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are given to early stages representing key conditions. the stage before back to is called the electroweak epoch, because the electromagnetic and weak forces become identical for energies above about 100 gev. as discussed earlier, theorists expect that the strong force becomes identical to and thus unified with the elec... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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34. 1 • cosmology and particle physics 1511 forces ( at about ). after this time, the forces become distinct in almost all interactions — they are no longer unified or symmetric. this transition from gut to electroweak is an example of spontaneous symmetry breaking, in which conditions spontaneously evolved to a point ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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such as those found in the early universe could be created in the laboratory, we would see the unification of forces directly today. the forces have not changed in time, but the average energy and separation of particles in the universe have. as discussed in the four basic forces, the four basic forces in nature are di... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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34. 2 general relativity and quantum gravity learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : • explain the effect of gravity on light. • discuss black hole. • explain quantum gravity. when we talk of black holes or the unification of forces, we are actually discussing aspects of general relativity... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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gravitational field. the feet of a person are pressed against the floor, and objects released from hand fall with 1512 34 • frontiers of physics access for free at openstax. org identical accelerations. in fact, it is not possible, without looking outside, to know what is happening — acceleration upward or gravity. thi... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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this discovery created a scientific and public sensation. einstein was now a folk hero as well as a very great scientist. the bending of light by matter is equivalent to a bending of space itself, with light following the curve. this is another radical change in our concept of space and time. it is also another connect... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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34. 2 • general relativity and quantum gravity 1513 distance. the red shift of the intervening galaxy is always less than that of the one being lensed, and each image of the lensed galaxy has the same red shift. this verification supplies more evidence that red shift is proportional to distance. confidence that the mul... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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a dark star into his writings. but the idea was dropped after young ’ s double slit experiment showed light to be a wave. for some time, light was thought not to have particle characteristics and, thus, could not be acted upon by gravity. the idea of a black hole was very quickly reincarnated in 1916 after einstein ’ s... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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. ( see figure 34. 13. ) we have observed x rays from certain binary star systems that are consistent with such a picture. this is not quite proof of black holes, because the x rays could also be caused by matter falling onto a neutron star. these objects were first discovered in 1967 by the british astrophysicists, jo... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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less than a light year across. quasar energy outputs may vary in times less than a year, so that the energy - emitting region must be less than a light year across. the best explanation of quasars is that they are young galaxies with a supermassive black hole forming at their core, and that they become less energetic o... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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34. 2 • general relativity and quantum gravity 1515 pond, then movement of the massive object should create waves in space like those on a pond. gravitational waves are mass - created distortions in space that propagate at the speed of light and are predicted by general relativity. since gravity is by far the weakest f... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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, and other significant advances followed from the british physicist stephen hawking. ( see figure 34. 16. ) these two showed that black holes could radiate away energy by quantum effects just outside the event horizon ( nothing can escape from inside the event horizon ). black holes are, thus, expected to radiate ener... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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##tax. org figure 34. 15 the control room of the ligo gravitational wave detector. gravitational waves will cause extremely small vibrations in a mass in this detector, which will be detected by laser interferometer techniques. such detection in coincidence with other detectors and with astronomical events, such as sup... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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34. 2 • general relativity and quantum gravity 1517 possible in theory. while still debated, it appears that quantum gravity effects inside a black hole prevent time travel due to the creation of particle pairs. direct evidence is elusive. the shortest time theoretical studies indicate that, at extremely high energies ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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34. 3 superstrings learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : • define superstring theory. • explain the relationship between superstring theory and the big bang. introduced earlier in guts : the unification of forces superstring theory is an attempt to unify gravity with the other three forc... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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that we have been able to observe directly. it is thus relatively unconstrained by experiment, and there are a host of theoretical possibilities to choose from. this has led theorists to make choices subjectively ( as always ) on what is the most elegant theory, with less hope than usual that experiment will guide them... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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34. 4 dark matter and closure learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : • discuss the existence of dark matter. • explain neutrino oscillations and their consequences. one of the most exciting problems in physics today is the fact that there is far more matter in the universe than we can see... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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galaxy was concentrated in its center, as are its luminous stars, the velocities should decrease as the square root of the distance from the center. instead, the velocity curve is almost flat, implying that there is a tremendous amount of matter in the galactic halo. using instruments and methods that offered a greater... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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relativity, einstein considered that an illogical possibility. the cosmological constant was discarded after hubble discovered the expansion, but has been re - invoked in recent years. gravitational attraction between galaxies is slowing the expansion of the universe, but the amount of slowing down is not known directl... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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34. 4 • dark matter and closure 1519 less visible matter than needed to stop expansion. the critical density is defined to be the density needed to just halt universal expansion in a universe with no cosmological constant. it is estimated to be about however, this estimate of is only good to about a factor of two, due ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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is a part of the inflationary scenario that helps explain the flatness of the microwave background. in fact, since general relativity implies that matter creates the space in which it exists, there is a special symmetry to a flat universe. | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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34. 3 1520 34 • frontiers of physics access for free at openstax. org figure 34. 18 evidence for dark matter : ( a ) we can measure the velocities of stars relative to their galaxies by observing the doppler shift in emitted light, usually using the hydrogen spectrum. these measurements indicate the rotation of a spira... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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34. 4 • dark matter and closure 1521 able to see it directly. the question is open as to how many planets or other bodies smaller than about 1 / 1000 the mass of the sun are there. if such bodies pass between us and a star, they will not block the star ’ s light, being too small, but they will form a gravitational lens... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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emitted in the decays and reactions in which neutrinos are involved. there is an amusing possibility of proving that neutrinos have mass in a completely different way. we have noted in particles, patterns, and conservation laws that there are three flavors of neutrinos (,, and ) and that the weak interaction could chan... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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are a particularly appealing possibility for explaining dark matter, since their existence is consistent with a large body of known information and explains more than dark matter. the question is not settled at this writing. the most radical proposal to explain dark matter is that it consists of previously unknown lept... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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the universe flat, shortly after the big bang. the proposal is radical in the sense that it invokes entirely new forms of matter, in fact two entirely new forms, in order to explain dark matter and other phenomena. wimps have the extra burden of automatically being very difficult to observe directly. this is somewhat a... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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34. 5 complexity and chaos learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : • explain complex systems. • discuss chaotic behavior of different systems. much of what impresses us about physics is related to the underlying connections and basic simplicity of the laws we have discovered. the language ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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34. 5 • complexity and chaos 1523 what are some examples of complex adaptive systems? one is the primordial ocean. when the oceans first formed, they were a random mix of elements and compounds that obeyed the laws of physics and chemistry. in a relatively short geological time ( about 500 million years ), life had eme... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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intelligence is an overt attempt to devise an adaptive system that will self - organize and evolve in the same manner as an intelligent living being learns. these are a few of the broad range of topics being studied by those who investigate complexity. there are now institutes, journals, and meetings, as well as popula... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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been applied to apparently unrelated systems. for example, the heartbeat of people with certain types of potentially lethal arrhythmias seems to be chaotic, and this knowledge may allow more sophisticated monitoring and recognition of the need for intervention. chaos is related to complexity. some chaotic systems are a... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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figure 34. 22 the great red spot on jupiter is an example of self - organization in a complex and chaotic system. smaller vortices in jupiter ’ s atmosphere behave chaotically, but the triple - earth - size spot is self - organized and stable for at least hundreds of years. ( credit : nasa ) | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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34. 6 high - temperature superconductors learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : • identify superconductors and their uses. • discuss the need for a high - tc superconductor. superconductors are materials with a resistivity of zero. they are familiar to the general public because of their ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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34. 6 • high - temperature superconductors 1525 found to become superconductors, but all had s less than 10 k, which are expensive to maintain. although onnes received a nobel prize in 1913, it was primarily for his work with liquid helium. in 1986, a breakthrough was announced — a ceramic compound was found to have an... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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nitrogen, gives evidence that the material is superconducting. when the material warms and becomes conducting, magnetic flux can penetrate it, and the magnet will rest upon it. ( credit : saperaud ) the search is on for even higher superconductors, many of complex and exotic copper oxide ceramics, sometimes including s... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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— “ i wonder what we did right? ” figure 34. 25 ( a ) this graph, adapted from an article in physics today, shows the behavior of a single sample of a high - temperature superconductor in three different trials. in one case the sample exhibited a of about 230 k, whereas in the others it did not become superconducting a... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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34. 7 some questions we know to ask learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : • identify sample questions to be asked on the largest scales. • identify sample questions to be asked on the intermediate scale. • identify sample questions to be asked on the smallest scales. throughout the text ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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34. 7 • some questions we know to ask 1527 if answers are found to them. the fun continues. on the largest scale 1. is the universe open or closed? theorists would like it to be just barely closed and evidence is building toward that conclusion. recent measurements in the expansion rate of the universe and in cmbr supp... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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deeper into our own galaxy for evidence of our own massive black hole. 6. where do the bursts come from? we see bursts of rays coming from all directions in space, indicating the sources are very distant objects rather than something associated with our own galaxy. some bursts finally are being correlated with known so... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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systematics. 2. why do leptons have integral charge while quarks have fractional charge? if both are fundamental and analogous as thought, this question deserves an answer. it is obviously related to the previous question. 3. why are there three families of quarks and leptons? first, does this imply some relationship? ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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and on the patterns in particle physics. 9. what are the systematic characteristics of high - nuclei? all elements with or less ( with the exception of 115 and 117 ) have now been discovered. it has long been conjectured that there may be an island of relative stability near, and the study of the most recently discover... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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34. 7 • some questions we know to ask 1529 glossary axions a type of wimps having masses about 10−10 of an electron mass big bang a gigantic explosion that threw out matter a few billion years ago black holes objects having such large gravitational fields that things can fall in, but nothing, not even light, can escape... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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of 10−50 for the brief time from 10−35 to about 10−32s machos massive compact halo objects ; microlensing objects of huge mass microlensing a process in which light from a distant star is focused and the star appears to brighten in a characteristic manner, when a small body ( smaller than about 1 / 1000 the mass of the... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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34. 1 cosmology and particle physics • cosmology is the study of the character and evolution of the universe. • the two most important features of the universe are the cosmological red shifts of its galaxies being proportional to distance and its cosmic microwave background ( cmbr ). both support the notion that there ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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34. 2 general relativity and quantum gravity • einstein ’ s theory of general relativity includes accelerated frames and, thus, encompasses special relativity and gravity. created by use of careful thought experiments, it has been repeatedly verified by real experiments. • one direct result of this behavior of nature i... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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34. 4 dark matter and closure • dark matter is non - luminous matter detected in and around galaxies and galactic clusters. • it may be 10 times the mass of the luminous matter in the universe, and its amount may determine whether the universe is open or closed ( expands forever or eventually stops ). • the determining... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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reports of s as high as 250 k. 34. 7 some questions we know to ask • on the largest scale, the questions which can be asked may be about dark matter, dark energy, black holes, quasars, and other aspects of the universe. • on the intermediate scale, we can query about gravity, phase transitions, nonlinear phenomena, hig... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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34. 1 cosmology and particle physics 1. explain why it only appears that we are at the center of expansion of the universe and why an observer in another galaxy would see the same relative motion of all but the closest galaxies away from her. 2. if there is no observable edge to the universe, can we determine where its... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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brightness of stars, called cepheid variables, that can be observed individually and that have absolute brightnesses at a standard distance that are well known. explain how the measured brightness would vary with distance as compared with the absolute brightness. 10. distances to very remote galaxies are estimated base... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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34. 2 general relativity and quantum gravity 12. quantum gravity, if developed, would be an improvement on both general relativity and quantum mechanics, but more mathematically difficult. under what circumstances would it be necessary to use quantum gravity? similarly, under what circumstances could general relativity... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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34. 4 dark matter and closure 18. discuss the possibility that star velocities at the edges of galaxies being greater than expected is due to unknown properties of gravity rather than to the existence of dark matter. would this mean, for example, that gravity is greater or smaller than expected at large distances? are ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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to be taken seriously it must be reproducible or of sufficiently high quality that a single observation is meaningful. supernova 1987a is not reproducible. how do we know observations of it were valid? the fifth force is not broadly accepted. is this due to lack of reproducibility or poor - quality experiments ( or bot... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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34. 1 cosmology and particle physics 1. find the approximate mass of the luminous matter in the milky way galaxy, given it has approximately stars of average mass 1. 5 times that of our sun. 2. find the approximate mass of the dark and luminous matter in the milky way galaxy. assume the luminous matter is due to approx... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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speed of light is this? note that we have observed galaxies moving away from us at greater than. 8. ( a ) calculate the approximate age of the universe from the average value of the hubble constant,. to do this, calculate the time it would take to travel 1 mly at a constant expansion rate of 20 km / s. ( b ) if deceler... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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. the average particle energy needed to observe unification of forces is estimated to be. ( a ) what is the rest mass in kilograms of a particle that has a rest mass of? ( b ) how many times the mass of a hydrogen atom is this? 14. the peak intensity of the cmbr occurs at a wavelength of 1. 1 mm. ( a ) what is the ener... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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revolutions per second, given the core ’ s angular velocity was originally 1 revolution per 30. 0 days. 18. using data from the previous problem, find the increase in rotational kinetic energy, given the core ’ s mass is 1. 3 times that of our sun. where does this increase in kinetic energy come from? 19. distances to ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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34. 2 general relativity and quantum gravity 22. what is the schwarzschild radius of a black hole that has a mass eight times that of our sun? note that stars must be more massive than the sun to form black holes as a result of a supernova. 23. black holes with masses smaller than those formed in supernovas may have be... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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34. 4 dark matter and closure 27. if the dark matter in the milky way were composed entirely of machos ( evidence shows it is not ), approximately how many would there have to be? assume the average mass of a macho is 1 / 1000 that of the sun, and that dark matter has a mass 10 times that of the luminous milky way gala... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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34. 6 high - temperature superconductors 31. a section of superconducting wire carries a current of 100 a and requires 1. 00 l of liquid nitrogen per hour to keep it below its critical temperature. for it to be economically advantageous to use a superconducting wire, the cost of cooling the wire must be less than the c... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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. 016 928 ec 53. 29 d 9 9. 012 182 100 % 5 boron 10 10. 012 937 19. 9 % 11 11. 009 305 80. 1 % 6 carbon 11 11. 011 432 ec, 12 12. 000 000 98. 90 % table a1 atomic masses a • atomic masses 1537 atomic number, z name atomic mass number, a symbol atomic mass ( u ) percent abundance or decay mode half - life, t1 / 2 13 13.... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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972 070 95. 02 % 35 34. 969 031 87. 4 d 17 chlorine 35 34. 968 852 75. 77 % 37 36. 965 903 24. 23 % 18 argon 40 39. 962 384 99. 60 % 19 potassium 39 38. 963 707 93. 26 % 40 39. 963 999 0. 0117 %, ec, 20 calcium 40 39. 962 591 96. 94 % 21 scandium 45 44. 955 910 100 % table a1 atomic masses a • atomic masses 1539 atomic... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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5 % 33 arsenic 75 74. 921 594 100 % 34 selenium 80 79. 916 520 49. 7 % 35 bromine 79 78. 918 336 50. 69 % 36 krypton 84 83. 911 507 57. 0 % 37 rubidium 85 84. 911 794 72. 17 % 38 strontium 86 85. 909 267 9. 86 % 88 87. 905 619 82. 58 % 90 89. 907 738 28. 8 y 39 yttrium 89 88. 905 849 100 % 90 89. 907 152 64. 1 h 40 zir... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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% 136 135. 907 214 8. 9 % 55 cesium 133 132. 905 429 100 % table a1 atomic masses 1542 a • atomic masses access for free at openstax. org atomic number, z name atomic mass number, a symbol atomic mass ( u ) percent abundance or decay mode half - life, t1 / 2 134 133. 906 696 ec, 2. 06 y 56 barium 137 136. 905 812 11. 2... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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98 % 74 tungsten 184 183. 950 928 30. 67 % 75 rhenium 187 186. 955 744 62. 6 %, 76 osmium 191 190. 960 920 15. 4 d 192 191. 961 467 41. 0 % 77 iridium 191 190. 960 584 37. 3 % 193 192. 962 917 62. 7 % 78 platinum 195 194. 964 766 33. 8 % 79 gold 197 196. 966 543 100 % 198 197. 968 217 2. 696 d 80 mercury 199 198. 968 2... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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/ 2 89 actinium 227 227. 027 750 21. 8 y 90 thorium 228 228. 028 715 1. 91 y 232 232. 038 054 100 %, 91 protactinium 231 231. 035 880 92 uranium 233 233. 039 628 235 235. 043 924 0. 720 %, 236 236. 045 562 238 238. 050 784 99. 2745 %, 239 239. 054 289 23. 5 min 93 neptunium 239 239. 052 933 2. 355 d 94 plutonium 239 23... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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at openstax. org appendix b selected radioactive isotopes decay modes are,,, electron capture ( ec ) and isomeric transition ( it ). ec results in the same daughter nucleus as would decay. it is a transition from a metastable excited state. energies for decays are the maxima ; average energies are roughly one - half th... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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8 d 0. 69 9 % 1. 08 9 % 1. 77 91 % 64. 8 d ec 0. 514 100 % 28. 8 y 0. 546 100 % 64. 1 h 2. 28 100 % 6. 02 h it 0. 142 100 % 99. 5 min it 0. 392 100 % 13. 0 h ec 0. 159 8. 040 d 0. 248 7 % 0. 364 85 % 0. 607 93 % others others 32. 3 h ec 0. 0400 35 % 0. 372 32 % table b1 selected radioactive isotopes 1550 b • selected r... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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5. 32 11 % others table b1 selected radioactive isotopes 1552 b • selected radioactive isotopes access for free at openstax. org appendix c useful information this appendix is broken into several tables. • table c1, important constants • table c2, submicroscopic masses • table c3, solar system data • table c4, metric p... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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constants, units, and uncertainty, www. physics. nist. gov / cuu ( http : / / www. physics. nist. gov / cuu ) ( accessed may 18, 2012 ). values in parentheses are the uncertainties in the last digits. numbers without uncertainties are exact as defined. 1554 c • useful information access for free at openstax. org prefix... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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degree parallel perpendicular proportional to plus or minus zero as a subscript denotes an initial value alpha rays angular acceleration temperature coefficient ( s ) of resistivity beta rays sound level volume coefficient of expansion electron emitted in nuclear beta decay positron decay gamma rays surface tension a c... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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##ark flavor bottom or beauty bulk modulus magnetic field strength electron ’ s intrinsic magnetic field orbital magnetic field binding energy of a nucleus — it is the energy required to completely disassemble it into separate protons and neutrons binding energy per nucleon becquerel — one decay per second capacitance ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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symbol definition focal length frequency resonant frequency of a resistance, inductance, and capacitance series circuit threshold frequency for a particular material ( photoelectric effect ) fundamental first overtone second overtone beat frequency magnitude of kinetic friction magnitude of static friction gravitationa... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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interference overall magnification ( product of the individual magnifications ) atomic mass of a nuclide mechanical advantage magnification of the eyepiece mass of the electron table d1 d • glossary of key symbols and notation 1567 symbol definition angular momentum projection quantum number mass of a neutron magnifica... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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internal ) spin angular momentum shear modulus table d1 1570 d • glossary of key symbols and notation access for free at openstax. org symbol definition strangeness quantum number quark flavor strange second ( fundamental si unit of time ) spin quantum number total displacement secant sine z - component of spin angular... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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.. 5. length : ; width : ;. 7. 9. ( a ) ( b ) 11. 2 kg 13. ( a ) ( b ) 15. ( a ) ( b ) ( c ) 17. ( a ) 3 ( b ) 3 ( c ) 3 19. ( a ) ( b ) 21. 23. 25. 1575 27. 29. sample answer : heartbeats 31. sample answer : if an average human lifetime is taken to be about 70 years. 33. sample answer : 50 atoms 35. sample answers : (... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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38. 9 m / s ( about 87 miles per hour ) 23. ( a ) ( b ) ( c ) 25. ( a ) ( b ) ( c ) this result does not really make sense. if the runner starts at 9. 00 m / s and decelerates at, then she will have stopped after 4. 50 s. if she continues to decelerate, she will be running backwards. 27. 29. ( a ) ( b ) ( c ) 7. 68 km ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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1. 91 s 51. ( a ) 94. 0 m ( b ) 3. 13 s 53. ( a ) - 70. 0 m / s ( downward ) ( b ) 6. 10 s 55. ( a ) ( b ) 57. ( a ) 305 m ( b ) 262 m, - 29. 2 m / s ( c ) 8. 91 s 59. ( a ) ( b ) 61. 63. 65. ( a ) 6 m / s ( b ) 12 m / s ( c ) ( d ) 10 s 67. ( a ) car a is traveling faster at the checkpoint because it must go past the ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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18. 4 km south, then 26. 2 km west ( b ) 31. 5 km at south of west, then 5. 56 km at west of north 23., south of east 25. 1580 access for free at openstax. org 27. ( a ) 3. 50 s ( b ) 28. 6 m / s ( c ) 34. 3 m / s ( d ) 44. 7 m / s, below horizontal 29. ( a ) ( b ) the arrow will go over the branch. 31. for ; for ; for... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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15. 0 m / s 47. ( a ) 24. 2 m / s ( b ) the ball travels a total of 57. 4 m with the brief gust of wind. 49., so that and substituting for gives : 1581 since the range is :. 52. ( a ), south of east ( b ), south of east ( c ), south of east 54. ( a ) 0. 70 m / s faster ( b ) second runner wins ( c ) 4. 17 m 56., 58. ( ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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times the tension in the vertical strand. 21. newton ’ s second law applied in vertical direction gives 1583 23. using the free - body diagram :, so that. 25. 1. use newton ’ s laws of motion. 2. given :, find :. 3. so that.. the force exerted by the high - jumper is actually down on the ground, but is up from the grou... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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##8 n ( b ) 6. ( a ) 3. 29 m / s2 ( b ) 3. 52 m / s2 ( c ) 980 n ; 945 n 10. 14. ( a ) ( b ) ( c ) 16. ( a ) ( b ) 18. ( a ) ( b ) 20. 22. 1586 access for free at openstax. org 24. 26. 28. 29. 31. ( a ) 1 mm ( b ) this does seem reasonable, since the lead does seem to shrink a little when you push on it. 33. ( a ) 9 cm... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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12. 9 rev / min 12. 14. a ), b ) 16. a ) b ) c ) d ) the centripetal acceleration felt by olympic skaters is 12 times larger than the acceleration due to gravity. that ’ s quite a lot of acceleration in itself. the centripetal acceleration felt by button ’ s nose was 39. 2 times larger than the acceleration due to grav... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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of friction this much greater than 1 is unreasonable. c ) the assumed speed is too great for the tight curve. 33. a ) b ) this is identical to the best value to three significant figures. 1589 35. a ) b ) 37. a ) b ) the values are nearly identical. one would expect the gravitational force to be the same as the centrip... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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. that is, the energy stored in the lake is approximately half that in a 9 - megaton fusion bomb. 18. ( a ) 1. 8 j ( b ) 8. 6 j 20. 1591 22. × 24. | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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9. 46 m / s 26. × 27. equating and, we obtain 29. ( a ) ( b ) this is much, much longer than human time scales. 30. × 32. ( a ) 40 ( b ) 8 million 34. $ 149 36. ( a ) ( b ) 141 s 38. ( a ) 3. 20 s ( b ) 4. 04 s 40. ( a ) × ( b ) 42. identify knowns :,,, identify unknowns : power of the car, force that car applies to ro... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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the water resistance will not depend linearly on the velocity. 64. ( a ) ( b ) ( c ) 5. 66 m / s 1593 ( d ) 4. 00 kj 66. ( a ) ( b ) 38. 8 kcal / min ( c ) this power output is higher than the highest value on table 7. 5, which is about 35 kcal / min ( corresponding to 2415 watts ) for sprinting. ( d ) it would be impo... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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17. away from the wall 19. 21. 60. 0 g 23. 0. 122 m / s 25. in a collision with an identical car, momentum is conserved. afterwards for both cars. the change in momentum will be the same as in the crash with the tree. however, the force on the body is not determined since the time is not known. a padded stop will reduc... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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0. 250 m / s 31. ( a ) 86. 4 n perpendicularly away from the bumper ( b ) 0. 389 j ( c ) 64. 0 % 33. ( a ) 8. 06 m / s ( b ) - 56. 0 j ( c ) ( i ) 7. 88 m / s ; ( ii ) - 223 j 35. ( a ) 0. 163 m / s in the direction of motion of the more massive satellite ( b ) 81. 6 j 1595 ( c ) in the direction of motion of the less ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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24. 8 m / s 44. ( a ) 4. 00 kg ( b ) 210 j ( c ) the clown does work to throw the barbell, so the kinetic energy comes from the muscles of the clown. the muscles convert the chemical potential energy of atp into kinetic energy. 45. ( a ) 3. 00 m / s, below - axis ( b ) find speed of first puck after collision : ′ verif... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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t have a tougher time opening a door because they push lower than adults, they have a tougher time because they don ’ t push far enough from the hinges. ) 3. | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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23. 3 n 5. given : 1597 a ) since children are balancing : so, solving for gives : b ) since the children are not moving : so that 6. 8. a ) b ) 0. 292 10. 12. a ) 0. 167, or about one - sixth of the weight is supported by the opposite shore. b ), straight up. 14. a ) 21. 6 n b ) 21. 6 n 16. 350 n directly upwards 19. ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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b ) the time interval is too short. ( c ) the moment of inertia is much too small, by one to two orders of magnitude. a torque of is reasonable. 20. ( a ) 17, 500 rpm ( b ) this angular velocity is very high for a disk of this size and mass. the radial acceleration at the edge of the disk is > 50, 000 gs. ( c ) flywhee... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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25. 3 rpm 43. ( a ) ( b ) ( c ) 45. ( a ) 3. 13 rad / s ( b ) initial ke = 438 j, final ke = 438 j 47. ( a ) 1. 70 rad / s ( b ) initial ke = 22. 5 j, final ke = 2. 04 j ( c ) 48. ( a ) ( b ) ( c ) 1601 chapter 11 problems & exercises 1. 3. ( a ) 2. 58 g ( b ) the volume of your body increases by the volume of air you ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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40. ( a ) 41. 4 g ( b ) ( c ) 42. ( a ) 39. 5 g ( b ) ( c ) it is ethyl alcohol. 44. | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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8. 21 n 1603 46. ( a ) ( b ) she indeed floats more in seawater. 48. ( a ) ( b ) ( c ) yes, the cork will float because 50. the difference is 52. where = density of fluid. therefore, where is the weight of the fluid displaced. 54. 56. 58. ( a ) ( b ) 60. based on the values in table, the fluid is probably glycerin. 62.... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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1. 96 n 71. 73. ( a ) ( b ), which is sufficient to trigger micturition reflex 75. ( a ) 13. 6 m water ( b ) 76. 5 cm water 77. ( a ) ( b ) 79. ( a ) 2. 97 cm ( b ) ( c ) work is done by the surface tension force through an effective distance to raise the column of water. 81. ( a ) ( b ) ( c ) 83. ( a ) ( b ) ( c ) 283... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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. 41. or olive oil. 43. ( a ) ( b ) ( c ) 10. 6 cm 45. 1. 59 47. ( gauge pressure ) 51. 53. ( a ) nozzle :, not laminar ( b ) hose :, not laminar. 55. 2. 54 < < 2000, laminar. 57. 1. 02 m / s 59. ( a ) ( b ) 61. ( a ) 23. 7 atm or ( b ) the pressure is much too high. ( c ) the assumed flow rate is very high for a garde... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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1. 62 atm 24. ( a ) 0. 136 atm 1608 access for free at openstax. org ( b ) 0. 135 atm. the difference between this value and the value from part ( a ) is negligible. 26. ( a ) ( b ) ( c ) 28. 30. ( a ) ( b ) 32. 34. ( a ) ( b ) ( c ) 2. 16 k ( d ) no. the final temperature needed is much too low to be easily achieved f... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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11. 35. 9 kcal 13. ( a ) 591 kcal ( b ) 15. 13. 5 w 17. ( a ) 148 kcal ( b ) 0. 418 s, 3. 34 s, 4. 19 s, 22. 6 s, 0. 456 s 19. 33. 0 g 20. ( a ) 9. 67 l ( b ) crude oil is less dense than water, so it floats on top of the water, thereby exposing it to the oxygen in the air, which it uses to burn. also, if the water is ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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1. 48 kg 51. 53. ( a ) 97. 2 j ( b ) 29. 2 w ( c ) 9. 49 w ( d ) the total rate of heat loss would be. while sleeping, our body consumes 83 w of power, while sitting it consumes 120 to 210 w. therefore, the total rate of heat loss from breathing will not be a major form of heat loss for this person. 55. note that the n... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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20. 9 min 73. ( a ) 3. 96×10 - 2 g ( b ) 96. 2 j ( c ) 16. 0 w 75. ( a ) 1. 102 ( b ) ( c ) 12. 6 j. this will not cause a significant cooling of the air because it is much less than the energy found in part ( b ), which is the energy required to warm the air from to. 76. ( a ) ( b ) any temperature increase greater th... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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