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depolarization and repolarization of adjacent membrane, the depolarization that causes muscle contraction can also stimulate adjacent muscle cells to depolarize ( fire ) and contract. thus, a depolarization wave can be sent across the heart, coordinating its rhythmic contractions and enabling it to perform its vital fu... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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lead ii potential as an indicator of heart - muscle function and see that it is coordinated with arterial blood pressure as well. heart function and its four - chamber action are explored in viscosity and laminar flow ; poiseuille β s law. basically, the right and left atria receive blood from the body and lungs, respe... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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ecg with corresponding arterial blood pressure. the qrs complex is created by the depolarization and contraction of the ventricles and is followed shortly by the maximum or systolic blood pressure. see text for further description. | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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20. 7 β’ nerve conduction β electrocardiograms 891 taken together, the 12 leads of a state - of - the - art ecg can yield a wealth of information about the heart. for example, regions of damaged heart tissue, called infarcts, reflect electrical waves and are apparent in one or more lead potentials. subtle changes due to... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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in hertz alternating current ( ac ) the flow of electric charge that periodically reverses direction ampere ( amp ) the si unit for current ; 1 a = 1 c / s bioelectricity electrical effects in and created by biological systems direct current ( dc ) the flow of electric charge in only one direction drift velocity the av... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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ions to cross it shock hazard when electric current passes through a person short circuit also known as a β short, β a low - resistance path between terminals of a voltage source simple circuit a circuit with a single voltage source and a single resistor temperature coefficient of resistivity an empirical quantity, den... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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20. 1 current β’ electric current is the rate at which charge flows, given by where is the amount of charge passing through an area in time. β’ the direction of conventional current is taken as the direction in which positive charge moves. β’ the si unit for current is the ampere ( a ), where β’ current is the flow of free... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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temperature change. 20. 4 electric power and energy β’ electric power is the rate ( in watts ) that energy is supplied by a source or dissipated by a device. β’ three expressions for electrical power are and β’ the energy used by a device with a power over a time is. | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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20. 5 alternating current versus direct current β’ direct current ( dc ) is the flow of electric current in only one direction. it refers to systems where the source voltage is constant. β’ the voltage source of an alternating current ( ac ) system puts out, where is the voltage at time, is the peak voltage, and is the f... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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20. 1 current 1. can a wire carry a current and still be neutral β that is, have a total charge of zero? explain. 2. car batteries are rated in ampere - hours ( ). to what physical quantity do ampere - hours correspond ( voltage, charge,... ), and what relationship do ampere - hours have to energy content? 894 20 β’ con... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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20. 3 resistance and resistivity 9. in which of the three semiconducting materials listed in table 20. 1 do impurities supply free charges? ( hint : examine the range of resistivity for each and determine whether the pure semiconductor has the higher or lower conductivity. ) 10. does the resistance of an object depend ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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20. 6 electric hazards and the human body 18. using an ohmmeter, a student measures the resistance between various points on his body. they find that the resistance between two points on the same finger is about the same as the resistance between two points on opposite hands β both are several hundred thousand ohms. fu... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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the back of the hand? 27. why is the resistance of wet skin so much smaller than dry, and why do blood and other bodily fluids have low resistances? 28. could a person on intravenous infusion ( an iv ) be microshock sensitive? 29. in view of the small currents that cause shock hazards and the larger currents that circu... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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0. 300 mc of charge. how long does the spark last? 896 20 β’ problems & exercises access for free at openstax. org 7. ( a ) a defibrillator sends a 6. 00 - a current through the chest of a patient by applying a 10, 000 - v potential as in the figure below. what is the resistance of the path? ( b ) the defibrillator padd... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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in x - ray tubes. the electrons are accelerated through a relatively large voltage and directed onto a metal target, producing x - rays. ( a ) how many electrons per second strike the target if the current is 0. 500 ma? ( b ) what charge strikes the target in 0. 750 s? 13. a large cyclotron directs a beam of nuclei ont... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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20. 2 ohm β s law : resistance and simple circuits 18. what current flows through the bulb of a 3. 00 - v flashlight when its hot resistance is? 19. calculate the effective resistance of a pocket calculator that has a 1. 35 - v battery and through which 0. 200 ma flows. 20. what is the effective resistance of a car β s... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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20. 3 resistance and resistivity 24. what is the resistance of a 20. 0 - m - long piece of 12 - gauge copper wire having a 2. 053 - mm diameter? 25. the diameter of 0 - gauge copper wire is 8. 252 mm. find the resistance of a 1. 00 - km length of such wire used for power transmission. 26. if the 0. 010 - mm diameter tu... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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in the resistance of a constantan wire starting at? 35. a wire is drawn through a die, stretching it to four times its original length. by what factor does its resistance increase? 36. a copper wire has a resistance of at, and an iron wire has a resistance of at the same temperature. at what temperature are their resis... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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20. 4 electric power and energy 40. what is the power of a lightning bolt having a current of? 41. what power is supplied to the starter motor of a large truck that draws 250 a of current from a 24. 0 - v battery hookup? 42. a charge of 4. 00 c of charge passes through a pocket calculator β s solar cells in 4. 00 h. wh... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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2. 00 h per day. what is the cost of running it for one year if electricity costs? see figure 20. 37. figure 20. 37 on - demand electric hot water heater. heat is supplied to water only when needed. ( credit : aviddavid, flickr ) 51. with a 1200 - w toaster, how much electrical energy is needed to make a slice of toast... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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is its diameter reduced, assuming uniform thinning along its length? neglect any effects caused by temperature differences. 58. 00 - gauge copper wire has a diameter of 9. 266 mm. calculate the power loss in a kilometer of such wire when it carries. 20 β’ problems & exercises 899 59. integrated concepts cold vaporizers ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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3. 50 a and utilizes 120 v ac with 95. 0 % efficiency. ( a ) what is the vaporization rate in grams per minute? ( b ) how much water must you put into the vaporizer for 8. 00 h of overnight operation? ( see figure 20. 38. ) figure 20. 38 this cold vaporizer passes current directly through water, vaporizing it directly ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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75. 0 g of glass, 250 g of baby formula, and of aluminum from to in 5. 00 min? 62. integrated concepts how much time is needed for a surgical cauterizer to raise the temperature of 1. 00 g of tissue from to and then boil away 0. 500 g of water, if it puts out 2. 00 ma at 15. 0 kv? ignore heat transfer to the surroundin... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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25. 0 m / s in 1. 00 min? ( b ) to climb a - high hill in 2. 00 min at a constant 25. 0 - m / s speed while exerting of force to overcome air resistance and friction? ( c ) to travel at a constant 25. 0 - m / s speed, exerting a force to overcome air resistance and friction? see figure 20. 40. figure 20. 40 this revai,... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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containing 1500 kg of water from to, assuming 75. 0 % efficiency to account for heat transfer to the surroundings? the cost of electricity is. ( b ) what current was used by the 220 - v ac electric heater, if this took | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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4. 00 h? 69. unreasonable results ( a ) what current is needed to transmit of power at 480 v? ( b ) what power is dissipated by the transmission lines if they have a resistance? ( c ) what is unreasonable about this result? ( d ) which assumptions are unreasonable, or which premises are inconsistent? 70. unreasonable r... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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20. 5 alternating current versus direct current 72. ( a ) what is the hot resistance of a 25 - w light bulb that runs on 120 - v ac? ( b ) if the bulb β s operating temperature is, what is its resistance at? 73. certain heavy industrial equipment uses ac power that has a peak voltage of 679 v. what is the rms voltage? ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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power consumption, but one is meant to be operated on 120 - v ac and the other on 240 - v ac. ( a ) what is the ratio of their resistances? ( b ) what is the ratio of their currents? ( c ) assuming its resistance is unaffected, by what factor will the power increase if a 120 - v ac device is connected to 240 - v ac? 82... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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20. 6 electric hazards and the human body 85. ( a ) how much power is dissipated in a short circuit of 220 - v ac through a resistance of? ( b ) what current flows? 86. what voltage is involved in a 1. 44 - kw short circuit through a resistance? 87. find the current through a person and identify the likely effect on he... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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what voltage was applied if 500 j of energy was dissipated? ( c ) what was the path β s resistance? ( d ) find the temperature increase caused in the 8. 00 kg of affected tissue. 93. integrated concepts a short circuit in a 120 - v appliance cord has a resistance. calculate the temperature rise of the 2. 00 g of surrou... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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20. 7 nerve conduction β electrocardiograms 95. integrated concepts use the ecg in figure 20. 31 to determine the heart rate in beats per minute assuming a constant time between beats. 96. integrated concepts ( a ) referring to figure 20. 31, find the time systolic pressure lags behind the middle of the qrs complex. ( ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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21. 6 dc circuits containing resistors and capacitors electric circuits are commonplace. some are simple, such as those in flashlights. others, such as those used in supercomputers, are extremely complex. this collection of modules takes the topic of electric circuits a step beyond simple circuits. when the circuit is ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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21. 1 resistors in series and parallel learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : β’ draw a circuit with resistors in parallel and in series. β’ calculate the voltage drop of a current across a resistor using ohm β s law. β’ contrast the way total resistance is calculated for resistors in series... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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could be a disadvantage if one of the resistances were a faulty high - resistance cord to an appliance that would reduce the operating current. ) figure 21. 3 three resistors connected in series to a battery ( left ) and the equivalent single or series resistance ( right ). to verify that resistances in series do indee... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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any number of resistors in series ; thus, the total resistance of a series connection is as proposed. since all of the current must pass through each resistor, it experiences the resistance of each, and resistances in series simply add up. example 21. 1 calculating resistance, current, voltage drop, and power dissipati... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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21. 1 β’ resistors in series and parallel 905 strategy and solution for ( b ) the current is found using ohm β s law,. entering the value of the applied voltage and the total resistance yields the current for the circuit : strategy and solution for ( c ) the voltage β or drop β in a resistor is given by ohm β s law. ent... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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21. 16 906 21 β’ circuits and dc instruments access for free at openstax. org resistors in parallel figure 21. 4 shows resistors in parallel, wired to a voltage source. resistors are in parallel when each resistor is connected directly to the voltage source by connecting wires having negligible resistance. each resistor... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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21. 1 β’ resistors in series and parallel 907 substituting the expressions for the individual currents gives note that ohm β s law for the equivalent single resistance gives the terms inside the parentheses in the last two equations must be equal. generalizing to any number of resistors, the total resistance of a parall... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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21. 18 21. 19 21. 20 21. 21 21. 22 | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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21. 23 908 21 β’ circuits and dc instruments access for free at openstax. org discussion for ( b ) current for each device is much larger than for the same devices connected in series ( see the previous example ). a circuit with parallel connections has a smaller total resistance than the resistors connected in series. ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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21. 1 β’ resistors in series and parallel 909 this is consistent with the law of conservation of energy. overall discussion note that both the currents and powers in parallel connections are greater than for the same devices in series. combinations of series and parallel more complex connections of resistors are sometim... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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21. 33 major features of resistors in parallel 1. parallel resistance is found from, and it is smaller than any individual resistance in the combination. 2. each resistor in parallel has the same full voltage of the source applied to it. ( power distribution systems most often use parallel connections to supply the myr... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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is, entering this into the expression above, we get 21. 34 21. 35 21. 36 21. 37 21. 38 21. 39 21. 40 | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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21. 1 β’ resistors in series and parallel 911 discussion for ( b ) the voltage applied to and is less than the total voltage by an amount. when wire resistance is large, it can significantly affect the operation of the devices represented by and. strategy and solution for ( c ) to find the current through, we must first... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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which then dims noticeably. 21. 41 21. 42 | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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21. 43 912 21 β’ circuits and dc instruments access for free at openstax. org figure 21. 7 why do lights dim when a large appliance is switched on? the answer is that the large current the appliance motor draws causes a significant drop in the wires and reduces the voltage across the light. check your understanding can ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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21. 2 electromotive force : terminal voltage learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : β’ compare and contrast the voltage and the electromagnetic force of an electric power source. β’ describe what happens to the terminal voltage, current, and power delivered to a load as internal resistance ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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same devices in parallel compared with series, and so on. | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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21. 2 β’ electromotive force : terminal voltage 913 furthermore, if you connect an excessive number of 12 - v lights in parallel to a car battery, they will be dim even when the battery is fresh and even if the wires to the lights have very low resistance. this implies that the battery β s output voltage is reduced by t... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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voltage output of each depends on its construction and load, and equals emf only if there is no load. electromotive force is directly related to the source of potential difference, such as the particular combination of chemicals in a battery. however, emf differs from the voltage output of the device when current flows... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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depleted. but internal resistance may also depend on the magnitude and direction of the current through a voltage source, its temperature, and even its history. the internal resistance of rechargeable nickel - cadmium cells, for example, depends on how many times and how deeply they have been depleted. things great and... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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to allow two electrons to be supplied to the cathode. under many circumstances, these electrons come from the anode, flow through a resistance, and return to the cathode. note also that since the chemical reactions involve substances with resistance, it is not possible to create the emf without an internal resistance. | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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21. 2 β’ electromotive force : terminal voltage 915 why are the chemicals able to produce a unique potential difference? quantum mechanical descriptions of molecules, which take into account the types of atoms and numbers of electrons in them, are able to predict the energy states they can have and the energies of react... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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are depleted, increases. if becomes a significant fraction of the load resistance, then the current is significantly reduced, as the following example illustrates. figure 21. 11 artist β s conception of two electrons being forced onto the anode of a cell and two electrons being removed from the cathode of the cell. the... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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21. 45 916 21 β’ circuits and dc instruments access for free at openstax. org example 21. 4 calculating terminal voltage, power dissipation, current, and resistance : terminal voltage and load a certain battery has a 12. 0 - v emf and an internal resistance of. ( a ) calculate its terminal voltage when connected to a lo... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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21. 2 β’ electromotive force : terminal voltage 917 solution for ( d ) here the internal resistance has increased, perhaps due to the depletion of the battery, to the point where it is as great as the load resistance. as before, we first find the current by entering the known values into the expression, yielding now the... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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a car battery charger reverses the normal direction of current through a battery, reversing its chemical reaction and replenishing its chemical potential. multiple voltage sources there are two voltage sources when a battery charger is used. voltage sources connected in series are relatively simple. when voltage source... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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21. 53 918 21 β’ circuits and dc instruments access for free at openstax. org figure 21. 15. ) series connections of voltage sources are common β for example, in flashlights, toys, and other appliances. usually, the cells are in series in order to produce a larger total emf. but if the cells oppose one another, such as ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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##s. ( note that each emf is represented by script e in the figure. ) a battery charger connected to a battery is an example of such a connection. the charger must have a larger emf than the battery to reverse current through it. | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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21. 2 β’ electromotive force : terminal voltage 919 figure 21. 18 this schematic represents a flashlight with two cells ( voltage sources ) and a single bulb ( load resistance ) in series. the current that flows is. ( note that each emf is represented by script e in the figure. ) figure 21. 19 shows two voltage sources ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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batteries are used. do your predictions match what you observe? now place new batteries in the flashlight and leave the flashlight switched on for several hours. is the flashlight still quite bright? do the same with the old batteries. is the flashlight as bright when left on for the same length of time with old and ne... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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cells β wired in both series and parallel combinations to yield a desired voltage and current. photovoltaic generation ( pv ), the conversion of sunlight directly into electricity, is based upon the photoelectric effect, in which photons hitting the surface of a solar cell create an electric current in the cell. most s... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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21. 3 kirchhoff β s rules learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : β’ analyze a complex circuit using kirchhoff β s rules, using the conventions for determining the correct signs of various terms. many complex circuits, such as the one in figure 21. 21, cannot be analyzed with the series - p... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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##hoff β s rules β’ kirchhoff β s first rule β the junction rule. the sum of all currents entering a junction must equal the sum of all currents leaving the junction. β’ kirchhoff β s second rule β the loop rule. the algebraic sum of changes in potential around any closed circuit path ( loop ) must be zero. 922 21 β’ circ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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v making connections : conservation laws kirchhoff β s rules for circuit analysis are applications of conservation laws to circuits. the first rule is the application of conservation of charge, while the second rule is the application of conservation of energy. conservation laws, even used in a specific application, su... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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21. 3 β’ kirchhoff β s rules 923 across the internal resistance, and 12 v and 5 v across the two load resistances, for a total of 18 v. ( b ) this perspective view represents the potential as something like a roller coaster, where charge is raised in potential by the emf and lowered by the resistances. ( note that the s... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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will help you get the plus or minus signs right when applying the loop rule. note that the resistors and emfs are traversed by going from a to b. in many circuits, it will be necessary to construct more than one loop. in traversing each loop, one needs to be consistent for the sign of the change in potential. ( see exa... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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it is necessary to use kirchhoff β s rules. currents have been labeled,, and in the figure and assumptions have been made about their directions. locations on the diagram have been labeled with letters a through h. in the solution we will apply the junction and loop rules, seeking three independent equations to allow u... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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21. 3 β’ kirchhoff β s rules 925 now solve the third equation for : substituting these two new equations into the first one allows us to find a value for : combining terms gives substituting this value for back into the fourth equation gives the minus sign means flows in the direction opposite to that assumed in figure ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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21. 67 problem - solving strategies for kirchhoff β s rules 1. make certain there is a clear circuit diagram on which you can label all known and unknown resistances, emfs, and currents. if a current is unknown, you must assign it a direction. this is necessary for determining the signs of potential changes. if you ass... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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to circuits of two conservation laws. conservation laws are the most broadly applicable principles in physics. it is usually mathematically simpler to use the rules for series and parallel in simpler circuits so we emphasize kirchhoff β s rules for use in more complicated situations. but the rules for series and parall... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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21. 4 dc voltmeters and ammeters learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : β’ explain why a voltmeter must be connected in parallel with the circuit. β’ draw a diagram showing an ammeter correctly connected in a circuit. β’ describe how a galvanometer can be used as either a voltmeter or an amm... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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21. 4 β’ dc voltmeters and ammeters 927 figure 21. 27 ( a ) to measure potential differences in this series circuit, the voltmeter ( v ) is placed in parallel with the voltage source or either of the resistors. note that terminal voltage is measured between points a and b. it is not possible to connect the voltmeter dir... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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21 β’ circuits and dc instruments access for free at openstax. org if such a galvanometer has a resistance, then a voltage of only produces a full - scale reading. by connecting resistors to this galvanometer in different ways, you can use it as either a voltmeter or ammeter that can measure a broad range of voltages or... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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##meter by placing it in parallel with a small resistance, often called the shunt resistance, as shown in figure 21. 30. since the shunt resistance is small, most of the current passes through it, allowing an ammeter to measure currents much greater than those producing a full - scale deflection of the galvanometer. su... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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0. 999950 a, we have figure 21. 30 a small shunt resistance placed in parallel with a galvanometer g produces an ammeter, the full - scale deflection of which depends on the choice of. the larger the current to be measured, the smaller must be. most of the current ( ) flowing through the meter is shunted through to pro... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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21. 4 β’ dc voltmeters and ammeters 929 the circuit. ideally, voltmeters and ammeters do not appreciably affect the circuit, but it is instructive to examine the circumstances under which they do or do not interfere. first, consider the voltmeter, which is always placed in parallel with the device being measured. very l... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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however, if very small load resistances are involved, or if the ammeter is not as low in resistance as it should be, then the total series resistance is significantly greater, and the current in the branch being measured is reduced. ( see figure 21. 32 ( b ). ) a practical problem can occur if the ammeter is connected ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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analog meters employing galvanometers. how does this explain their ability to measure voltage and current more accurately than analog meters? solution since digital meters require less current than analog meters, they alter the circuit less than analog meters. their resistance as a voltmeter can be far greater than an ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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21. 5 null measurements learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : β’ explain why a null measurement device is more accurate than a standard voltmeter or ammeter. β’ demonstrate how a wheatstone bridge can be used to accurately calculate the resistance in a circuit. standard measurements of vol... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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such as atoms, nuclei, and smaller particles, measurement alters the system in a manner that cannot be made arbitrarily small. this actually limits knowledge of the system β even limiting what nature can know about itself. we shall see profound implications of this when the heisenberg uncertainty principle is discussed... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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21. 5 β’ null measurements 931 figure 21. 33 an analog voltmeter attached to a battery draws a small but nonzero current and measures a terminal voltage that differs from the emf of the battery. ( note that the script capital e symbolizes electromotive force, or emf. ) since the internal resistance of the battery is not... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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connected as shown, and the point of contact along is adjusted until the galvanometer reads zero. the segment of wire has a resistance and script, where is unaffected by the connection since no current flows through the galvanometer. the unknown emf is thus proportional to the resistance of the wire segment. because a ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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21. 72 932 21 β’ circuits and dc instruments access for free at openstax. org wire that zero the galvanometer for each emf. the three quantities on the right - hand side of the equation are now known or measured, and can be calculated. the uncertainty in this calculation can be considerably smaller than when using a vol... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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it is a variable resistance. the value of can be precisely read. with the unknown resistance in the circuit, is adjusted until the galvanometer reads zero. the potential difference between points b and d is then zero, meaning that b and d are at the same potential. with no current running through the galvanometer, it h... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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21. 5 β’ null measurements 933 figure 21. 36 the wheatstone bridge is used to calculate unknown resistances. the variable resistance is adjusted until the galvanometer reads zero with the switch closed. this simplifies the circuit, allowing to be calculated based on the drops as discussed in the text. this equation is u... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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21. 6 dc circuits containing resistors and capacitors β’ explain the importance of the time constant, Ο, and calculate the time constant for a given resistance and capacitance. β’ explain why batteries in a flashlight gradually lose power and the light dims over time. β’ describe what happens to a graph of the voltage acr... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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##itor reaches the same value as the emf. when there is no current, there is no drop, and so the voltage on the capacitor must then equal the emf of the voltage source. this can also be explained with kirchhoff β s second rule ( the loop rule ), discussed in kirchhoff β s rules, which says that the algebraic sum of cha... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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gets to emf the less current flows. the equation for voltage versus time when charging a capacitor through a resistor, derived using calculus, is where is the voltage across the capacitor, emf is equal to the emf of the dc voltage source, and the exponential e = 2. 718 β¦ is the base of the natural logarithm. note that ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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21. 6 β’ dc circuits containing resistors and capacitors 935 hence the rate of discharge decreases, implying another exponential formula for. using calculus, the voltage on a capacitor being discharged through a resistor is found to be figure 21. 38 ( a ) closing the switch discharges the capacitor through the resistor.... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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can be made extremely intense. during world war ii, nighttime reconnaissance photographs were made from the air with a single flash illuminating more than a square kilometer of enemy territory. the brevity of the flash eliminated blurring due to the surveillance aircraft β s motion. today, an important use of intense f... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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21. 80 936 21 β’ circuits and dc instruments access for free at openstax. org example 21. 6 integrated concept problem : calculating capacitor size β strobe lights high - speed flash photography was pioneered by doc edgerton in the 1930s, while he was a professor of electrical engineering at mit. you might have seen exa... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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is relatively easy to obtain today. strobe lights have opened up new worlds from science to entertainment. the information from the picture of the apple and bullet was used in the warren commission report on the assassination of president john f. kennedy in 1963 to confirm that only one bullet was fired. rc circuits fo... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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21. 6 β’ dc circuits containing resistors and capacitors 937 appropriate time constant. pacemakers have sensors that detect body motion and breathing to increase the heart rate during exercise to meet the body β s increased needs for blood and oxygen. figure 21. 40 ( a ) the lamp in this circuit ordinarily has a very hi... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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. 00 ms, the voltage ( 10. 0 kv ) declines to 0. 368 of its initial value. that is : ( notice that we carry an extra digit for each intermediate calculation. ) after another 8. 00 ms, we multiply by 0. 368 again, and the voltage is 21. 84 21. 85 | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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21. 86 938 21 β’ circuits and dc instruments access for free at openstax. org similarly, after another 8. 00 ms, the voltage is discussion so after only 24. 0 ms, the voltage is down to 498 v, or 4. 98 % of its original value. such brief times are useful in heart defibrillation, because the brief but intense current cau... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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21. 6 β’ dc circuits containing resistors and capacitors 939 glossary ammeter an instrument that measures current analog meter a measuring instrument that gives a readout in the form of a needle movement over a marked gauge bridge device a device that forms a bridge between two branches of a circuit ; some bridge device... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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β s second rule, which states that in a closed loop, whatever energy is supplied by emf must be transferred into other forms by devices in the loop, since there are no other ways in which energy can be transferred into or out of the circuit. thus, the emf equals the sum of the ( voltage ) drops in the loop and can be s... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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, wire or other component voltmeter an instrument that measures voltage wheatstone bridge a null measurement device for calculating resistance by balancing potential drops in a circuit 940 21 β’ glossary access for free at openstax. org section summary | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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21. 1 resistors in series and parallel β’ the total resistance of an electrical circuit with resistors wired in a series is the sum of the individual resistances : β’ each resistor in a series circuit has the same amount of current flowing through it. β’ the voltage drop, or power dissipation, across each individual resis... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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