text stringlengths 1 3.55k | source stringlengths 24 207 | emb listlengths 1.02k 1.02k |
|---|---|---|
complement presentation of a signed number is the standard presentation in all computer systems. with n bits, the range of numbers that can be presented is [ – 2n – 1, + 2n – 1 – 1 ]. you can see that this range contains 2n different numbers, exactly like n - bit unsigned integer numbers. the only difference is that in... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
-0.008940302766859531,
-0.02799670584499836,
0.024790234863758087,
-0.005635636392980814,
0.008342654444277287,
-0.04247714951634407,
0.045904938131570816,
0.00793612189590931,
-0.042367320507764816,
0.11444409936666489,
0.020914392545819283,
0.0155451949685812,
-0.007762059569358826,
-0.0... |
difference between traditional addition versus computer computation. ( attribution : copyright rice university, openstax, under cc by 4. 0 license ) think it through why integers? a real number, represented on a computer as a single precision floating point, takes four bytes. an integer also takes four bytes. yet, the ... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
0.028074946254491806,
-0.024424852803349495,
0.010355428792536259,
-0.0242023766040802,
-0.005820607766509056,
-0.01692444458603859,
0.04761356860399246,
-0.008556614629924297,
-0.022895490750670433,
0.07597556710243225,
0.02698514796793461,
-0.02211982011795044,
-0.0086739556863904,
-0.03... |
to represent the characters. you may realize that 128 characters, or even 256 ones, cannot include all written languages which is why there are new encoding standards such as universal coded character set ( ucs ) and unicode that encompass all written languages and incorporate ascii as the first 128 codes, which is bac... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
0.011886190623044968,
-0.03459799289703369,
0.001169373863376677,
-0.013408344238996506,
0.005310308188199997,
-0.024126578122377396,
0.058370303362607956,
-0.011272036470472813,
-0.041232556104660034,
0.09249948710203171,
0.026113303378224373,
-0.0015189325204119086,
0.022081462666392326,
... |
5. 3 • machine - level information representation 211 11. 111, the rank of the first digit after the floating point is – 1, the following one is – 2, and the leftmost one is – 3. the digits at the left of the floating point have the usual rank that starts from 0. therefore, the decimal equivalent of 11. 111 = 21 + 20 +... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
0.022352786734700203,
-0.0033639036118984222,
0.010263891890645027,
-0.028816815465688705,
-0.007808958180248737,
-0.015261149033904076,
0.0436771921813488,
-0.015018475241959095,
-0.030120516195893288,
0.04924754425883293,
0.01947486400604248,
-0.02765897661447525,
-0.010493963025510311,
... |
1, which is the same as 1875 × 10 – 3, which is the same as 0. 1875 × 10, and so on. in binary, we can do the same by multiplying by 2 to the power of something. the number 11. 111 is the same as 111. 11 × 2 – 1 and so on. in fact, we can express any floating point binary number in the form 1. xxxx × 2y. except for spe... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
0.008841938339173794,
0.013100514188408852,
0.0008047694573178887,
-0.008814637549221516,
-0.006620502099394798,
-0.009446055628359318,
0.06740083545446396,
0.00216078688390553,
-0.010198086500167847,
0.0784883126616478,
0.03628765046596527,
-0.02182817831635475,
-0.02162177674472332,
-0.0... |
responsible for the sign of the whole number. but, what about the exponent? we need to be able to have positive and negative exponents. if we use the two ’ s complement format for the exponent, the whole floating point format is overly complicated. the hardware that deals with floating point operations is very complica... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
0.004760181065648794,
-0.0019122519297525287,
-0.022867262363433838,
-0.0031578880734741688,
0.01946393959224224,
-0.009252185933291912,
0.05835609883069992,
0.011746599338948727,
-0.011347728781402111,
0.08273325115442276,
0.04067249968647957,
-0.018425228074193,
-0.018775546923279762,
-0... |
– 1 + 2 – 3 + 2 – 4 = 1. 6875. • this makes the whole number = – 1. 6875 × 2 – 9. before we finish our discussion about floating points, there is the question of 0. how to present the 0? even if we make all bits 0, the hidden 1 makes the final value a non - zero one. how can we deal with this problem? the representatio... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
0.014969820156693459,
-0.0020126616582274437,
0.011042647063732147,
-0.026671655476093292,
0.00030870415503159165,
-0.040967270731925964,
0.0406624898314476,
-0.004003486596047878,
-0.03863251581788063,
0.06192052736878395,
0.055945102125406265,
-0.016203217208385468,
0.009109205566346645,
... |
5. 4 machine - level program representation learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : • discuss x86 - 64 intel processors and their architectures • differentiate between assembly and machine languages • explain basic concepts of assembly language and the types of operations when you write a ... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
-0.003815531963482499,
-0.0005604737671092153,
0.006261180154979229,
-0.030371932312846184,
0.020154057070612907,
-0.00936888623982668,
-0.022844746708869934,
-0.03418206796050072,
-0.03783726319670677,
0.048810336738824844,
0.0012865029275417328,
0.012684301473200321,
0.01630091294646263,
... |
clicking an icon, or even saying a command. at that moment, a part of the operating system, called the loader, loads the executable into the memory and arranges its content in a specific way to make it ready for execution by the processor. a dynamic library is when more libraries may be linked during execution or while... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
0.00210266700014472,
-0.020282190293073654,
-0.007978365756571293,
0.023003796115517616,
0.011485468596220016,
-0.03304017335176468,
-0.010864704847335815,
-0.02836865745484829,
-0.011566557921469212,
0.02738933637738228,
0.01730119064450264,
-0.006304131355136633,
-0.013586369343101978,
-... |
for faster processing power arises, we move from 16, to 32, to 64 - bit processors. this number relates to the size of the registers ( fast storage entities inside the processor ), the width of the buses ( parallel wires connecting the processor to memory ), and the amount of memory the processor can access ( for n - b... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
0.012259337119758129,
-0.01603313535451889,
0.0037241228856146336,
0.026550747454166412,
0.012621044181287289,
-0.01369465608149767,
-0.004760300274938345,
-0.03346504643559456,
-0.04888107255101204,
0.05304444953799248,
0.021399643272161484,
0.01813325472176075,
-0.0007633840432390571,
-0... |
called cisc. complex instructions such as the ones corresponding to a for - loop in hll were the norm until the 1980s when another viewpoint came into existence that said that complex instructions make the processor slow. moving into the 1990s, and the appearance of portable devices with their sensitivity to power cons... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
-0.0006899894797243178,
-0.03174285590648651,
0.025156788527965546,
-0.01700568199157715,
0.012908737175166607,
-0.006255770102143288,
-0.027832867577672005,
-0.04454248398542404,
-0.039867449551820755,
0.05461054667830467,
0.04348054155707359,
0.008466986007988453,
-0.00782998837530613,
-... |
5. 4 • machine - level program representation 215 link to learning there has been a debate among companies who are designing hardware as to whether cisc or risc is better. read this article chronicling this debate ( https : / / openstax. org / r / 76debciscvsrisc ) from microcontrollertips. assembly and machine code in... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
0.017117444425821304,
-0.03396663814783096,
0.017130188643932343,
-0.0383714959025383,
0.008548150770366192,
-0.04795852303504944,
-0.0026005341205745935,
-0.026494698598980904,
-0.038124434649944305,
0.03514152765274048,
-0.021005922928452492,
0.004060201346874237,
-0.003000465454533696,
... |
? what do you see? this view is summarized in figure 5. 17. figure 5. 17 the assembly programmer sees a simpler, but more realistic view of the machine than the hll programmer. ( attribution : copyright rice university, openstax, under cc by 4. 0 license ) figure 5. 17 shows the following : • there is a processor ( cpu... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
0.012661728076636791,
-0.027361832559108734,
-0.011566574685275555,
0.005150172859430313,
0.007103191688656807,
-0.01912749744951725,
0.03290025517344475,
0.011466508731245995,
-0.021609213203191757,
0.07378438860177994,
-0.00807096716016531,
-0.006384239066392183,
0.00887787900865078,
-0.... |
inside the cpu, there are registers which carry hardware parts that store data, instructions, addresses, and so on. each register stores one item. an x86 programmer has access to 16 registers, as we will see shortly. because the cpu is executing a program, which is a series of instructions, the cpu must keep track of w... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
-0.009617893025279045,
-0.04421531409025192,
-0.018052857369184494,
-0.029088418930768967,
0.01697065681219101,
-0.026534471660852432,
0.01213888917118311,
0.005371556617319584,
-0.008969699963927269,
0.055395059287548065,
0.0085219107568264,
0.03182036802172661,
0.005301399622112513,
-0.0... |
5. 4 • machine - level program representation 217 figure 5. 18 registers in x86 are a bit complicated due to the need to keep backward compatibility and the fact that x86 is cisc. ( attribution : copyright rice university, openstax, under cc by 4. 0 license ) each one of these registers can hold 64 bits. when we had 32... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
0.0282538253813982,
-0.015599598176777363,
0.026922134682536125,
0.012779725715517998,
0.0001936689659487456,
-0.03285031393170357,
0.015336309559643269,
-0.02329050377011299,
-0.05075249820947647,
0.061011575162410736,
0.01448843814432621,
0.0052067930810153484,
-0.007069620303809643,
-0.... |
##ll code. however, there are some programs, or parts of programs, that need to be written in assembly and not in 218 5 • hardware realizations of algorithms : computer systems design access for free at openstax. org hll for the sake of performance ( assembly code written by a human in these cases is much faster than h... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
0.020360292866826057,
-0.01259789988398552,
-0.01172221451997757,
0.006048455368727446,
-0.003909152466803789,
-0.01429241057485342,
0.023024357855319977,
-0.0076314727775752544,
-0.03046899475157261,
0.04788785055279732,
0.0257082749158144,
0.005102144088596106,
0.0009882031008601189,
-0.... |
the simple single dimension data items? one crucial way is to have rich addressing modes. in its most general form, an address in x86 is specified as d ( rb, ri, s ) where : • d is a non - negative ( but can be 0 ) integer whose range is from 0 to 232 – 1. • rb and ri are registers, and they can be any one of the 16 re... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
-0.02705322951078415,
-0.00818268209695816,
0.019750675186514854,
-0.03471720218658447,
-0.03243684768676758,
-0.016901254653930664,
0.05887637287378311,
-0.004506188444793224,
-0.05592653527855873,
0.07100138068199158,
0.02852161042392254,
0.022419294342398643,
0.0030296046752482653,
-0.0... |
5. 4 • machine - level program representation 219 data movement operations the data movement in assembly takes the form movx source or destination where : • “ x ” specifies the number of bytes to be moved from source to destination. it can take one of the following values : “ b ” means 1 byte, “ w ” ( word ) means 2 by... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
0.030421165749430656,
-0.020333029329776764,
0.013662266544997692,
0.01896282657980919,
-0.010050187818706036,
-0.02982044406235218,
0.028836674988269806,
-0.010939589701592922,
-0.02129710465669632,
0.09083239734172821,
0.033604368567466736,
0.033185385167598724,
0.015885520726442337,
-0.... |
shift right. as you may have guessed, these are operations that require two operands. look at the type of operands that we investigated earlier. for example : addq % rax, % rbx means rax = rax + rbx. additionally, there are some one operand operations such as increment and decrement. there are some complexities involve... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
0.007482292130589485,
-0.024531688541173935,
-0.04179348051548004,
0.002021941589191556,
0.0026359602343291044,
-0.0485127717256546,
0.031333453953266144,
-0.0038912876043468714,
-0.026112273335456848,
0.07966531068086624,
0.024699827656149864,
0.011163703165948391,
0.030135786160826683,
-... |
##tracting two registers and getting the result of 0. procedure call operations one last item is related to procedure call — x86 has two instructions : call and ret to implement. however, the 220 5 • hardware realizations of algorithms : computer systems design access for free at openstax. org situation is more complic... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
-0.007672769483178854,
-0.0014337070751935244,
-0.006022281479090452,
-0.028596652671694756,
-0.02537408098578453,
-0.05186004191637039,
0.005491720978170633,
-0.006184273399412632,
-0.020348655059933662,
0.05888194218277931,
0.018138958141207695,
0.018611572682857513,
-0.0021965019404888153... |
5. 5 memory hierarchy learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : • discuss various memory and storage tools • differentiate between various types of storage technologies • explain how locality is used to optimize programs for the processor to do its job, which is doing the calculations, it mu... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
-0.00874905101954937,
0.014624427072703838,
0.01172309834510088,
0.024327775463461876,
-0.02116427756845951,
-0.023008497431874275,
-0.01445478294044733,
-0.02436826005578041,
-0.01937844231724739,
0.05180816724896431,
0.0032878988422453403,
0.005427028052508831,
0.0008263489580713212,
-0.... |
5. 5 • memory hierarchy 221 under cc by 4. 0 license ) in this section, we explore memory technology. we will discuss the different technologies by which memory is built, explain what we mean by memory hierarchy, and see what researchers have done to deal with the processor - memory gap. memory and storage what is our ... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
-0.0043032788671553135,
0.0035406090319156647,
0.006875745952129364,
0.02428450435400009,
-0.0038676541298627853,
-0.00026611873181536794,
-0.008578876033425331,
0.006190042477101088,
0.011986025609076023,
0.040999095886945724,
-0.007356892805546522,
0.014047827571630478,
0.01010477915406227... |
term storage ) even though this distinction may be blurred in future technologies. how can we get the best of both worlds? concepts in practice the more you know knowing about hardware is always beneficial to a software programmer. the cache, for example, is transparent to the programmer ; however, if the programmer kn... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
-0.0032043252140283585,
0.01580519787967205,
0.016358111053705215,
-0.014075307175517082,
0.00532950134947896,
-0.013428929261863232,
-0.013035444542765617,
-0.013249068520963192,
-0.004027087707072496,
0.0424715019762516,
0.03640134632587433,
0.00456164451315999,
0.00840351264923811,
-0.0... |
, under cc by 4. 0 license ) table 5. 3 gives the names of the technologies that we discuss later in this section. the processor is connected to the first cache using a set of wires called the bus. if the processor does not find what it wants, it goes to the next level, and so on. technology name use case technology 1 ... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
0.02323627844452858,
0.0010330511722713709,
0.03815038502216339,
0.025693479925394058,
-0.016010841354727745,
0.004070982802659273,
-0.006266114301979542,
-0.03967337682843208,
0.015484228730201721,
0.04515082389116287,
0.02368449792265892,
-0.0018974413396790624,
0.034637030214071274,
-0.... |
5. 5 • memory hierarchy 223 technology name use case technology 3 solid - state drive ( ssd ) storage • persistent • slow • cheap • big in size ( few gb to few tb ) technology 4 hard disk drive ( hdd ) storage • persistent • very slow • very cheap • several tb of storage table 5. 3 technologies used for storage in a ty... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
-0.02566094510257244,
-0.005488463677465916,
0.03470700606703758,
-0.0020743736531585455,
-0.00713129248470068,
-0.009110569953918457,
-0.008178477175533772,
-0.025016991421580315,
-0.0016079372726380825,
0.05491037294268608,
0.02136083133518696,
-0.001963409362360835,
0.02597004920244217,
... |
starts discharging and loses its charge. this means we lose the data stored in memory. because of this, there is circuitry built inside the dram that, every few milliseconds, checks the capacitors and adds a charge to them. we call this the refresh cycle. it is done dynamically, hence the name dynamic ram or dram. the ... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
-0.024607662111520767,
-0.024866919964551926,
-0.006237038876861334,
0.013566658832132816,
-0.015222377143800259,
-0.02177322842180729,
0.028038861230015755,
-0.04921236261725426,
-0.002863888628780842,
0.07336973398923874,
0.0401616245508194,
-0.0014426365960389376,
0.012101253494620323,
... |
pin and 184 pin dimm memory modules " by veeblefetzer / wikimedia commons, cc by 4. 0 ) you must have heard the term 64 - bit machines, right? most of our computer systems nowadays are 64 bit. one of the definitions of this term is that the connection between the processor and the memory has 64 - bit width ; its memory... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
0.008658945560455322,
-0.008217623457312584,
0.0015581599436700344,
0.01738896779716015,
-0.03607040271162987,
-0.002040818566456437,
0.052902866154909134,
-0.030415739864110947,
-0.04201250523328781,
0.08655833452939987,
0.018945062533020973,
0.019936049357056618,
-0.009673421271145344,
-... |
5. 5 • memory hierarchy 225 piece of data, the overall system performance is very low ; therefore, computer designers speed things up by using a faster technology together with the dram. this faster technology, technology 1 in figure 5. 20 is called the sram. memory : sram there are several reasons for the slow speed o... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
-0.006948806345462799,
0.009634850546717644,
0.0027447363827377558,
0.02165970206260681,
0.028681693598628044,
0.015301395207643509,
0.0017730037216097116,
-0.03284667432308197,
-0.005868344567716122,
0.081599161028862,
0.008160495199263096,
0.008304756134748459,
0.00952145829796791,
-0.02... |
e., its use cannot be managed by the programmer ), but the latter is not. your laptop has 32gb of ram, which is the size of the dram, but you may not know how much cache your processor has. however, if you know how the cache works, you can write more efficient programs as we learn when we talk about locality. in figure... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
-0.009870845824480057,
0.005412391386926174,
-0.015197488479316235,
0.02449842542409897,
-0.015560613013803959,
0.010686912573873997,
0.0059950342401862144,
-0.02256128005683422,
0.007383461110293865,
0.07536298036575317,
0.07645310461521149,
0.002553387312218547,
0.014130261726677418,
-0.... |
cache hit. however, if the processor instead needs a [ 17 ], then we have another cache miss and the cache gets to the memory again to bring several elements, including a [ 17 ]. both the sram and dram, or cache and memory, are volatile — whenever there is a power perturbation or the machine runs out of battery, everyt... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
-0.01659144088625908,
0.021020432934165,
0.009346230886876583,
0.003406951669603586,
-0.017490319907665253,
-0.0009560291655361652,
-0.022967642173171043,
-0.014840546064078808,
0.024835333228111267,
0.049555785953998566,
0.03296275436878204,
-0.020504500716924667,
0.0365108884871006,
-0.0... |
? let us start with the older technology first. hard disk hard disks were the main storage solutions for all computers in the 1980s, 1990s, and until the mid - 2000s. a hard disk drive ( hdd ) stores data on a rotating platter, has a very large capacity, and uses a small motor to rotate platters to get the data. you ca... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
0.005828907247632742,
0.004120681434869766,
0.038452621549367905,
0.02442246861755848,
-0.0011109717888757586,
0.009026763029396534,
0.011306801810860634,
-0.000008971092029241845,
0.017200008034706116,
0.05365495756268501,
0.006285041105002165,
0.008989273570477962,
-0.0007473756559193134,
... |
5. 5 • memory hierarchy 227 figure 5. 24 ( a ) the full hard disk drive ( hdd ) is ( b ) divided into platters, and each platter is divided into tracks and sectors. ( credit a : modification of “ open hdd ” by gratuit / freeimageslive, cc by 3. 0 ; credit b : attribution : copyright rice university, openstax, under cc ... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
-0.04084325209259987,
-0.006759143900126219,
0.030770666897296906,
0.0020473357290029526,
0.0082275765016675,
0.018323808908462524,
-0.009212365373969078,
0.001703673042356968,
-0.012590613216161728,
0.06298873573541641,
0.022726111114025116,
0.019062597304582596,
0.026703231036663055,
-0.... |
learning most laptops now have ssd storage, so it is good to know how ssd really works. watch this video for a succinct explanation of how ssd works ( https : / / openstax. org / r / 76ssdhowitworks ) in the context of smartphones. more about cache memory as you have learned, cache memory is used as a fast, small memor... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
-0.002265795599669218,
0.02950276806950569,
-0.0005305706290528178,
0.008465786464512348,
-0.004138877149671316,
0.012855117209255695,
0.002438964555040002,
-0.024441013112664223,
0.007822191342711449,
0.06849055737257004,
-0.0010748141212388873,
0.02477116696536541,
0.01100008562207222,
-... |
cache miss, instead of going to the memory off - chip, we go to l2 cache, which is still on chip and bigger in capacity than l1. most processors now have up to three levels of caches, as shown in figure 5. 25. figure 5. 25 most processors now have three levels of cache memory. ( attribution : copyright rice university,... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
0.018927142024040222,
0.0022624877747148275,
0.005793099291622639,
-0.019594917073845863,
-0.03224259614944458,
0.001189796719700098,
0.034518592059612274,
-0.007799419574439526,
0.021170945838093758,
0.047381144016981125,
0.013521476648747921,
0.031526871025562286,
-0.024115297943353653,
... |
5. 5 • memory hierarchy 229 when a processor repeatedly visits the same memory locales, it has locality. we can surmise that if a program accesses the data in a consecutive manner, it gets better performance, called spatial locality. also, if we reuse the data as much as possible, we get better performance because the ... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
0.010545504279434681,
0.02664872631430626,
0.002995853079482913,
-0.019774185493588448,
0.006811193190515041,
-0.0008571770158596337,
-0.03168845549225807,
-0.0008896589861251414,
-0.01706322841346264,
0.05996204912662506,
0.026176482439041138,
-0.00392670975998044,
-0.020100537687540054,
... |
5. 6 processor architectures learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : • discuss the history and advancements in traditional processor architectures and computation models • define heterogeneity and discuss its effect on computer systems processors have a relatively short history that starts... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
0.014826321043074131,
0.022083736956119537,
0.011876191943883896,
0.004593629855662584,
0.011814146302640438,
0.0010940420906990767,
-0.02537456527352333,
-0.018038146197795868,
0.0038929751608520746,
0.041052401065826416,
-0.0027739310171455145,
0.013593945652246475,
-0.006132082547992468,
... |
as big as the slowest instruction. the processor executed at the speed of the slowest instruction ; therefore, even though the design was simple, it suffered from performance and power issues. however, physics came to the rescue. concepts in practice social media and supercomputers billions of people use social media s... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
0.0024233204312622547,
-0.005052757449448109,
-0.001701896544545889,
0.005667421035468578,
0.010078568942844868,
-0.0050968145951628685,
-0.009490630589425564,
-0.041379354894161224,
-0.031100690364837646,
0.056116629391908646,
0.012659559957683086,
-0.011344126425683498,
0.01265910081565380... |
the processor has evolved from the ( a ) simple design single - cycle implementation to ( b ) pipelining to the very sophisticated ( c ) superscalar design in less than 70 years. ( attribution : copyright rice university, openstax, under cc by 4. 0 license ) if you think about what this bulky box in figure 5. 26 ( a ) ... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
0.0052733696065843105,
-0.0014212459791451693,
0.022083772346377373,
-0.0026240970473736525,
-0.008855638094246387,
-0.01564689539372921,
-0.017614345997571945,
-0.013592066243290901,
-0.01346755214035511,
0.0462045855820179,
0.027722982689738274,
0.002651912160217762,
0.01367897354066372,
... |
5. 6 • processor architectures 231 know what needs to be done, and issues the instruction to the correct execution units ( e. g., an integer operation to the integer execution unit and a floating - point operation to floating point execution unit ). after execution, it writes the result of the operation back to a desti... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
-0.01461787335574627,
0.0060669295489788055,
-0.0527745820581913,
0.005748465191572905,
-0.02182585373520851,
-0.00401513185352087,
-0.02087198570370674,
-0.021169772371649742,
0.011295728385448456,
0.08072935044765472,
-0.029766684398055077,
0.011652198620140553,
-0.008064908906817436,
-0... |
capability, which is an execution unit that allows several instructions to be executed at the same time using another type of parallelism, spatial parallelism. if you look closely at figure 5. 26 ( c ), you realize it combines both the temporal parallelism ( from pipelining ) and spatial parallelism ( from superscalar ... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
-0.011084681376814842,
-0.0031360206194221973,
-0.03683752566576004,
0.015239985659718513,
0.01157190091907978,
0.005213059950619936,
-0.02493586204946041,
-0.06238315999507904,
-0.008397574536502361,
0.06848061084747314,
0.004481262993067503,
0.018391203135252,
0.010741091333329678,
-0.04... |
known as processors ) have evolved in the last half century in many ways. visit this 232 5 • hardware realizations of algorithms : computer systems design access for free at openstax. org site to learn more about microprocessor trend data ( https : / / openstax. org / r / 76cmicroprodata ) from 1970 to the present. het... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
0.013169136829674244,
0.015282923355698586,
-0.003458448452875018,
0.021573716774582863,
0.03640991449356079,
-0.00836166925728321,
-0.012414365075528622,
-0.044573504477739334,
0.030629780143499374,
0.01970515586435795,
0.009815647266805172,
0.0033761735539883375,
0.01144692488014698,
-0.... |
5. 6 • processor architectures 233 chapter review key terms abstraction removal of unimportant elements of a program or computer code that distract from its process addressing mode location in the memory that contains the required data american standard code for information interchange ( ascii ) unit code or unique bin... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
-0.002967765787616372,
-0.01589491032063961,
0.01432702038437128,
0.0068207173608243465,
0.015496280044317245,
0.008658560924232006,
0.012184600345790386,
-0.025394784286618233,
-0.016362961381673813,
0.05912453681230545,
0.008181068114936352,
0.008098510093986988,
0.013289287686347961,
-0... |
method by which a human can direct a computer on how to perform tasks and applications hit rate number, usually a percentage, of times the cache was used to retrieve data homogeneous when cpus are copies of each other in design ieee 754 standard format used by computers that support floating points with very few except... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
-0.01619385927915573,
0.0010313681559637189,
-0.00028805926558561623,
-0.020375637337565422,
0.004604903049767017,
-0.0022942412178963423,
0.0037082144990563393,
-0.031135836616158485,
-0.003954283893108368,
0.04513731971383095,
0.0016084802336990833,
-0.0037470748648047447,
-0.0037674081977... |
simple instructions refresh cycle regular operation that dram memory does by adding charges to memory cells in order to lose the data stored as charges register memory unit that functions at a very high speed register file group of registers scheduling when the os manages which program to use with what part of the hard... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
-0.02899421751499176,
-0.005149392411112785,
-0.0068149506114423275,
-0.014698692597448826,
0.024014277383685112,
0.0026924603153020144,
0.0029305454809218645,
-0.04192313179373741,
-0.007865512743592262,
0.07917722314596176,
-0.00801918376237154,
0.04091282933950424,
0.016583722084760666,
... |
this computer system organization is mostly the same in your tablet or smartphone as it is in the huge systems running services like facebook or google. they just differ as it comes to how powerful each piece is, how many cpus are there, the size of the memory and disk, and so on. | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
-0.024296946823596954,
-0.044050320982933044,
-0.00347820483148098,
0.020803529769182205,
0.022233903408050537,
0.014838188886642456,
0.016437994316220284,
0.001516504678875208,
0.059498175978660583,
0.03167632967233658,
0.030318893492221832,
0.03485621511936188,
-0.010069557465612888,
-0.... |
5. 2 computer levels of abstraction • the levels from problem definition to assembly language are related to the computer science field. people studying computer science explore how to solve a problem using an algorithm, how to translate this 5 • chapter review 235 algorithm into a programming language, then how to tra... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
0.007729021366685629,
-0.02176753431558609,
0.027991561219096184,
-0.023844948038458824,
0.040933698415756226,
-0.024817083030939102,
0.012378882616758347,
-0.024182239547371864,
-0.04362812638282776,
0.07353121042251587,
-0.028489042073488235,
0.021884961053729057,
0.014942540787160397,
-... |
5. 3 machine - level information representation • the most frequently used data items are stored inside a computer. • an integer is a number that does not have a floating point ; 7 is an integer but 3. 14 is not. integers are divided into two categories : signed and unsigned. signed integers can be positive, negative, ... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
-0.007442184258252382,
-0.03042740374803543,
0.00775928096845746,
-0.045518677681684494,
0.015780644491314888,
-0.04263874515891075,
0.09403178840875626,
0.00013898751058150083,
-0.045326847583055496,
0.084684818983078,
0.028092505410313606,
-0.009458956308662891,
0.006807988975197077,
-0.... |
5. 4 machine - level program representation • an x86 - 64 intel processor uses a complex instruction set computer architecture ( cisc ). this type of architecture combines many simple instructions into a simple complex one. other processor architectures use a reduced instruction set architecture ( risc ) based on simpl... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
-0.0018638991750776768,
-0.020420722663402557,
0.015161399729549885,
-0.023925824090838432,
0.030849779024720192,
-0.026653621345758438,
-0.007035599555820227,
-0.05730448290705681,
-0.0430452786386013,
0.05928691476583481,
-0.007164480164647102,
0.02717207930982113,
-0.0019105804385617375,
... |
5. 5 memory hierarchy • we must use different technologies to build a near ideal memory because each technology has some good characteristics and a few shortcomings. therefore, we use multiple technologies to get the best of all. various types of memory, such as dram and sram, are available and differ in access speed a... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
0.008413602598011494,
0.02005773037672043,
0.02862030640244484,
-0.009273157455027103,
-0.0080254590138793,
-0.0013253496726974845,
-0.01180288102477789,
0.022448431700468063,
0.015083756297826767,
0.056338198482990265,
0.004864885937422514,
0.010686758905649185,
0.003993915393948555,
-0.0... |
5. 6 processor architectures • processors evolved from a single cycle implementation to multicore. • the norm now is to have a multicore processor working in tandem with one or more accelerator chips. • the norm in software development is to write parallel code for such a heterogeneous system. sequential programming wi... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
0.028111223131418228,
0.00301240268163383,
0.0017075835494324565,
0.0016596640925854445,
0.01795198582112789,
0.0004898080369457603,
0.008520105853676796,
-0.036799147725105286,
-0.02636229433119297,
0.05549927055835724,
-0.004009312484413385,
0.01879219152033329,
0.003322974080219865,
-0.... |
signed integer b. unsigned integer c. floating point number d. boolean number 5 • chapter review 237 11. what is the two ’ s complement of the binary number 11100101? a. 01100101 b. 11100100 c. 00011010 d. 00011011 12. what is the one ’ s complement of the binary number 10100010? a. 00100010 b. 10100011 c. 01011101 d. ... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
-0.0006914248806424439,
-0.010183319449424744,
0.013309137895703316,
-0.015527824871242046,
0.009455494582653046,
-0.0237065851688385,
0.047538433223962784,
-0.009598400443792343,
-0.019541269168257713,
0.052465230226516724,
-0.008792873471975327,
0.0022363036405295134,
0.007833246141672134,... |
- access memory ( sram ) b. nand bate 238 5 • chapter review access for free at openstax. org c. dynamic random - access memory ( dram ) d. solid state drive ( ssd ) 23. what term means that, when the cache is empty, it does not have the needed data? a. cache hit b. cache memory c. cache miss d. cache reset 24. why is ... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
0.0036548764910548925,
-0.011438479647040367,
-0.014890993013978004,
0.02051498182117939,
-0.022440608590841293,
0.005227291490882635,
0.002373390132561326,
-0.027407005429267883,
-0.008924712426960468,
0.06262020766735077,
0.014328166842460632,
0.0018673969898372889,
0.0020978301763534546,
... |
algorithm to accomplish this? a. scan the list from first number to last number until you find the number you want or reach the last number. b. scan the list from last number to first number until you find the number you want or reach the first number. c. go to the middle of the list and see whether the number you are ... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
-0.011070416308939457,
0.0065561565570533276,
0.026420559734106064,
0.00756495725363493,
-0.01032368466258049,
-0.041138917207717896,
0.031540513038635254,
0.006280987057834864,
0.010034591890871525,
0.07105740904808044,
0.019963741302490234,
-0.006629953160881996,
-0.0074369339272379875,
... |
isas. for each one, find which companies are building processors that use that isa. finally, for each processor from these companies, check whether this processor is used on your portable device ( smartwatch, smartphone, tablet ), your laptop or computer, or in big supercomputers and data centers. 4. you are using the ... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
0.00964287668466568,
-0.0028575919568538666,
0.021962959319353104,
0.014373056590557098,
-0.00882068183273077,
0.0008715874282643199,
0.0497034415602684,
0.0032424097880721092,
0.003998204600065947,
0.07788869738578796,
-0.0037473654374480247,
0.01291321124881506,
0.012112438678741455,
-0.... |
with that cache experienced an average memory access time of 4 cycles, and the hit rate is 70 %. what is the access time of the main memory? did we benefit from having a cache in this system? 2. research and explain a few key responsibilities of operating systems. given x = 01100110, 3. what is the value of x once you ... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
0.03628521412611008,
0.02815541811287403,
0.013864889740943909,
-0.010032358579337597,
-0.016122261062264442,
0.0052093337289988995,
-0.019349990412592888,
-0.013380116783082485,
0.005957466550171375,
0.08340071886777878,
0.016220325604081154,
-0.011776125989854336,
0.028992094099521637,
-... |
computer with that cache experienced an average memory access time of 4 cycles, and the hit rate is 70 %. what is the access time of the main memory? did we 5 • chapter review 241 benefit from having a cache in this system? problem set b 1. suppose that we have a system with memory access time of 8 cycles. we need to a... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
0.023169146850705147,
0.015282546170055866,
0.013233001343905926,
-0.003765224711969495,
-0.009697149507701397,
0.01725511997938156,
0.0076113794930279255,
-0.014118627645075321,
0.026691308245062828,
0.0716366320848465,
-0.01297716610133648,
0.005766365677118301,
0.007925105281174183,
-0.... |
? what are the challenges? if no, why not? 5. now that moore ’ s law is coming to an end, how do you think the computer industry can get more performance from computer systems? suggest several solutions. labs 1. make a list of the i / o devices on your laptop, and another list of the software programs installed on your... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
0.016951464116573334,
-0.0030523953028023243,
-0.02938193827867508,
0.004396185744553804,
0.014551695436239243,
-0.02764069475233555,
0.023861387744545937,
-0.02000069059431553,
0.03080492466688156,
0.06669612228870392,
0.007828496396541595,
0.0005028562736697495,
0.029917137697339058,
-0.... |
6. 6 reliability and security introduction techworks is a start - up company that is 100 % committed to leveraging innovative technologies as part of its repeatable business model and as a business growth facilitator. techworks has been suffering for many months from the limitations of its operating system, especially ... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
0.01799916848540306,
0.004093922208994627,
0.022570744156837463,
0.02410372905433178,
0.01353372447192669,
0.002896430203691125,
-0.009006006643176079,
-0.031048478558659554,
-0.0073376065120100975,
0.04035080224275589,
-0.02687809057533741,
0.02543237805366516,
0.03874018415808678,
-0.004... |
6. 1 what is an operating system? learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : • describe an operating system and its role in computing • explain the architecture of operating systems an operating system ( os ) is the core piece of software that typically manages and controls the interconnectio... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
0.015080700628459454,
-0.010115675628185272,
-0.00019644558778963983,
-0.00032481327070854604,
0.013477126136422157,
-0.006106801331043243,
0.001664041425101459,
-0.010056955739855766,
0.019983485341072083,
0.04428279027342796,
0.00004691001231549308,
-0.0081776212900877,
-0.0017834902973845... |
run and the computer hardware that is responsible for running them is facilitated. applications typically do not directly manipulate the hardware ; instead, they must ask the os to do this on their behalf. one of the primary goals of the os from an application software point of view is isolation. isolation ensures that... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
0.00254403636790812,
-0.0035720758605748415,
-0.020845666527748108,
0.017636911943554878,
0.015801267698407173,
0.0014195105759426951,
-0.028575558215379715,
-0.027084454894065857,
0.0007912347209639847,
0.04383537173271179,
-0.03446665778756142,
0.019326025620102882,
-0.003574386239051819,
... |
addition to hardware monitoring, the os is instrumental in enforcing authentication mechanisms. this means the os helps verify that only authorized users gain access to certain devices, especially those considered sensitive. by managing user permissions and access levels, the os can prevent unauthorized access to criti... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
0.010705593973398209,
-0.027404073625802994,
0.021212860941886902,
-0.005075675435364246,
-0.004016898572444916,
-0.02292298525571823,
-0.012968599796295166,
-0.0014857129426673055,
-0.010389336384832859,
0.05657186731696129,
-0.011360425502061844,
0.014010543935000896,
0.023273680359125137,... |
6. 1 • what is an operating system? 245 property question security how is the integrity of the os and its resources ensured? performance how does an os avoid making all the applications run slowly? availability can the applications always access the services they need? reliability how often do things go wrong either wi... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
0.001955971587449312,
0.008300650864839554,
-0.018590936437249184,
-0.01208419632166624,
0.02216336317360401,
-0.02570817992091179,
-0.015254484489560127,
-0.012068376876413822,
0.014646075665950775,
0.0620117150247097,
-0.0028230478055775166,
0.007325849030166864,
0.010648930445313454,
-0... |
answer to this question relates to runtime efficiency. with respect to coding time efficiency, the os includes various abstractions, interface and libraries that application programmers can use to ease the burden of software development. having to write these from scratch without the support of an operating system woul... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
-0.007231306750327349,
0.010656927712261677,
0.01952856034040451,
-0.005110508296638727,
0.03259270265698433,
-0.0019943679217249155,
-0.013560132123529911,
-0.03979668393731117,
-0.052087318152189255,
0.05087416246533394,
-0.0005097734974697232,
0.02077934890985489,
-0.01956741325557232,
... |
##ization. server virtualization places a software layer called a hypervisor ( i. e., virtual machine monitor, or vmm ) between a machine ’ s ( i. e., server ’ s ) hardware and the operating systems that run on it. the hypervisor creates and manages virtual machines. a virtual machine ( vm ) is software that is created... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
0.02181696705520153,
0.013267791830003262,
-0.016967447474598885,
-0.008085818961262703,
0.018498025834560394,
-0.010002396069467068,
-0.014401162043213844,
-0.04087050259113312,
-0.016273638233542442,
0.03144647553563118,
-0.04498659819364548,
0.008801454678177834,
0.01909818686544895,
-0... |
that developers do not have to build these error management features from scratch, which simplifies the development process. figure 6. 3 shows the support layers within the unix / linux system structure. the os navigates between three layers : the user mode, where the application resides ; the kernel mode, which is in ... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
0.02079862356185913,
0.003451088909059763,
0.0011867122957482934,
-0.013651215471327305,
-0.008829561062157154,
0.0015452074585482478,
0.00946034025400877,
-0.011895591393113136,
0.0040198746137320995,
0.0620303601026535,
-0.01997365429997444,
0.026685742661356926,
0.027849234640598297,
-0... |
6. 1 • what is an operating system? 247 figure 6. 3 the unix / linux system structure is made up of three main parts : ( 1 ) the user mode, ( 2 ) the kernel mode, and ( 3 ) the hardware. ( attribution : copyright rice university, openstax, under cc by 4. 0 license ) link to learning now that you ’ ve been introduced to... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
0.013475833460688591,
0.008334551937878132,
0.009662124328315258,
-0.004244351293891668,
0.035583171993494034,
-0.012711822986602783,
0.00043287890730425715,
-0.017762726172804832,
0.001725524663925171,
0.03722904250025749,
0.0009605020168237388,
0.042457789182662964,
0.030739933252334595,
... |
in its own process, and the os can run, switch, and isolate processes from each other even though they are actually running on the same hardware. for a given application, the “ machine ” is the process abstraction provided by the os. processes provide user - friendly interfaces, rather than raw hardware, and an executi... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
0.00712636997923255,
0.010478073731064796,
-0.02940797433257103,
0.017400380223989487,
0.0031507532112300396,
-0.021920915693044662,
-0.028411313891410828,
-0.07026149332523346,
0.0007366392528638244,
0.08803215622901917,
0.01144380122423172,
0.04607367515563965,
0.004082161467522383,
-0.0... |
- care industry. imagine you ’ re considering entering the health - care it field. can you think of some ways that thinking globally and understanding the capabilities provided by oss could improve your ability to solve problems and create solutions that work well for health - care systems in various countries? hardwar... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
-0.0042989603243768215,
0.006333471275866032,
-0.0160038024187088,
0.014052719809114933,
0.004925437271595001,
-0.008061397820711136,
0.009120376780629158,
-0.04174942895770073,
-0.008692475035786629,
0.07158807665109634,
-0.008543767966330051,
0.03589435666799545,
0.021102234721183777,
-0... |
##s ( i. e., the interrupts that the os received from i / o devices ), interacting directly with hardware, and writing to kernel memory. carefully controlled transitions between user mode and kernel mode include system calls, interrupts, and exceptions. the system call appears when the program requests a service from t... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
-0.052516285330057144,
0.021864028647542,
-0.029295865446329117,
-0.005502263084053993,
0.011092915199697018,
-0.04756443575024605,
-0.04285857826471329,
-0.029649153351783752,
0.0006919134757481515,
0.06166108697652817,
-0.01390895526856184,
0.028378328308463097,
0.03096909075975418,
-0.0... |
6. 1 • what is an operating system? 249 because anyone can inspect and improve the code. this openness also encourages a global community of developers to collaborate, potentially leading to a technology that is more user - friendly and accessible for everyone. additionally, openness aligns with ethical principles of t... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
0.02046218328177929,
0.015812763944268227,
-0.01956808753311634,
0.004538958892226219,
0.013599283993244171,
-0.02962518483400345,
-0.013949666172266006,
0.01402050070464611,
0.008492100052535534,
0.04881579428911209,
-0.030719973146915436,
-0.00456603616476059,
0.034627679735422134,
0.002... |
the network and share resources. all of the sharing capabilities are controlled using secured channels. | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
0.021437115967273712,
0.04782078415155411,
0.0031492416746914387,
0.053531769663095474,
0.0026505549903959036,
-0.00012969270756002516,
-0.03890428692102432,
-0.009078051894903183,
0.020193127915263176,
0.055316150188446045,
0.013241213746368885,
0.05747801437973976,
0.051722411066293716,
... |
6. 2 fundamental os concepts learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : • explain various key concepts and components of operating systems • discuss the various designs of operating systems an os manages computer resources ( hardware ) and provides services for computer programs ( software ).... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
0.0043549127876758575,
-0.005092249251902103,
0.022720493376255035,
-0.00876727793365717,
0.035867609083652496,
-0.012612814083695412,
-0.005339001305401325,
-0.024687137454748154,
0.013288581743836403,
0.09524714946746826,
0.0018635910237208009,
-0.00052969332318753,
-0.009933278895914555,
... |
a command line ( e. g., dos ). for example, in figure 6. 5, the os interface would be the window into which the chrome browser opens. figure 6. 5 the operating system and hardware are tightly linked. the end user is using multiple applications, such as chrome, photoshop, acrobat, and jvm, which they had previously down... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
0.009545084089040756,
-0.005381545051932335,
-0.0012527183862403035,
-0.010643014684319496,
-0.014588074758648872,
-0.01150619424879551,
-0.02995608188211918,
-0.01962113007903099,
0.05460299178957939,
0.05659719929099083,
-0.024173196405172348,
0.018467623740434647,
-0.007228083908557892,
... |
6. 2 • fundamental os concepts 251 instance are code and data. here are some other process - related concepts that will be introduced here and developed as the chapter progresses : • a register is a high - speed memory storing unit. • a process can be in running state ( when it is executed by the cpu ), ready state ( w... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
0.0018502251477912068,
-0.015514652244746685,
0.005056153051555157,
0.0059161726385355,
0.0034486036747694016,
-0.005648843944072723,
-0.004833022598177195,
-0.039551254361867905,
0.00815022736787796,
0.07419790327548981,
-0.016810523346066475,
0.02108732797205448,
0.010899931192398071,
-0... |
. a process is an instance of a program being executed — or processed — by a processor. thus, processing involves a program, a process, and a processor. the processor can be a real processor or a virtual processor ( i. e., cpu core assigned to a virtual machine ). at any time, there may be many processes running copies... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
-0.0014204801991581917,
0.0035711382515728474,
0.01619250513613224,
0.0069852909073233604,
-0.0018636254826560616,
-0.021393759176135063,
-0.033993419259786606,
-0.024755313992500305,
-0.013503342866897583,
0.07495821267366409,
-0.006921952124685049,
0.014925558120012283,
0.00393936596810817... |
data will be in the address space waiting for the execution to be moved to the memory space. ( attribution : copyright rice university, openstax, under cc by 4. 0 license ) computer memory consists of two main types : primary and secondary memory. the initial point of access for a processor that also serves as direct s... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
-0.002831358229741454,
0.0038710604421794415,
0.014826182276010513,
-0.016930364072322845,
-0.005523118656128645,
0.009130033664405346,
0.009098137728869915,
0.006235149223357439,
-0.013235551305115223,
0.05855020508170128,
-0.0011290430556982756,
0.018716147169470787,
0.014189397916197777,
... |
memory in a program to be used to store variables and instances of structures and classes. the memory allocation can be static memory allocation or dynamic memory allocation. memory deallocation is the process of freeing the space corresponding to finished processes when that space is needed by the rest of the system. ... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
-0.0058648777194321156,
-0.016186030581593513,
0.025100087746977806,
0.015036245808005333,
-0.032730091363191605,
-0.030198657885193825,
0.03238920494914055,
0.0029657199047505856,
0.008202272467315197,
0.031918179243803024,
0.03414034843444824,
-0.005720163229852915,
-0.0027104546315968037,... |
6. 2 • fundamental os concepts 253 the os must maintain mappings from virtual addresses to physical ( i. e., page tables ) and switch cpu context among address spaces. industry spotlight windowing systems a windowing system is an os software component that manages the display of graphical user interfaces ( guis ) on a ... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
-0.019341446459293365,
0.004463391378521919,
0.017721090465784073,
0.00987725704908371,
-0.02599785476922989,
-0.04911322519183159,
-0.00393358338624239,
-0.003824478480964899,
0.0011135305976495147,
0.07391134649515152,
-0.03958815708756447,
0.022615909576416016,
0.015889747068285942,
0.0... |
graphics cards and other peripherals. device drivers are implemented by device manufacturers or open - source contributors and support a standard, internal interface. they can execute in the os address space and run at high privilege. 254 6 • infrastructure abstraction layer : operating systems access for free at opens... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
-0.01296610850840807,
0.01796857640147209,
0.018546171486377716,
-0.009034203365445137,
0.022346505895256996,
0.005638444796204567,
-0.0005085398443043232,
-0.032572127878665924,
0.007042253855615854,
0.05964759737253189,
0.004343479871749878,
0.022602813318371773,
0.010084228590130806,
-0... |
traditional hard disk drives ( hdds ) to modern ssds and removable storage media, require device drivers to facilitate data read / write operations. • network connectivity relies on an array of device drivers designed to manage the protocols and hardware functions of network interfaces. device registers a device regist... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
-0.016413170844316483,
0.013272207230329514,
0.01555033028125763,
-0.015540300868451595,
-0.00859352108091116,
-0.006855351850390434,
0.017302023246884346,
-0.02988450787961483,
0.010179161094129086,
0.042665746062994,
0.0006949420203454792,
0.03001740388572216,
0.026484932750463486,
-0.00... |
6. 2 • fundamental os concepts 255 registers to control the device. there are three types of device registers : status, command, and data. the status register provides information about the current state of the device ( e. g., read ), the command register issues a command to the device ( e. g., writing a value to the r... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
0.002818733686581254,
0.003277234733104706,
0.0472148135304451,
0.024646537378430367,
-0.0053094238974153996,
-0.02233382686972618,
0.028967484831809998,
-0.02236131578683853,
0.008289642632007599,
0.086733378469944,
-0.021858710795640945,
0.0406581349670887,
0.02708437480032444,
-0.007174... |
the os figures out which device interrupted. concepts in practice operating systems, printing, and networking pretty much anyone needs to print a document these days. it is therefore important to understand how an operating system enables us to print documents so easily. when an application wants to print a document, i... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
-0.015505676157772541,
-0.0151143129914999,
0.007688375189900398,
0.023751769214868546,
0.026520296931266785,
-0.017641276121139526,
-0.012738598510622978,
-0.042410220950841904,
0.007055882830172777,
0.10364953428506851,
0.0062988437712192535,
0.045274876058101654,
0.04434528946876526,
-0... |
. the dual mode is responsible for separating the user mode from the kernel mode. a program that can run only in the kernel mode is known as a privileged system program. an example of a privileged system program is the bootstrap code, which is the first code that is executed when the os starts. the os depends on the bo... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
-0.00729674007743597,
-0.015632152557373047,
0.022470228374004364,
0.013963241130113602,
0.029528195038437843,
-0.009986464865505695,
-0.0048568518832325935,
-0.0009171324782073498,
-0.033638354390859604,
0.061224669218063354,
0.000046956334699643776,
0.028527338057756424,
0.0550221949815750... |
##lithic architecture, the entire operating system functions as a single, integrated unit, and all of its components, such as process management, file systems, device drivers, and memory management, reside and | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
0.011451858095824718,
0.00736134871840477,
-0.01395822037011385,
-0.02580924890935421,
-0.0153700802475214,
0.004643834196031094,
-0.005934291053563356,
-0.01329769380390644,
0.03285830840468407,
0.04490009322762489,
0.010566532611846924,
0.04681961238384247,
0.007605893537402153,
-0.01598... |
6. 2 • fundamental os concepts 257 operate within the same address space, known as the kernel space. this means that the entire os operates as a single, large program, and any module or component can directly call the functions of another without any restrictions. while a monolithic design simplifies the communication ... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
-0.011438828893005848,
-0.006416025571525097,
0.005578286480158567,
-0.02887808345258236,
0.02491133287549019,
-0.02356938272714615,
-0.019201260060071945,
-0.027147961780428886,
0.0011589829809963703,
0.07499194145202637,
0.000369637826224789,
0.014919660054147243,
0.014025278389453888,
-... |
os is divided into layers, and each layer will be responsible for a specific task. ( attribution : copyright rice university, openstax, under cc by 4. 0 license ) the first example of a layered approach was dijkstra ’ s the system, which was designed in 1968. there were six layers, and they were organized as follows. •... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
0.0160335972905159,
-0.007157189771533012,
0.02687985636293888,
-0.012650503776967525,
0.01543375477194786,
-0.015343418344855309,
-0.010516353882849216,
-0.042354289442300797,
-0.004539699759334326,
0.07637689262628555,
-0.01565784029662609,
0.004596003796905279,
-0.0018988450756296515,
-... |
pieces of hardware. microkernels another alternative os design to monolithic os design is a microkernels architecture. within a microkernel, the functionality and capabilities are added to a minimal core os as plug - ins. microkernel architecture is also called a plug - in architecture because functionalities are added... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
0.0058064707554876804,
-0.013962416909635067,
-0.013498476706445217,
-0.03725912421941757,
-0.002561512403190136,
-0.013161128386855125,
0.016555093228816986,
-0.034949906170368195,
-0.010676887817680836,
0.051656126976013184,
0.010481087490916252,
0.005720853339880705,
-0.005861204117536545... |
6. 2 • fundamental os concepts 259 figure 6. 13 in the microkernel architecture, kernel mode is divided into multiple plug - ins to process the operations. ( attribution : copyright rice university, openstax, under cc by 4. 0 license ) the goal of a microkernel architecture is to minimize what goes into the kernel and ... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
-0.015037478879094124,
0.00636712834239006,
0.003439486725255847,
0.026843810454010963,
0.014551529660820961,
0.003268004395067692,
-0.012219581753015518,
-0.024186361581087112,
-0.0029845600947737694,
0.04688843712210655,
-0.009073854424059391,
0.013906109146773815,
-0.00849076546728611,
... |
##okernel architecture simplifies the os by making its core ( kernel ) really small and letting apps have more control over the computer ’ s hardware. unlike usual systems that hide hardware details, an exokernel shows these details to apps, letting them use the hardware more smartly. this way, it cuts down on unnecess... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
0.0009130308171734214,
-0.01448680367320776,
-0.016251368448138237,
0.011729647405445576,
-0.0015256778569892049,
-0.022650398313999176,
-0.01861819624900818,
-0.02995074726641178,
0.01684064418077469,
0.05581154674291611,
0.023802397772669792,
-0.013434836640954018,
0.0026704862248152494,
... |
6. 2 • fundamental os concepts 261 infrastructure is categorized into three service models : • infrastructure as a service ( iaas ) provides virtualized computing resources over the internet, such as aws ec2, google compute engine, and microsoft azure vms. • platform as a service ( paas ) offers hardware and software t... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
-0.014339439570903778,
-0.006154850125312805,
0.008094907738268375,
-0.014351898804306984,
0.003766920417547226,
0.011404591612517834,
-0.05067642405629158,
-0.01890486292541027,
0.024919632822275162,
0.051483023911714554,
-0.03311842679977417,
-0.013340734876692295,
0.024398336187005043,
... |
6. 3 processes and concurrency learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : • explain what processes are and how they interact with the operating system • discuss how operating systems support concurrency as we mentioned before, the os divides the tasks it needs to perform into processes. it wo... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
0.02105984464287758,
0.028402594849467278,
0.0011583961313590407,
0.009217829443514347,
0.00985413696616888,
-0.021971670910716057,
-0.042939573526382446,
-0.054300468415021896,
0.0056054177694022655,
0.10773678123950958,
0.0034825559705495834,
0.02281847968697548,
0.02226954512298107,
-0.... |
, and another machine or process acts like a server providing those services or data to the client machine. the communication between server and client uses various os protocols and mechanisms for message passing, including sockets, remote procedure calls, and inter - process communication. process management a process... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
-0.0023570607881993055,
-0.023514609783887863,
0.021861134096980095,
0.007267608307301998,
0.008278908208012581,
-0.026945235207676888,
-0.010186661034822464,
-0.020929280668497086,
-0.003466714173555374,
0.07130537927150726,
-0.00048626557691022754,
-0.003141623456031084,
0.0055136187002062... |
general, the name of a process is called a process id ( pid ), and it has an integer type. a pid namespace is a set of unique numbers that identify processes. the pid namespace is global to the system, and only one process at a time has a particular pid. it is possible to create a container to isolate a process, along ... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
-0.014276501722633839,
-0.015425200574100018,
0.0008631287491880357,
-0.019550902768969536,
-0.010074389167129993,
-0.026769155636429787,
-0.0035061482340097427,
-0.031903885304927826,
-0.0031783960293978453,
0.04436366632580757,
0.03168027475476265,
0.027036361396312714,
0.00833352468907833... |
6. 3 • processes and concurrency 263 suspending the set of processes and resuming different set of processes in the memory. the os maintains a data structure called the process control block ( pcb ) or process descriptor to keep track of a process state and to store all of the information identified by the pid about a ... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
-0.0061243087984621525,
-0.035103291273117065,
0.007118741050362587,
-0.010642287321388721,
-0.006339274346828461,
-0.03685041144490242,
-0.026321083307266235,
-0.03756249323487282,
0.020444480702280998,
0.05600642040371895,
-0.007016384042799473,
0.013005069456994534,
0.019777294248342514,
... |
process printf ( " this is the child process with pid % d \ n ", getpid ( ) ) ; } else if ( pid > 0 ) { / / parent process printf ( " this is the parent process with pid % d \ n ", getpid ( ) ) ; } else { / / fork failed printf ( " fork failed! \ n " ) ; return 1 ; } return 0 ; } 264 6 • infrastructure abstraction laye... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
-0.03165808320045471,
-0.012972839176654816,
0.011405648663640022,
0.019597146660089493,
0.016475146636366844,
-0.03845344856381416,
-0.03749992698431015,
-0.02605467475950718,
0.00628700340166688,
0.07734508067369461,
-0.001956211868673563,
0.033582307398319244,
0.029061071574687958,
-0.0... |
and thus allows for data transfer within a file system. shared memory allows the processes to communicate with each other without a middleman. a socket is an end point for sending and receiving data between different machines in the same network using internet protocols. what this means is that, for example in figure 6... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
0.006848354823887348,
0.023664604872465134,
-0.014669960364699364,
0.02259911224246025,
-0.020561056211590767,
-0.009182957001030445,
-0.021697089076042175,
-0.014942822977900505,
0.017339279875159264,
0.09562815725803375,
-0.005540596321225166,
-0.006841539870947599,
0.02755419723689556,
... |
achieving concurrency. however, true parallelism can only be achieved by using multiple processors to execute multiple threads simultaneously. | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
0.02582327276468277,
0.005409898702055216,
-0.03795003890991211,
0.031022047623991966,
-0.0021312166936695576,
-0.006042375694960356,
-0.047950632870197296,
-0.0418068990111351,
0.031080380082130432,
0.05478494614362717,
-0.00498743774369359,
-0.017405886203050613,
0.013920778408646584,
-0... |
6. 3 • processes and concurrency 265 figure 6. 18 concurrent processing, in which the os handles multiple tasks at once, can be achieved through three different types of environments. ( attribution : copyright rice university, openstax, under cc by 4. 0 license ) link to learning read this article on concurrency in ope... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
-0.0063546812161803246,
-0.0011850341688841581,
0.011954044923186302,
-0.001317220157943666,
-0.013304239138960838,
-0.008415642194449902,
-0.02849961444735527,
-0.04129030555486679,
0.019984623417258263,
0.11705564707517624,
0.004243166651576757,
0.029545122757554054,
0.006720641162246466,
... |
. in this case, one thread could be used to manage the user interactions, while another thread is used to manage video playback on the web page. in the early versions of the operating system used on ibm and dec mainframe computers, concurrency was achieved via time sharing. in other words, a single task was performed u... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
0.006577451713383198,
-0.0009643668890930712,
-0.006437412463128567,
0.015034567564725876,
-0.029075689613819122,
0.006075594574213028,
-0.06345923244953156,
-0.0465119369328022,
0.029797231778502464,
0.06391916424036026,
0.003133543999865651,
-0.025540553033351898,
0.000019328876078361645,
... |
the process using specific system calls to the operating system, such as pthread _ create in unix / linux or createthread in windows. when created, each thread starts its execution at a designated start point in the program code. this is often a function passed to the thread creation call. • execution and scheduling : ... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
-0.0072088888846337795,
-0.01845903880894184,
-0.006390452850610018,
-0.01399693451821804,
0.006682569161057472,
-0.027736196294426918,
-0.040110278874635696,
-0.01974024623632431,
0.01603265292942524,
0.05578039959073067,
0.01683158054947853,
0.028382781893014908,
0.008152728900313377,
-0... |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.