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the boolean values true or false. table 7. 4 lists the relational operator symbols that are used in the vast majority of hlls. operator name example expression result < less than 1 < 2 true > greater than 1 > 2 false < = less than or equal to 1 < = 2 true > = greater than or equal to 1 > = 2 false table 7. 4 the c # re... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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7. 2 • programming language constructs 323 operator name example expression result = = equal to 1 = = 2 false! = not equal to 1! = 2 true table 7. 4 the c # relational operators logical operators the logical operators are used to connect two or more expressions. they evaluate the entire expression to the boolean values... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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to improve code readability. this is a best practice in programming and a prospective job applicant may not get a job without demonstrating documentation skills. documentation is carried out by using a structure called a comment, a container used to hold documentation in code. a comment begins with a defined symbol or ... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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result of 16. parentheses may be used to modify the order of precedence in statements. expressions within parentheses are always evaluated first. if we were to rewrite the example : | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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7. 2 • programming language constructs 325 int a = ( b + c ) * d ; we would come up with the result of 20. table 7. 8 shows the results of various expressions when following the rules of precedence and applying parentheses to them. expression value parenthesized expression value 5 + 2 * 4 13 ( 5 + 2 ) * 4 28 10 / 5 - 3... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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which, or if, the statements of a program are executed is called flow of control. by default, program statements execute in sequential order from an established starting point ; however, the flow of control can be modified. this is necessary in order to have the ability to model the situations of the real world that ou... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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expressions. conditional expressions sometimes called a boolean expression, a conditional expression evaluates the boolean values of true or false. based on a boolean result, a computer may decide which path of execution to take. some examples of conditional expressions follow : • value1 = = value2 • value1! = value2 •... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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7. 2 • programming language constructs 327 figure 7. 12 this unified modeling language ( uml ) activity diagram represents a selection statement that is a one - way branch. ( attribution : copyright rice university, openstax, under cc by 4. 0 license ) the only type of conditional statement that a language needs is the... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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system. out. println ( " you need to work harder. " ) ; } many programming languages have employed an additional selection statement for times when decisions result in three or more possible pathways. this is known as a switch or case statement, and it can be much more readable and maintainable than many if statements ... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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that sets the condition at the entry or exit of a loop for continued iteration, is at the exit after the code block. a loop such as this is guaranteed to execute at least | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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7. 2 • programming language constructs 329 one time. the sentinel decides if the loop runs again. it is useful to guarantee at least one repetition of a loop. as with selection statements, most languages have a variety of structures to choose from and just like in selection, there is only one that is necessary to do an... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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count + 1 ; } 330 7 • high - level programming languages access for free at openstax. org in most modern languages a bottom tested loop is known as a do … while loop as highlighted in figure 7. 15. it ’ s syntax in c # is as follows : boolean happy = true ; boolean raining = false ; do { console. out ( " i am smiling "... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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7. 2 • programming language constructs 331 for ( $ count = 1 ; $ count < = 5 ; $ count = $ count + 1 ) { print ( " the count is : " ", $ count ) ; } the rules are as follows : inside the parentheses, the first expression is executed only once at the first entrance to the loop. the second expression is the sentinel and ... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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, and call upon them without the finished code. we can define the tasks as functions and build the stub of them without all the details. then we can call them from our main flow of control and have them respond to the call. maintainability if we had to change the way we pay our employees, perhaps due to a change in ded... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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a keyword in java that is called an access modifier ; it denotes where in code this method may be accessed from. in this case, it is available from anywhere in the program code. the keyword double indicates that this method will return a value of that data type to the place where the method was called. in this case, we... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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value and the copy is passed as an argument to the parameter. when it encounters the parameter, the value is assigned and the values in the original variable cannot be affected by any changes which may occur inside the function. on the other hand, pass by reference is employed in java to pass a complex data type, meani... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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7. 2 • programming language constructs 333 system. out. println ( empname + " is being paid " + emppay ) ; return emppay ; } in the example, empbasepay and emphours are passed by value of primitive data types. on the other hand, empname is passed by reference because string is a complex data type. call stack the call s... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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control will revert to the function1 stack frame. looking at function1, we see that the parameters come into existence when the function is pushed onto the stack and disappear when the function is popped from the stack. the same is true of any local variables declared in the function. this is an illustration of the sco... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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count = count - 1 ; countdown ( count ) ; } well - structured programs a major challenge with writing well - structured programs is the complexity of today ’ s systems, especially when they are influenced by so many programmers. a common dilemma is how to divide and conquer the task of writing programs when the effort ... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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7. 2 • programming language constructs 335 figure 7. 18 this diagram shows a program made up of multiple modules, each of which contains multiple functions. ( attribution : copyright rice university, openstax, under cc by 4. 0 license ) this allows us to engage in information hiding : the hiding of bits and bytes of im... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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program and the hll. all hlls differ in the way that these are handled. the following are some examples of different output statements in various hlls : • java : system. out. println ( " hello " ) ; • c # : console. writeln ( " hello " ) ; • c : printf ( " hello " ) ; • c + + : cout < < " hello " ; • javascript : alert... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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7. 3 alternative programming models learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : • discuss characteristics of functional programming • explain characteristics of declarative programming • distinguish the characteristics of object - oriented programming • explain hll constructs used to support c... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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7. 3 • alternative programming models 337 figure 7. 20 functional programming languages can be differentiated by their paradigms. ( attribution : copyright rice university, openstax, under cc by 4. 0 license ) functional programming concepts the functional programming model ’ s key concept is that programs are construc... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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move data through the functions, effective implementation is difficult ( but not impossible ), and new arrays must be created when data in an element are changed. object - oriented programming a number of imperative languages are considered object oriented, and most modern hlls support this paradigm to some degree. its... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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##ifiers. object - oriented languages often have constructors, and some have destructors which support encapsulation. a constructor is a specialized method that is called upon to instantiate the object. very often, constructors have parameters which can be used to initialize the values of the attributes with arguments ... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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rectangle ( double length, double width ) {..... } / / methods public double getlength ( ) { return length ; }..... public double getarea ( ) { | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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7. 3 • alternative programming models 339..... } } the class itself is public, granting access to it and its contents. the attributes are all private, not part of the public interface. in this context, the designer has decided not to allow direct access to these attributes from outside. instead, they are accessed by pu... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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block for implementation. a class can use one or more interfaces. the following is a java class definition that makes use of an interface : public class rectangle implements geometrymath { } the interface acts as a contract with the programmer. if the programmer declares that a class implements an interface, it is requ... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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object orientation. oop advantages : • strong abstraction with the ability to reuse code efficiently • improved software development productivity and maintainability • faster software development, thus lower cost of development as it is very efficient for parallel development • adapts well to parallelism, where program... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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7. 3 • alternative programming models 341 conditions are all about timing because anomalies can occur when we do not know which process will finish first or which part of the program is currently executing. we can exert control over when a process pauses or ends in the run - until - blocked scenario where some mechanis... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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since the goal is to avoid negative race conditions, we do not want to over - synchronize because it lessens the degree of parallelism that we need for performance. implementing synchronization synchronization must be carefully implemented to avoid situations that synchronization itself can cause : • starvation : when ... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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a synchronized method. this keyword refers to the current object, so this code is also synchronizing on the object which owns the code block. this usage provides much more granularity and efficient execution times. another powerful tool for synchronization in java is to declare a whole class as a thread, meaning the wh... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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and maintainability. | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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7. 3 • alternative programming models 343 oop also adapts well to parallelism, which is another paradigm to consider. a need for speed can require the selection of an hll that supports concurrency and / or parallelism well. it may be the case that the application we build requires both. we have choices, the most popula... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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figure 7. 23 also illustrates some of these languages. • perl is an older scripting language primarily used for web scripting that uses the common gateway interface ( cgi ), an industry specification for web server communication with web browsers. the two different entities need rules by which to “ talk ” to each other... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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by web pages due to having to launch each script as a separate program. a server - side script runs on a server in a web designer ’ s domain and generally is faster than a cgi script due to its ability to compile in real time ; therefore, in php, python, ruby, and backend javascript es6, the client only sees the standa... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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7. 3 • alternative programming models 345 | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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7. 4 programming language implementation learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : • discuss how to build and run programs written in various hlls • describe the work of an hll runtime management implementation • list and explain various hll optimization methods applicable to programs to imp... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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##sor provides a fine example. 1. the # include directive of c / c + + deals with a variety of files such as header or standard files containing the definitions of objects and functions from the api that are going to be used in the program. it can also take care of user - defined files or modules. 2. the # define direc... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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definitions. the compiler runs a static semantic analysis which concerns itself only with the source code without testing inputs. semantic analysis cannot figure out all meaning in the code. many languages also use dynamic binding ( late binding ) that defers the binding of certain elements such as objects and methods ... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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7. 4 • programming language implementation 347 case, the purpose is to allow code from the different languages to work well together at execution time. technology in everyday life hlls and big data there is a growing need to process massive amounts of “ big ” data to gather insights in real time about the best way a bu... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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such as windows and android. java is a great example of this, as referenced in figure 7. 25. figure 7. 25 the java compiler generates byte code from source code. ( attribution : copyright rice university, openstax, under cc by | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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4. 0 license ) this can then be run in any environment for which a jvm has been built. compilation of interpreted languages in some languages, compilers are present, but they aren ’ t pure and only perform a selective compilation of pieces, or pre - processing, of the remaining source. occasionally the compiler generat... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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##gging so that the language is easier to read while making sharing possible among compilers. it also isolates the compiler from changes needed in the format of machine language files ; for example, when computer chips change, only the assembler must be changed. a computer ’ s hardware does not implement the assembly -... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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recovery implemented when a program encounters a runtime error or exception • event handling : the ability to respond to runtime occurrences such as a button click or other unpredictable event • coroutine and thread implementation : languages where implement can handle concurrency and parallelism | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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7. 4 • programming language implementation 349 virtual machines a virtual machine ( vm ) provides a complete program execution environment that is the reproduction of a computer architecture. many modern languages employ virtual machines as their runtime environment. in general computer science, vms can refer to a syst... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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animal but directed for the microsoft. net platform and all its component languages. clr and jvm share features including multithreading and stack - based vms, and both have garbage collection. additionally, both use platform - independence, are self - descriptive, and contain bytecode notation. industry spotlight usin... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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sequence of instructions that will always execute in its entirety if it executes at all, equivalent to a code block. code improvement at the level of basic blocks is known as local optimization, consisting of eliminating redundant operations ( unnecessary loads, common subexpression calculations ), providing effective ... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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make your code run faster by using techniques such as removing unnecessary calculations, improving memory usage, and reorganizing code for better efficiency. by understanding optimization techniques, you can write smoother code and use fewer resources. as a side note, mainstream programming language compilers provided ... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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7. 4 • programming language implementation 351 of various programming languages. the intermediate byte code generated by compilers that target these virtual machines is optimized using some of the techniques described in this chapter. 352 7 • high - level programming languages access for free at openstax. org chapter r... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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treated as distinct from each other class code blueprint from which objects are constructed client - side script script that runs on a client computer, usually under the control of a web browser and needs an interpreter on the client ’ s machine code block statement that consists of one or more statements that are stru... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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of an array that can hold a value of a data type embedded script script in which one language is embedded inside another encapsulation attributes and behaviors of classes and objects are self - contained and go along with them throughout their lifetime event - driven when behavior of programs is controlled by actions (... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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operator ( + + ) unary operator that raises the value of its operand by one indexed array array in which the elements are numbered with an index, starting at zero information hiding masking of the actual bits and bytes of implementation that the user of a module does not need to know inheritance feature of oop in which... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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a class or object metadata data about data middle end compilation step responsible for performing optimizations of the code modularization splitting a large job into independent units which may be then called upon to perform tasks module component of a program modulo operator ( % ) operator which evaluates to the remai... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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, usually files to insert into the source code primitive data type ( also : basic data type ) simplest data type of a language that can usually be represented directly by the hardware memory and registers procedural language allows programmers to group statements into blocks of code within the scope of which variables ... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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a function and its parts that is placed on the call stack stack overflow condition in which the call stack has run out of memory in which to expand starvation condition of a process when a process must wait to enter a critical section, but the other processes monopolize the section, and the waiting process does not get... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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denotes a null value stored in a variable or that a function returns no value weakly typed when a variable may at different times hold values of any of the language data types writability measures how easily an hll can be used to create and modify programs summary | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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7. 1 programming language foundations • hlls give us the ability to make use of abstraction to build algorithms in a close - to - english representation. • there are criteria that are used for selecting the proper hll for the required tasks. these can include scalability, cost, flexibility, efficiency, portability, and... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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7. 2 programming language constructs • hlls all have data types which are either primitive or complex that form the domain of legal data types they recognize. • hlls all have operators that represent the legal set of operations that may be performed on the data types such as addition or assignment. • hlls support varia... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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7. 3 alternative programming models • functional programming is a declarative language paradigm where programs are constructed by composing functions and applying them ; some of whose features are implemented in imperative languages. • object - oriented programming ( oop ) is a paradigm based on classes and objects and... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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7. 4 programming language implementation • compilers are the general tool used to implement the process of translating source code to another language that is either machine language or is closer to assembly language. • interpreters follow the same processes as compilers with differences in the timing of the translatio... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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##s? 358 7 • chapter review access for free at openstax. org 7. what is the difference between a compiled and an interpreted hll? 8. what are the typical constituent parts of an hll development environment or ide? 9. what is weak typing? what is strong typing? what is the difference between them? 10. what are the equiv... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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what types of problems are best solved by scripting hlls? 28. what is the name for software that scans and translates the source code one line at a time? a. interpreter b. compiler c. assembler d. linker 29. the middle end stage of compilation is responsible for what task? a. lexical analysis b. optimization c. code ge... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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pure compilation, pure interpretation, and hybrids of the two. give the 360 7 • chapter review access for free at openstax. org advantages and disadvantages of each methodology. 3. programming for iphone and programming for android require different purpose - driven hlls. list the hlls used for each and summarize some ... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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else { return 4 ; } } 10. write a do while loop that will execute five times. 11. encapsulation is one of the three fundamental components of object - oriented programming. write a summary which defines the term and explains the advantages of it. please provide a code snippet that 7 • chapter review 361 demonstrates po... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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matches the functionality of the following while loop : int main ( ) { int iter = 0 ; while ( iter < 10 ) { iter + + ; printf ( " % d ", iter ) ; } } 4. in c / c + +, data types can be returned from a function or used as an output parameter by passing the object by reference using a pointer. write a piece of code that ... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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2 will integrate the software as a static library. project 2 requires that the software needs to run on both windows and linux, and c must be the language of choice. project 1 only needs to run on windows and has no language constraints. research c and the level of support for rest api development. would c be a good ch... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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. consider our startup company committed to leveraging innovative technologies as a business growth facilitator. describe how it can best use the java or c # programming language constructs to create specific products or services that can generate business. give precise examples and explain how the startup would be abl... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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java and c # have similar libraries of collections classes. these contain various types of data structures. we have examined the array ; however, the array has limitations. learn more about the container and collections classes, and look for examples of the patterns of data they are designed to represent and support. c... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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8. 7 informatics and data management introduction managing data today requires an end - to - end perspective and the ability to combine the use of various types of data. for example, amazon needs to run its day - to - day businesses and sell products to customers, handle returns, pay commissions to retailers and wholes... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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##works has many challenges that impact their competitiveness and survival in the market, including their traditional database not working properly ; their practices in collecting, managing, and analyzing data not promoting better business decision - making ; and their servers being old and sometimes unable to sufficie... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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8. 1 data management focus learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : • discuss data management and its relation to computer science and data science • understand that data are the backbone of the industry • identify and explain key concepts in data management • distinguish various roles in t... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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much information about your life, work, and school, but it is not only you — everyone is sharing data on social media. a supermassive mother of all breaches 366 8 • data management access for free at openstax. org ( moab ) publicized discovered in early 2024 contains data from numerous previous breaches, comprising 12 ... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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amount of data, which makes it impossible to be stored locally, so many businesses move their data to the cloud. a business may also choose to run applications as well as databases and operating systems in the cloud. data management is often handled by a separate data engineering team because most computer and data sci... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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8. 1 • data management focus 367 industry spotlight industry data management data management is important in every industry today. the main benefit of data management is to minimize potential errors by controlling access to data using a set of policies. elaborate on how useful it is to know about data management in ret... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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model of a database storing metadata as an enhanced entity – relationship ( eer ) model ( figure 8. 3 ) or unified modeling language ( uml ) model. eer and uml are used to create models for designing large systems. metadata modeling may cover various views of these models. for example, eer models and uml class diagrams... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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, and access dq. ( attribution : copyright rice university, openstax, under cc by 4. 0 license ) in the intrinsic dq category, data accuracy refers to whether the data values stored for an object are the correct values, and they are often correlated with other dq dimensions. we can count the data reliability as a part ... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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: decoupling of data producers and consumers | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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8. 1 • data management focus 369 data governance and compliance the set of clear roles, policies, and responsibilities that enables a business to manage and safeguard data quality using internally set rules and policies is called data governance. the related concept that ensures that data practices align with external ... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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is an educational technology company based in california. it offers various online services such as textbook rentals, tutoring, homework assistance, and more to students around the country. in april 2018, an unauthorized party gained access to chegg ’ s database. this database hosted user information for both chegg and... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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data model into a logical and internal data model, assisting the application developers in defining the views of the external data model, and defining company - wide uniform naming conventions when creating the various data models. data owner the data owner has the authority to ultimately decide on the access to, and u... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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8. 1 • data management focus 371 data scientist data scientists typically focus on creating classification and prediction models by training existing machine learning algorithms. the resulting trained models act as programs to help classify new data or predict an outcome based on input data. in general, a data scientis... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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on road construction, traffic, or to find the shortest route. how does knowledge of end - to - end data management help people in their everyday life? look at these data collections from all aspects of data management including collecting, storing, and analyzing these data. provide a few illustrative scenarios to expla... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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8. 2 data management systems learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : • define important terms and characteristics of data management systems • explain the various aspects that characterize database management systems remember that data are any raw facts you can collect such as the number 4... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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and allowing sharing data between users and applications. think it through university miniworld let us think about the university as a miniworld. in this miniworld, we need to define a data dictionary to describe the following : students, courses, sections, departments, and instructors. suggest a miniworld that would b... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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and users. hardware includes the physical devices such as computers and hard disks. software refers to the set of programs that are used to manage and control a database. data includes raw data and information organized and processed within the database. procedures are instructions used to manage the database. a databa... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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8. 2 • data management systems 373 and business user ). a database language is used to write instructions to access and update data in the database. table 8. 1 shows different examples of database languages along with definitions, and examples. language definition relational dbms ( sql ) database description language (... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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storage device such as a hard drive ) ; the second, logical data independence, separates any changes in the data from the data format. dbms provides integrity rules by adding a primary key to guarantee that every record is unique. dbms allows you to manage structured, semistructured, and unstructured data. data that ha... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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web - based, stand - alone query language, command line, forms - based, graphical user interface ( gui ), natural language, admin, and network. figure 8. 6 dbms includes multiple components : dbms interface, query processor, storage manager, connection manager, security manager, ddl compiler, and database utilities. ( ... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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8. 2 • data management systems 375 utility, reorganization utility, performance - monitoring utilities, user management utilities, and backup and recovery utility. figure 8. 7 illustrates the navigation window, results window, log window, and query window. figure 8. 7 this sample mysql workbench graphical user interfac... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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from versant, cache from intersystems, gemstone / s from gemtalk systems, which are only successful in niche markets, due to their complexity ). • an xml dbms is a data model in which the data are using the xml data model to store data. xml could be native xml dbms ( e. g., basex and exist ), which map the tree structu... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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; and workers behind the scenes who design and develop the dbms software and related tools as well as the computer systems operators, including system designers and developers. dbms architectures there are various types of database architectures as follows : centralized dbms architecture, n - tier dbms architecture, cl... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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8. 2 • data management systems 377 interface to multiple underlying data sources which hide the underlying storage details to facilitate data access. an in - memory dbms stores all data in internal memory instead of slower external storage ( e. g., disk ; often used for real - time purposes such as hana from sap ). dbm... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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8. 3 relational database management systems learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : • discuss the relational model • describe the theoretical and practical aspects of the structured query language ( sql ) • explain how to create a logical relational database design • demonstrate how to cre... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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side effects that result from the rdbms being accessed by multiple students concurrently. finally, durability guarantees that once information has been stored in the database, it will be stay there permanently. in the course registration example, if one student registers 378 8 • data management access for free at opens... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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in that column, and the column header is referred to as an attribute name or just as an attribute. multiple attributes may be selected to form superkeys that uniquely identify individual tuples. minimal superkeys are referred to as candidate keys. candidate keys are considered minimal because they should only include a... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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8. 3 • relational database management systems 379 sql is based on relational algebra with many extensions. sql supports primary keys, foreign keys, inserting data, deleting data, updating data, indexing, recovery, concurrency, and security. sql focuses on efficiency in addition to specifying the data needed. the main c... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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the same domains. in what follows, we represent a relation as r and its cardinality or number of tuples as | r |. union operator the union operator applied to two union - compatible relations p and q results into a new relation so : with the resulting relation r consists of the tuples that either belong to p or q, or b... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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two domain - compatible attribute types, or between an attribute type and a constant value from the domain of the attribute type. the result of applying a select operator with a selection condition s on a relation p can be represented as : with select operator project operator the project operator is used to project a ... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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8. 3 • relational database management systems 381 division operator can be represented as : with division operator ÷ the resulting relation r includes all tuples that belong to p combined with every tuple in q. note that the division operator is not directly implemented in sql. the select ( σ ), project ( π ), differen... | openstax_introduction_to_computer_science_-_web | [
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