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gases produced have distinctly different properties. oxygen is not flammable but is required for combustion of a fuel, and hydrogen is highly flammable and a potent energy source. how might this knowledge be applied in our world? one application involves research into more fuel - efficient transportation. fuel - cell v... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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1. 2 β’ phases and classification of matter 21 figure 1. 16 a fuel cell generates electrical energy from hydrogen and oxygen via an electrochemical process and produces only water as the waste product. chemistry in everyday life chemistry of cell phones imagine how different your life would be without cell phones ( figu... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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1. 3 physical and chemical properties learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : β’ identify properties of and changes in matter as physical or chemical β’ identify properties of matter as extensive or intensive the characteristics that distinguish one substance from another are called properti... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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1. 3 β’ physical and chemical properties 23 figure 1. 18 ( a ) wax undergoes a physical change when solid wax is heated and forms liquid wax. ( b ) steam condensing inside a cooking pot is a physical change, as water vapor is changed into liquid water. ( credit a : modification of work by β 95jb14 β / wikimedia commons ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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20 ). 24 1 β’ essential ideas access for free at openstax. org figure 1. 20 ( a ) copper and nitric acid undergo a chemical change to form copper nitrate and brown, gaseous nitrogen dioxide. ( b ) during the combustion of a match, cellulose in the match and oxygen from the air undergo a chemical change to form carbon di... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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diamond you may have seen the symbol shown in figure 1. 21 on containers of chemicals in a laboratory or workplace. sometimes called a β fire diamond β or β hazard diamond, β this chemical hazard diamond provides valuable information that briefly summarizes the various dangers of which to be aware when working with a p... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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1. 3 β’ physical and chemical properties 25 while many elements differ dramatically in their chemical and physical properties, some elements have similar properties. for example, many elements conduct heat and electricity well, whereas others are poor conductors. these properties can be used to sort the elements into th... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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note the background color denotes whether an element is a metal, metalloid, or nonmetal, whereas the element symbol color indicates whether it is a solid, liquid, or gas. | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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1. 4 measurements learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : β’ explain the process of measurement β’ identify the three basic parts of a quantity β’ describe the properties and units of length, mass, volume, density, temperature, and time β’ perform basic unit calculations and conversions in the... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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1. 4 β’ measurements 27 which can be written as 2. 5 10β6 kg. units, such as liters, pounds, and centimeters, are standards of comparison for measurements. a 2 - liter bottle of a soft drink contains a volume of beverage that is twice that of the accepted volume of 1 liter. the meat used to prepare a 0. 25 - pound hambu... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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approach is used with si units, but these fractions or multiples are always powers of 10. fractional or multiple si units are named using a prefix and the name of the base unit. for example, a length of 1000 meters is also called a kilometer because the prefix kilo means β one thousand, β which in scientific notation i... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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) tera t 1012 5 terawatts ( tw ) = 5 1012 w ( 5, 000, 000, 000, 000 w ) table 1. 3 link to learning need a refresher or more practice with scientific notation? visit this site ( http : / / openstax. org / l / 16notation ) to go over the basics of scientific notation. si base units the initial units of the metric system... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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1. 4 β’ measurements 29 figure 1. 23 the relative lengths of 1 m, 1 yd, 1 cm, and 1 in. are shown ( not actual size ), as well as comparisons of 2. 54 cm and 1 in., and of 1 m and 1. 094 yd. mass the standard unit of mass in the si system is the kilogram ( kg ). the kilogram was previously defined by the international u... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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15 k ( 100 Β°c ) by definition, and normal human body temperature is approximately 310 k ( 37 Β°c ). the conversion 1 for details see https : / / www. nist. gov / pml / weights - and - measures / si - units - mass 30 1 β’ essential ideas access for free at openstax. org between these two units and the fahrenheit scale wil... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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) is the volume of a cube with an edge length of exactly one centimeter. the abbreviation cc ( for cubic centimeter ) is often used by health professionals. a cubic centimeter is equivalent to a milliliter ( ml ) and is 1 / 1000 of a liter. figure 1. 25 ( a ) the relative volumes are shown for cubes of 1 m3, 1 dm3 ( 1 ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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1. 4 β’ measurements 31 shows the densities of some common substances. densities of common substances solids liquids gases ( at 25 Β°c and 1 atm ) ice ( at 0 Β°c ) 0. 92 g / cm3 water 1. 0 g / cm3 dry air 1. 20 g / l oak ( wood ) 0. 60 β 0. 90 g / cm3 ethanol 0. 79 g / cm3 oxygen 1. 31 g / l iron 7. 9 g / cm3 acetone 0. 7... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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the density of lead if a cube of lead has an edge length of 2. 00 cm and a mass of 90. 7 g? solution the density of a substance can be calculated by dividing its mass by its volume. the volume of a cube is calculated by cubing the edge length. ( we will discuss the reason for rounding to the first decimal place in the ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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. transfer the iron block to the beaker and notice that it sinks, displacing a volume of water equal to its own volume and causing the water level to rise to 29. 5 ml. the volume of the iron block is therefore : the density of the iron is then calculated to be : remove the iron block from the beaker, change the block m... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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1. 5 β’ measurement uncertainty, accuracy, and precision 33 counted does not change while the counting process is underway. the result of such a counting measurement is an example of an exact number. by counting the eggs in a carton, one can determine exactly how many eggs the carton contains. the numbers of defined qua... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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ml mark and estimate this digit to be 7. note that it would be pointless to attempt to estimate a digit for the hundredths place, given that the tenths - place digit is uncertain. in general, numerical scales such as the one on this graduated cylinder will permit measurements to one - tenth of the smallest scale divisi... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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##o digits are significant, and it is only zeros that require some thought. we will use the terms β leading, β β trailing, β and β captive β for the zeros and will consider how to deal with them. starting with the first nonzero digit on the left, count this digit and all remaining digits to the right. this is the numbe... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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1. 5 β’ measurement uncertainty, accuracy, and precision 35 value makes sense. for example, the official january 2014 census reported the resident population of the us as 317, 297, 725. do you think the us population was correctly determined to the reported nine significant figures, that is, to the exact number of peopl... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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##s, round up or down, whichever yields an even value for the retained digit. if any nonzero digits follow the dropped 5, round up. ( the last part of this rule may strike you as a bit odd, but it β s based on reliable statistics and is aimed at avoiding any bias when dropping the digit β 5, β since it is equally close... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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92. 85 rounds β down β to 92. 8 ( the dropped digit is 5, and the retained digit is even ) let β s work through these rules with a few examples. example 1. 3 rounding numbers round the following to the indicated number of significant figures : ( a ) 31. 57 ( to two significant figures ) ( b ) 8. 1649 ( to three signifi... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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of addition and subtraction ). ( a ) add 1. 0023 g and 4. 383 g. ( b ) subtract 421. 23 g from 486 g. solution ( a ) answer is 5. 385 g ( round to the thousandths place ; three decimal places ) ( b ) answer is 65 g ( round to the ones place ; no decimal places ) check your learning ( a ) add 2. 334 ml and 0. 31 ml. ( b... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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1. 5 β’ measurement uncertainty, accuracy, and precision 37 example 1. 5 multiplication and division with significant figures rule : when multiplying or dividing numbers, round the result to the same number of digits as the number with the fewest significant figures ( the least certain value in terms of multiplication a... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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1. 034 g / ml 38 1 β’ essential ideas access for free at openstax. org example 1. 7 experimental determination of density using water displacement a piece of rebar is weighed and then submerged in a graduated cylinder partially filled with water, with results as shown. ( a ) use these values to determine the density of ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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1. 5 β’ measurement uncertainty, accuracy, and precision 39 ( a ) use these values to determine the density of this material. ( b ) do you have any reasonable guesses as to the identity of this material? explain your reasoning. answer : ( a ) 19 g / cm3 ; ( b ) it is likely gold ; the right appearance for gold and very ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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##spenser # 2 dispenser # 3 283. 3 298. 3 296. 1 284. 1 294. 2 295. 9 283. 9 296. 0 296. 1 284. 0 297. 8 296. 0 284. 1 293. 9 | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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296. 1 table 1. 5 considering these results, she will report that dispenser # 1 is precise ( values all close to one another, within a few tenths of a milliliter ) but not accurate ( none of the values are close to the target value of 296 ml, each being more than 10 ml too low ). results for dispenser # 2 represent imp... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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1. 6 mathematical treatment of measurement results learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : β’ explain the dimensional analysis ( factor label ) approach to mathematical calculations involving quantities β’ use dimensional analysis to carry out unit conversions for a given property and comput... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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1. 6 β’ mathematical treatment of measurement results 41 again, arithmetic on the numbers ( 25 / 10 = 2. 5 ) was accompanied by the same arithmetic on the units ( m / ( m / s ) = s ) to yield the number and unit of the result, 2. 5 s. note that, just as for numbers, when a unit is divided by an identical unit ( in this ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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appropriate unit conversion factor, the quantity is converted to an equivalent value with different units ( such as distance in centimeters ). for example, a basketball player β s vertical jump of 34 inches can be converted to centimeters by : since this simple arithmetic involves quantities, the premise of dimensional... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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8. 844 l beyond simple unit conversions, the factor - label method can be used to solve more complex problems involving computations. regardless of the details, the basic approach is the same β all the factors involved in the calculation must be appropriately oriented to ensure that their labels ( units ) will appropri... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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2. 956 Γ 10β2 l example 1. 10 computing quantities from measurement results and known mathematical relations while being driven from philadelphia to atlanta, a distance of about 1250 km, a 2014 lamborghini aventador roadster uses 213 l gasoline. ( a ) what ( average ) fuel economy, in miles per gallon, did the roadster... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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##lsius scale, 0 Β°c is defined as the freezing temperature of water and 100 Β°c as the boiling temperature of water. the space between the two temperatures is divided into 100 equal intervals, which we call degrees. on the fahrenheit scale, the freezing point of water is defined as 32 Β°f and the boiling temperature as 2... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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##its the measurement units is : rearrangement of this equation yields the form useful for converting from fahrenheit to celsius : | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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1. 6 β’ mathematical treatment of measurement results 45 as mentioned earlier in this chapter, the si unit of temperature is the kelvin ( k ). unlike the celsius and fahrenheit scales, the kelvin scale is an absolute temperature scale in which 0 ( zero ) k corresponds to the lowest temperature that can theoretically be ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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β’ essential ideas access for free at openstax. org example 1. 11 conversion from celsius normal body temperature has been commonly accepted as 37. 0 Β°c ( although it varies depending on time of day and method of measurement, as well as among individuals ). what is this temperature on the kelvin scale and on the fahrenh... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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1. 6 β’ mathematical treatment of measurement results 47 key terms accuracy how closely a measurement aligns with a correct value atom smallest particle of an element that can enter into a chemical combination celsius ( Β°c ) unit of temperature ; water freezes at 0 Β°c and boils at 100 Β°c on this scale chemical change ch... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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experimental observations, and describes or predicts some aspect of the natural world law of conservation of matter when matter converts from one type to another or changes form, there is no detectable change in the total amount of matter present length measure of one dimension of an object liquid state of matter that ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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digits in a determination, including the uncertain last digit solid state of matter that is rigid, has a definite shape, and has a fairly constant volume symbolic domain specialized language used to represent components of the macroscopic and microscopic domains, such as chemical symbols, chemical formulas, chemical eq... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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1. 2 phases and classification of matter matter is anything that occupies space and has mass. the basic building block of matter is the atom, the smallest unit of an element that can enter into combinations with atoms of the same or other elements. in many substances, atoms are combined into molecules. on earth, matter... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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1. 3 physical and chemical properties all substances have distinct physical and chemical properties, and may undergo physical or chemical changes. physical properties, such as hardness and boiling point, and physical changes, such as melting or freezing, do not involve a change in the composition of matter. chemical pr... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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made using a variety of units. it is often useful or necessary to convert a measured quantity from one unit into another. these conversions are accomplished using unit conversion factors, which are derived by simple applications of a mathematical approach called the factor - label method or dimensional analysis. this s... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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1. 1 chemistry in context 1. explain how you could experimentally determine whether the outside temperature is higher or lower than 0 Β°c ( 32 Β°f ) without using a thermometer. 2. identify each of the following statements as being most similar to a hypothesis, a law, or a theory. explain your reasoning. ( a ) falling ba... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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atom. ( b ) copper wire has a density of about 8 g / cm3. ( c ) the bottle contains 15 grams of ni powder. ( d ) a sulfur molecule is composed of eight sulfur atoms. 6. according to one theory, the pressure of a gas increases as its volume decreases because the molecules in the gas have to move a shorter distance to hi... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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1. 2 phases and classification of matter 8. why is an object β s mass, rather than its weight, used to indicate the amount of matter it contains? 9. what properties distinguish solids from liquids? liquids from gases? solids from gases? 10. how does a heterogeneous mixture differ from a homogeneous mixture? how are the... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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produced during the operation of an automobile. 22. matter is everywhere around us. make a list by name of fifteen different kinds of matter that you encounter every day. your list should include ( and label at least one example of each ) the following : a solid, a liquid, a gas, an element, a compound, a homogenous mi... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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of the sealed flask and contents decrease, increase, or remain the same after the heating? 25. yeast converts glucose to ethanol and carbon dioxide during anaerobic fermentation as depicted in the simple chemical equation here : ( a ) if 200. 0 g of glucose is fully converted, what will be the total mass of ethanol and... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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1. 3 physical and chemical properties 26. classify the six underlined properties in the following paragraph as chemical or physical : fluorine is a pale yellow gas that reacts with most substances. the free element melts at β220 Β°c and boils at β188 Β°c. finely divided metals burn in fluorine with a bright flame. ninete... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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1. 4 measurements 34. is one liter about an ounce, a pint, a quart, or a gallon? 35. is a meter about an inch, a foot, a yard, or a mile? 36. indicate the si base units or derived units that are appropriate for the following measurements : ( a ) the length of a marathon race ( 26 miles 385 yards ) ( b ) the mass of an ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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density of this piece of jewelry. ( b ) assuming that the jewelry is made from only one substance, what substance is it likely to be? explain. 1 β’ exercises 53 41. visit this density simulation ( http : / / openstax. org / l / 16phetmasvolden ) and click the " turn fluid into water " button to adjust the density of liq... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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β button to adjust the density of liquid in the beaker to 1. 00 g / ml. change the block material to foam, and then wait patiently until the foam block stops bobbing up and down in the water. ( a ) the foam block should be floating on the surface of the water ( that is, only partially submerged ). what is the volume of... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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1. 5 measurement uncertainty, accuracy, and precision 44. express each of the following numbers in scientific notation with correct significant figures : ( a ) 711. 0 ( b ) 0. 239 ( c ) 90743 ( d ) 134. 2 ( e ) 0. 05499 ( f ) 10000. 0 ( g ) 0. 000000738592 45. express each of the following numbers in exponential notati... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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##4 j ( e ) 0. 0613 cm3 ( f ) 17. 0 kg ( g ) 0. 01400 g / ml 49. how many significant figures are contained in each of the following measurements? ( a ) 53 cm ( b ) 2. 05 108 m ( c ) 86, 002 j ( d ) 9. 740 104 m / s ( e ) 10. 0613 m3 ( f ) 0. 17 g / ml ( g ) 0. 88400 s 50. the following quantities were reported on the ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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each answer with the correct number of significant figures. ( a ) 62. 8 34 ( b ) 0. 147 + 0. 0066 + 0. 012 ( c ) 38 95 | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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1. 792 ( d ) 15 β 0. 15 β 0. 6155 ( e ) ( f ) 140 + 7. 68 + 0. 014 ( g ) 28. 7 β 0. 0483 ( h ) 55. consider the results of the archery contest shown in this figure. ( a ) which archer is most precise? ( b ) which archer is most accurate? ( c ) who is both least precise and least accurate? 56. classify the following set... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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1. 6 mathematical treatment of measurement results 57. write conversion factors ( as ratios ) for the number of : ( a ) yards in 1 meter ( b ) liters in 1 liquid quart ( c ) pounds in 1 kilogram 58. write conversion factors ( as ratios ) for the number of : ( a ) kilometers in 1 mile ( b ) liters in 1 cubic foot ( c ) ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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inches? 67. is a 197 - lb weight lifter light enough to compete in a class limited to those weighing 90 kg or less? 68. a very good 197 - lb weight lifter lifted 192 kg in a move called the clean and jerk. what was the mass of the weight lifted in pounds? 69. many medical laboratory tests are run using 5. 0 ΞΌl blood se... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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is sold by the liter in many countries. what is the volume of exactly 1 / 2 gal of milk in liters? 75. a long ton is defined as exactly 2240 lb. what is this mass in kilograms? 76. make the conversion indicated in each of the following : ( a ) the men β s world record long jump, 29 ft 4ΒΌ in., to meters ( b ) the greate... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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miles? ( 1 a = 1 10β10 m ) 79. a chemist β s 50 - trillion angstrom run ( see exercise 1. 78 ) would be an archeologist β s 10, 900 cubit run. how long is one cubit in meters and in feet? ( 1 a = 1 10β8 cm ) 80. the gas tank of a certain luxury automobile holds 22. 3 gallons according to the owner β s manual. if the de... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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8. 00 ft in the us. what are the dimensions in cm cm m? ( b ) this lumber can be used as vertical studs, which are typically placed 16. 0 in. apart. what is that distance in centimeters? 86. the mercury content of a stream was believed to be above the minimum considered safe β 1 part per billion ( ppb ) by weight. an a... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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bromine, density = 2. 928 g / cm3? 93. convert the boiling temperature of gold, 2966 Β°c, into degrees fahrenheit and kelvin. 94. convert the temperature of scalding water, 54 Β°c, into degrees fahrenheit and kelvin. 95. convert the temperature of the coldest area in a freezer, β10 Β°f, to degrees celsius and kelvin. 96. ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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2. 7 chemical nomenclature lung diseases and lung cancers are among the world's most devastating illnesses partly due to delayed detection and diagnosis. most noninvasive screening procedures aren't reliable, and patients often resist more accurate methods due to discomfort with the procedures or with the potential dan... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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composition of matter, including those central to the concept of molecular identity. | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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2. 1 early ideas in atomic theory learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : β’ state the postulates of dalton β s atomic theory β’ use postulates of dalton β s atomic theory to explain the laws of definite and multiple proportions the earliest recorded discussion of the basic structure of matt... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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- 1982 copper penny ( left ) contains approximately 3 1022 copper atoms ( several dozen are represented as brown spheres at the right ), each of which has the same chemical properties. ( credit : modification of work by β slgckgc β / flickr ) 3. atoms of one element differ in properties from atoms of all other elements... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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. and if atoms are neither created nor destroyed during a chemical change, then the total mass of matter present when matter changes from one type to another will remain constant ( the law of conservation of matter ). example 2. 1 testing dalton β s atomic theory in the following drawing, the green spheres represent at... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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2. 1 β’ early ideas in atomic theory 63 solution the starting materials consist of two green spheres and two purple spheres. the products consist of only one green sphere and one purple sphere. this violates dalton β s postulate that atoms are neither created nor destroyed during a chemical change, but are merely redist... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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3. 64 g table 2. 1 it is worth noting that although all samples of a particular compound have the same mass ratio, the converse is not true in general. that is, samples that have the same mass ratio are not necessarily the same substance. for example, there are many compounds other than isooctane that also have a carbo... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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copper is represented by brown spheres and chlorine by green spheres, the copper chlorine compound in ( b ) has twice as many chlorine atoms per copper atom. ( credit a : modification of work by β benjah - bmm27 β / wikimedia commons ; credit b : modification of work by β walkerma β / wikimedia commons ) example 2. 2 l... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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2. 1 β’ early ideas in atomic theory 65 this supports the law of multiple proportions. this means that a and b are different compounds, with a having one - half as much oxygen per amount of carbon ( or twice as much carbon per amount of oxygen ) as b. a possible pair of compounds that would fit this relationship would b... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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2. 2 evolution of atomic theory learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : β’ outline milestones in the development of modern atomic theory β’ summarize and interpret the results of the experiments of thomson, millikan, and rutherford β’ describe the three subatomic particles that compose atoms ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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##hode and is accelerated past the anode toward a fluorescent scale at the end of the tube. simultaneous deflections by applied electric and magnetic fields permitted thomson to calculate the mass - to - charge ratio of the particles composing the cathode ray. ( credit a : modification of work by nobel foundation ; cre... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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drops ( figure 2. 7 ). | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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2. 2 β’ evolution of atomic theory 67 figure 2. 7 millikan β s experiment measured the charge of individual oil drops. the tabulated data are examples of a few possible values. looking at the charge data that millikan gathered, you may have recognized that the charge of an oil droplet is always a multiple of a specific ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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pudding, an english dessert consisting of moist cake with embedded raisins ( β plums β ). ( b ) nagaoka proposed that atoms resembled the planet saturn, with a ring of 68 2 β’ atoms, molecules, and ions access for free at openstax. org electrons surrounding a positive β planet. β ( credit a : modification of work by β m... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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particles went, as shown in this schematic diagram of their experiment. most of the particles passed straight through the foil, but a few were deflected slightly and a very small number were significantly deflected. here is what rutherford deduced : because most of the fast - moving Ξ± particles passed through the gold ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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2. 2 β’ evolution of atomic theory 69 this analysis led rutherford to propose a model in which an atom consists of a very small, positively charged nucleus, in which most of the mass of the atom is concentrated, surrounded by the negatively charged electrons, so that the atom is electrically neutral ( figure 2. 10 ). af... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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with different masses that were chemically indistinguishable. these different types are called isotopes β atoms of the same element that differ in mass. soddy was awarded the nobel prize in chemistry in 1921 for this discovery. one puzzle remained : the nucleus was known to contain almost all of the mass of an atom, wi... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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2. 3 atomic structure and symbolism learning objectives by the end of this section, you will be able to : β’ write and interpret symbols that depict the atomic number, mass number, and charge of an atom or ion β’ define the atomic mass unit and average atomic mass β’ calculate average atomic mass and isotopic abundance th... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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hydrogen, the lightest element, then later in terms of oxygen. since 1961, it has been defined with regard to the most abundant isotope of carbon, atoms of which are assigned masses of exactly 12 amu. ( this isotope is known as β carbon - 12 β as will be discussed later in this module. ) thus, one amu is exactly of the... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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1. 0087 amu and a charge of zero ; as its name suggests, it is neutral. the electron has a charge of 1β and is a much lighter particle with a mass of about 0. 00055 amu ( it would take about 1800 electrons to equal the mass of one proton ). the properties of these fundamental particles are summarized in table 2. 2. ( a... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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1. 67493 10β24 table 2. 2 the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is its atomic number ( z ). this is the defining trait of an element : its value determines the identity of the atom. for example, any atom that contains six protons is the element carbon and has the atomic number 6, regardless of how many neutro... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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##dine is an essential trace element in our diet ; it is needed to produce thyroid hormone. insufficient iodine in the diet can lead to the development of a goiter, an enlargement of the thyroid gland ( figure 2. 12 ). 72 2 β’ atoms, molecules, and ions access for free at openstax. org figure 2. 12 ( a ) insufficient io... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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##s ; 117 neutrons ; charge is 4 + chemical symbols a chemical symbol is an abbreviation that we use to indicate an element or an atom of an element. for example, the symbol for mercury is hg ( figure 2. 13 ). we use the same symbol to indicate one atom of mercury ( microscopic domain ) or to label a container of many ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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2. 3 β’ atomic structure and symbolism 73 figure 2. 13 the symbol hg represents the element mercury regardless of the amount ; it could represent one atom of mercury or a large amount of mercury. the symbols for several common elements and their atoms are listed in table 2. 3. some symbols are derived from the common na... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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is based on the latin word ( s ) for its atomic number. for example, element 106 was called unnilhexium ( unh ), element 107 was called unnilseptium ( uns ), and element 108 was called unniloctium ( uno ) for several years. these elements are now named after scientists ( or occasionally locations ) ; for example, eleme... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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written as β magnesium - 25 β or β mg - 25. β all magnesium atoms have 12 protons in their nucleus. they differ only because a 24mg atom has 12 neutrons in its nucleus, a 25mg atom has 13 neutrons, and a 26mg has 14 neutrons. figure 2. 14 the symbol for an atom indicates the element via its usual two - letter symbol, t... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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##32 β ( trace ) nitrogen 7 7 7 14. 0031 99. 63 7 7 8 15. 0001 0. 37 oxygen 8 8 8 15. 9949 99. 757 8 8 9 16. 9991 0. 038 8 8 10 17. 9992 0. 205 fluorine 9 9 10 18. 9984 100 neon 10 10 10 19. 9924 90. 48 table 2. 4 76 2 β’ atoms, molecules, and ions access for free at openstax. org element symbol atomic number number of ... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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9. 25 table 2. 4 link to learning use this build an atom simulator ( http : / / openstax. org / l / 16phetatombld ) to build atoms of the first 10 elements, see which isotopes exist, check nuclear stability, and gain experience with isotope symbols. atomic mass because each proton and each neutron contribute approximat... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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47 % 21ne ( mass 20. 9940 amu ), and 7. 69 % 22ne ( mass 21. 9914 amu ). what is the average mass of the neon in the solar wind? solution the average mass of a neon atom in the solar wind is 20. 15 amu. ( the average mass of a terrestrial neon atom is 20. 1796 amu. this result demonstrates that we may find slight diffe... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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24. 31 amu we can also do variations of this type of calculation, as shown in the next example. example 2. 5 calculation of percent abundance naturally occurring chlorine consists of 35cl ( mass 34. 96885 amu ) and 37cl ( mass 36. 96590 amu ), with an average mass of 35. 453 amu. what is the percent composition of cl i... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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isotopes and atomic mass simulation. as you will learn, isotopes are important in nature and especially in human understanding of science and medicine. let's consider just one natural, stable isotope : oxygen - 18, which is noted in the table above and is referred to as one of the environmental isotopes. it is importan... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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of a small steel ball ). the ions are detected, and a plot of the relative number of ions generated versus their mass - to - charge ratios ( a mass spectrum ) is made. the height of each vertical feature or peak in a mass spectrum is proportional to the fraction of cations with the specified mass - to - charge ratio. s... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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2. 4 β’ chemical formulas 79 for the names of compounds. the structural formula for a compound gives the same information as its molecular formula ( the types and numbers of atoms in the molecule ) but also shows how the atoms are connected in the molecule. the structural formula for methane contains symbols for one c a... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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is s8 ( figure 2. 17 ). figure 2. 17 a molecule of sulfur is composed of eight sulfur atoms and is therefore written as s8. it can be represented as ( a ) a structural formula, ( b ) a ball - and - stick model, and ( c ) a space - filling model. sulfur atoms are represented by yellow spheres. it is important to note th... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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). figure 2. 19 ( a ) the white compound titanium dioxide provides effective protection from the sun. ( b ) a crystal of titanium dioxide, tio2, contains titanium and oxygen in a ratio of 1 to 2. the titanium atoms are gray and the oxygen atoms are red. ( credit a : modification of work by β osseous β / flickr ) as dis... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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that a molecule of acetic acid ( figure 2. 21 ) contains two carbon atoms, four hydrogen atoms, and two oxygen atoms. the ratio of atoms is 2 : 4 : 2. dividing by the lowest common denominator ( 2 ) gives the simplest, whole - number ratio of atoms, 1 : 2 : 1, so the empirical formula is ch2o. note that a molecular for... | openstax_chemistry2e-web | [
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