312593102455,
0.012921182438731194,
0.022591356188058853,
0.007567553780972958,
-0.05343842878937721,
0.04353123530745506,
-0.0... |
regular tetrahedron. single crystals of silicon and germanium are giant, three - dimensional molecules. there are several allotropes of arsenic with the most stable being layer like and containing puckered sheets of arsenic atoms. each arsenic atom forms covalent bonds to three other atoms within the sheet. the crystal... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
0.00966357346624136,
0.019011199474334717,
0.032312653958797455,
-0.007171984296292067,
-0.011253631673753262,
0.041460782289505005,
-0.010715097188949585,
-0.028215382248163223,
0.005207977257668972,
0.010360286571085453,
0.00419820100069046,
-0.042511921375989914,
0.0038211732171475887,
... |
18. 3 • structure and general properties of the metalloids 871 figure 18. 13 an icosahedron is a symmetrical, solid shape with 20 faces, each of which is an equilateral triangle. the faces meet at 12 corners. the name silicon is derived from the latin word for flint, silex. the metalloid silicon readily forms compounds... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.00978750642389059,
0.01923139952123165,
-0.0008016307838261127,
-0.002325604669749737,
-0.03820944204926491,
0.03865230455994606,
0.015937773510813713,
0.010618876665830612,
0.00552902277559042,
0.031344667077064514,
0.03870127350091934,
-0.023122543469071388,
0.019939010962843895,
-0.0... |
amorphous substance is a material that appears to be a solid, but does not have a long - range order like a true solid. treatment with hydrochloric acid removes the magnesium oxide. further purification of the boron begins with conversion of the impure boron into boron trichloride. the next step is to heat a mixture of... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
0.0008083811262622476,
0.018209531903266907,
0.00034679193049669266,
0.056310877203941345,
-0.034643180668354034,
-0.014072907157242298,
0.007114958018064499,
-0.03591005504131317,
0.011913254857063293,
0.03252936527132988,
0.019829602912068367,
-0.020303059369325638,
0.041106872260570526,
... |
. figure 18. 14 a zone - refining apparatus used to purify silicon. this highly purified silicon, containing no more than one part impurity per million parts of silicon, is the most important element in the computer industry. pure silicon is necessary in semiconductor electronic devices such as transistors, computer ch... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.030792387202382088,
0.021835776045918465,
0.03262755274772644,
0.04540402442216873,
-0.02828075736761093,
-0.012553674168884754,
-0.001031865132972598,
-0.02510366216301918,
0.006814568303525448,
0.048526566475629807,
-0.011926566250622272,
0.00116212316788733,
0.03244520723819733,
-0.0... |
18. 3 • structure and general properties of the metalloids 873 antimony reacts readily with stoichiometric amounts of fluorine, chlorine, bromine, or iodine, yielding trihalides or, with excess fluorine or chlorine, forming the pentahalides sbf5 and sbcl5. depending on the stoichiometry, it forms antimony ( iii ) sulfi... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.00468679191544652,
0.03599660098552704,
0.04600922390818596,
-0.006547963246703148,
-0.021224699914455414,
0.02720489166676998,
-0.018362797796726227,
-0.011103592813014984,
0.023236872628331184,
0.03872254863381386,
0.007302776910364628,
-0.040302302688360214,
0.022045280784368515,
-0.... |
, which is a nonpolar, low - boiling ( 57 °c ), colorless liquid. it is possible to prepare silicon tetrafluoride by the reaction of silicon dioxide with hydrofluoric acid : hydrofluoric acid is the only common acid that will react with silicon dioxide or silicates. this reaction occurs because the silicon - fluorine b... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.011137813329696655,
0.02306455560028553,
0.0010391217656433582,
0.06182514503598213,
-0.0408460907638073,
0.0077583640813827515,
-0.0007924774545244873,
0.012307443656027317,
0.02451719343662262,
0.04734586551785469,
0.0068864598870277405,
-0.015109640546143055,
0.04585110768675804,
-0.... |
3 is sp2 hybridized and is located at the center of an equilateral triangle with oxygen atoms at the corners. in solid b ( oh ) 3, hydrogen bonding holds these triangular units together. boric acid, shown in figure 18. 16, is a very weak acid that does not act as a proton donor but rather as a lewis acid, accepting an ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
0.009849854744970798,
0.02623448520898819,
0.002829167991876602,
0.00523002352565527,
-0.028934920206665993,
0.028090447187423706,
0.021953189745545387,
0.0014003330143168569,
0.012247353792190552,
0.03783973306417465,
0.0359363779425621,
-0.02060515433549881,
0.017860082909464836,
-0.0736... |
##8h2o, which is an important component of some laundry detergents. most of the supply of borax comes directly from dry lakes, such as searles lake in california, or is prepared from kernite, na2b4o7⋅4h2o. | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.021295208483934402,
0.039303191006183624,
0.01285962201654911,
-0.010109665803611279,
-0.0468645803630352,
0.005634738598018885,
0.014248991385102272,
-0.006729640066623688,
0.01335951592773199,
0.04130558669567108,
0.012944432906806469,
-0.024520358070731163,
0.0013526437105610967,
-0.... |
18. 3 • structure and general properties of the metalloids 875 figure 18. 17 the borate anions are ( a ) cab2o4, ( b ) kb5o8⋅4h2o, and ( c ) na2b4o7⋅10h2o. the anion in cab2o4 is an “ infinite ” chain. silicon dioxide, silica, occurs in both crystalline and amorphous forms. the usual crystalline form of silicon dioxide... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.0018885041354224086,
0.019798055291175842,
0.022769702598452568,
0.025193365290760994,
-0.04312120005488396,
0.038005661219358444,
-0.013708737678825855,
-0.010396032594144344,
0.01771942898631096,
0.04972671717405319,
0.045129768550395966,
-0.01838666945695877,
0.029869381338357925,
-0... |
such as carbon, form very strong π bonds, which is why carbon dioxide forms small molecules with strong double bonds. elements below the second period, such as silicon, do not form π bonds as readily as second - period elements, and when they do form, the π bonds are weaker than those formed by second - period elements... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.007922424003481865,
0.010407092049717903,
0.028833825141191483,
0.011743736453354359,
-0.032125528901815414,
0.02805952914059162,
-0.03813016414642334,
0.013150681741535664,
0.03526557609438896,
0.06405407935380936,
0.04258225858211517,
-0.030456148087978363,
0.03862154483795166,
-0.043... |
##trahedra with oxygen at the corners. there is a variation in the silicon - to - oxygen ratio that occurs because silicon - oxygen tetrahedra may exist as discrete, independent units or may share oxygen atoms at corners in a variety of ways. in addition, the presence of a variety of cations gives rise to the large num... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.019888652488589287,
0.01977423019707203,
-0.009007187560200691,
-0.025640325620770454,
-0.029274167492985725,
0.025454221293330193,
-0.0028466065414249897,
0.005943290423601866,
0.020080778747797012,
0.03805069997906685,
0.024196406826376915,
-0.005694025661796331,
0.021797925233840942,
... |
18. 4 • structure and general properties of the nonmetals 877 the nonmetals are elements located in the upper right portion of the periodic table. their properties and behavior are quite different from those of metals on the left side. under normal conditions, more than half of the nonmetals are gases, one is a liquid,... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.03047862835228443,
0.015509599819779396,
0.024028701707720757,
-0.0035833052825182676,
-0.0016878306632861495,
0.0028526729438453913,
0.009800096042454243,
0.003342969110235572,
-0.003262996207922697,
0.03963831067085266,
0.01004242803901434,
-0.01873762719333172,
0.015316134318709373,
... |
##de ion, n3−, and the selenide ion, se2−. the common oxidation states that the nonmetals exhibit in their ionic and covalent compounds are shown in figure 18. 19. remember that an element exhibits a positive oxidation state when combined with a more electronegative element and that it exhibits a negative oxidation sta... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.0021394432988017797,
0.006710025016218424,
0.04180292785167694,
0.0034059803001582623,
-0.010368459858000278,
0.02608998864889145,
-0.036138106137514114,
0.008362519554793835,
0.01116937305778265,
0.044467709958553314,
0.024631327018141747,
-0.01913849078118801,
0.05470958724617958,
-0.... |
that of the nonmetal becomes negative as it undergoes reduction. for example : 878 18 • representative metals, metalloids, and nonmetals access for free at openstax. org 2. with the exception of nitrogen and carbon, which are poor oxidizing agents, a more electronegative nonmetal oxidizes a less electronegative nonmeta... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
0.02221912518143654,
0.01071404479444027,
-0.005283129867166281,
0.030778884887695312,
0.013273116201162338,
0.014285599812865257,
0.009296057745814323,
0.015468349680304527,
0.02890958823263645,
0.0651886984705925,
0.02060757949948311,
0.0008828337304294109,
0.0393708162009716,
-0.0439517... |
, in which the nonmetal exhibits one of its common oxidation states, are acid anhydrides and react with water to form acids with no change in oxidation state. the product is an oxyacid. for example : 2. those oxides such as no2 and clo2, in which the nonmetal does not exhibit one of its common oxidation states, also re... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.004461188334971666,
0.02506902441382408,
0.024586627259850502,
-0.01648695021867752,
-0.011647030711174011,
0.03653541952371597,
0.01121750008314848,
0.0018118028528988361,
0.031288377940654755,
0.06171654537320137,
-0.014453292824327946,
-0.004039917606860399,
0.03278299793601036,
-0.0... |
18. 4 • structure and general properties of the nonmetals 879 whereas in a metal, there is delocalization of the electrons throughout the solid. the noble gases are all monatomic, whereas the other nonmetal gases — hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, and chlorine — normally exist as the diatomic molecules h2, n2, o2,... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.016958625987172127,
0.0100169712677598,
0.039802052080631256,
0.003587746759876609,
0.0029909848235547543,
0.013657166622579098,
-0.02266600914299488,
-0.011178183369338512,
0.013997460715472698,
0.046429745852947235,
0.0382111556828022,
-0.03724914416670799,
0.012558667920529842,
-0.06... |
high melting points ( ~ 4400 °c ). figure 18. 20 ( a ) diamond and ( b ) graphite are two forms of carbon. ( c ) in the crystal structure of diamond, the covalent bonds form three - dimensional tetrahedrons. ( d ) in the crystal structure of graphite, each planar layer is composed of six - membered rings. ( credit a : ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.0025808934587985277,
-0.012113523669540882,
0.04382441192865372,
-0.010610265657305717,
0.019076911732554436,
0.013088585808873177,
0.0015268026618286967,
-0.03095959685742855,
0.009472479112446308,
0.019922154024243355,
0.024245331063866615,
0.00027436402160674334,
0.013030242174863815,
... |
weak forces in the chapter on liquids and solids. the weak forces between layers give graphite the soft, flaky character that makes it useful as the so - called “ lead ” in pencils and the slippery character that makes it useful as a lubricant. the loosely held electrons in the resonating π bonds can move throughout th... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.030998677015304565,
-0.0059591070748865604,
0.027318213135004044,
0.002294492907822132,
-0.007706707343459129,
0.01705089770257473,
-0.021894749253988266,
-0.038138411939144135,
0.014662222005426884,
0.024081770330667496,
0.06180678680539131,
-0.007194221019744873,
0.02922096848487854,
... |
18. 4 • structure and general properties of the nonmetals 881 chemistry in everyday life nanotubes and graphene graphene and carbon nanotubes are two recently discovered allotropes of carbon. both of the forms bear some relationship to graphite. graphene is a single layer of graphite ( one atom thick ), as illustrated ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.007605877239257097,
-0.013696856796741486,
0.011318289674818516,
-0.026205379515886307,
0.023503875359892845,
0.026693161576986313,
-0.0233363825827837,
-0.04340717941522598,
0.018404632806777954,
0.03901851177215576,
0.016786374151706696,
-0.053389016538858414,
0.015551099553704262,
-0... |
carbon allotropes, which have a cylindrical structure. like graphite and graphene, nanotubes consist of rings of sp2 - hybridized carbon atoms. unlike graphite and graphene, which occur in layers, the layers wrap into a tube and bond together to produce a stable structure. the walls of the tube may be one atom or multi... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
0.0010366436326876283,
-0.022157475352287292,
0.029492830857634544,
-0.012926940806210041,
0.03025270439684391,
0.011753197759389877,
-0.012914968654513359,
-0.015192368067800999,
0.04248389974236488,
0.07164023071527481,
0.030664531514048576,
-0.0502263568341732,
0.0094229681417346,
-0.05... |
atoms in the molecule by single covalent bonds. white phosphorus is the most reactive allotrope and is very toxic. figure 18. 24 ( a ) because white phosphorus bursts into flame in air, it is stored in water. ( b ) the structure of white phosphorus consists of p4 molecules arranged in a tetrahedron. ( c ) red phosphoru... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
0.024149231612682343,
0.00838524755090475,
0.022436518222093582,
0.021769914776086807,
0.006688195746392012,
0.004194025415927172,
-0.01165852788835764,
-0.01710404083132744,
0.028805604204535484,
0.053298041224479675,
0.03136446326971054,
-0.030671004205942154,
0.02825607731938362,
-0.025... |
this liquid gives long needles of monoclinic sulfur. this form is stable from 96 °c to the melting point, 119 °c. at room temperature, it gradually reverts to the rhombic form. both rhombic sulfur and monoclinic sulfur contain s8 molecules in which atoms form eight - membered, puckered rings that resemble crowns, as il... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.018408512696623802,
0.0034306994639337063,
0.03471142053604126,
-0.004953279625624418,
0.003542705439031124,
0.026016734540462494,
-0.049997154623270035,
-0.056836001574993134,
0.026305198669433594,
0.0797000452876091,
0.036189813166856766,
-0.027996884658932686,
0.0026897615753114223,
... |
18. 4 • structure and general properties of the nonmetals 883 two neighbors in the ring by covalent s - s single bonds. figure 18. 25 these four sulfur allotropes show eight - membered, puckered rings. each sulfur atom bonds to each of its two neighbors in the ring by covalent s - s single bonds. here are ( a ) individ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.007141742389649153,
0.019683348014950752,
0.048687368631362915,
0.012297973968088627,
0.002200295217335224,
0.02558331936597824,
-0.0386313870549202,
-0.014130250550806522,
-0.003950618207454681,
0.07513157278299332,
0.049467794597148895,
-0.021104926243424416,
0.036794453859329224,
-0.... |
org as seen in this discussion, an important feature of the structural behavior of the nonmetals is that the elements usually occur with eight electrons in their valence shells. if necessary, the elements form enough covalent bonds to supplement the electrons already present to possess an octet. for example, members of... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
0.005468990188091993,
0.04459236562252045,
0.035825200378894806,
0.007327673025429249,
-0.02643563598394394,
0.027971552684903145,
-0.026156814768910408,
-0.0014087024610489607,
0.019092554226517677,
0.04874124377965927,
0.04726247861981392,
-0.027153896167874336,
0.014650761149823666,
-0.... |
18. 5 occurrence, preparation, and compounds of hydrogen learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : • describe the properties, preparation, and compounds of hydrogen hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe. the sun and other stars are composed largely of hydrogen. astronomers es... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.03784438595175743,
0.034715887159109116,
0.019712049514055252,
-0.043038055300712585,
-0.05426555126905441,
0.016708657145500183,
-0.005152984522283077,
0.008673342876136303,
0.007700819056481123,
0.022691411897540092,
0.02632893994450569,
-0.06881017237901688,
0.02675369195640087,
-0.0... |
of hydrogen. passing steam over coke ( an impure form of elemental carbon ) at 1000 °c produces a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen known as water gas : water gas is as an industrial fuel. it is possible to produce additional hydrogen by mixing the water gas with steam in the presence of a catalyst to convert the... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.0196047592908144,
0.022682279348373413,
-0.008052557706832886,
-0.03217169642448425,
-0.037174589931964874,
-0.018329964950680733,
0.0022451633121818304,
-0.022755112498998642,
0.07518278062343597,
0.050894223153591156,
0.033669330179691315,
-0.003541607642546296,
0.050454266369342804,
... |
18. 5 • occurrence, preparation, and compounds of hydrogen 885 net reaction is : figure 18. 26 the electrolysis of water produces hydrogen and oxygen. because there are twice as many hydrogen atoms as oxygen atoms and both elements are diatomic, there is twice the volume of hydrogen produced at the cathode as there is ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.050935741513967514,
0.01724151149392128,
0.0019715086091309786,
-0.019558366388082504,
-0.056252386420965195,
0.005560996942222118,
0.0033771046437323093,
-0.0038988320156931877,
0.040188875049352646,
0.0520419217646122,
0.012907524593174458,
-0.02612699754536152,
0.07747825235128403,
-... |
kj of energy per mole of water formed. hydrogen burns without explosion under controlled conditions. the oxygen - hydrogen torch, because of the high heat of combustion of hydrogen, can achieve temperatures up to 2800 °c. the hot flame of this torch is useful in cutting thick sheets of many metals. liquid hydrogen is a... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.01675437204539776,
0.03092239983379841,
0.007554326206445694,
0.020406093448400497,
-0.042520489543676376,
0.022233586758375168,
-0.0007258376572281122,
-0.008207119069993496,
0.032127998769283295,
0.05682608485221863,
0.03209003433585167,
0.0019219211535528302,
0.051307693123817444,
-0... |
the nonmetal increases. hydrogen reacts with nitrogen and sulfur only when heated, but it reacts explosively with fluorine ( forming hf ) and, under some conditions, with chlorine ( forming hcl ). a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen explodes if ignited. because of the explosive nature of the reaction, it is necessary to e... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.028890058398246765,
0.04434151574969292,
0.02062818966805935,
0.0009511172538623214,
-0.05286281183362007,
0.003492462681606412,
-0.005150627810508013,
0.01746407151222229,
0.026179930195212364,
0.045956581830978394,
0.03356507048010826,
0.005489028058946133,
0.037749551236629486,
-0.03... |
18. 5 • occurrence, preparation, and compounds of hydrogen 887 chemical reactions of hydrogen with other elements general equation comments ionic hydrides with group 1 and ca, sr, and ba requires high pressure and temperature ; low yield exothermic and potentially explosive requires heating ; low yield x = f, cl, br, a... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.039641235023736954,
0.03155824542045593,
0.03904219716787338,
-0.027585593983530998,
-0.061059340834617615,
0.014545747078955173,
-0.019196106120944023,
-0.0018909196369349957,
0.024802468717098236,
0.05003257095813751,
0.03985833749175072,
-0.007121394854038954,
0.028465386480093002,
-... |
is useful as a refrigerant. ammonia is quite soluble in water ( 658 l at stp dissolves in 1 l h2o ). the chemical properties of ammonia are as follows : 888 18 • representative metals, metalloids, and nonmetals access for free at openstax. org 1. ammonia acts as a brønsted base, as discussed in the chapter on acid - ba... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.003909591119736433,
0.015697799623012543,
0.017398182302713394,
-0.010192571207880974,
-0.047584883868694305,
0.044907499104738235,
-0.022966841235756874,
-0.0008122766157612205,
0.002780771814286709,
0.06621480733156204,
0.017308859154582024,
-0.01791142113506794,
-0.009433185681700706,
... |
further to produce hydrazine, n2h4 : anhydrous hydrazine is relatively stable in spite of its positive free energy of formation : hydrazine is a fuming, colorless liquid that has some physical properties remarkably similar to those of h2o ( it melts at 2 °c, boils at 113. 5 °c, and has a density at 25 °c of 1. 00 g / m... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.005593922454863787,
0.0042473431676626205,
0.024938145652413368,
0.008022946305572987,
-0.051182348281145096,
0.006567149888724089,
-0.010641862638294697,
0.011897505261003971,
0.005773021839559078,
0.02137640304863453,
-0.0016752431401982903,
-0.03351721540093422,
0.03577845171093941,
... |
18. 5 • occurrence, preparation, and compounds of hydrogen 889 from solution. sulfur hydrogen compounds hydrogen sulfide, h2s, is a colorless gas that is responsible for the offensive odor of rotten eggs and of many hot springs. hydrogen sulfide is as toxic as hydrogen cyanide ; therefore, it is necessary to exercise g... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.03298203647136688,
0.056119758635759354,
0.019435210153460503,
-0.027004031464457512,
-0.058757878839969635,
-0.022711673751473427,
-0.04321068897843361,
0.005227725021541119,
0.04452672228217125,
0.047705281525850296,
0.02997755818068981,
-0.06234295293688774,
0.04438706487417221,
-0.0... |
soluble sulfides and hydrogen sulfides are basic : halogen hydrogen compounds binary compounds containing only hydrogen and a halogen are hydrogen halides. at room temperature, the pure hydrogen halides hf, hcl, hbr, and hi are gases. in general, it is possible to prepare the halides by the general techniques used to p... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.018728572875261307,
0.055961158126592636,
0.012001648545265198,
0.001989220967516303,
-0.05299077555537224,
0.026748334988951683,
-0.020073657855391502,
0.005676678381860256,
0.02481202408671379,
0.01725642941892147,
0.018091635778546333,
-0.03860741853713989,
0.039256732910871506,
-0.0... |
##halic acids with metals, metal hydroxides, oxides, or carbonates produce salts of the halides. most chloride salts are soluble in water. agcl, pbcl2, and hg2cl2 are the commonly encountered exceptions. 890 18 • representative metals, metalloids, and nonmetals access for free at openstax. org the halide ions give the ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.024742312729358673,
0.04442824795842171,
-0.0026018505450338125,
0.05480451509356499,
-0.07983364909887314,
0.03518713265657425,
0.0054753790609538555,
0.0019192597828805447,
0.04405819624662399,
0.024506503716111183,
0.03002018854022026,
-0.026312191039323807,
0.03360830992460251,
-0.0... |
steel that is to be galvanized, tinned, or enameled. the amounts of hydrobromic acid and hydroiodic acid used commercially are insignificant by comparison. | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.01609933376312256,
0.019514277577400208,
0.013337098062038422,
0.004576769657433033,
-0.06905108690261841,
0.0006830794736742973,
-0.00641114916652441,
-0.020114639773964882,
0.008854450657963753,
0.0009460189030505717,
-0.004115720745176077,
-0.038035064935684204,
0.020501665771007538,
... |
18. 6 occurrence, preparation, and properties of carbonates learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : • describe the preparation, properties, and uses of some representative metal carbonates the chemistry of carbon is extensive ; however, most of this chemistry is not relevant to this chapte... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.0010845790384337306,
0.012220988050103188,
0.058384157717227936,
-0.030459145084023476,
-0.030338440090417862,
0.03849589452147484,
-0.034377142786979675,
-0.00792374461889267,
0.04537758231163025,
0.040039557963609695,
0.06879507005214691,
-0.031655892729759216,
0.01672891527414322,
-0... |
18. 6 • occurrence, preparation, and properties of carbonates 891 instead of the carbonate. alkali metal hydrogen carbonates such as nahco3 and cshco3 form by saturating a solution of the hydroxides with carbon dioxide. the net ionic reaction involves hydroxide ion and carbon dioxide : it is possible to isolate the sol... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.029437249526381493,
0.028515147045254707,
0.03531575947999954,
-0.01960989087820053,
-0.06148460507392883,
0.05003898963332176,
-0.03230364993214607,
0.021017374470829964,
0.027996288612484932,
0.04367724806070328,
0.05157003924250603,
-0.019633430987596512,
0.023409787565469742,
-0.053... |
active ingredient of the antacid tums, with hydrochloric acid ( stomach acid ), as shown in figure 18. 31, illustrates the reaction : 892 18 • representative metals, metalloids, and nonmetals access for free at openstax. org figure 18. 31 the reaction of calcium carbonate with hydrochloric acid is shown. ( credit : mar... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.028591213747859,
0.024123620241880417,
0.010542204603552818,
0.023486221209168434,
-0.08635591715574265,
0.03392971307039261,
0.004358853679150343,
0.01586119644343853,
0.06301598250865936,
0.04347919672727585,
0.02111061103641987,
0.00003798719626502134,
0.04005781561136246,
-0.0712324... |
18. 7 occurrence, preparation, and properties of nitrogen learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : • describe the properties, preparation, and uses of nitrogen most pure nitrogen comes from the fractional distillation of liquid air. the atmosphere consists of 78 % nitrogen by volume. this m... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
0.002128344029188156,
0.04296461492776871,
0.030634766444563866,
-0.0043019563890993595,
-0.02198360487818718,
-0.002564164577051997,
-0.002292829565703869,
-0.0031143222004175186,
0.019111625850200653,
0.07843498885631561,
0.03637665510177612,
-0.03876601159572601,
0.03076307661831379,
-0... |
18. 7 • occurrence, preparation, and properties of nitrogen 893 large volumes of atmospheric nitrogen are necessary for making ammonia — the principal starting material chemistry in everyday life nitrogen fixation all living organisms require nitrogen compounds for survival. unfortunately, most of these organisms canno... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.00467385770753026,
0.022462598979473114,
0.014065849594771862,
-0.006255016196519136,
-0.022267954424023628,
0.02435721457004547,
-0.008664155378937721,
-0.0378011129796505,
0.042726755142211914,
0.07506320625543594,
0.01943831704556942,
-0.07311572134494781,
0.04616761952638626,
-0.031... |
compounds with nitrogen in all of its oxidation states from 3− to 5 +. much of the chemistry of nitrogen involves oxidation - reduction reactions. some active metals ( such as alkali metals and alkaline earth metals ) can reduce nitrogen to form metal nitrides. in the remainder of this section, we will examine nitrogen... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
0.007330132182687521,
0.04766057804226875,
0.0017615442629903555,
-0.0031868855003267527,
-0.025904040783643723,
-0.008527656085789204,
-0.021952593699097633,
-0.017631854861974716,
0.0362868458032608,
0.07720109075307846,
0.03813544288277626,
-0.017279280349612236,
0.04497505724430084,
-0... |
##tric oxide is the most thermally stable of the nitrogen oxides and is the simplest known thermally stable molecule with an unpaired electron. it is one of the air pollutants generated by internal combustion engines, resulting from the reaction of atmospheric nitrogen and oxygen during the combustion process. at room ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.028432298451662064,
0.03901175037026405,
0.019784584641456604,
0.007264227606356144,
-0.016357652842998505,
-0.020358992740511894,
-0.0299459770321846,
0.01964806206524372,
0.007076679728925228,
0.08321751654148102,
0.02435656078159809,
-0.00020935497013852,
0.057319290935993195,
-0.046... |
18. 7 • occurrence, preparation, and properties of nitrogen 895 figure 18. 35 dinitrogen trioxide, n2o3, only exists in liquid or solid states and has these molecular ( left ) and resonance ( right ) structures. it is possible to prepare nitrogen dioxide in the laboratory by heating the nitrate of a heavy metal, or by ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
0.008750488050282001,
0.008762824349105358,
0.013039089739322662,
-0.011567404493689537,
-0.0016176269855350256,
-0.004548432305455208,
-0.02984684333205223,
0.02478359080851078,
0.019903870299458504,
0.08296636492013931,
0.04698609560728073,
-0.011955072171986103,
0.056980762630701065,
-0... |
38 this image shows the molecular structure and one resonance structure of a molecule of dinitrogen pentaoxide, n2o5. the oxides of nitrogen ( iii ), nitrogen ( iv ), and nitrogen ( v ) react with water and form nitrogen - containing oxyacids. nitrogen ( iii ) oxide, n2o3, is the anhydride of nitrous acid ; hno2 forms ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
0.014500360935926437,
0.0311669260263443,
0.010288139805197716,
0.008082285523414612,
0.014578363858163357,
0.0005794778699055314,
-0.011607474647462368,
0.002538660541176796,
0.027490384876728058,
0.09340301901102066,
0.012535867281258106,
-0.005854214541614056,
0.03154938668012619,
-0.04... |
18. 8 occurrence, preparation, and properties of phosphorus learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : • describe the properties, preparation, and uses of phosphorus the industrial preparation of phosphorus is by heating calcium phosphate, obtained from phosphate rock, with sand and coke : th... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
0.005454608704894781,
-0.018664561212062836,
0.01925337314605713,
-0.02008921280503273,
-0.0593465156853199,
0.02282913587987423,
-0.030452189967036247,
0.01525393221527338,
0.05486471578478813,
0.03534159064292908,
0.019259613007307053,
-0.046474479138851166,
0.045958224684000015,
-0.0151... |
18. 8 • occurrence, preparation, and properties of phosphorus 897 figure 18. 39 p4s3 is a component of the heads of strike - anywhere matches. phosphorus oxygen compounds phosphorus forms two common oxides, phosphorus ( iii ) oxide ( or tetraphosphorus hexaoxide ), p4o6, and phosphorus ( v ) oxide ( or tetraphosphorus ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
0.0030850283801555634,
0.015424108132719994,
0.014066222123801708,
0.010356101207435131,
-0.013499944470822811,
0.00323532335460186,
0.0005072439089417458,
0.02479548752307892,
0.057893723249435425,
0.05049504339694977,
0.028146162629127502,
-0.037449415773153305,
0.035135120153427124,
-0.... |
nonmetals access for free at openstax. org the chlorides pcl3 and pcl5, both shown in figure 18. 41, are the most important halides of phosphorus. phosphorus trichloride is a colorless liquid that is prepared by passing chlorine over molten phosphorus. phosphorus pentachloride is an off - white solid that is prepared b... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.0006117271259427071,
0.031723327934741974,
0.028542593121528625,
0.020194940268993378,
-0.018192388117313385,
0.008627594448626041,
0.007015588227659464,
0.0038455002941191196,
0.007862826809287071,
0.035892363637685776,
0.030554167926311493,
-0.029431290924549103,
-0.00005983177470625378... |
18. 9 occurrence, preparation, and compounds of oxygen learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : • describe the properties, preparation, and compounds of oxygen • describe the preparation, properties, and uses of some representative metal oxides, peroxides, and hydroxides oxygen is the most ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
0.0041255466639995575,
0.032968759536743164,
-0.006775707937777042,
0.003954614046961069,
-0.01807710900902748,
0.014165067113935947,
0.002833462553098798,
-0.011783480644226074,
0.056643251329660416,
0.044309791177511215,
0.0423944815993309,
-0.037854645401239395,
0.0513814352452755,
-0.0... |
or some other illness. the chemical industry employs oxygen for oxidizing many substances. a significant amount of oxygen produced commercially is important in the removal of carbon from iron during steel production. large quantities of pure oxygen are also necessary in metal fabrication and in the cutting and welding ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
0.0008085450972430408,
0.019389431923627853,
-0.008334705606102943,
0.030670002102851868,
-0.012097056023776531,
-0.023647518828511238,
0.006307702511548996,
-0.013710521161556244,
0.035363033413887024,
0.036599259823560715,
0.0314195491373539,
-0.030231615528464317,
0.038794659078121185,
... |
18. 9 • occurrence, preparation, and compounds of oxygen 899 oxyhydrogen and oxyacetylene torches. liquid oxygen is important to the space industry. it is an oxidizing agent in rocket engines. it is also the source of gaseous oxygen for life support in space. as we know, oxygen is very important to life. the energy req... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.006600886583328247,
0.01874249242246151,
0.006777768488973379,
0.016451461240649223,
-0.014622329734265804,
-0.00866006314754486,
-0.02275427244603634,
-0.01277852151542902,
0.027382725849747658,
0.061734333634376526,
0.0032431879080832005,
-0.03356537967920303,
0.04146387055516243,
-0.... |
part, to ozone. figure 18. 42 the image shows the bent ozone ( o3 ) molecule and the resonance structures necessary to describe its bonding. ozone forms naturally in the upper atmosphere by the action of ultraviolet light from the sun on the oxygen there. most atmospheric ozone occurs in the stratosphere, a layer of th... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.007908648811280727,
0.020055070519447327,
0.028620854020118713,
0.008207671344280243,
0.011312801390886307,
0.0016179591184481978,
-0.03705005720257759,
0.017554515972733498,
0.030537689104676247,
0.09495417773723602,
0.011835979297757149,
-0.024665554985404015,
0.02486666850745678,
-0.... |
these substances to colorless compounds. it is an alternative to chlorine as a disinfectant for water. reactions elemental oxygen is a strong oxidizing agent. it reacts with most other elements and many compounds. reaction with elements oxygen reacts directly at room temperature or at elevated temperatures with all oth... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.01827099546790123,
0.036158524453639984,
0.02442201040685177,
0.0020350401755422354,
-0.027240756899118423,
0.009695496410131454,
-0.0030620344914495945,
-0.012500346638262272,
0.04856511205434799,
0.09196346998214722,
0.044027600437402725,
-0.004641891457140446,
0.06201606243848801,
-0... |
ions, with oxygen - oxygen covalent single bonds and a very limited number of superoxides, containing superoxide ions, with oxygen - oxygen covalent bonds that have a bond order of in addition, there are ( 3 ) hydroxides, containing hydroxide ions, oh−. all representative metals form oxides. some of the metals of group... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
0.013695556670427322,
0.042092595249414444,
0.02376868948340416,
0.0029569065663963556,
-0.04131019860506058,
0.015673890709877014,
0.0003667017736006528,
0.012932129204273224,
0.04512535035610199,
0.04994211345911026,
0.047355569899082184,
0.023042896762490273,
0.06150289624929428,
-0.045... |
18. 9 • occurrence, preparation, and compounds of oxygen 901 however, alkali metal salts generally are very stable and do not decompose easily when heated. alkali metal oxides result from the oxidation - reduction reactions created by heating nitrates or hydroxides with the metals. equations for sample reactions are : ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.0210281815379858,
0.04267184063792229,
0.007250291761010885,
0.04768999665975571,
-0.03056141920387745,
0.02166522480547428,
-0.032786257565021515,
0.02125035971403122,
0.05500224232673645,
0.04462933540344238,
0.05385042726993561,
0.011191193014383316,
0.06459981203079224,
-0.064978078... |
) oxide react with water and form hydroxides. examples of such reactions are : the oxides of the alkali metals have little industrial utility, unlike magnesium oxide, calcium oxide, and aluminum oxide. magnesium oxide is important in making firebrick, crucibles, furnace linings, and thermal insulation — applications th... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.029423419386148453,
-0.001815678784623742,
0.035538021475076675,
0.0055280765518546104,
-0.08685166388750076,
0.0022837980650365353,
-0.03136526048183441,
0.021118372678756714,
0.054530344903469086,
0.043685946613550186,
0.025693507865071297,
0.011748605407774448,
0.05829458311200142,
-... |
color of ruby is due to the presence of a small amount of chromium ; other impurities produce the wide variety of colors possible for sapphires. artificial rubies and sapphires are now manufactured by melting aluminum oxide ( melting point = 2050 °c ) with small amounts of oxides to produce the desired colors and cooli... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.018941938877105713,
0.006183979567140341,
0.04264216497540474,
0.024821048602461815,
-0.0479876734316349,
-0.020935263484716415,
-0.018036868423223495,
-0.009017273783683777,
0.01686328649520874,
0.05326537787914276,
0.05342656373977661,
-0.011514876037836075,
0.040337685495615005,
-0.0... |
metal or its oxide in a carefully controlled amount of oxygen : with an excess of oxygen, the superoxides ko2, rbo2, and cso2 form. for example : | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
0.011620163917541504,
0.036857735365629196,
0.012022649869322777,
0.03981257975101471,
-0.02662952058017254,
-0.0262958612293005,
-0.011566996574401855,
0.0026110480539500713,
0.023327546194195747,
0.03854420408606529,
0.03900450840592384,
0.015896497294306755,
0.03228394687175751,
-0.0303... |
18. 9 • occurrence, preparation, and compounds of oxygen 903 the stability of the peroxides and superoxides of the alkali metals increases as the size of the cation increases. hydroxides hydroxides are compounds that contain the oh−ion. it is possible to prepare these compounds by two general types of reactions. solubl... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
0.0024578862357884645,
0.053402937948703766,
0.05342596769332886,
-0.0064599523320794106,
-0.05242958292365074,
0.020860379561781883,
-0.011235134676098824,
0.017620669677853584,
0.008140823803842068,
0.04733574017882347,
0.04731346666812897,
-0.008272112347185612,
0.048297420144081116,
-0... |
acid. figure 18. 45 ( a ) mixing solutions of naoh and zn ( no3 ) 2 produces a white precipitate of zn ( oh ) 2. ( b ) addition of an excess of naoh results in dissolution of the precipitate. ( credit : modification of work by mark ott ) industry uses large quantities of sodium hydroxide as a cheap, strong base. sodium... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.015088490210473537,
0.0519682914018631,
0.03407074138522148,
0.0002747694088611752,
-0.07169759273529053,
0.0014120338018983603,
-0.028855884447693825,
0.03489646688103676,
0.022698024287819862,
0.033784858882427216,
0.001527129439637065,
-0.005625509191304445,
0.033162593841552734,
-0.... |
used to prepare salts. figure 18. 46 calcium carbonate, caco3, can be consumed in the form of an antacid to neutralize the effects of acid in your stomach. ( credit : “ midnightcomm ” / wikimedia commons ) chemistry in everyday life the chlor - alkali process although they are very different chemically, there is a link... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.03262649476528168,
0.06655731797218323,
0.0022493633441627026,
0.02323910780251026,
-0.041193921118974686,
0.00563358748331666,
-0.03870825096964836,
0.035706233233213425,
0.030360229313373566,
0.040507975965738297,
0.00829516164958477,
-0.021098744124174118,
0.027577612549066544,
-0.05... |
18. 9 • occurrence, preparation, and compounds of oxygen 905 nonmetal oxygen compounds most nonmetals react with oxygen to form nonmetal oxides. depending on the available oxidation states for the element, a variety of oxides might form. fluorine will combine with oxygen to form fluorides such as of2, where the oxygen ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.012686720117926598,
0.027824029326438904,
0.03150861710309982,
-0.022496886551380157,
-0.01295135635882616,
0.008892497979104519,
-0.026066413149237633,
-0.010347613133490086,
0.05192533880472183,
0.05458838865160942,
0.043091826140880585,
-0.008455134928226471,
0.06422440707683563,
-0.... |
18. 48 this image shows the structure ( top ) of sulfur trioxide in the gas phase and its resonance forms ( bottom ). the overall result is the conversion of the aqueous solution of nacl to an aqueous solution of naoh, gaseous cl2, and gaseous h2 : 906 18 • representative metals, metalloids, and nonmetals access for fr... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
0.009880132041871548,
0.044061701744794846,
0.02082684449851513,
0.0022207065485417843,
-0.03130524605512619,
0.026539312675595284,
0.024646714329719543,
0.0038131915498524904,
0.041358284652233124,
0.06378653645515442,
0.008006018586456776,
-0.03444366529583931,
0.046962540596723557,
-0.0... |
##2o5, and no2 react with water to form nitric acid, hno3. alchemists, as early as the eighth century, knew nitric acid ( shown in figure 18. 50 ) as aqua fortis ( meaning " strong water " ). the acid was useful in the separation of gold from silver because it dissolves silver but not gold. traces of nitric acid occur ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
-0.031611368060112,
0.05553213506937027,
0.008418625220656395,
-0.0014805968385189772,
-0.015567539259791374,
-0.028168922290205956,
-0.023943006992340088,
0.0197298564016819,
0.026410125195980072,
0.061147309839725494,
0.017377616837620735,
-0.019695475697517395,
0.02590837888419628,
-0.0... |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.