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##lation therapy. 1 national council against health fraud, ncahf policy statement on chelation therapy, ( peabody, ma, 2002 ). | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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19. 2 • coordination chemistry of transition metals 961 answer : ca, fe, zn, and cu ligands are also used in the electroplating industry. when metal ions are reduced to produce thin metal coatings, metals can clump together to form clusters and nanoparticles. when metal coordination complexes are used, the ligands keep... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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19. 3 spectroscopic and magnetic properties of coordination compounds learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : • outline the basic premise of crystal field theory ( cft ) • identify molecular geometries associated with various d - orbital splitting patterns • predict electron configurations... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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pure form, cft ignores any covalent bonding between ligands and metal ions. both the ligand and the metal are treated as infinitesimally small point charges. all electrons are negative, so the electrons donated from the ligands will repel the electrons of the central metal. let us consider the behavior of the electrons... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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, the symbol really refers to the symmetry of the orbitals ). as six ligands approach the metal ion along the axes of the octahedron, their point charges repel the electrons in the d orbitals of the metal ion. however, the repulsions between the electrons in the eg orbitals ( the and orbitals ) and the ligands are grea... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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19. 3 • spectroscopic and magnetic properties of coordination compounds 963 in this series, ligands on the left cause small crystal field splittings and are weak - field ligands, whereas those on the right cause larger splittings and are strong - field ligands. thus, the δoct value for an octahedral complex with iodide... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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coordination complexes with strong - field ligands such as [ fe ( cn ) 6 ] 4−, δoct is greater than p, and the electrons pair in the lower energy t2g orbitals before occupying the eg orbitals. with weak - field ligands such as h2o, the ligand field splitting is less than the pairing energy, δoct less than p, so the ele... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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cl2 964 19 • transition metals and coordination chemistry access for free at openstax. org ( c ) na3 [ co ( no2 ) 6 ] solution the complexes are octahedral. ( a ) cr3 + has a d3 configuration. these electrons will all be unpaired. ( b ) cu2 + is d9, so there will be one unpaired electron. ( c ) co3 + has d6 valence ele... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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, and the octahedral t2g set becomes a t2 set. figure 19. 36 this diagram shows the orientation of the tetrahedral ligands with respect to the axis system for the orbitals. solution since cft is based on electrostatic repulsion, the orbitals closer to the ligands will be destabilized and raised in energy relative to th... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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19. 3 • spectroscopic and magnetic properties of coordination compounds 965 check your learning explain how many unpaired electrons a tetrahedral d4 ion will have. answer : 4 ; because δtet is small, all tetrahedral complexes are high spin and the electrons go into the t2 orbitals before pairing the other common geomet... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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magnetic moment. therefore, the observed magnetic moment is used to determine the number of unpaired electrons present. the measured magnetic moment of low - spin d6 [ fe ( cn ) 6 ] 4−confirms that iron is diamagnetic, | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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19. 3 • spectroscopic and magnetic properties of coordination compounds 967 whereas high - spin d6 [ fe ( h2o ) 6 ] 2 + has four unpaired electrons with a magnetic moment that confirms this arrangement. colors of transition metal complexes when atoms or molecules absorb light at the proper frequency, their electrons ar... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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##3 ) 4 ] 2 + ions absorbs red and orange light, so the transmitted light appears as the complementary color, blue. 968 19 • transition metals and coordination chemistry access for free at openstax. org example 19. 9 colors of complexes the octahedral complex [ ti ( h2o ) 6 ] 3 + has a single d electron. to excite this... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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complex [ fe ( h2o ) 6 ] so4 appears blue - green because the high - spin complex absorbs photons in the red wavelengths ( figure 19. 39 ). in contrast, the low - spin iron ( ii ) complex k4 [ fe ( cn ) 6 ] appears pale yellow because it absorbs higher - energy violet photons. | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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19. 3 • spectroscopic and magnetic properties of coordination compounds 969 figure 19. 39 both ( a ) hexaaquairon ( ii ) sulfate and ( b ) potassium hexacyanoferrate ( ii ) contain d6 iron ( ii ) octahedral metal centers, but they absorb photons in different ranges of the visible spectrum. link to learning watch this v... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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. 40 ). although cft successfully describes many properties of coordination complexes, molecular orbital explanations ( beyond the introductory scope provided here ) are required to understand fully the behavior of coordination complexes. figure 19. 40 ( a ) copper ( i ) complexes with d10 configurations such as cui te... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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metal ligand bonding d - block element one of the elements in groups 3 – 11 with valence electrons in d orbitals donor atom atom in a ligand with a lone pair of electrons that forms a coordinate covalent bond to a central metal eg orbitals set of two d orbitals that are oriented on the cartesian axes for coordination c... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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in two different ways ( cn−vs. nc− ) low - spin complex complex in which the electrons minimize the total electron spin by pairing in the lower - energy orbitals before populating the higher - energy orbitals monodentate ligand that attaches to a central metal through just one coordinate covalent bond optical isomer ( ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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compared to the eg orbitals according to cft third transition series transition elements in the sixth period of the periodic table ( third row of the d - block ), atomic numbers 57 and 72 – 79 trans configuration configuration of a geometrical isomer in which two similar groups are on opposite sides of an imaginary ref... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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19. 1 occurrence, preparation, and properties of transition metals and their compounds the transition metals are elements with partially filled d orbitals, located in the d - block of the periodic table. the reactivity of the transition elements varies widely from very active metals such as scandium and iron to almost ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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19. 2 coordination chemistry of transition metals the transition elements and main group elements can form coordination compounds, or complexes, in which a central metal atom or ion is bonded to one or more ligands by coordinate covalent bonds. ligands with more than one donor atom are called polydentate ligands and fo... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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19. 3 spectroscopic and magnetic properties of coordination compounds crystal field theory treats interactions between the electrons on the metal and the ligands as a simple electrostatic effect. the presence of the ligands near the metal ion changes the energies of the metal d orbitals relative to their energies in th... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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19. 1 occurrence, preparation, and properties of transition metals and their compounds 1. write the electron configurations for each of the following elements : ( a ) sc ( b ) ti ( c ) cr ( d ) fe ( e ) ru 2. write the electron configurations for each of the following elements and its ions : ( a ) ti ( b ) ti2 + ( c ) ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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the ore sample was iron? 12. how many cubic feet of air at a pressure of 760 torr and 0 °c is required per ton of fe2o3 to convert that fe2o3 into iron in a blast furnace? for this exercise, assume air is 19 % oxygen by volume. 13. find the potentials of the following electrochemical cell : cd | cd2 +, m = 0. 10 ‖ ni2 ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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the electrolytic process for refining copper. 19. predict the products of the following reactions and balance the equations. ( a ) zn is added to a solution of cr2 ( so4 ) 3 in acid. ( b ) fecl2 is added to a solution containing an excess of in hydrochloric acid. ( c ) cr2 + is added to in acid solution. ( d ) mn is he... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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19 • exercises access for free at openstax. org 25. give the oxidation state of the metal for each of the following oxides of the first transition series. ( hint : oxides of formula m3o4 are examples of mixed valence compounds in which the metal ion is present in more than one oxidation state. it is possible to write t... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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19. 2 coordination chemistry of transition metals 26. indicate the coordination number for the central metal atom in each of the following coordination compounds : ( a ) [ pt ( h2o ) 2br2 ] ( b ) [ pt ( nh3 ) ( py ) ( cl ) ( br ) ] ( py = pyridine, c5h5n ) ( c ) [ zn ( nh3 ) 2cl2 ] ( d ) [ zn ( nh3 ) ( py ) ( cl ) ( br... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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( nh3 ) 4 ] [ ptcl4 ] ( e ) [ cr ( en ) 3 ] ( no3 ) 3 ( f ) [ pd ( nh3 ) 2br2 ] ( square planar ) ( g ) k3 [ cu ( cl ) 5 ] ( h ) [ zn ( nh3 ) 2cl2 ] 29. sketch the structures of the following complexes. indicate any cis, trans, and optical isomers. ( a ) [ pt ( h2o ) 2br2 ] ( square planar ) ( b ) [ pt ( nh3 ) ( py ) (... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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( co ) 2 ( cl ) 2 ] ( b ) trigonal bipyramidal [ mn ( co ) 4no ] ( c ) [ pt ( en ) 2cl2 ] cl2 34. predict whether the carbonate ligand will coordinate to a metal center as a monodentate, bidentate, or tridentate ligand. 35. draw the geometric, linkage, and ionization isomers for [ cocl5cn ] [ cn ]. | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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19. 3 spectroscopic and magnetic properties of coordination compounds 36. determine the number of unpaired electrons expected for [ fe ( no2 ) 6 ] 3−and for [ fef6 ] 3−in terms of crystal field theory. 37. draw the crystal field diagrams for [ fe ( no2 ) 6 ] 4−and [ fef6 ] 3−. state whether each complex is high spin or... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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metal ion with no change in oxidation number, the stability increases as the number of electrons in the t2g orbitals increases. which complex in each of the following pairs of complexes is more stable? ( a ) [ fe ( h2o ) 6 ] 2 + or [ fe ( cn ) 6 ] 4− ( b ) [ co ( nh3 ) 6 ] 3 + or [ cof6 ] 3− ( c ) [ mn ( cn ) 6 ] 4−or ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, and esters | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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20. 4 amines and amides all living things on earth are formed mostly of carbon compounds. the prevalence of carbon compounds in living things has led to the epithet “ carbon - based ” life. the truth is we know of no other kind of life. early chemists regarded substances isolated from organisms ( plants and animals ) a... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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formed by geological and artificial processes. ( credit left : modification of work by jon sullivan ; credit left middle : modification of work by deb tremper ; credit right middle : modification of work by “ annszyp ” / wikimedia commons ; credit right : modification of work by george shuklin ) chapter outline | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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20. 1 hydrocarbons learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : • explain the importance of hydrocarbons and the reason for their diversity • name saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons, and molecules derived from them • describe the reactions characteristic of saturated and unsaturated hydroca... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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or saturated hydrocarbons, contain only single covalent bonds between carbon atoms. each of the carbon atoms in an alkane has sp3 hybrid orbitals and is bonded to four other atoms, each of which is either carbon or hydrogen. the lewis structures and models of methane, ethane, and pentane are illustrated in figure 20. 2... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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filling models for molecules of methane, ethane, and pentane. a common method used by organic chemists to simplify the drawings of larger molecules is to use a skeletal structure ( also called a line - angle structure ). in this type of structure, carbon atoms are not symbolized with a c, but represented by each end of... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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20. 1 • hydrocarbons 979 solution each carbon atom is converted into the end of a line or the place where lines intersect. all hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon atoms are left out of the structure ( although we still need to recognize they are there ) : check your learning draw the skeletal structures for these two... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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c4h10 – 138. 3 – 0. 5 gas 2 pentane c5h12 – 129. 7 36. 1 liquid 3 hexane c6h14 – 95. 3 68. 7 liquid 5 heptane c7h16 – 90. 6 98. 4 liquid 9 octane c8h18 – 56. 8 125. 7 liquid 18 nonane c9h20 – 53. 6 150. 8 liquid 35 decane c10h22 – 29. 7 174. 0 liquid 75 tetradecane c14h30 5. 9 253. 5 solid 1858 octadecane c18h38 28. 2 ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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20. 1 • hydrocarbons 981 hydrocarbons with the same formula, including alkanes, can have different structures. for example, two alkanes have the formula c4h10 : they are called n - butane and 2 - methylpropane ( or isobutane ), and have the following lewis structures : the compounds n - butane and 2 - methylpropane are... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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alkanes is based on two rules : 1. to name an alkane, first identify the longest chain of carbon atoms in its structure. a two - carbon chain is called ethane ; a three - carbon chain, propane ; and a four - carbon chain, butane. longer chains are named as follows : pentane ( five - carbon chain ), hexane ( 6 ), heptan... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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is indicated by the prefixes di - ( two ), tri - ( three ), tetra - ( four ), and so on ( for example, difluoro - indicates two fluoride substituents ). | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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20. 1 • hydrocarbons 983 example 20. 3 naming halogen - substituted alkanes name the molecule whose structure is shown here : solution the four - carbon chain is numbered from the end with the chlorine atom. this puts the substituents on positions 1 and 2 ( numbering from the other end would put the substituents on pos... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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put the branch on carbon 4, violating our rules ). the branch attached to position 3 of our chain contains two carbon atoms ( numbered in red ) — so we take our name for two carbons eth - and attach - yl at the end to signify we are describing a branch. putting all the pieces together, this molecule is 3 - ethylhexane.... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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20. 1 • hydrocarbons 985 each of the six equivalent hydrogen atoms of the first type in propane and each of the nine equivalent hydrogen atoms of that type in 2 - methylpropane ( all shown in black ) are bonded to a carbon atom that is bonded to only one other carbon atom. the two purple hydrogen atoms in propane are o... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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c4h10, used in camping stoves and lighters is an alkane. gasoline is a liquid mixture of continuous - and branched - chain alkanes, each containing from five to nine carbon atoms, plus various additives to improve its performance as a fuel. kerosene, diesel oil, and fuel oil are primarily mixtures of alkanes with highe... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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20. 1 • hydrocarbons 987 the hybridization of the carbon atoms does not change. for example, the reaction between ethane and molecular chlorine depicted here is a substitution reaction : the c – cl portion of the chloroethane molecule is an example of a functional group, the part or moiety of a molecule that imparts a ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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the formation of isomers based on the position of the double bond, as well as a new form of isomerism. figure 20. 7 expanded structures, ball - and - stick structures, and space - filling models for the alkenes ethene, propene, and 1 - butene are shown. 988 20 • organic chemistry access for free at openstax. org ethyle... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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. figure 20. 8 the reaction for the polymerization of ethylene to polyethylene is shown. polyethylene is a member of one subset of synthetic polymers classified as plastics. plastics are synthetic organic solids that can be molded ; they are typically organic polymers with high molecular masses. most of the monomers th... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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20. 1 • hydrocarbons 989 the name of an alkene is derived from the name of the alkane with the same number of carbon atoms. the presence of the double bond is signified by replacing the suffix - ane with the suffix - ene. the location of the double bond is identified by naming the smaller of the numbers of the carbon a... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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##mer ; the one in which the two methyl groups are on opposite sides is called a trans - isomer ( figure 20. 10 ). the different geometries produce different physical properties, such as boiling point, that may make separation of the isomers possible : figure 20. 10 these molecular models show the structural and geomet... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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20. 1 • hydrocarbons 991 pentene. we begin counting at the end of the chain closest to the double bond — in this case, from the left — the double bond spans carbons 2 and 3, so the name becomes 2 - pentene. since there are two carbon - containing groups attached to the two carbon atoms in the double bond — and they are... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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##kenes except that the suffix - yne is used to indicate a triple bond in the chain. for example, is called 1 - butyne. example 20. 6 structure of alkynes describe the geometry and hybridization of the carbon atoms in the following molecule : solution carbon atoms 1 and 4 have four single bonds and are thus tetrahedral... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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of sp2 - hybridized carbon atoms with the unhybridized p orbital of each carbon atom perpendicular to the plane of the ring. three valence electrons in the sp2 hybrid orbitals of each carbon atom and the valence electron of each hydrogen atom form the framework of σ bonds in the benzene molecule. the fourth valence ele... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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20. 1 • hydrocarbons 993 of the hydrogen atoms with another substituent will leave the delocalized double bonds intact. the following are typical examples of substituted benzene derivatives : toluene and xylene are important solvents and raw materials in the chemical industry. styrene is used to produce the polymer pol... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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20. 2 alcohols and ethers learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : • describe the structure and properties of alcohols • describe the structure and properties of ethers • name and draw structures for alcohols and ethers in this section, we will learn about alcohols and ethers. alcohols inco... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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20. 2 • alcohols and ethers 995 naming alcohols the name of an alcohol comes from the hydrocarbon from which it was derived. the final - e in the name of the hydrocarbon is replaced by - ol, and the carbon atom to which the – oh group is bonded is indicated by a number placed before the name. 5 example 20. 8 naming alc... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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to be placed as an “ infix ” rather than a prefix. for example, the new name for 2 - propanol would be propan - 2 - ol. widespread adoption of this new nomenclature will take some time, and students are encouraged to be familiar with both the old and new naming protocols. 996 20 • organic chemistry access for free at o... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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the groups alphabetically — so butyl comes before methyl in the common name ), is used as an additive for gasoline. mtbe belongs to a group of chemicals known as oxygenates due to their capacity to increase the oxygen content of gasoline. link to learning want more practice naming ethers? this brief video review ( http... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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20. 2 • alcohols and ethers 997 chemistry in everyday life carbohydrates and diabetes carbohydrates are large biomolecules made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. the dietary forms of carbohydrates are foods rich in these types of molecules, like pastas, bread, and candy. the name “ carbohydrate ” comes from the formu... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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illustrations show the molecular structures of fructose, a five - carbon monosaccharide, and of lactose, a disaccharide composed of two isomeric, six - carbon sugars. organisms use carbohydrates for a variety of functions. carbohydrates can store energy, such as the polysaccharides glycogen in animals or starch in plan... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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20. 3 aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, and esters learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : • describe the structure and properties of aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids and esters another class of organic molecules contains a carbon atom connected to an oxygen atom by a double bond, ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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research partner, alfred free, she produced the first such product for measuring glucose ; soon after, she expanded the technology to provide test strips for other compounds and conditions. while very recent advances ( such as breath tests, discussed earlier in the text ) have shown promise in replacing test strips, th... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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20. 3 • aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, and esters 999 in an aldehyde, the carbonyl group is bonded to at least one hydrogen atom. in a ketone, the carbonyl group is bonded to two carbon atoms : as text, an aldehyde group is represented as – cho ; a ketone is represented as – c ( o ) – or – co –. in both aldehyde... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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atom is said to occur when a carbon - hydrogen bond is replaced by a carbon - oxygen bond. the reverse reaction — replacing a carbon - oxygen bond by a carbon - hydrogen bond — is a reduction of that carbon atom. recall that oxygen is generally assigned a – 2 oxidation number unless it is elemental or attached to a flu... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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carries a – 4 oxidation number ( the hydrogen atoms are assigned oxidation numbers of + 1 and the carbon atom balances that by having an oxidation number of – 4 ). for the alcohol ( in this case, methanol ), the carbon atom has an oxidation number of – 2 ( the oxygen atom is assigned – 2, the four hydrogen atoms each a... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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: | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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20. 3 • aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, and esters 1001 alcohols that have their – oh groups in the middle of the chain are necessary to synthesize a ketone, which requires the carbonyl group to be bonded to two other carbon atoms : an alcohol with its – oh group bonded to a carbon atom that is bonded to no or on... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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; and as a solvent in the manufacture of pharmaceuticals and chemicals. carboxylic acids and esters the odor of vinegar is caused by the presence of acetic acid, a carboxylic acid, in the vinegar. the odor of ripe bananas and many other fruits is due to the presence of esters, compounds that can be prepared by the reac... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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of aldehydes or alcohols whose – oh functional group is located on the carbon atom at the end of the chain of carbon atoms in the alcohol : | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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20. 3 • aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, and esters 1003 esters are produced by the reaction of acids with alcohols. for example, the ester ethyl acetate, ch3co2ch2ch3, is formed when acetic acid reacts with ethanol : the simplest carboxylic acid is formic acid, hco2h, known since 1670. its name comes from the lat... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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ch2 ) 14co2h, stearic acid, ch3 ( ch2 ) 16co2h, and oleic acid, oleic acid is an unsaturated acid ; it contains a double bond. palmitic and stearic acids are saturated acids that contain no double or triple bonds. figure 20. 16 over 350 different volatile molecules ( many members of the ester family ) have been identif... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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20. 4 amines and amides learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : • describe the structure and properties of an amine • describe the structure and properties of an amide amines are molecules that contain carbon - nitrogen bonds. the nitrogen atom in an amine has a lone pair of electrons and ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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turn bonded to a phosphate group when new dna is made, a polymerization reaction occurs that binds the phosphate group of one nucleotide to the sugar group of a second nucleotide. the nitrogenous bases of each nucleotide stick out from this sugar - phosphate backbone. dna is actually formed from two such polymers coile... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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20. 4 • amines and amides 1005 this is the principle behind dna fingerprinting, which is a method used to determine whether two dna samples came from related ( or the same ) individuals or unrelated individuals. figure 20. 18 dna is an organic molecule and the genetic material for all living organisms. ( a ) dna is a d... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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dyes, polymers, vitamins, and medications such as penicillin and codeine. they are also found in many molecules essential to life, such as amino acids, hormones, neurotransmitters, and dna. how sciences interconnect addictive alkaloids since ancient times, plants have been used for medicinal purposes. one class of subs... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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20. 4 • amines and amides 1007 in these diagrams, as is common in representing structures of large organic compounds, carbon atoms in the rings and the hydrogen atoms bonded to them have been omitted for clarity. the solid wedges indicate bonds that extend out of the page. the dashed wedges indicate bonds that extend i... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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##ly important. it is through this reaction that amino acids ( molecules containing both amine and carboxylic acid substituents ) link together in a polymer to form proteins. how sciences interconnect proteins and enzymes proteins are large biological molecules made up of long chains of smaller molecules called amino a... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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##peptide. proteins contain at least one long polypeptide chain. | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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20. 4 • amines and amides 1009 figure 20. 20 this condensation reaction forms a dipeptide from two amino acids and leads to the formation of water. enzymes are large biological molecules, mostly composed of proteins, which are responsible for the thousands of metabolic processes that occur in living organisms. enzymes ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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figure 20. 22 ) is a synthetic polymer made from two monomers 1, 4 - phenylene - diamine and terephthaloyl chloride ( kevlar is a registered trademark of dupont ). the material was developed by susan kwolek while she worked to find a replacement for steel in tires. kwolek's work involved synthesizing polyamides and dis... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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20. 4 • amines and amides 1011 figure 20. 23 the diagram shows the polymer structure of kevlar, with hydrogen bonds between polymer chains represented by dotted lines. kevlar may be best known as a component of body armor, combat helmets, and face masks. since the 1980s, the us military has used kevlar as a component o... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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. org the table here summarizes the structures discussed in this chapter : | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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20. 4 • amines and amides 1013 key terms addition reaction reaction in which a double carbon - carbon bond forms a single carbon - carbon bond by the addition of a reactant. typical reaction for an alkene. alcohol organic compound with a hydroxyl group ( – oh ) bonded to a carbon atom aldehyde organic compound containi... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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, and hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon atoms are not shown ( but are understood to be present by the context of the structure ) substituent branch or functional group that replaces hydrogen atoms in a larger hydrocarbon chain substitution reaction reaction in which one atom replaces another in a molecule summary 2... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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20. 3 aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, and esters functional groups related to the carbonyl group include the – cho group of an aldehyde, the – co – group of a ketone, the – co2h group of a carboxylic acid, and the – co2r group of an ester. the carbonyl group, a carbon - oxygen double bond, is the key structure in... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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20. 1 hydrocarbons 1. write the chemical formula and lewis structure of the following, each of which contains five carbon atoms : ( a ) an alkane ( b ) an alkene ( c ) an alkyne 2. what is the difference between the hybridization of carbon atoms ’ valence orbitals in saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons? 3. on a micr... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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1 - pentyne 11. give the complete iupac name for each of the following compounds : ( a ) ch3ch2cbr2ch3 ( b ) ( ch3 ) 3ccl ( c ) ( d ) ( e ) ( f ) ( g ) 12. give the complete iupac name for each of the following compounds : ( a ) ( ch3 ) 2chf ( b ) ch3chclchclch3 ( c ) ( d ) ( e ) ( f ) 13. butane is used as a fuel in d... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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- hexene ( b ) cis - 1 - chloro - 2 - bromoethene ( c ) 2 - pentyne ( d ) trans - 6 - ethyl - 7 - methyl - 2 - octene 23. benzene is one of the compounds used as an octane enhancer in unleaded gasoline. it is manufactured by the catalytic conversion of acetylene to benzene : draw lewis structures for these compounds, w... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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is present as the acetylide ion,. write the formula of the compound showing the acetylide ion. 29. ethylene can be produced by the pyrolysis of ethane : how many kilograms of ethylene is produced by the pyrolysis of 1. 000 103 kg of ethane, assuming a 100. 0 % yield? | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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20. 2 alcohols and ethers 30. why do the compounds hexane, hexanol, and hexene have such similar names? 31. write condensed formulas and provide iupac names for the following compounds : ( a ) ethyl alcohol ( in beverages ) ( b ) methyl alcohol ( used as a solvent, for example, in shellac ) ( c ) ethylene glycol ( anti... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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following reactions, one using condensed formulas and one using lewis structures. ( a ) propanol is converted to dipropyl ether ( b ) propene is treated with water in dilute acid. 39. write two complete balanced equations for each of the following reactions, one using condensed formulas and one using lewis structures. ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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20. 3 aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, and esters 40. order the following molecules from least to most oxidized, based on the marked carbon atom : 41. predict the products of oxidizing the molecules shown in this problem. in each case, identify the product that will result from the minimal increase in oxidation st... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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##cid butter is caused by butyric acid, ch3ch2ch2co2h. ( a ) draw the lewis structure and determine the oxidation number and hybridization for each carbon atom in the molecule. ( b ) the esters formed from butyric acid are pleasant - smelling compounds found in fruits and used in perfumes. draw the lewis structure for ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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20. 4 amines and amides 54. write the lewis structures of both isomers with the formula c2h7n. 55. what is the molecular structure about the nitrogen atom in trimethyl amine and in the trimethyl ammonium ion, ( ch3 ) 3nh +? what is the hybridization of the nitrogen atom in trimethyl amine and in the trimethyl ammonium ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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##ation and nuclear energy 21. 5 uses of radioisotopes | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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21. 6 biological effects of radiation the chemical reactions that we have considered in previous chapters involve changes in the electronic structure of the species involved, that is, the arrangement of the electrons around atoms, ions, or molecules. nuclear structure, the numbers of protons and neutrons within the nuc... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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21. 1 nuclear structure and stability learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : • describe nuclear structure in terms of protons, neutrons, and electrons • calculate mass defect and binding energy for nuclei • explain trends in the relative stability of nuclei nuclear chemistry is the study ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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earth ’ s actual radius is approximately 6. 4 106 meters, 30, 000 times larger ). example 21. 1 demonstrates just how great nuclear densities can be in the natural world. example 21. 1 density of a neutron star neutron stars form when the core of a very massive star undergoes gravitational collapse, causing the star ’ ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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of a hydrogen nucleus is 6. 0 1017 kg / m3. the neutron star is 5. 7 times denser than the hydrogen nucleus. to hold positively charged protons together in the very small volume of a nucleus requires very strong attractive forces because the positively charged protons repel one another strongly at such short distances.... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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