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31. 5 half - life and activity • half - life is the time in which there is a 50 % chance that a nucleus will decay. the number of nuclei as a function of time is where is the number present at, and is the decay constant, related to the half - life by • one of the applications of radioactive decay is radioactive dating,... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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2. 0 mm in a certain material. does this mean that every a ray that strikes this material travels 2. 0 mm, or does the range have an average value with some statistical fluctuations in the distances traveled? explain. 2. what is the difference between rays and characteristic x rays? is either necessarily more energetic... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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2 radiation detection and detectors 10. is it possible for light emitted by a scintillator to be too low in frequency to be used in a photomultiplier tube? explain. 31. 3 substructure of the nucleus 11. the weak and strong nuclear forces are basic to the structure of matter. why we do not experience them directly? 12. ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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31. 4 nuclear decay and conservation laws 14. star trek fans have often heard the term “ antimatter drive. ” describe how you could use a magnetic field to trap antimatter, such as produced by nuclear decay, and later combine it with matter to produce energy. be specific about the type of antimatter, the need for vacuu... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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31. 5 half - life and activity 18. in a - year - old rock that originally contained some, which has a half - life of years, we expect to find some remaining in it. why are,, and also found in such a rock, even though they have much shorter half - lives ( 1600 years, 3. 8 days, and 138 days, respectively )? 19. does the... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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. explain why her chances are negligible. ( this is so in any classical situation. ) 1416 31 • conceptual questions access for free at openstax. org 27. when a nucleus decays, does the particle move continuously from inside the nucleus to outside? that is, does it travel each point along an imaginary line from inside t... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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30. 0 is required to create each ion pair? 3. ( a ) repeat the previous exercise, and convert the energy to joules or calories. ( b ) if all of this energy is converted to thermal energy in the gas, what is its temperature increase, assuming of ideal gas at 0. 250 - atm pressure? ( the small answer is consistent with t... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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1. 0 kg and the density of nuclear matter, taking this to be ×. 7. what is the radius of an particle? 8. find the radius of a nucleus. is a manufactured nuclide that is used as a power source on some space probes. 9. ( a ) calculate the radius of, one of the most tightly bound stable nuclei. ( b ) what is the ratio of ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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an particle with the same kinetic energy? this should confirm that s travel much faster than s even when relativity is taken into consideration. ( see also exercise 31. 11. ) 16. ( a ) what is the kinetic energy in mev of a ray that is traveling at? this gives some idea of how energetic a ray must be to travel at nearl... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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31. 4 nuclear decay and conservation laws in the following eight problems, write the complete decay equation for the given nuclide in the complete 31 • problems & exercises 1417 notation. refer to the periodic table for values of. 17. decay of ( tritium ), a manufactured isotope of hydrogen used in some digital watch d... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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##te, both their masses are destroyed, creating two equal energy photons to preserve momentum. ( a ) confirm that the annihilation equation conserves charge, electron family number, and total number of nucleons. to do this, identify the values of each before and after the annihilation. ( b ) find the energy of each ray... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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find the energy released in the decay. 37. ( a ) write the complete decay equation for the neutron. ( b ) find the energy released in the decay. 38. ( a ) write the complete decay equation for, a major waste product of nuclear reactors. ( b ) find the energy released in the decay. 1418 31 • problems & exercises access ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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) how long ago did it actually have a 4. 00 - mci activity? 46. ( a ) calculate the activity in curies of 1. 00 g of. ( b ) discuss why your answer is not exactly | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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1. 00 ci, given that the curie was originally supposed to be exactly the activity of a gram of radium. 47. show that the activity of the in 1. 00 g of found in living tissue is 0. 250 bq. 48. mantles for gas lanterns contain thorium, because it forms an oxide that can survive being heated to incandescence for long peri... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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daughter nuclides. 54. a tree falls in a forest. how many years must pass before the activity in 1. 00 g of the tree ’ s carbon drops to 1. 00 decay per hour? 55. what fraction of the that was on earth when it formed years ago is left today? 56. a 5000 - ci source used for cancer therapy is considered too weak to be us... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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by the detector. 61. armor - piercing shells with depleted uranium cores are fired by aircraft at tanks. ( the high density of the uranium makes them effective. ) the uranium is called depleted because it has had its removed for reactor use and is nearly pure. depleted uranium has been erroneously called non - radioact... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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12. 0 cents per, what is the monetary value of the energy emitted? ( these plates went out of production some 30 years ago, but are still available as collectibles. ) 63. large amounts of depleted uranium ( ) are available as a by - product of uranium processing for reactor fuel and weapons. uranium is very dense and m... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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since its half - life is. ( a ) calculate the amount of that would had to have been on earth when it formed ago for to be left today. ( b ) what is unreasonable about this result? ( c ) what assumption is responsible? 67. unreasonable results ( a ) repeat exercise 31. 57 but include the 0. 0055 % natural abundance of w... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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31. 6 binding energy 69. is a loosely bound isotope of hydrogen. called deuterium or heavy hydrogen, it is stable but relatively rare — it is 0. 015 % of natural hydrogen. note that deuterium has, which should tend to make it more tightly bound, but both are odd numbers. calculate, the binding energy per nucleon, for a... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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is to show in three ways that the binding energy of the electron in a hydrogen atom is negligible compared with the masses of the proton and electron. ( a ) calculate the mass equivalent in u of the 13. 6 - ev binding energy of an electron in a hydrogen atom, and compare this with the mass of the hydrogen atom obtained... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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31. 7 tunneling 77. derive an approximate relationship between the energy of decay and half - life using the following data. it may be useful to graph the log of against to find some straight - line relationship. nuclide table 31. 3 energy and half - life for decay 78. integrated concepts a 2. 00 - t magnetic field is ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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this result? ( c ) what assumption is responsible? 83. construct your own problem consider the decay of radioactive substances in the earth ’ s interior. the energy emitted is converted to thermal energy that reaches the earth ’ s surface and is radiated away into cold dark space. construct a problem in which you estim... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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32. 7 nuclear weapons applications of nuclear physics have become an integral part of modern life. from the bone scan that detects a cancer to the radioiodine treatment that cures another, nuclear radiation has diagnostic and therapeutic effects on medicine. from the fission power reactor to the hope of controlled fusi... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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32. 1 diagnostics and medical imaging learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : • explain the working principle behind an anger camera. • describe the spect and pet imaging techniques. most medical and related applications of nuclear physics are driven, at their core, by the difference betwe... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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##ous tumors or healing points. images can then be produced of such bone scans. radioisotopes are also used to determine the functioning of body organs, such as blood flow, heart muscle activity, and iodine uptake in the thyroid gland. figure 32. 2 a radiopharmaceutical is used to produce this brain image of a patient ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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pool 0. 2 2 cardiovascular arterial flow 3 7. 5 thyroid scan 0. 05 0. 07 table 32. 1 diagnostic uses of radiopharmaceuticals 32. 1 • diagnostics and medical imaging 1425 procedure, isotope typical activity ( mci ), where liver scan ( colloid ) 0. 1 ( colloid ) 2 bone scan 0. 1 10 kidney scan 0. 1 | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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1. 5 table 32. 1 diagnostic uses of radiopharmaceuticals note that table 32. 1 lists many diagnostic uses for, where “ m ” stands for a metastable state of the technetium nucleus. perhaps 80 percent of all radiopharmaceutical procedures employ because of its many advantages. one is that the decay of its metastable stat... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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in x - ray computed tomography ( ct ) scans use nuclear activity in patients to form three - dimensional images. figure 32. 4 shows a patient in a circular array of detectors that may be stationary or rotated, with detector output used by a computer to construct a detailed image. this technique is called single - photo... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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for examining the brain ’ s anatomy and function. the brain ’ s use of oxygen and water can be monitored with. pet is used extensively for diagnosing brain disorders. it can note decreased metabolism in certain regions prior to a confirmation of alzheimer ’ s disease. pet can locate regions in the brain that become act... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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32. 2 biological effects of ionizing radiation learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : • define various units of radiation. • describe rbe. we hear many seemingly contradictory things about the biological effects of ionizing radiation. it can cause cancer, burns, and hair loss, yet it is u... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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cell death. • the cell can go into unregulated cell division leading to tumors and cancers. since ionizing radiation damages the dna, which is critical in cell reproduction, it has its greatest effect on cells that rapidly reproduce, including most types of cancer. thus, cancer cells are more sensitive to radiation tha... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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##d is small, it has significant effects since the energy causes ionization. the energy needed for a single ionization is a few ev, or less than. thus, | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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0. 01 j of ionizing energy can create a huge number of ion pairs and have an effect at the cellular level. the effects of ionizing radiation may be directly proportional to the dose in rads, but they also depend on the type of radiation and the type of tissue. that is, for a given dose in rads, the effects depend on wh... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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32. 2 for several types of ionizing radiation — the effect of the radiation is directly proportional to the rbe. a dose unit more closely related to effects in biological tissue is called the roentgen equivalent man or rem and is defined to be the dose in rads multiplied by the relative biological effectiveness. figure... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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used for radiation. 32. 3 32. 4 32. 5 32. 6 32. 2 • biological effects of ionizing radiation 1429 a high level of activity doesn ’ t mean much if a person is far away from the source. the activity of a source depends upon the quantity of material ( kg ) as well as the half - life. a short half - life will produce many ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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1. 7 neutrons, thermal to slow ( < 20 kev ) 2 – 5 neutrons, fast ( 1 – 10 mev ) 10 ( body ), 32 ( eyes ) protons ( 1 – 10 mev ) 10 ( body ), 32 ( eyes ) rays from radioactive decay 10 – 20 heavy ions from accelerators 10 – 20 table 32. 2 relative biological effectiveness quantity si unit name definition former unit con... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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white blood cell counts. 0. 5 temporary sterility ; 0. 35 for women, 0. 50 for men. 1 – 2 significant reduction in blood cell counts, brief nausea and vomiting. rarely fatal. 2 – 5 nausea, vomiting, hair loss, severe blood damage, hemorrhage, fatalities. | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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4. 5 ld50 / 32. lethal to 50 % of the population within 32 days after exposure if not treated. 5 – 20 worst effects due to malfunction of small intestine and blood systems. limited survival. > 20 fatal within hours due to collapse of central nervous system. table 32. 4 immediate effects of radiation ( adults, whole bod... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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the linear hypothesis and it may be prudent, but it is controversial. there is some evidence that, unlike the immediate effects of radiation, the long - term effects are cumulative and there is little self - repair. this is analogous to the risk of skin cancer from uv exposure, which is known to be cumulative. there is... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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32. 2 • biological effects of ionizing radiation 1431, but the normal incidence is 60, 000 in a million. evidence of such a small increase, tragic as it is, is nearly impossible to obtain. for example, there is no evidence of increased genetic defects among the offspring of hiroshima and nagasaki survivors. animal stud... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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fertilizers containing phosphates have potassium and uranium. so we are all a little radioactive. carbon - 14 has about 66 bq / kg radioactivity whereas fertilizers may have more than 3000 bq / kg radioactivity. medical and dental diagnostic exposures are mostly from x - rays. it should be noted that x - ray doses tend... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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. much lower doses are permitted for the reproductive organs and the fetuses of pregnant women. inadvertent doses to the public are limited to of occupational doses, except for those caused by nuclear power, which cannot legally expose the public to more than of the occupational limit or 0. 05 msv / y ( 5 mrem / y ). t... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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2. 8 table 32. 5 background radiation sources and average doses to physically limit radiation doses, we use shielding, increase the distance from a source, and limit the time of exposure. figure 32. 7 illustrates how these are used to protect both the patient and the dental technician when an x - ray is taken. shieldin... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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10. 0 table 32. 6 typical doses received during diagnostic x - ray exams problem - solving strategy you need to follow certain steps for dose calculations, which are step 1. examine the situation to determine that a person is exposed to ionizing radiation. step 2. identify exactly what needs to be determined in the pro... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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for free at openstax. org tissue affected and then multiplied by the rbe. the latter two quantities are given, and so the main task in this example will be to find the energy deposited in one year. since the activity of the source is given, we can calculate the number of decays, multiply by the energy per decay, and co... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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radiation is used diagnostically only when needed so that the low risk is justified by the benefit of the diagnosis. chest x - rays give the lowest doses — about 0. 1 msv to the tissue affected, with less than 5 percent scattering into tissues that are not directly imaged. other x - ray procedures range upward to about... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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32. 3 therapeutic uses of ionizing radiation learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : • explain the concept of radiotherapy and list typical doses for cancer therapy. therapeutic applications of ionizing radiation, called radiation therapy or radiotherapy, have existed since the discovery o... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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high as possible while limiting the dose for normal cells. the ratio of abnormal cells killed to normal cells killed is called the 1436 32 • medical applications of nuclear physics access for free at openstax. org therapeutic ratio, and all radiotherapy techniques are designed to enhance this ratio. radiation can be co... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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iodine, and cancerous thyroid cells are more aggressive in doing this. an ingenious use of radiopharmaceuticals in cancer therapy tags antibodies with radioisotopes. antibodies produced by a patient to combat his cancer are extracted, cultured, loaded with a radioisotope, and then returned to the patient. the antibodie... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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50 ovarian 50 – 75 breast 50 – 80 + brain 80 + neck 80 + bone 80 + soft tissue 80 + thyroid 80 + table 32. 7 cancer radiotherapy finally, it is interesting to note that chemotherapy employs drugs that interfere with cell division and is, thus, also effective against cancer. it also has almost the same side effects, suc... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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32. 4 food irradiation learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : • define food irradiation low dose, and free radicals. ionizing radiation is widely used to sterilize medical supplies, such as bandages, and consumer products, such as tampons. worldwide, it is also used to irradiate food, an ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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, have photon energies up to 5 mev. electrons used for food irradiation are accelerated to energies up to 10 mev. the higher the energy per particle, the more penetrating the radiation is and the more ionization it can create. figure 32. 10 shows a typical - irradiation plant. 1438 32 • medical applications of nuclear ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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##radiation, particularly those with high water content like lettuce and peaches. others, such as milk, are given a noticeably unpleasant taste. high - level irradiation produces significant and chemically measurable changes in foods. it produces about a 15 % loss of nutrients and a 25 % loss of vitamins, as well as so... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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of existing insecticides and food preservatives. 32. 5 fusion learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : • define nuclear fusion. • discuss processes to achieve practical fusion energy generation. while basking in the warmth of the summer sun, a student reads of the latest breakthrough in ach... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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32. 5 • fusion 1439 thermonuclear power and vaguely recalls hearing about the cold fusion controversy. the three are connected. the sun ’ s energy is produced by nuclear fusion ( see figure 32. 11 ). thermonuclear power is the name given to the use of controlled nuclear fusion as an energy source. while research in the... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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. since the attractive nuclear force that can fuse nuclei together is short ranged, the repulsion of like positive charges must be overcome to get nuclei close 1440 32 • medical applications of nuclear physics access for free at openstax. org enough to induce fusion. figure 32. 13 shows an approximate graph of the pote... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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##ants get to one another, the more likely they are to fuse ( see figure 32. 14 ). thus most fusion in the sun and other stars takes place at their centers, where temperatures are highest. moreover, high temperature is needed for thermonuclear power to be a practical source of energy. figure 32. 14 ( a ) two nuclei hea... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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32. 5 • fusion 1441 where the 26. 7 mev includes the annihilation energy of the positrons and electrons and is distributed among all the reaction products. the solar interior is dense, and the reactions occur deep in the sun where temperatures are highest. it takes about 32, 000 years for the energy to diffuse to the s... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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operated for more than four decades now to measure solar neutrinos ( see figure 32. 16 ). although solar neutrinos are detected and neutrinos were observed from supernova 1987a ( figure 32. 17 ), too few solar neutrinos were observed to be consistent with predictions of solar energy production. after many years, this s... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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32. 16 1442 32 • medical applications of nuclear physics access for free at openstax. org figure 32. 17 supernovas are the source of elements heavier than iron. energy released powers nucleosynthesis. spectroscopic analysis of the ring of material ejected by supernova 1987a observable in the southern hemisphere, shows ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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enough energy to be self - sustaining after external energy input is cut off. this goal, which must be reached before commercial plants can be a reality, has not been achieved. another milestone, called break - even, occurs when the fusion power produced equals the heating power input. break - even has nearly been reac... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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32. 5 • fusion 1443 even conditions. it will study plasmas in conditions similar to those expected in a fusion power plant. completion is scheduled for 2018. figure 32. 18 ( a ) artist ’ s rendition of iter, a tokamak - type fusion reactor being built in southern france. it is hoped that this gigantic machine will reac... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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we must find the number of deuterium and tritium atoms in a kilogram. deuterium has an atomic mass of about 2 and tritium has an atomic mass of about 3, for a total of about 5 g per mole of reactants or about 200 mol in 1. 00 kg. to get a more precise figure, we will use the atomic masses from appendix a. the power out... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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converting the fusion energy to electrical energy. | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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32. 6 fission learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : • define nuclear fission. • discuss how fission fuel reacts and describe what it produces. • describe controlled and uncontrolled chain reactions. nuclear fission is a reaction in which a nucleus is split ( or fissured ). controlled fis... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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32. 6 • fission 1445 figure 32. 20 the people living near this nuclear power plant have no measurable exposure to radiation that is traceable to the plant. about 16 % of the world ’ s electrical power is generated by controlled nuclear fission in such plants. the cooling towers are the most prominent features but are n... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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32. 21 shows to be about 7. 6 mev / nucleon for the heaviest nuclei ( about 240 ), while is about 8. 6 mev / nucleon for nuclei having about 120. thus, if a heavy nucleus splits in half, then about 1 mev per nucleon, or approximately 240 mev per fission, is released. this is about 10 times the energy per fusion reactio... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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32. 29 1446 32 • medical applications of nuclear physics access for free at openstax. org discussion a number of important things arise in this example. the 171 - mev energy released is large, but a little less than the earlier estimated 240 mev. this is because this fission reaction produces neutrons and does not spli... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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. most of the released energy goes into the kinetic energy of the fission fragments, with the remainder going into the neutrons and excited states of the fragments. since neutrons can induce fission, a self - sustaining chain reaction is possible, provided more than one neutron is produced on average — that is, if in. ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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32. 6 • fission 1447 figure 32. 21 neutron - induced fission is shown. first, energy is put into this large nucleus when it absorbs a neutron. acting like a struck liquid drop, the nucleus deforms and begins to narrow in the middle. since fewer nucleons are in contact, the repulsive coulomb force is able to break the n... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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nucleus than would be the case if the number of neutrons was already even. this extra energy produces greater deformation, making fission more likely. thus, and are superior fission fuels. the isotope is only 0. 72 % of natural uranium, while is 99. 27 %, and does not exist in nature. australia has the largest deposits... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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32. 23 shows a schematic of a reactor design, called the pressurized water reactor. figure 32. 23 a pressurized water reactor is cleverly designed to control the fission of large amounts of, while using the heat produced in the fission reaction to create steam for generating electrical energy. control rods adjust neutr... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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32. 6 • fission 1449 and boils the water to steam or is breached, the absence of water kills the chain reaction. considerable heat, however, can still be generated by the reactor ’ s radioactive fission products. other safety features, thus, need to be incorporated in the event of a loss of coolant accident, including ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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, produces. breeding begins with neutron capture by : uranium - 239 then decays : neptunium - 239 also decays : plutonium - 239 builds up in reactor fuel at a rate that depends on the probability of neutron capture by ( all reactor fuel contains more than ). reactors designed specifically to make plutonium are called b... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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32. 7 nuclear weapons learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : • discuss different types of fission and thermonuclear bombs. • explain the ill effects of nuclear explosion. the world was in turmoil when fission was discovered in 1938. the discovery of fission, made by two german physicists,... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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beating the germans. it was carried out in remote locations, such as los alamos, new mexico, whenever possible, and eventually came to cost billions of dollars and employ the efforts of more than 100, 000 people. j. robert oppenheimer ( 1904 – 1967 ), whose talent and ambitions made him ideal, was chosen to head the pr... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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32. 7 • nuclear weapons 1451 few microseconds. since the buildup of the uranium chain reaction is relatively slow, the device to hold the critical mass together can be relatively simple. owing to the fact that the rate of spontaneous fission is low, a neutron source is triggered at the same time the critical mass is as... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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. 26 trinity test ( 1945 ), the first nuclear bomb ( credit : united states department of energy ) although germany surrendered on may 7, 1945, japan had been steadfastly refusing to surrender for many months, forcing large casualties. invasion plans by the allies estimated a million casualties of their own and untold ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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this text to discuss, continued until the end of the cold war. figure 32. 28 shows a simple diagram of how a thermonuclear bomb is constructed. a fission bomb is exploded next to fusion fuel in the solid form of lithium deuteride. before the shock wave blows it apart, rays heat and compress the fuel, and neutrons creat... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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32. 7 • nuclear weapons 1453 figure 32. 28 this schematic of a fusion bomb ( h - bomb ) gives some idea of how the fission trigger is used to ignite fusion fuel. neutrons and rays transmit energy to the fusion fuel, create tritium from deuterium, and heat and compress the fusion fuel. the outer shell of serves to refle... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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several hundred bombs of various sizes, and a few other countries have a small number. nuclear weapons are generally divided into two categories. strategic nuclear weapons are those intended for military targets, such as bases and missile complexes, and moderate to large cities. there were about 20, 000 strategic weapo... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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32. 7 • nuclear weapons 1455 accountability crucial. 1456 32 • medical applications of nuclear physics access for free at openstax. org glossary anger camera a common medical imaging device that uses a scintillator connected to a series of photomultipliers break - even when fusion power produced equals the heating powe... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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##ography ( pet ) tomography technique that uses emitters and detects the two annihilation rays, aiding in source localization proton - proton cycle the combined reactions 1h + 1h→2h + e + + ve, 1h + 2h→3he + γ, and 3he + 3he→4he + 1h + 1h quality factor same as relative biological effectiveness rad the ionizing energy... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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32. 1 diagnostics and medical imaging • radiopharmaceuticals are compounds that are used for medical imaging and therapeutics. • the process of attaching a radioactive substance is called tagging. • table 32. 1 lists certain diagnostic uses of radiopharmaceuticals including the isotope and activity typically used in di... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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32. 2 biological effects of ionizing radiation • the biological effects of ionizing radiation are due to two effects it has on cells : interference with cell reproduction, and destruction of cell function. • a radiation dose unit called the rad is defined in terms of the ionizing energy deposited per kilogram of tissue... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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therapeutic ratio. • doses for various organs are limited by the tolerance of normal tissue for radiation. treatment is localized in one region of the body and spread out in time. 32. 4 food irradiation • food irradiation is the treatment of food with ionizing radiation. • irradiating food can destroy insects and bacte... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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32. 5 fusion • nuclear fusion is a reaction in which two nuclei are combined to form a larger nucleus. it releases energy when light nuclei are fused to form medium - mass nuclei. • fusion is the source of energy in stars, with the proton - proton cycle, being the principal sequence of energy - producing reactions in o... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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32. 6 fission • nuclear fission is a reaction in which a nucleus is split. • fission releases energy when heavy nuclei are split into medium - mass nuclei. • self - sustained fission is possible, because neutron - induced fission also produces neutrons that can induce other fissions,, where and are the two daughter nuc... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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32. 2 biological effects of ionizing radiation 3. isotopes that emit radiation are relatively safe outside the body and exceptionally hazardous inside. yet those that emit radiation are hazardous outside and inside. explain why. 4. why is radon more closely associated with inducing lung cancer than other types of cance... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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why. why is radiotherapy used to treat young people at all? 32. 4 food irradiation 11. does food irradiation leave the food radioactive? to what extent is the food altered chemically for low and high doses in food irradiation? 12. compare a low dose of radiation to a human with a low dose of radiation used in food trea... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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32. 6 fission 18. explain why the fission of heavy nuclei releases energy. similarly, why is it that energy input is required to fission light nuclei? 19. explain, in terms of conservation of momentum and energy, why collisions of neutrons with protons will thermalize neutrons better than collisions with oxygen. 20. th... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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32. 7 nuclear weapons 26. what are some of the reasons that plutonium rather than uranium is used in all fission bombs and as the trigger in all fusion bombs? 27. use the laws of conservation of momentum and energy to explain how a shape charge can direct most of the energy released in an explosion in a specific direct... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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32. 1 diagnostics and medical imaging 1. a neutron generator uses an source, such as radium, to bombard beryllium, inducing the reaction. such neutron sources are called rabe sources, or pube sources if they use plutonium to get the s. calculate the energy output of the reaction in mev. 2. neutrons from a source ( perh... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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0.0050537679344415665,
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0.0697948709130... |
is usually mixed with stable iodine as a carrier to ensure normal chemistry and distribution in the body. 7. ( a ) neutron activation of sodium, which is 100 %, produces, which is used in some heart scans, as seen in table 32. 1. the equation for the reaction is. find its energy output, given the mass of is 23. 990962 ... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
0.008101679384708405,
0.03815153241157532,
0.02770538069307804,
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0.031141247600317,
0.023342249915003777,
0.01948966644704342,
0.04929894208908081,
-0.04850929... |
2. 5 mgy of neutron exposure to the eye? ( c ) 1. 5 mgy of exposure? 9. find the radiation dose in gy for : ( a ) a 10 - msv fluoroscopic x - ray series. ( b ) 50 msv of skin exposure by an emitter. ( c ) 160 msv of and rays from the in your body. 10. how many gy of exposure is needed to give a cancerous tumor a dose o... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
0.036160796880722046,
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0.05820932984352112,
0.03608772158622742,
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0.05815273895859718,
-0.... |
food is 50. 0 g, how many molecules are there in | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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... |
1. 00 kg of food? ( b ) how many ion pairs are created in 1. 00 kg of food, if it is exposed to 1000 sv and it takes 32. 0 ev to create an ion pair? ( c ) find the ratio of ion pairs to molecules. ( d ) if these ion pairs recombine into a distribution of 2000 new compounds, how many parts per billion is each? 32 • prob... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
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0.043044961988925934,
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0.0002915119403041899,
0.050330404192209244,
-0... |
1. 50 kg. what is the dose in rem to the tumor, if the average energy per decay is 1. 25 mev? none of the s from the decay reach the patient. ( b ) is the dose consistent with stated therapeutic doses? 20. what is the mass of in a cancer therapy transillumination unit containing 5. 00 kci of? 21. large amounts of are p... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
0.025673022493720055,
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0.011316075921058655,
0.053095147013664246,
-0.... |
fraction of the decay energy absorbed. ( the rest escapes, exposing those close to you. ) 25. if everyone in australia received an extra 0. 05 msv per year of radiation, what would be the increase in the number of cancer deaths per year? ( assume that time had elapsed for the effects to become apparent. ) assume that t... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
0.01561135146766901,
0.020269328728318214,
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0.0... |
32. 5 fusion 26. verify that the total number of nucleons, total charge, and electron family number are conserved for each of the fusion reactions in the proton - proton cycle in and ( list the value of each of the conserved quantities before and after each of the reactions. ) 27. calculate the energy output in each of... | openstax_college_physics_2e-web_7zesafu | [
0.0038603609427809715,
0.014889129437506199,
0.011924530379474163,
0.01424380298703909,
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0.045436277985572815,
0.03451487421989441,
0.022140512242913246,
0.06015508994460106,
-0... |
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